A BEAR HUNT IN THE GREAT YAZOO MISSISSIPPI DELTA— BUT FOR THE DISASTER OF OVERFLOWS IN THE PAST, FERTILE PLANTATIONS WOULD BE HERE AND THIS IS THE LATEST DEVELOPMENT IN MECHANISM FOR SUCCESSFUL LEVEE BUILDING From Press of A. L. SWIFT & CO., 180 Monroe Street, Chicago, 111. Designing and Grouping by ROBERT MARLAND HYNES, Artist 1309 Manhattan Building Chicago, 111. Engraving by BRINKERHOFF & BARNETT CO., 308 Dearborn Street, Chicago, 111., and GATCHELL & MANNING, Philadelphia, Pa. Map Work by RAND, McNALLY & CO., Chicago, 111. Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River past^present^prospective BEING A collection of Essays and Discussions of Problems Affecting the Improvement of Navigation of the Mississippi River, Bank Protec- tion, Harbor Improvement, its Levee System and the Permanent Deepening of the Channel at its Mouth, together with some Legal Aspects and Economic Features, by various Contributors ALSO A Brief Review of the Attractions of, and the Possibilities of Development in, the Largest Alluvial Basin in the World BY FRANK H. TOMPKINS Special Representative Interstate Mississippi River Improvement and Levee Association COPYRIGHT 1901 BY FRANK H. TOMPKINS NEW ORLEANS, LA. THE LIBRARY Of| CONGRESS, Two Copies Received | FEB. 27 1901 COPVHIGHT ENTRr CLASS O^XXo. NoJ COPY B. Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River A BIT OF HISTORY. In June, 1890, there assembled at Vicksburg, Miss., a convention which more nearly repre- sented the entire alluvial section of the Mississippi River probably than any other that ever met. It was in the midst of one of the largest overflows, and at a time when the people had come to the con- clusion that their efforts and their sacrifices in the way of taxation were futile to cope with the deluges which periodically swept down upon them from the northern and western rivers, that the grave prob- lem, which they had spent millions in a vain- en- deavor to solve, was beyond their single-handed ability. It was generally known that this conven- tion would outline a policy by which the United States government and the people of the entire United States should be brought tO' a realization of the great commercial value of the millions of acres which lie in the great basins that were an- nually overswept, and that a more general under- standing of the subject would lead Congress to solve this problem^ — to bring security to the homes of the people and to contribute to the development of the vast areas which were yet untrodden, almost, by the foot of man. This convention adopted a report made by the engineers — both army and civil, uniting in a gen- eral statement. To aid to carry out these recom- mendations and to secure from Congress an allot- ment necessiH'yc£o."m£{et^cfeia iJequirtftafenls of the situation, the co'nvehtiori'brganizecl' itself into an association Ga.lled'tjieilMfcrs.t'S^e'iJilissi&^i'gpi River Improvement and-Ilevee ^'As'sOCiation,' With Hon. Charles Scott, of Rosedale, Miss., as President, and Mr. W. A. Everman, then of Memphis, Tenn., but now of Greenville, Miss., as Secretary, with the necessary executive and other committees. A Bureau of Correspondence was opened at Wash- ington City and many hundreds of thousands of documents were sent all over the United States. The leading journals of the United States, both in the East and in the West, strongly urged the neces- sity of protecting the rich alluvial valley. The Manufacturers' Record, a journal of South- ern development, sent a special commissioner through the whole fertile area threatened by over- flows and the subject was treated in all its phases in its columns. These series of articles were after- ward printed in book form and extensively cir- culated. It is no derogation to Congress to say that it is moved by public sentiment. In fact it is the theory upon which this country is builded, that such should be the case, and the only way to impress such a body as the Congress coming from so large a constituency having so^ diverse and often- times conflicting interests is to educate them up to the importance and nationality of a subject. On this principle this association has worked under the wise direction of President Scott, and nothing has been left undone that could be accom- plished with the limited means at hand. Of course much more could have been done in the way of disseminating information and molding public sen- timent in this matter, had larger funds been obtain- able, but anyhow a sufficiency has been obtained, probably, for a conservative use. Since that time all river and commercial con- ventions held in the Valley, and some held in remote parts of the United States, have had dele- gates present to represent the interests of the peo- ple who live behind the levees. At no time in the passage of a bill before Congress for the Great River has this Association been without a special representative, and often delegations were present with facts and figures to demonstrate the right of the people of the Mississippi Valley tO' appropria- tions and national assistance for the improving of the Mississippi River and the building and strengthening of its levee system. Capt. Patrick Henry, of Ai-kansas, is the representative of the Association. This continual agitation has greatly strengthened public sentiment in favor of larger appropriations by the general government. The plans as out- Past— Present— Prospective lined and carried into effect have had the endorse- ment of every member of Congress directly inter- ested in the Mississippi River sections. And they have realized that the work of the people who live behind the le\'ees, directed through the commercial and financial circles which are interested in the safety and development of these valleys, is a potent factor in upholding their hands at Washington. The Mis.sissippi River has not lacked for able champions in Congress from the early agitation for the formation of the Mississippi River Com- mission down to the present time. The first distinct triumph of the levee interests in Congress was in 1891, when an emergency bill of one million dollars was passed by Congress to repair the ravages of the ovei"flow of 1890. This appropriaiiem was unrestricted by the clause which had existed in former laws confining- the appro- priations by the general government tO' building of levees only where "in the judgment of the Mississ- ippi River Commission it was necessary for the im- provement of channel navigation." This appro- priation was available tO' repair levees wherever the floods had swept them away. Following this came the ten million dollar con- tinous contract law from which over "six" million dollars was applied to extending and enlarging the levees. The final allotment from this act was ex- pended during the j-ear of 1899. The failure of the House Committee on Rivers and Harbors to re- port a general River and Harbor Bill at the last session of Congress caused much apprehension on the part of the people of the Valley that there would be a temporary cessation of the levee and river improvement work by the government, but the sentiment in favor of the Mississippi River im- provements — regarding it as the great national highway of the United States, was so strong that all precedents were diregarded and the usual ap- propriation was placed on the Sundi'y Civil Bill in the Senate and adopted by the House of Conferees. This was simply carrying out the spirit of the Continuous Appropriation Act which had expired. But to return to the statement regarding the general work of the Association. It will be recalled by the people of the Valley that in 1897, when the expenditures authorized by the above mentioned contract bill was about to conclude, the Senate passed a resolution ordering an investigation of the whole subject and appointed a sub-comrnittee of the Committee on Commerce to make it. '; In June following the action and preceding the visit of this sub-committee, the representative of the various levee boards of the Mississippi River met in New York at a session of the Mississippi River Commission. At a meeting- of these representatives, called to consider the visit of this sub-committee, it was requested that Capt. Patrick Henry, representative of this Association, should secure full data relating to the alluvial lands of the Mississippi River to aid them in their investigations. While this work was in progress President Scott directed a renewal of the correspondence and propaganda of informa- tion which reached the commercial interests of all parts of the United States, supplying information, maps, charts, etc., to be used by the industrial and commercial firms, corporations and organizations to further the protection of the alluvial lands of the Mississippi River. This plan was very successful and enabled our people to feel the assurance that the improvement of the Miss- issippi River and the protection of these rich alluvial basins through appropriations from the general government would not only be endorsed by the people of the United States, but that Congress would be urged to action by them. And their promises were immediately followed by persistent demands for the solution of this problem. This has been disparaged by some as a lobby or lobbying plan, but what if it is? There is no wrong in a lobbjr if properly used and for a proper pur- pose. The Constitution of the United States gives the people the right of petition, and it is certainly their right to ask those who are equally interested with them in a matter of importance to their com- mercial or industrial well-being to join with them in petition. From time immemorial it has been the custom to send delegates tO' Washing- ton City and to otherwise influence a proper action of Congress to protect and develop national inter- ests. Our friends of the Eastern and Central States have understood this better, and have ap- plied it with more frequency in the up-building of great manufacturing interests, than we have. And it is the only successful, and, in fact, the only logi- cal method by which interests can be properly pre- sented to Congress. The House represents three 6 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: hundred and fifty-six dilTerent constituencies and through their continued efforts and good oiSces the Senate represents the whole people of all the that this protection will be finally accomplished. difTerent States. Thus Congress is a body of units, and these units must look out for the individual district first. Now it stands to reason that any measure which benefits the constituents of a majority of these units should be successful in Congress. If the increased trade which should spring from the development made possible by the protection of these great basins from the dangers of recurring floods, interest the constituents of a majority of these units, then it should be a matter of easy accomplishment to se- cure this protection. Thus the commercial and manufacturing inter- ests of the United States, ever alert tO' the import- ance of the development of new avenues of trade, as well as to the safety of that which they are at present enjoying, have been warmly second- ing the people of the Mississippi Valley in their The people of this section have shown, and are still showing, a commendable activity and abund- ant self-sacrifice in grappHng with the great prob- lem which has confronted them, and certainly they deserve well for the heroic and expensive fight which they have made to stay the ravages of the great stream which passes their door and annually threatens their homes and their property. The line of levees behind which they live, while not up to the requirements of absolute safety, are of such height and are now built with such me- chanical skill, and bv such improved methods, that they feel a security against almost any ordinary high water, but the agitation of the question in Congress, and by the people themselves, through their associations, and by the aid of their commer- cial correspondence throughout the United States, efliorts to secure immunity from water and to per- ^"st and will persistently continue until levees mit the further development of the trade which a''e raised and fortified, to become, like the dikes of emanates from these fertile basins. And it is largely Holland, so strong that life and property shall be due to their efforts that increased appropriations as secure from threatened invasion of waters as have been made by Congress, and it will be on the fertile plains of Illinois, Iowa or Kansas. THE HOME OF THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STaTE.S Past - Present- Prospective THANKS! IT IS pleasant to feel grateful, and pleasanter still to be able to give expression to it. So I dedicate this page as an offering of thanks in acknowledgment of , aid, without which this book never could have been issued. I To the contributors of the able articles presented. To the Levee Boards of the Mississippi River Districts. To Police Juries, City Councils and Commercial Organizations. To Hon. Charles Scott, Mr. W. A. Everman, Mr. P. M. Harding, President D;lta Trust and Banking Company; Messrs. Duffin Bros. & McGehee and Cald- well & Smith, for valuable financial aid. To members of Congress and others who warmly endorsed the work in advance. To Hons. J. M. Jayne, J. E. Ransdell, John B. Driver and Mr. Harry N. Pharr, for active assistance in many ways. To the Railroads — the great developers of our alluvial sections — for transporta- tion and other assistance. To many generous firms, corporations and individuals, for offerings to bear the large expense of this work. To the Press — last but not least — for cordial and unreserved commendation. PATRICK HENRY Representative W. A. EVERMAN Secretary CHARI,ES SCOTT President FRANK H. TOMPKINS Special Representative W. E. m'gehee Chairman Finance Committee P. M. HARDING Treasurer OFFICERS OF THE INTERSTATE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IMPROVEMENT AND LEVEE ASSOCIATION y J. S. MORGAN, President URIAH MILLSAPS, Vice President OFFICERS OUACHITA RIVER IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATION GEORGE ARNOLD JOHN M. PARKER MEMBERS OF EXECUTIVE BOARD INTERSTATE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IMPROVEMENT AND LEVEE ASSOCIATION J OHN B. DRIVER MURRAY F. SMITH THE LATE W. A. PERCY RICHARD H EDMONDS Editor of the Baltimore Manufacturers' Record (See page 4) PRESIDENTS OF ASSOCIA- TIONS AND OTHERS WHO HAVE BEEN PROMINENT IN LEVEE AND RIVER MATTERS JOHN K. SPEED M. J. SANDERS President Louisiana Waterways Association B. D WOOD President Western Waterways Assnriafinn MAJ. JAS. K. VARDEIHAN 1 Geo. G. Vest, Missouri 2 James McMillan, Michigan 3 George Turner, Washington 4 John P. Jones, Nevada 8 (Center) Wm. P. Frye, Maine, Chairman George W. McBride, Oregon 10 William E. Mason. Illinois Knure Nelson, Minnesota 1 I Alexander S. Clay, Georgia Thomas S. Martin, Virginia 12 Stephen B. Elkins, W. Virginia Jacob H. Gallinger, New Hampshire 13 Boies Penrose, Pennsylvania 14 Chauncc\' M. Depew, New York 15 James H. Berry, Arkansas 16 Marcus A. Hanna, Ohio 17 Donelson Caffery, Louisiana COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, U. S. SENATE 1 - (Center) Theodore E. Burton, Ohio 6 Stephen M, Sparkman, Florida 2 John H. Bankhead, Alabama 7 Thomas H. Ball, Texas 3 Ernest F. Acheson, Pennsylvania 8 Albert S. Berry. Kentucky 4 Roswell P. Bishop, Michigan 9 Page Morris, Minnesota 5 Thomas C. Catchings, Mississippi lo De Alva S. Alexander, New York 11 Walter Reeves, lUiuois 15 James H. Davidson, Wisconsin 12 Thomas H, Tongue, Oregon 16 Rufus E. Lester, Georgia 13 Phillip D. McCulloch, Arkansas 17 Blackburn B. Dcvener, West 14 Geo. P. Lawrence, Massachusetts Virginia COMMITTEE ON RIVERS AND HARBORS, HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, U. S. Past— Present— Prospective 13 FRANCIS M. COCKRELI, Senator from Missouri THE LATE ISHAM G. HARRIS Senator Irom Tennessee CUFTON R. BRECKINRIDGE Ex-Representative from Arkansas JOHN S. LITTLE Representative from Arkansas SOME PROMINENT MEMBERS AND EX-MEMBERS, ETC. (See page 244) NOTE-Photographs were received too late to allow iusertion in proper place. -Ed. 14 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- PREFACE rr^HE comprehensive character of this work and its diversity of subjects, or, rather, its many phases -*■ of one general subject, make a preface necessary. The motive of this publication is, of course, to benefit the cause for which the Association, of which the writer is Special Representative, has labored so persistently — to secure a treatment of the Mississippi River commensurate with its vast value as a gift of nature; to obtain for those who live on its alluvial lands jiist protection, which they rightfully have earned by heroic effort to protect them- selves; to develop, for the good of the whole coimtr}', an empire of unmined wealth which Time has collected from the bowl of the Gods, and stored to lubricate the wheels of Industry. The conception of this work was mine — born of an enthusiasm which years of connection with this Great River and its rich alluvial lands, and 3'ears of more or less intimate relations with those who have striven .so hard and labored so successfully in this cause, had fostered. I persuaded the Hon, Charles Scott, president of the Interstate Mississippi River Improvement and Levee Association, first to give it his ofi&cial sanction, and, later, to accept it as a part of the work of the Association — this to give it standing as an effort for a public purpose and to eliminate the suspicion of private speculation. The public will pardon the statement which my pride induces me to make, that never once, even though assuming, in a certain sen.se, a responsibility for the character of the book, has Mr. Scott ever sought to advise regarding its contents. He gave an unreserved commendation of its purpose — for its proper preparation, he had faith in me. Thus the public can know where to place the blame for any shortcomings or deficiencies which may be foimd. To make the book locally attractive and also of some good, perhaps, as an advertisement of our beautiful alluvial country, a concise illustrated review has been added. The review, brief as it is, discloses a pleasing picture of progress. Data of population and assessed valuations given for- tify this statement. No attempt has been made to present other than bare and general outlines. More than usual space has been given of the great universities of Louisiana, all of which are located within the territory which this book describes. The Police Juries of Louisiana, which are miniature legislative bodies in each parish, having been so active in levee matters, and so generous in aid of the movement to secure the support of a pow- erful public sentiment, it was ni}' desire to include engraved groups of each, but it was soon apparent that it was next to impossible to secure complete groups of photographs, and, besides, space was lim- ited, so that plan was reluctantly abandoned. Two or three groups, however, were made of such photographs as were sent to uie. In a general way I have endeavored to give engravings of men who represent the levee, shipping, river and commercial organizations ; also, the daily press, state officials, and a few others, which seemed to me to be appropriate. No engraving has been inserted for a cash con- Past— Present— Prospective 15 sideration. No apology is tendered for the presence of any engravings— only regret is expressed at the absence of many which I would gladly have added. No doubt pardon will be granted me for making a departure, in a small way, by giving engravings of some of the strong men, living and dead, of our Crescent City — those who, as it were, link the past and the present in the upbuilding of our great Southern part — New Orleans— which, always interesting, prosperous and growing, is now on the thresh- old of a still brighter prospect. 'Ft^^^^^f^-f ^^^ j^^H T/ E '^^ WM'i^ir-"-''' ^{f 1 I n- i 1 ' ^■ X,^.^ *■ . ■ ^ ■■ THIS WE HOPE TO RESTRAIN- AND THIS WE HOPE TO SEE UNHAMPERED IN ITS ENTRANCE INTO THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 16 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- CONTENTS PAGE Title, Preface, Etc 1-16 The Mississippi River Improvement — T. C. Catchings ... iS The Mississippi River — Some Constitutional and Legal Aspects of the Question — N. C. Blanchard 25 The Mississippi River — Nature's Greatest Highway — J. A. Ockerson 35 The Lower Mississippi and Its Regulation — H. St. L. Coppee 48 Some General Reflections on the Levee Problem — T. G. Dabney 65 River Basins and the Levees Which Protect Them — William Starling 76 Improvement of the Lower Mississippi River — Arthur Hider S2 The Mississippi River— What It Needs and Why It Needs It— Maj. Smith S. Leach, U. S. A 93 A Matchless System of Majestic Waterways — Charles Scott, 99 High Water Protection Methods On Lower Mississippi River — William Joseph Hardee 107 Protection of Caving Banks— H. S. Douglas 121 Paper by the Late H. N. Pharr 125 Floods of Mississippi River (Report) — Senator Knute Nelson 129 Early Levee Building — Wm. Beer 139 Direct Intercourse Between the Mississippi Valley and South America —Leon Jastremski 142 Mouth of Mississippi River — Letter of Harrod and Rich- ardson , 149 Mouth of Mississippi River — History of Attempted Im- provements — Maj. James B. Quinn, U. S. A 154 Deep Water at Mouth of the Mississippi River — Stuyve- sant Fish 16S Railroad Maps 174 Deep Water— M. J. Sanders iSS Mouth of Mississippi River — Value of Deep Water — E. L. Corthell 197 The Mississippi River Commission 208 The Mississippi River and Its Lowlands — R. S. Taylor. . . 226 Capital of United States and Members of Congress 241 Protection of Cities, Etc. — L- W. Brown 258 A Crevasse on the Mississippi River — F. M. Norfleet 268 The Mississippi River (Shipping Review) — John W. Bryant , , , , , . . , 274 page; Levee Lines on the Mississippi River (Maps) 291 Yazoo-Mississippi Delta Levee District— .A.rranged by A. L. Dabney ^95 , Mississippi Levee District— C. H. West 305 St. Francis Levee District of Missouri — Hina C. Schult. . 309 St. Francis Levee District of Arkansas— Harry N. Pharr. 315 Upper Tensas Levees— E. C. Tollinger 319 Desha Levees— J. M. Whitehill 3^5 Red Fork Levee District— G. E. Buck 329 Louisiana Levees — Henry B. Richardson 333 Homochilto Levee District 346 The Alluvial Basin of the Mississippi River 348 Letter to Business Men of the United States— Charles Scott 354 The Press of the Mississippi Valley 356 Railroad Officials. 360 Cairo, Illinois— John R. Rector 371 Missouri Alluvial Lands 385 Arkansas Alluvial Lands 4^4 Pine Bluff, Arkansas 433 Little Rock, Arkansas 438 Helena, Arkansas 44^ Tennessee Alluvial Lands • ■ ■ • 449 Memphis— G. W. Fooshe 459 Mississippi Alluvial Lands 479 Natchez and Vicksburg, Mississippi 499. 5°! Yazoo City, Greenwood, Greenville and Clarksdale, Miss 513. 515 Louisiana Alluvial Lands 51S Baton Rouge, Louisiana 53^ Louisiana State University 544 Sugar Cane 55^ Bayou Lafourche 5^3 New Orleans — Walter C. Flower 580 New Orleans— J. A. Blaifer , 599 Tulane University 609 Bayou Teche 616 Red River Valley and Cities 624 Ouachita Valley, Monroe and Camden 629, 635 Past—Present— Prospective 17 18 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER IMPROVEMENT By Hon. T. C. CATCHINGS, of Mississippi THE exploits of Cortes in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru excited the attention of the European States to a degree which surpasses description. Spain and Portugal especially were fired with an enthusiasm for further conquest which knew no bounds. Those eager for adventure and military renown, and those whose imaginations were inflamed by the belief that exhaustless treasure awaited discovery, were alike active in organizing expeditions to explore the newly-found America. One of these, led by Ponce de Leon, who had been a companion of Columbus, set out from Porto Rico in March, 1512, in search of the Fountain of Youth, whose waters were supposed to baffle time and disease and make youth perpetual. It landed near St. . Augustine, where it was set upon by the natives with intense fury. Those who were not slain were driven to their ships and returned to Cuba, where Ponce de Leon, who had been mor- tally wounded, soon died. Bancroft says : " So ended the adventurer who had coveted immeasurable wealth and hoped for per- petual youth. The discoverer of Florida had desired immortality on earth and gained onl)- its shadow." Other expeditions followed, which met with no better fortune. In the year 1538 Hernando De Soto, one of the conquerers of Peru, surpassed in military renown only by Pizarro and Cortes, a Spanish nobleman of great wealth and influence, procured from the Emperor of Spain authority to undertake the con- c^uest of Florida at his own expense. Attracted by the splendid promise of glory and riches, which such a movement commanded by so renowned and bril- liant a captain offered, De Soto had no difficulty in gathering about him a band of bold, ambitious and courageous men, filled with enthusiasm and eager to follow wheresoever he might lead. Mr. Irving says of this enterprise : " It was poetry put into action ; it was the knight-errantry of the Old World carried into the depths of the American wilderness. The personal adventures, the feats of individual prowess, the picturescjue descriptions of steel-clad cavaliers with lance and helm and j^ranc- ing steed glittering through the wildernesses of Florida, Georgia, Alabama and the prairies of the far West would seem to us mere fictions of romance did they not come to us in the matter-of-fact narra- tives of those who were eye-witnesses and who recorded minute memoranda of every day's inci- dents." The expedition set sail from Havana May 12, 15.39, and arrived in the bay of Espiritu Santo on the 25th of the same month. It is needless to recount the many adventures of the expedition, but from the moment of its landing on the coast of Florida i^ntil its return four years later, its history is a story of continuous privation, suffering and sanguinary conflict. Engaged almost daily in combat with the natives, confronted con- stantly by dangers and difficulties of every conceiva- ble nature, this gallant band of cavaliers forced their way, step by step, through the wilds of Florida, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi, until they reached the banks of the Mississippi river in April, 1541, at a point near the present city of Helena. Because of its size they call it the " Rio Grande." They crossed the river and pushed on westward, but were compelled by many disasters to return, and reached it again in May, 1542. Here on June 5, in his 42d year, Hernando De Soto, the first European who beheld the mighty and noble stream, worn out hj incessant fatigue of body and mind, ended his career, and his companions, placing his body in a coffin made by hollowing out a piece of green oak, took it out to the middle of the river and sunk it in nineteen fathoms of water. Thinking to reach Past— Present— Prospective 19 Mexico, his survivors again marched westward, hut were driven back by stress of circumstances, and returned to the river at a point near the mouth of the Arkansas. Reduced in numbers to less than 350 men, they determined to abandon all further efforts of explora- tion, and constructed a small fleet of boats, in which they embarked on July 2, 1543.- After passing through many dangers thej'' reached the sea twenty daj's later, and beat their waj^ westward until they reached the town of Panuco, on the Mexican coast, where they disbanded. It was through this expedi- tion that we get our first knowledge of the Missis- sippi river, and its description given then will answer for to-day. Monette says : " The lapse of three centuries has not changed the character of the stream. It was then described as it now is, as more than a mile in width, flowing with a strong current, and by the weight of its waters forcing a channel of great depth. The water was described as being always muddy, and trees and timber were continually floating down the stream." While Spain was attempting the conquest of the Southern country, and England that along the New England and Middle Atlantic coast, France had gained a foothold in the extreme North, and had founded the city of Quebec as early as 1608. The motive which impelled her was very different, however, from that which controlled other powers. Bancroft truly says : " It was neither commercial enterprise nor royal ambition which carried the power of France into the heart of our continent. The motive was religion." We therefore naturally And that the Jesuits were always on the outpost of French progress. " The history of their labors is connected with the origin of every celebrated town in the annals of French America. Not a river was entered, not a cape was turned, but a Jesuit led the way." In 1669 Father Allouez learned from the tribes of Indians on the southern shores of Lake Superior of a great river further to the west called by them the " Mesasippi " or Great River. It was ascertained " that it flowed neither toward the north nor toward the east," but not to what point its course lay, nor into what sea it discharged. In 1673 an expedition to discover and explore this great river was organized. It was put in charge of M. Joliet, of Quebec, and Father Marquette, who liad aided in establishing a mission at the Sault St, Marie. The latter, by reason of his familiarity with the natives and their great attachment to him, was well fitted to lead such an enterprise. " Such was the veneration of the savages for this good man, that for years after his death, when overtaken in their frail bark canoes by the storms on Lake Michigan, it is said that they called upon the name of Marquette, and the winds ceased and the waves were still." They turned from Lake Michigan into Green Bay, where they entered and ascended Fox river. Thence they crossed the portage to the Wisconsin, and descending it, reached the Mississippi June 17, 1673. They passed the mouth of the Missouri (the Pekitanoni of the Indians), the confluence of the Ohio, and down the river 1,100 miles below the point at which they had entered it. They then returned and made known their discovery amidst great rejoicing. Until then no white man had seen the Mississippi since the fatal expedition of De Soto, one hundred and thirty years before. La Salle, in 1679, next entered the river, but he crossed the portage from Lake Michigan into the Illinois, and went down that stream. He caused explorations to be made as far up as St. Anthony's Falls, and in 1682 descended to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the river "St. Louis," and the country, " Louisiana." Returning to France, he organized a colony and sailed for the mouth of the river, but failed to find it, and landed at the Bay of Mata- gorda. While attempting to reach the settlement which he had founded on the Illinois before return- ing to France, he was .slain by his companions. In 1689 De Tonti descended to the mouth of the river in search of La Salle, but hearing nothing of him regained the Illinois country. Owing to continuous Indian wars, no further discoveries were made until about the treaty of 1700, with the five nations, which is described as follows : "A written treaty was made, to which each nation placed for itself a symbol — the Senecas and Onondagas drew a spider ; the Oayugas a calumet ; the Oneidas a forked stick, and the Mo- hawks a bear," After this colonies began to enter the valley both from the North and the South. Towns and trading posts were established, espe- cially in the Illinois country, and as early as 1712 land titles and deeds came into use to designate pri- vate acquisitions. By 1720 a very considerable trade had grown up between the upper and the lower settlements. 20 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River- Iberville established a post at Biloxi in 1699, and made repeated explorations of the lakes, bayous and tributaries of the lower river. The movements of the French had attracted the attention of the English to the Mississippi valley, and they dispatched a man-of-war about this time to explore the mouths of the river. Bien^'ille, a sub- ordinate of Iberville, while sounding the channel a few miles below the site of New Orleans, met this vessel and threatened resistance if it did not leave. The vessel departed, though under protest, and the point at which it turned is known to this day as the " English Turn." New Orleans was founded in 1718, and a survey of the passes by Pauger, a royal French engineer, having shown that shipping could be brought up the river, it was made the principal depot and capital of Louisiana. The commerce of the valley in 1745 is thus de- scribed : " The trade between the northern and southern portions of Louisiana had greatly aug- mented, as well as that from New Orleans to France and foreign countries. Regular cargoes of flour, bacon, pork, hide, leather, tallow, bear's oil and lumber were annually transported down the Missis- sippi in keel boats and barges to New Orleans and Mobile, whence they were shipped to France and the West Indies. In their return voyages these boats and barges, from New Orleans and Mobile, supplied the Illinois and "Wabash countries with rice, indigo, tobacco, sugar, cotton and European fabrics. The two extremes of Louisiana produced and supplied each other alternately with the necessaries and com- forts of life required by each respectively. The mutual exchange of commodities kept up a constant and active communication from one end of the province to the other. Boats, barges and pirogues were daily plying from one point to another, freighted with the rude products of a new and growing coun- try. The great highways of commerce were the deep and solitary channels of the Mississippi and its hundreds of tributaries." In the lower country rice, indigo and tobacco were the chief crops at this time. In 1751 sugar cane began to be cultivated. The first sugar mill was erected in 1758 and proved so remunerative that many others were put up, and by 1760 sugar cane had become one of the staple crops. Cotton was grown, but only in limited quantities for domestic consumption, because of the difficulty in separating the lint from the seed. About 1752 a cotton gin was invented by M. Dubreuil, which so facilitated the process that cotton growing became more exten- sive. But it was not until the invention in 1807 by . Whitney of the saw cotton gin that the impulse to cotton growing was given, which has made it the chief business of many portions of the South. Only the large plantations, however, could afford a gin, so public gins were set up, upon which the crops of the small planters were ginned. In the Mississippi territory, laws were passed requiring all cotton to be ginned within four months from its deli\ery. " Cotton receipts " were given, and as early as March, 1806, they were made nego- tiable by law, whereby they became domestic bills of exchange and answered the purpose of a circulat- ing medium. A continued struggle had been progressing for supremacy in the Mississippi valley between France, England and- Spain, with various and shifting results, which need not be recited here. By the treaty of 1783, Great Britain relinquished to the United States everything east of the Missis- sippi, from its source to the 31st parallel of North latitude, and at the same time it ceded to Spain everything east of the Mississippi and south of the 31st parallel. France, in 1763, had ceded to Spain all Western Louisiana, including the island of Orleans. Thus the river for the last 300 miles flowed entirely through Spanish dominions, and Spain claimed the exclusive right to the use of that por- tion, and imposed heavy duties on all produce brought down. They were enforced by excise offi- cers, supported by the military, and every boat was required to land and submit to these revenue exac- tions. This was the only outlet for the rapidly-growing West, and the American people demanded free navi- gation as a natural right, as well as through the treaty with Great Britain. In 1788, Congress declared " that the free naviga- tion of the Mississippi is a clear and essential right of the United States, and that the same ought to be considered and supported as such." Finally, Spain, by the treaty of 1795, stipulated "that the whole width -of said river, from its source to the sea, shall be free to the people of the United States." France had never approved the cession to Spain of Western Louisiana, and Napoleon, by the treaty of Ildefonso, confirmed in March, 1801, required it from Spain. Being involved in war with England, Past— Present— Prospective 21 however, and apprehensive that he could not hold it, by the treaty of 1803, he sold it to the United States. When the treaty had been executed, he said : " This accession of territory strengthens for- ever the power of the United States, and I have just given to England a maritime lival that will sooner or later humble her pride." From this time on, and especially after Ihe intro- duction of steam power, the commerce of the river rapidly increased, and to-day its valley is the center of wealth, population and political control. The Mississippi River Levees. A few miles above Cairo the Mississippi river breaks through a spur of the Ozark mountains. At some time in the remote past an estuary, which was ajjproximately 600 miles long and from 25 to 80 miles wide, extended from the Gulf of Mexico to this point. It has gradually been displaced by the sediment brought down by the Mississippi river and its tributaries. This sediment was of course depos- ited the moment the waters which had carried it along in suspension reached this arm of the sea. Hence the building up of the alluvial lands of the lower valley began at the northern end of the es- tuary and, step by step, marched down to the sea. The comparative elevations of the land and sea are such that at the point where the Mississippi river cut through the mountain spur above Cairo it must have had a fall of several hundred feet. It neces- sarily followed from this that the vast quantities of sediment deposited by the floods, which perpetually discharged into the estuary, would in time drive it back and supplant it by lands which would be built up far above the level of the sea. The lands which ousted the estuary in tlie manner described gave birth to a dense and luxuriant growth of vegetation as soon as they had been built up to an elevation above the sea level. The waters of the river being insufficient to cover all the lands so created, or indeed, any considerable portion of them, except during the existence of gret.t floods, were naturally concentrated under normal conditions into a channel of their own making, and through this channel made their exit to the sea. When the floods came they found this channel insufficient, and, overtopping its banks, spread out over the valley in a thin sheet of water, varying in depth from a few inches to a con- siderable number of feet, where it remained until the supply from above ceased, when it was gradually drawn back into the channel, except as to certain parts of the extreme lower valley whence it could otherwise more directly find a way to the Gulf. The water of the river is more heavily charged with silt or sediment during flood periods than under normal conditions. This sediment is maintained in a state of suspension altogether by the motion of the water. From this it follows that when from any cause the velocity of the water is reduced it must di'op some part of its load, and when it is entirely checked it must drop the whole of it. It is by virtue of this law that the mouths of all silt-be? ring streams become obstructed by bars, which seriously interfere with commerce. The Eads jetties were constructed to remove the shoaling of the South Pass of the Mississippi river resulting from the prin- ciple stated. When the floods come and the channel can hold no more water they can only make room for them- selves by escaping over its banks. The velocity of the water outside of the channel is much less than the velocity of that which remains in the channel, and it therefore begins at once to part with its supply of sediment. This operation is hastened by the obstruction created by the trees and undergrowth. As the velocity is thus checked, naturally the coarser and heavier particles of sediment are first dropped, and the remainder is gradually parted with, until when the water has gone a considerable distance it be- comes comparatively clear. For this reason the banks of the Misciscippi, and of all silt-bearing streams, are higher than the lands further back. The land slopes away from the banks of the river so that the fall is about six or seven feet to the mile. It is thus seen that the riv'er when left to itself was constantly building its banks higher and higher, and so mak- ing its channel more and capable of holding the floods. In time if man had not made his appear- ance, and by his operations seriously interfered with the processes of nature, they would slowly but surely have raised the banks of the river until over- flows would have become extremely rare. In build- ing levees therefore to prevent- the escape of the floods, man is but imitating nature. The lands of the lower Mississippi valley, which comprise about 30,000 square miles, are so extraor- dinarily fertile that they have attracted attention from their earliest discovery, and much speculation, theor- izing and contention have for long been indulged in as to the best method by which they can be protected from inundation so that they can be subjected to the uses and needs of man. If artificial banks, which 22 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : are called levees, can be made high and strong enough to restrain the floods, thej' furnish not only a sure method but infinitely the cheapest. The earliest settlements in the valley having been made in the extreme southern portion of it, efforts to secure protection against the floods first began there. In 1717 a levee was built to protect the city of New Orleans from overflow. In 1735 DePratz says that " the levee extended from English Bend, twelve miles below, to thii'ty miles above, and on both sides of the river." In 1743 an ordi- nance was promulgated " reciuiring the inhabitants to complete their levees by the 1st of January, 1744, under a penalty of forfeiture of their lands to the crown." The levee building of those days was a small affair compared with that now going on. Its purpose was solely to protect the narrow strips of high land along the banks of the river, as only these were occupied. This was effected by small levees along the river front and cross-levees running back to the lower and uninhabited lands. As the floods were allowed to roam at will over every other part of the valley it was both easy and inexpensive to construct levees sufficient to accomplish the very limited results intended. Before many years had elapsed, however, the richness of these alluvial lands had attracted Cjuite a large population, and the levees were rapidly extended until by 1858 nearly the whole basin was leveed. Between 1861 and 1865, neglect and the ravages of war destroyed the greater part of this work, but with the return of peace it was promptly taken up again and has ever since been prosecuted with more or less vigor. Until 1882 every dollar expended on this work had been raised by taxation of those dwelling in the valley. In 1879 the Mississippi River Commission was cre- ated by Congress and charged with inquiring into the best methods of improving the river for naviga- tion purposes, and for the prevention of overflows. In 1882 it allotted $1,300,000 to be expended in closing the crevasses made in the levees by the great flood of 1882. This was the first money ever expended by the Government in levee building. This act of the Commission greatly excited the hopes of the people of the valley and aroused them to efforts which may well be described as stupendous. Since that date about $27,000,000 have been expended in the con- struction of levees. Of this the Government has pro- vided about $12,000,000 and the people of the valley about $15,000,000. When the flood of 1897 broke upon us there were about 1,300 miles of levees. None of these levees were of the dimensions regarded by the engineers as necessary to withstand such a flood as tliat of 1882, and a considerable part of the St. Francis front was not leveed at all. We had hoped that such a flood as that would not come, at least until we were better prepared to cope with it, but we were disappointed. The flood of 1897 ex- ceeded that of 1882. .Judged by duration and height combined it has no equal. On March 25th it- reached its highest stage at Cairo, which was 51.6 on the gauge. The highest gauge read- ing before recorded was 52.02, reached by the flood of 1883 on February 27th. That flood was so short, however, that in no other respect can it l)e compared with that of 1897. The magnitude of the flood of ]8')7 can best be appreciated from the fact that it practically stood for thirty-three days at Cairo at and over 49 feet on the gauge. The levee system being very much stronger and more exten- sive than ever before, the flood elevation all along the river was greater than during any previous floods. This, of course, was to be expected. The levees along the St. Francis basin were so incomplete that in many places the water broke through or ran over them. Several crevasses occuri-ed on the Ar- kansas side above the mouth of the White river, and four or five along the front of the Yazoo basin. Between the mouth of the White river and a point nearly opposite ^' icksburg where the Briggs crevasse occurred, there was no break on the west side. One other break, a nearly harmless one, occurred in the Tensas line, and a small one, which was promptly closed, occurred just below Baton Rouge. The total length of levee destroyed was 8.7 miles, being liut .63 of 1 per cent, of the whole work. The increasing strength of the levees will be best understood by a comparison of the loss inflicted upon them by previous floods. In 1882 the total number of crevasses in the levees was 284, aggregating 56.09 miles in width. In 1883 the number of crevasses was 224, with an aggregate width of 34.1 miles. In 1884 the crevasses numbered 204, aggregating 10.64 miles in width. In 1890 the total number of cre- vasses was 23, aggregating 4} miles in width. In 1897 but little over one-third of all the alluvial lands from Cairo to the Gulf were inundated. This includes the lands in the St. Francis basin, which should not be taken into account in estimating the protection aff'orded by the levee system, inasmuch as quite one-third of its front had not been levied at all. Past— Present— Prospective 23 No man can say tbut our levee system, incom- plete though it is, has not afforded a vast amount of protection, or justly draw from the experience of the past the conclusion that it is not within the power of man to build levees strong enough to absolutely restrain the floods. To my mind the work pre- sents no engineering difficulties, and supported bj' ample funds, I have no doubt that it would be speedily finished. All of the engineers who have ever been connected with it, whether local or members of the Army Corps, are of one mind in this regard. If protection cannot be afforded by levees, it cannot be had at all, and if it cannot be had all of the back lands — and they constitute the greater part — must be aban- doned. If they must be subjected to perpetual recur- ring overflows they cannot be inhabited. The losses accompanying overflows, the uncertainty of making- crops after they have subsided, the sickness likely to follow them, and the great inconveniences always at- tending them would gradually, perhaps, but never- tlieless surely, cause their abandonment. The min- imized population and production thus cau.sed, to- gether with the interruption of traffic, would certainly drive the railroads out. Thoughtful men understand all this, and, undeterred by croakers and occasional disasters, will press forward bravely in the future, as they have done in the past, and never ]a,y down their arms until the battle has l)een fought and won. Much has been said about the outlet plan. I do not intend to point out the many serious objections to it. It is well, however, to invite attention to one or two facts. The first point below Cairo where a real outlet can be had is at the head of the Atcha- falaya river. By real outlet I mean such a drawing off of water from the main channel as that it will not return to it again, but find its way to the sea by some other route. It is a misnomer to speak of the overflow of water into the St. Francis basin or the Yazoo basin as an outlet, inasmuch as it returns to the river again, in the former case at the mouth of the St. Francis river, and in the latter- at tlie Vicks- burg hills. In my Judgment, except in the case of floods shorter and quicker than any I have knowl- edge of, so that the flood wave would pass off before the overflow water in such basins as I have referred to could retvirn to the river, no relief can be had in that direction. Even real outlets do not give appre- ciable relief above them. In 1890 a crevasse occurred in the levee at Nita, La., on the east bank, about 60 miles above New Orleans. It was 3,000 feet wide and 15 feet deep, and actual measurement showed that it carried off 400,000 cubic feet of water per second, which equaled 30 per cent, of the entire discharge of the river immediately above the cre- vasse. Not one drop of water going through it ever returned to the river. Here we had an ideal oppor- tunity to test the efficacy of outlets as a means of lowering the flood surface. The flood elevation was lowered a foot and a half immediately below the crevasse, and one foot at New Orleans, 60 miles below, while at Plaquemine, 50 miles above, no effect whatever was pi-oduced. Levee building offers the only relief according to my understanding of the problem, though, being but a layman, I would not set ray judgment up against the engineers, and am willing to follow whithersoever they lead. The magnitude of the work, however, is such that it can only be accom- plished by the strong arm and abundant resources of the Federal Government, and the dwellers in the Great Valley should be satisfied with nothing short of absolute National control of the Avhole c^uestion. Abundant grounds could be assigned if space and time would permit it, upon which they can safely base the claim that it is the duty of the Govern- ment to come to their rescue. If the General Gov- ernment should assume entire control and supply its engineers with requsite means, we should soon see magnificent lines of levee, properly located, carefully constructed, constantly repaired and guarded, behind which the people ot the valley could make their liomes and sow and harvest their crops iu peace and safety. 24 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Kiver: ^/rr^. Jij^o<^^^^<^JUi^^r^ Past— Present— Prospective 25 THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER SOME CONSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL ASPECTS OF THE QUESTION By Justice N. C. BLANCHARD, of Louisiana Supreme Court THE Mississippi river is tlie great sewer of our country. It drains the waters that fall upon more than twenty-five States of the Union. Even the rain that falls upon the western portion of the State of New York finds its way to the Gulf of Mexico through the soil of Louisiana. Steamboats have penetrated as far as the town of Olean, in the State of New York, away up on the Alleghany river, which in turn pours into the Ohio, which in turn empties into the Mississippi and then into the Gulf. And far from that point — away to the westward beyond Fort Benton, in Montana, or to the tops of the Rocky Mountains — this great drainage basin extends. From above the Canadian line on the north, to the sun-kissed waves of the Mexican gulf on the south, the rainfall of nearly one-half of the entire northern portion of the American continent finds its way through the State of Louisiana to the sea. The Mississippi river is too great a national feature of our country to be handled by any State or aggre- gation of States. No other power than that of the National Government is potential enough to take it in hand and make it perform its two-fold function of affording a national highway for the commerce of the Republic and of discharging its flood waters safely into the Gulf of Mexico. The river is the property of the Federal Govern- ment. It is its property in the sense that its juris- diction over it is paramount to that of the States which border upon it. The States cannot say what shall be done with the river or to it, nor how it shall be treated. They are not permitted to divert it, nor change its course, nor to injure or interfere with its navigation. Suppose Congress should withhold its hand and its money, and do nothing adequately towards restraining the flood waters of the river and prevent- ing inundations. Ill default of such action by the General Government the right of self-preservation arises, and the States and individuals in the valley are themselves entitled to take the matter in hand and resort to such means as they may devise to con- trol the flood discharge of the river for their own protection and for the protection of their property. Suppose, then, that the dwellers in the lower valley of the river, despairing of adequate Congressional action, should resort to the plan of opening innu- merable outlets all along the line of the river in every direction available, on the idea advanced by some, but denied by the best authority, that outlets contribute to the prevention of floods. They might so dissipate and scatter the waters of the river by means of these outlets that the navigable character of the great stream might be seriously impaired, if not entirely lost or destroyed. Suppose they were attempting such a thing, would not the strong arm of the Federal Government bo exerted to prevent it? Would not Congress say: "You shall not construct works or so treat the Mississippi river as to destroy its navigable character? " Undoubtedly. When Mr. Jefferson acquired the territory known as Louisiana from France the great and controlling idea actuating that acquisition was that the Ameri- can Union should control the entire country through which flows the Mississippi river, in order that the river might be forever open as a great highway for the commerce of the world. The United States, then, is interested in preserving the navigable character of the river, and mjist neces- sarily check, by legislation or other means, the con- struction of works that may be designed to destroy, or which might have the effect of destroying, its navi- gation. But could the Government do this without, in justice and fairness, assuming the obligation it- self of so curbing and restraining the river as to give a safe and easy discharge of its flood waters ? The question admits of but one answer : It could not. It has been doubted by some that there is consti- tutional authority in Congress to appropriate public funds to prevent the floods of the river. The constitutional auiUcjnty to appropriate money 26 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : for purposes of channel improvement of the liver to benefit navigation is not denied, under tlie power vested in Congress by the Constitution to regulate commerce ; but it has been denied that there is war- ]'ant in the Constitution for Congress to go-further and appropriate money for the direct purpose of re- strainiug the flood waters of the river. While somewhat of a strict constructionist of the Constitution, I have no trouble in deducing author- ity from that instrument justifying Congress in ap- propriating funds for the two-fold purpose of improv- ing the navigation of the river and of restraining its flood waters. An enemy invades us. Our people fly to arms. Points of defence are strengthened. The eye of strategy selects other points to be fortified and de- fended. Congress votes the money and immediately long lines of breastworks guard our frontier where attack is apprehended. But here is an enemj- who comes in the form of raging watei's, sweeping down in resistless might from the North u^jon the sunny valleys of the West and South, bringing devastation, destruction, death. He raids through the country, rioting in ruin, and millions, panic-stricken, flee at his approach, leav- ing their all to be swallowed up in the wild vortex of destruction. The wasting presence lasts but a couple of months, but in that time there has been a destruction of property, present and prospective, equal in value to many millions of dollars. {See engravings of crevasses.) It is the duty of Congress to say to these people who have so often experienced the disasters of inun- dation that, even as we would erect breastworks on our frontier to repel the threatened invasion of a warlike foe, so will we build levees along the great river to beat back its surging waters, threatening- destruction well-nigh equal to what a human enemy could inflict. But, it may be argued, the delegation of power to Congress to " repel invasions, to protect the States against invasion," has reference to a human foe. I grant that this is the usual and ordinary meaning or significance given to the term, and it is likely that the framers of the Constitution had in contem- plation a human foe when they inserted that clause. The connection, too, in which it is used gives addi- tional weight to the argument. But still, the power conferred by the words " repel invasions," by the clause " The United States * * * shall protect each of them (the States) against invasion," is a general one, and might well and reasonably include defend- ing the country against danger or harm of any kind. Suppose some monster, like the fabled dragon of ancient times, were to rise up out of the deep and invade the land, spreading devastation, destruction, pestilence and death around him. Does any one doubt the constitutional power and duty of Congress to " repel " his invasion, to bring the strong arm of the Government to bear against him, to make war upon and kill and destroy him? I think not. And yet, there are those to be found who deny to Con- gress the power to " repel " the invasion of waters, to throttle this monster of inundation whose period- ical visitation of the fairest portion of our country is but the recurring occasion for a carnival of waste, ruin, rapine. The Constitution (Art. IV, Section 3) provides : " That Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States." In the Grratiot case (14 Peters, 537) the Supreme Court of the United States, construing the above clause, said : '•'The term 'territory,' as here used, is merely de- scriptive of one kind of property, and is equivalent to the word ' lands.' And Congress has the same power over it as over any other property belonging to the United States ; and this power is vested in Congress without limitation." In the case of McCulloch vs. Maryland (4 Wheaton, 422) the Chief Justice, as the organ of the court, speaking of this clause of the Constitution and the powers of Congress growing out of it, applies it to territorial governments, and says all admit their con- stitutionality. Story says (volume 2, page 228) ; " No one has ever doubted the authority of Con- gress to erect territorial governments within the ter- ritory of the United States, under the general lan- guage of the clause ' to make all needful rules and regulations.' " He continues : " The power is not confined to the territor}^ of the United States, but extends to ' other property be- longing to the United States ' ; so that it may be applied to the due regulation of all other personal and real property rightfully belonging to the United WATER FROM A CREVASSE RUNNING M:\iNM HEAVY MCOODS 28 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River States. And so it has been constantly understood and acted on." Now, then, if the Mississippi river is the property of the General Government, it is as much subject to " regulation " as the landed property or territory of the United States. And this power to regulate in- cludes curbing, controlling, restraining the river within its own proper metes and bounds by means of levees, dikes, or other works, as Congress may, in its discretion, see proper to adopt, for, in the lan- guage of the Gratiot case, " this power is vested in Congress without limitation." But it may be denied that the Mississippi river is the pi'operty of the United States iu the sense that Congress may, under the povvcr to regulate, direct the construction of works to restrain its waters within their proper channel. The Mississippi river is a great national highway. It belongs as much to the United States as would a great trunk line of railroad that had been con- structed, stocked and was being operated by the Government. In the Act of Congress enabling the people of Louisiana to form a constitution there is a provision that the State Convention shall " pass an ordinance providing that the river Mississippi and the navigable rivers and waters leading into the same or into the Gulf of Mexico shall be common highways and forever free, as well to the inhabi- tants of the said State as to other citizens of the United States." And in the Act for the admission of Louisiana, the above provision as to the naviga- tion of the Mississippi is made one of the funda- mental conditions of admission. Similar conditions were likcM'ise im[)Osed upon the admission of the States of Mississipiai, Missouri and Arkansas. In the case of The Lhiited States vs. The New Bed- ford Bridge (Woodbur}' & Minot's Reports, 421), Mr. Justice Woodbury used the following language : " For purposes of foreign commerce and of that from State to State, the navigable rivers of the whole countiy seem to me to be within the jurisdic- tion of the General Government, with all the powers over them for such purposes (whenever they choose to exercise them) which existed previously in the States or now exist with Parliament in England." In the case to Corfield vs. Coryell (4 Washington Circuit Court Reports, 379), Mr. Justice Washington said : " The Grant to Congress to regulate commerce on the navigable waters belonging to the several States renders those waters the public property of the United States for all purposes of navigation and com- mercial intercourse, subject only to Congressional regulation." And in the case of Gilman vs. Philadelphia (3 Wallace, 724), it was said : " The power to regulate commerce comprehends the control for that purpose and to the extent neces- sary of all the navigable waters of the United States which are accessible from a State other than those in which they lie. For this purpose they are the pub- lic property of the nation, and subject to all the re- quisite legislation of Congress. This necessarily includes the power to keep them open and free from any obstruction to their navigation, interposed by the States or otherwise ; to remove such obstructions when they exist, and to provide by such sanctions as they may. deem proper against the recurrence of the evil, and for the punishment of offenders. For these purposes Congress possesses all the powers which ex- isted in the States before the adoption of the Na- tional Constitution, and which have always existed in the Parliament in England. It is for Congress to determine when its full power shall be brought into activity, and as to the regulations and sanctions which shall be provided." It cannot, therefore, be doubted that the river, for all practical purposes, is the property of the General Government and subject to its "regulation," whether as respects prescribing rules for governing the commerce and traffic which make use of it as a highway, or as respects controlling it in the sense of denying the dominion and jurisdiction of the States, or other powers ; or as respects preventing the river from rising up out of its customary chan- nel and spreading over the country. It may be objected by some that should the Fed- eral Government provide the ways and means for the construction of an adequate levee system for the protection of the allnvial valley of the river, inas- much as these levees will have to be constructed on the banks over Avhich the jurisdiction of the States respectively extend, contention may arise between the State government and the National Government on this point ; that the State government might deny the right of the National Government to con- trol the levees, to protect them after constructing them, and that the question thus raised may become Past— Present— Prospective 29 INTERRUPTION OF MAIL COMMUNICATION TEN MILES FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER iFLOOD OF 1897) INTERRUPTION OF MAIL COMMUNICATION TWENTY MILES FROM THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER (FLOOD OF 1897) 30 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : a fruitful source of trouble between the .sovereignty vested in the State and that reposing in the Federal Government. That trouble may ever arise on this score is a conjecture so remote as to be unworthy of serious consideration. What there is may be easily obvi- ated by the insertion in the act of appropriation of a clause that there should be no expenditure of nioney within the territorial limits of a State until the State shall have ceded to the National Govern- ment the right to control and protect the public works to be constructed. Louisiana has already done this in Art. 215 of her Constitution of 1879, and Art. 240 of her Constitu- tion of 1898 (the present one). Full authority is given the National Government to construct such public works along the Mississippi river as Congress may see proper to order, and the control of the same after their construction is ceded to the National Government. The State of Louisiana, in incorporating this grant of authority in her organic law, recognized what is now generally conceded, viz, that there is no power competent to handle the questions pre- sented by this great river save that of the Federal Government. No State can do it : First. Becavise the work is too vast, too costly for any State through which the river runs to un- dertake it. Second. Because any State attempting it would be circumscribed b_y its own territorial limits. Third. Because the river, being the property of the United States, Congress alone has power under the grant to " make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory and other j^roperty belonging to the United States," to say what works shall be done or plans adopted for its regulation. Under the authority " to establish post-oihces and post-roads " the Government of the LTnited States has established thousands of the former in the al- luvial valleys of the Mississippi and its tributaries, and provided a jjerfect network of the latter. Daily over thousands of miles of roadwaj^ and rail- way and water-way in the great valley is the Ignited States mail carried, supplying innumerable post- offices and aftbrding facilities indispensable for the dissemination of intelligence, for the diffusion of the market reports, the crop and commercial reports, and the news generally so absolutely needed for the ■»,'elfare, the happiness and the prosperit}^ of the people and the counti'y. Millions of money, besides great labor and much valuable time, have been expended in building up and perfecting this system, which in the normal state of the country moves with the precision, ease and regularity of v,^ell-ordered machinery. But periodicalh' the great river swells up out of its banks and becomes a great inland sea, producing an ab- normal condition of affairs, and disarranging, stop- ping, destroying for the time being the postal service, the transportation and delivery of the mails. On our statute-books, as the enactments of Con- gress, stand stringent penal laws denouncing penalties against any and all who shall willfully impede, ni- terfere with or stop the mails ; and the courts of the United States hold sittings all over the valley to in- force these laws. But here is a great convulsion of nature, as it were, that stops not one mail but a thousand, that breaks up not one post-office but hundreds, and against which the courts and the criminal laws for the pro- tection and security of the mails avail nothing. {See engravings.) To prevent a coiitinuance of this is the strong arm of the Government powerless ? No. Scientific, wise, experienced men, who have made a study of the river and its phenomena, of the laws of its currents, and of the conditions that affect it, say no ! They have pointed out how these destructive floods may be avoided, and thus how the mails of the United States, their carriage and deliv- ery, may be protected. Now, then, does any one doul)t that from the au- thority " to establish post-offices and post-roads " flows not only the power but the duty to protect them? No reasonable man can doubt it. No law- yer will hesitate for an instant to declare that the power to protect is incidental to the power to estab- lish. The constitutionality of the laws denouncing penalties against the stoppage of, or interference with, the mails has never been doubted, yet they were en- acted for the protection of the mails, and depend for their validity upon the power to protect being inci- dental to the power to establish. Says the Supreme Court of the United States, in 4 AVheaton, 417 : " This power (to establish post-offices and post-roads) is executed by the single act of making the establish- ment. But from this has been inferred the power and duty of carrj^ing the mail along the post-road from one post-office to another. And from this im- plied power has again been inferred the right to pun- ish those Avho steal letters from the post-office or rob the mail. It may be said with some plausibility that Past— Present— Prospective 31 the right to cany the mail and to punish those who rob it is not indispensably necessary to the establish- ment of a post-office and post-road. This right is indeed essential to the beneficial exercise of the power, but not indispensably necessarj' to its exist- ence. No one doubts or denies the right or power of the Government to punish the robber of the mails. Is it not just as legitimate, just as constitutional, to pro- tect against the ravages of fl-ater as against the knaver}^ of the robber ? The power of Congress to regulate commerce in- cludes the regulation of intercourse and navigation. (18 Howard, 421.) Commerce undoubtedlj^ is traffic ; but it is some- thing more. It is intercourse. It describes the commercial intercourse between nations and parts of nations in all its bi'anches, and is regulated by prescribing rules for carrying on that intercourse. (Story, Vol. 2, p. 4.) Tliis power to regulate commerce is a very gen- eral one, and a wide latitude of construction has been given it. If a levee system tends, in any appreciable degree, to afford ease and safety to commerce, to intercourse which is essential to the carrying on of commerce, then appropriations of money by Congress to con- struct and maintain such a system finds abundant justification in this grant of power. That it does afford ease and safety to commerce we have the declaration of the River Commission in repeated reports to Congress, as well as the state- ments of individual members of the commission before the committees of Congress. These say that the levees give safety and ease to navigation and promote and facilitate commerce and trade by estab- lishing banks or landing places above the reach of floods, upon w'hich produce may be placed while awaiting shipment, and where steamboats and other craft may land in time of high water. If the Federal Government can legitimately ex- pend millions in affording facilities to commerce bj' improving the low-waler navigation of rivers, by parity of reasoning it may just as legitimately ex- pend millions in improving the high -wafer naviga- tion of rivers like the Mississippi, liable to overflow their banks. By the navigation of rivers is meant not alone the passage of steamers and other craft up and down, but in a larger sense it includes likewise facilities for landing along the rivers for the loading and unloading of cargoes, the taking on and jiutting off of passengers, etc. In other words, it embraces the affording of all needful facilities for intercourse, trade, traffic, and commerce, besides the width, depth, and extent of water requisite for the safe pas- sage of boats. Again, navigation is only one of the elements of commerce. It is an element of commerce because it affords the means of transporting merchandise and the products of the country, the interchange of which is commerce itself The river is but an instrument of commerce. The power to regulate commerce is a power to regulate the instruments of commerce. (Gray vs. Clinton Bridge, 16 American Law Register, 152.) It extends to the persons who conduct it as well as to the instruments used. (Cooley vs. Board of Wardens, 12 Howard, 316.) The commerce of the river and the commerce across the river are both commerce among the States, ' and- may be regulated by Congress, and should be regulated by that body when any regulation is nec- essary. (16 American Law Register, 154.) It is now conceded that Congress, under the com- mercial clause, may regulate railroads. May it not also regulate the Mississippi, a national highway and an instrument Avhich commerce makes use of, so as to prevent it disturbing the commerce and in- tercourse going on by rail and by highway in its valley ? The term " to regulate commerce " gives the power to restrain the destructive force of the thing used by commerce in its transactions. It is an incongruity to say that Congress, in the exercise of that power, may deepen or enlarge a river but cannot curb its force or exercise restraint over it. The power " to regulate commerce " necessarily includes protection to commerce. This idea has been acted on from the coniniencement of the Govern- ment. The construction and maintenance all along our coasts of light-houses, beacon-lights, fog-signals, sea-walls and break-waters attest this. All are for the protection and convenience of commerce. The laws of the United States require steam-ves- sels to pay for the licen.'^e oi' privilege to navigate, and the officei's manning such vessels are required to pay for the license or privilege of pursuing their respective calling or vocation, such as master, pilot, mate, etc. These vessels engage in the coasting trade as well as in the carrying trade, and Congress is as much under obligation to afford the needful 32 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : facilities for the transaction of this coasting trade as it is for the transportation of through freights. One of the facilities needed along the Mississippi for the coasting trade is convenient landing places at all times. In seasons of flood these landing places are sup- plied by levees, and, in this sense, levees are but continuing piers or quays. This question of regulating the Mississippi river certainly comes within the general police power of the Government, under Avhich power " persons and property are subjected to all kinds of restraint and burdens in order to secure the general comfort, health and prosperity of the State." (27 Vt., 149 ; 5 Otto, 471.) In the latter case the Supreme Court, speaking of the deposit in Congress of the power to regulate commerce, says : " What that power is it is difficult to define with sharp precision. It is generally said to extend to making regulations promotive of domestic order, morals, health and safety. As was said in Thorp vs. The Rutland and Burlington Railroad Company (27 Vt., 149), it extends to the protection of the lives, limbs, health, comfort and quiet of all persons, and the protection of all property within the State. Ac cording to the maxim. Sic ufere tuo ut alieimm non hulas, which, being of universal application, it must of course be within the range of legislative action to define the mode and manner in which every one may so use his own as not to injure others." If the Government fails to exercise its police pow- ers to control its property, and this property, like a great river, rises and inundates the country, and great damage to individuals results, the Government is, or ought to be, responsible. Take the case of an Indian tribe placed by the Government upon a reservation, and over which it exercises jurisdiction and surveillance. From some cause an outbreak occurs. The Indians throw off the restraint they are under, band themselves to- gether, commence hostilities, and raid the surround- ing country. For the damage and loss occasioned individuals by such an outbreak the Government has repeatedly acknowledged its liability, and Con- gress has over and over again appropriated money to make good such losses. Is there not some ground for claiming that the Government should be equally responsible for losses occasioned by the Mississippi when it, in time of flood, raids the adjacent country ? The Government not only assumes paramount jurisdiction over the river, but asserts a proprietary interest in and to it. Why, then, should it not be under obligation to restrain and control it equal to the restraint and control it admits it should exercise over an Indian tribe placed by it upon a reservation ? The first clause of Section 8, Art. I of the Con- stitution, prescribes that " Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States." I agree with the interpretation that the above clause was not intended to invest Congress with the independent and general power " to provide for the general welfare," and that the latter part of the clause, to wit, " to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare," is but a modi- fication or qualification of the preceding part, viz : "Congress shall have power to lay and. collect taxes, etc." Nothing more was granted by that part (" to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare ") than a power to appropriate the public money raised under the other part (" to lay taxes "), etc. Said Thomas .lefferson ; " To lay taxes to provide for the general welfare of the United States is to lay taxes for the purpose of providing for the general welfare ; for the laying of taxes is the power and the general welfare the pur- pose for which the power is to be exercised. Con- gress are not to lay taxes ad libilum for any purpose they please, but only to pay debts or provide for the welfare of the Union." Under this interpretation, Avhile a general power to legislate for the " general welfare " is excluded. Congress is still authorized to j^rovide money for the common defence and general welfare, and this is quite broad enough for the practical purpose we have in view. Indeed, the power to lay taxes is in express terms given to provide for the common de- fence and general welfare. And, as laid down by Story : " It is not jjretended that when the tax is laid the specific objects for which it is laid are to be speci- fied, or that it is to be solely applied to those objects." It suffices that all taxes must generally be laid for one or all of three purposes, namel}'', to pay Past— Present— Prospective 33 debts, to provide for tlie comiHou defence, or the general welfare. And when funds have accumu- lated in the Treasury from taxes laid for any or all of these purposes, as said by President Monroe in his message of ^lay 4, 1 822 : " The power of appropriation of the moneys (by Congress) is co-extensive ; that is, it maj' be appro- priated to any purpose of the common defence and general welfare." In other words, if oiDerating under the latter clause, the taxes laid must be applied to some par- ticular measure conducive to the general welfare. Or, as laid down by Mr. Story (A"ol. 2, p. 162) : " The only limitation upon the power (to appro- priate in aid of internal improvements) are those prescribed by the terms of the Constitution, that the objects shall be for the common defence, or the gen- eral welfare of the Union. The true test is whether the object be of a local character and local use, or whether it be of general benefit to the States. If it be purelj' local Congress cannot constitutionally appropriate money for the object. But if the benefit be general it matters not whether in point of local- ity it be one State or several, whether it be of large or small extent, its nature and character determine the right, and Congress may appropriate money in aid of it, for it is then in a just sense for the general welfare." It is not only the right but the duty of Congress to advance the safety, happiness and prosperity of the people, and to provide for the general welfare by any and every act of legislation within constitu- tional limits, which it may deem to be conducive to those ends. No one will have the temerity to cj[uestion the proposition that the protection of the extensive allu- vial valley of the Mississippi from destructive floods will be in the national sense of that term conducive to the general welfare. Not one State, but a dozen ; not a few thousand people, but millions are directly interested and af- lected for weal or woe according as the protection is extended or withheld. If it were to the general welfare that we should acquire this territory, as we did, from France, it is equally conducive to the general welfare to preserve it as a habitable, cultivatable country, to protect it against relegation to its primeval condition of jun- gles and swamps. Congress has exercised, not without cpestion, it is true, but long enough for complete acquiescence, the power to lay taxes to protect and encourage do- mestic manufactures. This has been and is being done on the ground that it is conduciA'e to the general welfare to encour- age domestic manufactures. But it is not one whit more conducive to the general welfare, if as much so, than protecting the finest portion of our common country for purposes of habitation and cultivation is. All must admit that the powers of the Govei'n- ment are limited and that its limits are not to be transcended. But the sound construction of the Constitution must allow the National Legislature that discretion, with respect to the means by which the powers it confers are to be carried into execution, which will enable that body to perform the high duties assigned to it in the manner most beneficial to the people. (4 Wheaton, 421). In McCulloch vs. ^Maryland (4 Wheat., 415) Chief •lustice ^Marshall aptly referred to the Constitution as " intended to endure for ages to come, and con- sequently, to be adapted to the various crises of human affairs." And in Hunter vs. Martin (1 "Wheat., 304) it Avas said : " The instrument (Constitution) was not in- tended to provide merely for the exigencies of a few years, but was to endure through a long lapse of ages, the events of which were locked up in the in- scrutable purposes of Providence. It could not be foreseen what new changes and modifications of power might be indispensable to effectuate the gen- eral objects of the charter. * * '" Hence, its pow- ers are expressed in general terms, leaving the Legislature, from time to time, to adopt its own means to effectuate legitimate objects, and to mould and model the exercise of its powers as its own wis- dom and the public interests should reciuire." When the great Father of Waters, unhindered bj' an adequate levee system, rises out of its banks and sweeps with resistless might over the vallej', a more than crisis, a sad realization of the worst, is upon the people of that unhappy section, and this grievous afiliction of one of the members of the body-politic, in more or less degree, disastrously affects the whole. That the capacity to provide for contingencies as they may happen exists in the Federal Constitution none will deny. The trials it has undergone, the tests it has been put to and triumphantly emerged from, in the hun- dred and odd years of its existence, abundantly establish this. 34 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ! ^>\::i^;.v.^^?RffJv A CARGO OF GRAIN BOUND FOR NEW ORLEANS. of deep water are shaded and figures show depth at low water. In the left diagram, showing conditions before dredging, it will be noticed that the depth on the reef is only 5 feet. Two days after dredging, the dredged cut shows the depths to be from 10 to 13 feet. Manj^ similar cases could be cited which shoM' equally decided results. The good work done has already developed in- creased activity in the ship-yards and in the construc- tion of new craft which are taking the place of the obsolete types of boats, which are neither economical or efficient for the service now required. Boats with steel hulls, modern machinery and boilers are mak- ing their appearance and in the near future we will doubtless see well equipped fleets of steel barges like the Northern water routes via the Great Lakes, its immense value to the producers of the vast ter- ritory naturally tributary to it must be apparent and the interests of these producers and of the entire country demands that this channel be maintained in the highest degree of efficiency. Although the importance of this highway even now can hardly be overestimated, still the opening of an isthmian canal will add very much to its value, as the traffic by water can be extended from the heart of the continent to the j^orts of the Pacific ocean. Thus new fields for our exports will be reached, new industries will be developed and the traffic on the river will be greatly increased. 46 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River i 1 f '?',,■ •■— i-^' i9^ise ■;'itiifiiei^'^iii ^^?;^>;'^'.v:^X^S:l::y:^y>:i";:^'^-::^i:<:iSi-Ja^^:^iJS^j?g.- LOWER RIVER PACKET LOADED WITH SUGAR. PORT EADS AT THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. Past— Present— Prospective 47 48 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI AND ITS REGULATION By H. St. L. COPPEE T one who for the first time sees the lower Mis- sissippi river at the spring flood, leaving its alluvial bed and expanding its mighty power on the adjacent banks and submerged lands, sweep- ing through cultivated fields and forests and de- stroying everything in its path, the idea of control seems futile and absurd. In the mind, at once the question rises. How can this great sea of swiftly- flowing turbid water, boiling and eddj'ing in great mtelstroms of currents, ever be regulated ? How can such potential energy ever be so conserved as to expend itself in kinetic force against the reacting creations of man's genius and be passed harmless and pacified to the ocean ? To those living before this era of progressive thought and inventive effort in every branch of ap- plied science and art, the very dream of a jjossibility of controlling this mighty river, to the smallest de- gree, must have seemed worthy the brain of a poet, but surel}' not that of an engineer who knew the value in foot-tons of this fluvial giant and the opposing forces necessary to chain it to man's will. Yet, under the domination of mind and will, in this golden time of applied science, slowly but surely the great problem is being solved, each year mark- ing some further progress and greater benefits con- ferred by the untiring fight against this common enemy. In pace with every upward step engineering science climbs, oftentimes leading the way. Hydraulic engineering is but one branch of general engiireering practice ; and to its practitioners has devolved the task of accomplishing wliat seemed at one time the impossible. As far back as we can trace in the dim geological past we find the Mississippi river a vast waterway, sea or estuary or flowing stream, tlie great central arteiy of the North American contiirent, at all periods a channel of some sort. During the Cham- plain epoch great masses of melting ice furrowed their way through its channels that now lie buried many hundred feet under the more recent strata of marine and fluvial deposits. Later strange fauna swam in its turbid waters, and curious trees shaded its ever changing banks ; these have been swept away in the long ages of pre-historic time, and re- placed by the familiar organisms of the present. From earliest time this great river has been a problem to mankind. The Indians viewed it with awe and superstitious wonder. It puzzled and ulti- mately checked the uncompromising spirit of the bold De Soto and his hardy followers, and his body was interred in the depths of its shifting bed. To the early Canadian explorers seeking more extended dominions for the French throne, it seemed to join the very antipodes, as down its swiftly flow- ing waters they descended ; hoping for an Eldorado that did not exist ; past the muddy river from the arid plains in the West, on through the limestone causeway of the Ozarks, on through endless days and nights of journeying ; by banks wdth noble trees — oak, cypress, ash and gum — festooned with vines in mighty chains, and pendants of fleecy moss, or bars of gravel, sand and mud, fringed with fragrant willows ; on to their destination in the fever-breeding marshes near the sea ; doomed to disappointment, but being the precursors of a civi- lization and commercial activity then undreamed of, even in tlio centers of culture and wealth of the Old World. In spite of tlie invasion of civilization, much of the lower Mississippi river remains in the same primeval grandeur as it did in the time of La Salle. The same April sun shines on its eddying surface and forest-fringed banks, and the same April air wafts the sweet scent of the grape and jessamine over its broad bosom, flecked by drifting tree and vine. Past— Present— Prospective 49 borne by the spring flood to a haven in some shallow inlet in the Gulf. The Mississippi is always excentric in its flow, not behaving like other well-conditioned rivei's, but objecting to the supposed laws of hydraulics it defies science and human ingenuity and reluctantly comes under the influence of well applied engineer- ing practice, based on years of experience and hard fought battles with its uncompromising opponent. Some one has said " The Lord has not flnished making the Mississippi valley and it is not His intention that it should be inhabited or its river controlled." But belt in a geologic or post-geologic period, in a state of psychozoic tran.sition or not, man and mind have sought its domain and propose to train it to their will. Occupying the very heart of the country and receiving its waters, tributaries and rainsheds, from the topmost ridge of the Alleghanies on the East, and the Rocky mountains on the West, its importance, from an industrial, commercial, and strategic standi^oint, is immense. This was a well- recognized fact in colonial times, and in the begin- ning of our national history, and continues to be as our commercial and moral imjDortance impress themselves more powerfully on the markets of the world. Not many years ago though prosperous cities and productive plantations existed on the lower Missis- sippi, and intermittent navigation was carried on as a means of supply and export, practically nothing had been done to develop the vast agricultural do- main reaching back many miles from its banks, by protecting it from annual inundation from high water and providing a means of uninterrupted trans- portation at low. What has since been done to chain this powerful stream that unshackled, like China's great Yellow river, has been a sorrow and a terror to the riparian owner and navigator; but enslaved and properly guided to the sea, will prove an untold blessing to the inhabitants of this rich territory. The earlier attempts at control and regulation were but tenta- tive and local, consisting in the construction of small levees for use also as roadways, in detached sections, protecting private property, in no way forming a continuous system. The first of these was built at New Orleans in 1717. It was about 4 feet high, had a crown of 18 feet and slopes 2 to 1 back and front. These disconnected levees, having their origin nearly 200 years ago, have grown through a well- defined law of necessity, from the requirements of self-protection in the beginning, through the more extensively organized efforts of the local communi- ties, levee boards, construction companies, etc., into the great State and National systems that exist to-day and will form a permanent barrier to future floods, when completed by the General Government to the dimensions dictated by scientific research. While the levee system was passing through the many stages of evolution, from the small New Orleans sec- tion to the finished dike of to-day, the importance of the river as a means of transportation for the pro- ducts of the protected lands became more and more apparent. After many years of controversy as to the best means of improvement, and the writing of thousands of pages on canalization, regulation, etc., followed by active work of construction, a deep channel at the mouth of the river was opened to the sea. Jetties accompanied by dredging in South pass was the method proposed and carried out by Mr. Jas. B. Eads, then one of the most eminent engineers in America. This work was practically completed in 1879. Up to that time but little had been done on the Mississippi. Local levee boards in Mississippi, Louisiana and Arkansas were making what progress they could with insufficient means and inadequate mechanical appliances for construction ; the great majority of the levees being erected by shovels and barrows and small drag-scrapers. The prices jaaid for work were very high, consequently the results were very mea- gre. Specific appropriations had been made by the General Government for the protection of the banks at New Orleans, A^icksburg and Memphis, and work to a great extent experimental had been carried on, consisting in the revetting of the caving banks by means of small detached mattresses, dykes, screens, etc. To quote from the author's article in the En- giyi^eering Magazine of June, 1896 : " The early revetment work, which was purely for the protection of property in harbors and not for the general improvement of navigation (as, for instance, at New Orleans from 1878-1881), consisted of piles driven in pairs 6 feet apart along the bank, to which were fastened, by big iron rings, light mattresses 2 inches thick by 25 feet long and 24 feet wide, made of fish-pole cane sewed together by weaving double wires and afterward yarn under them. These small mats were first fastened together, forming sections 200 by 24 feet, and then sunk with iron weights. These mats were of little permanent value. They cost from $12.87 to $7.22 per st;iuare (100 sq. ft.). 50 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River "Another early revetment instanced by the work at Delta Point, opposite Vicksburg, consisted of mat- tresses built of willow brush and laid in cross-layers with top and bottom grillage of poles fastened to- gether with hardwood pins and No. 10 wire. These mats were constructed on floating ways (a barge with inclined skids), and were 50 feet wide, 150 feet long and 2 feet thick. When finished they Avere launched into the river and sunk with the long axis normal to the bank by throwing stone on them from small barges. One of these mats could bo made and sunk in the same day with the untrained labor then employed. Their cost per square was |12, and per lineal foot of bank protected, $18. "A modification replaced the grillage of poles and the connecting pin by a wire netting. This netting was formed on a drum attached to the weaving barge or ways, and on it was placed the brush, and, above the brush, wires which were connected through the mat, forming a very compact and strong revet- ment, some of which lasts to the present day. " The work thus far described is submerged ; it was placed in the low water season, and, after being sunk, remained constantly under water. " It was at first supposed that protection below the low-water line would secure the upper portion; but it was found that the upper bank quickly washed down, and in many places the mats were flanked by the current. In order to prevent this destruction and make the revetment complete and effective, the upper portion of the bank was graded by hand, and on the slope was placed a shore mat built of grillage and brush, bound by hickory pins and wire, covered with rock, and connected at tlie water-line with the sub-aqueous work." It was not until 1879 that steps were taken towards a well-organized project for the general improvement of the lower Mississippi river ; the first being the creation l)y Congress of the Mississippi River Commission and its appointment by the President of the United States. Its personnel was most excellent, the members being of pronounced eminence as military and civil engineers and statesmen. The duty of the Commission was to have surveys made of the river and obtain data of its physical properties and phenomena on which to base a plan for the work of improvement ; to formulate such a plan or project and to carry it out in accord- ance with the provisions made by the Government. The task was a great one and the men to whom it was intrusted were equal to it. Though many changes have been made in the details of the work and greater weight given to certain features that in their incipiency were not considered important, the general plan laid down in the beginning is being in great part carried out in spite of the uncertainty of our method of obtaining appropriations and the enormous and varied forces and quantities involved in the problem. The Rhine, the Rhone, the Danube, the Volga, and many well-known American rivers on which regulation and general improvement has been applied, are of much smaller dimensions and volume of discharge, therefore they were but poor criterion s to follow. The processes and apparatus adopted for obtaining the physical data are well known by engineers. Velocity and discharge obser- vations were made at first by floats and rods and afterward by current and direction meters. Depths were found witli the lead and graduated line, etc. The phenomena observed and the laws or sup- posed laws deduced, which indicate the underlying principle that has to be subserved in the plans for improvement, have been profoundly studied by the engineers employed on the river, and numerous monographs have been written that are of untold value and importance to engineering literature. * To cjuote again from the Engineering Magazine, -fune, 1896 : " The Mississippi in its lower reaches, from Cairo to the Gulf, is purelj' an alluvial stream, flowing through a low-lying land subject to over- flow. Its high-water season may be approximately stated as continuous from Februarjr to May inclu- sive, and the low-water season from September to December, the other months of the year marking the transition periods. Its numerous bends have no uniformity of radius or depth, each with its ac- companying bar on the convex shore, terminating in a shoal or crossing where the curve is reversed and the water cuts through the continuous chain of sand. "The banks are formed of strata of .sand, buckshot, and clay, of varying thickness. During the high stages the water scours the bank on the concave side in the bends, depositing the material thus obtained on the bar. At low water the reverse is the case to a great extent ; the bar is scoured, and the caving in the bend is materially reduced. "In accordance with the law of transportation of material in mechanical suspension in alluvial * Pipers by Colonels Oomstock and Suter and Majors Starling, Ockerson, Seddon and others, in reports of the Commission and Transaction of the American Society of Civil Engineeia. Past— Present— Prospective 51 streams, as the M'ater leaves the bend and crosses to the other side with its load of sediment, the heavy grains of sand drojj to the bottom and are rolled along in well defined waves, with long up-stream and steep down-stream slopes, the lightest material BANK BEFORE CAVING. floating until tlie velocity is reduced and flow is more uniform, i. e. — freer from upward currents and boils, which support the material in suspension — when it is also deposited, the more finely com- minuted particles being carried out to sea, where freedom from currents and salt water hasten its pre- cipitation. " There are, generally speaking, two methods for the improvement of alluvial streams — canalization and regulation. " The former, owing to the greater cost and diffi- culty of obtaining permanent foundations for locks and dams, is rarely resorted to, though in latter years the use of concrete has enlarged its field of possibilities where formerly deemed impracticable. " Regulation includes two distinctive features in streams subject to overflow, governed by the high and low-water regimen. ' They are : the improve- ment of the high-water channel, and the imjjrove- ment of the low or medium stage channel. The former consists in the construction of levees and high- water cross-dikes ; and the latter in revetment and spurs for bank jDrotection, permeable dams and training walls, sills (grund-schwellen),* and dredg- "^g- * Also called by the French Epis Noyes. " In some foreign rivers portable jetties have been used, but not on any extensive scale.* " These different methods have been differently employed on many rivers throughout the world, with a varied measure of success, their application being accompanied in different localities by modifi- cation in detail of structure, governed hj the material at hand and the judgment of the designing engineer. " The great discharge of the lower Mississippi river, the excessive oscillation of its water surface from high to low gauge, the vast destructive energy stored and expended in its flow, and the crumbling or fin- able nature of its banks, makes the problem of its regulation or improvement, both for the protection of property and benefit of navigation, a very diffi- cult one to solve." The original plan of improvement adopted by the Mississippi River Commission was as follows : First, to control the floods or high water by levees. Second, to contract to a normal width the wide reaches by permeable and impermeable dikes. Third, to protect the banks from caving by revet- ments. This plan has been changed as follows ; First, the use of contraction works has been aban- SAME BANK CAVING. Few dike or training doned to a great extent, walls are now constructed. Second, the general improvement of the rivei- by bank protection, revetments, spurs, etc., has been •■ See Prof. J. Schlichting " Navigable Non-tidal Rivers." ( Morath's movable floating spur, used in Germany.) 52 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : postponed until some less expensive structures are designed or discovered. Third. The existing revetments are being re- paired and new ones placed in localities where cut- offs and out-lets threaten the stability of regimen, or harbor lines and valuable city property are being encroached on by the caving banks. Fourth. The low-water channels over the cross- ings are being maintained by dredging during tlie low-water season. The lower Mississippi gets its water principally from two great drainage basins or watersheds, the Ohio and the upper Mississippi and Missouri. The former is about 200,000 and the latter over 700,000 square miles in extent, and though the latter is over three times greater its average annual discharge is but one-half that of the former. In the lower reaches the flow is augmented by the discharge of the St. Francis, the Arkansas and White, the Yazoo and the Red rivers ; the Arkansas, White and E.ed adding at flood stage over 750,000 cubic feet per second. The St. Francis and Yazoo are of little consequence, except in that their basins act as relief areas or reservoirs during high stages of the river. The di'ainage basin of the Arkansas and White is about 200,000 square miles, nearly as large as the Ohio, and that of the Red river 99,000 square miles. The rains that produce our greater floods are pre- cipitated on the slopes of the Ozark mountains and the watershed supplying the Ohio, Cumberland and Tennessee rivers. The destructive storms that pass up from the Gulf of Mexico, commencing in Febru- ary, deposit part of their burden of moisture on the hills and valleys tributary to the Arkansas and White and in the main trunk basins of the lower river. Continuing up through the Ohio valle}' to the topmost ridges of the Appalachian chain, they pour down floods of water that in great part reach the alluvial river, causing destructive overflows. As a rule, the high water from the Missouri and upper Mississippi does not come until late in the season, when the spring flood has jjassed from the Ohio valley and the lower Mississippi is in condition to receive the discharge. The lateness and the lack of importance of these latter floods is due to the fact that the drainage basins of the upper Mississippi and Missouri are in an arid region of little rain-fall, and that they are geographically situated in such northern degrees of latitude as to keep their waters practically frozen until late in the spring. At first, owing to the narrow interpretation of the law governing the application of the funds appro- priated, levee construction was not given a very important place in the general work of improve- ment. Later it has become the most important feature, not only as a means of channel regulation but as a protection to the alluvial lands and the people living thereon. For convenience of administration the Mississippi River Commission divided the portion of the allu- vial basin from Cairo to the Gulf into four districts, each of which is placed under the supervision of an officer of the United States Engineer Corps. These districts include the levees built by the local, state and county boards, which are to a great extent, maintained by the Government. The first and second districts, extending from Cairo to the mouth of the White river, have been consolidated and are under one officer. The third district reaches from White river to Warrenton, just below Vicksburg, and the fourth thence to the head of the passes. The climate varies but slightly in this entire reach of river, the winter in the upper districts being more severe and extended, but the other seasons partaking of practically the same changes. The high-water conditions are much the same, varying in average height of overflow and time of maximum gauge reading. The topography is similar : a flat alluvial plain intersected by numerous bayous and lakes, old river arms, etc., having slopes gently declining from the river and in the direction of its flow. The materials composing the banks, on which the revetments are placed, and the foundations on which the levees stand, and the material of which they are constructed are of the same geological epoch, and, generally speaking, were formed by the same agen- cies throughout. In the lower district the alluvium is more compact and tenacious, and resists caving better than in the districts above. Since 1882 approximately 80,000,000 cubic yards, have been placed in the levees by the Government. The form of these levees has varied with local con- ditions, but since 1887 the general specifications have not been radically changed. A few years ago the Government adopted standard sections which have since been adhered to, except in cases where the conditions demanded more specific treatment. The first, second and third districts have practically the same standard for all levees on all ordinarily good foundations, and when constructed of material not below the average in strength. Past— Present— Prospective 53 The standard dimensions are : Crown, 8 feet ; front or river slope, 3 to 1 ; back slope, 3 to 1. Where the levee is over 11 feet in height, a ban- quette, at an elevation of 8 feet below the top of the main levee, is added. The slope of the crown of this banquette is 10 to 1, width of crown 20 feet, and back slope 4 to 1. Where the foundation is bad or the material is weak, the banquette section and per- haps the front slope of the main levee is increased. Fig. 1. The dotted lines in Fig. 1 show the shrinkage sec- tion to which levees are built. The specifications require the levee to be constructed in 2-ft. layers Avith scrapers, on a well grubbed and thoroughly- plowed foundation containing a small exploration muck-ditch filled back with strong material, the best to be found in the vicinity, and sodded at 2-ft. inter- vals with Bermuda grass. In the fourth district the dimensions vary with the height, and are intended to conform more nearly to the supposed theoretically perfect section. These variations may be further modified as in the other districts when required by abnormal condition of the foundation, material of construction, Avave Avash, etc. For levees from 10 to 15 feet in height the crown is S feet, the river slope is 3 to 1, and the land For Average Net Heights of s'and-Less. STANDARD LEVEE SECTION. slojje 4 to 1 to Avithin 5 feet of the crown ; thence to the crown it is 2.5 to 1. For leA'ees from 15 to 20 feet in height the croAvn is 8 feet, the river slope is 3 to'l, the first 8 feet of the land slope from the ground is 6 to 1, the next 6 feet 4 to 1, and thence to the crown 2,5 to 1. Fig. 2 shows these sections and the method of placing allowances for shrinkage. In the upper districts lOfo of the height, both in wheelbarrow and team work, is required for shrinkage. These standard sections are expected to withstand the Avater to Avithin 3 feet of the crown of the levee, For Average Net Heights from 5 -to 10. .jy^y^fHag;; O TILE DRAIN i Tl FOURTH DISTRICT LEVEE SECTIONS. SCALE Cr PEGT 5 10 20 NET SECTION CROSS SECTION WHEEL QARROW WORK " " TEAMWORK For Average Net Heights from to'to 15'. O TILE DRAIN SS:^3I5^^2SS:S^^^SSS!S^^^^^^^SS^^^s^^^^^^^^^S!55^ss5!!!!!!!Sa Fio. 2. 54 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : without excessive saturation or change of form, and to give unqualified protection under all normal con- ditions of foundations and materials of construction. When subjected to water above the 3-ft. line, though they are intended to remain intact they can- not be considered, either theoretically or practically, standards of excellence. In June, 1898, the writer j)ublislied a paper in the Transaction of the American Society of Civil Engineers, entitled "Standard Levee Section," in Avhich the sections of foreign levees are compared with those adopted in this country. It is interesting to note that the experience on the Mississippi river is parallel to a great extent with that in Holland. Eliminating the portion of the levee used as a road- way, we have a theoretical section very similar on both sides of the ocean. known flood. It was in the neighborhood of 2,000,- 000 cubic feet per second. Since 1882 with the growth of the levee system with Government assistance, and the gradual elimi- nation of reservoirs, and contraction of high-water sections, the flood plane had risen, each high water for a given volume of discharge giving gi-eater gauge readings. In 1897 when tlie volume of dis- charge approached ver}' nearly to that of 1882, the water climbed above the crown of the levee and con- tinued to rise against the temporary topping, that A\as hastily placed in the emei'gency of the moment, until it overcame at many points this feeble resist- ance, and relieved itself in the great basins to east and west. The following table gives the differ- ence in elevation on the gauges, of the floods of 1882 and 1897 : 1882. 1897. 7.2 Cairo 51. Belmont I 45. New Madrid 40. Cottonwood Point 37. Fulton 36. Memphis 35. Mhoons 39. Helena ( 4' Sunflower i 41. White River -. ' 48. Arkansas City ' 47. Greenville i 41. Lake Providence i 38. Vicksburg ' 48. St. Joseph 44. Natchez 47. Red River 48. Bayou Sara 39. Baton Rouge 36. Plaquemine 31. College Point 23. Garrollton 15. 51.6—0.3 45. 1 0.0 40.3—0.6 39.3+1.8 37.5+0.8 37.7+2.5 41.6+2.8 51. 8+4. 6 47.3+5.6 52. 4+4. 51.9+4.8 46. 8+5. 1 44.4+6.1 52. 4+3. 6 47.9+3.0 49.8+2.0 50.2+1.7 43.8+4.5 40.7+4.7 36.3+5.0 28.0+4.8 19.0+4.0 LEVEE UNDER CONSTRUCTION. In both continents the same problem was worked out with very much the same means, and to the same results. Abroad, more time and money are expended on revetments to protect the exposed slope of the levee than in this country, but not until the required grades and sufficient material have been obtained here will the question of levee revetments become vital, except as very unusual departures from the genei'ul jDractice. During the flood of 1882 and those prior to that year the levees were verj^ weak and imperfect, offer- ing but feeble resistance to overflow. In 1882 the discharge was probably as great as that of any With the experience derived from the latter flood estimates have Ijeeu made, based on scientific research, and the general consensus of engineering opinion is that a levee grade about 6 feet above. the high water of 1897 will be safe against any flood that it may be necessary to contend with. The levees of the lower Mississippi are about 1,800 miles in length ; a few gaps remain to be filled before the system is continuous, except where the liills aiDproach the river and at the mouths of tribu- taries, where leveeing is impossible: Fig. 3 shows the position and area of the basins protected, and the following table gives the districts, their length, and the amount of cubic yards of material in the levees April, 1898 : Past— Present— Prospective 55 Districts. Lower St. Francis Upper Yazoo AVhite River 1st and 2nd Districts Lower Yazoo Upper Tensas . 3d District Lower Tensas Atciiafalaya Lafourche Barataria Homochitto Pontcliartrain Lake Borgne 4th District Grand TotaL.. Eiver length to be pro- tected. Miles. 218 121 80 419 230 205 435 160 122 • 71 92 238 116 82 Yardage April 30, 1898. Total existing Levees. Cuhic Yards. 7, 039, 424 14,682,166 6, 356, 364 28, 077, 954 26, 256, 857 24,042,150 50, 299, 007 881 14, 417, 288 15, 448, 446 6, 945, 622 2, 379, 813 11, 982, 558 2, 635, 932 53, 809, 659 1, 735 132, 186, 620 Since April, 1898, about 5,000,000 cubic .yard.s have been added, making a grand total of about 137,000,000 cubic yards in all the levees on the alluvial river. In order to complete the .system to the ultimate grade averaging about 6 feet above the high water of 1897, the Mississippi River Commission asks for $20,000,000 to be appropriated by the Government. In the work of the Mississippi River Commission after 1882, the duty of revetments was materially extended. Instead of protecting harbor fronts in limited spaces, they were employed to retain the bank in FIG. 3. BALLASTING MATTRESS, lone and difficult reaches. To meet these new con- ditions an entire change in construction was neces- sary. The woven mat was adopted and continued to be the standard for many years, and many localities were permanently and successfully protected by it. It was constructed by first building on floating ways a rigid head of poles, to which weaving poles were fastened at right angles. On these weaving poles, extending to the full length of the mat. was woven willow brush. A grillage of poles was fas- tened to the top, and, after being secured to the bank and mooring barge, the mat, -400 feet long by 150 feet wide, was sunk by means of rock thrown from barges. 56 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- SINKING MATTRESS. After sinking tlie mat tlie npper portion of the l)ank was graded to a slope (3 horizontal, 1 vertical) by the hydraulic method. The grader consisted of a large duplex compound pump with a capacity of 2,000 gallons per minute, giving a water pressure of 160 l^ounds, with a steam pressure of 80 pounds jier sc|uare inch and a vacuum of 26| inches. It rested on a house barge. The hose from the pump terminated in a 1^-inch nozzle, from which the water was di- rected against the bank, reducing it to the required grade. The excavation of 1 cubic yard of earth took a fraction less than 1 cubic yard of water, and used three pounds of coal. Owing to the heterogeneous consistency of the bank, the slope, as left by the hydraulic grader, was often very un.satisfactory and rough. This had to be remedied by hand, sluice, and scraper dressing, before revetting. The height of bank graded averaged about 30 feet, and the material excavated per hundred feet about 3,500 cubic yards, costing about 4 cents per cubic yard for removal. When the bank was dressed a revetment of two layers of brush with polo grillage above and below, fastened with wire and spikes, was placed thereon and well covered with stone. This type of bank protection with numerous modifi- cations has been used up to within a iew years, and has proved in many places very successful. The size of the mattress was considerably increased, being as much as 2,000 feet long and 300 feet wide. The thickness was also increased by overweaviug and cross-weaving and the additions of loose brush under top grillage. Greater strength was obtained by the introduction of iron rods, longitudinal and trans- verse cables, and hard-wood heads. In the early and insufficient work the cost per lineal foot of bank protection was $14 ; the later standard woven mats, 300 feet wide, with paved bank, cost $30.' Notwithstanding the fact that additional strength and thickness had been given the woven mat, it was found that tlie water would scour the bank through the spaces between, the willows, and, owing to its stiffness, the mat was often damaged at the outer edge where the action of' the current was violent. To prevent this, and to obtain a structure both stronger and more pliable, the fascine form Avas tried, and proved so superior to the old mat that it has been adopted as the standard, and bids fair to solve the problem of permanent protection at all points and in all materials. The fascine mat is made with about the same di- mensions as the large woven mats, 300 feet by 1,000 feet. It is constructed in the following manner : First, a large head of hard-wood poles, 3 feet in diameter, is formed on the ways normal to the bank. To this head is fastened, at intervals of 8 feet, a I'inch wire cable and a J-inch wire strand. Fas- cines about 11 inches in diameter made of bundles of willows are then placed parallel to and against the head, being forced well up to it and held in place by a turn of the wire strand and a clamp on the under cable. When 10 feet (in length of the mat) of the fascines have been placed, a second hard-wood head is constructed, taking the place of a fascine, and clamped in the same- manner. These two heads form the head of the mattress, to which HYDRAULIC BANK GRADING. Past— Present— Prospective 57 BUILDING FASCINE MATTRESS. the mooring and shackle lines are attached, as well as the cables of wire strand. After the head is formed Ihe fascines are made and clamped into po- sition so tightly that no spaces are left ; indeed, the work is so compact that it will gradually sink from accumulation of silt. Transverse cables are also used, strengthening the mat and connecting it at intervals with the bank. On the top of the mat- tress are placed longitudinal poles fastened every 5 feet to the fascines with No. 7 Silicon bronze wire. After completion the mattress is first ballasted by loading it with rock, carried in wheelbarrows, until its flotation is nearly destroyed; tlien it is sunk in the usual manner, by floating barges over it and throwing rock on it, in large cjuantities, b}' hand. In the later work the upper bank is graded to a slope of 4 to 1, and on it is placed a pavement of rock and spalls carefully laid, instead of the willow shore mat, which is destroyed by natural decay in about three years. There is a marked difference in the kinds of re- vetment that have proved successful in the river above the mouth of Red river and below, due to the fact that, below the slope and width are less and the average depth greater. No obstructive bars or cross- ings occur, the caving is comparatively slight, and the range from high to low water at New Orleans is but one third that at the mouth of the Arkansas. The velocity of the current at low water is very slight, and the radii of bends much greater as a rule. Interrupted revetment and dikes can be used in the lower river with much better results, and much weaker and lighter structures can be made effective. It is in the vicinity of New Orleans that the first submerged crib dikes were placed as a protection to the city front. They were located at intervals of about 500 feet, being placed on foundation mat- tresses at first woven, afterwards of the pin and frame type. The foundation mattress was generally about 350 feet by 200 feet, with long axis normal to the bank, sunk between mooring barges with rock. The number of cribs composing the body of the dike varied with the depth of the water and the conformation of the sub-aqueous slopes. The cribs were made of sawed timber frames, con- nected by long iron bolts and wooden posts fastened with wooden pins, between Avhich and forming the body of the crib was placed willow brush, pockets being left in the construction in which to place the rock for sinking. The mattress required about 7 pounds of rock to each square foot of surface, the cribs about 7 pounds for each cubic foot of structure. The cost averaged about $7.60 per square foot for mattress, and 3|- cents for crib per cubic foot. In the upper river the crib work is carried to the top of the bank b}' framed structures similar to the submerged portion ; in the lower river by an earthen levee paved with rock. Chief among the difficulties to be contended with m the work are the drift and snags. As the bank FASCINE MATTRESS COMPLETED. 58 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r PAVED BANK. caves, in the wooded reaches, it carries into the water large trees that for a long time remain upright in the river, forming snags over Avhich it is impossi- ble to sink mattresses. These are removed by pow- erful snag boats and explosives manipulated by divers. When a partially constructed mattress, say 300 feet wide and 800 feet long, is in the water at the time of a rapid rise, much drift will accumulate at the upper side of the mooring barges, necessitating the use of great numbers of mooring cables. Some- times the pressure becomes so excessive that it is im- possible to contend with it, and the mattress is toi'n from its moorings. The pressure in a current 8 feet per second against a mat head extending 300 feet out in the river with drift lodged under it to a dejath of 15 feet is ver}' difficult to counteract. In the foregoing description of bank protection, two distinctive types of construction have been noted, continuous revetment and submerged spurs. The former otfei's little resistance to the How of water, but the latter causes reverse flow and the checking of the current, thus producing a deposit in the unprotected intervals, when effectual. In bends of great radius, light currents, and strong bank material, the .spurs have proven very beneficial and permanent, placed at intervals of about 500 feet ; but in abrupt bends in light soils, even at reduced distances, they are unsatisfactory. Unlike the con- tinuous revetment they obstruct the inshore channel, oH'ering resistance to iiow and changing the mechani- cal forces of the river from potential to active work which, if strong enough, means destruction of tlio struftu]'e or tlio bank l>encatii it. In some localities in the upper river they have been destroyed, or have sunk into pockets formed by the current, and the unprotected spaces have been attacked, necessitating the application of continuous revetment. The following table gives the materials used and the cost of dikes and standard revetments, used up to 1897 below Cairo. Since 1897 there has been practically no change in form and but slight reduc- tion in cost. MATERIALS. Kind ok Protection. n 2 6 coo i 2.02.'; 4.48 0.14 0.41 0.17 21 614 7.76 Tons 0.55 22.97 11.50 012 13 6 36.04 0.007 "T.i J29.07 30.04 S%c *Mat. 250 ft. wide stone pavement. tMat. 3uO ft. wide stone pavement. ;tCost includes labor. The early mats cost per square $12. 00 approximately. The standard woven mats per square 4.50 " The frame mats, New Orleans, per square, fl. 00 " The fascine " " " " " ... 0. 00 Brush shore revetment,]Srew Orleans,perEq.6 00 " Pavement per square 10.00 " Cribworkofdikespercu.fr 04 " Grading with hydraulic grade per cu. 3'd... .04 " DRIFT AT HEAD OF MATTRESS. To build and sink a fascine mattress 300 feet wide requires from 250 to 300 men, and the average progress per day is about 150 lineal feet. Of the finished cost, about 45 per cent, represents labor and 55 per cent, material. It must be liorne in mind that the structures described may be similar to some extent in form and construction to those employed on other rivers, but tlieir diinensions and the conditions under which Past— Present— Prospective 59 they are placed are vastly dissimilar. No revetment work in the world approaches the magnitude of tliat accomplished on the Mississippi, in the way of bank protection. Here mattresses with superficial areas of seven and eight acres are sunk to the bottom of the river in depths of 80 and 100 feet, in currents of from 5 to 8 feet per second ; and dikes 430 feet long by 60 feet high, each containing 80,000 ft. of lumber, 2,000 tons of rock and nearl}' ten tons of iron (iron rods and nails) are similarly placed in 150 feet of water. The work of the ^lississippi River Commission thus far accomplished has demonstrated the feasi- bility of ultimately controlling this mighty river and training it between permanent banks, without either raising its bed or destroying the great agricultural domain adjacent thereto, but this result can be CONSTRUCTING SUBMERGED SPUR. obtained only by the expenditure of a large sum of money. It is now conceded b}^ many engineers familiar with the problem that, in order to obtain the best results, the permanent woi'k should commence at the head of the alluvial river and be extended down stream from year to year until the entire channel has been regulated, local works, which would ulti- mately form a part of the continuous system, being carried on for special purposes from time to time. By a system of bank revetment or other protection commencing at the head of the alluvial basin is not meant a continuous revetment irrespective of general physical or topographical features ; these, of course, will be potent factors in the problem, and will have to conform to certain limits, the river being allowed to cave at certain points until given degrees of cur- vature, slope, etc., obtain, and the effort being to ob- tain as great a length of river and as light a slope as possible, so that when the bar building ceases, the conditions of de[)th and flow will conform more nearly to those existing below the mouth of the Red, Avhere navigation is safe and permanent. In order, therefore, to improve the river as a whole from Cairo to New Orleans, some caving bends would be passed by (though the general plan would be to protect each), and many isolated reaches would be revetted, irrespective of the continuous work. In the present river from Cairo to the mouth of the Red, there are * 406 miles of caving bends. By making allowance for additional caving produced by new Avork, and eliminating the banks where pro- tection may be unnecessary, the distance will not be materially changed. The cost, at the present rate, for the most effective means of protection — $160,000 i^er mile — would be, roughly estimated, $67,000,00*0. Adding 10 per cent, for repairs and plant, the total cost of perma- nent bank protection becomes $73,700,000. In addition to the jsermanent work, the proposed dredging would cost, in twenty years, in accordance with Col. Henry Flad's estimate for a channel of 250 feet wide and 9 feet deep at low water from Cairo to Natchez, as follows : For plant SI, 18S, 000 Dredging t>, 996, 000 Total §8,184,000 Adding to the amount necessary to protect the levee system $20,000,000, we have the following ap- proximate total for completing the improvement from Cairo to the Jetties : Permanent channel improvement $73, 700, 000 Levees 20,000,000 Dredging ; , 8,184,000 Total 1101,884,000 When the Mississippi River Commission decided to employ dredges to improve low-water navigation the first problem to be solved was that of the best form of dredge for the si^ecial duty of taking the sand from the crossings and moving it beyond the new channel quickly and economically. The dredges in use throughout the world were : Scraper and sluicing dredges (including hydraulic and pneumatic sluices), dipper or scoop dredges, clamshell or grab dredges, bucket ladder or endless chain dredges, hydraulic dredges. *See report of the Mississippi River Commission for J 896, page 345S. 60 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : Each of these types has numerous modifications to suit tlie special conditions and purposes for wliich it is designed, differing in form of rake, jet, buclcct, grab, hopper, macliinery, hull, etc. In some there is a combination of two types, while in others the variation from the parent form is marked, as in the pulsometer, pneumatic scraper, etc. The difficulty of applying economically the above- mentioned dredges on the bars of the Mississippi lies not so much in their inadequate excavating power as in the means of conveying the dredged material the necessary distance from the dredged channel. The real problem to be solved, therefore, is not alone that of excavation, but that of convey- ing dredgings in this wide river subject to so nu- merous varying currents and strong winds. That the last and more modern ~typ6 of dredge is better fitted for this work is self-evident. The reduction in lift and economy in operation on a large scale cannot be doubted. Its double function of convey- ing as well as excavating fits it especially to this particular project. The simplest form of the pump or hydraulic dredge is shown in Fig. 4. Fig. 4. Here we have a small centrifugal pump run by a belt from a small engine, a suction pipe of iron and rubber, and the discharge. When the pump is in action the water and sand are drawn from the bottom, pass through the pump, and are forced through the discharge opening to a distance gov- erned by the length of pipe, power of engine, capac- ity of pump, height of dumping ground, etc. The centrifugal pump differs from the ordinary recipro- cating pump in that it is valveless and can take up and discharge large quantities of water containing large percentages of foreign matter without detri- ment to its parts. It consists of an iron shell or box, through which a shaft works ; on this shaft and in the shell is a runner with blades, fixed or adjusta- ble, forming a species of fan. On the shaft outside the shell is a pinion or gear, by which connection is made with the engine. The water and material is taken into the pump at base or center of the fan wheel, and discharged at right angles to the suction and at the outer edges of the blades. These pumps are made of various patterns, sizes and capacities. One lately designed for the partial drainage of New Orleans is nearly 12 feet in diame- ter and has a caj)acity of 1,900 cubic feet per minute. It is claimed that Bamath, Hoffman & Schwartz- kopf, a German firm, first patented the hydraulic dredge in 1856. Mr. Bowers, of California dredging fame, was also a pioneer in hydraulic dredging, but probably the first application of the pump for trans- porting dredged material was as late as 1867, on the Grand canal at Amsterdam, the capacity of the pump being 1,330 yards per 12 hours, conveyed 900 feet and lifted 5 feet. In 1872 General Gilmore, of the United States Engineer Corps, operated a crude suction dredge at the mouth of the St. John river, Florida, which moved 78 cubic yards jjer hour at a cost of about 31 cents per yard. In 1877 Captain Eads designed a h5'draulic dredge which worked at the mouth of the Mississippi. The Van Schmidt dredge of 1883 was the first complete hydraulic machine of large ca- pacity and delivering design used in this country, and is a good illustration of the truth that " neces- sity is the mother of invention." From these beginnings in the near past have been evolved the great hydraulic dredges, too numerous to mention, that have developed enormous capacity for excavation and deliver}' of material (in sea, river and canal), of various forms, from the stationary pulsometer used on the Potomac flats to the sea- going hopper dredge with mammoth rotary pumps, each varying in general design and detail with the conditions under which they operate. To move vast quantities of sand in a short time and deliver it from 1,000 to 2,000 feet from the channel required a new departure. In 1894 and 1895 a dredge was constructed by the commission which, though a success, Avas but a step to the great hydraulic machine which followed the next year, and with its consort kept the river open to naviga- tion during the low-water season of 1 896. The first dredge was named the Alpha. It was designed after careful experiment and investigation had dem- onstrated the pro]3er dimensions, power and capacity for its machinery and frame, and has proved a suc- cess, though of much less capacity than the later dredge. Beta, which is probably the largest and most complete hydraulic excavator in the world Past— Present— Prospective 61 to-day. The dredge Gamma at work is shown on this page. Tlie plant accompanj'ing this dredge consists of one large steam tow-boat, one pile-driver and three barges. DREDGE GAMMA. The report of her operations during tlio season of 1896 gives the cost of material (sand and gravel) moved as 4.3 cents to 12.1 cents per yard, the latter due to break down in runner of main pump. At one crossing. Compromise Bar, 77 miles below Cairo, the work consisted of 7 cuts, aggregating 5,405 lineal feet, the dredging time being 257-| hours, and the average rate 21 lineal feet per hour. The amount of material moved was 80,555 cubic yards= 312i cubic yards per hour. The cost was $3,- 473.68 ; average cost per cubic yard 4.3 cents (sand and gravel). The Beta, though similar in general conception to other h3'draulic dredges of the day, differs much in size and dttail. Strictly speaking, it consists of two separate dredges on one Imll, each with cutters and suction openings leading to a separate suction, large centrifugal pump, and discharge. The hull is of steel, 172 feet long, 40 feet broad, and from 7 feet 2 inches, to 10 feet 10 inches in depth. About midship of the hull are located two centrifugal pumps, one on each side, each, as stated, acting as a separate and complete hydraulic dredger. Each pump has a runner 7 feet in diameter and shaft 10 inches in diameter, with discharge 33 inches and suction 33f inches in diameter, actuated by separate, triple-expansion engines with high-pressure cylin- ders 20J inches, intermediate 33 inches, and low- pressure 38 inches in diameter, with 24-inch stroke. Each engine has jet condensers. Steam is ob- tained from four 375-horse-power Heine boilers, placed as shown in the drawing. The six suctions, three to each main suction pij^e, are 19J inches in diameter. At the end of each suc- tion pipe there is a revolving cylindrical cutter 5 feet in diameter, wliich cuts up the material to be inhaled by the great pumps. Each suction pipe is partially buoyed by a pontoon. The cutters are actuated by a small engine placed at the extreme bow of the dredge, which gives the cutters a speed of 25 revolutions per minute. The average speed of the centrifugal pumps while working is from 125 to 130 revolutions per minute. The machinery for hoisting the suctions and cut- ters and regulating the movements of the dredge is shown just aft the cutter engines. Two vertical spuds for holding the dredge in place, and one pushing spud, are situated astern, and are moved by a small three-drum hoisting en- gine. The discharge or pipe conveyor is about ] ,000 feet long, extending from the stern of the dredge to the dumping ground. It consists of 50-feet lengths of 33 J-inch steel pipe, resting on steel pontoons ; the pipes have rubber hose connections, and are also connected and held in place by steel bars. When the dredge is operating the pontoons are almost completel}^ submerged. The power generated by the machinery on this dredge is more than 2,500 horse-power and her weight is more than 1,000 tons. DREDGE BETA. 62 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : An electric plant of two 4,000 candle-power search- lights and forty 20 candle-power incandescent lights enables the dredge to work continuously at night. The dredge has a traveling crane, blacksmith shop, and all the outfit required to work at a distance from the point of supply. DREDGE ALPHA. The folio \ving is the manner of operating : After being placed at upper or lower edge of crossing by her attendant steamboat, her spuds and cutters are lowered to hold her in place. Two clusters of f)iles are then sunk up stream on the line of proposed dredaine extended, and cables are run from these piles to drums on the dredges. Piles are then sunk for guiding the line of discharge-piping and keeping the dump well removed from the cut. When these operations are completed, the dredge is ready for work ; the spuds are raised, the suctions with cut- ters are adjusted to the required depth, and the pumps and cutter engines started, the dredge being either dropped backward over the bar, by rendering the cables, or moved forward by means of engines near the bow. The best method seems to be pulling up over one cut and dropping down over the next, and so on, thus economizing time and obtaining the best results. As tlie centrifugal force and the reaction in the long line of discharge-pipe tends to give a forward and transverse motion to the entire attached floating- plant when operating, a baffle-plate is used at the end of the line of discharge to counteract this ten- dency. The results of the first tests of this dredge were very astonishing and misleading. The average working capacity proved to be much lower than that which the short-time trials of the contractor had given reason to expect, yet it was far above the working capacity of other hydraulic dredges in the country. The contractor's tests, which extended over less than ten minutes of actual operation, showed an average velocity of discharge exceeding 13 feet per second, a percentage of solids to gross discharge of 23, and a delivery of 4,921 cubic yards of sand per hour. The plant for this dredge consists of two steam towboats, one quarter boat, one machine shop, one pile-di'iver and two barges. During the season of 1896 this dredge was employed on seven crossings ; her record on one near island 34, 179 miles below Cairo, was as follows : Two cuts were made nearly parallel, 40 feet apart, aggregating in length 2,275 feet ; the time for ilredging was 66 hours. More than half the work was done without the use of the cutters, the material being sucked up without previous agitation. The rate of advance was 24 feet per hour. The material was coarse sand and gravel. The suctions lowered to a depth of loi feet. The number of cubic yards moved was 91,852, an average of 1,392 yards per hour. The total work, including towing, cost $1,793.42, or 2 cents per cubic yard. DREDGE DELTA. The percentage of solids to total discharge during the season was about 12. On one crossing this dredge used 89J bushels of coal per hour. The cost of dredging throughout the season was about 2| cents per cubic yard of sand moved. In 1895 one dredge was at work, in 1896 two, and in 1898 six. Past— Present— Prospective 63 In 1898 Mr. Ockerson, member of the Mississippi River Commission, under whose direction most of the dredge construction and operation were carried on, stated before the Senate Committee on Mississippi River Floods : " The work done b}^ these dredges has demonstrated that a cliannel can be opened througli the bars and tliat the channel generally maintains itself througliout the low-water season after it is opened." " There is no doubt about our being able to open through the sand bars a channel of sufficient magnitude to satisfy the demands of navigation." It has been my endeavor to show the conditions existing on the lower Mississippi river, and step by step the methods for amelioration ; by levees, dikes, revetments and dredging. I have been on the Mississippi river and connected with its improvement, I may say, since the inception of the first comprehensive plan for the general and continuous regulation of its navigation, and have seen the gradual evolution of great results from small beginnings. In 1878 we had small mattresses protecting small portions of important harbors ; to-day sub-aqueous revetments, almost too large to be called mattresses, and paved slopes reach for miles through long reaches of river that help to control its flow and provide a protection against the destructive action of the current at important levee crossings, and other points, where cut-offs threaten, thus training the river as it should go, and prevent- ing abnormal changes in regimen. I have seen the levees grow from a ragged, discon- nected chain of mounds, badly constructed and designed,* to a splendid system needing but the finishing touclies to give absolute protection and uninterrupted trade to the millions dwelling behind it. I have seen a fleet of the largest, most powerful and most effective hydraulic dredges in the world, the wonder and admiration of engineers of other * Owing to lack of sufficient funds. nations, designed and put to work on the crossings of the river, keeping them open for low-water nav- igation, and I realize that these great results, this evolution, has not been brought about by chance, but by the untiring energy and ability of our states- men, Congressmen and Senators, the splendid engi- neering ability of the Mississippi River Commission and the comprehensive united efforts of our people, those of the valley and all those of the western waterways who have met from time to time to further our great cause. As an engineer I believe in the levee system as the true and effectual means of controlling the Hoods of this great river. The day will come when the greatest floods will pass to the sea, "unkneird, un- coffin'd and unknown." In other words, 1882 and '97 will be out faint, dun recollections of the past, of conditions that used to be, but can be no more. High water will be a matter of little interest to the riparian owner, the protection against overflow will be so perfect. I believe in the continuation of the revetment of caving banks, thus preventing scour and extensive bar formation, and I believe in continuing the use of the dredge during low water, until such perfect stability of bank by revetments has proscribed its utility. In spite of the much condemned tendency toward combinations, it is only bv continumg to combine and work with ail our eneigyand heart that weAvill obtain the amelioration of the industrial and com- mercial institutions of this great valley. Freight rates commensurate with those on the great East and AVest railroad systems of the country will be ob- tained and safety and prosperity reign throughout the Delta. [The foregoing article has been taken in part from papers written by the author and published at dif- ferent times in the engineering journals of this coun- try, in the Transaction of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and the official reports of the War Department.] 64 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; Past— Present— Prospective SOME GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON THE LEVEE PROBLEM By MAJ. T. G. DABNEY, Chief Engineer of the Yazoo Mississippi Delta Levee District The work of building a system of levees along the banks of the Mississippi river, for the protec- tion of its alluvial plain from annual overflow, is, in its history, entirely unique among great en- gineering enterprises, in one important particular. When any great work involving engineering skill is projected, it is customary before entering upon its practical execution, to ascertain three vital fea- tures of the project: (1) is it practicable of accom- plishment? (2) what will be the cost? and (3) will the results justify the expenditure? The engineer first ascertains these three things; he determines in advance just what is to be done, so far as the circumstances of the case will admit, what will be the cost, and what will be accom- plished by it in beneficial results. The methods of levee building on the Mississippi river, from the inception of the work, and through- out its general history, have been the exact oppo- sites of the above-descriljed process in every par- ticular. These peculiar features of the work of levee building as an engineering problem are due to the mode of birth and development of the system. The first man who built a levee, or fragment of levee, on the bank of the Mississippi river, had no thought of any "levee system," but merely cast up a small "potato ridge" on the highest part of the river bank, to satisfy his immediate individual needs, very much as the primitix'e savage erected the first human edifice in the form of a bark shed, perhaps, to shelter himself from the rain. As levee building was extended by the joining of the efforts of one neighbor to those of others for their mutual advantage, and neighborhoods be- came involved in the enterprise, there was prob- ably no thought of any far reaching and enduring purpose to grow out of their primitive operations. Even after levee protection had extended into parish, county, and State organizations, their op- erations were characterized by faulty locations and crude methods of construction, with no aspirations beyond temporary expedients for immediate ef- fects, the interests at first to be subserved being comparatively small and the cost of even partial protection l^eing relativel}' great. In fact, the de- velopment of levee building in a general way kept pace with the development of the protected regions of country; and to the insufficiency of available resources at any given period of the progressive stages of the work, was due the necessity of pur- suing a temporizing policy at all stages. One result of the causes above set forth has been an aggregated expenditure greatly in excess of what would have been required to construct — ■ de novo — a perfected system of levees throughout the alluvial valley. Another evil consequence of former imperfect methods in the location and construction of exist- ing levee lines, which has unfortunately projected itself into the levee problem of the present and future, arises from the fact that, to a large extent, old and imperfect levees necessarily form the nu- cleus upon which the present system is builded. From the early times of levee building, as the high water plane progressively rose to higher ele- vations from the extension of the lines of levee, additional strength and height was attained by en- largement upon pre-existing levees; and new loca- tions, where necessary, were made on the least ex- pensive lines compatible with the then present, and immediate future security — due, primarily, to re-, stricted means as well as to a want of knowledge and comprehension of the dignity of the levee problem in its entirety. A NEW ERA A period about a dozen years ago may be re- garded as marking a new era in levee building. About that time, and subsequently, a strong im- 66 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : petus was given to the work by the interest in the subject shown by the Federal Government, coupled with the large extent of material aid contributed in the form of Congressional appropriations. It may be here remarked that the large share of such appropriations that has been applied to the levee feature of Mississippi river improvement is directly due to the sympathy and liberality of the Mississippi River Commission, as that controlling authority could readily have found pretexts, under the acts of appropriation, for withholding any part of the money from application to the levees, or of restricting the sums so applied to much smaller amounts. It may be further remarked in this connection that a probable incentive to this liberality is the fact that money expended in levee work was not attended by any of the uncertainties that attached to expenditures in the other experimental fields of river improvement, but every dollar so applied re- sulted in certain and palpable benefit of a most valuable sort. MORE SCIENTIFIC METHODS About the period above mentioned was first in- augurated an eifort to apply a more scientific sys- tem to the location and construction of levees in the place of the crude and temporizing methods of the past, the adherence to which to so late a period was the result of restricted means rather than a lack of appreciation of the advantages of improvement in this field, by the levee engineers at least. And even now, after the fullest develop- ment in such improvement that is compatible with available resources, we fall short of building ideal levees, because the cost would be too great to be considered. CREDIT FOR IMPROVEMENT It may be here remarked that while the levee interests are deeply indebted to the several very a1)le and conscientious members of the United States Engineer Corps who have administered the Government's share in levee building, between whom and the local engineers have always sub- sisted cordial relations, yet it is unfair to assign to those gentlemen, as has been done in some quarters, the entire credit for the improvement above alluded to, and which they would not claim for themselves, such advancement in methods being rather the consequence of increased resources than of the injection of new ideas. When the United States engineers first came into this field, it may be said without any dispar- agement to them, they came upon grovmd that was new to them, and were naturally and of neces- sity dependent upon the local engineers of long experience in levee work for their earlier informa- tion on the subject. As a matter of fact, the Levee Board of the upper Yazoo District was the pioneer in the im- provement of levee location and construction; and even at the present time, the standards in levee building are higher in this District than elsewhere on the Mississippi river. It may be pertinent to quote here a passage from a report made 1)y the writer in 1895: "As a consequence of the combination of insuf- ficient present resources and varying flood condi- tions, the levee systems have grown up as patch- work, which effect is heightened by recent prog- ress in better methods of levee construction, great advancement having been made in this direction during the past dozen years, in consequence of greater demands on the resisting powers of levees and a more determined effort than ever before made to successfully control the floods of the Mis- sissippi river. "Much of the improvement of the methods of levee building is due also to the growing experi- ence of engineers and a more serious purpose to study the subject closely and master its intrica- cies. "Indeed, prior to about the year 1884 lack of means so dominated in levee matters that very unscientific methods of construction and location were necessarily resorted to, with the inevitable result of uneconomical expenditure of money, and levees that gave way under the pressure of every high water. With the infusion of government funds, and increased means from local sources, much more thorough methods of construction have been introduced, and we now build levees to stand high water without breaking." Neither should the announcement that none of the levees built by the United States have broken in recent floods, be assumed to mean especial supe- riority for those levees; since it may be said with equal truth that none of those were broken that were built in recent years by the Levee Boards. Past— Present— Prospective 67 Crevasses occurred only in very old and imperfect levees. In support of the above statement, it may be said further that no crevasse has occurred in any levee built under the present administration of the upper Yazoo District, that is, since 1884, with a single exception. This exception was a crevasse in 1891, with a comparatively low flood and under a moderate strain, that occurred in a levee built by the United States and the Levee Board jointly, and concerning which there was conclusive evi- dence that it was the work of human hands instead of natural causes. IMPERFECTIONS IN OLD LEVEES The imperfections of the levees that were built in former years, that have come down as legacies to plague the engineers of the present time, were due to several causes: (1) From the temporary character of the work, less importance was attached to the methods em- ployed and less care bestowed than at present. (2) Partly from lack of means and partly from the above-mentioned cause, no pains were taken to prepare the foundation of new structures. Numer- ous large stumps, and even trunks of trees, were covered up, and in soft depressions that had to be crossed foundations were often made of such per- ishable matter as logs and tree tops. (The policy of grubbing out all stumps from the foundations of levees was first inaugurated in 1886 by the Levee Board of the upper Yazoo District. Other Levee Boards then looked upon this as an extravagant use of funds.) (3) From lack of appreciation of the dignity and importance of levees the engineering super- vision was very insufficient, the rule being that contractors were allowed to execute their con- tracts with no inspector present to see the manner of its performance, which led to a great deal of careless, not to say fraudulent, work. And (4) the low appreciation in which levees were generally held, led to entire neglect and gen- eral abuse of them at all times except in the pres- ence of high water dangers, a brief period occur- ring at long intervals of time. One effect of such neglect was that forest trees were permitted to ■grow to large size on the levees, in many places rendering them undistinguishable from the adja- cent forest, by which the embankments were filled with great masses of roots, which, with buried stumps and logs, rotted after a lapse of years and became elements of great weakness and defection. The rapid growth of all vegetation in this rich soil and humid climate, with the corresponding rapid decay, contributed greatly to this result. Among the difficult tasks of recent levee engi- neering has been that of detecting and removing from old levees these concealed sources of defec- tion, where the old levees have been incorporated into the present system. DOUBTS OF EFFICIENCY Li view of the foregoing it is not surprising that the ultimate efficiency of levees, as an agent for the protection of the Mississippi river alluvial lands, has been held in doubt and disparagements by many persons who were unfamiliar with all the facts and circumstances of the case. I believe it may be said with confidence that no engineer who is at all conversant with the subject entertains such doubts, or regards the problem otherwise than as a matter of dollars and cents. In other words, the problem of levee protection re- solves itself into the simple aphorism: enough dirt, properly bestowed, in the right place. NEW CONDITIONS In the great flood of 1897, when very extensive changes had been made, since the last preceding high water, in those conditions that influence the flood regimen of the river, and when vastly greater changes had been made in such conditions since the last flood that approached this one in volume and duration, as a consequence there were many miles of levees that were subjected to a strain very much in excess of what they were built to resist. Instead of having a margin of safety above the flood plane, the opposing flood had a margin of danger above the top of the levee, and was only prevented from running over by robbing the levee itself to obtain material to be piled up on top before the miles of advancing water. Thus, not only were the levees subjected to a much greater strain than they were designed to meet, but at the same time were materially weakened by robbing the slope to increase the height. It would seem to be creditable to the efficiency of the levees of the upper Yazoo District, that on fifty miles of their extent whereon the water at- tained an elevation of a few tenths to three feet 68 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River above the top of the levee, under a prolonged strain only one crevasse occurred, and that in a levee originally built over forty years ago, and con- taining inherent defects from its original mode of construction. BASIC FACTORS At the present juncture, those who are con- cerned in the levee problem are confronted by two main factors: (1) the determining of ultimate grade lines for levees to hold maximum floods when en- tirely confined to the channel of the river; and (2) providing the means to build up to these grades. In considering the first cjuestion presented above, the following quotation is taken from a re- port by the writer made in 1895: "Since the beginning of organized efforts to pro- tect portions of the Alississippi delta from over- flow, the question of proper grade lines for levees has been the one perplexing and insolvable feature of the problem. The difficulty has been due to the infinitely varied conditions under which different floods have come. The several large tributaries to the Mississippi, with their varying volumes, at dif- ferent periods, have constituted one important source of variation in flood conditions. "But the most potent cause of variability has been in the volume of water escaping from the channel, differing at different periods from the progress of local levee building, or, per centra, from the escape through broken levees. "The task that each levee engineer has set for himself has been to meet the immediate and vis- ible needs of the situation then existing, always with insufficient means to do more than keep his grade lines above the highest local water marks — • often with means insufficient to do even that — in a constant struggle to advance his grades to meet advancing flood heights and leave a reasonable margin of safety for unforseen contingencies. "There have never been at his command either present resources or present information upon which to base an effort to reach the final goal — to build levees high enough and strong enough to re- sist the highest water that might ever be expected to tax their strength and endurance. "Indeed, such a standard of levees, if it had been adopted prematurely, would have proven an un- wise expenditure of money, resulting in a much greater height and strength of levees than the then present needs demanded, much of which, on tem- porary locations, would have been sacrificed to caving banks. "In the nature of the problem, then, the ques- tion of standards in levee building must have been tentative and progressive." DISCOURAGEMENT AMONG THE PEOPLE The ever increasing elevation of the floods, with advancing restriction of the flood volume by the extension of new lines of levees, has presented it- self to the contemplation of the "lay" mind with discouraging effect. This was markedly the case in 1897, when much greater changes had been wrought in local flood conditions than at any other period in the history of levee building. To the aver- age citizen who did not understand the specific causes that produced special and extraordinary developments in flood elevation, and could not see the limitations upon those causes, there seemed to be no stopping place for the upward movement, within any practicable bounds. Take, for example, the front of the White River Basin. Here, levees had been maintained for a long period of years on the eastern side of the Mis- sissippi river opposite to that front, while on the western side the flood water had escaped unre- strained into the White river swamps. The flood plane normal to these conditions had a depression along the middle part of that front, some five or six feet below that normal to a confined flood vol- ume. The flood of 1897 found this part of the river leveed on both sides, for the first time perhaps in its history. The immediate effect vvas to fill up the depression and establish a new flood plane in accordance with the new conditions in their rela- tion to the gauge at Helena, Ark., at the head of the White River Basin. Upon this new flood plane would have been superposed the additional height at Helena, but that the numerous breaks in the levees along the White River Basin before the culmination of the flood permitted the excess of water to escape. While these phenomenal developments were be- wildering and appalling to citizens immediately concerned, the cause and secjuence, and probable limitation of the upward movement, is apparent to the discriminating engineer. Like conditions will be set up along the St. Francis front when that Past— Present— Prospective 69 CAMP OF LEVEE ENGINEERS. CAMP OF LEVEE CONTRACTOR. BLOWING OUT THE RIGHT OF WAY. RIGHT OF WAY "CLEARED." 70 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : basin has been completely leveed, with the maxi- mum effects probably along its middle portion. The flood of 1897 was epoch making in the light it has thrown upon the question of ultimate grades. While it cannot now be said with precision how high the ultimate flood elevation will reach at any given point, yet the margin of uncertainty may be said to have been reduced to workable limits, so that engineers can compute with considerable con- fidence the amount of final cost necessary to a per- fected levee system from Cairo to the Gulf. This amount has been estimated by the Missis- sippi River Commission at $20,000,000, which esti- mate is generally concurred in by levee engineers. REVENUE FOR ULTIMATE COM- PLETION This brings up the cjuestion as to the source or sources from which this money is to come; and here another quotation from the writer's report of 1895 may not be inappropriate, which is as .follows: "It is probably fortunate for the interests of levee protection that it could not be foreseen a dozen years ago what increasing demands would arise to build levees that would certainly give se- curity from overflow, and to meet increasing flood elevations, due to increasing progress in levee ex- tension. A complete fore-knowledge of the enor- mous expenditures involved, instead of a gradual realization, would probably have discouraged all attempts at beginning; whereas good enough has already been accomplished to justify the expendi- ture made. And complete and permanent security from overflow is now within the grasp of the peo- ple, provided there is no relaxation in their efforts until it is accomplished." THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT It is the hope of many that the United States will assume entire control of the whole matter of levee building, and furnish all the funds necessary for completing a general system of levee protec- tion. This is "a consummation devoutly to be wished," certainly from a financial standpoint, as it would afford vast relief to the overburdened taxpayers, who have already expended so much money and effort in this herculean enterprise. If, however, this hope cannot be fully realized in the immediate future, it may be expedient to try for "half a loaf" instead, to begin with, which vantage ground would greatly aid in getting the other half later. When Mr. Benjamin Harrison was President of the United States, although his attitude was some- what hostile towards the expenditure of Govern- ment money on the levees, he was reported in the newspapers to have expressed himself in an inter- view with some levee advocates as being willing for the United States to pay one-half the necessary cost of levee building, while the local interests should pay the other half. This appears to have been in recognition of a community of interests in the levees as between the United States and the land owners in the re- gion of overflow, the former being concerned in their function as an aid to navigation, and the lat- ter in protection for their lands. Other representatives of the Government have more recentl)' revived this suggestion as a basis for the settlement of this question. In the event of failure to realize the larger aspira- tion at this juncture, if the above principle were recognized, and so settled, it would be a great and valuable gain for the levee interests, as definitely committing the United States to the assumption of an obligation in the premises, whereas the aid heretofore extended to levee work by the Govern- ment has been in the nature of gratuity, the further extension of which the Congress is at liberty to withhold at any time. In this connection another consideration may be entitled to weight, to-wit: if the Government should admit the obligation to pay one-half the cost of a perfected levee system, the fact that the Levee Boards of the larger districts have already contributed an aggregate amount greatly in ex- cess of the Government contributions, ought to entitle them to credit for such excess in future dis- tributions of Government funds. COST OF MAINTENANCE The cjuestion of the cost of maintenance of a levee system after being perfected has been a sub- ject of much inquiry by the Senate Committee charged with the investigation of the levee ques- tion. The cost of simple maintenance, other than that of renewals of portions of the levee lines at- tacked by caving banks, would be very small, com- paratively speaking. The only very considerable item of cost of maintenance would be that of re- Past— Present— Prospective 71 COMMENCING LEVEE BUILDING ON THE RIGHT OF WAY. HIGH WATER SCENE, PITCHER'S POINT, .# "MS i 'Tf^Ti]D@::^i|#fiU HIGH WATER— STEAMBOAT LYING AT LEVEE. 72 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : newing parts of the levees that shall have caved into the river, assuming that there would be no crevasses from high water pressure. The expressions of various engineers, civil and military, who are more or less conversant with the subject, as published in the report of the Senate Sub-Committee who made the investigation, indi- cates that the average annual loss of levees by caving ranges from 2 to 5 per cent, 2 1-2 per cent being about the average, of the linear extent of the levee lines. I believe the questions asked the several wit- nesses, on this point, by the investigating commit- tee that elicited the above expressions, gave the deponents but little opportunity for reflection be- fore giving their estimates or opinions. In reflecting upon this question I am impressed by the following considerations: The extent of the levee lines on both sides of the river, between the mouth of the Arkansas and the mouth of the Red river, is approximately 540 miles. Along this extent of river the steep slopes, large volume of flood water, and yielding character of bank forma- tion, give a maximum rate of bank caving greatly exceeding the rate both above and below that ex- tent of river. The extent of levee lines above and below the above named limits, where the rate of caving is minimized by the flat slope below, and lesser volume above, is nearly twice as great as that along the region of maximum caving. Under the writer's observation the loss by cav- ing, or rather the extent of new levee necessitated by caving banks, has been under seven per cent during fifteen years, or less than one-half of one per cent per year, in the upper Yazoo District. It may be presumed that this represents something like the general rate of annual loss above the Ar- kansas river and below Red river; and that, under conditions of less security than would obtain in a perfected system of levees. My deduction is, that an average of one per cent a year would represent fully the a\-erage annual loss in linear extent of all the levee lines along the river with a perfected system of levees. ELEVATION OF THE RIVER BED The question as to whether leveeing the Missis- sippi river has a tendency to elevate its bed, had been a bugbear in the minds of many people. Most persons who for any reason are antagonistic to levees, have no scruple in making the bold asser- tion that leveeing the river has that effect, and that there will be no limit to the height to which levees must be built to be kept above the ever rising flood plane. Many others who are not an- tagonistic to the levee interests have imbibed that notion also. When asked for evidence to support such asser- tion, none can be given; or for reasons for such belief they have none, except perhaps of a fantas- tic sort. And the notion is widely prevalent. A good many years ago, in some unaccountable manner, the story became current that the River Po, in Italy, afiforded an example wherein its bed had risen in consequence of being leveed for a long period, until it had reached an elevation above the adjacent country. It is difficult to conceive how such a story could have got abroad, having not the slightest foundation in fact. And yet it was seized upon with avidity and passed from mouth to mouth with ready acceptance. A thorough investigation of the River Po story revealed the fact that during a period of two cen- turies of its leveed history, in some places in the upper reaches of this river, the bed had risen about one foot, due to the presence of gravel, that could not be easily moved by the current. In other places the examination showed a depression in the bed of the stream. A similar story has been current regarding the Yellow river in China. Our information about the characteristics of the China river is too meager to warrant us in drawing an analogy between that stream and the Mississippi river. We do know, however, that the Yellow river passes for a long distance through a low flat plain, and that it has suddenly changed its channel of discharge into the ocean to a point several hundred miles from its former mouth; which indicates a very marked dis- similarity between that stream and the Mississippi. The River Commission has given very careful study to this question, in relation to the Mississippi river. Among other methods of investigation, one was to cause elaborate soundings to be made over an extent of four hundred miles of leveed river chan- nel, which were repeated over the same lines after an interval of fourteen years. It was found difficult to arrive at a conclusive decision from a compari- son of these two sets of soundings, owing to the mobile and shifting character of the materials com- posing the river bed. Where a shoal would be Past— Present— Prospective 73 found on a given line of soundings at one period, a pool would appear at another time along the same line, and vice versa. But so accurate and conservative an engineer as General C. B. Com- stock, after a careful examination of all the data afforded by these soundings, stated that there was no evidence that the bed of the river had risen dur- ing the period covered by his investigations. While it seems impossible to obtain positive and direct evidence on this question except after a long lapse of time, there are some facts, a good deal of indirect and negative evidence, and the deduc- tions from a priori reasoning, all tending to con- firm the above conclusion. ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE FILLING-UP THEORY Some of the arguments opposed to the filling- up assumption are the following: (1) We have the concrete fact, that the River Po, presenting phe- nomena somewhat similar to the case under dis- cussion, has not appreciably silted up its bed dur- ing a period of two hundred years. (2) The Mississippi river, between New Madrid, Mo., and Helena, Ark., has for a very long time been depleted by the diversion of a large part of its flood volume from the main channel through the St. Francis river, returning through that stream to the present river near Helena. We ought logically to find that this section of the main channel has suffered deterioration Ijy the dissipa- tion of part of the energy of its flood volume. And that is what we do find; for the low water plane in this part of the river is shown to be several feet above the normal for an undivided volume, which could only have resulted from silting up the bed, in obedience to the law that adjusts the capacity of a channel to the volume it has to carry. (3) In the year 1894, the low water plane from Cairo down was generally much lower than any former records show, and the depression was most conspicuous where the greatest influence had been exercised by levees, while the volume that passed Cairo, and the lower tributaries, was not less than in other low water seasons. (■i) Observations show that where important crevasses in the levees have remained open for a series of years, through which a large portion of the flood volume has escaped, the river channel im- mediatelv below such crevasses has suffered de- terioration from silting up, as a consequence of di- minished energy of the current. (5) We know that the materials that compose the bottom and sides of the river bed yield readily to the scouring action of the current wherever it is directed against them. Also that an increased volume of water in such a bed should demand and create for itself an increase of channel capacity, which should logically be by erosion on both the sides and bottom; and this is in accordance with the facts wherever observed. THEORETIC VIEW In theorizing in a general way upon this rather obscure proljlem, the following reflections suggest themselves, and are here given for what they may be worth: We know that throughout the history of the Mississippi ri\'er, there has been a general filling up of its alluvial plain and of the river bed along with it, by material brought down from the hill country above. But the great bulk of these results now displayed to our observation, were in consequence of geological agencies covering very long periods of time, and long anterior to the pres- ent era. The conditions as we now find them, indicate that the alluvial agencies have very nearly reached a state of equilibrium, as between the quantity of alluvial matter brought into the head of the basin and the cjuantity carried out at its mouth; and the further progress of the filling up movement is ex- ceedingly slow. We see rapid mutations along the banks of the river, in the immediate vicinity of its channel, as well as within the channel itself, which make the impression of a vast capacity of the river to build up. But the material that we see so handled by the river is derived from a previous tearing down of its own banks and bed, and is de- posited in compensation for a previous displace- "ment of other material. The river under natural conditions enters the alluvial basin with a certain Cjuantity of sedimentary matter, held in suspension or rolled along its bed. It departs through its several mouths and carries into the Gulf of Mexico a certain quantity of such matter. The quantity carried out into the Gulf, plus the quantity depos- ited over the alluvial plain Ijetween its head and foot must exactly equal that brought in from above. But the quantity spread over the alluvial plain away from the inmiediate vicinity of the river, is relatively speaking, exceedingly small — I mean 74 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; when the escape of water is unrestrained by levees. The river water when in a turbulent condition, at the top of the flood volume, contains one part of sediment to twelve or fifteen hundred parts of water, mostly derived from local sources, and most of which is locally precipitated by the escaping water, that is, on or near the river banks where it is again yielded up to the channel volume by caving or erosion. The escaping flood water carries away from the river, over its banks, but a small relative quantity of sediment, and that mainly pursues the bayou channels. Some deposit is left along the banks of the bayous where they are over topped by the flood, which however is quite unusual under natural conditions of overflow, in the existing stage of alluvial formativeness. Most of this bur- den of fine silt that is borne away from the vicinity of the main channel, is carried on through the sub- sidiary channels and re-enters the river, below. The overflow water that covers the intervening plain, outside of the bayou channels and their associated ridges has little or no motion, and its cjuantity of deposit is inconsiderable. Now, where the escape of flood water from the channel is prevented by levees, the suggestion is that the increased volume of water within the channel so far increases the energy of movement and consequent carrying capacity, as to enable the river not only to convey this small excess of ma- terial into the Gulf, but also to enlarge its channel by scouring the bed, as well as l)y eroding the banks, so as to accommodate the increased volume which has been imposed upon it. If this view is correct, the apprehension that the Mississippi river will silt up its bed in consequence of being leveed, is manifestly unfounded. MOONLIGHT ON THE MISSISSIPPI. Past— Present— Prospective 75 ?^p^!W*~ 76 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : RIVER BASINS AND THE LEVEES WHICH PROTECT THEM By major WILLIAM STARLING Every man who is in the habit of making jour- neys on the great hnes of raihvay has proljably observed some of the phenomena of alhivial valleys, for these are selected by the engineers as a bed already partially graded by nature for their road- ways. In ascending a mountain range, instead of excavating, escarping and tunneling a road for ourselves, we have only to find in the lowlands a river, the general direction of whose course cor- responds, as nearly as may be to the route sought by us, and then following the stream upward to- ward one of its sources. In this manner we are conducted by an ascent, easy and gentle at first, afterwards steeper and steeper, to the dividing ridge, whence, by a reversal of the former process, we gradually descend to the plains on the other side. Those whose faculties are not buried in sleep or benumbed by a dull novel will have observed that the river, after running between iron-bound rocks, expands occasionally into broad and fertile "bottoms," becoming wider, longer and more con- tinuous as vfe descend. These bottoms are bound- ed on either side by the highlands which have served to limit the excursions of the river, and this latter wanders through the valley, skirting the base of the hills, now on this side, now on that, pursuing a tortuous course through the bed which it has made for itself; for the bottoms are the work of the river — are composed of sediment brought down in time of fiood, and spread far and wide as the swollen stream overflowed its narrow banks. Br- ing the product of the stream, they are composed of pulverized material, free, for the most part, of stones and heavy fragments. Being formed by overflow, they can never rise above the level of the stream in flood; indeed, can never attain the height of extreme floods, and nmst always be liable to overflow in great freshets. Thus the valley, continuous it may be in itself, is divided into a series of subordinate basins, each bounded by the river on the one hand and the hills on the other, and terminated, above and below, by the close approach of the highlands to the stream. What occurs to creeks and mountain streams on the small scale, occurs also to the greatest rivers. The history of the Ohio and Mississippi is a good deal the same as the history of the rivulets from which they originate, multiplied a thousand-fold. The most insignificant meadow-brook is a Missis- sippi in miniature; and the student of river engi- neering has often spent most profitable hours in contemplating, on a scale which may be easily em- braced by the eye and the understanding, phenom- ena which embarrass and bewilder him when pre- sented with magnificence and complexity which at- tend the operations of a mighty river. In mountainous countries creek-bottoms are of great importance on account of their unexampled fertility, all the more, as distinguished from the stony and arid tracts which surround them. Offer- ing no impediments to the plough, being nearly level, and having excellent drainage, they possess unusual advantages for cultivation. They have but one drawback. A flood of unusual height may sub- merge them, and the farmer may loose his labor partially or wholly — partially, if the flood be not very great, or occur so early that the crop may be replanted; wholly, under very unfavorable cir- cumstances, for not only may the overflow occur late in the season, when the greatest outlay has been incurred, and the owner is about to reap his return, but the flood may be of such magnitude as to sweep away the accumulated labor of former years — fences, stables, even dwellings, and may go so far as to cause loss of life itself. Overflows occur, of course, because the ordinary channel of the stream is not sufficient to contain the unusual quantity of water poured forth at the height of the flood; neither can it ever become sufficient under the operation of purely natural Past— Present— Prospective 77 causes. The stream has built for itself a bed, dis- tributing its sedimentar)' matter beyond its banks, and preserving for itself a channel suited to its or- dinary wants. Great floods occur too seldom, and endure too short a time to exercise a marked influ- ence in enlarging the channel by their excavating power. So valuable are the bottom lands that they are almost always cultivated in spite of the danger of overflow. It is natural, however, that means should be sought to protect them from this calam- ity. Now, to give flood" plains immunity from in- undation, only one means exists; that is, to make the river-channel large enough to hold all the water, ordinary or extraordinary, that can possilslv be poured into it. To enlarge the channel we must adopt one of two alternatives — dig its bottom deeper or wider, or build its banks higher. The latter being by far the easier and cheaper process, is the expedient commonly adopted; the more, that it does not exclude the former, nor is at all antag- onistic to it, but, on the contrary, facilitates it and co-operates with it. Thus, the system of artificial embankments or levees, as the French settlers called them, natur- ally suggests itself wherever there are alluvial bot- toms or flood plains of considerable extent. It is a method which cannot generally be used with ad- vantage on a small scale for several reasons. When streams are ordinarily inconsiderable, with high freshets and the flood plains narrow, levees are ex- pensive and out of proportion to the benefit to be derived. In narrow valleys the line would have to be very long to protect an insignificant area. Not only so, but being hemmed in between the hills on one side and the levees on the other, there woiild be no drainage, and the injury from rain and surface water would perhaps be greater than from overflow. The method of protection by means of levees is then peculiarly applicable in the case of large riv- ers with very wide valleys, and under these circum- stances it has long been successfully practiced. The question of drainage, however, is still a serious one. The great basins are usually heavily overgrown with timber. Evaporation is consequently very slow, and the accumulation of rain and surface water is very great, especially in the lower part of the protected area. For it must be remembered that bottom lands are by no means level in the strict sense of the word, but follow the fall of the flood line — that is, they slope toward the sea. Therefore, if drainage be free, all the water which collects in an enclosed area will accumulate at the lower end. This aggregation will not only occupy a great space which might profitably be reclaimed, but will greatly impede the free flow of drainage waters from the upper part of the area. Conse- quently, in a strictly enclosed basin, it is found necessary to provide pumps or equivalent means of getting rid of the surplus waters. Culverts may be used, but, of course, are available only after the flood waters have begun to recede. In the case of a very large basin it may be found the best plan to leave the1:ower part thereof en- tirely open. This portion will thus be subject to overflow, but only to a limited extent. For the flood waters, entering at the very foot of the basin — that is, at the lowest possible elevation — cannot mount higher than the level of that part of the stream. As the flood plain has a considerable slope, the upper part will be perfectly dry. For instance, the fall of the flood plain of the Missis- sippi river from Memphis to Vicksburg is about two-thirds of a foot to the mile. The average height of the greatest floods above the surface of this flood plain is perhaps eight feet. Suppose a system of levees, complete in its upper part, to terminate abruptly at any given point. Then at that point the land will be overflowed eight feet. Twelve miles above the land will be just a wash. Twenty-four miles above the land will be eight feet out of water. The course which has been prescribed for theo- retical reasons has been made compulsory in the case of the Mississippi by the intervention of trib- utaries. Every basin of considerable size must of necessity have an auxiliary stream or streams to drain it into the main river. Usually, from the nature of the case, the drainage is concentrated into one stream. The borders of the main river are high, for they receive the bulk of the deposit, as fresh quantities of loaded water are contin- ually arriving, which dro]) the greater portion of their burden as soon as they become dispersed, and afterwards less and less as the water becomes more stagnant and clearer. Thus, small streams, trib- utarv to the main river, or inlet bayous as they are called, are rare. The course of drainage almost always is from the high alluvial ridge on the bank of the river to the low lands in the interior, and eventuallv to the main tributary which skirts the 78 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : hills, and at the foot of its basin discharges into the Mississippi. These tributaries are usually of such magnitude that it would be well nigh impos- sible to levee them. They receive, beside tl'e drainage of the alluvial basin proper, large acces- sions from minor streams which descend from the hills, so that even if they could be leveed the vol- ume of water thus imprisoned behind the levee would be portentiously great, too great to be pumped out or discharged in any reasonable time through a culvert, so their mouths have to be left open perforce. The basins narrow toward the lower end, so that the quantity of land damaged is still further reduced. The valley of the Mississippi, like all others, is divided into a number of subordinate basins by the approach of the hills on either side. Some of these basins are very small, others are of enormous ex- tent. Each is in a great measure independent of the others, so that the task of protection from overflow is much simplified and rendered more practicable, as it does not necessarily recjuire a vast and simultaneous organized effort, or even a continuous system, but may be effected in detail, according to the needs and abilities of separate sections. The small basins do not afford the best field for the application of the levee system for reasons already given, and for the additional reason that in them backwater from the mouth of the tributary is destructive out of proportion. For instance, if the influence of backwater is more or less detri- mental 15 miles above the mouth of the tributar}', and the basin be only 20 miles long, then three- fourths of it will be more or less liable to injury in time of flood. But if the basin be 150 miles long, then only one-tenth will suffer. It is to the great basins, consequently, that we must look for examples of successful protection by levees. Below Cairo the Mississippi has four such basins, drained respectively by the Saint Francis, the Yazoo, the Tensas and the Atchafa- laya rivers and their tributaries. The last three have been wholly or partially leveed for many years. The nearest approximation to a complete system has been made on the Yazoo front. The Yazoo basin has every advantage that the engineer could ask for a fair trial of the levee sys- tem. It begins a short distance below Memphis and extends to a point a little above Vicksburg. At each of these localities the highlands actually abut upon the Mississippi river, thus completely isolating the basin, and affording a secure support for the ends of the line of levees. The front of the basin, measured according to the sinuosities of the Mississippi, is about three hundred and fifty miles long. In a straight line the distance is about one hundred and eighty miles. Its shape is lenticular, the Yazoo hills forming one arc and the Missis- sippi river the other. Its extreme breadth is about sixty miles. There are no "inlet bayous," the drainage being altogether toward the interior, and eventually into the Yazoo river. This, under one name or another, skirts the base of the hills, and empties into the main river just above Vicksburg. The entire front of the Yazoo basin is closed by a continuous embankment, extending from the uplands below Memphis to within about eight miles of the mouth of the Yazoo. This embank- ment does not strictly follow the line of the river, but sometimes takes short cuts, so that its length is about three hundred miles. The material of which it is composed is earth entirely. It is usually eight feet wide on top. The height is defined by reference to some great flood, usually the most recent. The angle of inclination of each of the slopes of the embankment, front and back, is fixed by the proportion, three of base to one of altitude, though sometimes the dimensions fall short of these and sometimes they exceed them. In fact, both in height and strength, the levees are some- what irregular. The causes of these variations in construction are not usually to be sought in any scientific con- siderations. They are due, for the most part, to the haphazard manner in which the levees were built. Originally constructed by private enter-^ prise for the reclamation of partial areas, they have been connected, raised, enlarged, repaired, demol- ished by crevasse and overflow, wiped out of ex- istence by caving into the river and replaced by entirely new lines joined to the old at suitable places, as necessity dictated or financial conditions permitted. The system is a patchwork, in fact, the result of many different periods, organizations and administrations, having diverse views of policy and managed with all possible differences of ability and resources. To enter into a minute history of the levee system would probably be neither interest- ing nor profitable, except to a professed student of that subject. With reference to the Yazoo front, it may be sufficient to say that the close of Past— Present— Prospective 79 the civil war found in existence two "levee dis- tricts," as they are called, each containing several counties, and embracing together the whole Yazoo basin. Of these, the upper, or District No. 1, fell into bad hands, in the confusion and misgovern- ment of the reconstruction period, and eventually lapsed into complete decay, and its levees were suffered to go to ruin. The lower district was then reorganized and rebaptized as the Mississippi levee district, and has maintained a flourishing exist- ence, under one name or the other, for the last twenty-live years. In 1884 the counties not in- cluded in this district were incorporated into a new organization called the Yazoo-Mississippi delta levee district, which thus consists substantially of nearly the same territory as old District No. 1, but is to be carefully distinguished from it, as it does not and should not inherit the evil reputation or the impaid obligation of that corporation. As at present organized, the levees of tlie Yazoo front are maintained by two districts, each with its own organization and its own methods of rais- ing revenues. The supreme governing" bodies of these districts are called levee boards. They con- sist of one or more members from each county in the district. They are armed with a good deal of authority, with power to impose taxes up to a cer- tain limit, to condemn lands, and to exercise all functions incidental to the building and main- tenance of levees. They elect their own ofiicers and fix their own rates of salaries. The territory embraced within these districts are mutually dependent on the levees of the other. The lower district would be partially over- flowed by breaks in the upper; and certain counties of the upper district lie behind those of the lower, and would be afliected by any breaks in the levees of the latter. Attempts have been made to con- solidate the whole administration in the hands of one board, but serious obstacles have been found to exist in the diflferent rates and manners of tax- ation of the two districts, their debts and a diver- sity of local interests. So far, very little practical inconvenience has been found in the division of ter- ritory, the two organizations having worked to- gether very harmoniously. There is a great diversity in the soils composing the alluvium of the Mississippi valley, and three or four qualities are likely to be encountered in the construction of a single levee — nay, even to be intermingled in the same bank. It is often verv difficult to decide which is the prevailing quality, much more to decide in advance, for the guidance of assistant engineers and contractors. In this un- certainty it has very commonly been the practice to build levees by a rough rule, supposed to be safe in the average of soils, of making the base of each slope, front and back, three times the height. The total base of the levee will thus be six times the height, plus the width of the crown, usually eight or ten feet. Levees of these dimen- sions will generally stand, with water to the very top, even in soils weaker than the average. Neither is it a great waste to give the same proportions to embankments built of stronger material, to wit, of "buckshot" clay, if put up loosely with wheel- barrows and exposed to the pressure of the water while yet "green," for such l^anks are very porous and apt to leak and slough if of inadequate dimen- sions. Still another reason for a broad base will be given in the sequel. In the absence, then, of defi- nite reasons to the contrary, levees have usually been built with slopes of three to one. Where there is great exposure to the action of winds and waves these dimensions are modified, the outer or front slope being made flatter and the inner slope steepened or not, according to circum- stances. It has not usually been found good pol- icy to make the back or land slope very steep, for fear of sloughing. After completion the whole work is sodded with Bermuda grass, which puts out lateral runners, taking root at the joints, and thus spreads rapidly, covering the slopes, in a year's time, with a thick mat of sod. When a water works engineer is called upon to build an embankment for a reservoir, the first thing- he looks to is his foundation. Though his dam be never so massive and tight, it avails him noth- ing unless it rests upon a secure bed. The levee engineer has seldom been able to take the same precautions. In the first place, the}' are not so obligatory. The water does not usually stand very high against his embankments, nor does it remain there the year round. He has an ample base. Experience had not formerly been under- stood as indicating the necessity of devoting spec- ial attention to foundations. In short, a good bank placed on the natural soil has been thought sufficient. Usually, indeed, the means have not been forthcoming for any refinements of engineer- ing. The urgent demand has been for earth, and more earth, piled higher and higher and yet higher 80 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River as the system neared completion. The experience of 1897 seemed to teach that the principal danger to be apprehended was that of the actual over- topping of the levees, and of course the principal efforts have been made with a view of avoiding this imminent peril. With the advances in levee building, however, the more perfect confinement of floods and the new constructions on lower ground, caused by the caving of banks, the levees have had to stand a great deal more water than formerly. To provide an absolutely secure foundation in the variable soil of the Mississippi bottom without incurring enormous and ruinous expense seems al- most impracticable. Yet resort may be had to expedients that promise a practical assurance of safety. It has long been customary among levee builders, before commencing the construction of the embankment, to dig a ditch three or four feet deep parallel to the general line of the levee and to fill it with well tamped clay or strong loam. Such a trench is called a "muck ditch." By some ety- mologists this is supposed to be a corruption of "mock ditch," but I am not aware of any evidence to support the hypothesis. Usually the dimen- sions given to this feature have been insignificant and its effect correspondingly small. It might, however, be rendered an important safeguard by making it six or eight feet deep and correspond- ingly wide and paying especial attention to the tamping, thus increasing the length of the route to be traveled by the percolating water, and by giving additional height and weight to the colunm of mixed earth and water that has to sustain, on the land side, the upward pressure proceeding from the weight of the external water. Given a levee ten feet high, with no muck ditch, and a water-bearing stratum two feet below the surface, we have a pressure of ten feet of water on the out- side with only a weight of two feet of earth to offset it. But put a foundation of six additional feet beneath this levee, and we have sixteen feet of water offset by eight of earth, which is much better. Moreover, twelve feet more of fric- tional resistance have been introduced. Other im- portant auxiliaries are increased width of berme on the outside and a banquette, as it is caUed, on the inside, this latter being- a layer of "made earth" three or four feet deep and twenty or thirty feet wide, intended to give additional security against sloughing and to hold down by its weight the internal crust and keep it from "blowing up." That an earthen bank should be preserved from deterioration, the first and almost the only requi- site is that it shall be made of earth only — that is, that no stumps, roots or other perishable matter should be left in it, or immediately under it, which by its decay should leave cavities or conduits. That it may preserve its "grade" — that is, its proper height relative to high water — occasional repairs will be necessary, especially in situations where it is apt to settle, as in crossing the beds of old water-courses or the like. A line of levees is, of course, not level from Memphis to Vicksburg, but follows the fall of the river. Now, this fall, or slope, is about a third of a foot to the mile, if taken in the average. Yet he would be a very foolish engineer who should take it for granted that the rate of fall was uniform and should build his levees on that supposition. The river, in fact, is divided into pools and rapids. In the pools the water surface remains nearly level, sometimes for miles, and in the rapids the fall is often as much as three or four times the average. Levees as they actually exist do not, however, approximate closely to this ideal for reasons al- ready mentioned. It is the constant effort of those in charge of the different districts to bring them, step by step, nearer to perfection, but they are still far from the goal, though well within sight of it. Knowing their systems to be imperfect, it is with anxious hearts that they face great floods, for the chance of disaster is present every day as a possi- bility or probability as long as the water is near its height, and the period of trial is sometimes length- ened into months. Past— Present— Prospective 81 82 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River IMPROVEMENT OF THE LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER By CAPT. ARTHUR HIDER, Ass't U. S. Engineer By the Lower Mississippi river is meant that portion of the river between Cairo and the Gulf. The most suitable method to be adopted for the permanent improvement of the Mississippi river is a problem that has called for the best thought and study of the engineering profession, and, although it has not as yet been satisfactorily solved, still con- siderable progress has been made. A vast amount of valuable data has been col- lected and digested, experiments have been made with different methods and materials, these have been abandoned when not satisfactory for others promising better results and new ones substituted as experience dictated and the magnitude of the undertaking became better understood. Few persons, except those actually engaged in the work, realize the almost insurmountable diffi- culties that are to be overcome in a successful and satisfactory solution of the prol)lem. The stupendous forces developed by the Father of Waters in its course through the Valley, flowing through a bed of alluvium of its own formation from Cairo to the Gulf — a distance of upwards of one thousand miles — the instability of this material; the ease with which the banks are eroded and the bed scoured by the action of the current during high stages, frecjuently causing a complete change, in the position of its channel and rendering nuga- tory the effects of the works already constructed to improve it; the changes due to rapidly caving banks and cut-offs and the effects of the annual floods combine to render any system of improve- ment diffictdt as well as expensive in execution and necessarily requiring large annual expenditures for its maintenance and preservation. In considering any plan of improvement it is evident that it should be so designed as to apply to what may be considered two distinct rivers, one at flood or high stages and the other at low water. In the first instance we have a river with a dis- charge approximating two million cubic feet per second. The width of the river at high water con- trolled only by the distance between the levees on each side which are generally upwards of a mile apart, and a channel depth of from eighty to one hundred feet, with a velocity of current approxi- mating four miles per hour. During this period new bars are built up or existing ones enlarged or it maj^ be entirely obliterated, vast volumes of sand, a large portion of which is eroded from ad- jacent banks, are transported and deposited form- ing new bars or adding to those already existing; these as the river falls to its lowest stages become obstructions to the channel navigation. At low stages we have a discharge of from one to two hundred thousand cubic feet per second, a much less current velocity and at many points a shallow, narrow stream following a tortuous course between sand ])ars built up during the preceding floods. One of the great difficulties experienced in de- signing any system of channel improvement that shall be permanent and give satisfactory results is due to the fact that at high stages the conditions are altogether different from those existing at low stages. Works constructed in the river bed for contracting the channel and improving low water navigation while accomplishing the desired results, at ffood stages' are obstacles to the rapid discharge of the water as they restrict the area of the water- way and to that extent are detrimental, as they in- crease the flood heights. When it is considered that the oscillation of stage from extreme high to extreme low water at some points is nearly fifty feet, it will be readily seen that in any plan of improvement two entireiv different rivers, as it were, are to be considered. Were it possible to reduce the dift'erence of stage between high and low water to say twenty feet in- stead of fifty, the problem would be greatly simpli- fied. Under these conditions the river would de- velop a channel suitable for the approximately more regular discharges, the current velocity would be more nearly constant, the erosion and caving Past— Present— Prospective of the banks materially reduced, the channel and thalweg of the stream at low stages as this devel- oped would be subject to comparatively much slighter changes, thus insuring a wide, deep chan- nel at all stages. Reservoirs located near the head-waters have been advocated as a means of improvement of the lower river, designed so as to restrain part of the flood water and allow its dispersion at lower stages. This plan would no doubt be beneficial and tend to ameliorate to a certain extent the unfavoralMe con- ditions existing at low stages, could reservoirs of sufificient capacity be constructed and maintained. The magnitude of an undertaking of this kind, the attendant cost, the danger of dams bursting and the damage that would ensue, and the cost of maintenance, in addition to the value of the land necessar}' would be so great, that it is doubtful if this plan on a large enough scale to give practical results will ever be undertaken. So far as the prevention of floods in the lower river is concerned it should be borne in mind that these are general!)' caused \)v heavv local rains in the ^"icinity of the main river or from floods in the tributaries. Reservoirs near the head-waters would have little efl^ect in the lower river on floods, as these are usually produced by floods in the Ohio and its tributaries and the tributaries of the Mis- sissippi river that empty into the river below Cairo. Outlets have had their advocates, but the opin- ion of the ablest engineers who have studied and investigated this subject is that the action of out- lets afl^ords no permanent relief and they do not recommend their use, as the eft'ect is to bring on a gradual deterioration and shoaling of the channel and for this reason they would be detrimental to navigation in the end. A large measure of success has been obtained in improving low water navigation by the use of contraction works. As an experiment two reaches were taken by the Mississippi River Commission for a trial of this class of work. Plum Point Reach, about sixty miles above Memphis, Tenn., and Lake Providence Reach, about the same distance above Vicksburg, Miss. These reaches were se- lected on account of having the least deptli of water over the shoals of an}' on the lower ri\-er, and as presenting the greatest obstacles to naviga- tion during low water. The contraction works as constructed essentially consisted of a series of permeable pile-dikes, with wattling of ])rush between the piles, the foots ot the dikes protected by willow brush mats to pre- \-ent scour. These dikes were built out from the shore or on sand bars in shoal water, sometimes in series, to deflect the flow and concentrate it at low stages in the low water channel and at the same time to accelerate the building up of the bars where necessar_y to better define the low water channel Isetween them. ^Vhile generally cjuite satisfactory results were obtained in both reaches so far as the improvement of the low water channel was concerned, and it was found practicable to modify by their use the direc- tion of the river channel from one side of the river to the other, as was done on the Lake Providence Reach at Stack Island, and also by means of these dikes to hasten the filling up of the Island Chutes, still the works themselves were not permanent, the Cottonwood piles and willow wattlings of which they were constructed rapidly deteriorating, as the dikes were exposed during low stages, at the same time many of these dikes were built on sand bars which were liable to be undermined and destroyed after the floods by a change in the channel. The obstructions formed by these dikes to the free dis- charge of the ri\'er at higher stages was also ob- jectionable as reducing the area of the river bed. The method of improving the navigable channel at low water now adopted, is dredging, and while this can hardh- Ix' claimed as a permanent low water improvement, the work done has been of great benefit to navigation. This has been fully demonstrated by the work done in the last two years. Under the direction of the Mississippi River Commission, who have charge of the improvement of the river, a number of powerful h\'draulic dredges have been constructed with the necessary tenders, tow boats and appliances, to move rapidly from place to place where their services might be required to dredge out channels to aid navigation. This immense plant can be rapidly distributed at anv points where work is necessary and the last season's work has demonstrated the fact that in a few davs the shoals across a bar can be ra])idly removed and safe passage insured with but little delay to navigation. The ad\-antage of this method over contraction work is that results can be obtained at once, the difliculties to navigation ameliorated or removed while at the same time the river bed is left free of 84 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : any obstructions that would interfere with the rapid discharge of the river at flood stages. These dredges are of the latest design, have many novel featvu"es, are of enormous capacity and capable of moving an immense quantity of material in an almost incredible short space of time. One of the greatest difftculties to be overcome in any plan looking to the permanent improvement of the river is to provide for the stability of the banks and thus prevent the continued changes in the bed of the river. These changes are con- stantly occurring. The banks in the concave bends are being undermined and eroded by the action of the current and caving into the river; the ma- terial being swept away and deposited on some shoal near the vicinity or carried still further on to add to already existing bars or to form new ones. The greatest activity of caving generally occurs immediately after a long continued flood, during or after a rapid decline, although rapid caving of- ten takes place during low stages. In some bends the river rarely caves except at high water, in others the caving takes place at medium and low stages. This caving is due primarily to the action of the current deepening the river bed near the bank by erosion, rendering the upper bank too steep to re- tain its slope when the support of the water is with- drawn as the river falls; from the displacement of an under strata of cjuicksand in the bank, which leaves void and allows the bank to settle bodily; or from the effect of drainage through the pervious material of which the bank is composed; any one, or a combination of these causes may induce cav- ing. Two distinct methods of bank protection have been employed to render the bank stable and pre- vent caving — spur dikes and detached or contin- uous revetment. The essential features of the spur dikes as con- structed are: a foundation mattress and cribs built of willow brush and poles, or a combination of wil- low brush and sawed lumber; the cribs being placed at right angles to the bank line, and superimposed on each other so as to give an approximately reg- ular slope from deep water to the bank above water. The grading to a uniform slope of the bank im- mediately behind the dikes and for some distance above and below, covering the- same with a light brush revetment which is held in place by stone rip- rap. In the latter constructions the brush revet- ment was omitted, as it was found' to deteriorate rapidly, and in its place a greater thickness of stone was used. The method in detail of the construction of the cribs and mattresses were somewhat different in the upper part of the river to those employed in the New Orleans harbor. Those built at Columbus, Memphis, Helena and Greenville were composed almost entirely of willow poles and brush. The foundation mat had a length of about two hundred feet along the bank, and ex- tended out into the river beyond the foot of the bank from two hundred and fifty to four hundred feet, depending on the depth of the water. The aim being to reach out into or beyond the deepest water wherever practicable. These sills or founda- tion mats were from ten to twelve inches in thick- ness, made by weaving the brush on willow poles spaced about eight feet apart, the whole construc- tion securely held together by wire, spikes, iron rods and wire cable. On top of the mat was placed one or two tiers of poles laid transverse and cross- wise, dividing the mat into a series of stalls or pockets to hold the stone ballast, with which the mat was sunk in place, when the bottom slope of the river was steep. This form of mat, known as the woven mat, has been superseded by the fascine mat which contains a great deal more material, is more pliable, strong- er, and has given much more satisfactory results, a description of which will be given later. The top cribs of the spurs were usually eight feet wide and from five to seven feet in height, the next tier underneath sixteen feet wide, each tier towards the bottom increasing in width sixteen feet so as to allow for an off-set in each tier on each side of eight feet. The length of these cribs depended on the shape of the bottom, so that when finished the upper edge of the spur had a fairly regular slope of between three and four to one. The cribs ex- tended up the slope a considerable distance, in some cases to the top of the bank. Each sill or foundation mat was made in one piece on boats specially designed for the purpose and launched into the water as built at the point where it was to be sunk, I^eing held by mooring lines or cables to the shore; these were removed after the mat was in place on the bottom. The cribs were formed on the same liarges and wiien about half finished launched off of the barges and finished in the water. Past— Present— Prospective 85 The bottoms of the cribs were formed of layers of brush placed alternately, lengthwise and cross- wise, the frame work was generally made of willow poles, spaces or pockets being left in the body of the cribs to hold the stone ballast with which they were loaded in order to sink them in place. The whole construction was well bound and fastened together with iron rods, wire, spikes, and wire cables. These spurs were designed to protect the por- tion of the bank immediately in front, and by in- du-cing a fill or deposit between them protect the intermediate space. The spurs were placed gener- ally about five hundred feet apart, the distance be- tween them being dependant somewhat on the configuration of the bank, depth of water and ve- locity of current. In constructing the sills in the New Orleans harbor the mats were made in several sections and of greater thickness, the sections afterwards joined and fastened together to form the founda- tion mat. A greater proportion of sawed lumber was used in building the cribs, and instead of iron tie-rods and bolts, wooden stanchions were used. Plans showing the details of construction used in building spurs at Greenville and New Orleans were given at length in the report of the Missis- sippi River Commission for the year 18SS. While the action of spurs has not been alto- gether satisfactory as a revetment, they have re- quired but little repair. The upper four dikes of the original ten dikes built in Greenville in 18S7, as well as the two above these, built in 1SS9, were destroyed by the caving back of the bend above, allowing the river during the high water of 1891 to form a channel between the shore ends and the bank. The bank recession at this locality in three months was from two hundred and fifty to nine hundred feet, at present the main river is between where these dikes were and the present shore line on the Mississippi side. The defect of spurs as a revetment for bank pro- tection is the under-cutting near their outer ends and the undermining due to the eddy action set up between them, in a great many cases necessi- tating the placing of revetment between the dikes to prevent the caving extending back so as to en- danger the shore ends of the spurs. On another page is a view of one of the dikes in process of construction at Greenville, and is a fair representative of the manner of construction used in the upper parts of the river. The cost of bank protection by spurs placed five hundred feet apart would be about twenty dollars per lineal foot, or about two-thirds the cost of con- tinuous revetment as now constructed. The cost of the spurs built at Greenville was approximately ten thousand dollars each. The lower six dikes, built in 1887 at Greenville, are still intact; the upper six. as before noted, were destroyed by the caving back of the bend above flanking their shore ends. The dikes below Mem- phis have served the purpose for which they were constructed and at the other points are stated to have given fairly satisfactory results. In 1888 a system of detached revetment consist- ing of patches of continuous woven mat revetment eleven hundred feet long, separated by intervals of unprotected bank, three hundred feet, four hun- dred feet and five hundred feet long was tried at Plum Point Reach. This was only partially suc- cessful as the bank caved away in the spaces be- tween the mats ultimately doing great injury to the part of the bank which had been revetted. The method of protecting a caving bank by continuous revetment as now generally followed, is: First. To grade the upper bank to a practically uniform slope of from three to four to one. This is usually done before the mats are constructed, although in some instances it has been found ad- visable to do the grading afterwards on account of the character of the material. This grading is usually done by a hydraulic grader especially de- signed for the purpose with powerful pumps, forc- ing water at one liundred and sixty pounds pres- sure through a line of four-inch hose and discharg- ing through a nozzle from one and one-half to one and three-quarters inches in diameter directed against the steep bank. Usually the banks can be brought to a fairly uniform grade by this means, but in some cases where the material is fine sand or silt, the slope gullies badly and large holes are washed out b)' the force of the stream, which re- quire filling. Scrapers and shovels are used for this purpose and for smoothing" the irregularities left by the grader. The top of the banks is from thirty to forty feet above low water and in many cases with a very steep slope, in fact nearly vertical; to bring these banks to an even grade requires the removal of from ten thousand to fifteen thousand cubic yards of material every one hundred lineal ;> , ,U !■'_-'.=< ". til, . 1 ' .„...'«^ CONSTRUCTING SUBMERGED SPUR. FASCINE MATTRESS COMPLETED. BUlLDlNGiFASCINE MATTRESS. TYING ENDS OF LEVEE TO PREVENT WIDENING OF BREAK. Past— Present— Prospective 87 feet of bank. The bulk of this material can be cheaply and expeditiously moved by this method of grading and if the material is suitable the grade is left smooth and even. When the under-water slope is very steep it sometimes happens that the bank caves after being- graded before the foot of the under-water slope can be protected by a, mattress. Plates Al and 'A2 show a b?mk of this class in the process of caving. This instance occurred in the writer's experience in front of Green\'ille, Miss. About one thousand lineal feet of bank had been graded at a very considerable expense with scrap- ers and shovels, as it was not deemed advisable to use the hydraulic grader on account of the prox- imity of the main levee which it was feared might be injured. The slope had nearly been finished when suddenh', without warning, the bank began to cave, and in a few minutes the entire graded portion caved into the river,- nearly swamping the grader and rendering necessary the regrading of the entire slope. Second. After the upper bank has been brought to a uniform slope the next step is the construction of the mattress which is to form the subaqueous re\'etment. These mattresses are from two hun- dred to three hundred feet wide and of varying lengths, depending upon locality, depth and veloc- ity of current and stage of water. The usual lengths are from six hundred to twelve hundred feet. The old style of wo^'en mat, which has hereto- fore been used, has been discarded and replaced with the fascine, type during the past few years, on account of its greater pliability allowing it to bet- ter adjust itself to changes in the bottom, and its greater ci.impactness and thickness affording Ijettcr protection against scour. A description of build- ing fascine mats in the Third District is given be- I0W3 and in all except some minor details will answer as a general description of this class of work on-the river. These mattresses are constructed of willow brush and poles,' the dimensions of the brush are from two to four inches at the loutts, and from thirty to fifty feet long, and of the poles from three to six inches in diameter at the butts and from thirt}- to thirty-three feet in length. This material is cut on the sand bars and banks of the river, loaded on barges and transported to the site of the work where it is made into fascines forming the mattresses. The dimensions of the fascines are from twelve to fifteen inches in diameter when completed and in place in the mat, each fascine being continuous across the entire width of the mat. The fascines are made and put together on mat boats, ^ or weaving barges, specially designed -for the purpose. These boats are one hundred and sixty feet long, thirty-eight feet wide and five feet deep. Two boats are lashed together, end to end, making practically a single boat three hundred and twenty feet long, skids eight feet apart are con- structed across these boats above the deck, these ha\-e an inclination of one on four to allow the mattress to slide oiT readily when being launched. The skids extend out beyond the side of the boat fourteen feet, so that the ends of the skids are about at the water's surface, and the change in direction of the completed portion of the mat on the water and that lying on the skids is not abrupt. Behind the skids a platform is constructed abo\'e the deck of the mat boat on which the men stand while making the fascines, the material being deliv- ered on barges moored to the lower side of the mat boat convenient for handling. At the end of'each skid at the platform iS an iron^ voke in which the fascines are formed, pivoted so as to swing back when the fascine is finished, and allow the fascine to slide down tlie skids to be in- corporated in the mat. , Under the, platform at each ski(l are placed reels of wire strand which form the bottom cables, these underneath cables extend under the mat the full length of the mat in one continuous length. The general dimensions of the bottom cables are five-sixteenths inches in diameter, five-eighths inches being used near the outer edge and at in- tervals through the outer one-half of the mat, three eight-inch cables are used in place of the five-sixteenths to give additional strength in strong- currents. '■ The wire strand used is composed of galvanized steel wire annealed, the five-eights.-inch cables hav- ing nineteen wires to the strand and the smaller sizes seven. In fastening the sewing cables to the longitudinal cables clips or clamps are used every ten feet. The silicon bronze wire used for binding the poles to the fascines is No. 9, and the galvanized wire used for other fastening is No. 12. 8S Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : Past— Present— Prospective 89 tt£ 'JMP!S^'~ I' o u V ^; 90 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; In building a fascine mat the head of tlie mat is first constructed. This consists of a header which is formed of large poles built in the form of a fas- cine from two to two and one-half feet in diameter, securely spiked and Ijound together with wire and cable; a second header is built about six feet below this, around both these headers are the straps to which are fastened the shackles or head cables that hold the mattress in place during construction and sinking. These straps are tive-eights-inch strand, one double strap tq each head cable, the distances between the head cables vary from eight feet at the outer edge to sixty or even eighty feet inshore, depending on the depth of water and velocity of the current. The head of the mat is Iniilt on the mat barges and held up I)y slip lines on the mooring barges which are placed at right angles to the shore. The mooring barges are held in position by lines and cables fastened to the shore, and the mat itself is held in place during construction by independent wire cables one inch in diameter passing under the mooring barges to other fastenings on shore; the length of these head cables var)- from eight lum- dred to fourteen hundred feet, depending on the configuration of the jjank; their number depending on length of mat, velocity of current and stage of water. The method of building fascines is to lay the brush in the yokes as it is taken from the material barges, care being used to distriljute the butts and reverse the direction of the brush so that the fas- cine will be of uniform strength. When the yokes are filled the fascine is held loosely together by passing around it a No. 12 wire at intervals of about fifteen or twenty feet, the yokes are swung back by levers that operate a number of yokes at once and the fascine slides dow n the skids to be in- corporated in the mat. The sewing cable, one-quar- ter inch in diameter, is then passed over the fas- cine, then down and under it and around the bot- tom cable and up again between the fascine and the one already finished in the mat. A set of blocks is then attached to the sewing cable and the cable hauled taut, the brush in the fascines being at the same time compacted by pounding with wooden mauls. The sewing cable is then fastened to the fascines with staples, or clamped to the bottom cable to hold the strain until another fascine is put in place. The sewing cable is clamped to the bot- tom cable at intervals of ten feet as the mat is built, so that the fascine cannot slip apart. This is continued until the mat is of the desired length. Occasionally to give additional strength cables of three-eighths or five-eighths inch strand are laid on top of the mat, these strands are fastened to the level of the mat similar to the under neath cables and clamped to the weaving strand. After twenty or twenty-five feet of the mat has been finished on the skids, it is launched by releasing the tension on the under cables, which are wound on reels underneath the platform and held taut by brakes, and slacking the dropping lines fastened to the mooring barges and mat boats. These lines are two inches in diameter, one at each end and one in the middle. Longi- tudinal lines of poles are placed on top of the mat eight feet apart and are wired to t^he mat wiLii silicon bronze wire at intervals of from eight to ten feet. The poles are not spliced so as to allow of greater pliability to the mat. On top of the longi- tudinal poles a series of poles are placed trans- verse, extending from the outer edge of the mat in towards the shore a distance of from thirty to fifty feet. These are securely wired and spiked to the under poles and form cribs or pockets to prevent the stone from sliding off the mat where the un- der-water section of the bottom is steep. After being completed the mat is ballasted by evenly distributing from stone barges moored along the outside of the mat a sufficient quantity of stone to destroy the bouyancy of the mat and submerge it nearly to the water's surface; this stone is usually distributed with wheelbarrows, about one hundred pounds per square yard of stone is usually required for this purpose. When this has been done addi- tional stone is thrown on the head of the mat from the mooring barges to sink it sufficiently to allow loaded barges of stone to be floated across the mat immediately below the mooring barges. These barges are then lashed together, end to end, ex- tending across the full width of the mat, and al- lowed to drift down over the mat, being regulated by dropping lines from the mooring barges, a large force of men on the barges at the same time rapidly throwing off stone on the partially sub- merged mat until it sinks to its place on the bot- tom. Each mat as it is constructed, overlaps the preceding one from fifteen to twenty-five feet. After the mat is in place the mooring cables are unfastened from the head of the mat, the moor- ing barges shifted to a new position and the pro- Past— Present- cess is repeated until the whole length of bank to be revetted is covered. Third. The upper bank slope above low water, which has previously been iDrought to a uniform grade, is then covered with stone rip-rap closely laid by hand, the thickness of the covering varying from six inches, where not exposed to strong cur- rents, to ten inches in more exposed places. The construction and sinking of these large mat- tresses at times present many difficulties. The principal danger of loss or disaster in sinking is due to a sudden rise in the river which l)rings down great ciuantities of drift. This accumulates under the mooring barges and the mat itself inducing excessive strains on the mooring lines and the mat. Mats have been torn apart from this cause and lost. When it is considered that some of the larger mats contain more than eight acres of material, the difficulty of holding this mass in a current of between three and four miles per hour, and sinking it safely to the bottom with a depth of water from sixty to eighty feet, some idea of the magnitude and risk of the undertaking will be understood. The average quantity of material required for a lineal foot of bank revetment, with a sub-aqueous mat three hundred feet wide of the fascine type, and the upper bank slope paved with ri[)-rap from six to ten inches in depth, is as follows: Brush, per lineal foot 5.0 cords Poles, per lineal foot 0.2 cords Wire cable and wire strand T4.0 pounds Wire spikes 0.2 pounds Wire staples O.-t pounds Galvanized wire 11.0 pounds Silicon bronze wire T.O pounds Cable clamps 1.5 pounds Stone . . 0.5 cu. yds. The cost per lineal foot of the completed work may be taken as about $30.00. The excessive cost of this class of work has necessarily limited its general use, and until some cheaper plan is devised this method of protection will no doubt be confined to the most important points and used as a protection to important levees situated near the river banks, to prevent cut-offs; and the caving in front of the towns and cities. Below is given the plant required for a large party engaged in this work, capable of completing" -Prospective 91 in one low water season (about seven months), from nine to ten thousand lineal feet: Number and Designation. Value. 2 tow boats $ 80,000.00 1 harbor boat or tug 8,000.00 5 boats for men's quarters 20,000.00 i mat boats 20,000.00 4 mooring barges 10,000.00 30 material barges 90,000.00 i fuel boats 8,000.00 2 hydraulic graders 40,000.00 20 skiffs and yawls 1,000.00 Tools and mess outfits 5,000.00 Total $288,000.00 The revetment for the protection of caving banks since its inception has shown a continual and gradual increase in the thickness and width, beginning with short, narrow mats of one hundred feet or so in width, of slight structure, until at the present the widths of the standard mats are from two and one-half to three times the width of those first constructed, often a thousand feet or more in length and containing more than twice the quan- tity of material. The latter mats are the largest and most sub- stantial of any built and used for river improvement in the world, and their successful construction and manipulation in sinking has come from the skill and knowledge derived from years of experience. While always successful to a certain extent in accomplishing the purpose for which they were de- signed, they are all subject to an attack along their outer edges, and through the body of the mats. In strong currents the effect has been to counter- mine tlieir outer edges, or even scour through the mats themselves. To provide against serious injury from these at- tacks it was found necessary to more than double the thickness and width of the mats as originally Ijuilt and also to make them more pliable, so that they would more readily adjust themselves to changes in the bottom. These requirements have led to the development of the present fascine type of mattress alio\'e described, which ma}' be taken as perhaps the best and strongest mat of this class yet devised for revetment purposes. It is not the intention of this paper to discuss the merits of levees as adjuncts to channel im- provement. 92 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r The effect on the low water channel of confining the flood waters between levees is a subject that has not been thoroughly investigated and upon Avhich we have comparatively little data. Levees, by increasing the heights of the natural banks of the river and confining the flood discharge between them and increasing the velocity of cur- rent, have the effect of enlarging the high water channel, and at the same time the result of con- fining the discharge within narrower limits, while increasing the depth of water also increases the height of the flood. The great benefit of levees is in protecting the valley from annual inundations and facilitating nav- igation and commercial intercourse during the time of floods by providing artificial banks. The levee system is being gradually perfected and as the work approaches completion we shall have less and less of disastrous floods on the Lower Mis- sissippi. SOME OF THE MEN WHO BUILD LEVEES ON THE GREAT MISSISSIPPI -A GROUP AT A "LEVEE LETTING" AT GREENVILLE, MISS. Past— Present— Prospective 93 THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER— WHAT IT NEEDS AND WHY IT NEEDS IT By smith S. leach, Maj. Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. The popular conception of the Mississippi river is that it is simply a stream of water; that its chan- nel is nothing more than a containing vessel, ob- livious of its contents; that its floods are only the spilling out of a portion of the water at times when the vessel is too small for its purpose, and that the remed}' for such an overflowing river is the same as for an overflowing tub. The Mississippi is a stream of water, to be sure, but it is very much more than that. The water carries in suspension a varying but always consid- erable quantit}' of sediment. Its channel is a plas- tic conduit, formed by the river itself, and as sen- sitive to its demands as a mother to the caress of her child, undergoing incessant changes in response to the moods of the current. These changes, so far as they afl'ect the capacitj' of the channel to do its work, are of two kinds, one of which makes the bed larger and is beneficial, while the other makes it smaller and is detrimental. Both depend upon the ability of the water, considered as a vehicle, to carry the sediment, considered as its load. The vehicular power of the water is derived solely from the fact that it is in motion, and the best index of this power is the amount of motion as represented in the velocity. Changes which make the channel larger are caused by the moving water taking up material from the bed and carrying it away and are the result of accelerated velocity. Changes which make the channel smaller are caused by a portion of the sediment in suspension being deposited on the bottom and are the result of diminished veloc- ity. The conditions of the problem are so infinitely various that no exact relation has been or can be established between the velocity of flowing water and its sediment-carrying power. But thousands of concordant observations demonstrate that no matter with what velocity the river is flowing, and no matter what amount of sediment it may be carrying, if the velocity be decreased, some of the sediment will be deposited. The converse of the proposition, though ecjually true in the aggregate, is more subject to exception in individual cases. A man is ever more ready to lay down a burden than to take one up, and can carry a load which he could not lift, and a river may be excused for man- ifesting a like disposition. Changes unfavoral)le to the efficiency of the channel being produced with greater facility than those favorable, the general tendency of the river in its natural condition is to deteriorate. The channel which the river now has is the net result of its present silt-transporting power. Any channel which it may ha\'e in the future will be the result of the same cause, the then silt-transporting power, and will be better or worse than the present one accordingly as the silt-moving power of the stream has been increased or diminished by natural agencies or human effort. In all questions of the regimen of this river and of changes in it for the purpose of improvement, the matter of first and paramount importance is the effect upon the ve- locity. Every scheme advanced, no matter by whom or for what reasons, should be at once sub- jected to this crucial test and made to stand or fall by the result. Any plan, the result of which is to diminish the velocity throughout a section of the channel, is vicious and the advantages promised by it illusory. Plans which tend to conserve or in- crease the velocity are beneficial, and any disad- vantages which may accompany them will be tem- porary. The velocity is the unerring touchstone which distinguishes the true metal of every ap- plicant for favor, which discovers an enemy in the flattering and boastful outlet, and discloses a friend in the conservative and commonplace levee. The escape of water from the channel of the river at any point or under any circumstances is accompanied by a reduction of velocity below the point of escape, and by deposits in the area of re- duced velocity. A steeper slope is required to maintain the discharge through the diminished 94 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River cross-section, and the increased slope is oljtainable depression of flood surface proportionate to the onl_v by an increased height of flood surface alDO^;e amount of water taken out, and now it appears the obstruction. Numerous actual measureiuents that this last survi\'ing hope is shattered. The re- in the bed of the river preclude anj^ doubt of the lief aft'orded is so trifling as compared with the ef- truth of this proposition. They prove that the fort and risk of obtaining it, the efl^ect so insignifi- escape of water from the channel is accompanied cant as compared with its cause, that if all the evils by deposits below, which fact granted, the other of outlets were discredited, there would still be no changes stated follow as consequences of the ele- excuse for making them. A mountain in labor to mentary laws of hydraulics. The results have been bring forth a mouse does not surpass such a pro- published in detail and so widely distributed that jcct as an example of fruitless endeavor. persons desiring information can easily obtain them, and those otherwise inclined would not be benefited by their repetition here. One instance, however, of recent occurrence and of momentous significance will be given. During the flood of 1890 a crevasse in the levee at Nita, La., on the east bank, about CO miles above New Orleans, having a width of 3,000 feet and a The size and form of the channel are the results of the effort of the stream, the size determining its sufficiency as a flood chain, and the form its useful- ness as a route for navigation. That both are de- fective is not because the energy is lacking, but because it is misdirected. It has already been inti- mated that less energy is required to prevent a de- posit than to remove it after it is made. So, also. depth of 15 feet, Avas found by actual measurement it is far easier to maintain a channel once formed to have a discharge of 400,000 cubic feet per sec- than to open a new one. The river has ample en- ond, or 30 per cent of the entire discharge of the ergy to maintain a channel of proper navigable river immediately above the crevasse. As the re- sult of this great outlet the depression of flood sur- face immediately below the break, where there is a permanent gauge, was one and one-half feet, while at New Orleans, 60 miles below, it was only one foot, and at Plaquemine, 50 miles above, this crev- asse had no eft'ect at all. This case shows con- depth and discharging capacity if it can be made to work, as every agency should work to the best advantage and without waste of efTort. That it does not so work is due to the fact that the discharge and ele\'ation of the surface are moment- arily changing, and with them the positions of bank lines and the location and direction of the clusively that even the engineers who have opposed line of greatest velocity and maximum effort. No outlets for the reasons above set forth, have con- sooner is a sufficient channel obtained in one place ceded entirely too much as to the immediate relief than the current leaves it to be obliterated by de- posits, while the work which would have easily maintained it is wasted in scouring out a new and inferior one, or perhaps dissipated among several. Every mile of the river is a witness to the truth of this proposition, since the places where the thalweg is stable in position are invariably good, and those where it is shifting are invariably bad. No excep- tion to this rule can be found betwen Cairo and aft'orded by depression of flood surface, both in its amount and its extent, and have, Ijy their frank- ness, given unwarranted aid and comfort to the outlet supporters. That outlets must disappoint the expectations of their advocates as to the amount of lowering of flood surface, for a given volume to escape, was noted by the able pioneers in this subject. Generals Humphreys and Abljott. Lacking actual measurements, they supported the the Gulf. proposition by a very ingenious method of indirect What nature has failed to do, and what remains proof, which showed in part, but not completely, for man to accomplish in order to fit the Mississip- the futility of outlets as a means of flood relief, pi river to his wants and uses, is summed up in the In the case of this year, just cited, an actual outlet one word, control. Guide the current as the skil- was in operation, and all the quantities involved ful workman guides his tool, and it will not fail to were directly measured. It is a gigantic clinic upon car\^e out a channel commensurate in size with the an aggravated case of the outlet plague, and shows magnificent agency employed and worthy of the that as a means of inoculation against overflows the greatest of rivers, traversing and draining the most outlet is a distinct failure. It has long been con- fruitful and prosperous of countries, ceded that nothing, in the way of benefits could be The requisite control is to be obtained by a par- looked for from an outlet, except a temporary local tial reversal of the present relations of the stream Past— Present— Prospective 95 and its l^ecl. It has been shown that the channel is the ready servant, the stream the imperious mas- ter. The inconstant current seeks a change, and the subservient shore retires before it. In this re- spect, as regards the sides of the cliannel, the pres- ent relation of master and slave must be reversed. The servile banks must be strengthened and in- cited to revolt against their tyrant and to impose a like bondage in return. The current, no longei able to shift at will, devotes its energy to scouring out the bottom, working constantly on the same line and always to the best advantage. The stream, acting under such constraint, will mold its channel to the largest attainable size and discharg- ing capacity, and in the form best adapted to the needs of navigation. Although this is a statement of theories, it may not be amiss to interject a word as to practice. Types of structures have been evolved in the short exjaerience already had, which may be relied upon to do the work expected of them, and which can be constructed at reasonable cost. A caving bank can be protected or a secondary channel closed with as much certainty as pertains to tlie building of a road or the digging" of a canal. Moreover, these structures have been built at a cost which will allow them to be applied to the entire river with- out exceeding the sum which the city of Man- chester proposes to pay for a canal connecting her with deep water in the Mersey. Control by means of protected banks is com- plete and sufficient only so long as the river is within its banks. When it rises above their le\'el the control becomes partial and necessarily inade- quate. In years of great floods the surface of the water is above the natural bank level from two months at Cairo to six months at New Orleans. Without artificial restraint nearly one-third of the entire discharge of the river at extreme flood takes place outside its proper channel, as was the case in 1882 above Vicksburg and in 181)0 above Helena. The proportion decreases as the bank level is ap- proached, but the aggregate loss of volume during a flood period is enormous It has been shown that the fundamental principle upon which the im- provement is based is the control of the water in the channel. To allow large quantities to escape, reaching at times one-third the whole, does vio- lence to ever}' idea which can possibly be associated with the word control. Water flowing in the chan- nel is the agency of improvement, and when any of it escapes a part of the potential goes with it, and a corresponding measure of the improvement is sacrificed. The current is to be guided so as to do the desired work; the more water the more cur- rent, and the more current the more work. \\'hen the volume is at a maximum the current has its greatest capacity for work, and will then produce results beyond those which it can attain at anv other time. To secure the greatest possible im- provement of the channel it is necessary that the greatest attainable volume of water be made to flow through the channel. That this condition is not realized when a large volume is escaping over the sides needs but to be stated to be conceded. The necessary control of the current beyond that produced by the natural banks, reinforced In' pro- tective works, is eft'ected by means of artificial em- bankments placed on the shores, and of sufficient height to restrain the highest floods. Logicallv they should follow the shape of the banks, and in practice they do so as far as other and controlling- conditions permit. Prevention of escape is control in a large measure, and for that purpose levees, as now built, are fully eft'ective, for they limit the es- cape to the relatively insignificant volume con- tained Ijctween them and the edges of the channel. The difference between the effect of a given dim- inution of velocity in producing deposit and that of equal acceleration in producing scour has been noted. The distinction is a very important one, and finds a new application in this connection. It makes possible a great number of the improved channels in other waters, which have been opened by dredging and have then been maintained by the force of a current which had been powerless to ex- cavate them. Deposit is by its nature a gradual operation, requiring time for its accomplishment, and therefore depending on average conditions. Scour is a more sudden phenomenon, and largely depends on maximum conditions. It is a matter of common observation on all silt-bearing streams that deposits decrease rapidly in rate at higher levels and rarely extend above the average flood plane. The \'elocity, which represents the possi- bility of scour, increases regularly when under con- trol to the extreme flood level, the increment for the last foot of rise being as great as for any other foot. A mistaken analog}- with the depositing action has caused too much weight to be g-i\'en to the element of time in producing scour, and has given color to the idea that control of high waters 96 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River might proper!}- cease at some stage below extreme flood. The utmost Hmit of channel development, which means the greatest measure of improvement, will result from the greatest intensity of the force which creates the channel and from no other cause. That greatest intensity of errosive force will result from the complete restraint of the greatest floods and from no other cause. Great floods recurring at intervals of several years and confined to the bed of the river will create a channel which but for such floods and such restraint never could be created. That channel periodically established, the lesser intervening floods will maintain at a size greater than they could themselves have produced, so that the degree of improvement as maintained will de- pend upon the magnitude of the greatest floods which are controlled and will reach a maximum only when all floods are controlled. In its natural condition the channel deteriorates. The deterioration must be stopped and a condition of improvement substituted. The cause of the de- terioration is the escape of water from the channel. The remedy is to remove the cause, which can only be done by confining the floods. The im- provement of the channel is to be effected by the control of the current. The control at all stages, within or above the banks, will be more effective if the floods are restrained. To depend upon chan- nel works alone is to attempt the improvement with the causes of deterioration in full activity, and is as great a waste of effort as to draw a wagon with the brake set. The complete restraint of floods stops the deterioration of the channel, and at the same time develops to the highest possible degree the forces which tend to its betterment. By a happy coincidence the construction of levees re- alizes a combination of the greatest force for im- provement and the least resistance to its action. That larger results will be obtained under these conditions than can be hoped for otherwise does not admit of a doubt. That the importance of the Mississippi river, the magnitude of the interests depending upon it, and its influence as a factor in the prosperity of the whole country, deserve and demand the most complete and perfect improve- ment attainable is equally certain. If any proposition more than another is incon- sistent with everything that has been stated in this paper, it is one which has obtained wide currency and on which opposition to levee building is largely based, that levees cause deposits in the channel and thereby raise the bed of the river. The votaries of this doctrine ignore the testimony of the Mis- sissippi itself, which is conclusive against them, and depend upon an alleged analogy with the Yellow river of China, about which no one knows any- thing, and with the Po, of which everything that is known refutes their hypothesis. Another argument against the attempt to con- fine the floods is that it is an impossible undertak- ing; that it never has been accomplished and never can be. The facts are that the flood of 1897 was the largest on record from Memphis to the Gulf; that it was confined between levees over the same distance with a loss of only one mile in 200, as against one in 22 in 1882, one in 35 in 1883 and one in 120 in 1884. If this be failure what is suc- cess? A reasonable man will not abandon a cher- ished undertaking while his resources are unex- hausted, and his last effort is markedly more suc- cessful than any previous one. ^^^ith the advantages of levees unappreciated, their difficulties exaggerated and dangers asserted when none exist, it is small wonder that the cause has languished, and that its active advocates have been suspected of carrying their convictions and their purses in the same pocket. Private interest has compelled the residents of the Mississippi val- ley to study the question, and study it deeply. They have learned by that study that there is a public interest, which will be benefited jointly with their private welfare by the construction and main- tenance of a system of levees, and their appeal has no more sinister purpose than to secure an equit- able co-operation of that joint interest in the pur- suit of the common object. />3as^^3 ?fpS5j z < o 98 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River Past— Present— Prospective 99 "A MATCHLESS SYSTEM OF MAJESTIC WATERWAYS" By HON. CHARLES SCOTT, of Mississippi Address of Hon. Charles Scott of Mississippi as Permanent Chairman of Convention on the Im- provement of Western Waterways, Memphis, Tenn., November 14, 1899. Ladies, Geutlciucn of Ihc Coiivcntion, and Fcllow- Cit!::;cJis : As I confront this assemblage of distinguished American citizens, delegates from all parts of this imperial valley, I instinctively recall the pleasant fact that history is repeating itself here to-day in this hospitable and progressive city. Who among you, gentlemen, at this bare suggestion, will fail to recall the historic convention that met in the city of Memphis in 184:5? It assembled here on November 13 of that year, a notable gathering of strong and distinguished men. In the mind's eye, I can see them now. There they are, over five hundred strong; the intellectual sons of the sunny South, and brainy men from the golden grain fields of the stalwart West. Holding imperial domina- tion over their deliberations, I see the great South Carolinian, Jno. C Calhoun, gavel in hand, as he arises to address his peers. With countenance "sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought," and a brow plowed with the deep furrows of melancholy and anxious meditation, he holds his audience en- tranced as he gazes out from those wondrous, deep sunken eyes; while over all and above all shines the light of a majestic intellect. What changes, what mighty changes, ladies and gentlemen, have come to us and our common country since the great nullifier, as he was some- times called, rapped his gavel in Memphis fifty- four years ago ! The lone star of Texas, as you will remember, was then shining over a territory that still pre- served its autonomy as a separate and indeiJendent republic. Since then it has become a part of the resplendent galaxy of American States, brought there by the influence and powerful intellect of the wonderful man whose name I have just mentioned. Then could be first heard from afar the murmur- ings of civil discord; and in reading the proceed- ings of that convention one cannot fail to observe the extreme care of the North and the South, lest the one should touch the keen sensibilities of the other. That strife (alas ! not to be avoided) grew louder and louder, until it broke over this fair land in a most terrific struggle, which, thank God, was finally and forever adjusted without loss of sacred honor to either section. (Applause.) And now, my countrymen, this storm allayed, the white and red roses of the North and South will cling to- gether so long as time shall last. (Prolonged ap- plause.) But, what of the city of Memphis in those days of the long ago? This magnificent city, now the meeting place, or terminus, of twelve lines of busy railroads; the home of ten banking institutions of ample capital; the largest inland cotton market in the world; the largest hardwood lumber market on the continent; the gateway to the fertile fields of Arkansas and Mississippi, was then, ladies, as Cleopatra would have said, "in her green and salid days;" entertaining for the first time perhaps, a large gathering of distinguished strangers within her gates. But, even then — "Standing with reluctant feet, Where the brook and river meet," the beauteous young city gave every promise of the future development which has since made her, as one of your local orators recently said, "The Queen City of the A^alley, God bless her." (Ap- plause.) And in saying this, believe me, I intend no idle compliment, because from my youth up I have always loved and admired Memphis and her noble people. A Mississippian bv birth, it was my good fortune, years ago, to attend her public schools for awhile, and afterwards it fell to my lot to follow the proud oriflamme of her matchless cavalryman, Bedford Forrest, whose brave and dar- LofC. 100 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : ing deeds are destined to live forever in song- and story. (Great applause.) It was doul5tless this early promise of future greatness whicli secured for Memphis the distinc- tion of entertaining the remarkahle convention which I have just mentioned. I trust you will par- don me, gentlemen, for dwelling somewhat at length upon that important assemblage. I do so because from it I think we can draw some practical lessons of useful wisdom. First: Let us recall the object of that meeting. For what did those chstin- guished men assemble here? What brought them together? In answering these questions we must confess that the scope of their labors was far broader and more dif^cult than ours. They were expected to discover and point out the ways and means for the development of the resources of all the Western and Southern States. Think what a gigantic task ! What a wide range for the imagina- tion ! What a broad field for the brightest and most aggressive intellect! And yet — and this is the point I desire to make with you, gentlemen of the Convention — when boiled down by the great- est analyst ever known to a long and brilliant line of American statesmen, it resolved itself at last simply into A QUESTION OF CHEAP AND RAPID TRANSPORTATION. If there was one characteristic above all others, saving alone the rugged and unswerving integrity of his character, for which Jno. C. Calhoun was justlv distinguished, it was for that keen, subtle, penetrating power of analysis, which carried him straight to the heart of his subject, "on wings as swift as meditation, or the thoughts of love." You will not be surprised, then, that going like an ar- row to the mark, he used words, which are as preg- nant with meaning to-day as they were then, and which I now quote literally from the celebrated speech of Calhoun's, delivered when his eloquent and potential voice was last heard in this admiring city : 'T approach, now, gentlemen, the important question: How shall we, who inhabit this vast region, develop its great resources? For this pur- pose there is one thing needed, and only one, that is, that we shall get a fair remunerative price for all that we may produce. If we can obtain such price, this vast region, imder the active industry of its intelligent and enterprising inhabitants, will become the garden of the world. "How is this to be effected? There is but one mode by which it can be done, and that is to en- large our market in jjroportion to the increase of production. This can be obtained only in one way, and that is by free and ready transit for persons and merchandise between the various portions of this vast region, and between it and the other por- tions of the Union and the rest of the world." (Ap- plause.) So said Calhoun. And this question of cheap and rapid transit for persons and merchandise is as important to-day as it was fifty-four j'ears ago. Indeed, it is the same always, yesterday, to-day, and forever. What is individual effort in the way of furnishing transportation on an extensive scale? It is a snare and a delusion. It is like unto sound- ing brass and a tinkling cymbal. The census of 1880 gives some interesting and instructive statis- tics along this line. It shows, as a result of investi- gation, that it costs the producer to remove his grain by wagon from 5 to 10 mills per bushel per mile. Why, gentlemen, any of the railroad cor- porations, that it is our great American privilege to abuse, can, and do, move a man's grain for him per ton at the same price it would cost him to transport it per hnshcl. And with convenient and abundant water transportation it can in many cases be moved still cheaper. In short, this question of cheap and rapid transit is one that concerns now and always the prosperity of the entire country. You should rejoice then and be glad, oh ye dwell- ers of the valley, that nature has provided you with A MATCHLESS SYSTEM OF MAJESTIC WATER-WAYS. (Applause.) But, these rivers, aptly called by Senator Turley in his eloquent speech this morning, "God's eternal highways," are not presented to us by the hand of nature, as generous as she is, in perfect condition for commercial purposes. They need the aid of art and science to develop them to their fullest extent, and when that is done, gentlemen of the Conven- tion, this fertile valley will at last attain the full measure of its glorious destiny. (Applause.) A talented writer has recently called it "the heart of the country, its granary and its workship," and when our noble and magnificent water-ways are properly improved, as they should be, and as they must be, then it will become the numerical, finan- cial, and intellectual center of this, the grandest Past— Present— Prospective 101 nation known to ancient or modern civilization. (Applause.) How, then, is this important work to be accom- plished? How, gentlemen of the Convention, ex- cept through Congressional appropriations? And this brings us face to face with the practical part of the work of this distinguished assembly. It will be 3'our task to help mold public opinion, and to so direct the public sentiment of the country that when we next apply to Congress for money to im- prove the vast system of Western water-ways it will flow hitherwarcl in a copious and golden stream. (Applause.) I know it is said by some, perhaps by many, that "this is an inopportune time to secure government appropriations: that we are now engaged in a tedious and costly war with the Philippines for which enormous sums of money must go out of the public treasury, to the exhaustion of our re- sources." Now, my fellow-citizens, let me say right here, if it would take one cent from the suc- cessful prosecution of a foreign war, I for one would say, let our water-ways remain forever as they are. (Applause.) I am a Democrat. I have never known any other political faith, but, gentle- men, we are one people, one nation, and when we are engaged in war with a foreign foe, it is time for every citizen of this great republic to uphold the hands of the President in his wise and patriotic efforts to maintain the honor and prestige of the American flag. (Great demonstration and ap- plause.) But there is no scarcity of money. Bless you, ladies and gentlemen, ]\Iiss Columbia can easily spank little Aguinaldo with a slipper in one of her dainty hands while she signs checks with the other for the impro\ement of our Western water-ways. (Laughter and cheers.) It was only to-day that I noticed a telegram in the great Mem- phis "daily," the Commercial-Appeal, from Wash- ington City, alluding to the rapid growth of the surplus in the treasury. The writer said, among other things, that if it continued to grow at the present rate, by the 1st of September next, the treasury would have as a cash balance more than three hundred and fifty millions of dollars. Why not relieve the oilrcials, pray, of some of this em- barrassment? AVe can use $100,000,000 of it so quick it will make their heads swim, and every dollar of it will be so much bread cast upon the zvatcrs to return to the nation after many days. (Applause.) I know there are always objectors, and objectors loud and long, to these expenditures for internal improvements. It has been ever thus. But the day has passed w hen a statesman can safely bottom his reputation on a proposition of that kind. The "watchdog" business has been overdone. The fact is, it is now pretty well conceded that these "watch- dogs of the treasury," as they are sometimes called, are those dogs who desire to take both the meat and the bones for their own special districts, and leave the other dogs to be content with the shadow. (Laughter.) These "fanatics of conservatism," as some one, I believe Carl Schurz, as apth- called them, have gone down forever before a pronounced public sentiment, which permeates this whole coun- try in fax'or of a wise and progressive system of internal impro\'ements. Uncle Sam has concluded, at last, I am glad to say, to put some part of his money where it will do the most good, in the bet- terment of the country's water-ways. (Applause.) Now, gentlemen, I shall not presume to outline any part of your important labors. In all such matters your judgment and wisdom are your best and surest guides. You are here as the representatives of 35,000,000 people, inhabiting a territory containing about 11 per cent of the whole area of the United States, eliminating our outlying possessions. It is un- a\'oidable, therefore, that there should be many divergent interests to be considered: but, it is not necessary that any of these interests should clash; at least, to a serious extent. Harmony and co- operation, let me remind you, are essential to our success. AVe must present now, and always, an unbroken front to Congress, in demanding national aid for the AA^estern water-ways, and then we will not fail to get all we can reasonably desire. W^Tile it is unnecessary for me to go into details, I feel that a few suggestions may not be out of place. And the first thing that occurs to me is this : THE SM.-VLLER WATER-WAYS of the country should receive due consideration at your hands, and more liberal treatment at the hands of the general government. (Applause.) Many of these smaller streams, as the great Levee Champion, General Catchings, well said this morn- ine', are almost unknown outside of the committee 102 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : room of the Rivers and Harbors Committee. And yet they are of vast importance to the country and its development. I am fully aware of the fact that the appropriations to the smaller streams have been effectively used more than once as an argument against the rivers and harbors bill. But, it has al- ways occurred to me that those streams — streams, for instance, like the Ouachita, the Arkansas, the Monongahela, the Yazoo, and hundreds of others — are in every way worthy of Congressional recog- nition. (Applause.) They are just as important to the people in their \icinity as is the Mississippi river to those who live adjacent to its banks. In- deed, it may be said that tJicy arc as indispensable as the country roads, to which they may well be likened, and they should l)e recognized in any in- telligent system which seeks to give the country the full benefit of its streams and rivers. Passing from these smaller water-ways, we are now to consider the great Father of Waters, and find it in need of help throughout its entire course. Commencing at the twin cities of ST. PAUL AND MINNEAPOLIS, which, year by year, are reaching out their arms, each to the other, until the time is not far distant when they will at last constitute one magnificent city, the pride of the great Northwest, we find the people there have their peculiar needs, which should be carefully guarded and gratified. Thence, coming south to THE MIGHTY MISSOURI RIVER, twenty-five hundred miles of which are said to be navigable, we find many problems demanding the attention of the general government. This noble stream flowing through the great grain fields of the Northwest, is of such overshadowing import- ance to all that section of our common country that its just demands should and will receive your ready and most cordial recognition. (Applause.) It is almost unnecessary for me to call your at- tention to the river in the \'icinity of THE SUPERB CITY OF ST. LOUIS. It must be evident to you from her large and intelligent delegation now on the floor of this Convention, that she will be heard from in due season, and her just and urgent demands for deep water, will, I am sure, be heartily re-echoed by every member of this Convention. The Mississippi River Commission have already taken vigorous steps in that direction, and the powerful dredges built under their inspiration, are the most wonderful machines in that line that have ever been constructed. As this fleet of dredges is increased as rapidly as the appropriations justify, and as the other plans of the river commission are developed to the point of consummation, you will see the Stars and Stripes all the way from your new city of Manila, if 3'ou please, carried by your astonished bluffs on ocean steamers of heavy ton- nage, as they pass onward with full cargoes to the great city of St. Louis. (Applause.) By the way, gentlemen, I digress a moment to pay a brief tribute to the important and valuable work of THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER COMMISSION, whose arduous and difficult labors are not suffi- ciently understood by the general public, I fear, to be properly appreciated. Let me say they are a body of patriotic, capable and conscientious men, and we should, both from the standpoint of policy and justice, hasten now and always to hold up their hands. I believe that all the difficult problems germane to the river and its regimen can best be solved under the wise and conservative manage- ment of a comrhission like this. And it would be a bad day indeed for th^ Mississippi Valley, if the commission was ever abolished, or its jurisdiction curtailed. They have done well, exceedingly well, and aije fully entitled to the thanks of a grateful people. (Applause.) To retttrn to my subject. What shall I say of THE OHIO RIVER, the most beautiful of all our Western streams? Did you ever happen to be away up the Ohio river, on one of its long, picturesque reaches, near the close of a summer's day? If so, your nature is more phlegmatic than mine, if your soul did not respond to the lieauties of the scene, as you gazed on its sparkling waters, and enjoyed its graceful and romantic shores. Why, gentlemen, the Ohio, I think you will readily agree with me, is entitled to everything she may demand. Not only by rea- son of the great commerce that is constantly borne upon her noble bosom, but because we should re- member that from the Ohio came the first inspira- tion for internal improvements. On her northern shore, Senator Worthington, of Ohio, the father of the doctrine of internal improvements, was the Past— Present— Prospective 103 first to agitate this important subject in the halls of Congress; while on her southern bank was his co-laborer, the "Great Harry of the 'West," whose inspired voice first successfully fought its arduous battles. (Applause.) I see my old friend from Pittsburg, Captain Dravo, joins heartily in ap- plauding this sentiment, and when you hear from him later, gentlemen, you will observe that he, himself, is a mighty apostle of the water-ways. (Laughter and applause.) And now, gentlemen, I approach what is to the dwellers of the lower valley a question of supreme importance. It is needless for me to say that I allude to THE RECLAMATION AND PROTECTION OF THE VAST ALLUVIAL FIELDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY from the annual floods, which have cost its citizens countless millions of dollars. The fact of the business is, it is the duty of the government to take charge of improvements of this sort on the Mississippi river, for many and obvious reasons. (Applause.) In doing this there will be no undue stretch of constitutional authority. Even a strict constructionist like Jno. C. Calhoun, found abundant warrant for such wise expenditures. Not only are the^' fully sanctioned l^v reason and au- thority, but the heart of this great nation has been deeply touched by the manifold sufferings of the people of the Mississippi Valley. Besides, it is estimated that there are not less than 13,000,000 of acres of fertile lands that can be reclaimed from the floods and brought under the plow. This would add as much as $200,000,000 annually to the business of the country, giving an impetus to all kinds of improvements, the importance of which we can scarcely estimate. Much has been done already in the matter under discussion. The levees, through the combined ef- forts of the government and the riparian States, are being made stronger and better year by year. This will be more thoroughly understood when I tell you that during the great flood of 1883 there were 284 crevasses, which swept away all told fifty- four miles of levees. In 180O there were only twenty-three crevasses, and the amount of levees destroyed was equal to only four and one-half miles. And since that time, even when the dykes were tried by higher floods, the number of crevasses and the consecjuent destruction to property have been still further reduced. This subject, gentle- men, is one of transcendent importance, and I trust will be favorably considered by the delegates of this Convention. (Applause.) Now, passing on, let us consider for a moment the necessities of the river below us. I think you will, one and all, recognize the fact that there should be liberal and adequate appropriations for THE SOUTHWEST PASS, This is a matter in which all parts of the valley are alike concerned. With the increased size of ocean vessels, unless the channel is deepened at the mouth of the river, it will be impossible to build up and satisfactorily care for the large export and import trade to which the Mississippi Valley is justly entitled. A forceful and accomplished writer, Mr. Stuy- vesant Fish, in his admirable address recently de- livered before the Industrial Commission, and al- ready quoted from this monnng by Senator Turley, showed how much less these imports and exports amount to than should be the case when we con- sider the g"eag'ra])hical position of New Orleans and its other ad\'aTrtages. I invite your attention to what Mr. Fish has to say on this subject : "The line of equal railroad distances to New York and to New Orleans, respectively, may be said to begin on Lake Superior, at the boundary between \Visconsin and the upper peninsula of Michigan, and, following the northern and eastern boundaries of Wisconsin, to pass through Chicago, 111., run thence southeasterly through Indianapolis, Ind., and Bristol, Tenn., and to reach the Atlantic Coast, near Charleston, S. C. Every point to the south and west of that line is nearer by rail to New Orleans than to New York. It is in that part of the basin of the Mississippi river which lies west of that line that our exportable surplus of breadstuffs and packing house products is made, and, so long as water runs down hill and it costs more to move freight up hill, the natural tendency of that export- able surplus will be to reach the sea at New Orleans and the other Gulf ports. * " * "No other port in the United States is served by railroads reaching, under single managements, so far and in such varied directions into the interior of the continent. That those railroads ought to bring to and carry from New Orleans vastly more than they do of goods for foreign commerce, is shown by their gross receipts during the past year, from the carriage of passengers and freight, being 104 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : $130,637,703, or thirty per cent more than the value of all the imports and exports of New Orleans, which, in turn, amounted to $100,090,537." The causes prohibiting a larger volume of export and import business are not difficult to find. He wlio runs ma)' read. It simply means that this great Southern gateway to the sea has been too long neglected. The truth is, the mouth of the river was lost sight of, commercially speaking, for many years, until at one time it threatened to re- peat the history of the River Nile, which is cut ofT, you know, from the sea for vessels of more than fifty or sixty tons burden. This neglect is surpris- ing in view of the fact that our leading statesmen have always recognized the ownership of the Mis- sissippi river as a matter of commanding import- ance. First among these statesmen was the great father of Democracy, Thos. Jefferson, who, always a strict constructionist, thought he had violated the letter and spirit of the constitution when he finally consummated the Louisiana purchase. He justi- fied the act on the plea of necessity, relying on the good sense ami patriotism of the nation to ratify and approve it. We find Benjamin Franklin also, as far back as 1784, expressing himself on this subject in a letter to Mr. Jay in the very strongest terms. He said, in substance : "I would rather agree with the Spaniards to buy at a great price the whole of their rights on the Mississippi, than to sell a drop of its waters. A neighbor ii tight as ivell ask mc to sell my street door." And yet, after a supreme anil successful etl'ort to acquire this indispensable outlet to the sea, the government has seemed content with the mere fact of ownership, and for many years showed little or nO' inclination to enhance its benefits, or improve its usefulness. In saying that the mouth of the river has been neglected, I do not mean to suggest that Congress has been altogether unmindful of the situation. The Fads jetties would be enough to gainsay such allegation. But the jetties are inadecjuate, and the ever increasing commerce of the valley demands a depth of water sufficient for the largest seagoing vessels, and nothing less than that will satisfy the just demands of its people. (Applause.) I believe, gentlemen, I have now given a brief resume of all the matters demanding your atten- tion, save, perhaps, one or two. One is the im- portant CANAL WHICH IS TO UNITE THE GREAT LAKES OF THE NORTHWEST WITH THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. This is a work in every way worthy of your sup- port. I am not forgetful of the fact that the rival cities of Chicago and St. Louis have not agreed altogether about the construction of this important artificial water-way. But I am told that their dis- agreement on this and cognate subjects is, perhaps, a thing of the past, and judging from present indi- cations, I take it that peace now reigns supreme. I shall hope, therefore, that it will be the pleasure of this august Convention to adopt a strong reso- lution in favor of this canal. (Applause.) It may not be improper to say in this connection that we have always found the able Congressman from Chicago ready and willing to assist the peo- ple of the Lower A^alley, and those who are so willing to help others should, on all proper occa- sions, receive cordial support in turn. There is one other work of vast importance to the whole country that should have the benefit, I submit, of your utmost influence and most cordial approval. I speak of THE ISTHMIAN CANAL. Always a con\'enience, it is now a necessity. Its construction will bring us in closer touch with our recently acquired possessions in the far distant East. There the Stars and Stripes now proudly floating under an Oriental sun, will never be low- ered, gentlemen, in my opinion, so long as time shall last. (Applause.) They tell the nations of the world in no uncertain tones that the mighty republic of the West has entered on a new era, not of conquest, but oi usefulness, and that she is ready to meet, and ready to solve, all the responsibilities of the new environment. These late events pro- claim AMERICA A WORLD POWER, responsible alone to herself, her conscience, and her God, as to how that power will be used. (Ap- plause. ) If the great Massachusetts Senator. Daniel Web- ster, could now return to the scene of his many earthly triumphs, he might well say of his own country, as he once said of England : "Our morning drum beat, following the sim and keeping company with the fleeting hours, will circle the world with one continuous and uninter- Past— Present— Prospective 105 nipted strain of the martial music of America." (Great applause.) Destiny, my fellow-ccuntr^•men, has appointed us to this task. We are simply repaying a debt of long standing. The Old World, centuries ago, sent out to the New her bravest and her best; the devout pilgrim to the bleak shores of New Eng- land; the gay cavalier tO' Maryland and Virginia; the brave Huguenot to the coasts of the Carolinas ; to bring hither new life and all the blessings of civilization. Their descendants now repay the debt by infusing new blood into the stagnant veins of the distant East, for the mutual advantage of both nations, and the general welfare of all man- kind. (Applause.) But, my fellow-citizens, I am detaining you too long. I desire to express my profound thanks for the great honor you have conferred in making me your Chairman, and I now await the further pleas- ure of the Convention. (Prolonged applause.) STEAMER H. M. HOXIE AND SIX LOADED BARGES, PASSING MEMPHIS BRIDGE, THEN IN COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION, FEB. 17, 1892. 106 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : Past— Present— Prospective 107 HIGH-WATER PROTECTION METHODS ON LOWER MISSISSIPPI RIVER By CAPT. WILLIAM JOSEPH HARDEE, City Engineer of New Orleans The preservation of the le\'ee line on the lower Mississippi river during periods of high water is a most important subject and is worthy of much thought and attention to avoid the numerous and costl)' mistakes which have been made in the past. When the method under which that character of Avork was done during past years is considered, it is most surprising that so much success was achieved and that the mistakes which were made did not prove more extensive both as to cost and disaster. Up to the present time there has been no well- defined organization for the systematic conduct of high-water protection work. The nearest approach to anything like systematic, intelligent and harmo- nious co-operation on the part of those engaged in such work was during the flood of 18!)T; but this was far from satisfactory and is susceptible of great improvement. The absence of anything like system will be read- ily appreciated when it is remembered that there are engaged in the work some six practically inde- pendent agencies — the district levee board, the Parish officials, the State officials, the LTnited States ofiicials, the railroad officials and the indi- vidual planter. At the present time not one nf those agencies has the available resources with which, alone and unassisted, to care for the levee line during an extraordinary flood. The local district levee boards are charged b}' law with the responsibility of preserving at ;dl times the integrity of their respective levee lines; and, except in a few instances, this charge has been intelligently executed; but there have been occa- sions when the task has vastly exceeded the re- sources of the several boards. If those boards had possessed ample means, they would to-day have the levee line of their respective districts in condition to resist successfully the big- gest flood so far experienced without the necessity for an amount of work in excess of their means. But they have not possessed adequate means to accomplish this end, and it is a fact that while the levees have been steadily improved, the floods of the past have found them in an imperfect condi- tion, and a great amount of work of an emergency character has been necessary to successfully pre- serve them during high-water periods. On such occasions the other agencies have been requested to assist, or they have voluntarily proffered assist- ance by reason of their indirect connection with the cause and their general interest in the work. It is a strange fact that each of the other fi\-e agencies, when rendering assistance, seemed to claim superior wisdom, and usually insisted, not in- frequently to the disadvantage of the work, on pro- ceeding according to its indi\'idual judgment. Con- fusion was the inevitable result, and from confusion sprung wastefulness and insubstantial work, some- times accompanied by disaster. Confusion, attended by wastefulness and insub- stantial work, has oftentimes been due to a lack of forethought or proper advance consideration. In some instances expensive arrangements were made and large quantities of perishable materials were provided for prospective high-water protection work which never materialized. On other occa- sions the magnitude of a flood was neither antici- pated nor appreciated until, figuratively speaking, the last minute, and then the necessary work had to be done hurriedly and frequently under the ad- verse conditions of bad weather, resulting in in- creased cost and less stability. Based on his observations and experience, the writer believes that, with the resources at com- mand, a system for economically and efficiently preserving the levee line during flood periods can be devised. It is not considered advisable, however, to ad- vocate a svstem which would involve the combined 108 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River resources and efforts of the entire six agencies re- ferred to, because, depending on time and circum- stances, the resources of those agencies vary. A more practical system would l^e such a one as would involve one agcnc)^ only, with adequate means prosecuting it, and then, as occasion would demand, the necessary work may in advance be divided and certain functions allotted to the differ- ent agencies according to the practicability of ap- pl\ing the resources of each. The old maxim, "In time of peace prepare for war," applies with equal force to the preservation of levees. If it were practicable to do so, the levee line should, during low-water period, be put in sucli a condition that the usual cases of emergency which now arise would be in great pari, if not alto- gether, removed. It is hoped that, with advancing years and the continued expenditure of large sums of money, this happy condition will be reahzed at- no very distant date. But, taking the levee line as it stands to-dav, there are certain kinds of high-water protection work, as will be more fully described later on, in- cidental to every flood in excess of a stage which puts 3 feet or more of water against a levee. The full extent of protection work is, of course, gov- erned by the size and duration of the flood. If it were possible to anticipate the approximate size of a flood, a large amount of work could be more sub- stantially done and at a minimum cost. As a mat- ter of fact, a flood in the lower Mississippi river can be anticipated within reasonable limits, and far enough in advance of its realization to permit the deliberate execution of a large amount of prelimi- nary protection work. An approximate relationship exists between ad- jacent water gauges on the Mississippi river when the flood surface of that stream is not disturbed by crevasses or augmented by the waters from tribu- tary streams. For instance, a certain maximum at Cairo will produce a certain maximum at Memphis, the next prominent gauge station below. A gauge, however, below a tributary stream, may be affected by a flood poured out of the tributary, but, as there is an approximate relationship Ijetween a gauge so affected and the next gauge below, comparisonb may be successively carried on until the place is reached at wdiich a forecast is desired. The great bulk of the water which produces a flood in the lower Mississippi river is derived from the Ohio river and the Mississippi river itself above Cairo. A flood out of any of the tributary streams — St. Francis, White, Arkansas, Yazoo or Red — does not materially add to the height of a flood in the Mississippi. The effect of a flood from any one of those streams is rather to prolong the passage of a coincident flood in the Mississippi than to in- crease its height. Of course, floods poured simul- taneously out of all those streams or out of each stream at or about the time that the crest of a coincident flood wave in the Mississippi passed, its mouth would materially increase the height of the flood in the latter stream. But the records since and including 1890 do not show that such a coin- cidence of floods has occurred. They show, how- ever, that some only of the tributaries contributed more or less to the height and duration of the floods of 1890, 1892, 1893 and 1897. On the other hand, the Mississippi river may be abnormally de- pressed below the mouth of the Red river, as has sometimes occurred, on account of Red ri\er being low and a large volume of Mississippi river water in consequence thereof being drawn off by the Atchafalaya river. As the great floods emanate north of Cairo, that place can properly be considered the strategic point, and the Cairo gauge can be accepted as a fairly reliable index to what will follow on the lower Mississippi. A wave, such as we are con- cerned with, in so far as it bears on the subject- matter of this paper, occupies from ten to fourteen days in passing from Cairo to Vicksburg, so that we always have that much advance notice of what is coming. The tributaries, of course, should be closely obserx'cd, and proper allowance should be made for any influence they might exert. It is the writer's opinion that no damage can befall any of the existing levees when there is less than 3 feet of water against them. But at about the 3-foot stage the pressure is sufficiently great to commence developing weaknesses due to faulty construction, unequal shrinking or leaks caused by burrowing animals. It, therefore, follows that unless a flood in excess of that 3-foot stage is ex- perienced, there is no need for protection work of any kind; but, as soon as it is evident that the 3- foot or higher stage will be experienced, prepara- tions for a high-water campaign should be imme- diately begun, and conducted as the conditions attending the expansion of the flootl tlemand. The battures or foreshores vary in elevation with respect to the high-water surface at different places Past— Present— Prospective 109 along the river. The ground is usually higher near the edge of the bank than it is at the levee, so that a flood which covers the ground near the edge of the bank puts several feet of water against the levee. The water usually finds its way to a levee through depressions and drainage ditches, and, with few exceptions, is well against the levee be- fore the entire foreshore is fully overtopped. The following is the approximate height whicli will put 3 feet of water against a considerable length of the levee line in the vicinity of the re- spective gauges, though a foot or so less in height will put 3 feet of water against short lengths of levee: Vicksburg, 42 feet; St. Joseph, 38 feet; Nat- chez, 44 feet; Red River Landing, 42 feet; Bayou Sara, 37 feet; Baton Rouge, 34 feet; Plaquemine, 29 feet; Donaldsonville, 26 feet; College Point, 23 feet; Carrollton, 12 feet. The gauge at Fort Jack- son is not included, as its elevation is so often in- fluenced by wind and tide. It is now in order to ascertain what height at Cairo culminates in 42 feet at A'^icksburg and 42 feet at Red River Landing. A comparison of fifteen gauge observations selected at random shows that for stages of 25 feet or less at Cairo the time consumed in the passage of the crest of a wave from Cairo to Vicksljurg varies from four to eight days. But as we are in- terested only in stages which culminate in 42 feet at Vicksburg, a comparison of lower stages should be disregarded. On account of the closure of St. Francis basin during recent years, flood waves which occurred prior to 1898, and which were in excess of l)ank full stage, should be disregarded, as they would prove misleading. A comparison of all the flood waves of consistent elevation, since and including the year 1894, shows that 42.7 feet at Cairo will culminate in 42 feet at Vicksburg, and that the time of passage varies from ten to fourteen days, a fair average being twelve days. These figures include an adchtion of height and prolonged time of passage due to augmentation by water from the St. Francis and White rivers, which is almost in- variably coincident with a flood of the elevation we are discussing in the Mississippi river. Storms which occur in the valley of the Ohio river usually originate west of there, and, in their passage, traverse the territory drained by the St. Francis and \A^hite rivers. The probable maximum height which the gauge at Cairo will reach may be estimated with fair accuracy l)v considering the gauges at stations north of that place on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers and their tributaries, so that by a series of deductions it is possible to secure more than twelve days' notice of what is to be expected, as well as to forecast be^'ond the 42-foot stage at Vicksburg. The records show that at the time of the year when the gauge at Vicksburg reaches 42 feet Red river and its tributaries are usually low, from which it may be safely inferred that 42 feet at Vicksburg" cannot be expected to culminate in more than 39 feet at Red River Landing; the time of passage may be placed at two days though on an average it is a fraction less. It must, therefore, be noted that high-water pro- tection work of some kind will be necessary under the proposed system between Vicksburg and Bou- gere (lower terminal of the levee system of the lower Tensas district), before work of any kind will be necessary below Red River Landing. Ordinarily, — i. e., when the Red river and its tributaries are low, as is usually the case — the gauge at Vicksburg must read 4() feet to produce 42 feet at Red River Landing. Failure of levees usually results from one of the following seven causes: 1. Insufficient height, which permits the water to flow over the top of the levee, cutting it away. 2. Leakage due to faulty construction; to un- even shrinking or sinking, or to the operations of burrowing animals resulting in the formation of cracks or holes, which, under some conditions, rapidly enlarge as the water flows through them. 3. Sloughing, due principally to some defect in the body of the levee, which permits the water to percolate too freely through it, and which, being attended by defective drainage on the land side, results in the land slope becoming saturated and so softened that it will not stand. 4. Sinking, the result of the levee having been built on an unstable foundation, generally of a cpucksand character, which, under the influence of excessive wetting and the pressure exerted by the weight of the embankment, is displaced and causes the embankment to subside into the cavity thus created. 5. Wave-wash, which, when the river is made rough by wind or by passing steamers, attacks the surface of the levee not protected by a close growth of grass. 110 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : 6. Excessive erosion at salient angles due to removal of all of the old levee, causing abnormal velocity of the current, which washes and cuts awa}^ the controlling embankment. 7. Cutting due to operations of malicious or insane persons. INSUFFICIENT HEIGHT Earthen embankments, no matter how well pro- tected b)' a growth of sod, will be destroyed by water flowing over their tops for anv considerable length of time. It is, therefore, absolutely neces- sary to keep the top of the levee well above the water surface. To assure this, the levee line should, if practicable, be maintained at a uniform grade, even if the cross-section of the embankment cannot at the same time be gi\'en the standard dimensions of 8 feet crown and C feet of base to each foot of height. All of the low lengths of the levee line should be brought to the standard grade well in advance of high water. The work can be done then not onl}' at much less cost, but so much more substantially, and the cost of protecting the new work with washboards will be saved. This matter was seriously considered just after the flood of 1897, but, owing to the long length of low levee line, and the limited amount of money available for levee improvement, nothing much was done beyond a length of about five continuous miles by the United States in the Lower Tensas District and a few miles by the Atchafalaya board scattered throughout its district. The length of low levee has since then been greatly reduced; it is believed that it is now prac- ticable to raise all of the remaining lengths of low levee to standard grade during the coming con- struction season. But if this is not done before a flood is in sight which will overtop the low lengths of levee, as soon as a conclusion as to the probable height is reached, which should be as far in advance as possible, the topping or "capping," as it is com- monly designated, should be put on with teams and scrapers. Work done in this manner generally costs less and has the advantage of greater com- paction and is in consequence much more substan- tial than earth placed by handbarrows or Avheel- barrows. To postpone the capping imtil the water is near, or actually on, the crown of the levee, or until the land in the rear becomes submerged by seepage or rainwater due to defecti^•e drainage, is taking an unjustifiable risk, and entails an avoid- able increase in the cost of the work. Whether the capping be put on by teams or by other means, it should be protected with wash- boards against erosion by the waves. In the past capping has been protected by sacks fiUed with earth or cotton-bale bagging carefully placed along the front surface of the capping. This method should be abandoned; it is more costly and less substantial than wooden washboards. If the cap- ping is put on by teams, the washboards can be most advantageously placed after the earth is in place; but if the capping is put on with wheelbar- rows or handbarrows, the washboards should be put on in advance of the earth. The washboards should consist of 1 x 12-incli X 12-foot lumber placed parallel to the levee, stand- ing on the 1-inch side and about one foot from the river edge of the crown. The washboards should be held in position by two lines of 2 x 2-inch pick- ets sharpened and vertically driven at least 15 inches in the levee; two pickets should be driven for every six lineal feet of washboards, one on each side of the boards and with just space enough be- tween to permit the comfortable adjustment of the boards. Each board should be nailed at top and bottom to each picket. The writer has personally directed the placing of many miles of washboards, and has seen much of that kind of work done by others. Sometimes on account of scarcity of ma- terials, or in an endeavor to economize on cost, single pickets only were placed, or double pickets at the junction of boards only, with a single picket at the half-way point between, and the boards were sparsely nailed or the nailing was altogether omitted. These latter methods are falsely econom- ical and should not be practiced. The greater security obtained by the use of double pickets and full nailing will amply compensate for the cost of the additional materials. Weakness in some of the capping which has been placed in the past has resulted from inattention to small details. In the first place, the portion of the crown of the levee to be occupied by the capping should be thoroughly broken up so as to make a good bond with the new earth. Without such bond there will be free leakage across the line of junction, particularly in the case of thickly sod- grown embaiduilt of Inickshot or clayey materials or in embank- ments built of those materials and sand, alternately placed in thick bodies or layers. The degree of inequality of the shrinkage seems to be governed entirely by the amount of moisture in the soil when it is put into place. The earth near the bottom, sides and top of a crack, usually expands when moistened. If it is wetted by slow degrees the crack will usually close up. The greatest danger attending a crack occurs when the soil surrounding it remains unwetted for several years during which time the crack increases in size, and, if a large volume of water be suddenly thrust upon it, the soil will rapidly wash and the crack increase in size until it finalh- causes the em- bankment to collapse. Unequal shrinking is rare in embankments built wholly of loam or sand. The levees should be carefully inspected just be- fore or soon after the water has gotten against them, and, if cracks are found they should be filled and rammed with loose earth, particularly and most carefully on the intake side. If a crack is not discovered until the water is well against the embankment, the exposed portion should be treat- ed as above, and clods, mixed with loose earth, should be dumped into the water over the crack until the flow of water has been entirely cut oft'. Lateral cracks in a levee are sometimes caused by the sinking of a section of embankment built on a bad foundation, while the adjoining section, built on a good foundation, stands firm. ■ Such cracks are usually large and conspicuous, and should be repaired during low water. If not re- paired then, they should be treated exactly as has 112 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; been described for cracks produced 1)y unequal slirinkage. The attention which has been devoted to drain- ing old burrow pits, neighboring sloughs, etc., has resulted in a large reduction of the nocuous opera- tions of burrowing animals, by destroying their harbor and breeding places, causing them to mi- grate to localities more favorable to their pursuits. But the evil still exists to a troublesome degree. Burrowing animals do not work with great suc- cess in sandy soils because the walls cave in behind them; it is in clay that they do their best work. For that reason we find few levees built of sandy soils cut up with leaks made by burrowing animals. This kind of leak is mostly found in buckshot or clay levees; a compensating advantage exists in the fact that such soil does not easily erode and a single hole is not always dangerous. If it is no larger than two inches in diameter it will do no damage as long as its size does not increase. It should be carefully watched, and, as long as the water it dis- charges is clear or free of sediment, all is well. But if it discharges muddy water or a considerable quantity of sediment, such action is plain evidence that the hole is either a very direct one or that it is enlarging by erosion, or that an animal or ani- mals are somewhere at work in it. It has then become a menace to the safety of the levee and should be promptly treated. The greatest danger to be apprehended from holes through any kind of a levee is the presence of a large number of them within a small area. As the holes enlarge, the intervening volume of earth is correspondingly reduced; individual enlargement results in several holes working into each other and becoming one hole, and this process of conversion, if not checked, may continue until numerous small holes have become one large hole beyond control. Plugging a hole is rather a simple matter if the intake end of the hole can be located, but to stop a good-sized leak at the discharge end is tedious, expensive and uncertain. The intake end of a hole which discharges out of the land slope of the levee, or at the base of the levee, or just beyond the base of the levee, may be several hundred feet distant from a point immediately abreast of it on the ri^•er side, or, if approximately abreast of it, a hundred feet or more distant from the base of the levee. There being a well-defined channel affording a line of least resistance, the water flows along that line. But as soon as the discharge end is obstructed an- other line of least resistance develops, probably a minute channel connected with the main channel, which, under the increased pressure, rapidly en- larges and the water bursts out elsewhere. The flow continues as before, not infrequently to a greater extent if the flow line has been made more direct. The writer has determined the location of the intake end of a hole by the use of unslacked lime. This method is very tecHous, and is not practicable if a large area must be investigated. If unslacked lime be dropped into the water just over the intake and is sucked into the hole, that fact will very shortly be manifested by the water discharged by the hole. In order not to confuse the location of the intake, small areas of ground only can be cov- ered at a time. The use of lime is valuable in some instances, and is recommended to determine if the hole be direct; that is, if its intake end is immediately abreast of the discharge end and within reasonable working- distance from the base of the levee. The position of the intake end of a hole largely governs the method which should be employed to stop the leak. In the majority of cases the intake end of a single hole is so far removed from the discharge end that it is impossible to locate it. When numerous holes exist within a small space the intakes are nearly always just abreast of the discharge ends. It is not considered possible to define a method for universal application in stopping leaks.. Nearly all leaks have to be cared for according to their individual characters, and this can come to him in charge only by long experience. The experienced physician does not always need a thermometer and pulse test to determine that a patient has fever; something almost intangible, in the appearance of the patient, the odor of the room and other things, make the fact apparent to him. So it generally is with the experienced levee engineer; he seems to know intuitively whether a hole is dangerous, as well as how it should be cared for. However, some general rules apply to the stoppage of leaks, par- ticularly to the a\'oidance of expensive and worth- less work, which may augment rather than reduce the danger. A common method for stopping leaks, when the tools and materials are available, is to drive with a dolly, or light hand pile driver, a single line of sheet piling (2 x 12-inch boards tongued and grooved or otherwise prepared to make close joint) into the river slope of the levee or into the ground. Past— Present— Prospective 113 just at or immediately beyond the base of the levee to a sufficient depth to encounter the hole or holes, and thus cut off the flow of water. This is a cer- tain and comparatively inexpensive remedy if the holes can be encountered, but if the holes are not covered the work is worthless and its cost will have been wasted. Sheet p'iling should therefore not be employed when the river side position of the hole cannot be definitely located. As dollies have not been extensively used along the river, a brief description of them is pertinent. A dolly is a stick of square or rectangular shaped timber of varying size and length, according to the driving power desired, near to the outer end of which, at proper working distances apart, are nailed cross-strips or hand-boards to furnish con- venient grasp for raising it. The inner end rests on the ground or a platform, and is held in position by several stakes or pegs driven about it, the ground end being but slightly lower than the outer end to maintain the dolly on something like a hori- zontal plane. Enough men are put at the hand- boards to readily raise the outer end of the stick several feet above the object to be driven. The stick is raised and sharply let fall alternately until the object is driven to the desired depth. Great care should be observed in selecting the position for the sheet piling with reference to the location of the leak or leaks and the character of the soil composing the embankment. The very least pos- ■ sible penetration by the sheet piling' is desirable, to reduce vibration and avoid weakening the em- bankment by cracking or loosening it. In dealing with soils which easily crack or loosen when pene- trated, the sheet piling should never be driven into the body of the embankment. Sheet piling should also be driven in the shortest possible time. During the flood of 1893 a crevasse was caused by inexperienced men driving sheet piling into the embankment at Tessier's Plantation, Pontchartrain District. There were three 3-inch holes in the levee at that place, discharging within a few feet of each other at the land base of the levee. These holes had existed for some years, and had been fre- quently observed. In those days many such leaks existed at numerous places in that levee district; a few only of them were considered to seriously menace the safety of the levee, and those few were cut out when the river was low. But the great majority were allowed to remain undisturbed. Just before the flood reached its maximum stage, some of the leaks which had been allowed to continue showed serious symptoms, and the Levee Board decided to stop all of them. In this task a number of the bridge gangs of the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad were employed. A small gang of men, without experienced direction, commenced work during the afternoon driving sheet piling into the river slope of the embankment at Tessier. Mr. J. W. Ross, a nearby resident and ex-member of the levee board, has since told me that he was present a part of the afternoon the sheet piling was being driven; that before any of the piling was driven the holes were discharging clear water, free of sediment, and that the holes gave no evidence that enlargement was in progress; but that after a few planks had been driven the holes commenced to discharge muddy water and large quantities of sediment. There was no relief gang, and work was discontinued at nightfall, at which time some six or eight piecs of plank had been driven. At about nine o'clock that night the levee collapsed, and the river poured through the opening. There is scarcel}^ a doubt that the piling cracked and loosened the earth in the embankment, causing it to erode rap- idly, and that the sheet piling was the direct cause of the failure of the levee. Another, but more costly method for stopping leaks having their intake ends on the front slope of the levee or within reasonable working distance of the base of the levee, is to drive vertically two lines of 1x1 2-inch boards, not necessarily arranged to make close joints, from 3 to 6 feet apart, (dis- tance regulated by height of structure) with just enough penetration to furnish good toe hold, suf- ficiently braced longitudinally and laterally to afford required rigidity. This structure is built in a continuous length from the levee to a point be- yond the intakes and back to the levee, and, after the woodwork has been completed, the interior formed by the two lines of plank is filled with earth. The structure is commonly called a mud-box. Sometimes, owing to scarcity of materials or to in- experience of those doing the work, a single line of 1-inch plank was driven, and the entire space between it and the levee was filled with loose earth or sacks filled with earth. This form of structure is called a bulkhead. It is manifest that either bulk- heads or mud-boxes, like sheet piling, are worthless unless the sore itself — the intake end of the hole — is reached and covered. The writer has seen a large 114 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : amount of all three of the kinds of work described which failed to accomplish any good. Of the three methods named, sheet piling, when practicable, is recommended. It is equally effec- tive, less expensive and most cjuickly put in place. When a hole develops serious symptoms and its intake end cannot be located, it must be treated in the most substantial manner possible at the dis- charge end. During the flood of 1890 the writer experi- mented with light sheet iron cylinders of different lengths, having a diameter varying from 10 to 18 inches; they were equipped with soldered handles at intervals to afford good hand hold. To reinforce the cylinders at the base about ten cul)ic yards of earth was piled in conical shape about the hole, a small drain being left temporarily to take off the water flowing through the hole in the levee. As soon as the earth was in place the iron cylinder was clapped over the hole and forced into the ground l)v the weight of as many men as could get hand hold. The surrounding earth was simultaneously tamped about the cylinder. Not more than two out of a dozen of the cylinders proved successful; none of the large ones, over large holes, were successful. The water at first rose rapidly in the cylinders, but gradually diminished in rate until it stopped rising altogether. Generally the water found a line of less resistance, and broke out through the ground only a few feet away. The common method of treating a leak at its discharged end is by building what is locally termed a "horsehoe," which is nothing more than a mud- box, such as has been already described, built on the land side of the levee, and of such length as may be necessary to leave a good margin of ground on all sides of the leak. AVhile it is expensive, this method is certain in its results if the levee is not too largely infested with leaks, and is recommended in cases of serious leaks when the intake end can- not be definitely located. In the past, when lum- ber was not available and sacks were at hand, "horseshoes" were constructed by pyramiding sacks filled with earth. Such a structure is un- necessarily expensive, and should be discoun- tenanced. During some of the past floods the writer has known short lengths of levee to be so infested with leaks that application of all the several remedial measures, which have been mentioned, did not assure the safetv of the levee. In such cases col- lapse was anticipated, and, to provide against dis- aster, several lines of cribs (the number of lines be- ing regulated by the depth of the water in which the structure was placed) were built and filled with sacks filled with earth. In other words, the crev- asse was closed before it occurred. The cribs were so placed as to extend well beyond the base of the levee and at both ends to join sound embankment. These very bad places were the result of neglect; of failure, when the river was low, to cut out leaks which were known to exist but which were allowed year by year to extend and enlarge until the levee became thoroughly rotten and scarcely more water-tight than a sieve. The improved condition of the levee line and the attention which is now usually devoted annually to repairs and maintenance warrant the belief that such extreme cases of bad levee, as have just been described, are things of the past. The treatment of leaks should in the future be more simple and at the same time, less expensive than in the past. To-day much more is known of their character and how to deal with them; and the best remedy only of the past should be applied until some more successfully remedy is evolved. It is contemplated, of course, that none but experienced men will direct the work, and that suitable mate- rials with which to do the work properly and economically will at all times be at hand. The foregoing remarks refer to leaks of an ordi- nary character, but as very extraordinary leaks sometimes occur, it is thought advisable to describe one that came within the writer's experience and how it was treated, as under similar circumstances the same treatment would seem to be best and should be applied. The following is quoted from my report of the 1897 flood: "During the morning of April 27, when the water was at 52 on the Vicksburg gauge, a large leak de- veloped under the Clagget levee (64-4-R). At this place both the levee and surrounding soil are light loam. In the rear of the levee within 30 feet of its base there is an old burrow pit about 8 feet deep with almost vertical side next to the levee. With- out previous warning a 6-inch stream of water spurted out of the wall of the pit midway its height: it did not merely run out and trickle down, but shot out as if ejected from a hose. Its force was so great as to churn the water into foam in the pit into which it was discharged. There are many theories as to the origin of this leak, but its cause Past— Present— Prospective 115 will never be known unless the embankment should be cut and the hole traced. "It is more than likely a series of disconnected holes or small cavities existing under the levee, due either to burrowing animals or decayed vegetation, or probably both, and under the pressure of water there was leakage from one to another, attended with a certain amount of wash which continued until the several holes were connected and made a free passage for the water through one large chan- nel where the water burst out as described. "A large force was immediately summoned, and a semicircular wall of sacks built about 6 feet high around the discharge end. The interior space rap- idly filled, and the sacks were soon overtopped. In the meantime a large force of teams was put to work, and a run around commenced about 100 feet in rear of the main levee and designed to be about 250 feet long when completed. An opening was left in it as an outlet for the overflow until the ne^v embankment was thought sufficiently high with proper cross-section to hold the filled basin, then the opening was closed. The basin filled rapidly at first, then more slowly; at the end of two days it was found that the basin was still filling, and would overtop the run around. The teams resumed work, and the embankment was raised 3 feet. The basin continued to fill, but as the river commenced falling in a few days, further raising was not neces- sary. It now stands with an 8-foot crown, about 2 to 1-inch side slopes, and a grade about 3 feet lower than the highest point reached by the river." SLOUGHING When water has stood against an earthen em- Isankment for a sufficient time to saturate it, there is always considerable seepage caused by the river water percolating through the pores or interstices of the embankment. The amount of seepage is usually governed by the porosity of the soil composing the embankment. Seep- age is not usuallv free in embankments com- posed of clayey materials; when seepage does seem to exist in them to a considerable extent, it is more properly leakage due to cracks in the emliankment caused by contraction in drying out or to unequal shrinkage. Seepage is freest in emljankments com- posed of sandy soils; the coarser the grain of sand the freer the seepage, because the soil does not become sufficiently compacted during the time the embankment is constructing to render the mass impervious to water. Voids are of large or small size, depending on the coarseness of the grains of sand. Under water pressure the voids soon become connected and form numerous minute channels, which wash and enlarge as the flood is prolonged or the pressure increased by greater height. Seepage produces a general softening or rotting of the land slope of the embankment. The soil at this point often becomes semi-fluid, and, if the slope be steep, a part of the embankment will slough or slide out, producing a corresponding loss of cross-section. The writer has never known a first slough to extend higher up than one-half of the slope of the levee. If the seepage be not stopped, a second slciUgh will occur higher up as soon as the face made by the first slough has been reduced to a semi-fluid condition; this action will progress in steps until the embankment has sloughed across its entire cross-section as far as the water. Its action being progressive, sloughing does not constitute an element of great danger, for there is always ample time to stop it; treatment is simple if the principles involved be understood. To arrest sloughing, good land-side drainage and stoppage of the seepage are essential. A compe- tent drain ditch should be cut, about 2 feet clear of the base of the levee, to conduct the seepage water as frequently as possible to some natural line of drainage in the rear of the levee. Additionally, numerous small V-shaped gullies, an inch or so only wide and deep should be cut in the land slope of the levee to promptly deliver the seepage water to the drain ditch. The position and size of the drain ditch and gullies should be such as to assure the removal of the seepage water as fast as it comes through the embankment, for if this water is al- lowed to stand, the land slope will not become water-soaked and its integrity will be preserved. The next step is to stop the seepage; this is effected by dumping loose earth into the water in sufficient quantity to cover the submerged front slope with a blanket of fresh soil several inches thick, the coarser particles of which will be sucked into the interstices or small channels. These soon expand from wetting, and shortly the seepage will be "choked." The layman who sees this work in progress will immediately classify dumping loose earth in the water as sheer nonsense, but, as a mat- ter of fact, the good effect will manifest itself in a short while after work has been commenced; at first bv reduced seepage, a little later by entire 116 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River stoppage and ultimately by the mass drying out and showing no further indination to move. If sloughs be treated when they first occur, or, better still, before they occur, when their approach- ing occurrence is clearly indicated to the experi- enced eye by the presence of excessive moisture on the land slope, much annoyance and expense can be avoided. As the treatment of sloughs is neces- sarily expensive when a number occur in close proximity and the supply of labor is limited, they may be only partially instead of wholly treated: that is, in lieu of putting a large enough blanket of loose earth on the river slope of the levee to provide against further seepage during the entire flood period. Only a small blanket need be put on, just enough to stop the seepage for a few days. The wheeling runs should be left in position, and, as soon as seepage again manifests itself, work should be resumed until the flow is once more stopped. In this way a force of fifteen to twenty men may be kept nearly constantly employed working from slough to slough. It is usually the case, when a slough occurs and an inexperienced man tries to correct it, that he will endeavor to restore the lost cross-section with earth or sacks. This does no good, but rather tends to augment the trouble, because the slough is thereby rendered more diflicult to drain, and at the same time that much more weight is put on the semi-fluid mass to squash it out, which invariably pulls with it some of the remaining good embank- ment. He does this because he does not under- stand what produces the slough. He does not know that it is caused by too free leakage through the embankment and inefficient land-side drainage. The writer received his first lesson in treating sloughs by observing men at work about a fleet of coal barges. If a barge starts a seam leak, it is im- practicable to dig away the coal to get at it. It is equally impracticable to detect the leak by feel- ing along the outer or water side of the barge, as the inflow is too light to be detected by the hand, and then, again, as a loaded barge draws from S to 9 feet of water, it would oftentimes be impos- sible to reach the leak by hand. But the coal barge man has a supply of coarse sawdust, and by means of a long handle, to which it is attached, lowers a cup of sawdust in the water within close proximity to the leak, shakes it gently, just next to the barge, and, as the sawdust floats out of the cup, some of it is drawn into the crack and becomes lodged ; it very shortly gets wet and swells, and the leak is choked. The same principle applies to stopping sloughs. SINKING Sinking embankment is treacherous and recjuires the most careful attention and the exercise of good judgment in its treatment to prevent disaster. It is treacherous because its action is sudden and not always attended with premonitory signs, and good judgment must be exercised in treating it, lest the remedial measures prove destructive. A trouble- some feature which attends the care of a sinking levee is that it is invariably situated in an ill-drained swamp, which soon fills up with seepage or rain- water, and earth with which to repair it is not im- mediately accessible, having generally to be tran- sported a long distance on barges. At the present time there are only two lengths of sinking levee in the Fourth District. One of them, which covers about 2,000 lineal feet, is at Kempe in the Lower Tensas District, and the other, which is a small affair, about 50 feet long, is at Point Manoir in the Atchafalaya District. Several sinking levees, of greater lengths and attended by subsidence of greater extent than the two levees just named, have been experienced in the past, but after much work they were made secure. The most aggravated cases of sinking seem to have a limit of subsidence, and it is only a ques- tion of continuing to pile on earth to secure a sub- stantial embankment. The levees at Kempe and at Point Manoir should therefore be made secure in time. A levee sinks because it is built on a foundation composed of quicksand or some other equally soft or semi-liquid material, the power of which to sus- tain weight is governed by the degree of moisture contained at the time the weight of the embank- ment is put on. It has sometimes occurred that the sustaining power has, during construction, been sufficient to support the embankment, and no movement has taken place until some later date, when the strength of the foundation has become impaired b}^ being excessively wetted. It has been the general experience, however, that all aggravated cases of sinking levee have been at- tended by considerable subsidence during construc- tion. As the weight of the embankment is the direct cause of the sinking, care must be observed not to Past— Present— Prospective 117 add, during a flood, more earth than is actually necessary to hold the water. As the embankment subsides, the very lightest possible addition should be made to maintain an elevation several feet above the water surface and the narrowest width of cross- section that will resist seepage. This will entail almost continuous work of small amount rather than a large amount at intervals. It must not be forgotten that if a large amount of earth should be added in a short space of time, the rate of sinking- will be accelerated, and the addition will do more harm than good. Sinking embankment seldom subsides uniformly. Parts of it sink faster than others, causing the levee to crack longitudinally. There is usually one large crack along the crown of the levee, though some- times other but smaller parallel cracks occur. Care must be taken to keep the water excluded from all or as many of the cracks as possible, particularly the largest one. As soon as water enters a crack, hydrostatic pressure is exerted on the section of embankment in the rear of the crack, and the re- maining embankment in front of the crack is ren- dered valueless as a factor of strength in resisting the pressure of the river. For this reason the addi- tion which is made to keep the top of the levee above the water surface should be placed as far as practicable to the water side of the crack. Lateral cracks which would let the water into the longitu- dinal cracks must be guarded against and immedi- ately stopped if any occur. If, as is somewhat common, there is seepage through a sinking em- bankment, prompt measures must be taken to re- mo\-e the seepage water in the manner described for treating sloughs. As much depends upon keep- ing the levee dry, it is advisable to spread tar- paulins on the entire sinking levee or at least cover the large cracks while rain is falling, to prevent wet- ting and to exclude rainwater from the cracks. A sinking levee may be compared to a sick baby, and requires the same continuous attention and care. As only a small margin of safety exists, a competent force, equipped with ample materials, should be retained at the levee night and day. pre- pared to care for emergencies at a moment's no- tice. WAVE-WASH Wave-wash is commi.m on lexees exposed to full wave action and not protected by a close growth of grass or some artificial device. It is a much over- rated dano'er, and has been the cause of the need- less expenditure of large sums of money in the past. Wave-wash is misleading in its appearance; in nearly every instance its worst feature is visible, but the inexperienced invariably conceive the idea that the vertical face made by the wash extends to the base of the levee and that the cross-section of the levee has been so much reduced as to seriously endanger th j embankment. As a matter of fact the deposed soil settles into position just under the water surface and the reduction of the cross-section is no greater than is apparent above the water sur- face. There was a time in the past when the cost of moving earth was comparatively high, and it was less expensive to prevent a part of the levee wash- ing away than to allow it to wash away and after- wards replace it. But this condition no longer ex- ists; under ruling prices for moving earth it is cheaper to restore wave-wash than to prevent it with revetment. Revetment should therefore not be resorted to until the safety of the levee is en- dangered, which, in the writer's opinion, is not until the crown itself has been attacked. It is ac- cordingly recommended that no steps be taken to arrest wave-wash until the vertical face it cuts has reached the river edge of the crown of the embank- ment. When revetment is used, as its service will be but temporary, the most inexpensive structure should be employed. Such a structure consists of posts 3x3 inches or ixi inches, driven into the river slope of the levee and inclining towards the levee at an angle of 15° to 20° from vertical; the upper end of these posts should be rendered im- movable by 2x6-incli braces connecting them with a short piece 4x4 inches or 2x6 inches, called an "anchor," driven in the crown of the levee. The posts should be placed not more than 6 feet apart, to give the structure sufficient rigidity to resist the Iniffeting of the waves. To the outer face of the post must be nailed lxl2-inch boards, laid hor- izontally, care being taken to have the bottom board everywhere throughout its length rest firmly on the slope of the embankment to prevent under wash. It is not usually necessary to maintain the boarding higher than 3 feet above the water sur- face to provide against destructive overwash. If revetment be placed in the early stages of a flood, the posts should be made long enough to stand such additional plank as the rising river rnay after- wards necessitate. 118 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; EXCESSIVE EROSION AT SALIENT ANGLES This is a dangei^ which is not often encountered, and it may be easily provided against; its existence is directly due to the inexperience or inattention to duty of the constructing engineer. Acute salient angles are rarely put in new levee lines; the most acute angles put in new levee lines are the re-entering angles. Acute salient angles in the controlling line of levee are usually found at the junction of a new levee with an old one. If such a junction occur behind a sharp point in the line of the river, it will be subjected to excessive velocity of the current. When the river is extraor- dinarily high, the distance across a point is so much shorter than the length of the channel around the point that the ri^'er pours across the point with increased velocity. This excessive flow should be restrained from exerting any influence on the con- trolling line of levee by leaving the old levee, which the new levee adjoins, undisturbed for several hun- dred feet from the junction. In building new levees it is a common practice to cut away the old levee, which may be nearby, to secure better building material and at the same time to reduce the length of haul. There is generall)' no objection to doing this, but in cases of salient angles, which, under the circumstances above related, would be exposed to excessive wash, the practice should be omitted. If, however, a salient angle should be washing at a dangerous rate, the wash may be arrested by constructing a wing dam to check and divert the current. A suitable and inexpensive wing dam consists of a crib similar to that described under the head of "Leaks," built at an angle of about 4:5° to the axis of the flow on the upper side of the salient angle. The wing dam should be com- menced at a point on the levee about 50 feet above the angle, and extended so far that its outer end reaches to or overlaps the salient. CUTTING Cutting a levee liy malicious or insane persons can be prevented only by closely guarding the line while the water is near enough to its top to permit the work of cutting to be done in a short time. Remedial measures are of no avail; preventive measures alone must l^e employed. EQUIPMENT AND ORGANIZATION To execute most economically, as the exigencies of the situation demand, anv of the various kinds of work which have been described, suitable tools and materials and ample labor vmder competent direction must be at hand. As has been stated, much waste has resulted in the past from the use of other than the materials best suited because the most suitable materials were not available, and from incompetent direction of the work. In pro- tection work, as in other things, "a stitch in time saves nine." Much expense may often be avoided if a weakness be discovered in its incipiency and promptly corrected. No high-water protection system can be com- plete without good transportation and good com- munication facilities. To make tools and materials readily available, supply depots should be estab- lished every five miles along the levee line, and these depots should be connected by telephone service. Each of these depots should be provided with a house in which to store tools and materials and in- cidentally to furnish sleeping and eating quarters for watchmen and workmen; each depot should be equipped with two small flatboats to move tools and materials to points where they may be needed. By the time the river has reached 42 feet at Vicksburg, and, later on, 42 feet at Red River Landing, there should be an inspector in the field having general supervision of the high-water work for about 135 miles of levee line. He should keep constantly moving over the line to instruct his as- sistants and to see that they properly discharge their duties; he should also keep himself informed as to the materials on hand as well as those which may be required. Under his direction there should be inspectors having local supervision of the work on 20 miles of the levee line each. These men should inspect every foot of the levee line on their beat at least once in every twenty-four hours. As soon as they arrive on the ground, the embankment should be thoroughly cleared of all weeds and coarse vegeta- tion, and the grass should be mowed close to the surface in order to fullv expose the entire surface to the closest scrutiny. At the same time, existing drain ditches near the land base of the levee should be cleared and put in good order. If such ditches do not exist they should be promptly cut. As the river rises, or the amount of protection work in- creases, the 20-mile beat should be reduced to such Past— Present— Prospective 119 a length that the inspector can inspect every foot of it daily, and otherwise give it proper attention and competently direct all necessary work. Whenever the water in the river gets within 3 feet of the crown of the embankment, a reliable day and night watchman, in addition to the in- spector, should be placed on every 2 1-2 miles of the levee line, and the watchmen should be re- quired to constantly patrol their beat during the night as well as during the day. If dangerous places develop, no matter what the height of the river mav be, a day and night watchman should be retained at each of such places in addition to the patrol watchman. HYDRAULIC BANK GRADER. 120 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; H. S. DOUGLAS. Past— Present— Prospective 121 PROTECTION OF CAVING BANKS By H. S. DOUGLAS, Assistant U. S. Engineer The general objects in view or ends to be ob- tained in the improvement of the Mississippi river are: To improve navigation; and, to prevent dis- astrous overflows during floods. At present the methods of attaining the first ob- ject are: The maintenance of liglits or beacons to mark the channel for the guidance of pilots, the operation of snag-boats to remove obstructions, principally trees that cave into the river in the con- cave bends, and lodge in the channel; and the use of powerful hydraulic dredge of enormous capacity for dredging the shoals or bars that obstruct navi- gation during low water. The second object is attained by the construc- tion of levees or earthen embankments of a suffi- cient height and section to confine the waters when the river overflows its natural banks. Both objects have been attained to a measuraljle extent, but much more remains to be accomplished before complete success, is not a matter of specula- tion but of certainty. So long as the river can, by caving its banks, shift its channel from year to year, permanent im- provement in the strict sense of the term is im- possible. The caving of the banks changes the po- sition of the channel and the lights and beacons must be constantly moved to suit the new con- ditions. The snag-boats find endless work in the removal of snags made by the trees that are under- mined and fall into the river in the concave bends. Theoretically if there were no caving banks there would be but few bars to obstruct low water navi- gation, because the river being deprived of its prin- cipal supply of mud and sand would not build bars and shoals with the material it moves along in sus- pension. It would be practically a clear water stream and there would be but little work for the powerful dredges. A channel once made by tliem would be reasonably permanent. A permanent levee system is constantly spoken of, but such a thing in a strict sense is impossible so long as the river, by caving away its banks, eats into and destroys many miles of expensive levees which have to be constantly replaced by new em- bankments built further back from the river. There are certain bends of the I'iver where four, five and six lines of levee have been built in the past thirty years. The cost of building these new embankments is so great that it prevents to a con- siderable extent the improvement of the system at large. If it were possible to expend this money in the enlargement and strengthening of a. permanent levee line it would be but a comparatively short time before the dreaded "crevasse" would be un- known and the stubborn, costly and frequently un- successful high water fight made on the levees dur- ing floods a thing of the past. All of which goes to indicate that if the river can be prevented from caving its banks, the prob- lem of its practical and permanent impro\'ement and the attainment of all the objects sought is solved. Unfortunately a cheap and successful method of protecting caving banks is yet to be discovered or invented. By the expenditure of large amovmts of money a successful bank protection has been placed, but the cost has been about $180,000 per mile of protected bank. This practically prohibits bank protection at present unless the interests at stake are of great value as at Memphis, Vicksburg, New Orleans, etc. In the early days of river im- provement it was thought that the banks could be held by light and comparatively inexpensive works, such as wire screens, pile dikes, and small light mattresses of willow brush woven basket fashion on poles. The constant failure of such works has necessitated the substitution of heavier and more expensive construction, until what is known now as the standard bank revetment consists of a heavy brush mattress from one to three feet in thickness and extending from low water mark 300 feet out into the channel of the river. Above low water mark the bank is graded to a slope of about 1 in 3 and paved with rock. This latter material is used 122 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : to sink and hold the brush mattresses in place on the bottom. Revetments of this kind have been generally successful, but as already stated, are very expensive, not onh' in the actual cost of construc- tion, but in the enormous plant required. Experi- ments of various kinds in the direction of reducing the cost of a successful bank revetment have been tried, but none of them have given results that promise complete success. What are termed "submerged sloping spur dikes" have given the best results, and in certain localities have proven successful. They are much less costly than the standard revetment, but are not adapted to ah por- tions of the river. To the casual observer who views a caving bend of the .Mississippi river, all that seems necessary is to protect that portion of the bank which he sees. As a matter of fact what he sees is only the effect, the cause being concealed. That portion of the bank that is concealed from view below the surface of the water is eroded and scoured away by the current, and thus removes the foundation or support of the upper bank which caves and falls into the comparative void that has been prepared for it. The wide willow mattresses of the standard revetment that carpet the bank below low water are intended to prevent this scour of the sub- aqueous bank. It frequently happens, however, that before the mattress has been placed the scour has already occurred and the stabihty of the bank been destroyed. In such cases the mattress is wrecked by the subsequent caving of the bank on which it is laid. Such incidents do not indicate that this method of protecting caving banks is a failure, but merely that the work was not done at the proper time. There are many places on the lower Mississippi river where, if the water sud- denly disappeared, the inhabitants of the immedi- ate bank would find themselves dwelling on the brink of a cliff from 1.50 to 200 feet in height and approaching the perpendicular. Among many plans suggested for the improve- ment of the river is that of making cut-offs across the narrow necks of the horse-shoe shaped bends. The idea is attracti\e, Init ]:)erhaps no other plan has been suggested that would be so destructive to the permanent improvement of the river. Cut- offs would obviously shorten the river but the shortening would be temporary, as the current would be greatly accelerated and consequently the caving in the concave bends become more rapicl until by the lengthening or deepening of these bends the river had regained in distance all that it lost by the cut-off. This fact will be readily recog- nized when it is considered that the distance from Cairo to New Orleans by river has not changed materially, notwithstanding the numerous cut-offs, both natural and artificial, that have occurred within historic times. Of course, the much de- sired permanency of channel and levee line would be impossible of attainment with cut-offs occurring from time to time, as the regimen of the river for many miles above and below each cut-off' would be so disturbed as to render the works of improve- ment that might have been undertaken valueless. The only means by which natural cut-offs can be obviated is by preventing the caving of the banks in the two bends on either side of the neck of land separating them. Here again the impor- tance of the protection of caving banks is illus- trated. Modern civil engineering is largely the science of accomplishing the greatest possible results in the most economical manner. The belief that the Mississippi river is tmique in that it cannot be con- trolled as other navigable streams are, is rapidly passing away. It is only a matter of time, inge- nuity and money, and it is this latter factor that makes this or any other work practicable or im- practica])le. It would be possible to protect a caving Ijank by using thousands and thousands of tons of stone to rip-rap it, but the cost of such a method renders it impracticable. The present methods are the cheapest that have so far been discovered, and when it is considered that a cheap and effective form of bank protection practically solves all the vexing cjuestions attendant on the improvement of navigation and the prevention of overflow, its paramount importance becomes evi- dent. Past— Present— Prospective 123 • SMift^>^^ifiKp#f*'^A ^PmtP^ " B^,. ■H, Jt, ,>YT^ H^^/^v i ^ WT-- " ^■pp^^^i^' ^^^H HHj J P IB ^^^1 ^ i^r^ -»^m^^^^^ PP ^^KteWr-Mr^" .1 i.1^^^^1 ^^BV'^'''"' ^^;- ... CAVING IN OF LEVEE AT KEMP'S BEND. p ' '--^ "^ ^^TM— 1 ^ in iM> '^' L^^^^SSi 1^^™ p ^-:.^^^' '•■ v;**~-s-t^^w'^ \ 1 ^_ lis " ^ ^' ^t«^^- ,-^ .S'f^'^^k 1^ *^ i^i^ WM^^ ^'^^^ "^ ^ &- k '■'■'^ ^mm f^|:i^..; ^^-ifet .- ,^ ii^.'^- .'•'^^^H .1 ki^ ^ .;r ^"^fflhr'' '" 1 '*^^- ■ u^ N < ^ ^ggs|p;^Mp k . -*i^ ^ ^^^^^p MB '' k '_-■"■'■ ■ -^ ■ ' i. ^ f^:-' CAVING BAAJK AT CARUTH ERSVILLE, MO. CAVING BANK AT CARUTHERSVI LLE, MO. 124 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : -f^iS/l\ -*^^ *^ '!i^'*">~'^'' THE LATE H. N. PHARR. Past— Present— Prospective 125 PAPER BY THE LATE H. N. PHARR * * * You remember the dams 3'ou and 3'our playmates built of gravel, sand and mud across the branch and watched it filling the basin thus formed, until it finally burst the dam and rushed down its channel, carrying gravel and sand with it. Follow- ing it down the stream you observed that its volume soon began to change form. The tendency was to elongate and subside. This continued until in the distance your flood disappeared. As it subsided you noticed that it began to drop its load, first its heavier part along the bottom of the channel and the sand along its convex banks, especially below the apex of the curve. Thus are shoals built in the channel and sand-bars extended down stream. Then you had a flood wave governed by all the laws that control such waves in the Mississippi River. There is a certain force of gravitation (weight) inherent in each atom of water. This accumulates as the volume increases, and while the volume is restrained it remains apparently latent, but is never latent. It was this force that burst your dam and started the flood down stream. As soon as water begins to flow it accjuires a sec- ond force, due to its velocity, and the resultant of these two forces, its momentum, is the working force of the stream at whatever stage it may be. When we remember that water flows, i. e., it moves by an interchange of atoms, which is so easy as to be excited by the least provocation, that this flow is governed wholly by its depth or aggregated weight and the inclination of the channel, which fixes its velocity, modified by the friction it encounters, each atom moving -for itself under these laws, and is not in any sense pro- jected or driven forward by an exterior force, that all waves subside by their own weight (grav- itation), we are able to understand why your flood wave in the branch subsided. It did subside by increasing its length, because its banks restrained its width. The crest of the wave produced this elongation by restraining its rear and accelerating its front. Thus a stream flows faster as it rises than as it falls. Hence, all conditions being the same, a flood wave of any height will pass no two points at the same elevation. The dilTerence will be in pro- portion to the distance, or the same thing, the time. If ^ve now lea\'e the spring branch and go down to the creek we will find it, as you well remember, composed of a series of pools and shoals. A mo- ment's observation will suggest the fact that no more water flows through the pools, whatever their capac- ity, than passes over the shoals. A diflference in velocity is at once observed. This difiierence shows that there is a difference in their planes or a differ- ence of "slope." The shoals more inclined, the pools less so. That is, the low water service is a series of planes, making angles more or less with each other. If we follow the creek down to the old mill dam we find on our way that when we come to the head of the "mill pond" the creek just above is flowing on as if there was no dam across the creek and no pond there. If, on reaching the dam, we estimate the pond to be one mile long and find the dam to be eight feet high, observing the surface of the pond to be practically level, we infer that the slope of the channel is about eight feet to the mile. That is, the dam does not in any way affect the flow of the creek above the point at which a horizontal line laid on the surface of the pond, reaches the bottom of the creek, above. We have seen such floods come down the creek as to cause the shoals to disappear — even the pool below the dam was filled and the water ran smooth over the dam. The dam is but a greater shoal in the creek. From this we learn that while the low water lies in a series of planes, more or less inclined, the eft'ort of the water as it rises is to assume a uniform plane, and its nearest approximation of such plane is its high-water line. Now, it is plain tliat no water runs through the pool below the dam that does not run over it, though it is wider and many times deeper than a cross-sec- tion on the dam would show. And it is just as plain that all the water that runs over the dam runs through the pool, and that it takes a certain depth 126 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : of water on the dam to fill up the pool and maintain the uniform plane of the high-water line, and that no increased depth on the dam can raise the pool above that plane. In the creek we have the river, difTering- only in such exaggerated features as art has contrived. If we now turn to the Mississippi River, we find the gauge reading of high water as follows : CairO' 52 feet, New Madrid 47 feet, Cotto-nwood Point 37 feet, Elmot 33 feet, Memphis 35 feet and Helena 48 feet. This shows us very plainly that there is a long- shoal between Cairo and Helena, built up. doubtless, by long ages of annual overflow. To understand this it is only necessary to: remember that the working force of water is proportional to its depth multiplied into- its velocity. Anything that varies either or both of these factors varies that force. Now, that force is persistently occupied in an effort tO' remove matter from a higher to< a lower plane, and always works tO' its full capacity, as it finds the banks and bars of the river an easy prey it goes loaded. The overflow reduces both the depth and velocity — the depth by so much as is due toi the volume of outflow, the velocity by sO' much as it due to the reduced depth added to the influence of the cross or counter current of the overflow. Thus is the force reduced, which at once drops soi much of its load as is due tO' that reduction, and shoals are built along and below outflows. This shoal between Cairo and Helena is distinctly shown by a profile of the zero of the gauges, and if the profile be extended it will show the river toi be composed of a series of pools and shoals to^ New Or- leans just as we have seen in the creek. By examining the record of the reading of the gauges from Cairo to Helena for a number of years we find that the water rises faster at Cairo and Helena than at any point between. That is, as a rise comes on the pools fill up. Under the same conditions the relations between these gauges con- tinues up to 40 feet at Cairo, which gives about 30 feet at Memphis and 40 feet at Helena. Up to this line the river is practically, if not strictly, within its banks, and the gauges show that 12 feet at Cairo gives 9 feet at Memphis and 12 feet at Helena. Above that line the outflow disturbs this relation. The next 12 feet at Cairo gives but 5i feet at Mem- phis and 5 feet at Helena. We see that 3-J feet of this 9 feet due at Memphis to this last 12 feet at Cairo has gone over the bank. If restrained between banks 52 feet at Cairo' would give 39 feet at Memphis, less whatever may be due to increased velocitj' due to^ 3^ feet increased depth. This is all the extremists can claim. But why does the 5-i feet at Memphis which has remained in the channel make but 5 feet at Helena, and not 7i feet as heretofore ? Plainly, because the Helena pool has filled at 40 feet on that g'aug"e and is deli\'ering over the next shoal below the water as it comes. That is, the conditions of a uniform plane have been established at 40 feet on that gauge. Thereafter a one-foot rise at Memphis makes one foot at Helena,; hence when the restrained flood of 52 feet at Cairoi makes 39 feet at Memphis it will make 49 feet at Helena, and can make no more. Hence, having the St. Francis Basin closed, cannot raise the high-water line a foot at Helena, but will doubtless restrain it slightly, which reduction will continue as the shoals are scoured out by the restrained flood. Nine-tenths of all the water that heretofore has flooded the St. Francis Basin left the river between Point Pleasant and Bear Bayou, a distance of 66^^ miles. That has been leveed, and the next flood will doubtless show a higher water line, due tO' the re- strained outflow. This increased height of water line has been called an "abnormal" rise, due tO' the restraint — a secondary wave on top of the primary wave — and for evident reason it must subside more rapidly than the primary wave. Hence I say 52 feet at Cairoi can never make 39 feet at Memphis nor 49 feet at Helena. With this conclusion it is unnecessary to discuss the results from closing the St. Francis Basin upon the river below (they are prepared for 48.8 feet at Helena), further than to say that it will be veiy much to their advantag-e in this, that it will reduce the high-water period by from ten to^ forty days. It is not, as a rule, the height of the water that breaks levees, but the long-continued pressure. That is. it does not run over levees, but works its way through. If you ask why, if this be true, the contention that now exists from Helena to the gulf against closing the St. Francis front, and why do the engi- neers sustain that contention? I confess it is not easy, from my standpoint, to answer that with the deliberation its importance demands. For a great many years these people have been building levees. The}^ have closed one basin after another. In each case there were not wanting prophets, who predicted the most calamitous results Past— Present— Prospective 127 toi follow, and those whose interests were to be af- fected became their ready followers. As one pre- diction failed it was transferred to the next case and their following increased by those to be affected until the whole became seized by a ner\'ons appre- hension of an imaginary calamity, and this, notwith- standing the fact well known to them that closing the Yazoo front for more than sixty (60) miles above did not raise the high-water line one foot at Helena, nor did closing the zvholc front of the great Yazoo Basin raise the hig'h-water line one foot at Vicksburg". Their predictions having failed up tO' this time, they now turn their attention tO' the St. Francis front with renewed energy. They determined that that front should not be leveed until they were certain of their own safety,, while they have no idea what will give that safety. If their le\-ees were l)uilt ten ( K') feet higher and some new prophet, or some old one not yet exhausted, should raise the cry of impending ruin "the fat would be in the fire again." Is it surprising that the engineers, who a few years before held a convention in Memphis tO' urge upon the citizens of the St. Francis Basin to organ- ize and build that levee, not only for their own pro- tection, but also for the protection of the whole levee system, below by reducing their liigh water period, should discard all former experience, abandon their lines of reasoning and surrender their judgment to that nervous apprehension of calamity which per- vades all classes, of which Col. Suter, corps of engi- neers U. S. A., member of the Mississippi River Commission and president of the Missonri River Commission, than whom no one is more competent to speak on any subject relating to> the Mississippi River, says (see report of Mississippi River Com- mission to first session 54th Congress, Appendix I) : "* * * The great progress made of late years in levee construction, coupled with the probability that in a few years the svstem will be substantially com- pleted, has naturally aroused much interest through- out the whole valley of the Lower Mississippi. The increased flood heights due to this artificial restraint, although fully expected and predicted beforehand, have nevertheless created much anxiety among those persons who- are personally interested in the matter and have aroused much apprehension as to what the final outcome will be. This feeling is by no means confined to ignorant persons, professional alarmists and cranks, but affects also so many persons of intel- ligence and influential position that some expression of this feeling in the shape of adverse legislation is much to be apprehended. This being the case, it seems to me tO' be the imperative duty of the com- mission to prepare for such a contingency before- hand and to avert, if possible, such action by such a statement of facts as will serve in some measure to relieve the public mind. In a g-eneral way it has been shown that the large increase of flood height has been mainly confined tO' intermediate points along the great swamp basins. At the lower end of these basins it has been slight, as for instance at \"icksl3urg. The only feature of uncertainty which now remains is to the effect of leveeing the St. Fran- cis Basin. That this will increase flood heights at Memphis and all points above there seems certain, but so far as concerns the river below Helena there is this much to^ be said : All of the water which reaches the main stream above the junction of White River now passes Helena between levees, and hence has probably produced its maximum effect. There seems little reason for thinking that the height reached in ISSO will be much exceeded by any such floods as heretofore experienced." * * * * I wish tO' add that since our levees have assumed such proportions as to- be very costly their perma- nencv becomes a cjuestion of much concern. As long' as the flood which drops more or less of its load along convex shores and is able tO' reload from the concave banks easier than from the bottom, the caving O'f the banks must continue and the deep- ening of the channel by scour must be retarded. Some method of controlling the current so as to protect the banks has long been an evident necessity tO' the levee system. The revetment idea at first inspired some hope, but it was soon seen that its cost and want of permanency would confine it tO' a few points where immediate relief was needed, and there to such an extent only as would permit of frequent rebuilding. As a project to control the river to such an extent as to protect the le\'ees it was impracticable and doubtless never intended by the commission. It partook toO' much of that strategy which attacks an enemy in his own strong"- holds. It was therefore with much satisfaction that we saw the dredg'ing and portable dyke idea intro- duced, which, if wisely applied, will not only affect the deepening of the channel, so much desired, but in that \'ery act throw the current against the convex shores, cut off the bar and build up the concave bank. The whole thing is to get the current intO' the "mid- dle of the road" and keep it there. 128 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ■ HON. KNUTE NELSON. Past— Present— Prospective 129 FLOODS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER REPORT OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER FLOODS, BY THE COMMITTEE ON COMMERCE, UNITED STATES SENATE, PURSUANT TO SENATE RESOLUTION NO. 76, FIFTY-FIFTH CONGRESS, FIRST SESSION Mr. Nelson, from the Committee on Commerce, submitted the fohowing report: The Committee on Commerce makes the fol- lowing report of the action of the committee, taken pursuant to the following resolution : "Resolved, That the Committee on Commerce is hereby instructed to make full examination and incjuiry as to the following cjuestions and report thereon to the Senate, by bill or otherwise, on the first day of the regular session in December next : "First. What are the causes of the disastrous floods in the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and how can such floods be prevented or dimin- ished? "Second. If such floods are the result to any extent of the destruction of timber upon or near the head waters of said river or its tributaries, what measures should be adopted to prevent such de- struction, and whether reservoirs to hold the water caused by rain or the rapid melting of snow on or near said head waters should be constructed to prevent the floods caused by the sudden precipita- tion of the rain or snow water into the streams flow- ing from the regions where the sources of the Mis- sissippi and its tributaries are located. "Third. Whether said reservoirs, if their con- struction should be deemed necessary for the pur- poses before set forth, could not also be utilized for the irrigation of arid lands in the vicinity of such reservoirs. "Fourth. Whether the outlet system by which it is proposed to furnish avenues through which the waters of the Mississippi River can escape in times of flood is practicable or expedient. "Fifth. Whether the present system of improv- ing the Mississippi and Missouri rivers under which it is sought to confine the water within the banks of said rivers, by means of levees, and by such levees, together with jetties at dift'erent localities, to increase the erosive power of the current so as to protect the banks and deepen the channel, shoukl be continued. "Sixth. AVhat has been the eft'ect upon naviga- tion and commerce of the jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi River, and what is the present con- dition of said jetties and their probable future? "Seventh. AVhether the Mississippi and Mis- souri River Commissions should be continued in existence, and, if continued, what amendments should be made to the statutes creating' such com- missions and defining their duties and powers. "Eighth. What legislation is necessary to pre- vent the enormous destruction of property by floods in the Mississippi River and its tributaries, and what amount of money should be appropriated by Congress for the establishment and maintenance of systematic improvements and safeguards for said purposes? "That said committee shall have power to prose- cute its inquiries through a sub-committee, which may sit during the recess of the Senate at such times and places as may be thought necessary, with power to send for persons and papers, and to em- plojr a stenographer, the expenses of said commit- tee to be paid from the contingent fund of the Senate." The investigation contemplated by the resolu- tion .was carried on through a sub-committee com- posed of Senators Nelson, Elkins, Vest, McBride, Gallinger, Berry, and Caffery. In October, 1897, the sub-committee visited the reservoirs at the head waters of the Mississippi, also St. Paul, Rock Island, and St. Louis on the Mis- sissippi River, and Sioux City on the Missouri River, and took the testimony hereto appended. In February, 1898, the sub-committee went to Cairo, 111., and from there on the Mississippi River down to the Gulf of Mexico on the boat of the Mississippi River Commission, and on this trip took the residue of the testimony hereto^ appended. The 130 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : testimony so taken is comprehensive and instruc- tive, covering every feature of the contemplated in- quiry. In addition to the facts and data derived from the testimony, your committee have also de- rived much valuable information from a pamphlet on The Floods of the Mississippi River, by William Starling, chief engineer of the Lower Yazoo levee district, 1897, and from Bulletin E of the Agricul- tural Department on the Floods of the Mississippi River, prepared by Park Morrill, under the direc- tion of Willis L. Moore, Chief of the Weather Bureau, 1897. The pamphlet will be cited as "Star- ling," and the bulletin as "E." The questions propovuided for the investigation of the committee are to a large extent questions of science and engineering, and the committee can do little more than to briefly summarize the opin- ions and conclusions of experts. CAUSES OF THE FLOODS. The principal territory submerged or afifected by the floods of the Mississippi River before the con- struction of levees, and in part since, consists of certain basins or bottoms along the banks of the river between Cairo and Forts Jackson and St. Phillip. These basins, from Cairo down, are as follows : The St. Francis Basin, on the right bank of the river, extending from Cairo to Helena, near the mouth of the St. Francis River, and embracing an area of about 6,706 square miles. The White River Basin, on the same side of the river, extending from Helena to near the mouth of White River, and embracing about 956 square miles. The Yazoo Basin, on the left bank of the river, extending from a short distance below Memphis to a point near the mouth of the Yazoo River, and em- bracing, in all, about 6,648 square miles. The Tensas Basin, on the right bank of the river, extending from near the mouth of the Arkansas River to near the mouth of the Red River, and em- bracing an area of 5,370 square miles. The Atchafalaya Basin, on the same side of the river, extending from the junction of the Red and Atchafalaj^a rivers to Fort Jackson, and embrac- ing 8,109 square miles, and The Pontchartrain Basin, on the left bank of the river, extending from Baton Rouge to Fort St. Phillip, and embracing an area of 2,001 square miles. The aggregate area of all these basins is 29,790 square miles, or 19,065,600 acres. (Test., 431.) B'.ver since the immediate valley of the river below Cairo has been settled there has been a constant struggle to reclaim these basins and to protect them against overflows and floods. The problem has been in part accomplished, chiefly by means of levees, but much still remains to be done. The ultimate object of this investigation was to deter- mine the best method for the complete and per- manent protection of these basins against the floods and inroads of the river. The Mississippi river at Cairo is composed of the waters of the Ohio, the Upper Mississippi, and Missouri rivers. The Ohio and its chief tributaries have their sources in the western slopes of the Alle- gheny Mountains and their spurs. The Upper Mississippi and its principal tributaries have their sources in numerous lakes in that plateau of land between the Red River of the North and Lakes Michigan and Superior, and the Missouri has its source in the upper eastern slopes and foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The White and the St. Francis rivers, with sources in the Ozark Moun- tains, in southern Missouri and northwestern Ar- kansas, and the Arkansas and the Red rivers, with their sources in the lower eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, contribute considerable volumes of water to the Mississippi river within the basins subject to overflow. The annual normal rainfall in the diiTerent river basins varies greatly. In the Ohio it is 44.2 inches; in the Copper Mississippi, 31.9; in the Missouri, 19.4; in the Arkansas, 29.6; in the Red, 39.1, and in the central valley of the Mississippi, including the White and the St. Francis, 51.4 inches (E, 24 and 25). In the Upper Mississippi and the Mis- souri the rainfall is, as a rule, greatest in May and June. In the Ohio and the central valley it is great- est in Januarjf, February and March (Starling, 22 and 23). The greatest and most destructive floods have generally come from the Ohio. This was the case with the great floods of 1882, 1883, 1884, and 1897; and these floods culminated in February or March (E, 40-45, and Starling, 29 and 41). Of the total amount of water passing Cairo during these floods the Ohio contributed 69 per cent in 1882, 70 per cent in 1883, 85 per cent in 1884, and 76 per cent in 1897 (Starling, 27 and 41). These Past— Present— Prospective 131 great floods from the Ohio river, hke all similar floods, came from excessive rains in the basin of the Ohio and its tributaries. These rains arise from cyclonic storms and warm, moisture-laden winds, originating in the Gulf of Mexico, and passing thence up the central valley and the vallej' of the Ohio into the western slopes and spurs of the Alle- gheny Mountains, where a colder atmosphere is encountered, leading to the precipitation (Test., 267). The Ohio floods, after passing Cairo, are fre- quently largely reinforced by floods from the White and St. Francis rivers and other streams in the central valley. Occasionally the floods, from the Missouri and Upper Mississippi are, to a limited extent, a factor in extending or prolonging the flood on the lower river, but this applies rather to the May and June freshets of the Ohio than to the earlier and more extensive ones (Starling, 24 and 25). In Bulletin E (p. 46) the "Cause of the Missis- sippi floods" is thus summarized : "It is, of course, conceivable that a flood should oc- cur in the Lower Mississippi from heavy precipita- tion over any of the great contributary basins. In these floods of the past quarter century we do not, however, find the western tributaries playing an important part. The great source of floods is the Ohio Basin, with its steep slopes from the crest of the Alleghanies, upon which falls the heaviest rains of spring at a time when the normal rise of the Lower Mississippi brings the river almost to the danger line from Cairo to the Gulf. In the greatest floods we also find that heavy rainfall over the great swamp region that extends along the Mississip]3i from the mouth of the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico is an important factor. Third in importance as a fac- tor in producing floods is the Upper Mississippi, which, while never discharging a volume sufficient to produce of itself a flood, yet, rising later than the Ohio', serves to prolong the high water, and thus to increase the overflow." There are other causes, to \\hich we shall refer further on, which have tended more or less to aggravate the destructive features of recent floods, but the foregoing presents briefly, and in a general way, the primary and chief cause. DESTRUCTION OF FORESTS. Nothing in the evidence or other data obtained by your committee discloses the fact that the destruction of timber at or near the head waters of these river systems tends to cause or promote the floods referred to. It was shown that where timber is cut down for purposes other than culti- vation the underbrush remains and grows more luxuriant than e\-er, and such underbrush serves to retard rather than hasten the movement of water on the slopes and hillsides; and where timber is cut down for purposes of clearing and cultiva- tion the plowed area becomes an enlarged absorb- ent of surface moisture : It is a generally accepted opinion that the destruction of timber tends rather to diminish than to increase the rainfall. RESERVOIRS. There are five reservoirs constructed at the head waters of the Upper Mississippi. These reservoirs repress to some extent the floods in the river bot- toms above Lake Pepin and improve the navigation of the river in lo\y water down to that point, but have no material effect upon the floods or naviga- tion of the river below that point. The evidence discloses no other points on the Upper Mississippi available for reservoir purposes. On the Missouri the only point where sufficient holding ground could be found for a reservoir of any magnitude is on a reach of the river above Great Falls. Such a reservoir, if constructed high enough to bring the waters of the Missouri river into the Alilk River V" alley, would he \aluable for purposes of irrigation, but would have no material bearing on the floods in the Mississippi river, nor on the navigation of the Missouri river. The evidence, as well as the other data, discloses that on the Ohio River, as well as its main tribu- taries, where reservoirs could act more directly on the floods than elsewhere, with the exception here- mafter stated, there are no suitable sites or holding grounds where reservoirs could at any moderate or reasonable expense, and without working far- reaching and extensive damage, be constructed that would at all be adequate to pen up and retain the great downpour from innumerable mountain torrents during the great freshets of January, Feb- ruary and March. There are no great basins adequate for reser\-oir purposes either on the Monongahela, the Allegheny, the Tennessee, or the Cumberland: and to be eft'ective in repressing the floods of the Ohio, big, strong reservoirs would be requisite on these streams. The only place where a reservoir basin can be 132 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : found, proximate and sufficiently large to afford a holding ground at all commensurate with any material or practicable relief, is the St. Francis Basin; but the cost of constructing and maintain- ing a system of reservoirs in this basin would be enormous, and far greater than the cost of leveeing the entire river front of the basin. The scheme is regarded by nearly all engineers and other experts as wholly impracticable. In short, your committee can discover no just or adequate relief in reservoirs. OUTLETS. Neither can your committee discover from the evidence, or through other sources, any material relief from the outlet system. It is not practicable to relieve the river by means of outlets except below the Red River. Two important natural out- lets now exist and have for years existed on this reach of the river — the Atchafalaya and Bayou Lafourche. A third, Bayou Plaquemine, is now closed pending its preparation for reopening by means of locks and dams. But these outlets, or others that might be constructed on this reach of the river, could afford no perceptible relief for the river above, where relief is much more called for and needed. The St. Francis, Yazoo, White and Tensas basins can get no relief from any practicable outlet system. And where this system exists and is feasible there is no disposition to extend it or to subtitute it for levee enlargement. (Test., 424-455, 335, 375; see also Humphrey and Abbott's report of 1861 as to reservoirs and outlets.) I,EVEES. The history of levee construction on the Missis- sippi River has been a history of the gradual recla- mation of the several basins or bottoms from the inroads of the floods of the river. Anterior to levee construction these basins served as great natural reservoirs for the floods, the exterior hills or ridges of the basins serving as the high-water banks of the river; and within these banks so wide apart and with these basins for a hig"h-water bed, the floods never reached the high level nor the increased rapidity obtained since the great extension of the levee system. Levees are the penning up of the floods of the river from these high-water basins. The narrowing of the high-water stream by means of levees does not result in materially scouring a deeper channel nor in raising the bed of the river (Test., 269), and so the stream at its flood stages, as it becomes narrower, also becomes higher. Contraction without deepening of necessity leads to elevation, and as a consequence levee construc- tion has brought in its wake higher flood levels, necessitating from time to time higher and stronger levees. The history of levee construction shows this. (Dabiiey, Test., 311; Driver, Test., 199; Starling, Test., 269; Gillespie, Test., 382, 383; Newcomer, Test., 334; Richardson, Test., 370, 371; Taylor, Test., 237, 239, 241; Table, Test., 432; Tol- linger, 510.) The first levee construction began in 1717, when a levee 1 mile long was constructed to protect New Orleans, then a mere village. This levee was 4 feet in height and 18 feet across at the top. The country settled up slowly, and levee construction only kept pace with the settlement. Fifty years after this levee was built the settlements extended only 30 miles above and 20 miles below the embryo city. It was not until after Louisiana had been ceded to- the United States that levee extension was undertaken on an enlarged and systematic scale. By 1828 the levees, though of rather infe- rior character, had been extended nearly up to the mouth of the Red River. At the beginning", a levee 4 feet in height was ample, but as levee con- struction progressed up the river, and additional basins and bottoms were inclosed and protected, the levees were, of necessity, increased in height (Test., 237). There are still levees below New Orleans that are only from 3 to 4% feet in height, but the average height of the levees in Louis'iana, above New Orleans, is now from about 12 to 13 feet (Test., 380, 369), and this height proved insuf- ficient in the great flood of 1897 (Test., 370). The flood stage of 1897, above New Orleans, was from 1 1-3 to 3^ feet higher than that of any previous flood, notwithstanding that the flood level at Cairo was less than in 1882-83 and 1884. Three great crevasses occurred in 1897 that remained unrepaired until after the flood subsided, and sev- eral minor crevasses occurred, which were closed during the pendency of the flood. This increased flood level was "partly due to the improvement and increase of levees." (Test., 370, 371, 380, 423, 424.) The experience of 1897 indicates that a complete inclosure of all the river basins will require from 3 to 4 feet higher levees in Louisiana. The levees on the Yazoo Basin were only 4 feet high in 1858. From 1874 to 1882 they were raised Past— Present— Prospective 133 to from 7 to S feet (Test., 269-308), which proved insufficient under the flood of 1882; and based on this flood as a standard, the levees were increased to an average of from 13 to 14 feet in height prior to 1897. This was more than 3 feet above the high water of 1882 (Test., 308-311), but it proved utterly insufficient under the flood of 1897. Since the floods of 1882-83 and 1884 the White River Basin, the Upper Tensas Basin, and much of the St. Francis Basin have been inclosed, and this, together with the higher levees on the Yazoo front, have greatly aggravated and raised the flood levels on this reach of the river (Test., 269, 272, 273, 311). The flood of 1897 made it plain that a complete inclosure of all the river basins would require an increase of from 4 to 6 feet in height of the Yazoo levees. (Test., 274-275, 311; see Star- ling's paper on levee construction in Yazoo Basin, Test, 505-508.) The work of inclosing the White River Basin was commenced in 1888. and most of it was done after 1890. By 1897 the basin had been inclosed by a levee of an average height of twelve feet, deemed sufificient under the flood levels of 1882-83 and 1884, but this proved utterly insufficient in the flood of 1897. That flood overtopped the levee at many points, and was from 4 to 6 feet higher than any previous flood, clearly indicating that a com- plete levee system along the entire river would require an increase of six feet in the levee height along this basin. (Test., 301, 302.) In the Upper Tensas Basin nearly all levee con- struction has taken place since 1882 — mainly since 1892. In the Lower Tensas Basin there was an old levee existing before this period, but of low grade and insufificient in strength. By 1897 the Upper and Lower Tensas Basin levees had attained an average height of thirteen feet. In the flood of 1897 the river was from two and one-half to three feet higher in front of these basins than in the flood of 1882, and hence the levees were insuffi- cient. Had the water in 1897 not been any higher than in the floods of 1882-83 and 1884, the levees would have been ample. (Test., 330-332.) Sev- eral serious crevasses occurred in these levees dur- ing this flood. The higher flood level of 1897 was largely due to increased levee construction and the further inclosures of river basins. (Test., 334.) The completion of the levee system would require the levees on the Tensas Basin to be raised to the height of from seventeen and one-half to eighteen feet. (Test., 334, 335.) In the St. Francis Basin levee construction be- gan in 1893. Since that time a continuous levee of an average height of nine feet has been con- structed from Point Pleasant, Mo., to Chute 38, Arkansas, a distance of 127 miles. About 100 miles more are required to reach the mouth of the St. Francis river and to entirely inclose the basin. The levees on the St. Francis Basin proved insuf- ficient for the flood of 1897, and several serious and extensive crevasses occurred. These levees need to be made stronger and higher — at least two feet higher than the grade of 1897. (Test., 167-170.) The flood of 1897 wrought great havoc, espe- ■ cially in the older levees, many of which had been defectively and improperly constructed. There were twenty-three breaks in the St. Francis front, six in the Yazoo front, fourteen in the White river front, and four in the Tensas front, most of which occurred from an overtopping of the levees. Below the Red river there were only a few small breaks, and these were closed during the pendency of the flood. (Test., 432.) Engineer Ockerson, in his testimony (p. 432), describes the flood of 1897 and compares it with the flood of 1882 as follows: "From a point about 100 miles below Cairo to the Gulf the stage reached in 1897 was greater than any previous record. As far as volume of water is concerned, however the flood of 1882 was much greater than that of 1897. The flood of 1882 stood above the danger line at Cairo, or forty-two feet on the gauge, for a period of seventy-two days. The flood of 1897 stood above the danger line for a period of fifty-four days. During the flood of 1897 the tributaries below Cairo were all rather low." Tabic shozving relative hciglits of floods of iSS^ and iSg/. Cairo Belmont New Madrid Cottonwood Point Fulton Memphis Mhoons Helena Sunflower White Eiver Arkansas City. ... Greenville Lake Providence. Vicksburg St. Joseph Natchez Red River Bayou Sara Baton Rouge Plaquemine Collepe Point, .. . Carrollton 51-9 <5-i 40. 9 37-5 36.7 35-2 39-8 47-2 41.7 48.4 47-1 41-7 38.3 48.8 44 9 47-8 48.5 39-3 36.0 313 23.2 15.0 1897. 51.6—0.3 45.1 °o 40.3 — 0.6 39.3-I-1.8 47.5+<:.8 37.7-I-2-5 41. 6-1-2.8 51.8-H4.6 47-3+5-6 52.4+4.0 51. 9-1-4. 8 46. 8-1-5. 1 44.4-F6.1 52.4+3.6 47.9+30 49.8- 50.2+1.7 43.8- 40.7 36.3+5.0 28.0+4.8 ig. 0+4.0 •4.5 ■4.7 134 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : A due consideration of the testimony and other data bearing- on the subject makes it clear that the flood of 1S97 was, in its effects and consequences, greatly enlarged and aggravated by the extensive inclosure of basins and the extended and enlarged le\'ee construction that had taken place since the floods of 1SS2-S3 and 1884 (Test., 241), though it is doubtless true that if no levees at all had been in existence a larger area would have been submerged. Engineer Starling, in his book (41, 42), to which we have already referred, concurs in this conclusion in the following clear and apt language : "It is not only the magnitude of the flood of 1897 which has made it of surpassing importance to the engineers of the Mississippi service. The widespread damage which it has wrought, while great, is yet not without a parallel. Its principal interest to the engineer is due to the experience which has been derived from the wholesale closure of unleveed tracts and the extraordinary elevation of its hig-h-water line consec|uent thereon. There are two of the great basins into which the Missis- sippi Valley is divided which have only recently been protected to any extent by levees. These are the St. Francis and the White river basins. The former was closed during the last three years, or since the flood of 1893, to a distance, measured along the river, of about 120 miles. There still remains a gap of about 100 miles. The White River Basin has been undergoing a gradual process of closure for several years. In 1893 there was a gap of about fifteen miles, extending between points 330 and 360 miles, respectively, by river, below Cairo. In 1896 this gap was closed and the line of levee was made continuous from the hills at Helena to a point eight miles above the mouth of White river. It is to the building of these lines and to the maintenance of the lines previously existing until a late period of the flood that the unparalleled stages attained by the water have been due." The construction and repair of levees was, in the first instance, undertaken by riparian owners, after- wards by parishes or. counties, then by the States or certain levee districts, under the authority of the States, and finally by the latter and the Federal Government combined, which is the system now prevailing. The first material aid given by the FederaF Government was a grant of swamp and overflowed lands; made to the several States ip ..ISSO. The same year Congress.. also, made- pro- vision for a survey and investigation of the Missis- sippi river. This work was carried on for the next ten years under the direction of Captain Humphrey and Lieutenant Abbott, who made their final report in 1861. This report was most thorough and ex- haustive, and is still the standard work on the hydraulics and physical features of the river. It made clear that no substantial relief from the floods could be obtained from reservoirs or outlets, and that levees, properly constructed, would afford the necessary relief and protection. Neither the testi- mony taken by your committee, nor other obtain- able data, has shaken or invalidated these conclu- • sions. During the civil war levee construction was at a standstill. After the war was over the several States began, without concert and without due plan or system, to extend and repair the levees. But the great flood of 1874 showed how inade- quate, both in quality and quantity, the efforts of the States were. Congress again intervened, and passed an act providing for the appointment of a commission of five engineers tO' investigate, deter- mine, and report as to the best plan for relief against the floods. This commission made its report in 1875, and came to the same conclusion as Humphrey and Abbott did in 1861, that a system of levees could alone afford adequate protection. But no syste- matic improvement of the river by the Federal Government was yet undertaken. Finally, in 1879, Congress passed an act creating the Mississippi River Commission, outlining its work in the fol- lowing terms : "It shall be the duty of said commission to take into consideration and mature such plan or plans and estimates as will correct, permanently locate, and deepen the channel and protect the banks of the Mississippi river; improve and give safety and ease to the navigation thereof; prevent destructive floods; promote and facilitate commerce, trade, and the postal service." From 1879 to 1882 $1,475,000 was appropriated by Congress for expenditure by the commission in making surveys and in improving the navigation of the river, but none of it was allotted for levee construction. In 1882 Congress appropriated the gross sum of $4,123,000, and from this the first direct allotment for levee construction was made — ■ about $1,300,000 in all. (Test., 237.) Past— Present— Prospective 135 The testimony of Judge Taylor, a member of the commission, explains in detail the make-up of the commission, the mode in which it performs its work, and the methods it pursues. From each appropriation made the commission allots a certain proportion for the construction and repair of levees in each levee district, which is expended by the United States engineer in charge of the district. The commission plans the work, subject to the approval of the War Department, and the district engineers carry on the work conformable to the plan. The first efifort of the commission was directed to the closure of the Yazoo Basin, and then fol- lowed the improvement of the Tensas Basin, then the White River Basin, and, finally, a part of the St. Francis Basin. In the respective levee districts the State and Federal engineers, while acting in concert and harmony as far as possible, work each on separate and distinct portions of the river. One reach is constructed under Federal authority and another under State authority. When a levee is constructed, the constructing engineer or his suc- cessor takes charge and care of the same. (Test., 257, 258.) In case of an emergency there is by mutual consent a sort of joint care and supervision. As a rule, both Federal and State engineers are men of fine attainments, high character, and great public spirit, which tend to obviate any friction that otherwise might ensue from an undefined joint tenancy. It would no doubt be advisable to pro- vide b}' law in which authority the care and main- tenance of a constructed levee should vest. The evidence (p. 518) discloses the fact that eighteen suits have been brought against the United States for damages claimed to arise from the construction and maintenance of levees or failure to construct or maintain proper levees along the Mississippi river. The aggregate amount of damages claimed in these suits is $656,337.04. From a table (following p. 518 of testimony) prepared by Captain Waterman, secretary of the Mississippi River Commission, under the direction of General Gillespie, president of the commission, it appears that the total yardage of levees con- structed by Federal, State, local, and private authority is 164,860,375 yards, built at a cost of $47,631,503.78, of which yardage 68,570,431 yards were constructed by Federal authority, at a cost of $13,320,708.44, and 96,280,944 vards bv State, local, and private authority, at a cost of $34,310,- 795.34. It is estimated that it would cost to complete the entire levee system, from the head of the St. Francis Basin to the Head of the Passes, at a grade sufficiently high and strong to afiford complete protection against floods at the highest probable stages, the sum of from $18,000,000 to $20,- 000,000, and that it would take from four to five 3'ears to complete the system. (Test., 245, 246, 390, 396,408, 357, 360.) From all the evidence taken and considered by your committee it is evident that the basins and bot- toms along the Mississippi river exposed to the floods of the river can only be protected and preserved from such floods by an ample and complete system of levees from Cairo to the Head of the Passes. Crevasses and inundations, resulting in extensive loss of life and property, are liable to occur during all floods so long as the system is incomplete. The burden of completing the levee system is too' great for local and State authority. Your committee are of the opinion that the Federal Government should continue, as it has since 1882. to aid in the great task of controlling and repressing the floods in the river. Your committee are also of the opinion that the Mississippi River Commission should remove its principal office and headquarters from New York City to some point on the Mississippi river. NAVIGATION, MISSISSIPPI RIVER. The testimony discloses that the navigation of the Upper Mississippi river has been considerably im- proved by the reservoirs, on the reach above Lake Pepin, and by riprapping. wing dams, spur dikes, hurdles, revetment works, and a little levee work at various points on the river below that reach. (Test., 20-34.) The Mississippi River Commission has carried on more or less extensive improvements of the navi- gation of the river on many of the reaches below Cairo. Such improvements, in addition to levee work, have consisted of bank protection in the form of riprapping and various kinds of revetment work, of channel contraction by means of jetty work, hur- dles, and various forms of spur dikes, and of dredg- ing on an extensive scale. Some of the work has been rather tentative and of a temporary character, and on account of the great cost has not been fol- lowed up. At present, aside from the levee work, the chief 136 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : reliance for obtaining a low-water navigable channel seems to be dredging. The new style of h_vdraulic dredges seem tO' be very potent and effective, and seem to give great and promising' resnlts. Four new dredge boats have been for some time completed and in use, and two more are under contract and by this time ready for use, and there is money avail- able for another dredge. It is estimated that from nine tO' ten dredges will be required to keep' a due low-water channel open. ( Test., 100-108, 140-14S, 218-235.) In the light of results obtained, your committee recommend that ample provision be made for the construction of dredge boats, and dredging. In view of the great cost, especially great as tO' re- sults, it seems that it would be more judicious to limit revetment work to^ levee and harbor protection. Contraction, by means of jetties, dikes, and dams, supplemented by dredging, seems to have given the best results at least cost. There is no doubt that revetments are very efficacious, but the cost is so immense that its systematic application is scarcely warranted. JETTIES AND PASSES. As the Mississippi river in its downward course is about to debouch intO' the sea it divides itself into three great passes, through which it enters the Gulf, and forms the delta at its mouth. These passes are known as the Southwest Pass, South Pass, and Pass a Loutre. From New Orleans down to the Head of the Passes there has been no impediment to deep-water navigation. The impediment occurs in the passes, especially at their heads and mouths, chiefly the latter. Prior to the improvement of the South Pass by means of jetties, navigation was chiefly confined to- the Southwest Pass, though Pass a Loutre had for some years been utilized to some extent. In 1839, when the Southwest Pass was first ex- amined, it was 15.2 miles long and 13 feet deep on the crest of the bar, and it was then, as now, of an average width of twice the width of. the South Pass. Between that time and 18YY considerable work was done in improving this pass, but such work, aside from a short and abortive jetty work on one side of the pass in 1856, consisted of dredging" and stir- ring up the bed of the channel by means of drags, harrows, scrapers, blasting, torpedoes, and other similar appliances. By these means a depth of 18 feet was at one time, for a short period, obtained on the crest of the bar. In 1874, the year before the improvement of the South Pass began, the South- west Pass had attained a length of 18 miles, with a depth of only 15 feet on the crest of the bar, and on the 9th day of February last the pass had attained a length of 18it miles, with only a depth of 9 feet on the crest of the bar, according to soundings then taken. ( Test., 464.) In aid of the improvement of the South Pass Cap- tain Eads placed a mattress sill across the head of the Southwest Pass, which, aside from a little dredging prior to 1878, is the only improvement made in this pass since 1875. Prior to 1875 like efforts at improving Pass a Loutre, except jettying, were also made, which were, in like manner, partially successful. By the fall of 1858 an 18-foot channel had been obtained in this pass, and for some years it was, on account of being the shorter pass, utilized for purposes of navigation ; but in 1875 the channel was destroyed by a large mud lump, and since that time no improvement has been made, except placing a mattress sill at the head of the pass and the work of attempting to close a large crevasse on the south side of it near the upper end, both of these works being in aid of the maintenance of the South Pass jetty system. The South Pass in 1838 was 11.3 miles long, 700 feet wide, except at the extremities, and 8 feet deep on the crest of the bar. In 1875 it was about the same length and width, but only 7 feet deep' on the crest of the bar. In 1874 a board of engineers, con- sisting of 3 army engineers, 3 civil engineers, and 1 from the Coast and Geodetic Survey, was appointed to devise and determine upon some plan of securing deep-water navigation through one or more of the passes. This board, after visiting Europe and ex- amining many works there in^'olving• similar prob- lems, recommended, in January, 1875, the improve- ment of the South Pass by means of jetties. In pur- suance of this recommendation Congress, in March, 1875, conferred the task of making the improvement upon James B. Eads and associates. The jetties were practically built on lines recommended by the board. The original act provided for a channel 30 feet deep and 350 feet wide, but by 1S78 it became evi- dent that such a channel could not be obtained by the work then laid out, and accordingly Congress was induced to remit, by acts passed in 1878 and 1879, the requirement to a channel 200 and 250 feet wide and 26 feet deep, and on this basis the work was deemed completed in July, 1879. In making the ini- Past— Present— Prospective 137 provement, and as a part of it, training dikes were built at the Head of the Pass, and mattress sills were laid at the head of the Southwest Pass and Pass a Loutre. In 1891 the west end of the Pass a Loutre sill was carried away, and a large break occurred on the west bank of Pass a Loutre about li miles be- low the head of the South Pass. This break, although se\'eral attempts have been made to close it, has not yet been closed, and in con- sequence thereof, as well as on account of the loss of the contiguous end of the Pass a Loutre mattress sill and portions of the training dikes, and lack of re- pair and maintenance in some of the training- dikes, the inflow of water into the South Pass has been less than before, which has, no doubt, to some extent detracted from the scouring- force in the pass, neces- sitating some dredging, for the maintenance of the rec[uisite channel. Before these drawbacks occurred the pass received from 10 to 11 per cent of the water in the main stream; since then only 7 per cent. Three hundred feet of the jetties at the sea end have been washed away oiiu ,„- -- -^ __.,== — -jy*- «=-=„»-«*««• - ' s PACIFIC, n9 u TOW AND BARGES ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. Past— Present— Prospective 139 EARLY LEVEE BUILDING By WIH.IAM BEER, Librarian, Howard Library, of New Orleans Whatever may be the relative merits of the dif- ferent methods of controUing the current of the Mississippi in floods, it is clear that the levees are of the greatest importance to the agricultural and commercial interests of the whole valley of the Mississippi, and specially to that portion lying- south of Cape Girardeau, in which the banks of the river are below the level of the flood. The system has been the work of two centuries as the following brief record will show. It takes up the subject at the time when the word levee was applied to a loose and rapidly made embankment; protecting the infant village of New Orleans, not yet the capital of the vast and unknown territory of Louisiana, or surrounding the few cultivated acres of the industrious emigrants who had been attracted by the reports of the wealth of the col- ony. The record runs to the opening years of the great struggle between the forces of the North and South. At that time behind their well-built and lofty ramparts were sheltered incalculable values of improved land cultivated by a million slaves, and producing crops of such market value that both the planter in the country and the merchant in the city were of princely wealth. On the first exploration of the lower Mississippi in 1(384 by La Salle, he found the banks under water. Li 1717 Bienville, coasting along the shore of Lake Pont- chartrain, saw above the water the Metairie Ridge some six or seven feet higher than the general level, and, in consequence, decided on the present site for the foundation of New Orleans. The settle- ment he made in 1718 was greatly interfered with by the high floods of that year. For the protection of the infant city his engineer, Leblond de Latour. erected the first temporary levee which was finally completed by Governor Perrier in November, 1727. It was 5,400 feet long and 18 feet wide at the top. At the same time less important levees were con- structed for about IS miles above and below the city. The country around New Orleans was thinly settled. The levees were much injured by the flood of 1735 which continued from Decemljer to June, 1736, and inundated New Orleans. This caused increased activity in levee building, and by 1736 they extended a distance of 42 miles, from English Turn to 30 miles above the city. The government issued an edict compelling owners of land on the river to improve their levees and have them in good condition by January 1st, 1744, under penalty of confiscation. Owing to the execution of this law- Louisiana escaped with comparatively little dam- age from overflow. In 1752 the levees had been built along the river front 20 miles below and 30 miles above New Or- leans, from Concession to near Bonnet Carre. The levee system was excellent, and no breaks occurred. The government of the colony guarded the levees with ei¥iciency. These were constructed by the planters themselves. The government reserved a supervisory power, allowed no planter to endanger the safety of his neighbors by neglect. All the land so protected was under cultivation; nearly the en- tire population of the colony lived along the river. The cost of levee building Avas so high that new land was only slowly cleared and improved. The levee, however, continued to advance slowly north- ward at the rate of a mile a year. In 1770 there was a flood of which no account remains, and in 1782 the Attakapas and Opelousas suffered se- verely. In 1785. 1791 and 1799 New Orleans was flooded. In 1796 the Teche country and in 1809 the plantations above Natchez were under water. In 1812, the date of admission of the State of Louisiana to the Federal Union, on the east bank of the ri\-er, the levees extended a length of 155 miles to Bayou Manchac, and on the west bank to Pointe Coupee, a distance of 185 miles. The total length of levees in 1812, therefore, was 340 miles, which must have caused an expenditure on the part of the cultivators of at least $6,000,000. Grand levee, which protects seven parishes from 140 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River,-. overflow, the largest and most exposed in the State, broke in 1813 and caused great damage. The river overflowed the basins of the Atchafalaya, Bayou Teche and Grand Lake. New Orleans suf- fered sHghtly from a cave 12 miles above the city. In 1816 the Macarty levee broke for the second time and flooded to a depth of five feet the rear portion of the city. In 1828 the line of levees was continuous from New Orleans to Red River Landing, just below the mouth of Red river, a distance of 195 miles, and for 65 miles below the city. Above Red river they were in an unfinished state to Napoleon. By 1814 the system was practically continuous to Napoleon. The increased importance of the production of the valley was shown in the River Convention of 1845 at which it was recommended to Congress that Federal aid should be alTorded to levee build- ing and that the flooded lands of the basin should be given to the states for that purpose. The con- vention was not without its effect. Congress adopted a resolution authorizing a survey of the Mississippi for the purpose of ascertaining the best method of reclaiming alluvial lands, and in 1849 donated to Louisiana, to reclaim the swamps and overflowed lands there, the whole of these swamps and overflowed lands unfit for cultivation to aid m constructing levees. In 1850 a similar donation was made to the State of Arkansas. The three States of Louisiana, Ar- kansas and Mississippi have thus received 18,545,- 270 acres of swamp lands. , From 1850 to 1861 with ample funds, the pro- tection of the alluvial lands by levees proceeded with great activity and success. At the outbreak of the war in 1861 there was a continuous and stable line of embankments on the Mississippi river. The authorities on the subject are the great work by Humphreys & Abbot, "Report upon the Phvsics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi river; upon the Protection of the Alluvial Region Against Overflow; and upon the Deepening of the Mouths; based upon Surveys and Investigations, Washington, 1876." An admirable article by Mr. Norman Walker in the report of Internal Com- merce of the LTnited States for 1887 and the pages of De Bow's Review. ICE SCENE ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER OPPOSITE NEW ORLEANS. REMARKABLE PHENOMENON OF THE WINTER 1898-99. Past— Present— Prospective 141 QyoL^Cf^ ^►-e^^t.'CvCc^ 142 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : DIRECT INTERCOURSE BETWEEN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY AND SOUTH AMERICA By gen. LEON JASTREMSKI, of Louisana Formerly U. S. Consul at Callao, Peru Thirty-five years ago, the vast territory from which have been formed the States of Nortli and South Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colo- rado, Utah and Nevada, and the territories of New Mexico and Arizona, which are aspiring to State- hood, were inchided in what was then known as "the Great American desert." Communications with the Pacific Coast States were carried on by way of the Isthmus of Panama, the Straits of Ma- gellan and around Cape Horn, or by caravans across the desert. In the interval, the wave of immigra- tion has rolled across these vast areas, which were the abodes and hunting- grounds of the Red Men. Railroads have connected the two oceans, and pros- perous towns, cities and States, peopled by the irre- sistible white race, have sprung into active life. There are no more worlds to conquer within the vast domain of the Union. But the rapidly growing populatio'n, and the corresponding increase in the products of its industries, suggests the necessity for the opening- of new fields or markets for their sale and exchange. A mere glance at the map of the globe will suffice to indicate that the nearest, broadest and most natu- ral field for the expansion of American commerce and enterprise, lies in the continent of South Amer- ica. It must be obvious, too, tO' the commonest observer, that avenues for this expansion, other than the remote ones starting froni our Atlantic and Pacific ports, must quickly be opened. This is the era of lightning speed on the shortest and most direct lines. Clearly, all of the States whose water courses flow into* the Mississippi, must seek the markets of South America through the ports on the Gulf of Mexico. During my sojourn in Peru I had the good for- tune of profiting from the personal observations of an eminent American resident there, who had dwelt and traveled in the principal countries of South America; and, on a certain occasion, referring to the vast resources of this continent, this gentleman exclaimed : "You cannot overestimate the stores of wealth that South America possesses. Our people seem to have little knowledge of them, and I have come to the conclusion that the continent has to be rediscovered by our countrymen." The Europeans labor under the disadvantage of having to cross the Atlantic ocean to reach this field, yet we have allowed them. tO' get the bulk of the commerce of South America, to monopolize the navi- gation of its gigantic rivers and its coasts, to control the railroad across the isthmus of Panama and to^ undertake the work of cutting the ship canal through it. Shall we remain inactive and let them build its railway system while we boast of our ability to pro- duce cheaper rails in our mills and rolling stock in our machine shops ? The continent of South America extends from 12 degrees north latitude, toi 57 degrees south latitude ; consequently it has a length approximately, of 4,150 miles. At its greatest breadth, it extends from 35 degrees to S3 degrees west longitude, and measures approximately, 2,800 miles. It has an area twice as great as that of the United States. Its population is not under 50,000,000. It possesses every climate, all species of plants and productions ; all the precious and other metals and minerals; rare woods, dyes, exquisite fleeces and peltries, and throughout its immense tropical region It produces articles in pro- fusion which are eagerly sought by the rest of the world. In its virgin forests and ^vilds it has been said by a famous explorer that there goes to decay on the surface of the ground enough riches annually tO' pay off the national debt of the world. Of this same region Humboldt also' has said that it is des- tined tO' become the center of the population of the earth. It has climates on its Pacific coast which are unexcelled by any other favored region of the earth. Past— Present— Prospective 143 In its equatorial domains the tropical heat of the low lands is tempered by the sea or moimtain breezes, while the altitudes afford climates of the temperate or frigid zones to suit the fancies of all men. It has scenery of unsurpassable grandeur and loveliness. It has glorious skies, majestic mountains and noble rivers, which are navigable for thousands of miles. It has great cities, centers of culture, refinement, luxury, pleasure and wealth. It has ever placid seas and deep harbors, and it has romantic traces of a civilization that had existed for centuries prior to the discovery of America by Columbus. It has histories replete with deeds of heroism, endurance and self- sacrifice, which rivaled those recormted by the his- tories of the Old World. If it has stories of frecjuent revolutio-ns, it has stories, alsO' of as many battles fought for liberty and the rights of man as the proudest of lands can boast of. It is a land of poetry, love and glory, and a land, too, of chivalric and scholarly men and lovely and beautiful women. Reveling- in the profuse natural riches of their land, the South Americans have not had tO' tax their energies as the less favored Europeans or North Americans have been compelled tO' dO'. Yet, they have neither been unmindful nor indifferent to the inven- tions and progress of other nations. Nowhere do enterprising, ingenious and resolute men receive more generous encouragement, and none such expe- rience serious difficulties in obtaining the most liberal concessions toi open lands to- cultivatioai, navigate rivers, operate mines, or construct canals and rail- ways. ■ They are welcome everywhere, despite the many deceptions that have been practiced by charla- tans and conscienceless fakirs. The natural conditions in South America invite intimate intercourse with us. T]ie seasons beyond the equatorial line are in reverse of ours. ^Vhen it is winter there it is summer here, and were the means of communication adequate, the South Americans would come here for a change instead of seeking it in Europe. And our people might, with far greater profit to themselves and their country, visit in return the picturesque and attractive countries of the south- ern continent. Innumerable false impressions and prejudices would vanish on both sides of the line, and a new era dawn upon the twin continents out of such intercourse. It is indisputable that our shortest and most prac- tical line of penetration into South America is through Venezuela and Colombia, along the slopes of the Andean range, just where Pizarro made his marches of conquest, and where he found the em- pire of the Incas. That the Incas had chosen the best and richest domain of their epochs is proven by the still existing conditions, for the occupation of the great basin of the x\niazon is yet most practicable from the chain of the Andes, where the United States surveyors have staked the Intercontinental Railway, which, be it said in passing, our people are allowing to slumber in company with the Nicaragua canal. In these days commerce moves with steamships or railways, and as long as the United States do not provide them, the European steamship lines to Colon and around Cape Horn will take to Europe the trade of that region of South America which nature has placed within easy grasp of the American people. A glance at the map shows that the Atlantic coast countries of South America are closer, perhaps, tO' Europe than to the United States. This justifies the preponderance of European commerce in these coun- tries. On the Pacific coast of South America the geo- graphical position is reversed, since the capital of Peru, for example, is on tlie same longitudinal line as JVasIiingfon eity. It, and its seaport, Callao, whence a railway line pierces the Andes and de- scends towards the boundless valley of the Amazon, are distant but 1,500 miles from Panama. It takes the Colombian Line steamers more than six days to carry the United States mails, freights and passengers from all the States east of the Rock- ies, from New York tO' Colon. In less than four days steamers could go from New Orleans tO' Colon. Obviously the general trade interests of our coun- try would seem to sugg'est the dispatching- of the mails, freights and passengers from the Eastern States, as at present, by the Colombian Line from New York tO' Colon, and the mails, etc., from the north, west and south via New Orleans. San Francisco mails are carried by rail to New Orleans in less than four days. As steamships can go from New Orleans to Colon in less than four days, it follows that San Francisco fast mails could be conveyed this way to Panama in eig'ht days. It now takes San Francisco^ mails twenty-two days to reach Panama bv the Pacific mail steamers. 144 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : The following- table of distances will best illus- will overflow into undeveloped regions. The nearest trate the foregoing : of these is western South America, the elevated Miles. plateaus of which are habitable by northern races. Callao to Colon 1,550 It may be conjectured that the relations of the vast Colon tO' New Orleans 1,350 territories in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia, for which the Spaniards have done so little, and which can "^' hardly remain forever neglected, will one day be- Callao to Colon 1,550 come far closer with the United States than with Colon to New York 2,026 any European power." ■ Owing to the unavoidable curves that the railways '" make through Texas and Mexico, the connection Callao to Panama 1,500 that will be made at or near the Isthmus O'f Panama Panama to San Francisco- 3,800 with the projected Intercontinental Railway, will ■ always be cjuicker, cheaper and shorter by sea from ' New Orleans, and the directors of the railways cen- Callao tO' Colon 1,550 tering there cannot fail to perceive that steamships Colon tO' principal European ports 6,500 connecting New Orleans with South America would ■ operate practically as extensions of their lines into '■ '^ South America. In my judgment the first line of The difference in favor of the United States ports steamers should be established from New Orleans is seen at a glance. to Colon and other ports in Colombia and the Venez- With an enterprise worthy of imitation, some uelan port of Laguayra. They should make close seventy European steamers ply between European connection for the transferring of passengers, mails ports and Colon. and freights with the steamers at Panama bound Among these a Liverpool line (the West India) for the ports of Colombiac, Eucador, Peru and has steamers which, on their return trips, stop at Chili, to- the southward, and the ports of Central New Orleans to. complete cargo-, but which, on their America, Mexico- and California, to the northward, way out, do not stop- at New Orleans. The effect The vessels should be first-class in speed and acco-m- is obvious. New Orleans, the nearest American modations, and backed with sufficient capital to sat- seaport — which is the natural outlet of the great isfy the public that they will stay in the trade, for valleys of the Missouri, the Mississippi and the Ohio it cannot be reasonably expected that the established — is left undisturbed in its strange isolation from currents of trade will be diverted by vessels sent out the South American countries on the Pacific ocean. for one or two tentative voyages. As the United It is to be considered that from New Orleans States mail service with the Isthmus is one of the mails and passengers could be conveyed by rail to obstacles to- enlarged intercourse with South Amer- Washington in thirty-six hours; to New York in ica, no difficulty should be experienced from our forty hours; to- Chicago in thirty hours; and to San government in obtaining mail contracts for the lines Francisco in less than four days. referred to-, which would enable all of our territory Mr. James Bryce, the profound observer and west of the States of the Atlantic seabo-ard to have thinker, says in his famous "American Common- direct and speedy mail communications zuith South wealth" : America, through Nezv Orleans. It would then be- "The fate of western South America belongs to a come practicable and advisable for our express com- still mo-re distant future, but it can hardly remain panics to establish agencies in all the countries which unconnected with what is already by far the greatest could be reached by the new and shorter line, and power in the Western Hemisphere. When capital, for American commercial houses or limited stock which is accumulating in the United States with companies, to open branches or stores there. Quick extraordinary rapidity, is no longer able to find and regular voyages, good accommodations, at rea- highly profitable employment in the development of sonable rates, and excursion facilities both ways, western North America, it will tend to- seek other would develop an intercourse of surprising dimen- fields. When population has filled up- the present sions, of peo-ple from both continents on business territory of the United States, enterprising spirits or pleasure bent. Past— Present— Prospective 145 This trade movement southward should never cease until a steamship service is established in the Gulf of Mexico, greater in importance to New Or- leans than was the steamboat service on our rivers prior tO' the railway era. When it is remembered, for example, that the voyage by steamer to Shreve- port took longer, was more dangerous and the run- ning expenses of the steamers far greater than would be the steamship navigation on the Gulf, is it not passing strange that the latter is scarcely beyond the embryonic stage? New Orleans is the nearest American seaport to the Isthmus of Panama and to South America. It has an ancestry and a colonial history in common with the Spanish-American countries. There are striking similarities between the Creoles of New Orleans and the Creoles oi Spanish- America, and the latter would find in the architec- tural and other features of our Creole quarter, and in the tastes, customs, manners and instincts of its inhabitants, much that would be congenial, and would remind them of their own land. No other city in the United States is sO' felicitously adapted toi lead in the great movement which is destined to weave the ties of fraternity, common aspirations and commercial intercourse between the twin Amer- ican continents. Everything in existing conditions suggests this forward movement. No other great seaport presents the unique spectacle that New Or- leans does towards the countries beaten by the waves of the Gulf of Mexico. It might be likened to Mar- seilles, communicating with Cairo- and Constanti- nople, through Havre and Bordeaux ; Liverpool with New York, through London, and Oporto with Ha- vana, through Barcelona. There may be comfort in the thought that many interior commercial and manufacturing centers, which are seeking new markets in Latin America, likewise pay tribute to the longer route via New York. It may be that these centers have not yet discovered that New Orleans is 700 miles nearer to the Isthmus of Panama than New York. For example, via New Orleans, Cincin- nati would save 627 miles ; Indianapolis, 689 ; Chi- cago, 700; Duluth, 750; St. Paul, 754; Omaha, 1,032 ; Kansas City, 1,207 ; St. Louis, 1,058 ; Louis- ville, 841 ; Nashville, 1,073 ; Knoxville, 883 ; Chat- tanooga, 1,059 ; Atlanta, 1,081 ; Memphis, 1,462. An examination of the map of the world and of the locations of its seaports will readily disclose the incontestable fact that of all her rivals in the mari- time trade. New Orleans possesses, beyond any comparison, the greatest natural advantages. No other seaport in the world has for feeders to- its trade as many miles of river navigation at its back as New Orleans possesses in the great waterways system of the Mississippi valley, and the day is at hand when, by means of the Hennepin canal, the chain of our northern lakes will be joined for prac- tical uses to the river system, for which New Orleans is the natural outlet. For her railway facilities, New Orleans has some of the leading air lines from the Gulf of Mexico to the northern boundary of the United States, and she stands on perhaps the gi'eat- est and most important transcontinental railway that joins the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is almost need- less to add that these lines intersect the entire railway system of the United States. Toward the gulf, at varying distances of but a few hundreds of miles, New Orleans has at her right hand the entire coast line of Louisiana, Texas, Mex- ico and Central America, while at her left hand, and about equidistant, is the coast line of Mississippi, Alabama and Florida, and the whole archipelago of the West India Islands, in which Cuba, Santo Domingo, Haiti and Jamaica are to be included. But by far grander, and due south, at no greater a distance than 1,300 miles, lies the marvelous con- tinent of South America, with its superb rivers, mountains and valleys, its wealth of precious and other minerals, its forests teeming with undisturbed woods and glorious vegetation, its magnificent cities, its varied climates and dazzling scenery, its popula- tion of 50,000,000, its capacity to accommodate eight times as many more, with a corresponding de- velopment of its already great trade and industries, eagerly awaiting the coming of the reputed unri- valed American enterprise. All this and much more than the pen can describe, faces New Orleans, and through New Orleans the great Yankee nation, for whose smelters and workshops and for whose sur- plus of machinists and skilled artisans and other classes of work and money seekers. South America offers a broader field than any other division of the globe. New York, on the Atlantic side, is over 2,000 miles from the Isthmus of Panama, and San Fran- cisco, on the Pacific side, is nigh on to 4,000 miles from the same isthmus. New Orleans is only 1,300 miles from it, and, therefore, has the advantage of 700 miles in distance over New York, and more than 2,000 miles over San Francisco, in the compe- 146 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; tition for the trade and intercourse with the Pacific coast of South America, that is to say, with Colom- bia,, Ecuador, Peru, BoHvia and Chili, whose com- bined population exceeds 12,000,000, and whose actual trade and industries, already very great, are susceptible of a four-fold development by means of an isthmian canal in a very few years. Obviously, the Pacific and northern sides of South America offer to the people of the Mississippi Val- ley the g'reatest inducements. Undisputably, too, the line of penetration from the United States into South America is along' its western side, the Pacific ocean, for navigation, and the eastern slopes of the Andean chain for the Intercontinental Railway, which would give our people an inland route through the heart of South America, where its greatest un- developed riches and opportunities lie, all the way to the magnificent city of Buenos Ayres, so aptly called the Paris of South America. In passing, it may not be amiss to remark that the line of the inter- continental was surveyed some years ago, at United States expense, by a corps of American engineers, whoi reported the project entirely feasible, and at a cost approximating $100,900,000. American effort should be directed primarily to the construction of the isthmian canal, to the end that American shipping from our Atlantic and gulf ports may then strike foi" the overflow of European steam- ship monopolies which are controlling the trade of the Pacific coast of South America, and to a con- siderable extent the trade, too, of the western coasts of Central America and Mexico. But American effort should not wait until the completion of the isthmian canal to attack the trade to which I have adverted. It should establish direct lines of first-ckss steamships between New Orleans and the leading ports of the north coast of South America and with the Isthmus of Panama, there to connect with the Panama Railroad. Furthermore, as a regulator of charges by the Panama Railroad, American capital should help to complete, and, if possible, gain control of the short interoceanic rail- ways across Costa Rica, Honduras and Guatemala ; and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in Mexico. By these means the American steamship lines, which should be promptly established, would have no less than five competing" short interoceanic railways over which to wrestle for the trade of the Pacific coasts, with the European lines now acting in co-operation on both oceans against American trade progress. These American steamships would be ready for the direct trade through the canal upon its completion. Once, New Orleans was considered one of the leading coffee importing markets in this country, and it is stated that coffee imports from Brazil and other countries tO' New Orleans, reached 550,000 sacks annually. Now, in 1896, the steamers of the Pacific Mail Company, plying between San F"ran- cisco' and Panama, carried to the latter port nO' less than 564,000 sacks of coffee from the Pacific coast of Mexico and Central America. With the exception of 74,000 sacks which Vere carried to New York, the rest, amounting" tO' nearly 500,000 sacks, were carried toi Europe by means of the Panama Railroad and the lines connecting" Colon with Europe. Not a single sack of this coffee went tO' New Orleans. Besides, it is authoritatively stated that tramp steamers carried directly to- Europe around the straits of Magellan at least 500,000 more sacks of this superior coft'ee. It is obvious that with some- thing" like the proper degree of enterprise. New Or- leans ought to get this million of sacks of coffee with which to double its biggest coffee trade, and this without drawing a single sack from Brazil. The absurd policy that our trans-continental railways have stubbornly pursued has turned over well nigh bodily the vast trade of the Pacific coasts of Mexico, Central and South America tO' the Eu- ropeans. Forgetting" that Boston, New York and Philadelphia are 2,000 miles nearer Panama than is San Francisco, these lines have endea\'ored to carry the trade from the Eastern cities across the continent by rail, a distance of 3,500 miles, to> San Francisco, where in starting for South America this trade would be 2,000 miles farther than it was at the point of departure. If we would command the trade of South America, American goods and travel from the eastern ports must go directly from these ports tO' South America. The trade and travel from the territory that is tributary to the Mississippi, in- cluding" the northern lakes, must make their way by the waterways of the valley, and by its railways, to the gulf ports, thence tO' the markets of South Amer- ica. And the trade and travel nearest tO' our Pacific coast must make their way southward from the ports on that coast. That is the natural order. Then, from every port of the Union, American trade and intercourse will flow into^ South y\nierica, by the shortest and most direct routes, and European com- Past— Present— Prospective 147 petition will be unable to resist so formidable and general an advance into the territories that American purblindness has permitted it to monopolize. I have seen American war vessels pay $15 per ton for English coal at the port of Callao. Think of the effect of OhiO' river and Alabama coal going in sea-going barges through the isthmian canal, to Callao', upon the English coal brought in ships around the straits of Magellan, from England. What of the light draft steam vessels that with the deepening of the channels of the Mississippi and its tributaries, including the Hennepin Canal, will then be able to transport directly to the Pacific ports of Mexico, Central and South America, American goods from Chicago, Cincinnati, Louisville, Kansas City, St. Louis and Memphis. These will be the effects of the improvement of the waterways of the Mississippi valley, the deepen- ing of the passes tO' our gulf ports, the digging of the Nicaraguan Canal, the building of the short railways across Central America, and of the grand culmination, the construction of the intercontinental railway from the shores of the Caribbean Sea to Buenos Ayres. TOW AND BARGES OF PITTSBURG COAL The Future Source of Supply of the South American Pons RELATION OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER TO SOUTH AMERICA V. M/^V^ Past— Present— Prospective 149 MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER LETTER OF COL. B. M. HARROD, Member of Mississippi River Commission AND MAJ. HENRY B. RICHARDSON, Chief State Engineer of Louisiana New Orleans, February, 14, 1898. SENATOR KNUTE NELSON, Chairman, The Sub- Committee on the Mississippi River of the Committee on Co>}ime)ce, United Slates Senate: The contract between the United States Govern- ment and James B. Eads calls for the following- channel depths and widths: From deep water in the river above the Head of the Passes into and through South Pass, 26 feet of depth, of a navigable width. Through the jetties, 200 feet wide and 26 feet deep, with a cantral depth of 30 feet. Over the bar, at the sea end of the jetties to deep water, 200 feet wide and 26 feet deep, with a cen- tral depth of 30 feet. These channel dimensions were sufficient for the fleets of commerce of 1SY5, composed of vessels rarely exceeding 300 feet in length and 25 feet in draft. At the present day many ships are built 600 feet long, with a draft of 30 feet, and it is certain that these dimensions will be materially exceeded in the near future. We assume that it is the intention of the Gov- ernment to open the mouth of the Mississippi River to every ship in the world that seeks it on a peace- ful errand. We submit that the minimum channel dimen- sions now necessary to afford this facility to com- merce are as follows: From deep \vater in the river into the selected pass, a depth of 32 feet, 500 feet wide, within which width an intermediate depth greater than 32 feet would be developed. These dimensions sb'ould be carried through the pass and jetties to^ a point where the swell of the sea is felt, and from this point, the depth of 32 feet, 500 feet -wide, should be gradually increased to 35 feet, with the same width, at and over the bar at the sea end of the jetties, with such greater intermediate depths as would be developed. These dimensions should be secured at all stages of the tide and river. We are of opinion that it would not be practi- cable, and, if practicable, would not be economi- cal, to enlarge the South Pass and jetty channel sufficiently to obtain these dimensions. The diffi- culties would be both in securing the enlargement of the waterway a'nd in preserving the integrity of its banks. We submit with this communication a diagram showing the relative sizes of the channel as now re- quired by law, through South Pass, and of such a channel as is required by the commerce of the present day. It w'ill be observed that the cross-sectional en- largement called for requires the removal of 557 cubic yards per linear foot, or 34,000,000 cubic yards for the entire length of 12 miles of South Pass. An increased width of channel at the head of the pass and between the jetties would also be necessary, involving- the practical reconstruction of these works at both its ends. The removal of such an enormous mass of ma- terial as above indicated from the channel of South Pass, by whatever means accomplished, would of itself plainly involve large expenditures of money and probably require a greater length of time than other parts of the work of improvement; while the necessary reconstruction, or at least remodeling, of the jetties and other Avorks at its head and mouth must form a large rfiare of the cost of any plan for its further improvement. To sufficiently increase the navigable depth of South Pass without at the same time unduly in- 150 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : creasing its width at the expense of its existing natural banks, appears to us a difficult and doubt- ful undertaking'. That it could be so done as to secure an adequate channel for the commerce of the near future without extensive and costly works for the revetment of the banks, so as to prevent their being generally cut back into- ground too low to retain the water in the pass, or in some places breached altogether, is, at least, a matter of grave doubt, although of vital importance. Moreover, it is by no means certain that the work of improvement could be carried on with- out greatly obstructing the navigation of the pass during its progress. We are of opinion that such an outlet as the commerce of the Mississippi River and its trib- utaries now demands can be most surely and eco- nomically obtained by the improvement of the Southwest Pass b}^ means of jetties. The requisite width, depth and proportion of discharge already exists into and through that pass, excepting the 30-foot shoal in the Mississippi River between Cubits Gap at the Head of the Passes. This ob- struction is common to all passes, and must be removed whichever one is selected for improve- ment. The velocity of flow in a stream varies directly as the square root of the product of its hydraulic radius (or ratio between the sectional area of the part of the bed it occupies and the frictional or re- sisting surfaces bounding it) by its slope (or the ratio between its fall and length). As the excess of the hydraulic radius of the Southwest Pass over that of South Pass is greater than the excess of the slope in South Pass over that of Southwest Pass, and as the scouring" power increases with the depth and volume it is reasonable to expect that the greater volume flowing throug-h Southwest Pass will, notwithstanding its lesser slope, give it a velocity and scouring power at least as great as that of South Pass. How much greater can only be determined by survey. We have had neither occasion nor opportunity to make an estimate of the cost of the improvement of Southwest Pass. Undoubtedly it would be con- siderable, but not disproportionate to the object in view. We believe, however, that many of the predic- tions as tO' the first cost and the difficulty of main- tenance have been exaggerated. It is of record that the increased rate of advance of the South Pass bar which was anticipated as the result of the building of jetties, both by the opponents and ad- vocates of the project, has not been realized. On the contrar}^ it has been retarded rather than ac- celerated. The natural annual extension of the South Pass bar seaward was about 100 feet per year before 1875. General Humphreys, a then chief of engineers, predicted that this rate of ad- vance would be, by the building of jetties, increased to 670 feet per year (Rep. Chief Engineers, 1874, p. 867). General Newton, a member of the "board of engineers on the improvement of the passes as an alternative to or in connection with the Fort St. Philip Canal," which reported adversely tO' jetties, estimated the annual advance of South Pass bar, after the construction of jetties, at probably 2,240 feet, or at least 1,500 feet (pp. 884-885 of same re- port). The Board of Engineers which advised the im- provement of the South Pass Bar by jetties, com- posed of three United States engineers, three civil engineers, and one member of the Coast Survey, were of the opinion that "in an average of many years the rate of progress must be about the same as now, namely, 100 feet per annum," but they as- sumed that the jetties would have tO' be extended 1,000 feet in ten years. (Report Chief Engineers, 1875, p. 954.) It is needless to say that neither the apprehen- sions of the increased rate of bar growth nor of the necessity of jetty extension have been realized. We append the average rate of seaward exten- sion of the South Pass Bar since the completion of jetties for every curve of depth from 20 feet to 100 feet, and for the nineteen years from 1876 to 1895. It will be remembered that the growth be- fore the jetties were built was 100 feet per annum. The cur\'e of 20 feet depth has advanced 33 feet per year; 30 feet depth, 54 feet; 40 feet depth, 48 feet; 50 feet depth, 58 feet; 60 feet depth, 86 feet; 70 feet depth, 68 feet; 80 feet depth, 83 feet; 90 feet depth, 89 feet; 100 feet depth, 86 feet. (Rep. Chief of Engrs., 1896, App. Q, PI. 1.) It will be seen from these figures that the aver- age annual advance of the bar has been only about 65 feet, or less than two-thirds the previous rate, and that the curves for 20 feet, 30 feet and 40 feet depths, with which navigation is immediately con- cerned, have only advanced, on an average, 45 feet Past— Present— Prospective 151 per annum, or less than half the general advance of the bar before the construction of the jetties. It was observed that the building' of the jetties at the Sulina mouth of the Danube Delta retarded instead of accelerating the growth of the bar at its mouth. Sir Charles Hartly, the engineer of the improvem^ent, attributed this to conditions which also prevail to a greater or less extent at the mouth of the South and Southwest passes of the Mis- sissippi. Under these circumstances there is no reasonable foundation for apprehensions of an ex- cessive or extraordinary increase in the annual rate of extension of the Southwest Pass Bar when im- proved, or of the jetties which should be built across it. Respectfully submitted: B. M. Harrod, C. E., Member Mississippi River Commission. Hemy B. Richardson, Chief State Engineer, Louisiana. PRESENT AND PROPOSED CHANNELS GARDEN ISLAND BAY. MEAN GULr LEVEL 600' /8S0' - - eso'. ■M J eso , T^Ti S*~~ eoo'- A EAST BAY. f^^^S^r - 405'- Sq. feet. Cross section of south pass from Garden Island to East Bay, solid lino— cross-sectional area 13,120 Reciuired cliannel for commerce of the port of New Orleans, dotted line— cross-sectional area 28, 270 Difference of cross-sectional area.... - 15, l^U Past— Present— Prospective 153 MAJ. JAMES B. QUINN, U.S.A. 154 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI HISTORY OF ATTEMPTED IMPROVEMENTS By major JAMES B. QUINN, Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. Standing upon the bank of the Mississippi river at New Orleans one is impressed with the vastness of its flood and the presumptively great periods of time covered by the progress of the delta which characterizes its issue into the Gulf of Mexico. To what races of men has its existence been known? Our acquaintance does not cover many years, it is true, but the natives who occupied the land before the advent of the white man point to the various mounds of earth which are found at numerous places throughout southern Louisiana as the con- structions of a race extinct for so great a time that among them there exists no traditions concerning this race of people who have disappeared, and who must have possessed some degree of civilization, as the pottery, relics and stone implements found in the mounds bear witness. It is reasonable to suppose that at some distant time in the past the mouth of the river was in the immediate vicinity of New Orleans, yet to-day it is fully 112 miles by river to the sea, and fully 45 miles below New Orleans an Indian mound exists, which must certainly have been built some distance from the mouth, if the marshy and low condition of the land existed then, as now, in that vicinity. There is one remarkable circumstance connected with the flow of the river, and that is the persistency with which it adheres to the channel which it has scoured out for itself. Crevasses occur in its banks, and the vohmie of water escaping is sufficient to cause one, for the time, to believe that the river has changed its course; but in time the crevasse ceases to be other than an insignificant stream or ceases to flow entirely. Although the river may change the location of its bed sometimes by cutting out upon one side and filling in upon the other, or cut- ting through bends and forming cut-offs, the con- tinuity of the stream is rarely interrupted. Such interruptions have, hoAvever, occurred in modern times, as in the vicinitv of New Madrid, where the channel was changed by reason of an earthquake; and the peculiar bends at what is known as English Turn, below New Orleans a short distance, when taken into consideration with the peculiar forma- tion of the land between Lake Borgne and Chande- leur Sound, might lead to the inference that at some time the mouth was not far from the Chandeleur Island, and that the present channel was created through the action of some earthquake, which forced the stream to the westward for a short dis- tance and then permitted it to erode or create the channel which it now pursues. There are not lacking evidences of seismic action within the limits of the city of New Orleans, since recent excavations have brought to light the stumps of cypress trees which at one time stood in fresh-water swamps above the level of the Gulf, but which are now as much as 14 feet below this level, their preservation and general appearance indicat- ing a sudden subsidence. Some influences are always at work to direct the course of the river in building the earthen trough which forms its channel. The water is at times heavily charged with sediment, and this sediment is borne along with the current or abandoned in part as the current slackens; but in the end it finds a resting place in the swamp bordering the stream, where the banks are not high enough to prevent overflow, or it is dropped near the point where the river water meets the sea water and builds up at this place a bar, the depth of water upon which is invariably slight compared with the depths in the main body of the river. The manner in which these bars form and ex- tend influences the general direction which the main body of the river ultimately pursues. In- variably numerous branches form in the immediate vicinity of the mouth. These branches are known as "passes," and spread out like the fingers of the hand when distended. Each of these branches per- Past— Present— Prospective 165 forms its office of filling in the watery spaces on either hand, and they advance, or silt up, as the con- ditions of the river at the point whence they ramif)^ changes. The area included in their ramifications is called the "Delta," and this fomiation is char- acteristic of all silt-bearing streams which debouch into seas. To-day three passes branch from the main body of the river and form an extensive delta; yet if you retrace your steps along the bank of the river to New Orleans you will probably not be able to dis- cover any points, except such as have formed in recent times, where you would be certain that a delta existed at any time. Is it possible that this river in its youth flowed into the sea without a delta? If so, it must have been a vigorous stream compared with what it is to-day. The first pass which is noted as giving proper depth over its bar for the passage of vessels was Southeast Pass, which is now a very insignificant - pass indeed. Then navigation, after a time, de- serted this pass and sought other passes, as Pass a Loutre and Southwest Pass, at which passes there seemed to be alternations of favor, as their bars deepened or shoaled. With increasing needs for greater depths of water, efforts were made to im- prove these passes; and, first, there was tried the method of stirring up the bottom with harrows, which was moderately successful in securing a slight increase. Then an attempt was made to combine jetties with the stirring-up process. This failed, for the reason that the jetties were entirely too frail, and did not extend far enough to produce much effect. During all this time the necessities of com- merce grew with far greater strides than the efforts to maintain adequate depths. It took great efforts on the part of the people to secure sufficient funds with which to redouble the efforts to secure greater depths with improved dredging devices, and yet, with powerful dredging machines, the maintenance of a channel with as lit- tle as 20 feet depth was ineffective. Boards were created to report upon the subject, and much thought was expended upon the consideration of the various projects promising relief. The theories under which the bar formations occurred were fiercely debated, and the permanency of works at the mouths of the passes, and their adequacy, was thoroughly discussed. But at the root of all the propositions there was invariably found this recom- mendation : That the full amount of money re- quired to effect the improvement should be at once appropriated. As the estimated costs of any of the proposed improvements represented a vast sum at that par- ticular time, when river and harbor improvements were in their infancy, it seemed that any relief was impossible, since Congress feared to take the re- sponsibility for making such enormous appropria- tions for one locality. At this juncture there appeared a patriotic individual who seemed to ap- preciate the difficulties of the situation, and with a courage born of his convictions he proposed to Congress to do the work if he were to be allowed to follow out his ideas without restrictions, payments to be made to him as certain results were attained. There was fierce opposition to his proposition in certain directions, but the proposition possessed peculiar fascinations for Congress, if for no other reason that it solved the financial problem and promised permanent results. Above all things, it presented the element of economy and if applied at a smaller pass than that proposed, as South Pass, where it was believed satisfactory depths and widths of channel might be secured for a consider- ably smaller sum than it would cost to obtain paral- lel results elsewhere, all adverse criticism would l)e stifled. Mr. Eads certainly deserves great praise for the able and successful manner in which he gained his point, although he did have to accept the smaller pass. His troubles had, however, only commenced, because he did not possess the private fortune nec- essary to carry on the work to the point where returns might be expected. He had promised much, and there were many who felt positive he could not accomplish all he promised. Outside as- sistance could not be obtained without paying great premiums, and many physical difficulties were experienced which were not anticipated. The much-vaunted claim that the channel, if properly constructed, would, unaided by dredging or other stirring-up processes, sufficiently strengthen the current to scour out the bottom with great rapidity was not fully realized, and dredging was found to be necessary; but the people were disgusted with the dredging operations to secure proper channels through the bars, and the necessity for dredging weakened confidence in the undertaking. It re- quired extraordinai-y exertions on the part of Mr. 156 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : Eads to restore confidence and prove, in face of the fiercely contested claims that the bar would ad- vance with greater rapidity in consequence of the jetties than before, that no advance of the bar had taken place as intimated. Mr. Eads's perseverance under such adverse cir- cumstances is truly remarkable, and although he did go to Congress and secure material concessions relative to channel widths and depths, and methods of payment, he certainly succeeded in giving- to commerce a far better channel than was deemed es- sential, although not ecjual to that promised, and which has lasted fairly well up to the present time. The theories propounded for the explanation of the growth of the bar at the mouth of a pass, as Southwest Pass for example, are chiefly stated in Humphreys and Abbot's Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River. Briefly stated, the bar- building material consists of two varieties of earthy matter, that which is in suspension, and that which is pushed along the bottom. AVhen this material reaches the sea end, it is deposited, owing to the loss of current in the stream which transports it. The volume of water issues in a fan shape from the channel formed by the banks. Its energy is dis- sipated upon coming in contact with the salt water, which opposes its exit, and the material which is carried along the bottom is soon brought to rest, Avhile the lighter portion, held in suspension, is widely disseminated (owing to the fresh water glid- ing on the salt) and is deposited at much greater distances from the mouth. The material held in suspension forms, therefore, the foundation upon which the weightier particles are eventually placed. The loss of energy, due to the resistance of the denser salt water and the lateral expansion of the stream, causes the shoaling of the water, and the depth of water maintained upon the bar is the result of an equilibrium between the eroding and deposit- ing forces of the current. The form of the bar is greatly influenced by several forces, such as winds, waves, and countercurrents. If a current flows from left to right across the mouth of the pass, looking seaward, the material will be deposited in a greater quantity on the right-hand side of the pass, and vice versa. If the winds influence the coimterctu'rents, then the direction of the prevailing winds will determine upon which hand the greatest deposits will occur. The waves have a tendency to flatten the bar and fill up all channels across it. The seaward slope of the bar is greatly influenced by the combined action of the currents and waves, being steeper on the side from which the currents come. If the efTects of the countercurrents are not continuous, the result is that the channel across the bar is more or less deflected by the deposits on the side opposite that from which the currents ar- rive, and is more or less inclined toward the side from which the countercurrents proceed, or against the countercurrent. The advance of the bar will not be symmetrical with the axis of the pass. If, however, the countercurrents are feeble, the advance of the bar will be more or less sym- metrical with respect to this axis. If the spreading of the water can be prevented until the crest of the bar is reached, the current will be sufUciently strong, generally speaking, to pro- ject the material conveyed by it to some consider- able distance beyond the point of issue; the deposit necessarily takes place in deep water, and a con- siderable time must elapse before the normal con- ditions are restored. The natural rate of progress of the bar does not give a proper conception of the time which will be required to bring about a resto- ration of normal conditions after the confining of the issuing water has been effected. In the first place, the point at which the normal crest of the bar must form will be in very deep water, and all the areas in advance and latterly must be filled up before this bar will be able to maintain itself. Sec- ondly, this bar will build up faster, for the reason that the heavy matter is deposited over a shorter arc. If a countercurrent sweeps across the axis of issue, much of the bar-building material will be deflected to one side and the advance of the bar will be retarded, but the direction of the entrance will be changed, since the channel through the new bar will incline toward the point of direction whence the countercurrent arrives, in which case the subse- quent prolongation of confining works, or "jetties," as they are called, would be at an angle to the orig- inal line, and give rise to irregularities of channel between them. When the advance of the bar is symmetrical the restoration of normal conditions is much more rapid, but the prolongation of the jetties is apt to be much simpler. The improvement of Southwest Pass involves some considerations not heretofore fully touched Past— Present— Prospective 157 upon. The character of the bar is somewhat differ- ent from the other passes. Numerous mud lumps arise at times, some of these directly in the channel. These lumps introduce complex conditions at times, by stopping the regular flow of the water and so causing deviations of currents and abnormal deposits. The stability of any jetty construction is imperiled by these strange formations. To pre- dict just what is going to happen in such a locality is impossible, and all estimates for improvement have to have a large margin for contingencies. The efforts of all former improvers were futile for the reason that insufficient funds were provided to make all work secure against all circumstances. To simply rely upon dredging at such an exposed place is futile, if any considerable increase of depth is desired. To rely upon construction works un- aided by dredging is simply to invite disaster, since a single mud lump arising in the middle of the channel would block everything for a long time. It would undoubtedly have to be removed by dredging. A combination of dredging and con- tracting jetties promises the only solution of the problem of securing and maintaining deep water at this entrance to the Mississippi River for a profit- able interval of time. In this connection it may be well to review at length the various attempts made to improve Southwest Pass, and endeavor to ascertain the causes and conditions wdiich determined success or failure. The first appropriation for the improvement of the entrance to the jMississippi River was made in 1837, and upon the recommendations of a Board of Engineers an attempt was made to open the South- west Pass by using the ordinary bucket drag. No permanent improvement was effected, as a single storm sufficed to obliterate all the work which had been done. Nothing further was done until 1852, when an appropriation of $75,000 was made for opening "a ship channel of sufficient capacity to ac- commodate the wants of commerce;" and it was further provided that the said money should be ap- plied by "contract," and that the contract should be "limited to the amount appropriated." A mixed naval and engineer Board was convened by the Secretary of War to decide how the appropriation should be applied. This Board consisted of Com- modore W. K. Latimer, United States Navy; Maj. W. N. Chase, United States Engineers; Maj. G. T. Beauregard, United States Engineers; and Capt. J. G. Barnard, United States Engineers; all of whom had served on the Gulf coast. This Board reported that no other plan seemed capable of obtaining any important results than that of "stirring up" the bottom, and in accord- ance with this report a contract was entered into with the towboat association, by which a channel through the bar of Southwest Pass, IS feet deep and 300 feet wide, was to be made. The harrow- ing and dragging process employed by the towboat association proved successful, and a depth of chan- nel of 18 feet was maintained for a whole year. It is important to remark that this Board recom- mended that in case that the "stirring-up" process failed, jetties be constructed, remarking that the "project of jetties is based upon the simple fact that by confining the waters which noAV escape use- lessly in lateral directions to a narrow channel, the depth of this narrow channel must be increased. In other words, the existing bar must be cut away." As a consequence of no further appropriations being made until 1856, the IS-foot channel disap- peared. The sum of $330,000 was appropriated in the year mentioned for the improvement of the passes. A Board of Engineers recommended that the bid of the towboat association be accepted for keeping open Southwest Pass by stirring up the bottom, and that the method of keeping open a pass by jetties and closure of lateral passes be ap- plied to Pass a Loutre. The Secretary of War decided that the jetty system be appHed to both passes, and a contract was accordingly made with Messrs. Craig & Rightor to do this work. The contractors began at the Southwest Pass by build- ing on the east side a jetty about a mile long, "composed of a single row of pile planks, strength- ened at intervals by piles." The structure was en- tirely too frail, and Avas so seriously damaged by storms that the plan was abandoned, and the con- tractors were permitted to resort to the stirring-up process, by which an 18-foot channel was secured and maintained as long as the operation was con- tinued. In 1867 an appropriation of $75,000 was made and a contract entered into for "stirring up," which was not, however, executed. In the years 1867- 1870 the Government built a powerful dredge boat of special design, which was operated under the very best of conditions, but since it simply func- 158 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : tioned by stirring up the material with a powerful propeller, and deflecting the disturbed material up into the current with a deflector, it did not succeed in maintaining- a much deeper channel than that former])^ secured by other means. The necessities of commerce made it imperative that a better channel connection with the Missis- sippi River be obtained at an early date. Every- body was tired of the uncertain results secured bv dredging on the bars, and as other methods of se- curing these objects had been advocated, a resolu- tion of the House of Representatives was passed March 14, 1871. providing: '"That the Secretary of War be, and he is hereby, requested to cause an examination and survey, with plans and estimates of cost, to be made by an officer of engineers, for a ship canal to connect the Mississippi River witli the Gulf of Mexico, or the navigable waters thereof, of suitable location and dimensions for military, naval, and commercial purposes, and that he report upon the feasibility of the same tO' the House of Representatives." The survey and estimates for a canal, near Fort St. Philip, were submitted by Capt. C. W. Howell, Corps of Engineers, to a Board of Engineer Ofli- cers, composed of Col. J. G. Barnard, Lieut. Col. John Newton, Maj. O. A. Gillmore, Maj. G. K. Warren, Maj. William P. Craighill, Maj. G. AVeit- zel, and Capt. C. W. Howell. This Board, with the exception of one member, reported that the construction of the canal, with a depth of 27 feet and bottom width of 200 feet, hav- ing at the ri\-er end a lock with chamber 500 feet long, 60 feet width, and depth over sill 2.5 feet, was feasible and desirable, and was estimated to cost $10,273,000. The dissenting member, General Barnard, claimed, in a minority report, that the experience gained with the dredges was sufficient to warrant still better results, and that the advan- tages of an open mouth were sufficient to warrant further experiment in this method at Southwest Pass, but, he reasoned, that the success of the jetty system, as applied at the Saluna mouth of the Dan- ube, presaged even greater success if applied at South Pass, and warranted its consideration. Gen. A. A. Humphrey's, Chief of Engineers, United States Army, criticised General Barnard's preference for jetties, and estimates tlmt the rapid advance of the bar will make the extensions of the jetties costly and their maintenance uncertain; that the earthv matter brought to the crest of the bar was not deposited in deeper water, as was con- tended, but was laid upon the lighter material which was carried in suspension considerable distances be- yond the bar and caused the greater portion of the fill, since it was by far the greater portion of the matter transported by the river; that the result of this was to really shoal the water in advance of the bar in such manner that the bar really advanced into shoaler water, and if the jetties were built the material would be restricted as to the areas on either hand, and the advance would be greatly ac- celerated in consequence. General Newton, in a review of General Barn- ard's dissenting report relative to the application of jetties for the improvement of the enti-ance to the Mississippi River, practically reiterates General Humphrey's views and questions the permanency of the improvement, for the reason that the pro- longation of the jetties to keep pace with the rapid increase in the bar would introduce so much re- sistance to the flow of water, in time, that the water would seek some other pass; furthermore, the pro- longation of the main stream must be considered, since it is not known whether the delta advances simultaneously with the prolongation of the main stream, or whether the main stream did not pro- long its course violent]}' by breaking through at some point, and so discarding the passes which have for some time been advancing into the Gulf at the average rate of 262 feet per annum. One of the most remarkalale difi^erences of opin- ion in these discussions is that Avhich relates to the annual advance of the bar formation. Genera! Barnard claimed that if the jetties were extended to the required depth of channel beyond the crest of the bar, and the channel deepened by dredging, the force of the current would be sufficient to pro- ject the material so far into the Gulf that the bar would not reach the height of the bottom of the proposed channel until the conditions as to fill and distribution of material in the Gulf approximated that which existed previous to the improvement. General Newton estimated that the bar advance at Southwest Pass would be as much as 1,014 feet per annum, and at South Pass 2,240 feet, the more rapid ad^-ance for the smaller pass being due to the greater contraction of the channel between the jetty heads. The report of the Board upon the canal project was followed bv the proposition of ]Mr. Eads, in Past— Present— Prospective 159 February, 1S74, to improve the entrance to the Mississippi River by jetties at Southwest Pass for the sum of $10,000,000, payments to begin when a depth of 20 feet was secured, and continuing" as certain greater depths were secured until 2S feet Iiad been secured and $5,000,000 had been paid. The remaining $3,000,000 to be paid in instaUments of $500,000 each, conditional upon the permanence of the channel for ten years. A fierce controversy^ resulted as a consecjuence of this proposition between the advocates of the canal on one side and the supporters of the jetty scheme on the other, and since the principal part of the discussion was theoretical, it was impossible to de- cide which was the better until further investiga- tions of the jetty methods could be had. Accord- ingly, in June, 18Y4, an act was passed constituting a Commission to investigate and report upon the improvement of the mouth of the Mississippi River. This Commission was organized pursuant to the following order : General Orders, No. 74. War Department, Adjutant- General's Office, Washington, July, 2, 1874. Lieut. Col. H. G. Wright, Lieut. Col. B. S. Alex- ander, and Maj. C. B. Comstock, Corps of En- gineers, Lhiited States Army; Prof. Henry Mitchell, United States Coast Survey; T. E. Sickels, W. Mil- nor Roberts, and H. D. Whitcomb, are, by the President, hereby appointed a Board of Engineers under the provisions of section 3 of the act ap- proved June 23, 1874, entitled "An act making appropriations for the repair, preservation, and completion of certain public works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes," for the purpose of making "a survey of the mouth of the Mississippi River, with a view to determine the best method of obtaining and maintaining a depth of water suf- ficient for the purposes of commerce, either by a canal from said river to the waters of the Gulf or by deepening one or more of the natural outlets of said river." They are hereby directed to assemble at New York City, N. Y., on the 20th instant, or as soon thereafter as practicable, for the purpose of organizing and entering upon the performance of their duties. Lieutenant-Colonel Wright is desig- nated as president of the Board. H. D. Whitcomb is designated to disburse, under the direction of the Board, the money appropriateil to defray the cost of the survey. The following is the section of the act of Con- gress above referred to : "Sec. 3. That a Board of Engineers, to be com- posed of three from the Army, one from the Coast Survey, and three from civil life, be appointed by the President ; which said board shall make a survey of the mouth of the Mississippi River, with a view to determine the best method of obtaining and maintaining a depth of water sufficient for the pur- poses of commerce, either by a canal from said idver to the waters of the Gulf, or by deepening one or more of the natural outlets of said river; and said board shall make a full and detailed estimate and statement of the cost of each of said plans, and shall report the same, together with their opinion thereon, showing which of all said plans they deem preferable, giving their reasons therefor, to the Sec- retaiy of W^ar, tO' be presented at the commence- ment of the second session of the Eorty-third Con- gress; and that the sum of $25,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, is hereby appropri- ated, out of any funds in the Treasury not other- wise appropriated, to defray the cost of said sur- vey." Approved, June 23, 1874. By order of the Secretary of War : THOMAS M. VINCENT, Assistant Adjutant-General. In the report of this Board, submitted January 13, 1875, it is stated: "As thei-e has been no ex- ample in this country of the improvement of a large river mouth so as to give an outlet to the sea, with ' much deeper water than naturally exists on its bar, the Board, in its consideration of what experience has shown elsewhere to be practicable in such a case, has found its only examples in the mouths of European rivers. "There has Ijeen great difference of opinion among engineers, not only in this country, but in Europe, as to whether the best method of securing a deep-water outlet from a sediment-bearing river which empties, like the Mississippi, the Vistula, the Danube, and the Rhone, into a nearly tideless sea, is by jetties or by a lateral canal." In order to gain a better knowledge of the vari- ous rivers abroad which have been improved, the Board visited the rivers named, and also the North Sea and Suez Canal. 160 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; The result of these examinations abroad (while additional information has been g-ained on almost every point relating to the problem before them) has been to largely strengthen their estimate of the value for jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi River of the fascine dikes used in Holland by Ca- lend in the improvement of the Mass mouth of the Rhine. The Board visited the locality of the proposed canal below New Orleans, and fully considered its plans, etc. It estimated the cost to be $10,296,500 for construction, and $60,885 per year for cost of maintenance. In considering the method of deepening the water on one of the bars by jetties, the Board makes the following statements : "On examining a map of the mouths of this river it will be seen that each pass, through the greater part of its length, has a nearly constant width, but that it widens toward its bar, so that on its outer crest it has several times its ordinary width, while its depth is less in something like the same proportion. The cause of this change seems to be the following: The river water as it ap- proaches the bar is somewhat above the level of the Gulf, and so tends to diverge, the stream thus be- coming thinner and wider. This thinning and wid- ening is aided by the greater density of the salt water, which makes the fresh water rise over it on a slope that is steeper as the velocity of the river water is less. This thinned sheet of water forms its own banks as the bar moves out to sea; but, as in this Avide, shallow stream the friction is great near the banks, deposits begin there, the stream is narrowed and deepened, and in time that part of the stream obtains the form already assumed by the portion above, which allows the water to pass with less resistance. To-day, while there are but 7 feet of water on the outer crest of the South Pass bar, it is yet only about 12,000 feet from the bar to 30 feet of water above the bar, and it follows, if the bar's progress into the Gulf has been for the last one hundred and twenty years the same as for the last thirty-six years (about 100 feet per annum), that one hundred and twenty years ago the outer crest of the South Pass bar was where now there is a deep channel. As the bars move out to sea, the river is, then, all the time eroding a channel of the characteristic deep-water cross section behind and through them. The object of the jetties is to aid and hasten this erosion. If, starting from a point in a pass above this bar, where there are now 30 feet of water, we build jetties which so confine the pass that it shall have the width all the way to deep water it now has at the starting point, we shall be helping the pass to assume the deep-water cross-section it would ultimately take, and by aid- ing it, if necessary, by dredging, should be able to reduce at pleasure the time required for the pro- cess. "This plan is then adopted for the improvement of a natural outlet, namely, to begin parallel dikes at the banks of a pass where there are now 30 feet of water in the middle and carry them over the bar to 30 feet water outside (unless the depth is ob- tained before the dikes have reached the 30-foot curve), allowing the river to erode the bottom be- tween the dikes till the waterway between them everywhere has the same cross section as at their beginning, aiding the erosion by dredging or stir- ring- if it is not rapid enough without. "The Board considered the question of limiting the waterway to the cross section of 30 feet maxi- mum depth by converging jetties on the bar, and by spur dikes in the Pass above, instead of by paral- lel dikes. In view of the lack of experience in such work in this country, and of the danger of exces- sive scour around the ends of spur dikes, it was deemed advisable to adopt parallel dikes as offer- ing fewer contingencies and less difficulty of con- struction. The depth of 30 feet has been chosen in order that some time may elapse before the bar, which will form at the sea end of the jetties, can have less than 25 feet at mean low water upon it, that being the minimum depth which it is desired to maintain. "Having adopted a general plan for the improve- ment of one of the natural outlets, it remains to- fix on that one. As the improvement of any will be costly, but one should be improved, and that should be made adequate for all purposes. "The passes which have been most carefully con- sidered are the South and Southwest. "In comparing these passes, it is seen that while the average width of the body of the South Pass is 700 feet, that of Southwest Pass is about 1,400. The greater width is more fa\^orable to navigation; but, in the opinion of the board, the South Pass, when improved, will be adequate to the present and prospective wants of commerce. The esti- Past— Present— Prospective mated sum required for the construction and main 161 tenance of the works for the improvement of the South Pass is $7,942,110, and for Southwest Pass is $16,053,124. It is assumed that the Southwest Pass bar advances about three times as fast as the South Pass bar. "The South Pass being entirely adequate, the much greater cost of improving the larger pass would not, in the opinion of the Board, be war- ranted either by the somewhat greater ease of en- tering it in storms or of navigating it when once inside. The former is 12.9 miles long, the latter being 18 miles, and is lengthened only about one- third as fast as the latter. "The cost of improving Pass a Loutre would also be far greater than for South Pass, without ad- vantages sufficient to justify the increased cost. The South Pass has the advantage that the works for its improvement, which would require at least two or three years for their execution, would in no way interfere with commerce. The Board is, therefore, of opinion that if any natural outlet is improved it should be the South Pass. "The South Pass of the Mississippi is 12.9 miles long, has an average width of 730 feet and a mini- mum interior channel depth of 29 feet. It is 11,900 feet from the 30-foot curve inside the pass across the bar to 30 feet outside. The minimum depth on the bar is 7 feet. It discharges at its mouth about 57,000 cubic feet of water per second and about 22,000,000 cubic yards of sediment in suspension per annum. It has a shoal at its head, with a mini- mum depth on it in channel of 17 feet. "For the improvement of the South Pass the Board recommends parallel dikes or jetties con- structed of brush, fascines, and stone, in the same general way as those used by Mr. Calend at the mouth of the Maas. "These dikes should begin at the two' banks of the pass, about 1,650 feet below the South Pass light-house, where the river has a width of nearly 900 feet and a maximum depth of 30 feet. They should run in straight lines parallel to each other in the direction of the pass to where the water is 30 feet deep outside of the bar, provided it should be necessary to carry them so far as tO' secure 30 feet depth. The dikes for the first 7,100 feet should be 10 feet wide on top; should then widen gradually to 20 feet in a further distance of 2,050 feet; should then gradually widen to 50 feet, which is to be the width in 30 feet of water. Ait present this last length would be about 2,750 feet and the total length of each dike 11,900 feet. The first 7,100 feet of the dikes to- have side slopes of two-thirds (two vertical to three horizontal), the rest to have side slopes of one-fourth down to 15 feet below water, and beneath that depth slopes of one-half; the top of the dikes to be rounded and paved, the crown ris- ing tO' high water of spring tides. "The question of the average annual expense of prolonging the jetties is a very serious one. It depends on the annual advance of the 25-foot curve, that depth being required. At present the muddy water issuing from the South Pass spreads out in somewhat of a fan shape, the handle of the fan be- ing at the mouth of the pass and the ribs several miles in length. "If the proposed jetties were instantly completed and the new channel scoured out essentially the same amount of sediment would be spread out in fan shape, but, from the greater velocity of the issu- ing water, the ribs of the fan would be longer while the handle would be narrower. More of the sedi- ment would at first be deposited far out in the Gulf than before. "But with the present rate of advance the 25-foot curve one hundred and twenty years ago was about 12,000 feet above its present position, and if the vol- ume of water carried by the pass is kept the same, neglecting the slight difference in slope of the Gulf bottom outside the present bar, in about one hun- dred and twenty years a new end for the pass will probably be formed of the same general shape as the lower 12,000 feet of the present pass. It makes little difference, in the whole time required to ac- complish the work, whether the same volume of water flows out at starting over the present shallow bar or from between two dikes which force the water to take a depth of 30 feet. In an average of many years the rate of progress must be about the same as now, namely, 100 feet per annum, the volume of water being kept as at present, and it is on this basis that the average annual cost of exten- sion, namely, $130,000, has been computed. "It has already been stated that it is proposed to obtain a depth of 30 feet between the jetties, in order that some years may elapse before the shoal which will form beyond the jetties can have on it less than the required depth of 25 feet in the chan- nel through it. There are no precise data for esti- 162 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : mating this lieriod. Going seaward from the upper end of the proposed dikes, the slope of the bottom of the South Pass is about 1-440. This slope doubt- less depends mainly on the velocity of the water flowing' through it and on the lifting of the fresh water by the salt. As the causes remain essentially the same, it would seem natural that the new end of the South Pass to be formed by the sediment passing through the jetties should at least have the same bottom slope. If this assumption were true, the bottom would at last shoal from 30 tO' 25 feet in a distance of 5 by 440=2,200 feet, and the time required would be about twenty-two years. This time would be shortened by twO' causes : First, there are about 3,000,000 cubic yards of material to be scoured out between the jetties, thus increas- ing the general bar accretion by that amount and hastening the advance of the pass. As the scour would be distributed over several years, and as the South Pass carries about 22,000,000 cubic yards of sediment in suspension annually to the Gulf, the effect of this 3,000,000 yards cannot be relatively large; second: at and below the point where it is proposed to begin the jetties the river velocity now diminishes very slowly, as it is confined by a slowly widening channel, while when the jetties are com- pleted and the channel scoured out the water issu- ing from them will, having at first no banks to confine it, spread out more rapidly, thus, perhaps, losing velocity more rapidly and forming a steeper seaward slope on the bottom than now exists at the upper end of the proposed dikes. "This steeper slope seaward from the 30 feet of water between the jetties would give a shoal of 25 feet at a distance of less than 2,200 feet, and in a period of less than tv/enty-two years. The period is uncertain; experience alone can determine the precise time. Different estimates made by this method, and others by different members of the board, vary largely, and ten years have been as- sumed for the purpose of estimate. In ten years, then, it is assumed that the jetties will have to be lengthened i,000 feet. As shoals will have formed at the ends of the jetties, it has also been assumed that the extension will be in water averaging 15 feet in depth. "It has been stated that there is a shoal at the head of South Pass- with but lY feet of water on it. At present this shoal is scouring' out. Should that scouring not giv" h depth as great as at the shoalest point below in the pass, the construction of a dike to deflect more water into it would become necessary. Should the South Pass increase much beyond its present size, it might become necessary to put an apron on the bottom and sides of the pass, near its head, to stop that increase." The estimated cost of the jetties at South Pass were, for construction, $5,342,110, and $130,000 per annum for cost of extension, etc. For South- west Pass a similar estimate was made, as follows : First cost of jetties, $8,253,124; annual cost of ex- tension, $390,000. The Board felt certain that the required depths could be secured by jetty constructions, and recom- mended that South Pass be improved in this man- ner, and concludes that if Congress adopts this system that the whole amount should be appropri- ated at once or in some way be made available. Gen. H. G. Wright withheld his signature for the reason that he did not believe the method prom- ised an adequate and permanent channel, which the canal project did, and therefore gave his prefer- ence to the latter method. Soon after the presentation of this report Mr. Fads made a new proposition to Congress to make a channel 30 feet deep at the mouth of Southwest Pass for $8,000,000, and maintain it for twenty years for an annual sum of $150,000, a first pay- ment of $500,000 to be made when a depth of 22 feet was reached, and other amounts as greater depths were reached until 30 feet was reached, when a certain sum was to be held as security for maintenance, one-half to be paid at the end of ten years, the other at the end of the twenty years. The complete statement is not repeated, for the reason that it was not accepted. Gen. A. A. Humphreys, Chief of Engineers, op- posed this measure, for the reasons, mainly, that the improvement would not be permanent, and that the rapid advance of the bar would render its main- tenance inordinately expensive. Mr. Eads's able presentation of his case before the House committee, backed by the favorable re- port of the Board, sufficed to withdraw all oppo- sition, practically, in the House; but when the mat- ter went to the Senate, the possibility of gaining the same results at South Pass at far less cost in- fluenced the members to advise Mr. Fads that it he would not agree to improve the smaller pass for $5,250,000, with the same guarantee, and agree to. Past— Present— Prospective 16c maintain the 30-foot depth for twent)- years at $100,000 per annum, the work would not be placed in his hands. He consented to this, and the bill covering the conditions of the work, modified as to cost and location, became a law March 3, 1S75. The jetties at South Pass were declared finished in July, 1879, at which time the payment for main- tenance began to run. and the maintenance of the required channel has been complied with, with the exception of about five hundred days, to date, when the legal channel did not exist. The deficiencies have been distributed between the pass itself, the jetty channel, and the channel through the bar in the Gulf in advance of the ends of the jetties. The channel in the pass proper is required to have a navigable depth of 26 feet throughout, from the deep water of the main ri^•er to the beginning of the jetty channel. The jetty channel is required to have a channel 26 feet deep and 200 feet wide, with a central depth of 30 feet without regard to width, this channel to continue to the deep water of the Gulf. Between the river and the jetty channel the pass has filled considerably in places, the tendency ap- parently being to assume an uniform cross section and plope. Between the jetties filling has occurred at intervals; but the channel is maintained with reasonable success by dredging. Beyond the jet- ties a bar has formed, through which a channel is maintained with but little dredging so far. A chart showing the advance of the different curves of depth between 1879 and 1896 beyond the sea ends of the South Pass jetties is attached. CONCLUSIONS Upon examining this chart, the manner of the re- forming of the bar is disclosed. The greater por- tion of the sediment ejected by the pass is deposited to tlie westward. The 20 and 30 foot curves ex- hibit this in a marked degree in the immediate vicinity of the jetty ends. The 40-foot curve seems to be less affected in the area examined, but prob- ably inclines shorewards on the easterly side upon the prolongation of the line shown. The 30-foot curve of 1896 probably inclines shorewards on the east, like the 40-foot, but all the curves beyond the 40-foot curve of 1896 are veiw irregular, though possessing identical features. Three distinct val- leys are indicated as penetrating the formation in front of the jetty ends.; a very pronounced one to the east, a second similar one to the west, and one not quite so pronounced between these. Below the 40-foot curve of 1896 a ridge extends as far as the 100-foot curve, and probably beyond. This ridge is in line with the 30-foot channel between the jet- ties, and that through the bar to the eastward of the axis. The ridge to the west of this is not so marked, and the middle valley may almost be dis- regarded as of little consequence compared with the very pronounced valleys to the east and west of it. These deep valleys have their center lines in- clined nearly in the direction of the prevailiiag wind, and are due to wind and tidal currents, which op- pose the issuing stream and deflect it to one side or the other. Between these valleys the important advance of the bar has taken place, since this in- cluded area is in front of the jetty entrance. The shoal which has formed directly in front of the entrance is the outgrowth of several conditions : First, the sediment which was deflected by the cross current; second, the finer material which floated bej'ond the influence of the river current, and was returned by the action of the wind and waves. This shoal is having more and more influence upon the issuing current, and tends to deflect it more and more into the face of the prevailing winds. The ultimate effect will be to cause the direct interfer- ence of the cross current and issuing currents, and a consequently more rapid deposition of the ma- terial to the eastward of the line of issue. The speedy restoration of normal conditions will then result, for the influence of the jetties will no longer prevail, the extension of the bar will resemble that before the improvement was undertaken. The ma- terial to the eastward of the jetties will be far less than that to the westward, however, and when the extension of the jetties to meet the new conditions becomes necessary, the east jetty wiU not have the width of foundation to insure its permanence for any considerable length of time. The issue of the water from the opening between the jetty ends shows that the force of the current is sufficient under present conditions to not only carry the sediment some distance in advance of the jetties, but to excavate a basin of considerably greater depth than that in the channel between the jetties. The force of flow is therefore sufficient to drive the salt water from in front of the entrance and hold it in abeyance for the greater part of the time that the issuing current is charged with a ma- terial amount of sediment, and during low river. 164 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River • when there is no sediment in suspension, the ebb tide is sufficiently strong to maintain this small basin and the channel through the bar, the shoaling effect of the tidal current being greater between the jetties than outside. Unless the sediment borne to the mouth of the jetties could be entirely eliminated, it is folly to imagine that such a system of improvement can •give permanent results, and although the prolonga- tion of the jetties may not be recjuired, and, indeed, he. impossible for some time, there surely comes a time when prolongation must take place, and this -extension will be both expensive and difficult. The prolongation will have to be made on the narrow ridge directly in front of the jetties, where the shoaling is greatest and the duration of the beneficial results the least, or a lateral course must be pursued with far less promises of durability. The system itself is incapable of being made to endure for all time, but must, in the natural order of things, come to a positive end and be abandoned. The principles of bar formation are practically as stated by Humphreys and Abbot, so long as the natural conditions exist. The bar advance is ex- plained and the theory is sufficiently exact to meet the situation, but when the natural conditions are disturbed by the construction of confining jetties the advance of the bar is not made in exactly the same manner, since the issuing water has sufficient force to carry the material some distance into the sea, where the deposit takes place in deep water and where the re-formation of the natural bars com- mence and grow, until the conditions in advance have been restored, and the lateral areas built up so as to form natural banks or shoals, and so bring about a restoration of natural conditions. The natural rate of advance of the bar gives an approximation of the time which may be estimated to elapse from the time when the jetties are com- pleted to the time when the bar will have re-formed, or to" the time when the further extension of the jetties will be necessary, supposing the conditions at the Head of the Passes to continue favorable. At South Pass the depth of channel required is 30 feet at flood tide. The 30-foot ciuwe has ad- vanced between 1879 and 1896 a distance of about 700 feet. Measured on a line from the most ad- vanced point of the curve of 1879, and parallel with the present 30-foot channel through the bar to the westward of this, the advance has been much greater. On the prolongation of this line, where the advance of the 40-foot curve has been the least, the advance of the iO-foot curve has been 900 feet, and practically occupies the position of the earlier 50- foot curve. Beyond the 40-foot curve the advance of the other curves have been far greater, the 60- foot curve of 1896 coinciding with the SO-foot curve of 1879. The distance between the 30-foot curve outside the natural mouth and 40-foot curve before the jetties were built was 1,600 feet, or a slope between of 1-160, and between the 40-foot and 50-foot cuiwes the slope was 1-20. At present the slope between the 30 and 40 foot curves is 1-90, or much steeper, and between the 40-foot and 50-foot, meas- ured on the same line to the nearest point of 50-foot curve, about the same slope (1-90), much flatter. Before improvement, the distance from the inside 30-foot curve of depth to the 20-foot curve of depth was about 2,900 feet. The end of the 30-foot chan- nel was well inside of the protection of the natural banks; but measuring off the 2,900 feet from the ends of the jetties, in the direction heretofore used, the end of this measurement would fall about mid- way between the most advanced and least advanced positions of the present 40-foot curve of depth in the Gulf, as the filling at this locality has been about 0.6 of a foot a year. If this rate was to continue, the 40-foot depth would have shoaled to 20 feet about the year 1929. Originally the distance between the 30-foot curve inside and the same curve outside was 12,300 feet. In 1896, from the ends of the jetties to the outside of the 30-foot cun-e, ignoring the channel through the bar, which has failed, at times, to maintain the 30-foot depth, the distance is only about 1,600 feet. The plateau which supports the bar, which has less than 30 feet of water over it, is very large, and is approximately without limits on the eastern side. So long as this condition prevails the growth of the bar in height will be retarded, but this con- dition will be greatly changed when the bank on the Avest has extended a little farther. It is reason- able to expect that when the 20-foot contour shaU have reached the present 50-foot contour's position the bar will have considerably less than 30 feet of water over it, or through it. At the present ad- vance of this 20-foot contour the 50-foot contour will be reached, in all probability, by 1913; at the Past— Present— Prospective 165 present time the 30 and 40 foot curves approach each other closely on the west side. On the east side the approach is not so near. The 30-foot about coincides with the 40-foot contour of 1879, while on the west side the 20-foot contour coincides with the 40-foot of 1879 (later survey shows it has nearly reached the 40-foot), or the 20-foot (of 1896) con- tour advances much more rapidly than the 30-foot on the east. Unless the basin in front of the jetties enlarges mucli more rapidly than it does, the bar will be so broad that it will be impossible to main- tain through it with a reasonable amount of dredg- ing a channel of 30 feet, and it is doubtful if this channel could be maintained uninterruptedly at 25 feet for any length of time. Under the very best of conditions, the life of the 30-foot channel, created ahd maintained by jetties and dredging, will not last at South Pass beyond 1913, or say for thirty-four vears from completion, although the restoration of the bar to its natural condition would require one hundred years or a greater period. The situation at Southwest Pass is not so favor- able as at South Pass,- so far as the transverse cur- rent is concerned, the current being comparatively weaker at this place, the advance of the bar appear- ing to be very symmetrical with the axis of the pass. The advance of the bar between the time of the survey of this pass by the Coast Sun'ey of 1867 and the present survey is shown on the accompanying chart. This covers a period of thirty-one years, and the annual advance for this whole time is at the rate of 251 feet a year. To maintain this advance, it would require, tO' fill up the areas in advance and on either hand, the annual deposit of about 32,- 000,000 cubic yards of material, sufficient, if it were piled on the square upon which the Capitol at Washington stands (a square which is about 1,650 feet by 1,400 feet), to raise the level of the ground several feet above the top of the statue on the top of the Capitol dome. The rate of advance of the bar has undergone considerable variations at different epochs, as shown in Mr. Ockerson's report. In the interval between 3 838 and 1857 the advance Avas 239 feet per annum. In that between 1857 and 1873 it was 401 feet per annum, and between 1S73 and 1898 it shows but 176 feet advance per annum. The interval previously alluded to covers part of the time when the bar had its most rapid advance and is, therefore, considerably greater than the present. There is a very material falling ofi in the advance of the bar since the survey of 1873. If the quantity of material transported is proportioned to the vol- ume of water, it would appear that the volume of discharge had materially diminished. In 1873, at flood tide, the discharge was stated to be 408,000 cubic feet per second. Mr. Ockerson's observations give 370,000 cubic feet as the discharge, when the river was at something less than a high-water stage, probably what might be called a mean high-water stage, and for such a stage the discharge is stated to have been, in 1873, 340,000 cubic feet. The exact data relative to the stage of the river corresponding to the mean high water is not stated. It may be inferred that the discharge of Southwest Pass has not diminished materially since 1873, or sufficiently to account for the decrease in the rate of advance in the bar since then. It is possible that the character of the material brought to the bar has undergone some changes in recent years, and the heavier material which forms the bar proper may have diminished, and the lighter material held in suspension increased. (The rapid advance of the 60 and 70 foot contours of depth at South Pass would indicate some such change.) There may also have been some deflection of the heavier ma- terial at the head, owing to the sill sunk across the pass by Mr. Eads. The advance of the bar into the Gulf, since greater depths must be filled in, will account for some of the loss, but there certainly remains a considerable loss of bar-building material that is unaccounted for. During the times the bar was advancing rapidly, the depth of water on the crest of the bar was the greatest. This would appear to indicate a loss of velocity which, since the discharge at the head of the pass seems to be unchanged, could only oc- cur through the increased discharge of the lateral openings above the mouth. The slope of the pass varies from 2 feet at high water to 0.6 foot at low water. At high water the slope is very steep from the head to about one- fourth the way down, where some irregularities oc- cur. From below this point to the Pilot Station Piavou the slope is more moderate, but is adequate to give sufficient velocity of flow to the water to enable it to maintain a very deep channel. Be- tween the last station inside the banks to Stake 166 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : Island the slope is much steeper than the section just above. As this last section is where the ex- pansion of channel occurs, this sharp descent is to be expected. If the slope can be equalized through- out the entire length of the pass, from head to crest of bar, it seems that it would be sufifiicient to maintain a satisfactory current to deepen the chan- nel across the bar to as much as is desired. To accomplish this the pass will have to be leveed and all lateral openings closed. The principal object to be gained in constructing the levees and jetties is to secure, if possible, a channel from end to end of the pass, which shall have, as nearly as possible, an uniform capacity for discharge, and be as free as possible from bends throughout. As the prolongation of the jetties will in time be necessary, the durability of the constructions must be such that no reconstruction will be necessary, but the work must be capable of extension, with- out unnecessary expense for preparation. Although the pass is longer and the discharge of sediment greater than at South Pass (it is not deemed profitable to look further for an example), it is believed that the deeper channel can be main- tained with a reasonable amount of dredging for at least thirty years, and that the extension of the jetties will not be positively demanded until some time later. •CLEARED THE PASSES AND SOUTHWARD BOUND." Past— Present— Prospective 167 STUYVESANT FISH. 168 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : DEEP WATER AT MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER Statement to the Committee on Rivers and Harbors of the U. S. House of Representatives By STUYVESANT FISH President of the Illinois Central Railroad Company, March 6th, 1900 Ml'. Chairman and Gentlemen of the Committee: May I be permitted to invite your attention to tlie cliannels tlirough which the foreign commerce of the United States flowed in the period immedi- ately preceding the Civil War, before natural con- ditions had been disturbed by civil strife, by subse- quent misgovernment in the Southern States, and by the welding together of what are now known as the great East and West Trunk Line Railways? With these facts before us, we will then contrast present conditions, and leave to you and to Con- gress the task of so legislating as to restore the natural conditions of fair and free competition be- tween the several ports of our common and united country. Without claiming that the specific provision of the Constitution (Art. I, Sec. 9), forbidding the giving of preferences to the ports of one State over those of another, requires this tO' be done, I do claim that the spirit of that instrument, and common sense and common justice alike, demand that the mouth of the Mississippi river be now made and kept navigable by any ships which do, or may, enter any of the ports of the United States. EXPORTS UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS. In two of the three years immediately preceding the Civil War the domestic exports through New Orleans exceeded those through New York in value. In the five years ended June 30, 1860, the do- mestic exports through New Orleans increased not only in a greater ratio, but to a greater extent than did those through New York. In those five years 'New Orleans had 28.38 per cent of the export trade of the United States ; New York, 30.95 per cent; Boston, 5.60; Philadelphia, 1.83; Baltimore, 3.15; San Francisco, 3.27. All other ports, 26.82 per cent. The value of the exports through New Orleans was not swelled by abnormal prices of cotton. which ranged, in 1858, from 8^- to 12f cents, in 1859 from lOf to 12f, in 1860 from 9^ to 12. The present price of the same article, middling cotton, at the same place. New Orleans, is 9-]- cents per pound. IMPORTS UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS. In each of the five years, 1856 to 1860, inclusive. New Orleans imported a greater value of foreign merchandise than either Philadelphia, Baltimore or San Francisco. Throughout those five years New Orleans im- ported 6.17 per cent in value of the foreign goods brought into the United States, against 5.69 im- ported through Baltimore and San Francisco taken together, and 4.61 per cent through Philadelphia, while New York then had 62.71 per cent, and all the other ports 20.82 per cent thereof. CONTRAST. Let us now look into the flow of our national commerce under the artificial conditions since created, and particularly into the figures for the past five years. The reports of the United States Bureau of Com- merce and Navigation show that, during the year ended June 30, 1862, there were neither exports nor imports through New Orleans, and that, in the four years from July 1, 1861, to June 30, 1865, her total foreign commerce, including both exports and imports, amounted to only $17,831,005. This as against a like commerce in the single year 1860 of $130,735,353. The ravages of the Civil War so effectually crippled the trade of New Orleans that, in the succeeding years of internal peace and prosperity, those figures of 1860 were never ex- ceeded until 1892, and have not since been equaled. I have in vain tried to get figures for the year ended June 30, 1899, and must be content with those for 1898. The following table contrasts the conditions pre- vailing for five years before the Civil War with Past— Present— Prospective 169 those of the past five years. It shows that, not- withstanding the enormous growth of the Middle West in the intervening thirty-eight years, New Orleans alone, of all the ports in the United States, has lost in the value of her exports, and that her share of the foreign imports has dwindled down to less than one-fiftieth (1.85 per cent) of the value of those of the United States. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF FOREIGN COMMERCE For the five years 1856 to 1860, inclusive, under natural conditions, and for the four years 1894 to 1898, inclusive, under changed conditions. DOMESTIC EXPORTS. 5 Years ended June 30, i860 5 Years ended June 30, 1898 Changes in Per Cent OF Total PORTS. Average yearly value Per cent of Total Average yearly value Per cent of total 5.5 £. £ 1 "^ rt toi i- j- .ir ^„ , , ^„„„ , , , , , , Mr. Schwab, m reading the foregoing statement, was 23 feet. In 1880, the draft of steamers had , , , ^ s & added: increased to more than 23 feet, the depth of water ut^ • w 1 r t_ • ^ 1 • , , , , . , . , It might be proper for me, being a steamship in the channel showing 24 feet m that vear. In , .... , . . ^ , , -. , ■ man, to explain that, m my personal opinion, 1 the year 1890 the efforts of the government had , , , ,, ^ 1 ., r r r ^ -n 1 • 1 ■ , , . , , ^ hold that a depth of forty feet will be required in resulted m a depth at mean low water of 30 feet, ,, r , -r. 1 1 1 r . , . , . , . , , the ver}- near future, rrobabh' vou are aware of both m the mam ship channel and in the Gedney ,^ r ^ ^, ^ ^ a ^ ^ ' r n .1 . . ■' the tact that to noat a steamer successfullv over the channel, permitting the construction of the , -^ • ^1 ^, r ^ r ^ , ■T . ^ . bar it is necessary to have three feet of water under enormous freight carriers of the present dav, whose 1 1 1 -n i. • 1 r ^1 1 1 r ..1 , . r r , ner keel. 1 he west winds of the harbor frequently draft frequently reaches 30 feet, and m some cases 1-4.1 ^ ^ ^1 ^ ^t ■ ^- r , , drive the water out so. that there is sometimes four exceeds that measurement. r ,, -,-,7, 1 r .1 • . c r ^ r ^ feet less. vV hen we speak of thirtv-hve feet or torty A comparison of the range of freight rates dur- fggt, that is mean low water." ing these years illustrates the advantages gained xhe New York Commerce Commission then go by the improvements made in ocean transporta- q^-^ ^q g^y • tion during the last thirty years, improvements "As a result of earnest and united endeavors to which have been rendered possible by the action ggcure the much-needed improvements in the har- of the national authorities in deepening the ap- bor approaches, the National Congress has made proaches to the harbor. ample provision for the direct channel to the sea, In the following table the average rates of freight forty feet in depth and two thousand feet wide, and from New York to one of the continental ports of on May 12th, 1899, a contract was entered into for Europe are quoted as they prevailed in the years the active prosecution of the work." Past— Present— Prospective 173 New York having thus, and very properly, been provided with enough for aU her needs in the pres- ent and in the immediate future, we come before you pleading the cause of the Great Central Basin of the United States, which is drained by the Mis- issippi river, rather than as saying anything for its seaport, New Orleans. The Mississippi river drains the whole of nine States and Territories, and parts of twenty-three other States, not to speak of a considerable slice of the Dominion of Canada. Rejecting eight States, of which but a small portion lies within the valley, twenty-four States and Territories may be fairly considered as tributary to that river. The valley contains 1,240,039 scjuare miles, or 41 per cent of the area of the United States, exclusive of Alaska and other outlying possessions. There dwell nearly one-half of our citizenship. Its soil, beside feeding our own people, except those on the Pacific coast, yields the whole of our exportable surplus of live stock of every kmd, and most of the breadstuff's. Its mines yield our petro- leum oil and most of our coal, its forests supply our lumber, and its workshops turn out, annually, an increasing share of our manufactures. Omitting the two Territories, which are, of course, represented by their delegates, those twen- ty-two States send 44 Senators and 200 Represen- tatives to Congress. In 1896 they cast more than half of the total vote in the Electoral College, 247 out of 447. The 149 votes of ten States went to Mr. McKinley, and the 98 votes of the other twelve to Mr. Bryan. As between the two great political parties, the basin drained by the Mississippi is fairly debatable ground. The cjuestion which we present to you to-day is whether the citizens of the great central basin of these United States are, or are not, to be now given the means of getting their products carried to sea, at the least possible cost to them, in ships which can compete with those sailing from other ports? THE PORT OF NEW ORLEANS iV/- 5 u Pf fit, ^ DULUTH \jt-iH"" ,,^ifa*jr ^ __^ ^-J '^ /Ijr*^^ vS ^rui Cl^^re I*, jrOii-lneite?) C ^— N % J&miK^ yjlsdeeUr'' \ ulw'\ok£E O /T \ rJ r^ ,5;.uv%4^.,.v T ■ J.'< O 1 irj,v«i= o 6 ^ I - — *, >'c^/^ , — — ' p^\ "^ r^^ <>?/ T -c^.e'"'' ^ u ^v r h '-^l r ^"^ ^ " °c°'"" , N.A ^^---^ r_ .( •^'^^:^:^%t^ / ^ ^ Y.§i M. V R R SYSTEM ^ ^ Wittz Norriierii and £as[erRTt5rou?h ConnectioRs stowin^drtriw which lioktlie /Alluvial Undb otitic ni56i55ippi K\m with Commerciol and IndUitrid Cenreri of Uie Norlli cind hit. o THE SOUTHERN PACIFIC R'Y. Connecting the Alluvial Lands of the Mississippi River with the Pacific Coast and, with connections, with West- ern and Northwestern Grain Fields. EST PALM Bf ACM *N C >- •He Oi c~ u H H— 1 ^ u ^ *' < a c !^ CU O o H 5 D fs O !i C/) O M ^ rn c c u t^ s u > « lil M« 1, t^. ^^"'A'r... M O. k ^ dora< '\\i A: ■^'S ^^ Q) / ■U N ^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ CLEVELAND CINCINNATI, eHICAGO & ST. LOUIS RY. Wi Norlern and Ea3temTl]rou§h ConReclionisbowii/g arteries whicii link Ke Alluvial Lands oj Hie Mi55i55ippi River with tti? ^ommpreid and Industrial PenterioJ tfieNorlti aad hi yj •i (> Q LOUISVILLE & NASHVILLE R.R. With Norftiern and Eastern Through Connections showing arteries whieti .the Alluvial bnds ojit?? Mississippi Rivprwilh ttie eommereidi and Industrial Ceniecs otlJ^pNorll? ^nd fast (jUEEN & CRESCENT ROUTE ^ w ) AlabaiTici ^Vieksbur^. Vieksbuig, <5h'pt h M\t N.O. yortk Easier^ With Northern and Eastern Throii|h Connections sbowini arteries which liak. the Alluvial Lands o|the Mis'si&Vippi River with ttie Commeteial dud ladustrial Centers of tlie North and East, o Para^ouU ^^ LITTLE # ,w Camder. ■" ^Lofkinl - E X A S COTTON BELT ROUTE Wllh Norffjfra and fasfera Through ConnediofissftowfR? dffenei wfiidiliRk [He , URdso^lIieMi5si55ippi River with tfieCommefGdldndtornaiCe^^^^^ lil\5t1VILL[,ChATTAN00(iA§,5T LOUIS RR With NortfierR df?d Easremlkrougb Con[?ection5.5l]owi[)| arreries wbieh link fo Alluvial La^ds oj fe Mississippi River with tlie Pommereial and Indubtrial (^mki o| M North and East. ^^' THE TEXAS & PACIFIC R. R. Showing western connection wilh Texas and California and northern connection to the grain fields of the west. ^ CHOCTAW, OKLAHOMA & GULF R. R. Showing Northern and Western Connections with the Alluvial Lands of the Mississippi River. Past— Present— Prospective 185 MOBILE Mm mum bkm^ connecfions wiffi tRp Alluvial Imk o| ttie I1i&?>i6bippi River NorllidRd SoStti anddt &iro ad oStLouis wl WesterR Lirtes ^ ^ '"^wl N fm ?" M ym ^ i ^ KANSAS CITY, FT. SCOTT ■ MEMPHIS R. R. Connecting the Alluvial Lands of the Mississippi Valley with the grain fields of the North and \fesT. Past— Present— Prospective 187 188 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: DEEP WATER By M. J. SANDERS, President N. O. Maritime Association The great and glorious River Mississippi, the Father of Waters, has ever exerted a paramount influence upon the development and welfare of our great country, and though our land is fast being covered with a closely woven network of railroads, the importance of the great river has never, and will never cease to be felt by our Nation. Even whilst neglected, its channels allowed to fill up, and its navigation of a precarious and unsatisfactory nature, little used and carrying upon its bosom but a small fraction of the country's trade, its direct, positive influence upon the economy of transporta- tion, saved the farmers and manufacturers of the great valley millions of dollars annually. Congress has in recent years liberally appropriated money for the betterment of its navigation and in the near future we shall doubtless see the great stream working out its beneficent destiny as the great eco- nomical highway from the farms and factories of the great West to the shore of the distant Gulf. Satisfactory water transportation always has proved and always will prove more economical than any other form yet known, and for such purpose there is no river in the world so important and capable of such great and beneficent influence as the great natural highway of the United States. The commercial utility as a means of transpor- tation of the River Mississippi and its tributaries is, however, still in its infancy. The money ex- pended by Congress to improve the navigation of this great system of waterways has scarcely yet borne any extraordinary results, but that it will soon dO' so and that still greater sums of money will be spent to advantage on these streams is a certainty. The thousands of miles of waterways of the river and its tributaries, which, in like man- ner to the great arterial system in the human body, ramify throughout more than one-half of the states of the Union, furnish God-given possibilities, al- most beyond the conception of man, and the wild- est imagination of great engineers has never yet been able to more than outline the future possi- bilities of this great waterway system, which is destined to prove the great safeguard and econom- ical transportation factor in the welfare of the teem- ing, toiling millions, who shall cultivate the soil of the fertile valleys, build great cities upon its banks, and manufacture there the necessaries of Hfe for a very large portion of the whole world. The money the country has as yet expended, and the results that have thereby been gained, are but as a drop in the bucket, compared with that which lies before us in the future. That the mouth of this great river should be properly cared for and that its channels should ever afiford safe navigation for the fleets of the world engaged in the peaceful beneficence of commerce requires no argument. There is no apparent finality in human aftairs. What our ancestors of old considered satisfactory and thoroughly modern, our fathers scouted as ridiculous and insufficient, and we in turn consider the requirements, knowledge and customs of our fathers as belonging to an unsatisfactory past; so doubtless our sons will marvel how we were con- tented in our narrow and undeveloped surround- ings and lack of, what will be to them, the com- mon necessities of life. We realize very clearly this thought in contem- plating the evolution of the ocean freight carrier with its economic results, the consideration ot which is largely the purpose of this article and which is the essential factor in the intercourse be- tween our own and other nations, and is a most practical and forcible illustration of the absence of finality. I shall endeavor briefly as possible to show the development of the modern ocean carrier and its close relation to the improvement and development of rivers and harbors with the economic and bene- ficial effects upon the welfare of our people result- ing therefrom. Twenty years ago the only channel of value to commerce from the main stream of the Mississippi River to the ocean was through the Southwest THOS. J. WOODWARD W. P. ROSS A. K. MILLER J. A. JONES M. WARRINER GEO. R. BAGLEY Resident City Engineer. 190 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River-. Pass, having then over the bar at its mouth to the Gulf of Mexico a depth of water of some seven- teen to eighteen feet. Necessarily the ocean ves- sels trading to the port of New Orleans at that time, and using this channel, were of a very limited size and capacity, owing to this limited depth of water in the channel. The largest sized vessel at that time had a capac- ity of some 2,000 tons dead weight, or carried about 0,000 bales of compressed cotton. It was Cjuite a common occurrence for these vessels, small as they were, to get aground on the bar at the mouth of the Pass when proceeding to sea, and many have lain three or four weeks until they were assisted over the bar to the deep water beyond, either by means of dredges or the natural effect of the current of the river. All this was the cause of heavy expense to those vessels trading to the port, while the hmited size of the vessels, which under the most favorable cir- cumstances could safely navigate this channel, seri- ously affected the volume of imports and exports, through the port of New Orleans, and maintained ocean transportation rates on a high basis, so that ports more favored in the matter of navigable chan- nels, and thereby admitting large vessels, were rapidly diverting the trade naturally belonging to the port at the mouth of the great river. Much money was spent by the Go\'ernment in the effort to deepen and improve the channel at the Southwest Pass by means of dredges and screv,^ propellers but without any permanent success, as a channel made to-day would inevitably be filled, and by to-morrow, all trace of yesterday's work completely lost through the immense amount of sediment which the river carries in its waters, which is precipitated with great rapidity when anything interposes to check the onward rush of the current. Able engineers gave the matter their attention and numerous theories for overcoming the difficulty were propounded, but finally the first definite step toward the much-needed improved channel was attained by James B. Eads, who, in March, 18T5, obtained from Congress a contract, whereby he agreed to provide a channel having a central depth of 30 feet through the South Pass from deep water in the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico. At that time the South Pa.ss was unused, being scarcely more than a good sized ditch and, it was felt by those who opposed Mr. Eads, that if he did no good, he could certainly do no harm, as the pass given him was useless anyway. Mr. Eads's contract was on the "no cure, no pay" sj^stem, and it was understood that he proposed to make his channel by the use of mattresses and bulkheads in the pass itself, thereby contracting the width of the pass and at the sea end, by the use of jetty walls, extend- ing the banks of the pass into deep water, thus confining the current and forcing it by its own velocity not only to cari-j^ out its sediment into deep water in the Gulf, but also to clean out and maintain the channel through the whole length of the pass. iWhether Mr. Eads's original plans were or were not carried out; whether he ever originally intended to use dredges at all; or whether the sys- tem of jetties alone or jetties and dredges com- bined, has been proved the correct solution of this great engineering problem, it does not befit me to comment upon. That question is one for en- gineers alone, and of them, only such as have for years studied such problems are entitled to author- itatively speak. That Mr. Eads had to modify his original plans somewhat is very probable, and that he obtained from Congress a concession as regards the dimen- sions of the channel originally agreed upon through the South Pass, is on record. However, Mr. Eads certainly was eminently successful in obtaining a good navigable channel of 26 feet through the en- tire length of the pass, and an even greater depth be- tween the jetties and out to deep water in the Gulf. Thus, by his work, a useless pass of irregular width and having in places as little as 9 feet of water was made for 12 miles long of a depth of 26 feet, which depth has usually been maintained, with the excep- tion of periods during high water, when sand waves enter the pass and seriously shoal the channel. This makes its navigation at times dangerous and dis- astrous to vessels drawing as little as even 23 feet of water. No sooner was the South Pass opened with a channel of 26 feet depth than the average size of the vessels trading to the port at once showed a marked increase and by reason of the increased economy of this larger tonnage, the cost of ocean transportation rapidly decreased. Thus, while the largest vessel using the old Southwest Pass had a capacity of only about 6,000 bales of cotton, within a few years of the opening of the South Pass, ves- sels having a capacity of 4,000 tons dead weight LOADING COTTON AND OIL NEW ORLEANS [IN 1850-FROM AN OLD GERMAN PRINT UNLOADING A BANANA SHIP 192 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: SHIPPING SCENES — PORT OF NEW ORLEANS Past— Present— Prospective 193 and able to carry 12,000 bales of cotton were regu- larly engaged in the trade to New Orleans. Previous to the opening of the South Pass the rate of freight on cotton from New Orleans to Liverpool was about l^c. per pound, or $7.90 per bale. Shortly after the opening of the South Pass, in 1880, the average rate decreased to ^ of one cent per pound, or $3.90 per bale. During the ten years following the opening of the new channel through the South Pass about one and one-half million bales of cotton per annum passed through this channel, making evident an an- nual saving in ocean transportation on this cotton alone of about six million dollars. The saving of ocean freight paid on other commodities which went through the new channel fully equaled this, so that it requires no mathematician nor even a shrewd business man to at once realize that, though it has cost the counti^y about ten million dollars to open and maintain for the past twenty years the channel through the South Pass, the annual sav- ing to the producer in the cost of trans- porting his goods to the markets across the ocean has equaled the total cost of the im- provements and maintenance. These figures sound fabulous and, except to the initiated, grossly exaggerated, but it must be remembered that the channel through the mouth of the great River Mississippi is of such enormous commercial value that, however great the sum properly spent upon its improvement and maintenance, the return is bound to far exceed the cost. Since Congress sO' wisely decided upon the open- ing of a new channel at the mouth of the river, other important factors have come into play, still further affecting the economy of ocean transpor- tation. Principal amongst these is the evolution (amounting almost to a revolution) of the modern ocean Leviathan. Previous to 1890 the growth in size of ocean steamers had been quite gradual, in fact for several years previous the size of ocean vessels had (outside of a few passenger steamers) increased only slightly, but about that year one or two steamers made their appearance, destined for trade between the United States and Great Britain, distinctly of much greater cargo capacity than anything then afloat. It was soon seen that the economy and commercial suc- cess of the new large freighters over their com- petitors was enormous, and at once began in ship- ping the remarkable era of the past ten years, during which more advance in the size of ocean freighters has been made than in fifty years pre- vious. Vessel after vessel was built, each having an enormously increased capacity over its prede- cessor, until even the wide awake shipowner held his breath and enquired, "When is it going to stop?" Whereas a steamer of 4,000 tons capacity was ten years ago quite large, to-day one hears vi'ithout wonder of vessels building whose capacity is 10,000 tons, and still there is no evidence of finality. At first it was supposed that the devel- opment would end when the vessels had reached the maximum size which the principal ports in the world could accommodate, as of course the larger vessels are not only longer and broader, but much deeper than the vessels of ten years ago, and the depth of channels, width of dock gates, and length of quays and wharves all had to be taken into account. It was known that the expense of enlarging chan- nels and altering massive masonry, such as the dock gates and docks necessary in tidal harbors are built of, would be enormous, and- few realized that even this difficulty would not seriously retard the in- creasing size of the ocean carrier. It required but a few years" experience, however, to convince busi- ness men the world over that the big carrier was not only an assured success, but practically irre- sistible as an economizer, and the ports both in this and other countries began at once to arrange for such improvements as would enable them to ac- commodate the "Ocean Monsters," so that their more favored rivals might not outstrip them in the ceaseless competition of commerce. The United States has ever been to the forefront in the matter of harbors and up-to-date port facil- ities, and as a consequence this country has un- doubtedly the lion's share of the most economical form of ocean transportation. But the finest of our ports required improvement in order to accom- modate these enormous vessels and New York, Boston, New Oideans, Philadelphia, Baltimore and all the large ports on the Atlantic and Gulf sea- board have been and are still seeking that assist- ance from the Federal Government, to which they are entitled, and which is usually so wisely granted by Congress. The port of Liverpool, England, having for years past by far the largest and finest docks system in the world, and upon which some 194 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River-. $100,000,000 have been spent, was not far behind other ports in appreciating the necessity for im- provements to even its magnificent docks, and is now working hard to complete a scheme involving the expenditure of some $20,000,000, while other ports in Great Britain, and on the continent of Europe, such ports as Hamburg, Bremen, Antwerp and many others, are spending millions of dollars in harbor, channel and dock improvements. All this proves most decisively the power of the modern ocean carrier as an economical commercial factor. The port of New Orleans has for some years past been favored with the- most modern of ocean freight carriers and vmtil recently its enormous exports of cotton, grain, lumber, cotton-seed products, etc., have obtained the full benefit of economical ocean transportation. The past three or four years have, however, served to manifest in a verj' marked manner the fact that the Eads channel of 20 years ago had become entirelj' insui^cient and very dangerous to modern vessels. Shipowners built vessels for the trade and sent to the. port of New Orleans the latest additions to their fleets, knowing the limited depth of water in the channel through the South Pass, but relying upon the volume of cotton, which is a bulky and light freight, to so load their vessels that their draft of water would not be beyond the capacity of the pass. It required but a brief period, however, to demonstrate that not only was the depth of water a factor, but the narrow channel and strong current frequently experienced, made its navigation hazardous in the extreme to the large carriers. Not only were these vessels unable to load in heavy freight above some three-fourths of their capacity, thereby seriously reducing their eco- nomical value, but their greater length and breadth caused an immediate increase in the number of ves- sels grounding in the pass. These occurrences have assumed the most alarming aspect and more than once in the past two years the grounding of these large vessels has seriously threatened the entire destruction of the only navigable channel from the river to the Gulf. For over three years past a committee appointed by the exchanges and important business interests of New Orleans has been urging upon Congress, through its committees, this danger which threat- ens South Pass, and the necessity of opening up the Southwest Pass with a wider and deeper chan- nel from the river to the sea. Two years ago Con- gress, in response to the representations of this committee, appointed a special Board of Engineers with instructions to survey the Southwest Pass and report upon the practicability of opening up that Pass and estimate of the cost thereof. This report was placed before the Rivers and Harbors Commit- tee of Congress in January, 1899, but was not con- sidered by it sufficiently explicit and satisfactory to justify favorable action, and, therefore, another special Board of Engineers was appointed to esti- mate the cost and prepare a plan for opening up a channel with a depth of 35 feet through the South- west Pass. The report of this Board was completed and laid before Congress in January last and states that the pass can be opened and channel of 35 feet in depth by some 1,000 feet width can be made at estimated cost of not over six million dollars. This report will, it is hoped, be received by Congress as satis- factory and sufficient justification for the immediate appropriation of the funds necessary to carry out the report of the Board of Engineers and thereby provide an outlet from the great river to the ocean more suitable to the requirements of commerce and more in keeping with the majesty and importance of the great highway. At the mouth of the ri^'er, the main stream, which is nearly a mile wide, divides into three channels or passes and thus continues its course until its waters, after their ceaseless journey for thousands of miles, find rest in the bosom of the Gulf of Mexico. The main pass, known as Pass a Loutre, trends away to the eastward and carries an average of 50 per cent of the volume of the main stream, but its channel is so tortuous and unsatisfactory that it has been unused for many years, except by small coasting schooners of ver}' light draft. The center channel is known as the South Pass and is at present the only one navigable by ocean- going vessels from the main river to the ocean. This was a channel of no account until Mr. Eads, under his contract with the Federal Government, improved it, and even now it carries but an average of some eight per cent of the river's volume to the Gulf. The other and by far the finest and most perma- nent channel to the ocean is through the South- west Pass, which carries an average of some 41|-. Past— Present— Prospective 195 per cent of the volume of the river througli its banks to the Gulf of Mexico. The recent survey by Mr. J. A. Ockerson, made under the direction of the first Southwest Pass Board, is admitted to be most complete, and by comparing it with the several surveys made during the past sixty years it is found that the Southwest Pass is more constant in form and condition than perhaps any other part of the immense river. In the course of over fifty years the greatest alteration observable is its elongation some three miles by the deposit of silt carried down the river, which settles as soon as the current loses its force in the waters of the Gulf. From just below the mouth of the Red River, 300 miles from the ocean, there is a glorious river, never less than half a mile wide, with a minimum depth at its lowest stage of fifty feet of water, the volmne of which reaches the inconceivable magnitude of 2} million tons of water flowing by a given place ever)' minute, capable of easy and safe navigation by the largest ocean vessel the world has yet, or probably ever will see. Right clear down through the Southwest Pass to within three miles of the Gulf does this unrivaled navigable stream continue unimpeded, reciuiring no works o- man to fit it for the commerce of the great con- tinent, and there is recjuired but the works to con- verge and control this volume of water so that it may cut its way through the obstruction at its mouth and carry its silt into the vast depths of the ocean beyond. The works of Eads at the mouth of its smallest and least important mouth demon- strate decisively what can be accomplished at the mouth of its most valuable and reliable outlet, and upon this point the able engineers who have so carefully investigated this matter are unanimously agreed. Let these works be accomplished and the great river will have at last entered upon its beneficent mission as a mighty factor in the welfare of the millions who toil in the immense territory through which it flows, saving to them annually in reduced cost of ocean transportation of their products to the markets of the world more than the total cost of the works of improvement. Commerce will then have thrown open to it its grandest harbor, where Nature herself has done nearly all the work and man is required to do but little, and therefore, ex- pense being avoided, economy will have full sway in helping forward the welfare and the happiness of mankind. STEAM- SHIP LYING AT WHARFS OF NEW ORLEANS 196 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : Past— Present— Prospective 197 THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI- VALUE OF DEEP WATER* By ELMER LAWRENCE CORTHELL, C. E. The history of the commercial and naval use of the several mouths of the Mississippi River since the Spanish occupation is exceedingly interesting. The attempts of our Government to deepen the bars by dredging and other means are so well known as a matter of modern history that it is un- necessar)^ to go into details. But a comprehensive or bird's-eye view will, at the outset, be profitable. The mouth of the Mississippi is the natural out- let, and on the line of least resistance, either by water or by rail, of one of the largest and richest agricultural valleys of the civilized world. It com- prises 768,000,000 acres, nearly as large as all Western Europe combined, and capal)le of sup- porting as dense a population. During the ante-bellum period the shallows over the bars at the mouth of the river did not present so great an obstacle to commerce as sul^secjuently. Still, even in 1859 it had become a very serious obstacle, as will be seen from the fact that at one time over $7,000,000 of merchandise was detained there waiting many days to come in or go out. Among the goods thus delayed were 72,000 bales of cotton; a httle later there were fifty-frve vessels detained at one time. Coming down to a subsequent period, 1872 to 1877, there were detained at the bar, by grounding or otherwise, 417 vessels; during which period the United States Government made strenuous en- deavors, by dredging, to maintain, through the bars at the mouth of Southwest and Northeast passes, 18 feet of water in a narrow channel about one and a quarter miles long. In 1873 a board of United States army ofihcers was appointed to examine plans for a canal, and was subsequently instructed to report upon the practicability of improving one of the natural out- lets of the river. It reported adversely, January 13, 1874, upon the jetty plan as it was the opinion that the sea ends of the works would be undermined; that the foundations on which the works would rest were unstable, and that there would be an accelerated advance of the bars. The board believed it would be difficult to build or maintain the necessary works. There was, however, a minority report by one member, in which the feasibility of jetties was suggested and the opinion advanced that there were sufficient favoral^le conditions to at least pause long enough for mature study and investi- gation, "especially when we weigh the inestimaljle benefit of an open river mouth." In May, 1873, Mr. James B. Eads, who had just completed the St. Louis JDridge, and had other ex- perience upon the Mississippi River as a builder of ironclads, and in quite extensive wrecking- business with a diving bell, visited the mouth of the Missis- sippi, in company with a large congressional dele- gation, and at the time unhesitatingly declared that the proper way to remove the olDStruction to commerce was by parallel dikes or jetties at the mouth of one of the passes. In February, 1874, he made a formal proposi- tion to Congress to open the mouth of the river by making- and maintaining a deep channel Ise- tween Southwest pass and the Gulf of Mexico, on the plan of "no cure, no pay." It is useless, and would be a reflection upon many men who honestly differed with Mr. Eads, both in Congress and out of it, to go into the controversial history of the matter, especially as most of the actors in the drama have passed away. However, the facts of the legislation need to be briefly stated. The heated controversy led to the passage of a bill authorizing the appointment by the President of a board of seven engineers — three from the army, three from civil life, and one from the United States Coast Survey. The Board went to Europe to personally examine jetties there. *Froni paper written ia 1S97 — Ed. 198 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : On January 13, 1875, the report of this board was presented to Congress by the Secretary of War. They made an estimate of $11,514,200 for a canal. They reported ag'ainst the "stirring pro- cess" then in use by the Government. They reported in favor of the jetty plan, and se- lected South pass in preference to one of the other larger passes, believing that although its width was only 700 feet, as against the 1,400 feet of Southwest pass, it would be adequate for the pres- ent and prospective wants of commerce, contem- plating a depth of 25 feet as a minimum to be maintained. The estimates for construction and maintenance were $7,943,110 for South pass and $16,053,124 for Southwest pass. The report was signed by all the members of the board, except one, who thought the chances of success did not justify the recommendations of the board. Soon after the submission of the report, Mr. Eads made a new proposition to Congress to make a channel 30 feet deep at the mouth of Southwest pass and maintain it for twenty years. He had previously urged upon the board forcibly and eloquently to report in favor of Southwest pass. The words used are too important at this juncture to be kept back. "It is rarely that gentlemen of our profession have such an opportunity of indelibly recording their judgement. I earnestly trust that you will, on this occasion, unanimously recommend the im- provement of the Southwest pass, and thus leave, as an imperishable evidence of your foresight and public spirit, such a deep and broad channel at the mouth of the grandest physical feature of this con- tinent, as shall win for you the thanks and praise of the hundreds of millions which the Mississippi valley will hereafter contain, and whose grand com- merce must naturally and forever seek that route to the sea." Briefly, the objections of Mr. Eads to the South pass were (and his predictions have been fulfilled), first, that the extensive shoal in the head of South pass would be difficult of removal and the channel through it difficult of navigation, and, second, that the channel through the twelve miles of the pass was too small for easy navigation and inadequate to the growing wants of commerce. Regardless of the recommendations of the board in favor of South pass, the House of Representa- tives, upon the unanimous recommendations of the Committee on Commerce, passed the bill in favor of Southwest pass, with only two dissenting votes; but on reaching the Senate it was amended to apply to the small pass, the reason being that, having obtained the advice of a board of army en- gineers, who had reported in favor of the Fort St. Philip canal, and then of a subsequent board who had recommended jetties at the little pass, it would, in case Mr. Eads did not accomplish what he con- tracted to do at Southwest pass, have no defense for having refused the advice of its own experts; no doubt the greater cost had something to do with the decision. The Senate committee were immovable, and Mr. Eads was informed that if he would give the same guarantees and agree to produce the same depth in the little pass, and build the works for $5,250,000 and maintain them for 20 years for $100,000 per annum, the improvement would be placed in his hands, otherwise not. The bill thus amended was passed, all of the discussion and action taking place in considerable haste in the last hours of that Con- gress, the concurrence of the House being secured just before final adjournment, on March 3, 1875. The dimensions of channel as to width proposed for the much larger Southwest pass, four times as large in volume, remained in the bill, and a full dis- cussion and study of the compHcated questions at the head of the passes, or throug'h the pass, found no time in the haste due to the closing of the session. The maximum dimensions between the jetties, from the deep water of the pass to the deep water of the gulf, were 30 feet deep and 350 feet in width at that depth, and the dimensions through the pass and the shoal at its head were simply a navigable depth of 26 feet. In order to definitely interpret this and some other features of the contract. Secretary of War Cameron, on November 2, 1876, referred some questions to a board of three United States en- gineers entirely familiar with the matter. The sec- ond question was, "Query 2. — What depth and width of channel is it desirable to secure permanently through this shoal?" The answer was: "The second proviso to section 4 of the act de- Past— Present— Prospective 199 mands a navigable depth 'through said pass,' and, of course, through this shoal, of 'twenty feet' within thirty months, and 'an additional depth of not less than two feet during each succeeding year thereafter, until twenty-six feet shall have been se- cured.' We deem these depths to be satisfactory, and, considering that an inland channel requires less depth for equal facility of navigation than a sea exposed bar, that they are fairly equivalent to the greater depths demanded by the act in its fifth section for the 'wide and deep channel connecting the pass with the Gulf of Mexico.' " It being evident that the dimensions between the jetties abovQ stated were not adapted to the size of the small pass. Congress passed an amenda- tory act, March 3, 1879, reducing the maximum dimensions of the channels so as to read "26 feet in depth and not less than 300 feet in width at the bottom," and "30 feet in depth without regard to width." The depth of 3G feet in the head of the pass and in the pass itself and the above dimensions in the jettied channel have been the legal require- ments by the War Department upon Mr. Eads and his executors from that date to the present time. Another question submitted by the Secretary of War in 1877 to a board of United States engineers related to dredging. The board reported that it was a proper method as an auxiliary and referred to the report of Humphreys and Abbott and to that of the board of 1874, in both of which dredging was recommended as a necessary accessory to jet- ties. They state that the act under which the jet- ties were constructed clearly intends that jetties and auxiliary works shall be the effectual agents, but allows of dredging as auxiliary, and they refer to the procurement of a wide and deep channel as so exclusively due to the "jetties and auxiliary works that the aid of appliances, if in such dredg- ing is included, was utterly insignificant." Taking the whole volume of bar removal into consideration, some millions of cubic yards, a large estimate of the dredging would be 1 per cent of the whole. The requirement of the act that three dimen- sions of the channel through the jetties should be maintained has made a resort to dredging impera- tive, and the very fact that controlled natural forces accomplished the formation of the channel makes it evident that artificial dimensions of a congressional enactment are difficult of mainte- nance by natural agencies. It has been found often difficult to keep the channel the full legal width when the river seemed to have its own reasons for making a much deeper channel than 30 feet, or to maintain a full 30-foot depth in the center when the river was endeavoring to make a 36-foot chan- nel much wider than the legal requirements. Most of the dredging done in the last seventeen years was for the purpose of rectifying the form rather than the size of the channel, and at all times this channel througii the jetties has been equal to navigation requirements. It is now necessary to state and discuss some im- portant physical conditions at the head of the passes. An examination of the charts will show the com- plications existing there, and which Mr. Eads fully appreciated and wished to avoid by the selection of the larger pass. It can be stated advisedly that the problem pre- sented there for solution was one of the most diffi- cult, perhaps superlatively so, of any ever dealt with successfully. The problem at the mouth of the pass was very simple in comparison. "To get the water out throug-h one deep channel was a far more simple process than to get it into a small pass, through a narrow, artificially contracted channel, located immediately between two great natural outlets." There were many occult conditions, many sen- sitive but potent forces. There was an equilibrium of all of them that would, when disturbed, work great changes quickly and sometimes disastrously. The bed of the river is almost as easily moved as though formed of a semi-fluid mass. The sediment at high water, moving steadily seaward in solu- tion, takes the first opportunity to drop to the bot- tom after its long journey from the mountains and plains. The engineer can never know what will re- sult from handling such sensitive conditions, and yet so mighty — possibly a million cubic feet of water, loaded with sediment to its full capacity, passing in a second of time. The problem was further made extremely diffi- cult by the great depth and volumes of the ad- jacent passes, into which from the main river there was generally about thirty feet depth, whereas into South pass there was only fifteen. AVhile the ex- pression may not be literally true, it was almost like making the water run up hill to force a channel 200 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River through the obstructing bar with such easy path- ways alongside of it down hill. An examination of the location of the works at the head of the passes shows that a contraction of the passageway into the South pass, and so a con- centration of the entering volume, and the raising of the surface of the water above in order to get more fall and conseciuentlj^ more than the normal velocity, thus producing scouring- or deepening, was the principle employed. It will be readily un- derstood that the greater fall thus made into South pass inlet would also make a greater than the normal fall into the two great adjacent passes, and as a result a scouring of their beds also, and, further, that, as there exists no obtruding or re- sisting bar in their channels, it would need a less slope of water surface to send the water down these deep passes than into the choked-up head of the South pass. This is what really happened and had to be met by preventing the enlargement of the sections of the deep passes by means of mattress sills built of brush laid as a carpeting entirely across them from their banks to the works in the head of the South pass. Tha entire river had to be bridled in order to compel it to follow the directions of the engineer. CAUSE OF THE DETERIORATION OF SOUTH PASS The pass-a-Loutre crevasse in the pass of that name, one mile and a half below the head of South pass, occurred in January, 1891. The fall or sur- face slope throug"h it at flood time was very steep, about 2j feet within a short distance. This had a very deleterious effect upon the South pass channel. It increased the volume of pass-a-Loutre from 45 per cent of the whole river to 51 per cent, and decreased the volume of South pass from about 10.5 per cent and 11 per cent to about 7 per cent; that is, it reduced its volume about one-third. It will readily be seen that this should be the result, for the slope into pass-a-Loutre from the main river has been steepened by this crevasse from about the normal 2 inches per mile to 6 inches per mile. There must necessarily be a side flow from the head of South pass down this slope, as the neutral point, where the river water separates to flaw into the respective passes, is above the works built in the head of South pass. Now, what would naturally be the result of these new conditions? To answer this the sedimentary conditions must be known and their effects under- stood. It is well known that alluvial streams quickly adapt themselves to their requirements. If the volume, by changes of other conditions, is in- creased, the size of the pass, its depth and width, is increased; the stream not only bears forward, and can easily do so, the weig"ht of sediment that is brought to it, but, in addition, it picks up from its own bed the alluvion through which it flows and carries that forward also, until, by such scouring and deepening and enlarging action, it has restored the equilibrium between the slope of water sur- face, volume and size of channel, and then the scouring ceases. Exactly the reverse happens when the volume for any reason is reduced below the requirements of the channel; the current is slackened, its force weakened, and it can no longer carr}^ forward all of its load of sediment, and it drops some of it in the channel. This process continues at each high water, when the water is charged with sediment, until at last it has reduced the size of its channel to conform to its volume and other requirements. This action of shoaling and diminution of chan- nel dimensions is just what we find to have taken place in the South pass and at the head of the pass. This process has continued for just six years. At least, this is the most potent factor in the changes so injurious to navigation that have taken place throughout the whole length of the pass, although it should be stated that the idea even of attempting to make and maintain a channel through the head of South pass was, as is now seen, ill-advised, and should never have been attempted, and probably would never have been carried out had Congress been able at the time to give more thought and study to the question. It may possibly be said that the jetties, two and one-quarter miles in length, at the mouth of the pass, have lengthened the total fall of the water surface bet\veen the fixed point at the head of the passes and the fixed plane of the Gulf of Mexico, and have, therefore, reduced the slope per unit of length through the entire pass, and, conse- quently, its velocity at high water and its silt- Past— Present— Prospective 201 carrying power and its requirement for as large a channel as it had at the outset before improve- ment. The above statement is in error simply because one important physical condition formerly existing has not been taken into account. The correct conditions are stated in the following quo- tation from a writer on this subject: "It has been stated that the slope of the water surface at flood river is flattened by extending jetties from the land into the sea; this is not the case. The sea bar before improvement is a sub- merged dam, and its effect, like any other dam, is to raise the water above it and flatten the river slope above it. Cutting it aiway and substituting a deep channel, with less resistance to the flow, steepens the river's slope back of the bar, and makes the conditions normal, producing a straight, even slope where there was a broken one for some distance above the jetties. There is no doubt that this happened at the mouth of South pass." The bed of the South pass has been filled up partly by an immense deposit of sediment, due largely to the depletion of its volume by the crevasse. The shoaling causes the bed to rise higher and higher, and has reached the danger limit! Hereafter there may be expected, during river conditions that may occur at any time in the periodic floods, deposits of sediment in the pass, or the formation of shoals and bars above the pass to such an extent as to be seriously dam- aging to navig'ation, and possibly prohibitive of it by deep draught vessels. While this| may not certainly happen this year or next year, it is only a question of a brief period when inevitably the conditions will operate .as pre- dicted.* The value to the Mississippi valley and these ■entire United States of the open river mouth to the sea can scarce!)- be overestimated; even a con- servative estimate might, without absolute proof, be considered extravagant. To ascertain the money value of this channel during the last two decades, since the first ocean steamship passed through it, involves many com- plicated conditions difficult to analyze and place together for summation, but it is important to make some attempt at the calculation, in order to show and prove that it is of great importance to the entire country and the world over to maintain a channel at the mouth of the Mississippi adequate for the largest and deepest class of ocean vessels. The conditions prior to the opening of the channel have been sufficiently stated in the his- torical resume of the subject to give an idea of the serious obstacles to commerce. The maximum channel required by the contract with the Govern- ment was obtained in the summer of 1879, al- though ocean-going craft had begun to use it in 1876 and 1877. By 1880 a marked increase in commerce and a notable reduction in ocean rates had occurred, and also in transportation rates from the Mississippi to the Atlantic seaboard. The shallow depth over the bar had previously prevented vessels drawing over 18 feet from coming to New Orleans. Those that did come demanded and received high rates of freight — f d per pound — 1] cents. Rates almost immediately went down to ^|d — J of a cent, both cotton and grain freights rapidly increasing in ton- nage. An estimate was made that the reduction in rates even at the beg'inning of operation of the channel eft'ected a saving in one year of over $4,000,000, in addition to the saving in insurance and in time by freedom from any detention on the bar. Five million dollars was conservatively estimated at that time as the annual saving to the producers of the Mississippi valley on productions finding a market through New Orleans. An important incidental benefit to the com- merce of all commercial nations resulted from the following peculiar conditions: Before 1875 New Orleans, although practically shut out from the deep-draught commerce of the world, was a favor- ite cotton port. The season was short, but the business was good, the rates of freight high, and the vessels of many nations came there during the cotton season regularly, and the profit of coming- was so great even for one trip that vessels were built for this port, although trading the rest of the year where they found much deeper water. But with the advent of deep water at the mouth of the Mississippi this condition was radically changed: everywhere it became known about the world that the port of New Orleans was opened to deep- draught vessels, and at once there began the con- struction of deeper vessels and of much greater tonnage to take advantage of these improved con- ditions. It is, therefore, not too much to say that the opening of this great cotton and grain port to ■ For a remarkable confirmation of this prediction see next page. 202 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : SHIP AGROUND IN SOUTH PASS Past— Present— Prospective 203 deep-draught vessels brought about as much as any other cause the era of great ships. Shall the port that worked such a beneficent revolution in the world's commerce be allowed to degenerate into a fourth-rate port, sealed up against the very ships which it has caused to be built?' Knowing the rapidity with Avhich the news of the great success at the mouth of the Mississippi passed from port to port and country to country, and. subsequently, of the inaug-uration by the efforts of the same engineer of the Mississippi river improvement, is it surprising that the first Amer- ican to receive the Albert medal by the Society of Arts of Great Britain should be James Buchanan Eads "for improving the water communications of North America"? It is now necessary to trace some still more im- portant developments than those recorded in 1880. The last sixteen years have recorded benefits prop- erly attributable to this port, with which the entire country is concerned and will appreciate when stated. Referring- to tonnage of vessels again, there has been a steady advance yearly since 1876. In that year the average tonnage of all vessels entering the port was 732. In 1882, when the new and larger traffic had got fairly under way, 1,039 tons; in 1891, 1,257 tons; in 1896, 1,.511 tons, an increase over 1876 of about 100 per cent. Briefly sum- marizing other commercial changes, the draught of vessels has increased from 17-2- ^^^t to over 26 feet, and steamships have largely displaced sailing vessels. New Orleans trades with nearly every port of the world. In 1895 it traded with 29 countries, and last year there were vessels there from 178 ports. The larger proportion of steamships now belong to regular lines, not "tramps," as formerly. Twenty-five regular lines, many of them running a large number of steamships, do a regular busi- ness at this port, sailing at regular intervals and at stated times. In 1870 there were only four regular foreign lines. Examining the list of steamers belonging to regular lines, there will be found many of 4,000 tons and upwards, there being now thirteen of over this tonnage; there are twO' of over 5,000 and under 6,000 tons, and two of over 8,000 tons, and there are ten of over 4,000 tons not belonging to regular lines, but which do a regular business at New Orleans. The two steamships above mentioned are 8,195.66 tons gross; displacement, 16,070 tons; dead weight capacity, 11,150 tons; cubic capacity, freight tons, 14,800, of 40 cubic feet, deepest draught, loaded, 28.6 feet mean, or 30 feet by the stern, requiring a 31-foot depth of channel. These vessels are 485 feet over all and 55 feet breadth; they are 39 feet 6-| inches in depth. They cannot load, however, to more than three-quarters of their capacity, as the channel to the sea is not of sufficient depth. They belong to the West India and Pacific Steamship Company. These details are given to show that steamships regularly trad- ing at this port require a larger and deeper channel than now exists through the South pass. Already New Orleans is discriminated against in com- parison with other ports of deeper draught, and it becomes more and more evident that, if she is to hold her commerce, there must in the near future be provided a larger channel to the sea than 26 feet. It is unnecessary to remind Congress that it has itself inaugurated, under the strenuous demands of various ports of the first class, such as New Orleans is, a depth of 30 feet. In the last River and Harbor act, of June 3, 1896, the channel depth in the harbor of Baltimore, Md., is to be deepened to 30 feet, and under ex- aminations to be made by the Secretary of War are found the following items: 28 feet depth of channel at Annapolis, Md.; 30 feet deep and 600 feet wide at Philadelphia; 30 feet deepi and 1,200 feet wide at Boston; 35 feet deep at New York, from the Narrows to the sea; 30 feet deep and 1,200 feet wide in New York harbor, between the Battery and Governor's Island. Existing projects contemplate 30 feet at Gal- veston; the same depth has been obtained at the mouth of the Columbia river, Oregon; and it may be incidentally remarked that this depth of channel at low water has been obtained at Liverpool, Eng- land, where there was formerly only 11 feet, par- ticularly in order to admit American commerce without detention by waiting for tide. The vast benefits of the Mississippi open river mouth is not alone to the ocean cominerce. The changed conditions that brought that commerce have also brought a great railroad commerce. 204 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : As late as ISSO there were only two main lines into New Orleans. There are now six. Formerly the Illinois Central to Chicago, but broken by the Ohio river at Cairo, and the New Orleans and Mobile, since merged into the Louisville and Nashville system. The Southern Pacific was not opened through until 1883. The New Orleans and Northeastern (Queen and Crescent) was built later than 1880, and the Yazoo' and Mississippi Valley, from New Orleans to Memphis, now merged into the Illinois Central system. The Texas and Pacific has been built, reaching to many Texas points, and there, are two local roads extending some dis- tance down the river on each side; and the New Orleans and Western, a belt railroad in the rear of the city, with its terminal at Chalmette, below the city, where it has extensive facilities for han- dling cotton and grain. There are few, if any, ports of the world that have railway systems directly tributarj^ to them as comprehensive and far-reaching as those which terminate in the city of New Orleans. In 1876 the total rail commerce was 731,514 tons; in 1892, 3,980,996 tons; in 1894:, 4,014,072 tons, an increase of 463 per cent over 1876. The total number of loaded cars increased from 151,332 in 1880 to 517,555 in 1892, 222 per cent, the latter averaging much larger and with much greater loads. Comparing the total commerce at New Orleans, ocean, rail, and river, there were in 1876, 5,427,- 827 tons, and in 1895, 10,397,493 tons, nearly 100 per cent increase. From the annual and quite regular increase of all the traffic it is reasonable to expect by the end of 1899 nearly 12,000,000 tons. All, or nearly all, this immense increase in com- merce is properly attributable to the jetties. One of the most important commercial developments at New Orleans has been the Southern Pacific and Morgan steamship coastwise business between the Pacific coast and New York. This route was opened for business in 1883; pre- vious to that it had run comparatively small steamers of about 1,800 tons to New York; now there are ten from 3,000 to 4,664 tons' — a total, with the Texas and Cuban lines, of about 50,000 tons. The great value of ocean transportation in competition with rail is seen in the ability of this Morgan Line steamship route to compete with all rail across the countrv. It is a half water route between the tiwo coasts of the United States. The same interest not only controls, but operates the rail and water route from San Francisco to New York. Previously the overland rail route had handled the through trafific between the Atlantic seaboard and San Francisco, to the great dissatis- faction of shippers and merchants in San Fran- cisco. The time of transit was about sixty-five days and it was exceedingly uncertain of date of arrival, so that the merchants were placed at a great disadvantage, being unable to make arrange- ments for their business or to give their orders with any expectation of a definite arrival of the goods. The Southern Pacific undertook at the outset to do this business regularh^ and with dis- patch, agreeing not to have the goods en route over twenty-five days. It fulfilled its engage- ments, met all losses promptly that occurred by wrecks or other casualties, and it has reduced the time since then to about sixteen days. This improvement in method and time com- pelled the eastern connection of the Central Pacific and other transcontinental lines to change entirely their traffic methods in order to meet the com- petition of this New Orleans route, until they also, by better management and less delay at terminal points and yards, reduced their time to twenty-five days, and have been able to maintain it until the present time. The tonnage moved between Pacific coast points (Arizona and New Mexico excepted) and New York via New Orleans, in connection with the Morgan Line of steamers, has increased from 36,000 tons in 1883, when the route was opened, to about 215,000 tons in 1896. It will be seen from this illustration of the devel- opments at the port of New Orleans how far- reaching has been the benefits of the Mississippi jetties. It would be difficult to estimate the money value of these great advantages to the Pacific coast, but it is very large. Discussing now the actual commercial advan- tages that have accrued to the Mississippi valley region and the country at large, some important statements in the way of comparisons need to be made. It was expected in 1879 that the Mississippi river would, within a reasonable time, be improved by the Government between New Orleans and St. Louis, so that a deep draught barge navigation Past— Present— Prospective 205 could be employed to bring at minimum cost the products of the Mississippi valley to ship side at the port of New Orleans. The Government has thus far failed to accom- plish this, and as a result of this and the active railroad competition the river traffic has decreased, particularly above the delta country. In 1S7G the freight tons arriving and departing by river were 3,313,014; in 1892, 1,934,925, the respective values being $173,826,434 and $72,760,956, a de- crease of 41-i- per cent in tonnage and 59 per cent in value. The river traffic conditions since 1892, due to continued low water and inadequate depth for navigation in some years, are not improving, to say the least. Notwithstanding this unfortunate situation, the river has been able, through the en- tire period of twenty years, to assert its ability to regulate, or at least affect, rates and to hold them down on railroad traffic wherever the latter comes to the river or moves along its banks. It is un- necessary to state in detail the well-established re- sults of competition in lowering rates under such conditions. The water compels the railroad near it to reduce its charges; this compels other rail- roads in the same territory to do the same, even lines intersecting are affected, local rates are re- duced as well, the effect extends finally to remote lines and districts until the entire country is more or less benefited. The claim made for the Missis- sippi jetties, that they have made living cheaper to the entire Atlantic seaboard, as well as to the Mis- sissippi valley and the great interior country, is well founded. This competitive condition of rail with river and North and South lines of rail with each other, and particularly with East and West lines to the At- lantic seaboard, has led to the development of an immense traffic at low- rates throughout the entire Mississippi valley. The railroads have not only appreciated the great advantages of this port, with 'its deep entrance for vessels of large tonnage, but have gone to work to take advantage of it, as has been shown above. There has, therefore, been es- tablished what may generall}' be called the "Missis- sippi valley route," by water and rail, in place of the former "Mississippi river route," by water only. The area is wider still, if we consider the far- reaching points of the railroads directly tributary to the port, extending much beyond the drainage area of the Mississippi and its tributaries. Ap- proximately, therefore, we may say, to convey some idea of the tributary commerce of New Orleans, there are 16,000 miles of navigable river and 16,000 miles of rail, reaching all over Texas and to States eastward, some of the waters of which empty into the gulf elsewhere. Therefore, we should call it the "New Orleans route." It is this great comprehensive system of rail commerce that makes it of vastly greater impor- tance than formerly to the whole country to main- tain an adequate entrance to the port of New Orleans for the largest and deepest class of ocean vessels. "Importance to the whole country" are words used advisedly, as will be shown b)' some figures given further on to show the value of the New Orleans route as a competitor with routes extend- ing from the Mississippi valley to the Atlantic sea- board and to Europe, and from the interior of the southwest and west to other points on the Gulf of Mexico. At this very time the Illinois Central Railroad is exerting marked influence upon rates by bring- ing to New Orleans for European shipment an immense tonnage of cotton and grain, which it is shipping through its extensive facilities at that city. In a recent paper before the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, in "Some notes upon the Delta of the Mississippi," I used the following words applicable to the present ques- tion: "Great terminals are now being completed at New Orleans to accommodate the immense busi- ness coming there for shipment to Europe and the Atlantic seaboard cities from the great valley of the Mississippi directly tributary to this port. "The commercial ad\'antages of the improve- ments at the mouth of the Mississippi have brought to New Orleans a commerce far beyond the expectations of even its most sanguine advo- cates, and this commerce, in size of vessels, in mag- nitude, and in its value to the country and the world, has by no means reached its limit, but is still ex- panding and assuming greater and greater propor- tions and importance. "The commerce demands, however, the very largest steamships to take the greatest advantage of all the favorable conditions, \^'ere an adequate, permanent, constant channel for such vessels to the sea assured, there would be no question of the 206 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Kiver: €arly construction of 10,000-ton freight carriers to run between New Orleans and western Europe. "Opening a competitive route to all rail from the interior to the Atlantic seaboard by way of the jetties has affected commerce, and through it this entire country, and Europe as well, for it has re- duced rates from the Mississippi valley and the west and the Pacific to the Atlantic seaboard and Europe. It is not too much to say that it has made bread cheaper to those great populations that re- quire the food products of the great central zone of our country and of the Pacific slope." An attempt will now be made to ascertain, ap- proximately, the money value to the people of the United States of a deep entrance to the port of New Orleans during the last two decades, cover- ing the period of influence of the jetties. It is necessary to g'o into some details of changes in freight rates: Fall and winter rates on cotton from New Orleans to LIVERPOOL AND HAVRE Per Pound. 1872-'75 l-3i cents 1876-'S0 91 cent 1881-'85 74 cent lS86-'90 68 cent 1891-'95 47 cent 1896-'97 • i-i cent TO NEW YORK 1872-'75 78 cent 1876-'80 58 cent 1881-'85 37 cent 1886-'90 43 cent 1891-'95 34 cent lS96-'97 30 cent All rail grain rates from East St. Louis to New York: 1877, 41 cents per 100 pounds; 1895, 23.57 ■cents. To New Orleans: 1895, 20 cents. Cotton rate to New York: 1895, 30 cents per 100 pounds, which is the same as the water rate from New Orleans, the competition affecting it. River rate from St. Louis to New Orleans on •grain in sacks, by steamboat, 20 cents per 100 pounds, which is about the same as in 1880. Dur- ing various years between these dates it has gone down to 15 cents and 16 cents, and as low as 14 cents in 1884. The wheat rates in bulk by barges have ruled at about 10 cents per 100 pounds dur- ing the entire period. Rates per bushel on export wheat from St. Louis to Liverpool, via New Orleans, by river, and via New York, by rail: 1883, via New Orleans, 20c, via New York 27c; 1895, via New Orleans 12^c, via New York, 18.33c; the present via New York, from St. Louis, rate being about 50 per cent higher than via New Orleans. As to the volume of trafiic. Bulk grain exported from New Orleans in 1895, 9,644,377 bushels; re- ceived at New Orleans by river from St. Louis, 1,690,417 bushels. The difference of 7,953,960 represents mostly rail traffic to New Orleans from Mississippi valley States. Rates on the railroads have been as follows: Illinois Central, southern rate per ton per mile: 1876, 1.72c; 1886, .68c; 1896, .64c. Reduction in rates per ton per mile (dates earlier than 1883 not accessible): Reduc- 1883. 1895. tion. (1) Gulf and Mississippi val- ley States 1.66c .89c .77c (2) Southwestern States ... 1.88c 1.24c .64c' (3) Central northern States. 1.04c .71c .33c (4) Middle States 1.04c .74c .30c (5) Entire U. S 1.224c .839c .385c The total ton miles in 1895 in these groups of States and the LTnited States were as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) 38,000,000,000 71,000,000,000 316,000,000,000 296,000,000,000 890,000,000,000 Assuming that the advantages and competition of the Mississippi jetties reduced the cost per ton mile 3-lOc in group one, 2-lOc in group two, 1-lOc in group three, and 5-lOOc in group four, and, add- ing to the above totals of traffic the approximate ton mileage for 1880-1882, and for 1896, we have for an estimate of reduction in cost of transporta- tion by rail, caused by the jetties, $394,000,000; or, per annum for the seventeen years, about $23,- 000,000. As the reduction in i"ates has been pro- gressive, the reductions above stated have been divided by two for convenience of calculation to oljtain a fair averagfe. Past— Present— Prospective 207 The receipts and shipments by ocean at New By reduction in cost of transportation Orleans amount to a total of 44,000,000 tons since by rail $23,000,000 1880 (the amount in the previous decade not being ^y '"eduction in ocean rates. New Or- .,,,„,,. , leans busmess 6,4(0,000 accessible). The reduction on rates on cotton and g^. reduction in ocean rates, other grain shipments since 1875 average about $10 per 'United States ports 4,400,000 ton to Liverpool, Havre, Bremen, and New York. Assuming that one-half of this reduction is at- $33,8(0,000 tributable to the jetties, and applying one-quarter There are, however, some elements to be con- of it to the entire tonnage, there results $110,000,- sidered on the other side of this question. The 000, or $6,470,000 per annum of saving from this prices and rates by ocean and rail in 1876 to 1880 port alone. were inflated on account of the currency inflation. It is difficult to estimate the reduction in rates The compressing of cotton for export, which from aU Atlantic and gulf ports caused by the Mis- began about 1889, reducing the size of bales at sissippi jetties, but it amounts to something. least tw^o-thirds of the "flat" bulk, tended to make From 1876 to 1895, inclusive, there were ex- lower rates of ship freight. The cost of compress- ported 1,300,000,000 bushels of corn, ecjual to ing being put upon the shippers also tended to 36,400,000 tons; 1,400,000,000 bushels of wheat, reduce rates. equal to 42,000,000, tons, making a total of 78,- The improvement of other hai'bors along the 400,000 tons of grain, and about 22,000,000 tons of Atlantic and gulf coast may have exerted a greater cotton; a total of the above three articles of export influence upon rates than we attributed to them, of, say, 100,000,000 tons. Possibly the general tendency all over the world The reduction in rates at New Orleans has made to lessen the cost of transportation on land and some reduction on this large export business, and water, rail and steamship, may not have been fully there might reasonably be applied to 89,000,000 credited with its effect. tons (having deducted the New Orleans tonnage). The influence of the Erie canal and the great $1 per ton — $89,000,000, or, say, $4,400,000 per lakes route in reducing or affecting rail rates may annum during the tw^enty years. also have exerted a greater effect upon the North- There are many other export articles to which ern. Central, and Middle States groups of railroads this calculation might properly be applied, and than we have taken into consideration, and there there has been no account taken of any imports or may be other potent influences at work not con- receipts by coastwise business, except at New sidered. Orleans. These would swell the total to much Allowing to all these factors a generous amount larger figures. of influence, we reduce the figures to $25,000,000 Summing up the annual saving, above stated, we as the annual money value of the Mississippi jetties have the following as the approximate money to the people of this country, with the belief that value annually to the country from the Mississippi more extended calculations and considerations jetties: would greatly swell this estimate. 208 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River-, THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER COMMISSION Incidents Leading Up to the Formation of this Important Commission, Etc. "In considering" the Mississippi river, we must regai'd it as a river of sand as well as of water." In the foregoing sentence, Hon. Randall Lee Gibson, United States Senator from Louisiana, pithily stated the problem which it has been the endeavor of civil and military engineers to solve for three- quarters of a century. This problem presents phe- nomena seemingly discordant and irreconcilable, and yet known to be controlled by and obedient to fixed laws. To obtain accurate knowledge of these laws was the first essential step toward the perfec- tion of a plan that should overcome all diffi- culties and keep this mighty stream under human control. The first official action by the general govern- ment in this direction was taken in 1S22, when two engineer officers of the army, General S. Bernard and J. G. Totten, after a careful study ol the river, made an elaborate report (December 22, 1822) in which they set forth the result of their investiga- tions, and declared : "The only means which ap- pear practicable to us is the construction of dikes. They operate by diminishing the current above them, thus economizing the expanse of water, at the same time constraining the current to rush with greater velocity through the narrow space to be deepened." In the same report they describe the effects of the floods they had witnessed, saying : "While the wa- ters of this river are over its banks, the operation of the current being in proportion to its elevation and consequent increase of velocity, the changes which are produced in the bed of the river are great, sud- den and numerous. Then are produced those mul- tiplied turns and elbows which so strikingly charac- terize this great river, and which increase its chan- nel to the double what it would have been if the banks could have resisted its current. The corre- sponding concave parts of these turns are some- times separated only by a very narrow neck, which being cut through by the waters, as often happens, present a new and navigable channel of perhaps a half mile in length, in lieu of the old one of 15 or 20 miles. The abandoned channel is entirely di- vided from the river except in floods, and on the west side, especially, becomes a lake." The floods of the Mississippi are one of the phe- nomena to be understood that they may be regu- lated. The other is the low-water periods. "At certain seasons of the year," said Senator Gibson, in one of his instructive speeches, "the water sub- sides, the channel is blocked by snags and sandbars, and for a great distance there is only from four to eight and a-half feet depth. This condition contin- ues not for a few days or a few weeks, but for several months during every year, interrupting trade and commerce, and making its navigation difficult and perilous; the largest and costliest boats, in which great sums are invested, and that g'ive employment to thousands of people, are compelled to lie idle; the navigation of the river is almost as effectually closed as if artificial dams were built across its bed." While the report made in 1822 by army engi- neers awakened much interest in the improvement in the Mississippi, and was probably the primary movement which ultimately led to the lai'ge grant of public lands made in 1840, yet there was not at that time any popular comprehension of the im- portance of the work needed, or of the vast national interests that would be served if it were undertaken and accomplished. In 1845, two distinguished Con- gressmen, James Gadsen and James Guthrie, acting as a sub-committee, made as thorough an exami- nation of the subject as was possible, and prepared a report upon the navigation of the Mississippi, which was approved by Hon. John C. Calhoun, who submitted it to Congress. In that report the situation was carefully stated, and it was said : "The expenditures on the Mississippi thus far, if reports are to be credited, have produced no results corresponding to the vast sums appropriated. When the channel has been straightened at one point it has been lengthened at another, and ob- structions or deposits in one bend have only been LIEUT. COL. AMOS STICKNEY Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. ROBERT S. TAYLOR Civilian Member THE MISSISSIPPI MAJ. THOS. H. HANBURY Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. ^. GEN. GEO. L. GILLESPIE Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. President of the Commission J. A. OCKERSON, C. E. HENRY L. MARINDIN United States Coast and Geographical Survey RIVER COMMISSION B. M. HARROD, C. E. 210 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: transferred in their removal to another. 'Sawyers' and 'planters' haA^e in one season been reduced in number to be replaced b)- the succeeding one. "The only fact clearly established, and it is one to which attention should be particularly directed as bearing with peculiar influence on the proposi- tion submitted, is that where the banks of the Mississippi have been IcA'eed and prevented from inundating the swamps, the spring rises are scarce- ly perceptible, and the surplus waters are discharged by deepening the bed; its currents no longer able to rise and expand over a wider surface, they have to deepen the bed to furnish vent for the waters to be discharged. The reclaiming, therefore, the swamps and confining the river to its bed will deepen it, and do more to^ preserve unimpaired the navigation of the Mississippi than all the projects which have hitherto been devised or acted on for its improvement. The suggestion, however, is worthy of examination, and it is the stronger rec- ommended as it ma}- accomplish a great object at comparatively little cost. The swamps of the Mississippi now worthless, and made so by the inun- dations of that river, may be made, by their own reclamation, the instruments of improving the navi- gation of that stream." ' In this declaration is shown the fact that although the work of the preceding years had been so discon- nected that what was done at one point had de- stroyed the work at some other, still the theory advanced by Engineers Bernard and Totten seems to have been pro^^ed correct. At great cost the country was gradually acquir- ing knowledge as to how to deal with this "river of sand as well as of water." It was also slowly, \'ery slowly indeed, beginning to learn that the great waterway that extended from Canada to the Gulf was a national stream, beyond the power of the interior States to improve and to control. In his last speech in Congress Henry Clay, the greatest of the distinguished galaxy of statesmen that adorned that era, referred to this public ignorance, or narrowness of view, with a pathos all the more impressive, because of his broad national ideas and his prolonged and eminent services to his country. The bill making appropriations for ri\'er and harbor im])rovements being before the Senate, Mr. Clay, after some preliminary remarks, said : "An honorable senator has gotten up and told us that here is an appropriation of $2,300,000. With regard to the appropriations made for that portion of the country from which I come, the great valley of the Mississippi, I will say that we are a perse- vering people, a feeling people and a contrasting people; and how long will it be before the people of this vast valley will rise en masse and tumble down your little hair-splitting distinctions about what is national, and demand what is just and fair on the part of this government in relation to their great in- terests? The Mississippi, with all its tributaries, constitute a part of a great system, and if the system be not national I should like to know one that is national. We are told that a little work, great in its value, one for which I shall vote with great pleas- urc' — the breakwater in the little State of Delaware — is a great national work, while a work which has for its object the improvement of that vast system of rivers which constitute the valley of the 'Missis- sippi, which is to save millions and millions of prop- ert}^ and many human lives, is not a work to be done because not national ! Around the region of the coast of the Atlantic, the Mexican Gulf and the Pacific coast everywhere we pour out in boundless and unmeasured streams the treasure of the United States, but none to the interior of the .West, the valley of the Mississippi. Every cent is contested and denied for that object. Sir, I call upon the Northwestern Senators, upon Western Senators, upon Eastern Senators, upon Senators from all quarters of the Union, to recollect that we are part of our common country." Had the facilities for the transmission of congres- sional proceedings been then what they are now, this address would have appeared in full in every morning paper in the land, and this appeal would have been responded to by the devoted friends of Henry Clay in every State. But it was heard only by his audience in the Senate chamber, and was then buried in the pages of the Congressional Record. It had its effect, however, upon pending legislation, for an appropriation for work on the Mississippi was made. In 1850 Colonel Humphrey and Captain Abbot, of the United States Engineers, were detailed to make a complete survey of the Mississippi. They spent ten years in the work. Their report has been pronounced "a monument of industry and learn- ing." It convinced many, in and out of Congress, that some continuous system ought to be adopted for insuring the commerce of the river against the losses consequent upon floods and low water pe- I THE LATE HENRY L. WHITNEY THE LATE JAMES B. EADS, C. E FORMER MEMBERS OF THE COL. CHAS. R. SUTER. Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. THE LATE GEN, QUINCY A, GILLMORE Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. First President of tfie Commission COL, O, H. ERNST Corps of Engineers, U, S. A. THE LATE HENRY FLOD, C. E. MISSISSIPPI RIVER COMMISSION GEN, C, B, COMSTOCK Corps of Engineers, U, S, A, Former President 212 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: riocls. The general opinion seems to have been that more levees should be built, and that those already constructed should be strengthened where neces- sary. Special committees were created by Con- gress, who agreed upon a bill for constructing lev- ees, which passed one house only to be lost in the other. Meanwhile, the people of the Mississippi delta were steadily taxing themselves to maintain the existing barriers, which were essential to their protection. .Then came the war, with its attendant devastation. During its continuance the levees were neglected, and many were either in part or wholly destroyed. Soon after peace was declared, in 1865, Secretary Stanton ordered the levees to be rebuilt, believing, says Senator Gibson, that it w^as an "act of humanity to restore these public works essential to the good order of society, and now needed more than ever by a people struggling with poverty amid social and political conditions involv- ing a disruption of traditions and customs and es- tal)lished relations, but it was not done." In 1SY4 a commission was again appointed to de- termine what oug-ht to be done. President Grant was strongly in favor of its recommendations to reconstruct the levees, but even his influence was not sufficiently powerful to produce favorable ac- tion in Congress. Meanwhile a new interest in the condition and needs of the lower Mississippi valley had been created that was to have a most potential influence upon its future. Population had followed the lines of the trans-continental railroads and their feeders until great States had been carved out of the coun- try on both sides of the Rocky mountains; pros- perous cities had sprung into existence; vast area.s of wilderness had been brought under cultivation, and for their immense crops of wheat and corn there was no adequate transportation. From all these fertile farms and prosperous cities came a demand for the improvement of the Mississippi. The plan of a voluntary association was suggested. St. Louis took the lead in this matter, and soon a powerful organization was effected, numbering in its mem- bership man}'- influential citizens of every State from Minnesota to Louisiana, and conventions were held, statistics were compiled, public spirit was aroused, and the public opinion of the entire region from Canada to the gulf was brought to bear upon Con- gress. The first tangible result of this spontaneous uprising was the organization in the House of Rep- resentatives of the forty-fourth Congress of a per- manent committee on levees, the first of the kind that had ever been created. This committee framed a bill for the rebuilding of the levees and for the protection of the entire alluvial region from floods, but although it was earnestly and ably advocated it failed to get a third of the votes of the House. The great West was determined that something should be done. At least the mouth of the Missis- sippi should be made an open gateway to the sea. Capt. James B. Eads, an eminent civil engineer of St. Louis, devised a plan for the accomplishment of this work, which was pressed upon and carried through Congress. The task was entrusted to the man whose genius had devised the plan, and he car- ried it through to a triumphant success. At last the nation recognized in some measure the impor- tance of the Mississippi river as a highway of com- merce. When the plan proposed by Captain Eads for making a permanent ship channel at the mouth of the Mississippi was first proposed, there were many engineers of eminence who doubted its feasibility, and some of them spent much time and labor in arguing against it. But after the great work had been accomplished and all that its ingenious in- ventor had promised had been more than fulfilled, the people of the upper as well as the lower valley were inspired with greater confidence than ever that human skill was equal to the task of confining the Mississippi within bounds that it should never pass, to the great advantage of commerce, and to the reasonable security of life and property throughout all the extensive region subject to frequent over- flows. If this could be accomplished there was every reason why it should be undertaken at once, for the rapid growth of the Northwest and the consequent increase of its grain crops made more and cheaper transportation facilities an imperative necessity. From the head of navigation to Port Eads this was the dominant subject of thought and discussion among- the people. "The wisdom of Congress should be invoked," said General Garfield, "to de- vise some plan by which the great river shall cease to be a terror to those who dwell upon its banks, and by which its shipping may safely carry the in- dustrial products of 25,000,000 of people." The people, by popular petitions, by memorials front chambers of conmicrce and boards of trade, by reso- CAPT. CHAS. L. POTTER Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. CAPT. E. EVELETH WliNSLOW Corps of Engineers, U. S. A, MAJ. GEO. M'C. DERBY Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. CAPT. GRAHAfU D. I-ITCH Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. 5. ENGINEERS AT PRESENT OR ORMERLY CONNECTED WITH MISSISSIPPI RIVER MAJ. S. W. ROESSLER Corps of Engineers, U. S. A, MAJ. CLINTON B. SEARS Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. M. -m- MAJ. SMITH S. LEACH Corps of Engineers, U. S. A. IMPROVEMENT UNDER THE MIS- SISSIPPI RIVER COM- MISSION 2L4 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: lutions passed by the State legislatures, did invoke the wisdom of the Forty-fourth Congress. A meas- ure was introduced in that body April 2(i, 1S76, au- thorizing the President to a]3point a commission to improve the Mississippi river. Tliis was referred to the committee on commerce, which, in\'ited Cap- tain Eads to present his views as to the proper course to be pursued. That distinguished civil en- gineer had long been convinced that the conditions that existed at the mouth of the river prevailed throughout its entire length. In a pamphlet pub- lished by him in 1874 he stated that the chief por- tion of the sediment discharged b_\- the river into the Gulf is carried in suspension, and "that the amount of this matter and the size and weight of the particles which the stream is enabled to hold up and carry forward depend wholly upon the rapiditv of the stream, modified, however, by its depth." Later, in his review of Humphrey's and Abbott's report on the physics and hydraulics of the Missis- sippi, he argued on this basis, showing the relation between the current and the suspended sediment, and then demonstrating the practicability of deep- ening- the ri\-er and lo-wering the floods without the use of waste weirs or outlets. Following the same line of argument before the committee, "he held that by applying the jetty system to the river, con- fining its waters in their highest stages and con- tracting the channel where imduly wide and pro- tecting tlie banks against caving-, works \\holly practicable and inexpensive, a imiform channel might be obtained affording deep water all the year round for the largest vessels to St. Louis, and at the same time and by the same means the slope or flood surface would be so lowered as to pre\'ent destruct- ive floods — floods destructive not only to commerce and trade and the vehicles of transportation, to life and property on the river, but destructive of all government, of all industry, of the ]3roperty, the earnings, the schools, the churches, the very ex- istence of organized society throughout the wide alluvial region." In concluding his exhaustive argument Captain Eads said : "There can be no doubt of the entire feasibility of so correcting the Mississippi river from Cairo to the Gulf that a channel depth of 20 feet during the low-water seasons can he permanentlj' secured throughout its entire course, and that the alluvial lands on each side of its waters can be made abso- lutely safe from overflow without levees by such correction. This can be accomplished for a sum entirely within the ability of the government, and one really insignificant when compared with the benefits which wduld flow from such improvement. "Until such work is accomplished, an annual ex- penditure for the maintenance of the levees is im- perative." It is proper to say that there were some distin- guished ci\'il aufl military engineers, as well as some steamship captains and others doing business on the Mississippi, who held contrary opinions and ar- gued against those of Captain Eads with much ear- nestness and plausibility. But his views continued to gain ground the more they were criticised, and the emphatic declaration with which he concluded undoubtedly led Congress eventually to enact the law establishing the Mississippi River Commission. The Forty-fifth Congress, early in its session, en- larged the scope of the committee on levees l,)y adding to its title "and improvements of the Missis- sippi River," thus enabling it to take jurisdiction of all legislation on these subjects. Many measures were introduced and referred to this committee, which finally framed a substitute for them all, en- titled, "a bill to provide for the org-anization of the Mississippi river improvement commission, and for the correction, permanent location, and deepening of the channel and impro\'ement of the navigation of said river and the protection of its alluvial lands." This substitute was submitted to the House by Hon. E. W. Robertson, of Louisiana, to whose pro- found knowledge on this subject is due the framing and submission of this important measure. There were many in and out of Congress who were willing that whatever money was necessarv sliould be appropriated for improving the com- merce of the stream, who were at the same time op- posed to any expenditures for the protection of the alluvial lands. The idea Avas industriously circi;- lated by the op]5onents of all measures for improv- ing the Mississippi river, that this bill was an at- tempt in disguise to recover and give value to innnense areas of land belonging to private owners, and these insidious attacks had unquestionably con- siderable eiTect upon people who lived in other sec- tions remote from the valley, and were unac- quainted with its condition and needs. Two Massa- chusetts representatives, Messrs. Robinson and Banks, each, in ad\'ocating the commission bill, ex- Past— Present— Prospective 215 plained the necessity for the proposed action. Mr. Robinson said : "The committee have found these two subjects to be interdependent. The}- have not seen in tlie investigation they ha.ve given that the one neces- sarily stands apart from the other. All the writers and all the engineers from whom they have heard declare that in some measure, greater or less, the protection of the lands has also an influence upon the navio-able character of the river. This bill is intended to provide a commission to devise a plan for the improvement of the Mississippi river and the protection of the alluvial lands combined. If as a part of the whole plan for the improvement of the river for the purposes of navigation, and in- cidental thereto, the lands of the valley may l)e pro- tected, I am in favor of it." General Banks, whose campaigns on the lower Mississippi and its tril:)utaries had familiarized him with its conditions and needs, supported the bill ardently, and with patriotic breadth characteristic of that statesman, he said : 'T have already stated that the improvement of the alluvial lands is incidental to this work. It can- not be separated from it. No declaration or act of Congress can prevent it. If we make the river what it ought to be we will make 40,000,000 acres of the best cotton and sugar lands on the face of the earth in consecjuence of the necessary improvement of the river— 40,000,000 where now only 1,000,000 exists. It is inseparable from it and incidental to the im- provement of the river." The late Randall L. Gibson, then a representa- tive, afterward a senator, from Louisiana, who from the beginning had been one of the most intelligent and indefatigable advocates of Mississippi river im- provement, said: "A jetty is a levee, in the popular sense of the word, within the bed or channel of the river, while a levee is a jettv on the bank of the stream. This plan rests u]5on the theory that in sedimentary riv- ers, in the Mississippi particularly, as the water is confined its velocity and depth is increased and the surface lowered, and that thus twO' great objects may be acomplished by one and the same method, namely, 'ease and safety' to navigation and protec- tion to the industrious people on the banks from the dreaded floods." Representatives by the chairman of the Commit- tee on the Laws and Improvement of the Missis- sippi River, Hon. E. W. Robertson, of Louisiana, in a speech advocating the appointment of a com- mission. He said of the bill then pending: 'Tt contemplates the improvement of the chief avenue of transportation of a great commercial nation. It also seeks to protect from Hoods and pestilence over 26,000,000 acres of the most fertile and productive lands upon the face of the earth. It does not, as is so often alleged, aim at the reclamation of those lands, or seek to perform work which properly l)e- longs to the individual citizen. The word 'reclama- tion' is not used in this bill. It is well that we un- derstand the distinction at the outset of this dis- cussion, for the wrong use and confusion of terms ha\-e given the opponents of ri\Tr improvement avi opportunity to misinterpret, and therefore misre]i- resent, the object we seek to accomplish. The word 'reclamation' has furnished them with the keynote of unjust criticism. We simply ask protection from the frequent ravages of this great rivet, over which no power but the General Government has legal control, in order that we who possess lands along its course .may ha\-e an opportunity to reclaim and cultivate them at our own expense." But notwithstanding the earnestness of the friends of the measure, and the unanswerable argu- ments urged in its favor, the bill failed. At the extra session of the Forty-sixth Congress several new bills were modeled on that which failed, but limiting the field of work. These were followed by one prepared by Representative Gibson, of Loui- siana, introduced May 10, 1879, entitled "a bill to provide for the appointment of a Mississippi River Commission' for the improvement of said river from the head of the passes near its mouth to its head- waters." This measure was sent to the committee, was favorably reported back to the House, which passed it the first week in June, \\ith but twenty votes against it. In the Senate it was amended in some unimportant particulars and then passed with but four adverse votes. The House accepted the Senate amendments, the l)ill was sent to the Presi- dent, and was approved June 2S, 1879. The fol- lowing is a verbatim copy of this important meas- ure : [Public— No. 34.] "An Act to Provide for the Appointment of a 'Mis- sissippi River Commission' for the Improvement of Said River from the Head of the Passes near its Mouth to its Head-waters. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives of the United States of America in Con- 216 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: gress assembled, That a commission is hereby created, to be called 'The Mississippi River Com- mission,' to consist of seven members. Sec. 2. The President of the United States shall, by and with the consent of the Senate, appoint sev- en commissioners, three of whom shall be selected from the Engineer Corps of the Army, one from the Coast and Geodetic Survey, and three from civil life, two of whom shall be civil engineers. And any vacancy which may occur in the commis- sion shall in like manner be filled by the President of the United States; and he shall designate one of the commissioners appointed from the Engineer Corps of the Army to be president of the commis- sion. The commissioners appointed from the Engi- neer Corps of the Army and the Coast and Geo- detic Survey shall receive no other pay or compen- sation than is now allowed them by law, and the other three commissioners shall receive as pay and compensation for their services each the sum of $3,000 per annum; and the commissioners ap- pointed under this act shall remain in of^ce subject to removal by the President of the United States. Sec. 3. It shall be the duty of said commission to direct and complete such surveys of said river, between the Head of the Passes near its mouth to its headwaters as may now be in progress, and to make such additional surveys, examinations and investigations, topographical, hydrographical and hydrometrical, of said river and its tributaries, as may be deemed necessary by said commission to carry out the objects of this act. And to enable said commission to complete such surveys, exami- nations and investigations, the Secretary of War shall, when requested by said commission, detail from the Engineer Corps of the Army such officers and men as may be necessary, and shall place in the charge and for the use of said commission such ves- sel or vessels and such machinery and instruments as may be under his control and may be deemed "necessary. And the Secretary of the Treasury shall, when requested by said commission, in like manner detail from the Coast and Geodetic Survey sucli officers and men as may be necessary, and shall place in the charge and for the use of said commis- sion such vessel or vessels and such machinery and instruments as may be under his control and may be deemed necessary. And the said commission may, with the approval of the Secretary of War, employ such additional force and assistants, and provide. by purchase or otherwise, such vessels or boats and such instruments and means as may be deemed nec- essary. Sec. 4. It shall be the duty of said commission to take into consideration and mature such plan or plans and estimates as will correct, permanently locate and deepen the channel and protect the banks of the Mississippi river; improve and give safety and ease to the navigation thereof; prevent de- structive floods; promote and facilitate commerce, trade and the postal service; and when so prepared and matured, to submit to the Secretary of War a full and detailed report of their proceedings and ac- tions, and of such plans, with estimates of the cost thereof, for the purpose aforesaid, to be by him transmitted to Congress; provided that the Com- mission shall report in full upon the practicability, feasibility and probable cost of the various plans known as the jetty system, the levee system and the outlet system, as well as upon such others as the}' deem necessary. Sec. 5. The said commission may, prior to the completion of all the suiweys and examinations con- templated by this act, prepare and submit to the Secretary of AVar plans, specifications and estimates of costs for such immediate works as, in the judg- ment of said commission, may constitute a part of the general system of works herein contemplated, to l)e by him transmitted to Congress. Sec. 6. The Secretary of War may detail from the Engineer Corps of the Army of the United States an officer to act as secretary of said commis- sion. Sec. 1. The Secretary of War is hereby author- ized to expend the sum of $175,000, or so much thereof as may be necessary, for the payment of the salaries herein ])ro\'ide(l for, and of the necessary expenses incurred in the completion of such surveys as may now be in progress, and of such additional surveys, examinations and investigations as may be deemed necessary, reporting the plans and esti- mates, and the plans, specilications and estimates contemplated by this act, as herein provided for; and said sum is hereby appropriated for said pur- poses out of any money in the treasury not other- Avise appropriated. Approved June 28, 1S79." Note. — This article is from the book on Mississippi River, edited by Frank H. Tompkins and published by^the Manufacturers* Record, of Balti- more. Known in Congressional Library as "Tompkins on Mississippi River." i I I Map of the United States, showing the Area Drained into the Ilississippi River ■^^mmirfrTifirvim?, I* *■ Past— Present— Prospective 225 R. S. TAYLOR 226 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AND ITS LOW LANDS By ROBERT S. TAYLOR, Member of the Mississippi River Commission All inquisitive traveler who should undertake to pace the margin of the Mississippi Valley would begin, we might say, at Decatur, Alabama, and would follow thence the zig-zag crest of the Appa- lachian rang'e and its northern foot-hills to within less than eight miles of Lake Erie. Passing be- tween its shore and Lake Chautauqua, he would drop southwestward to Crestline, Ohio; thence to Fort Wayne, Ind., and onward past Lake Michigan so close to Chicago that he would see its smoke in the sky as he journeyed. Just missing Green Bay, he would take a bite out of Northern Michi- gan in order to inclose the Wisconsin River; leave Duluth a few miles to- the right; go around the groitp of lakes in northern Minnesota headed by Itasca; turn abruptly southward a hundred miles or so to Brown's Valley between Lakes Traverse and Big Stone, where companion drops of the same shower part company for Hudson's Bay and the Gulf of Mexico. Thence by the northeast corner of North Dakota, taking a slice out of British America en route, to the Rocky Mountain ravine where Milk River bubbles out of its fountain spring; thence on the backbone of the continent through Leadville, Colo., to Sante Fee, N. M.; thence across New Mexico and Texas between Denison and Dallas to Shreveport and the Gulf. What a wonderful journey tO' think of, and what an empire in area, population and power it would encompass. Geologists tell us that the Mississippi River, so far from being the Father of Waters, as the red men called it, is one of the Children of Waters, and among the youngest of the family at that. Which goes to show that to be last is not necessarily to be least among rivers any more than among men. The great Appalachian backbone lifted its skyline high above the sea for centuries of centuries before there was any Mississippi River for De Soto to discover. Down its western slope the Allegheny, Monongahela, Cumberland, and Tennessee Rivers carried the products of erosion into the adjacent sea, where they formed a wide fringing shelf of deposit. After the lapse of we know not how many ages, the earth, in an effort to relieve itself from some intolerable strain, lifted up the bottom^ of the eastern Pacific and built from it the Rocky Moun- tain range. Thus was made the western wall of the Mississippi Valley. To fill in the space between this wall and the older one on the east. Nature taxed all her resources of land-building agencies — ■ the frost, the rain, the river, the glacier — decom- posing, pulverizing, transporting, and assorting the solid stuff of mountain sides; plants and ani- mals, living, growing-, dying, rotting, and mingling their dead tissues with the deader dust of rocks in a soil waiting only the seed of the sower to blossom into new forms of vitality for the use of the heir of the manor, man, when he should come into his inheritance. And so was made the Mississippi Valley — a sub-division of the earth's surface, which, if we take into account its area, the value and diver- sity of its productions, and the thrift, wealth, intelli- gence, and progressiveness of its population is without its like on the globe. It is a curious cir- cumstance that the Star of Empire should follow westward the progress of geological land jjuilding; and that the geographical area last inade ready for occupation by man under favoring conditions should become the seat of his latest and highest achievements in life, liberty, and government. This stupendous process of land extension has not only come down to an immediately recent geo- logical period, but is in progress yet. At Cairo, 111., 1,061 miles from the Gulf of Mexico by the windings of the river, is gathered together the sur- plus rainfall of nearly a million square miles, con- centrated by the confluence of the Tennessee, Cum- berland, Ohio, Mississippi, and Missouri Rivers; the last two uniting something over 200 miles /A ■ y ■-!■' ;■::.- II-: " -^^'gjae OKw^' 228 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River - above. Here heads the greater Mississippi. The last remnant of the Appalachian sea was a narrow prolongation of the Gulf of Mexico extending to this meeting ground of rivers, into the head of which they poured their floods in a group of falls or cataracts of sublime grandeur. In the lapse of ages the detritus brought down by them filled this long frith and transformed it into a sloping, alluvial plain having a descent to^ the Gulf in its 700 miles of length of about 300 feet, and embracing an area of 29,790 square miles subject to overflow in its natural state during great floods. It is probable that in past ag'cs climatic and geo- logical conditions combined to make this process of transportation and deposit far more active and effective than at present. But it is still going on wherever man has not interfered with it. At the mouth of the river the land is growing outward into the sea. The region south of Red River and west of the Mississippi, known as the Atchafalaya Basin, is in iMgp p.%rt Jn an unfinished stage of develop- ment^*' Jt-.^Fge, areas in that basin are barely above the sea level. *",'_ , ' While,.the Mississippi is a bold, bad river in many of its ways, there is much tO' be said to its credit. It and its tributaries furnished the highways by which civilization, penetrated the heart of the North American continent. The length and ramification of the navigable waterways which they afford is astonishing. 'Starting from Cairo steamboats can ascend, and. do in fact navigate the Tennessee 349 miles to Floren.ce, Tenn.; the Cumberland 197 miles toClarksyille, Tenn.; the Ohio 967 miles to Pittsbur^jT!,!,and. the Monongahela and Allegheny still furti}er;';t;l^ Mississippi 929 miles to St. Paul, and the ''Missouri to the foot hills of the Rocky Mountains. ' The main stem below is 1,061 miles in length, and, its tributaries, St. Francis, White, Yazoo, Arkansas, and Red, are all navigable, some of them for long- distances. The total navigable length of all the rivers of the valley has been com- puted at over 15,000 miles. Except for these natural highways, and the genius of Fulton, who built his steamboat in the very nick of time to fit his country's need of it, this vast region would have remained in the possession of the red men and their wild companions for many years longer than they were able to keep it. When we consider what the occupation of that valley meant, the homes that were planted there, the states that were founded, the tremendous im- pulse that was given to the growth of free institu- tions among men by its marvelous development, we must admit that with all its faults the Mississippi has rendered more signal service to mankind than any other river that flows. Those were great days: — those days of the early settlement of the eastern half of the upper Missis- sippi Valley. To go home-seeking into the wilder- ness, to float down noble streams on voyages of discovery, to take possession of the soil as the orig- inal occupant was an experience not to be repeated in all its inspiring circumstances. The world has no more such lands awaiting subjugation by civil- ized man as those which the pioneer found in Ten- nessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. The later settlement of the western A¥est of Iowa, Missouri, Kansas, and Nebraska, when emigrants traveled by rail and sent telegrams back announc- ing their arrival, was swifter in its progress, but it wanted the romance, the poetry, the charm of the real pioneer days. The divine command to man to subdue the earth grows to mean more and more as the centuries pass by. It seemed to suffice at first to transform for- ests into cultivated fields. Then roads had to be made, ships built, and steam and electricity broken to harness. In some departments this subjugation of the earth and its forces appears to have reached a degree of completeness. But in one we seem to be ever approaching and never reaching that point. It is in the highways of the water; their lines, chan- nels, and terminals. The seas, the lakes, and the rivers are the oldest of all the paths of commerce, and still the best, and yet never quite adequate to the demands upon them. A ship can sail round the world to find her voyage stopped by a bar in sight of the quay to which her cargo is consig'ned. A steamboat would have a thousand miles of unbroken navigation, but for a few piles of sand a few inches too high to let her keel pass over. To deepen and improve river channels and open the doors of harbors are the ever present, e\'er pressing, never completed prob- lems of modern commercial development. One of the most notable achievements in that field was the opening of the month of the Missis- sippi by the South Pass Jetties. The historj' of this great work is not as familiar to the American peo- ple as it deseiwes to be. Twenty 3rears of unob- structed access tO' New Orleans Harbor has effaced from our remembrance the davs when the largest Past— Present— Prospective 229 ships never attempted to reach it, and when fleets of the smaller ones that dared try it used to wait outside the bar for days for a favorable tide. The story of the undertaking, the incredulity with which the proposal was at first received, the oppo- sition which it encountered, the halting", hesitating encouragement which it received from the govern- ment, the indomitable courage and perseverance of its projector, the marvelous persuasiveness by which he enlisted capitalists in a work in which the contractor took all the hazards of its results, the skill with which he executed it, and the immediate- ness and completeness of its success, form a chapter of intensest interest in the history of the United States. The Hall of Fame of American engineers will be incomplete without a niche for James B. Eads. The principal applied in that improvement was simplicity simplified. One of the river's five diverg- ing mouths, or "passes," as they are termed, a small one, carrying only about eleven per cent of the total discharge of the river, was selected. Walls ■O'i brush mattresses, cribs, stone, and concrete were built on each side, from the deep water above the bar that crossed it at the line where river and ocean met and the river threw down its sand, across the bar to deep water on the sea side. These concen- trated the flow of water within defined lines and ■extended it farther into the gulf. To increase the velocity of that flow thin brush mattresses were placed across the other passes. These were sufH- cient to increase the velocity of the current through South Pass only slightly, but enough, with some aid from a dredge, to wash out the obstructing bar, and give free entrance for the largest ships. From the Head of the Passes- — that is, from the point where the branching passes diverge — to New Or- leans, the river channel is deep enough for the largest ships. And so' the world's commerce found access to New Orleans Harbor. The fluid which flows down the Mississippi is •called water by courtesy; it is really a mixture of water and earth: — enough earth to give it the color of mud, but not quite enough to give it the con- sistency of soup. A tumblerful of it, after standing a few hours, will precipitate a teaspoonful of set- tlings of the fluidity of hotel cream. The quantity of earthy matter thus transported is enormous. It is equal in bulk to one part in 2,900, and in weight to one in 1,500 of the total average volume flowing. At an active rising stage the sediment carried past a given point is equal to a thousand tons a minute. If at such a point a screen could be placed across the river that woidd filter the water perfectly with- out checking its flow, there would be enough earth accumulated to make a wall across the entire chan- nel a foot thick in eight minutes. If the total amount which is in suspension and course of trans- portation at a given moment between Cairo and the Gulf at ordinary stage could be gathered to- gether as dry land by a flash of lightning, it would weigh over sixteen million tons and would cover six thousand acres of land a foot deep with prime garden soil. This carrying capacity of the river depends upon the velocity of its flow. AVhen it is loaded to its maximum at a given velocity any diminution of that velocity compels it tO' drop part of its load. And it drops first, of course, tile heavier particles, such as coarse grains of sand, carrying the lighter particles further on. As has been stated, the alluvial valley of the Mississippi from Cairo to the Gulf is an old frith filled up by the deposits of the rivers which empty into it. This valley varies from twenty to forty miles in width, and the river descends it by a path which touches the blufl: on either side only at a few places, and then only for a few thousand feet, and is so full of crooks and turns that a steamboat will box the compass several times round in going down it once. This tortuous channel is entirely of the river's owm making; sides, bottom, width, depth, direc- tion^ — everything. Every spoonful of earth in the valley was brought to the place where it is by flow- ing water. It stopped at the place wdiere it is because the velocity of water was insufficient to carry it further. Every square foot of the face of every vertical bank on the river is exposed as it is, because the river has cut away the earth in front of it just that far. If the velocity of the water had been greater, the erosion and retreat of the bank would have been greater; if less, less. Or if the resistance of the bank had been greater, the erosion would have been less, and vice versa. In short, every feature and circumstance appertaining to the river is a resultant of opposing forces, but repre- sents some degree or kind of equilibrium between such forces. If the bed of the Mississippi River could be emptied of its contents so as to expose its bottom dry and bare, the appearance presented would be 230 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : surprising to- most of us. Instead of a compara- tively level channel floor there would be found a succession of great sand hills and intervening de- pressions. Passing through one of these depres- sions, the observer would find himself, it might be, a hundred and fifty feet below the banks on either side. Within a few thousand feet we would encoun- ter a sand hill stretching across the channel, so steep that you could scarcely drive a horse up its declivity, and perhaps a hundred feet high. Hav- ing crossed the top of this he would descend into another basin, then climb another hill, and so on. When the channel is filled with water the crests of these elevations approach the surface and consti- tute the bars which obstruct navigation. The action by which these bars are produced is somewhat as follows: At flood stage a volume of water several times as great as that which goes over Niagara Falls drops 323 feet in flowing from CairO' to the Gulf. Its path is a series of alternately reversed bends. In these bends it hugs the concave bank, flowing with high velocity and scouring out of the bottom of the channel and from the face of the bank a greater or less, and sometimes a very great quantity, of sand and loam. At the foot of each bend the main flow crosses to the other side of the channel and follows the concave bank on that side; and sO' back and forth from bend to bend. The place in the channel where the flow thus crosses from the concave face at one bend to the concave face of the next bend below, is called, in the vernacular of the river, a "crossing." As the water passes over the crossing the velocity of its flow falls oft' a little, to be renewed again in the bend below. This slackening need be very little to cause the flowing water to let fall part of the lead of sand and loam which it has taken up in the bend above, the larger and heavier grains of sand going to the bottom first. And thus are built up the bars between the bends. There is a bar of some dimensions between every two bends on the river. But most of them never rise to a height to present any obstruction to navi- gation. Over some of them, however, the water becomes very shallow at extreme low stages, spreading out in a broad sheet, it may be a m.ile wide and less than six feet deep. Of such obstruct- ing bars about forty have been known below Cairo. For about eight months in each year the volume of water passing down the river is sufficient tO' sub- merge all the bars deeply enough for all the require- ments of navigation. But unfortunately, the lowest water usually comes in the late fall and early winter, when there is greatest need of a good channel. It is then that the grain and cotton crops of the valley are ready for market and ample and cheap means of transportation are of the highest value to the people. It will be seen from> this description that the problem presented is to cut off the tops of the bars, or sand hills, which the river builds between the pools of its own bends. The quantity to be taken off is not great compared with the whole height of the bar — say fifteen feet from the top of a sand hill a hundred feet high in order to secure a channel twenty feet deep. These obstructions are found for the most part in groups of from three or four tO' eight or ten embraced within a reach of twenty to forty miles in length. The first of these groups is in the vicinity of New Madrid, Mo., and the next about a hundred miles above Memphis. Between its bad places the river will show a good channel at all stages for long distances. Careful comparative study of the good and the bad reaches shows that an obstructing bar is usually the result of one or the other of two com- binations; a series of rapidly caving bends with broad bars at the crossings between them, or the subdivision of the low water channel into a num- ber of relatively small ones. Where the lew-water discharge crosses the bar by a single channel of three thousand feet or less in width there is always ample depth for navigation. As soon as the success of the South Pass Jetties was demonstrated the question was asked, Why not apply the same principle tO' the removal of the bars in the channel? Mr. Eads was of the opinion that it could be done, and engineers generally agreed with him as tO' the applicability of the prin- ciple. The question of cost was in doubt. No data existed on which to base a final estimate. At the same time another great interest demand- ed attention — the protection of the alluvial lands below Cairo from overflow. Prior to that time two opposite theories in regard to the control of floods in the Mississippi had found supporters. One was known as the outlet theory, the substance of which was, that the remedy for overflow was tO' give the river more channels to the sea by making outlets in its banks where it was possible to do so in a way to take oft' part of a flood and carry it to the Gulf by an independent path. The other theory, which Past— Present— Prospective 231 may be called the concentration theory, had for its main principle the proposition that the scouring power of the river increases with its discharg-e and, vice versa, that a given volume of water flowing in two channels has less capacity for scour than if flowing in one channel, and that the best security against floods is to keep the main channel open by concentrating the whole discharge of the river in it at all stages. It followed from this view that the concentration of the water at flood stages in the main channel by means of levees would not only protect the alluvial lands from overflow^, but would tend to improve the channel for navig-ation by increasing the scour- ing" power of the current. At this juncture, by an act of Congress approved 1879, the Mississippi River Commission was cre- ated. In its first report it set forth a plan for re- moving" the bars from the river by means identical in principle with the South Pass Jetties, to be sup- plemented bjr levees which would confine all ordin- ary floods within the channel. Mr. Eads was a member of the commission and the plan of im- provement adopted was in accord with his views, Ijut not without some dissent by other members. A provisional estimate \vas made of the cost of the channel work (b)' which is sig'uified the engineer- ing" constructions placed within the banks, as dis- tinguished from the levees) at $33,000,000. In this estimate the cost of bank revetment (by which is meant the protection of mattresses and riprap, or spur dikes, applied to the bank tO' prevent caving) was estimated at twelve dollars per running foot. While the construction of the engineering de- vices known as revetments and contraction works are familiar to those who have followed the course of the work done on the lower river they may not be known tO' others who' will read these pages, and a brief description of them will not be out of place. The object sought, it is to be noted, was to con- centrate the current over the bars within a width of about three thousand feet. This required two kinds of work. First, a contraction of the channel where its width was excessive, and, second, the pre- vention of excessive caving in the bends whence the material of the bars is obtained. There is at all times, and in all parts of the river, a large quantity of sediment in suspension ready to be deposited whenever the velocity of the current falls below the point necessary for its transportation. Of this the solid particles of sand are the coarsest and heav- iest. Much of this, indeed, is not carried at all, but rolled along" the iDottom. So that, as a rule, the greater part of the material of the bars comes Irom the bends immediately, or only a little way above them. Hence, the stopping of caving in the bends cuts oft' in large measure the supply of material for the building" of bars. There is nO' foundation in the bed of the Missis- sippi Ri\'er upon which tO' build structures of stone or timber; and if there were, the cost of them would be prohibitory. So resort is had for material to the willows which cover thickly the islands and low banks of the river! — the hair of the same dog, as one might sa3^ The method of using these for the contraction of the channel is as follows. Above the space which it is desired to fill in order to reduce the width of the channel, rows of piles are driven and between these are interwo\'en long, slender willows like basket work, so as to make a sort of open screen through which the water can pass freely, but which checks sensibly the velocity of its flow. These structures are known as "permeable dikes." As the water approaches them it Ijrings a load of sedi- ment as great as its velocity will support. The reduction of its velocit}^ in passing through them diminishes its silt-carrying power and causes it to deposit ]3art of its load in the space below. The results attained by these simple structures are sometimes truly wonderful. In some instances thousands of acres have Ijeen filled several feet in depth in a single season.' — the material all picked up and laid down by the water itself, a speck at a time. For the prevention of caving in the bends, two forms of protection are employed. The one most used is the woven mattress. The manner of its construction may be described as follows: A strong barge (or two or more of them placed end to end) is moored in the stream with one end resting on the shore and the other extending into the stream at a right angle with the bank. The down stream side of this barge slopes toward the water like the roof of a house, and has at intervals of a few feet elevated tracks or ways which lead down tO' the water like the hand-rail of a stairway. Above these inclined ways is a broad horizontal deck on which are mounted some simple mechanical devices for weaving together the wire, slender poles, and brush, of which the mattress is made, with room for a large gang of men to work. As the weaving 232 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : ...^ >, ■ X-'-fei ^^R . ^ ■ 1/ ■ J '''^^L' ^^ -^a-^-"!^^^'- ''Vi«9^KK 1 L ».«M»1..^ is^i^HJ f-^^B Vjll^ jHBi ••* t ^& H^Kgn |gU| nn HH |H| m H 1^1 m p^ ^^" ^^ 9 ^9 9 ^^^^ ■ 1 1 ^-^i- -^^ ^ta ^^^ - 9 hH <; -— ^^^^ ■" — -^ „ ^ '-— (P^-^.^,4 ufiEua i:~-atM mI ■^m 2:_^ ■fc -^^;''^iffl mM it- PROTECTION OF MEMPHIS HARBOR TWO SCENES OF REVETMENT WORK AT HOPEFIELD POINT Past— Present— Prospective 233 progresses the mattress slides down the ways into the water and floats on the surface. It forms a compact, strong, and j^et flexible structure, a foot or more in thickness, and as it gradually extends its length down stream the workmen walk upon it with freedom and safety. A usual size of a com- pleted mattress is 300 feet in width by 1,000 to 1,200 feet in length — without doubt the largest textile fabric ever made in the world. The art of building- and using such mattresses is not new, but they have never been made of such size and strength anywhere else as on the lower Mississippi. In the great sweep of its bends the revetments required are often several miles in length. When the weaving is complete the mattress is loaded with stone in large fragments scattered evenly over its surface in just sufficient Cjuantity to overcome its flotation, and it slowly sinks to the bottom. Its outer edge is securely held at the low- water margin of the stream. Inside that line it follows the curvature of the submerged bank to^ the extent of its width, the intent being that it shall reach the foot of the subaqueous slope. That portion of the bank above low water inark is graded to a fiat slope by hydraulic graders of great size and power and the surface of the slope covered with a riprap of stone. The entire combin- ation of mattress, grading, and riprap is comprised under the general term "revetment." The other form of bank protection employed is known as "spur dike revetment," and consists of short spurs projecting from the bank at intei-vals of a few hundred feet. These spurs are built up of alternate layers of brush work and stone, beginning with a broad mattress at the bottom and tapering to the top in pyramidal form. The brush work employed is substantially like that found in the mattresses just described, except that larger poles are used and greater strength and thickness are required. The effect of the spurs is to break the force of the attack upon the bank at intervals so short that after wearing back a certain distance between them its caving ceases. These structures — the permeable dikes, or con- traction works for bank building, and revetments, whether of mattresses or spurs, for bank protec- tion, are all comprised in the general term "channel works," and constitute one main division of the ■work done under the supervision of the Mississippi River Commission. The other main division con- sists of levees to prevent overflow. A Mississippi River levee is no more than a bank of earth not unlike a railroad embankment except that it is broader at its base and flatter in its slopes. The standard form, as at present built, has a crown, or top surface eight feet wide with side slopes of three feet horizontally to one foot vertically. If it ex- ceeds eight feet in height the most perfect con- struction includes a banquette, or annex on the inner side in the form of a terrace coming to- within eight feet of the top and extending- inwardly with d very flat slope for twenty feet or more. These embankments do not follow closely the curves of the river, but are located at distances from the bank varying from a hundred or a few hundred feet to several miles, the object being to economize in length and tO' keep away as far as possible from rapidly caving banks. The construction of levees to prevent overflow began with the Spanish settlements at New Orleans a hundred and eighty years ago. From thence they advanced up stream, as the country was occu- pied, until, at the outbreak of the civil war, they were substantially continuous as far up as the mouth of the Arkansas River on the west side, and Memphis on the east side. During the war the leveees suffered great destruction, and it was some years after its close that the work of their i^estoration was taken up with any effectiveness. The first appropriation made by Congress for work under the Mississippi River Commission was $1,000,000 by act of March 3, 1881. It was ex- pended in the construction of plant for use in the channel works, and in beginning those w'orks in twoselected places on the river where the worst bars were found — one at what is known as Plum Point Reach, about seventy-five miles above Memphis, and the other at Lake Providence Reach, a similar distance above Vicksburg. The second appropria- tion was of $4,123,000 by act of August 2, 1882. From that appropriation the sum of $1,300,000 was allotted tO' the repair and maintenance of levees, and the remainder to channel works, and expenses incident thereto', and harbor improvements. In the expenditure of the sum allotted to levees the Commission began at once a policy which has been followed ever since, of co-operation with the state and local authorities interested in the work. Pref- erence was given, other considerations being equal, to those localities where the people were ready to contribute most tO' the work from their own resources. 234 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River The time was opportune for this co-operation. The people of the lower valley had been exerting themselves to the utmost for a number of years to restore the levee system to its ante bellum condi- tions, and had accomplished much in that direction. The extraordinai^y flood of 1882^ — the greatest known in modern years, had all but destroyed the entire system. The people were exhausted, pros- trate and disheartened. The appearance in ihe tield of the United States Government with its proffer of aid awakened hope in their hearts and stimulated them to renewed effort. The most efficient local organizations were in Louisiana and Mississippi, and there the response of the people to the in- vitation of the Government was immediate and vigorous. In the earlier years of the work of the Commis- sion levees were treated as an adjunct, merely, of the channel works. It was considered that they contributed to the deepening and improvement of the navigable channel by concentrating- the flood discharge within defined lines and so increasing its scouring power. It was partly in order to obtain the benefit of this concentration of flow in those parts of the river where the channel works were inaugurated, and partly because there was also in those parts the greatest reacflness and ability to co-operate in the work by the riparian communi- ties, that the largest expenditures in the early days were along the Mississippi and upper Louisiana fronts. The importance of the work which was then begun, and which has been continued for eighteen vears will not be realized without an adec|uate con- ception of the conditions presented, the interests at stake and the results which have been accom- plished. There are few such regions in the world as the twentv-nine thousand square miles compris- ing the alluvial valley of the Mississippi. Its area is equal to two and a half times that of the kingdom of New Netherlands, which contams a population of five millions of people. It extends through eight degrees of latitude. Its northern portion produces corn, wheat and oats, its central portion cotton, and its southern portion sugar and rice — all in crops yielding rich returns to the planter. This wonderful valley is the cream jug of the continent. Nature knows not how to compound a richer soil. It can ^^o• more lie idle than the sea can keep still. Every square foot of it riots in veg- etable life. In its natural state, before its invasion by civilized man, lofty forests, interminable in ex- tent; climbing, crawling, wandering vines; thick undergrowth, cane brakes and tall gi^asses fought for room in its earth and air. Its floods came down loaded with skimmings from the great watershed above. Overtopping- its banks, the enriched water spread far and wide over the alluvial area, so obstructed in its flow by the dense growth covering the land that its slackened velocity compelled it to let fall its load of sediment as it went. Thus the floods built up the valley year by year in layers of fatness to- li^'e again in incalculable crops of grain, fruits and fibers. Such an alluvial empire, such a field of opportunity for enterprise and industry, such resources of supply for human enjoyment can not be abandoned to> floods and uselessness if it is possible to save it. The world can not spare it. It can be saved and made to blossom as a garden over its whole vast expanse b}' levees of such pro- portions as to confine its floods within its channel, and in no other way. All schemes for reducing overflow by outlets are futile and visionary. They only weaken the carrying- power of the water and result in increased deposits and higher flood levels in the end. There have been plans for alleviating floods by impounding the surplus rainfall in reservoirs at the head waters of the upper Mississippi and the Mis- souri. But they are unavailable because the over- flowing floods do' not come from those parts of the valley. They come from storms that originate in the southwest and cross the Ozark mountains into the valleys of the Tennessee, Cumberland and Ohio. It is on the steep declivities of the Appalachian range, and in the thickly populated, highly culti- vated states of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indi- ana and Illinois that the reservoirs would have to be located. As an engineering problem simply, the thing is not impossible; as a practical solution of the question it is impossible on account of the ex- pense and the destruction of vested rig-hts which it would involve. The latest and most nearly feasible of all sug- gestions of this sort is to use the St. Francis Basin as a flood reservoir. This has in it enough of im- aginable possibility to call for the specific study which can be given tO' it only by means of a detailed survey for the purpose, which will doubtless be made. In advance of that it must be said that. the danger of impounding such a sea within earthen embankments high above the heads and homes of Past— Present— Prospective 235 ^^ru'sewikiiNg^ii^iMi^ i .^ '« ^, « ,,, , I CONCRETE WORKS AT BONDURANT, LA. KEMPE LEVEE 1899 236 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; millions of people, and the proljable insufficiency in storage capacity of the deepest reservoirs that could be made in that basin, will make it only a little less impracticable than the other reservoir schemes which have been discussed. The co-opera- tion Ijeg'un eighteen years ago between the United States and the state and local authorities in the building, and maintenance of levees has continued to this time. It has been a great partnership in a great work, which has borne fruit in great re- sults. The levees now extend in nearly complete lines from the Forts, seventy miles below New Orleans, to the high ridge near New Madrid, seventy miles below Cairo, comprising in all fifteen hundred miles of embankment. There are a fev/ gaps to be filled, not exceeding fifty miles in the aggregate, and sixty-five miles yet to liuild above New Madrid, to cover all the great basins. A small area above Reelfoot Lake should be closed, and there are some fragnientai-y areas, on the east side below Vicksburg, scarcely worth the cost of levee protection, which still remain open; and nearly all the lines want additional height and strength to hold the extraordinary floods which sometimes oc- cur. They are adequate now tO' restrain ordinary high water, and have done so already. The flood of 189Y was of extraordinary height and duration — in many parts of the river the high- est ever known. It made a number of crevasses and inundated about one-third of the area subject to overflow; but less than one-fourth of the culti- vated lands. Nevertheless it was a demonstration of the possibility of effective protection by levees. Out of 1,377 miles of embankment in place, only 8.7 miles, or .63 of one per cent of the whole, was destroyed. Nearly all the crevasses were in old, weak lines, or lines so far below grade that the water overtopped them. Below Red River the entire discharge passed down to the sea without a crevasse except one of insignificant dimensions, which was closed in short time. Taken as a whole, the record of the flood showed that, barring acci- dents, if the levee system had been complete in ac- cordance with the standards now in force it would have held the water. As it was, the saving of property by the levees during that single flood was equal to the cost of the levees, as they then stood. The flood of 1898 reached a height of 49.8 feet at Cairo, against 51.6 in 1897, and at several points below reached a higher stage than that of 1897, or any previous year. But it flowed to the Gulf without a break — the first time in history that such a thing has occurred. Since then there has been no overflowing flood. The total expenditure on the levees since 1882 has been approximately $35,000,000. Of this the United States has supplied $15,000,000, and the people of the valley $20,000,000, as nearly as can be estimated. As the work has progressed, and the people have come tO' have more and more con- fidence in the stability and effectiveness of the levees, the alluvial valley has undergone a trans- formation. Population has increased — in some parts doubled within ten years, thriving towns have grown up, railroads have been built, banks opened, new industries established, new plantations cleared, and a great impetus given to life and busi- ness in all departments. It is entirely within bounds to say that the total value of property in the valley has doubled since 1SS2. A feature of special interest in this connection is the opportunity which the reclamation of the alluvial valley oft'ers to the negro to better his con- dition. One-half or more of its entire area is suit- able for cultivation of cotton. A bale per acre of ginned cotton, weighing five hundred pounds, is the standard yield — ^worth from thirty to fifty dol- lars according to the ups and downs of the market. In addition to this the seed has a value of five or six dollars per acre. Its cultivation is as simple as that of corn. The picking season lasts three or four months, so that no extra help is required in harvesting it. One man, with the aid of his wife and children, can raise and gather the crop' from ten acres. It is an ideal industry for the negro. The restraint of the floods has not only af- forded new security to the lands formerly culti- vated, but has made available as much, or twice as much more in area which was never before util- ized. The surface of the valley is not an even plain, but a succession of low ridges along the banks' of the river and the interior bayous, with broad areas of wooded swamp land between. In former years no attempt was made to cultivate anything but the ridg'es. Since the completion of the levees the lower lands are rapidly coming into use, first for the timber with which they are cov- ered, and then for cultivation. The timber industry has assumed great propor- tions. The supply is enormous. Without rail- roads it was inaccessible away from the banks of streams. Without protection from floods railroads Past— Present— Prospective 237 were impracticalDle. They are now being rapidly extended over all the alluvial district. For the moment the timber industry rivals cotton in its importance. After it follow cotton and com. When the merchantable timber has been removed the clearing of the land is an easy task, and what were formerly hopeless swamps become the most productive fields. The negi'o is not seizing this golden opportunity as the white pioneer of the Northwest would have seized it, but he is not wholly neglecting it. In considerable and increasing numbers they are buy- ing land and becoming independent cultivators. Those who do so are steadily advancing in thrift, intelligence, and the qualities of good citizenship. Nowhere else in the South are as favorable oppor- tunities offered to the black man as in the re- claimed Mississippi lowlands, and nowhere else is he doing as much for his own uplifting-. The history ol the channel works has been one of varying experiences. It was soon seen that the work undertaken Avas more difficult than that done at the jetties. At the mouth of the river only one bar rec|uired removal. But the interests mvolved were so important that the Government could well afford to pay five million dollars for a channel through that one bar. The water over it was sub- ject to little rise and fall and its cirrent was gentle and uniform. In the river above there were to be encountered stages of water varying forty feet and more between extremes, and currents of hig-h ve- locity and shifting directions. The bank ranged in compositio'n from clear sand to "buckshot" as tough as the Northern blue clay. Contraction works and bank revetments had been built before, but never on such a scale and in such situations. The work was an experiment from the start. It developed at once that the bank revetments were the most important and the most difficult part of it. The first ones failed. Better ones were made. It was a problem to learn how to make them and get them into place with one edge at the water line and the other sixty feet under water in a current boiling and swirling round a bend. It called for invention, courage, skill, and persever- ance. But as occasion demanded the art grew. And the mattresses grew. From structures a liundred and twenty-five feet wide and three or four hundred feet long that went out, they developed to structures three hundred feet wide and twelve hundred feet long, that stayed where they were put. The standard mattress of to-day is an evolution. It is a piece of work that no one in the world could have made and laid down fifteen years ago. Other descriptions of it with illustrations will be found in this book. When, after years of study and experiment, it was demonstrated that a caving bank can be held, it was also demonstrated that the cost of doing it will reach thirty dollars per running foot. This was two and a half times the original estimate. It became apparent, also, that the time which would be required to remove by these permanent improvements the forty bars that impeded com- merce between Cairo and New Orleans would be long-er than impatient commerce could afford to wait. Happily, just as this discouraging condition had forced itself on the minds of those in charge of the work an unexpected alternative presented itself. The hydraulic dredge appeared among the gigantic machines born of modern invention. Why not try it on the Mississippi bars? Once cut across the crest, would not the current keep its path open? It must be done quickly, else the cut would fill at one end before it would be open at the other. How quickly could it be done? A dredge was built and tried. The results were encouraging, but in- conclusive. It was determined to press the ex- periment by building at once a more powerful machine than any previously known. In 1895-6 Mr. Lindon W. Bates, of Chicago, built for the Commission a dredg'e having more than twice the capacity of any other dredge then existing. On its trial tests it handled in an average of ten tests the astonishing quantity of 4,921 cubic yards of sand per hour, taking it up from the bar and transporting it through floating pipes to a dis- tance of one thousand feet. While this was far above its subsequent performance in actual work it was an invaluable demonstration of possibilities, and settled the question of the feasibility of cut- ting throug"h a bar so quickly that the current can establish itself in the path thus offered to< it before the drifting sand will fill it up. This dredge — the Beta, was a twin machine, being, in reality, two independent dredges mounted on one hull. For reasons of convenience in hand- ling no more like it in that respect have been built; but others similar in general design, with improve- ments suggested by experience, have been added until a fleet of eight powerful hydraulic dredges are 238 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Rivek: FORTIFYING LEVEES WITH SACKS OF EARTH, IN CASES OF SLOUGHING OR WEAKENING Past— Present— Prospective 239 now employed at low water in the channel below Cairo. The purely experimental stage of the work has been past, and its probable success has been assured. By these Titanic machines paths are opened across the bars as the river falls tO' which it takes kindly and in which it keeps its course throughout the season with ample depth for navi- gation. These dredge channels are not relied on for more than a single season's service, although in some places considerable traces of them survive the following flood. There is reason to believe that as the very nice art of locating them in harmony with the natural tendency of the river is perfected bv experience they will gradually become more and more permanent. This result will be pro- moted where conditions are changeable by chan- nel works suitable to preserve general stability. With these more or less temporary channels to meet its immediate needs commerce awaits the slower process of the permanent improvements to follow. As a whole, the work of improvement in the al- luvial valley of the Mississippi inaugurated twenty years ago has demonstrated its utility in results already gained and far greater ones in reasonable prospect. It furnishes a vast object lesson in the value of union and co-operation. It is not probable that the dwellers on the banks below Cairo could ever have enlisted the aid of the United States in reclaiming their lands through their own exertions; and without that aid they could not have accom- plished the work. It is also not probable that the com.mercial interests of the upper valley, acting alone, could have secured the appropriations neces- sary for the improvement of the lower river as a highway of navigation. But when all the Missis- sippi states, from Minnesota tO' Louisiana, pull to- p-ether, Congfress heeds. Nor is it for themselves alone that these great states join in heart and hand and effort. It is for all the people of the whole Union that the Mississippi flows and its lowlands blossom and their harvests ripen. STEAMER MISSISSIPPI 240 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 NOS. 1 AND 3— LEVEES RAISED BY MEANS OF SACKED EARTH TO KEEP PACE WITH THE RISE IN THE RIVER NO. 2-STRENGTHENING LEVEES WITH SACKS Past— Present— Prospective 241 242 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River - Q O H O < o S X u Past— Present— Prospective 243 u a 2 o z O H P o I 244 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : SOME OF THE PROMINENT MEMBERS AND EX-MEMBERS OF THE United States Senate and House of Representatives FROM THE STATES AND DISTRICTS EMBRACING THE RIPARIAN LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER NOTE. — Portraits of Senators Vest of Missouri and Caffery of Louisana are in the Group Representing the Senate Committee on Commerce .'. .'. .". .'. .". N. C. BLANCHARD Justice of Louisiana Supreme Court, Ex-Representative and Ex-Senator from Louisiana T. C. CATCHINGS Representative from Mississippi Past— Present— Prospective 245 THE LATE EDWARD GARY WALTHALL Senator from Mississippi EDWARD DOUGLAS WHITE Associate Justice U. S. Supreme Court Formerly U. S. Senator from Louisiana •S^:-.--,. THE LATE RANDELL LEE GIBSON Representative and Senator from Louisiana THE LATE JAMES Z. GEORGE Senator from Mississippi 246 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; THE LATE EDWARD WHITE ROBERTSON Representative from Louisiana BENJAMIN F. JONAS Ex-Ssnator from Louisiana ^V THE LATE JAMES PHELAN Representative from Tennessee MATT. D. LAGAN Ex-Representative from Louisiana Past— Present— Prospective 247 THE LATE EDWARD J. GAY Representative from Louisiana H. DUDLEY COLEMAN Ex-Representative frotn Louisiana ANDRE'W PRICE Ex-Representative from Louisiana SAMUEL M. ROBERTSON Representative from Louisiana 248 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River t^Ss««8^«,^ JOSEPH W. BAILEY Representative from Texas Democratic Leader in 55th Congress Will be elected to U. S. Senate from Texas WILLIAM B. BATE Senator from Tennessee JAMES K. JONES Senator from Arkansas EDWARD T. LEWIS Ex-Representative from Louisiana Past— Present— Prospective 249 JOSIAH PATTERSON Ex-Representative from Tennessee THOMAS B. TURLEY Senator from Tennessee THE LATE WILLIAM H. CATE Representative from Arkansas JAMES D. RICHARDSON Representative from Tennessee Democratic Leader in the House of Representatives 250 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : RICE A. PIERCE Representative from Tennessee WILLIAM V. SULLIVAN Sen-Ttor from Mississippi SAMUEL DOUGLASS M'ENERY Senator from Louisiana HERNANDO DESOTO AlONEY Senator from Mississippi Past— Present— Prospective 251 WILLIAM D. VANDIVER Representative from Missouri GEORGE W. SMITH Representative from Illinois PHILIP D. M'CULLOCH Representative from Arkansas THOAtAS C M'RAE Representative from Arkansas 252 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : I r^ EDWARD W. CARMACK Representative from Tennessee Will be Elected to the U. S. Senate ADOLPH MEYER Representative from Louisiana ROBERT C. DAVEY Representative from Louisiana CHARLES F. BUCK Ex-Representative from Louisiana Past— Present— Prospective 253 THE LATE SAMUEL T. BAIRD Representative from Louisiana ROBERT F. BROUSSARD Representative from Louisiana RICHARD BARTHOLDT Representative from Missouri CHAMP CLARK Representative from Missouri 254 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Kiver: JOSEPH E. RANSDELL Representative from Louisiana THEODORE S. WILKINSON Ex-Representative from Louisiana JOHN SHARP WILLIAMS Representative from Mississippi CHARLES J. BOATNER Ex-Representative from Louisiana Past— Present— Prospective 255 ANSON J. M'LAURIN Senator-Elect from Mississippi MURPHY J. FOSTER Senator-Elect from Louisiana M. R. PATTERSON Representative-Elect from Tennessee CHARLES F. JOY Representative from Missouri 256 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River I CHARLES E. HOOKER Representative-Elect from Mississippi (Previous Service of Many Years) PATRICK HENRY . Representative-Elect from Mississippi HENRY \V. OGDEN Ex-Representative from Louisiana PHAKOR EREAZEALE Representative from Louisiana Past— Present— Prospective 257 L. W. BROWN 258 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River PROTECTION OF CITIES AGAINST ENCROACHMENT OF THE MISSISSIPPI By L. W. Brown, C. E., Member Am. Soc. C. E. The great hardship, injury and detriment to the prosperity and value of the commerce of cities lo- cated on the Mississippi River, resulting from inse- cure wharves and landings, due to the constant changing of banks of the river, warrant the most thorough consideration of measures having for their object an amelioration of the existing con- ditions. Permanent wharves and landings not only at- tract commerce to a port, but materially reduce the cost of handling, and thus make trade and pros- perity. Hence, unless permanent wharves and landings are secured, commerce will be gradually deflected tO' other ports where permanent condi- tions are secured even if greater expense is entailed by reason of more circuitous route. As an illustra- tion: a shipper who has large shipments of goods that cannot be exposed to the weather, such as wines, etc., and who is willing to expend ihirty or forty thousand dollars for covered sheds or suitable warehouses adjacent tO' landings on which to store his shipments, finds that the water rates to New Orleans are considerably cheaper than to other ports, and he decides to ship to New Orleans and makes arrang-ements accordingly. But when he comes to investig'ate he finds that the banks of the river and landings are not permanent and he has no security that the sheds or warehouses he erects at a cost of thirty or forty thousand dollars will not within three years' time be either in the river or three squares from the river and thus render his investment valueless for the purpose designed. As a consequence he determines that it is economy to go to other ports where he has a guarantee of stability even at an increased water rate. Thus the port of New Orleans, or any other port located on the Mississippi River, is losing commerce and will continue to lose until such time as positively permanent wharves and landings can be provided. The insecurity of wharves and landings and the constant changing of river banks further injure and depreciate the interests of a city, in that valuable and expensive improvements made in the interest of commerce, or for manufacturing purposes or residences, are in a few years rendered practically valueless, due to the changing of river banks, either engulfing them or vastly impairing their value by reason of their being no longer accessible to the benefits and advantages of the locaHties originally selected. The interests of every city located on the Mis- sissippi River demand that some measures be adopted whereby the banks of the river are ren- dered stable, and there is no question but that with the engineering" knowledge now had of the subject and the skill and success which the profession has attained, satisfactory conditions can be secured. Hence the subject should receive the greatest possible consideration and study, and every meas- ure thoroughly and exhaustively considered and investigated until the method having the requisite efficiency and economy is secured. The subject of maintaining- permanent river banks has been con- sidered for many years and commissions appointed by different cities, at different times, to canvass the matter, but no definite or satisfactory conclusion has been reached as to the proper method, due no doubt to the fact that in order to reach a conclusion very extensive study and experiment was neces- sary, requiring a very considerable amount of time and money, which not being available has rendered futile any effective or satisfactory results. To the present tim.e only two methods have re- ceived any reasonable amount of consideration or experiment: the spur dike and mattress work, adopted by the Mississippi River Commission twenty years ago and still being used by them notwithstanding the questionable success of the Past— Present— Prospective 259 TSitj^J^lj '■uinii! o 03 o z E 260 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- Avork; and the pile bank protection work adopted and constructed bj^ the Orleans Levee Board in the city of New Orleans under the recommendations and directions of the writer during the past three years. Before describing the relative merits of these two systems it is proper to analyze the cause of caving banks and the conditions existing which accelerate and hasten the caving and which rec|uire to be pro- vided against to render effective any work having for its object the protection of river banks against abrasion. The retardation of velocity of a flood river by a log, aggregation of floating- material or other cause and which may be extremely small at the beginning, allowing the suspended material to be precipitated, inaugurates the forming of a bar or an accretioning bank, and these deposits which are being constantly precipitated soon aggregate a very considerable volume on the river bottom: or on one of the banks, and naturally reduce the cross section of channel, which in turn increases momen- tarily the flood slope of the river and a momen- tarily accelerated velocity is produced, which, act- ing on lines of true laws of hydraulics, seeks and finds the line of least resistance and a new direction of current is formed setting towards the opposite shore to that where the accretioning in its incipi- ency is taking- place. Thus the current is allowed to impinge directly against the bank, very lightly at first, but gradually increasing in intensity until the slope of bank is abraded and undermined and the serious caving of bank ensues, which action is accelerated by the increasing of depth of bend due to continued caving and the full force of current of river being thus deflected directly against the bank. If the bank against which the current is being gradually forced could be reinforced so as to have sufficient resistance to overco'me the action of the current thus impinged against it and prevent its abrading the safe slope of bank, the current would scour out the deposits which were gradually forming and the proper cross section would be re- stored and consequently a stable channel would be secured. It will be observed that the work required and expense entailed to reinforce a bank at the incipi- ency of its caving is very limited and small as com- pared with the intricate work required and the large cost entailed to hold a caving bank against further caving when the current has been allowed to be deflected directly against it. AVhen not in- terfered with the whole volume of river will even- tually impinge against the abrading bank at right ang-les, as is often observed, and which requires a change in direction of flow of the whole volume, which requires an additional head to overcome the losses in velocity caused by the friction of the whole volume ag'ainst the bank, as also by the friction of the water on itself to turn a right angle. It will be further observed that when a bank has abraded so as to practically change the direction of current of the whole river the action of the current against the bank is so varied in its intensity throughout the stretch which is caving that the contour of bank becomes very irregular, due to formation of cur- rents, cross currents and eddies, and that at near the lower end of an abrading bank, or where the current is forced to take another direction, whirl- pools are formed, having imm-ense power and scour very deep and at a point adjacent to the bank, thus making the slope of bank very steep. If unmolested these whirlpools gradually set farther in towards the bank and constant disastrous caving is occasioned. As above observed, to prevent the abrading of river bank where the caving is in its incipiency, or where the current is just beginning to be forced over against the bank, very limited measures and small expense is required to force the current back to its old channel and prevent any caving whatever of the bank. Any measures having for their object the preser- vation of a, caving bank, or a bank against which the current is impinging with abrading force, from further caving that do not provide a uniform im- pingement throughout the stretch where the cav- ing bank exists for the current to strike against and thus remove the irregularities in the current, such as counter currents, cross currents, eddies and whirlpools, cannot be a permanent success. On the other hand, if measures on these lines are adopted whereby the current can be guided past the abrading bank at a uniform velocity the struc- ture required to accomplish this end would neces- sarily have to be of such a character as to impede the velocity and allow deposits tO' form, and gradu- ally any desired extension could be made riverward throughout the stretch of caving bank, as such a structure would provide a resistance more than Past— Present— Prospective 261 equal to that which is required to force the cur- rent towards the opposite shore or point, and would abrade same and the channel of flow would be thus forced over towards its original position. It will also be observed that an}^ measures which are adopted tO' secure satisfactory results must necessarily be of such a nature as to afl:ect at least thirty or forty feet of the body of river and extend to and above the surface of highest water, as the retardation of the velocity of this volume of flow by impingement against a proper structure will neces- sarily affect the flow of volume all the way to the bottom of river and retard its force in abrading- effect against the bank, or rather, produce a prac- tical uniform velocity throughout the whole stretch where such uniform impingement exists, for the reason that a river flowing around a circle, a cun^e or a bend, where the banks have a slope from the bottom of the river to the surface of the water, must necessarily increase the velocit)^ of the surface flow as it has the furthest to travel, and this velocity is proportionately decreased with the depth which has a proportionately less distance to travel. Hence it follows that measures provided as abo\'e suggested, to aft'ect thirty or forty feet of surface flow of a flood river, must necessarily affect the velocity of the whole volume of river, and, as has been practically demonstrated, accretioning of bank takes place and any g-radual exten- sion of bank desired can be secured by extend- ing riverward the line against which the current is impinged. This point is very clearly and practically demonstrated by the gradual exten- sion on the concave side of a bend of the river in the city of New Orleans between Jackson av- enue and Conti street, to the detriment of the Al- giers point. Within the last fifteen years the apex of concave of bend opposite the Algiers point, at between Calliope and Customhouse streets, has been extended fully 800 feet, caused by works which pi'ovide a uniform rate of impinge- ment for the water passing the bend, and the works are of a character to provide a resistance sufficient to protect the bank against abrading, and has forced the current from the bend and has caused the gradual caving off of the Algiers point to> pro- vide a proper cross section of channel. It might be obseiwed that the commercial interests of the city of New Orleans, between Calliope and Cus- tomhouse streets, which is directly in the apex of bend opposite the Algiers point, which is perhaps the sharpest point in the river, has been sufficient to gradually build and extend the river bank directly into the river, where 50 j'ears ago this bend ex- tended to near Tchoupitoulas street, a distance of upwards of 1,500 feet from the present line of wharves. Works to prevent abrading of river banks must necessarily extend from the upper end of the cav- ing, or where the caving- begins, and sufficiently far into the apex of bend to deflect the current away from the shore, and must necessarily be of such a nature as to actually eliminate the rough contours of the bank or provide conditions which will ac- complish this end and thus remove the cross cur- rents, counter currents, eddies, whirlpools, etc., and admit of the current to flow by at a uniform rate of velocity. Referring tO' the method of protecting banks by spur dikes and mattresses, it will be observed that the spur dikes fail in their object for the reason that the practice has been to place them directly in a caving bank, about 1,000 or 1,500 feet apart, and thus form a veritable dam, decreasing the cross section of the river by the area of their sides ex- posed to the current, which is a dike, 400 feet long and having an average height of 6 feet, would be 2,400 square feet of area taken from the cross sec- tion of river; and these reductions in cross section necessarily require that the ^•oluI'ne of water pass- ing same will be checked until an increased head directly above the dike is provided in order to se- cure the increased velocit)' to pass the same volume of water through the contracted channel, which interferes with the uniform velocity and causes the formation of cross currents, which set directly into and against the bank, which it is desired to pro- tect, with sufficient force to very rapidly cause caving of the bank just abo\-e as also just below the location occupied by the structure. Hence sour dikes placed in the lower Mississippi posi- tively accelerate rather than retard the caving of any bank along which they are placed. Referring to the mattresses, they have proved unsuccessful to practically protect an abrading bank, for the reason that they are laid on the bank as it happens to exist withoitt any attempt being made to eliminate the rough contours of bank, and thus they fail in eliminating the cross cun-ents, counter currents, eddies, etc. And, again, they do not extend sufficiently high for the surface flow of a flood river to impinge against same, and as a 262 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : Location of Box Levees on North Peters Street in 1897, entirely closing same along Third District Front, before Pile Bank Protection was started. Moving Levee Riverward and Opening Street, Third District. I'U UULIL Showing location of Pile Bank Protection Work, as inaugurated in 1897, moving Levee forward, opening North Peters Street, saving of the properties and enhancing the value in squares which would have been destroyed if Levees had been placed on Chartres Street, as contemplated in 1897. Past— Present— Prospective 263 Location of Mud Box and Foreshore, as existing prior to inauguration of the Pile Bank Protection Work. Removing Mud Box built in 1S96, building Earth Levee riverward and opening Peters Street, Third District, New Orleans. Pile Bank Protection Work in Third District, as now existing. 264 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : consequence the current often alirades the Ijank be- hind them and the mattresses and bank all cave into the river. Again, the mattress work, as any other protection work shoukl do to be successful, must begin at a point where the abrading bank be- gins and be laid continuously. Again, even if the mattresses are laid on a uniform contour and are laid continuously from the upper end of an abrading bank and are extended sufficiently high for the sur- face flow of a flood river to impinge against same, they do not admit of any extension of a concave bank which is necessar)- in order to render gradu- ally less intense the force of the current ag'ainst any structure which may be placed and to gradu- all}^ eliminate altogether the necessity of any structure other than the new natural bank which will be eventually formed. The absolute failure of mattress work to protect abrading banks has been very thoroughly and posi- tively demonstrated. Mattresses were placed and replaced between the years 1875 and 1SS2, at be- tween Marigny and Spain streets, but no cessation of the abrading of bank and caving of the pier head whar\^es was caused until 1892, when a continuous wharf was built, and no abrading of bank or caving of whaiwes has occurred since. Spur dikes and mattresses were placed in the third district bend between the years 1886 and 1893, but no cessation of caving' was occasioned; in fact it is not certain but that they accelerated the abrading and caving' of bank, which continued very rapidly until 1S97, when the line of protection was a mud box placed directly against the highly im- proved property, annihilating the former paved Front street and batture, and when in 1897 the concensus of engineering opinion was to destroy the highly improved property and construct a levee 300 feet back; and with such results of what value was the spur dike and mattresses as a bank protection? As a matter of fact, the river bank in 1897 was 75 to- 100 feet further inshore than when the mattresses were laid, hence, where were the mattresses in 1897? Figures 1 and 2 show position of two of these mattresses in third district in 1898. Has the mattress placed at Gouldsboro been of any value when in 1898 a cave occurred directly behind the work, engulfing the mattress, neces- sitating the building of a new levee and the aban- donment of a large tract of ground? Figure 3 shows the extent of caving at the Gouldsboro mat- tress in 1898. I would also refer to the recent caving of the bank at Southport, where mattresses and spur dikes had been placed at very large cost, and where the caving in September, 1900, directly behind the location of the work, has been of such large extent as to necessitate the immediate construction of a new levee to protect against inundation, and to render insecure the extensive wharf and elevator improvements owned by the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley R. R. Co. In fact the levee now being built places all these improvements and a large tract of valuable ground on the river side of levee. In fact, is an instance recorded where mattresses and spur dikes have rendered unnecessar)' the moving back of levee? Directh' after the extraordinary high water of March and April, 1897, the Orleans Levee Board was confronted with extremely serious conditions of levees in third district of the cit}-. For nearly a mile the protection of the city against inundation consisted of a box levee 8 feet wide, placed directly aeainst highly improved manufacturing and resi- dence property, and the river bank had abraded to such extent that these mud boxes were located directly on the brink of the river. This rapid abra- sion of the bank occurred notwithstanding the fact that the United States Government had placed throughout this stretch very extensive work of the spur dike and mattress type; as a matter of fact they were engaged in this work for several years. The situation at this time, 1897, was such that extraordinary drastic measures had to be adopted. The concensus of opinion amongst all the engin- eers. Federal, State and city, in fact their recom- mendations were that a new levee be constructed in rear of the existing mud box levees throughout the stretch; and their recommendations were most strenuously urged by the press and otherwise not- withstanding the fact that such a measure would necessitate the destruction of a verjr large amount of valuable manufacturing- and residence property, and would annihilate several important manufac- turing industries which gave employment, in the aggreg-ate, to some 400 and 500 hands. The Or- leans Levee Board was extremely loath to de- stroy this valuable property, and after a very thor- ough consideration of the matter, and in opposi- tion to public opinion as delineated b}' the press, they determined to attempt to hold the then ex- isting line of levee by bank protection work, and the methods recommended bv the writer were Past— Present— Prospective 265 Two Views of work done by the Orleans Levee Board, protecting New Orleans Harbor. Photosraphs by Mississippi River Commission. ' * ' J [Note.— Engraving does not show full relative depth of Piles.— £d.] Pile Bank Protection Work in Third District, showing proposed work of New Levee Revetment, placing same on Piles and opening North Peters Street. [Note.— Engraving does not show full relative depth of Piles.— Ed.] Pile Bank Protection Work in Third District, showing ultimate plan of work, with River Slope to Levee, provided Commerce does not utilize the front and material woodwork. 266 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r. adopted and work inaugurated at once. Figure 4 shows the position of the levees as they existed throughout this stretch in 1897 and the hetched scjuares which are highly improved and which were to be destroyed if levee was moved back. Figure 5 shows the position of protection work and levee, and street opened, as contemplated by the method adopted in 1897. Figure 6 is a cross section showing the relative position of the box levee, river bank and improved property as existed in 1897. The method which was adopted and which I will term "Pile Bank Protection Work," embraces three stages, each stage to^ be executed at such time as conditions determine. The first stage is shown by Figure 7 and embraces the driving of piles throughout the stretch 70 to 80 feet long, at a uniform distance apart and the work extending into the river to such line as will best receive and guide the current past the abrad- ing stretch, the whole work being vei-y thoroughly braced and secured together. The piles of bulk- head row being spaced closer together and support- ing a water-tight sheet pile bulk-head, forming sup- port for levee of increased dimensions over that of the mud box as shown. The results of the work were highly satisfac- tory, the banks not only ceased to abrade, but ac- tually accretioned, and the slope of bank was materially improved, which improvement as de- termined by soundings recently made, is still con- tinuing. The conditions of the bank throughout the stretch were in such condition in 1899 that the second stage of the work was inaugurated. This stage is shown by Figure 8, and consists of the an- nihilating of old mud box, driving of new bulk- head on river side of the one driven in 1897, and the placing of a strong substantial earth levee on the river side of Front street, directly into the river as it existed in 1897, and the opening up and re- gaining use of street. It will be observed that the piles driven in 1897, which were located in line of levee were cut off below street surface and addi- tional piles driven and the levee placed on these piles and supported thereby, the same as a building, which transmits the weight of levee to a plane on line near bottom of river and relieves the batture and bank of the weight of levee. Figures 7 and 8 show the moving of levee river- ward in course of execution. The third or last stage, as shown by Figure 9, contemplates the placing of a river slope of earth on the levee as constructed during second stage and supporting same on piles and is tO' be under- taken at such time as desired, it being the intention to execute this work when the bulk-head in front has deteriorated to such extent as to require re- newal, and after this river slope is completed to protect the earth by a light wave wash revetment in front as shown in Figure 9. The conditions secured by Pile Bank Protection Work are that the work extends continuously from the upper end of an abrading bank sufficiently far into the bend to throw the current from the shore; that it extends above highest flood line and suffi- ciently far into the river tO' affect 30 or 40 feet of the body of a high river; that the piles are placed at a uniform: distance apart and provide a uniform ob- struction to current striking same; that the front or river line of work is placed to such line as tO' best re- ceive and guide the current past the work; and the theory of the success of the work is that the flow of river for a depth of 30 or 40 feet is guided past the abrading bank at a safe and unifoiTn velocity by being allowed to impinge against the piles placed at a uniform distance apart and on such a line as to assist the deflection of current from bank, and which obliterates the cross currents, counter cur- rents and whirlpools, and checks the velocity of whole river sufficiently to form a gradual improve- ment of the bank of river, limiting the extent of movement of bed of river towards the opposite bank only by the gradual extension of the Pile Bank Protection Work into the river; all of which is in line with nature's laws, in that the method adopted provides the line of least resistance on the side or at the point where under unmolested con- ditions the line of greatest resistance existed, and securing satisfactory results by the utilization of the same forces which previously acted to the detri- ment of all interests. In comparing the results of the two plans which have been studied and experimented with, it does not follow that either of the plans embrace all the requisite qualities for bank protection, and as can be seen the subject is a most exhaustive and im- portant one, and there is no doubt but a continuous and careful consideration of the subject will develop methods which will embrace the necessary econ- omy and efficiency, and that the Mississippi River Commission can be harnessed and bridled so as to obey with absolute certainty the course which man shall dictate. Past— Present— Prospective 267 F. M. NORFLEET 268 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River A CREVASSE ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER By F. M. NORFLEET When, early in jMarch, the river had reached danger stage at Cairo, and the main tributaries were pouring in such additional volumes, I began to feel uneasy for the safety of the levee system along the Yazoo front, and especially that line fronting my planting interests on the south bank of Flower Lake, in Tunica County, Mississippi, I decided to make a personal examination, and to aid in making a strenuous fight to hold the levees. On my arrival there, I found 4 or 5 miles of levee which was below the general grade, and at a ver\" exposed place where the line of levee was running almost due east and west, and directly op- posed to the current of the Mississippi River. The gravity of the situation impressed me, and a meet- ing of the citizens was held to discuss the best course to pursue. AVe began to raise the levee at once tuider the manag'ement of Capt. T. C. Fer- guson, one of the Levee District Commissioners, with the best forces which we could muster. It soon became apparent that we had started too late, and with resources too meager for so large an un- dertaking. The chief engineer, and other of^cials of the Yazoo Levee Board, were engaged in a tremendous fight to hold the levee line at Green Grove, in Coahoma County, and all the power of the official organization was utilized and almost ex- hausted in holding that point. This was success- fully accomplished, finally, owing probably to the break in the levee on the Arkansas side, which al- lowed the crest of the great rise to flow off through the White River basin. The energies of the Levee Board were then turned toward getting men and -material to aid us on the Flower Lake front, which was placed under the control of Capt. A. L. Dabney, but, as stated above, it was too late — Grant and his army could hardly have saved the day then. The land back of, and along the line of, the levees had become so thoroughly saturated with seep water, that dirt could no longer be had to fill sacks, nor for wheel- barrows. It w-as evident that the great river would break through the feeble barriers which we interposed to stay its ravages, and, although we had piled sacks of earth on top of the levee four and five deep, and backed them up with dirt for miles, we could see the rushing floods might well laugh at our puny efforts, and that we had not planned by half what was necessary. Preparations now must be made for the inevitable! On Saturday after- noon, April 3, I told the heads of families living on my place to discontinue work on the levee (we had considerable outside help by this time), and to ar- range to protect their families and save their household effects and livestock. We had already built an inclosure adjoining a strong piece of levee, and had corraled all the livestock on the place so that in case of a levee break, it would only be necessary to open a gate and drive them over this protection levee, where they would be safe. Natur- ally, I felt a great responsibility for the lives of about 200 women and children on my place who were in the darkness of the night, amid the most terrific rain and wind storms, and peals of thunder which shook the very earth itself, sleeping in their beds from 6 to 10 feet below the surface of the water, which for miles in their front was being held back by a levee soaked through and through, and leak- ing in myriads of places, and trickling over the tops here, there, and everywhere. I was apprehensive that this great menacing wall of water might break through in the darkness of the night like a Niagara and carry death and destruction in its path. I could not sleep. I have been in front of the can- non's mouth, and have heard the rattle of mus- ketry and the whistling of bullets, but I had never felt such an awful dread before. If the crash could have come earlier, before the water had been dammed to such a great height, the danger would have been less, but the long-drawn-out fight and higher water intensified the expected calamity. I sat in a chair all that night in a drizzling rain on the levee, with a dozen barefoot negro boys to patrol the levee with lanterns to see if the water was com- Past— Present— Prospective 269 M „ ■b. -■"■'""^jft^HB _|||_ m m^^U ^^^^IHIkc ^ _^^^g ■'-■■, ^^^^3 f \ ^m^ BEGINNING OF A CREVASSE CREVASSE AT ITS MAXIMUM 270 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; ing- throug-h — to detect signs of immediate danger (a man with shoes on could not stand or walk on the levees at night). When daylight came — that beautiful Sunday morning — I could see the prog- ress the river had made during that awful long night. I saw at once that all hope was gone — • that it would be impossible to hold the levee until noon. I went to plantation headquarters and noti- fied the manager that all was over, and that he could prepare for the worst. Old Sol was then rising — clear and beautiful — for the first time in days. He seemed to have his face unveiled to see, without hindrance, the fearful crash of water that in the next few hours would break through the artificial barriers that staid their way, and cover the homes and lands of thousands of people with its en- gulfing waves. I tried to compose myself for a short sleep, but it was impossible. The danger and the excitement of the moment had caused sleep to vanish from my eyes. Accompanied by Mr. T. H. McKenzie, of Lulu, Miss., we mounted our horses and went back to see if anything more could be done. On reaching the levee I found a squad of negroes and whites that had been instructed to take the place of the night force, still in camp wait- ing for breakfast, the hopelessness of the situation making demoralization complete. Mr. McKenzie went ahead down the levee to see if any dangerous places had developed in the last two hours. He had gone but a short distance when I heard him halloo, "Bring 25 men with shovels and sacks — quick!" We ran to the point from which he had called. I could see the waters breaking through the levee about one-third of the way down from the top — it was a high levee at this point — in a stream 3 or 4 inches in diameter, and before get- ting to where Mr. McKenzie stood it was the size of a stove-pipe, and in less than a minute of a water bucket, then a barrel, and before you could de- scribe it, the whole top of the levee was twisting in, and the water was forcing itself through in a great torrent, and striking the ground beyond the base of the levee with terrific force, rebounding in awful anger, white waves 20 feet high tearing great oak and gum trees out by the roots, and tossing them about as if they were cork. The ends of the levee began to erode very rapidly above and below the break, until over 15 acres were torn out like a great well, with holes and pits, some of them 50 feet deep. The rushing, swirling, tumbling waters made a sight of wondrous grandeur and appalling solemnity. The caving became more gradual until the break was about a half mile wide. But the great tension was over, and we turned our thoughts to getting the families out of danger, and preventing other breaks taking place before relief came from the fall in the river caused by this break. All during this levee fight, and after the crevasse occurred, I was getting valuable and practical ex- perience that can be made useful in the future. This is a description of the greatest crevasse that ever occurred on the banks of the greatest river in the world. The result of my observation is that there is not half the danger to life and personal property in being located behind a great levee when the break occurs as one would suppose. For instance, it was quite six hours before the water covered my place, and just to the extent that the water raised on the land side, the level was low- ered on the river side, so that by the time there was an average depth of 4 feet on the land, the river had fallen 4 feet, and the ^vater never attained anything like the depth that one would naturally suppose it would, as it was piled up from 10 to 20 feet above the height of the land against the levees. All the people on my place and adjoining places had ample time to get away to elevations of safety. There were about four or five tenant houses, which, being in the main track of the current, were washed a.wa^^ but, as stated, the occupants had plenty of time to move out. If the break had occurred at night there might have been some loss of life, but it is hardly probable. The rapid faU of the river after the break relieved the levee line above and be- low, so that it dried out c^uickly, and afforded a safe place to all whose homes were overflowed by the waters. The next practical lesson I learned was that as soon as fears are entertained for the strength of a levee, it is the part of wisdom to commence with all resources at hand at once, and spare no expense in strengthening weak places that may be known to exist. This can be done while the dirt along the levee is dry, and at from one-half to one-tenth the cost at which it must be done at the last mo- ment. It will not suffice to begin with plantation hands in small squads to strengthen the levee in time of emergency. To accomplish am^thing there must be well organized camps with ample bedding and cooking outfits, also proper tools, run planks. Past— Present— Prospective 271 SAFE ON THE LEVEE - BREAKFAST SCENE DURING FLOOD OF 189 BOAT RACE IN THE OVERFLOW-SCENE DURING THE FLOOD OF 1897 272 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : etc., on the ground in good time, and these outfits should be kept on hand, or arranged for by our levee boards so as to have them always ready. There is no class of work on the earth that the old adage, "Not to put off until to-morrow what can be done to-day," applies with more force. A half levee in the time of extremely high water is far worse than no levee at all, and there should be no cessa- tion by any levee board until the entire line is brought to its maximum height and width, if it is possible by any means to get funds to complete the work. A great part of our levees are below their ulti- mate dimensions, and it is hoped that with larger appropriations, and with more active work for the next four or five 3'ears, these will be raised above the danger of recurring floods. There may be before this time many more breaks in the levees, but the consensus of opinion among all practical levee men is that such a thing as a general overflow is hardly possible. More money and more dirt means more safety and more development, and we are putting great faith and great hopes in the action of the General Government. Past— Present— Prospective 273 'Tt^ iii^c^^ 274 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER FROM CAIRO TO NEW ORLEANS AND FROM NEW ORLEANS TO THE GULF, 1072 MILES Compiled by JNO. W. BRYANT, of New Orleans, From such Records as were Obtainable at the Cities Along the River Commercial Statistics— Statement Showing the Number of Vessels, Steam and Unrigged, Tonnage, the Transportation of Freights and the Values of Vessels and Commodities, for the Year from June 1, 1898, to May 31, 1899 The census of 1890 divided the waterways of the Mississippi Valley into three rivers of origin — the Ohio, the Upper Mississippi, and the Lower Mississippi. The Lower Mississippi was made to begin at St. Louis. From that city, and inclusive of the tributaries, the Lower Mississippi mileage of waterways was given as comprising 6,228 miles, of which 5,695 miles was being navigated in 1890. The 1890 census report gives the total of com- merce originating on the Lower Mississippi as follows, to-wit: Wheat, 528,800 tons; corn, 698,- 545 tons; other grain, 57,861 tons; cotton, 865,228 tons; cotton-seed and cotton-oil products, 392,988 tons; sugar, 131,918 tons; coal, 360,799 tons; a total of 3,036,169 tons. That included the river from St. Louis down. Another exhibit gave the tonnage as follows, viz. : Lower Mississippi, 4,374,- 671 tons; White River, 86,398 tons; Arkansas River, 1,663,817 tons; Yazoo River, 77,380 tons; Ouachita River, 93,707 tons; Red River, 105,145 tons; a grand total of 6,401,203 tons. Just how 865,228 tons cotton, equal (at 500 pounds to the bale) to 3,460,912 bales, is made to originate on the Lower Mississippi River is not shown in the exhibits, and is not easy to under- stand in view of another exhibit in the same report, Avhich gives the total product of the cotton crop of Missouri, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi and Louisiana, the seven states border- ing the Lower Mississippi, as amounting to a total of 678,176 tons, or 2,712,707 bales. The statement prepared at this time, as stated above, embraces the river south of Cairo, inclusive of the tributaries, and is a showing of the tonnage and commerce not onty originating but actually passing on the rivers, and for the period men- tioned. VESSELS g :z: ^ "2, H H ?d '^: n> ffQ 5- CfC! 3 ru ^-^ ^ ri (T) ^ o f" r^ i <^ O 1 3 1 ^-^ Steam's 189 62,314 6,212 1,590,004 $4,381,000 Barges.. 1,635 1,408,814 2,470 2,082,260 2,003,000 Total. . . 1,824 1,471,128 8,682 3,672,264 $6,334,000 Tributa- ries. Steam's. Local Total . 61 3,193 Entr'ces N. O. C'st'm House. Total .1,324 1,928,061 Grand Total .3,209 3,402,068 The above exhibit does not include vessels, steam or otherwise, engaged in harbor \\'ork ex- clusivel}^ nor ferry or railroad transfer boats. Nor does it include the various vessels owned and em- ployed in the Government service. Past— Present— Prospective 275 COMMERCE the development of the raUroads across and paral- Between Cairo and New Orleans — l^l^^g the river; the comparison showed a diversion Total number of tons carried— tons . 4,708,355 °^ about one-third of the river business. The cen- Total value $94 605 762 ^^^ report of 1890, admitted by the Commissioner Between New Orleans and the t° ^^ incomplete in the returns from the carriers Q^^jl by water, showed over fifty per cent of all of the Total coastwise and foreign— tons.. 2,985,643 commerce of the country carried by water. Some Total value $144 704 136 ^^'^ years ago statistics of the river were prepared Grand total between Cairo and the ' ' i" ^he interest of a corporation proposing to build Q^lf |-Qj^g Y 693 998 ^ bridge across the Mississippi River somewhere Grand total value $239,'309!89S above New Orleans, and it was so used, but it showed a diversion of thirty-five per cent only. Of COMMODITIES course it wiU be understood that the railroads were The chief commodities moved by vessels, be- carrying more than that thirty-five per cent, for as tween Cairo and New Orleans, exclusive of the h-s been said. 'The watenvay creates traffic for local traffic in the tributaries, may be enumerated "the railroad as well as itself, makes raw materials follows viz • "cheaper, increases the number that are available "for use, and adds to the products of agriculture Cotton — bales 612,242 ,, , , , , ■ f * ^- >. ' and manufacture seekmg transportation. Cottonseed — tons 166,049 Sugar and molasses— tons 153,664 -^ president of one of the great railroad systems Lumber and logs— feet 444,539,180 paralleling the Mississippi River is quoted as hav- ing said; "Coal, iron, steel, and other freights It is nearly impossible to prepare a complete "should be carried by water, for the building up of statement of the river's tonnage and commerce un- "manufacturing industries by this means among less in the examination of the books on every boat. "the towns and cities along the river would give That requires opportunity and time, for, as it is "larger traffic to the railroads in more profitable now, always was, and ever will be, the steamboats, "lighter freight." The moral of which is, maybe, all of them, are not under corporate control. that otherwise coal, iron, steel, etc., would come There are lines of boats, but wherever the line, as higher. where the line is not, there are individually owned Three years ago an eminent civil engineer, whose and independently operated steamboats, which are interests, public and private, at the time were deep in one place one time, and somewhere else at an- in the plans for the building of another bridge other time. Because of this, and because of the over the Mississippi, said before a Congressional necessity of going for the data to each and every committee: "The railroad business is rapidly and boat wherever they might be, which was not done "largely increasing, and that of the river decreas- in this instance, a full table of the statistics has "ing." Now, he was plainly exalting the one and not been given. They call for only what was ob- belittling the other, but his facts and figures were tainable, and the record of no boat not visited has not so much in evidence as the location of some been computed. of the bridge piers he had planned, two of which. Some sixteen or seventeen years ago, the writer at least, have wrought destruction to life and prop- of this prepared for the use of the Mississippi River erty, and to an extent sufficient of itself to have Commission, a two years' exhibit of the river's served as a warning against the continued building commerce into New Orleans from above, and also of low, narrow-spanned and faultily-located one covering the two years just preceding the com- bridges. In truth, it is only just such bridges pletion of the Eads Jetties (South Pass), Missis- which are opposed by rivermen, who firmly believe sippi River. This was about the time of the that if the departments of the Government were passing ol the "river palaces" still so much vv ritten as zealous and exacting in the care of the com- about by mossback pessimists, who apparently do merce passing under these bridg'es, as they are not know of there being more tonnage on the considerate of the objections of greater cost al- rivers to-day than then, and it was coincident with ways raised against the higher, wider-spanned 276 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River CAPT. WM. CAMPBELL CAPT. CHAS. W. DROWN CAPT. J. B. WOODS CAPT. A. M. HALLIDAY CAPT. CHAS P. TRUSLOW Past— Present— Prospective 277 CAPT. L. V. COOLEY CAPT. E. J. COMEAllX >.^^R^ >"«*i CAPT. W. L. DUKE CAPT. C. S. KOUNS 278 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River - CAPT. JAMES LEE Founder of the Lee Line of Steamers CAPT. J. W. CARLTON CAPT. T. P. LEATHER CAPT. GEO. \V. REA Past— Present— Prospective 279 bridge, there would be fewer protests, and the probabilities of accidents reduced to a minimum. It has been the wonder that the authorities, while planning and spending millions for the improve- ment and preservation of navigation, yet permit of obstructions, and stranger still, should appear always so suspicious and unresponsive to the pro- tests of the rivermen. The steamboats have but the one way to go, but a bridge may be built which neither hinders nor imperils. A railroad president wrote: "The matter of 'transportation is one of the most vital import to 'all the people next to^ the cultivation of the soil. '* * * There is no question but that the 'cheapest transportation which can be furnished 'in any waj' is by a good steamboat and deep water 'in which to run her." • This 3'ear 66,615 tons steel rails, nearly 3,500 carloads, were towed on barges all the way, 2,000 miles, from Pittsburg to New Orleans and there transferred to railroad cars. Would the railroads have refused the earnings of that long haul, par- ticularly in the face of oft-repeated assertions that the long was cheaper than the short haul, unless, indeed, it was being carried the cheapest by river? Then, if water transportation is the cheapest, how can it be said that the steamboat is being dis- placed? At this last session of Congress a committee of business men from the Ouachita valley appeared before the Rivers and Harbors Committee to en- dorse and urge a proposed plan for slackwater nav- igation. These gentlemen gave in evidence the fact that when the steainboats get to Camden cotton is shipped YOO miles to New Orleans at $1.25 per bale. When it has to go all-rail — 475 mileSi — the rate is $3.10 per bale. Flour was 35 cents per barrel by steamboat, 75 cents on the railroad. Boots and shoes, all water from Boston, was 79 cents; all rail, $2.02. But these great dif- ferences in rates, they said, was enjoyable only dur- ing the navigable periods, after then the maxi- mum rates maintain, and this applies to^ every other stream. It being an established principle in the economics of commerce that the speedier and easier the products of a section pass along the trade routes, the greater will be the return for the labor of the producer, and the further will go the pur- chase money of the consumer. But this leads to the consideration of whv has there been this diversion of the river's traffic? There are three principal reasons, one, interrupted navigation; another, railroad bridges; the third, federal and local legislation. It is perhaps because river improvement does not always improve that rivers and harbors appro- priations have been called a steal. The people of a locality petition for steamboat navigation, their Congressman advocates it, the United States en- gineer examines, estimates and recommends. Con- gress gives the money (never the full amount), and the United States engineer expends it. There is no steal there, nor is there preventable waste, for the rivermen know of no calling more honest and conscientious than that of the engineer, just as others know of, there not being a better informed, more conservative, business-like committee in any leg-islative body than the Rivers and Harbors Com- mittee of Congress. Yet the truth is, there has not been realized the long-sought, greatly to be de- sired, satisfying results from the generous, as un- questionably wise, provisions of Congress, and the working's of the United States engineers, to un- loose the fettered waterways and give greater im- petus to its restricted commerce. Sand bars and snags still hinder and endanger navigation during the low-water season with discouraging regularity of recurrence, and for often the longest half of the )'ear — almost always from July to November, the season of harvest. When steamboats have to stop altogether or pull and force themselves over bars and snags, to the bottom of the river or in dock, serious losses are incurred. In most of the tribu- taries there are the same impediments to safe con- tinuous navigation, the same consequent exces- sive insurance (from S to 18 per cent), the same periods of enforced idleness which existed ten and twenty years ago-, and their betterment is still noth- ing more than a promise. In an article in the New York Nautical Gazette on the decline of the western river steamboat trade, it was written: "On the Ohio the chief reason for the decline "in the volume of business done is caused solely "by reason of lack of water. ''' '■' * Navigation "is suspended the greater part of the time, and a "great fleet of boats is tied up, waiting- for a rise in "the river. * * * "It is a fact well known to all conversant with "navigation on the Ohio River that if there was 280 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : MISSISSIPPI VALLEY MARINE RAILWAY AND DOCK COMPANY'S DOCK AT MOUND CITY, ILL. GOOD INTENT DRY DOCK, NEW ORLEANS, LA. Past— Present— Prospective 281 iTff^.w^^r^i^^*^^ DAVIS ISLAND DAM—THE INITIAL POINT OF COAL SHIPMENTS FOR THE SOUTH COAL IN PITTSBURG HARBOR WAITING FOR A RISE IN THE RIVER 282 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; SHIPPING COAL DOWN THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER — FLEET PASSING OUT UNDER OHIO RIVER BRIDGE ■, ^:<^-,:^;^^g3^i BARGE CARRYING 1,013,000 FEET OF LUMBER, SHIPPED FROM THE HARDWOOD LUMBER DISTRICTS OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI, CARUTHERSVILLE, MO. \ ' K '■. V' \ y >>!. '^ j '■ ^ k^ -r y fi» i ■;n^..:-I-k i^ ^ iM ^ ^L 1 ^^KI|fflSJ^^ t^w< M i n^i^^^p ^jij^EgJ^^I BE ^f\ > M |J i - 1 SCENE AT THE STEAMBOAT LANDING AT NEW ORLEANS— HIGH WATER 1897 284 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : "sufficient water at all times between Pittsburg and "the lower river that an immense volume of busi- "ness would be done constantly. Steamboats "worth many millions of dollars are tied up most of "the year on account of inability to ply up and "down the Ohio, while on-the Monongahela, which "is nothing more or less than the upper part of this "stream, steamers are enabled to ply the year "round, excepting, of course, such times as ice may "block the way. This is made possible by means "of the movable dams with which that river is "supplied." When this was published the gauge mark in the Monongahela stood at 5 feet 1, while below Pitts- burg, there was but 1 foot 4 of water on the gauge. It is this, these interruptions to navigation and consequent idleness of the steamboats, the discour- agement of efforts and investment, the bridges which hinder and destroy, and the attempts by in- junction to lessen the size of passing tows, togeth- er with the insurance made higher from these causes. To these more than all else can be at- tributed the decline of the river's commerce. There is the Missouri river, for iUustration: There was an example of the undoing of the steamboat, not by the railroad, not from the lack of patronage, but because of the conditions of which we write. The failure to improve or maintain nav- igation, and the many bridges across that river, the excessive insurance, finally altogether with- drawn, wrought such destruction as to finally ex- haust the most hopeful and persevering. But the disappearance of. the steamboat was not without incident. Though the river's condition was not at all comparable to that of the Lower Mississippi, of which Mr. Stuyvesant Fish wrote, "We can, how- "ever, expect to have the channel of the river so "far straightened and deepened as to afford trans- "portation by steamboats and barges at rates which "will continue to regulate those of railroads as cf- "fectually as the rate charged by the trunk lines "from Chicago to the Atlantic seaboard are regu- "lated by the water competition of the great lakes "and the Erie canal. Indeed, the almost total ab- "scnce of any closing of na\'igat;on on the lower "Mississippi by ice will there prolong this com- "petition throughout the year." Yet the merchants of its principal city soon found themselves in the grasp of that other carrier, which always pools rather than compete, and who. in order to get back something like former condi- tions were themselves forced to build steamboats to lift the burden upon their business. Though those steamboats were operated but a brief time, because of the proffering and acceptance of concessions not to be had before, yet the lesson was there, which is, that competition of carriers is as much an es- sential with the shipper as is a free permanent chan- nel in the successful operation of a steamboat. The one is the absolute indispensable of the other, for, as has l^een written: "Any diversion of the trans- "portation and exchange of products from the "natural route must be attended by a commercial "loss that will lay added burdens upon the people." Another great drawback has been the interstate commerce law\ That law was a mistake, in that it is not made tO' apply tO' all carriers alike, and so en- forced. Besides, it is so wanting in application as to hardly command respect. It is a law notoriously more honored in the breach than observance, and has been used to beat down the steamboat as could be done in no other way. Construction of this law has given the one carrier opportunities that no steam- boat possesses, or ever wall. A carrier which can at will force minimum and maximum competitive and non-competitive rates along its line is a power against which no steamboat may contend. A loss here or there is not felt with such ready means for recouping. There are, however, no such advan- tages with the steamboat, for when it takes freight at the purposely reduced, almost impossible rail- road competitive point rate, it cannot recoup else- where, for at every non-railroad point there is the ever-existing steamboat competitive rate. It is under such a law, supposedly to prohibit such con- ditions, that the steamboat is driven very hard. Mr. Cleveland once suggested that the Lower Mississippi river was great enough and had of itself merit sufficient to alone command the most prompt and generous care of the Government. That is true, but, as the bulk of the commerce carried does not originate upon that river but in the tributaries, their merit and necessities appeal just as strongly as that of the mightier river itself. So, let there be some more satisfying permanent improvement in naviga- tion, enable the steamboats to come and go at will, and thev will find employment and welcome; will serve and benefit, prosper and multiply to an extent which will justify many times all the aid and pro- tection demanded and given. s < a < H < •Hi O o o o < o o z STEAMER CHALMETTE ^i ■♦■■ ""^ -^ #'"^v t. ■'0c-::SaM«-'gate3:^j». 'f^a?».i».*to.-?»/'ga.j'; STEAMER DEWEY STEAMER JAMES LEE-OUTWARD BOUND INTERIOR VIEW OF ONE OF THE LEE LINE STEAMERS « # i STEAMER GEORGIA LEE— COMING IN S < z Oi > Q UJ u X H (I. o < tu H UJ O o < O 5 u H to a 2 lu CO u I U4 < 290 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : VIEWS OF NEW STEEL TOW BOAT AND BARGES IN PROCESS OF BUILDING. (The recent successful trip from St. Louis to New Orleans and return has been noted. — Ed.) > - •^ H ■^ O J3 -< z O -4 O < o V M -n lU O E o Z U O u — i> H > < a: O O a Z '^ o „ X -5 a a UJ 1) > "i~ a: O 0. — ■ c fe o I j= 1- >! G ^ 2 4) n « -J U <: UJ T3 z _l O ( ) > C UJ .2 _J Ul u. F O F. o Z U O < i; o a _i u. C5 » 2 ^ s O dJ I ^ oi a — ' ■£ ^ o CL « CO = CO ox S5 uj 2 5 M [1 > J U. F O F z o n o \- > < rr u o D. ^ o .^' z s E ^ H o 2 o oj o H > < OS O ._ J .9- (A ^ CO o I Past— Present— Prospective 295 A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE OPERATIONS OF THE YAZOO-MISSISSIPPI DELTA LEVEE BOARD ORGANIZATION From Report of Chief Engineer, Arranged by CAPT. A. L. DABNEY, Ass'i Chief Engineer In the beginning' of the year 18S4 the Yazoo- Alississippi Delta Levee District was organized by an act oi the Legislature, with power tO' issue $500,000 in bonds. At that time the district was in a most deplorable condition, having been swept over its entire length and breath by three successive overflows. As a consecjuence great industrial de- pression prevailed. Man}' plantations had been abandoned and the planters were greatly discour- aged. As a rule, even' man was willing to sell out, but none desired to purchase. There had been no levee organization existing for six or eight years, and the administration of levee matters by the last preceding' Levee Board, in the early seventies, had been characterized by all the extravagance, waste and inefficiency incident to public organizations dur- ing the "reconstruction era." This naturally re- sulted in a feeling of apathy on the part of the people towards levees, which was accentuated, after the collapse of that Levee Board, by a succession of low water years, when levees were little needed. But the disastrous overflows of 1882, 'S3 and '84 aroused them to^ the necessity of action if the countn- was still tO' be man's habitation, with the present organization as the result : Former experience had made people jealous and apprehensive on the sub- ject, and in framing the levee law great pains were taken to prevent the possibilit}- of peculation and maladministration of levee affairs. The restrictions in the law were at first so severe as tO' impair the Board's power for necessary action, and were sub- secjuently somewhat modified. NEGOTIATING THE BONDS AMien this Levee Board was organized and began operations in the spring of 1884, the only money at their command was a few thousand dollars, raised by private subscription, for the purpose of making a preliminary survey and estimate. This had to be done hastil}^ and imperfectly, tO' be laid before the Mississippi River Commission in July. The result showed that the amount of bonds authorized by the Legislature, if successfuUj' floated, would yield less than half enough money to put up the levees north of the Hushpuckana to the standard then aimed at. The Mississippi River Commission had then no means with which tO' aid the Levee Board, and per- sistent efforts to raise money on the bonds, during the summer and early fall, failed of results. Early in October the Board had a final adjournment and gave up the case as a "lost cause." R. T. Wilson & Co. were deeply interested in the enterprise and were disposed to give their aid, but had grave doubts whether that amount of money would accomplish enough good to justify the venture on their part. They came forward, however, after the final ad- journment of the Board, and off'ered to find money to cash the bonds at par, charging 2^ per cent, com- mission for the service, malting' it also a condition that the Mississippi Valley Construction Company should have the contract for doing all the work at 25 cents per cubic yard. The Board was called to- gether once more to consider this proposition, which revived a hope that had been dead; and, after due deliberation, the terms proposed were accepted. At that time the price demanded for undertaking to do all this work was not excessive, as it embraced all the incidentals of clearing- and grubbing, surface breaking, sodding, etc., besides assuming all risks from floods, and the obligation to have all the work completed before the next high water, the time then being apparently short. The work was parcelled out to several levee contractors, and in the outcome the construction company realized 7 per cent, profit on their outlav, as the record shows. „m il i M.ni ,,, , „ . unvr""'j.""""^wy^' E- ^ o -< OS H y) J a UJ > UJ § ^^ -J < bX < CO c LU (i n a < 00 ^ CL UU c^ c 0- (X) c/: tu '/I E s '-0 H 6 o N 6 o N < < >- >- 20S Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River D. M. RUSSELL WM. H. STOVALL D. A. SCOTT THE LATE B. S. RICKS A. L. DABNEY Assistant Chief Engineer J. W. CUTRER, President (center), Coahoma County. 3. IRA G. HOLLOW AY, De Soto County. , 7. WALTER L. KEIRN, V.-Pres., Holmes County 10. R. C. IRWIN, Tunica County 1. ALBERT A. SHARP, Y.&M.V.R. R. 4. E. L. ANDERSON, Coalioma County. 8. T. G. JAMES, Tallahatchie County. 11. B. L. JONES, La Flore County. 2. W. J. KYLE, Tunica County. 5. L. MARKS, Quitman County. 9. R.V. POWERS, Yazoo County. 12. J. A. CRAWFORD, Sunflower County. JCIN, Tunica County. ''• "■'-■■'"■ BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS, YAZOO-MISSISSIPPI LEVEE DISTRICT 300 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: EXTENT OF JURISDICTION At the beginning of its career tliis Board assumed control of that part of the river front lying north of the Hushpuckana bayou only, leav- ing the twelve miles of levee between that point and the Bolivar County line to the care of the Greenville Board. Subsequently the jurisdiction of this Board was extended over the entire front of Coahoma County. CONDITION OF THE LEVEES IN 18S4 The first survey of the levees, in 18Si, disclosed a condition that was rather appalling to an engi- neer who assumed the task of protecting the dis- trict from overflow, with an uncertain prospect of a very insufficient fund with which to accomplish it. There then existed an aggregate of thirty-nine miles of actual gaps in the levees north of the Hushpuckana, and about an ecjual extent of levee over which the water had flowed freely during the preceding floods. The remaining fragments were, as a rule, so insignificant in height and other dimensions as would make them noiw an object of ridicule to levee engineers. Added to this was the further fact that the methods of original construc- tion were crude and imperfect, and many cases of fraudulent practices were disclosed in the presence of cribs of wood and other forbidden matters found embodied in the old levees. They had, moreo^'er, been for a long time utterly neglected, and in many cases were so overgrown with trees, cane and thickets as to be scarcely distinguishable from the surrounding forests. When it is remembered that Cottonwood and sweet gum trees will in a few years attain a considerable size, producing roots enough to honeycomb a levee, and many of them will in a few years die and disappear, leaving no evidence above ground that they had once existed, this, coupled with other features of weakness men- tioned above, leaves small room for wonder that the old .system of levees was rotten and full of leaks from one end to the other, and levee protection had largely come to be regarded as a failure. Neither is it surprising that this frail line of defenses should have yielded like chaff to the floods that had recently attacked it, and broken into hun- dreds of fragments under the pressure. A large part of the work of renovating this levee system consisted in digging and carving out these numer- ous imperfections in the old levee wherever they were detected. Of the fi\'e crevasses that have occurred in this district since 1884, all but one were „caused by concealed defects in the old levee. LEVEE CONSTRUCTION IN 1884. When arrangements Avere consummated on October 10th, ISS-i, for applying the $500,000 to the work of reconstructing the levees, the Engi- neer Department labored under extraordinary difficulties, for lack of preparation for this large task suddenly thrust upon it. Being without a single instrument, without an assistant engineer, without an office even, with meager information upon which to base estimates, grade lines, etc., all of these things had to be provided with great promptitude, and a corps of seven assistant engi- neers organized and distributed along the ninety odd miles of levee line, with proper instruments and instructions, to provide for all the contractors and sub-contractors who were hastening to occupy the field with their working forces. The work was pushed with vigor, and by March, 1885, was all completed in a satisfactory manner. By these operations all the existing gaps in the levees were closed, the low levees raised to a higher grade, and the weak places strengthened. Although the available fund had to be distributed over an extended front and fell short of the require- ments of the situation, a reasonably strong line of defense, with reference to the high water of that period, was secured for the entire distance, which so inspired the people with confidence and hope that the Legislature of 1886 did not hesitate to authorize a further issue of $400,000 of (3 per cent, bonds for construction purposes. The annual rev- enues from taxation also increased in a marked degree, affording a surplus of about $100,000 a year for application to the work of construction. INDUSTRIAL PROSPERITY The industrial conditions of the district under- went a great revolution; property values went up, and from a state of extreme depression the country leaped into one of industrial activity. Tliis was evidenced in the greatly increasing revenues from levee taxation. In one county the levee tax yielded 300 per cent, more in 1890 than in 1884 (with an increase in the tax rate from 9 to 12^ mills ad valorem). RESULT OF LEVEE PROTECTION The general result of the efforts of the present levee administration to protect this district from Past— Present— Prospective 301 overflow has been that a majority of the people in the district have seen no Mississippi river water since 1884, except in the streams and channels. It is also demonstrated that one or twO' breaks in the levees, under most circumstances, would produce only local disaster of limited extent, as the channels of the basin are capacious enough tO' convey away such a volume of water as would escape from the river, with but slight injury, except in the vicinity of the breaks. THE SYSTEM OF LEVEE LINES The levee system of this district is somewhat com- plicated by the discharge of the Hushpuckana drain- age basin into the ^Mississippi river at Sunflower Landing. It was impracticable, within reasonable limits of cost, tO' cross the twO' miles of very low swamp lying" along the river bank here. To pre- vent the escape of water into the district through this gap. the le^•ee from below Hushpuckana was extended northward along a high ridge behind the swamp, tO' a distance of fourteen miles above the lower end of the gap. It extends to above the head of backwater, being located from two to fixe miles behind the front levee. Afterwards the "\A^ard Lake Levee," five miles long, was built, connecting the front and back levees. This line was built for the local protection of the land between the levees. The total length of the levees in this district, after the abandonment of three miles at the lower end of the front line, is 120 miles. It developed, after the occurrence of the Rescue crevasse of 1897, that to abandon this three miles (lying immediately below it) would not materially raise the backwater plane. The levees are divided intO' one mile sections, marked off by numbered stones. GRADES The system of grades, as first adopted, was three feet above the flood plane of 1882. Where higher stages occurred in subsequent years, the grades were revised from time to- time to^ suit the newly developed conditions. Since the 1897 flood enlargements have been made tO' grades varying from one tO' three and one-half feet above its plane, according tO' the im- portance of the le\"ee and the amount of money available. It is designed to increase these enlarge- ments in future, bringing the levee to^ a standard grade to be adopted with reference to the ultimate high water plane developed after all of the open basins on the river shall have been closed. EFFECT OF CLOSING WHITE RIVER BASIN During a few years past the work of closing the White River Basin had been pushed by the United States engineers, and the 1897 flood found a con- tinuous barrier from Helena to Henrico — a distance of 78 miles. In 1893 there was still a gap of 25 miles opposite lower Coahoma Count}-. The effect of this degree of contraction of the gap was to in- crease the flood heig'ht one foot on section 81, eleven miles below Friars Point, while the Cairo stage that year was 2.5 feet below its maximum. For some miles above and below the effect was felt, but was greatest at section 81. In 1897 there was a further increase of the flood height at section 81 to 7.1 feet above the 1882 flood. This difference would ha\-e been greater by at least two feet had there been no crevasses on White river front. It is estimated that, on section 87, the 1897 stage would have been about 10 feet above the 1882 stage. The complete closing of the St. Francis front must inevitably increase this water height. IMPROVED METHODS OF CONSTRUC- TION As. a consequence of the combination of insuffi- cient present resources and varying flood conditions, the levee systems have grown up as a system of patch-work, which effect is heightened by progress in better methods of levee construction, great ad- vancement having been made in this direction during the past dozen years in consequence of greater de- mands on the resisting powers of levees and a more determined effort than ever before made to suc- cessfully control the floods of the Mississippi river. Much of the improvement in the methods of levee building is due also' to the growing experience of engineers and a more serious purpose to study the subject closely. Indeed, prior to about the year 188-4 lack of means so dominated in levee matters that very unscientific methods of construction and location were necessarily resorted to, with the in- evitable result of uneconomical expenditure of money, and levees that gzxe way under the pressure of every hig'h water. With the infusion of Government funds in recent 3-ears, and increased means from local sources, much more thorough methods of construction have been introduced, and we now build levees to stand high water without breaking. 302 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River COST OF LEVEE PROTECTION It is probably fortunate for the interests of levee protection that it could not be foreseen, a dozen years ago, what increasing demands would arise to build levees that would certainly give security from overflow, and to^ meet increasing" flood elevations, due to increasing progress in levee extension. A complete foreknowledge of the enormous expen- ditures involved, instead of a gradual realization, would probably have discouraged all attempts at beginning, whereas enough has already been accom- plished in this district to justify the expenditure made, and complete and permanent security from overflow is now easily within the grasp of the peo- ple, provided there is no relaxation in their efforts tmtil it is accomplished. COMPLETION OF THE LEVEE SYSTEM AND ULTIMATE RESULTS The work of confining the entire volume of water to the channel of the river will probably reach its completion in a few years. ^Vith this consumma- tion we may expect to be able to ascertain the ulti- mate maximum flood heights to which our levee systems must be adjusted for future security from overflow. STATEMENT OF EXPENDITURE The following is a statement of the expenditures of this levee district for all purposes, from the date of its organization to Mav 1st, 1900 : It should be noted that the item of "construc- tion" embraces, besides the "cubic yards," all extra work, such as clearing, grubbing", sodding, etc. Also that the item of "levee maintenance" includes the cost of a repair force, which has been at work con- stantly, and employed mainly in adding dirt to the levee where conditions were such as to make it im- practicable to secure measurements of this work in cubic yards. To^ have these figures would materially increase the aggregate shown below. A considerable expen- diture was made for extra work on United States Go^'ernment contracts, not provided for in the Gov- ernment specifications. The item "engineering expenses" embraces much expenditure outside of the pay received by the en- gineers, of a character too miscellaneous to enum- erate. Construction, 13,376,933 cubic yards. $2,496,852.90 Levee maintenance (including some construction by repair force) 214,924.89 All other expenditures 1,768,338.73 Total expenditures by Levee Board. $4, 480,116. 52 Total appropriations tO' this district by U. S. Government in same time. . . $933,750.00 The district has issued its bonds tO' the amount of $1,400,000.00, the proceeds from the sale of which were applied to levee purposes. Of these bonds the sum of $323,000.00 have been purchased bv the Board and canceled. I. J. M.JAYNE, President, Washington County. 2. FRED CLARK, Bolivar County. 3. W. C. BOYD, Bolivar County. 4. W.M.HARRIS. Issaquena County. 5. W. E. MONTGOiWERY, Secretary. 6. ABE BLUM, Washington County (Appointed 1900 ). 7. G.T.DARDEN,Sharliey County. S. WALTER SILLERS. Attorney. 9. J. M. MONTGOMERY, Washington County i Resigned 1900.) 304 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : C. H. WEST Chief Engineer W. C. DULANEY Former Collector GEO. M. HELM Former Ciiief Engineer ROBERT SOMERVILLE Assistant Ciiief Engineer OF THE MISSISSIPPI LEVEE DISTRICT Past— Present— Prospective 305 BRIEF HISTORY OF LEVEE BUILDING IN THE MISSIS- SIPPI LEVEE DISTRICT By C. H. west The earliest levee building in this district was done by the planters living along the immediate river front; usuall}^ each planter did the work on the front of his own place, but occasionally several united together in building' some levee that was of mutual benefit. Levee building in those early days was, of course, done in a very crude manner. The first levee built in the district was in 1844, not far below the present city of Greenville. It was not until about 1855 that any organized effort was made to build levees: About that time, the County Boards of Supervisors took up the matter in their respec- tive counties and issued warrants to pay for work done. The Count}^ Surveyor was sometimes em- ployed to run out a line along which the embank- ment was to be built, but no engineer was employed to layout or supervise the construction of the work. The first Levee Board was organized in 1858. This Board assumed the debts of the Local County Boards, organized an engineer force, and for the first time was there any system about the loca- tion and building of levees in this district. James L. Alcorn was the President, and Minor Meri- wether the Chief Engineer of this Board. This Board ceased operations in 1861, and during the four years following no effort was made to keep up the levees, and at the close of the civil war, owing to crevasses and other causes, the levees had de- teriorated to such an extent that the country was without protection from the floods of even inoder- ate high waters. The amount of work done, or money expended for levees up to this time is not certainly known; it was considerable, however, and altogether probabh' reached nearly a million dol- lars. The present Levee Board, known as the Board of Mississippi Levee Commissioners, was organ- ized in 1865. The front of the district now extends from the Coahoma-Bolivar County line to a point in Warren County, just above the mouth of the Yazoo River. The length of the river front is about 230 miles, and the length of the present con- trolling levee line 190 miles. The territory subject to taxation embraces Bolivar, Washington, Issa- quena, Sharkey and a small part of Warren Coun- ties, with an area of 3,593 square miles. The pres- ent gross revenues of the Board amount to about $300,000 annually. The rate of taxation is five cents per acre on all land, five cents on every lot in cities and incorporated towns, five mills ad va- lorem on the assessed value of all property real and personal, and one ($1) dollar per bale on cotton. The amount expended by the Board from 1865 to July, 1882, amounted to $3,557,918.47. The great flood of 1882 ran over the levees and swept them away in many places, but instead of disheartening the people it only aroused them to the necessity of greater efforts on their own part and an appeal to the general government for assistance in giving protection from the ravages of the great river. Thus it will be seen that the lessons taught by this flood marks the beginning of a new era in levee building. From surveys made just after the disastrous flood of 1882, it was estimated that the earthwork in the levee then existing amounted to a little over six million (6,000,000) cubic yards. Its height averaged about seven feet, but the embankment was very irregular in grade and section, and the integrity of the line broken in many places by yawning gaps caused by the recent crevasses. A discouraging- outlook indeed for a people who had just suft'ered such a sweeping loss from the ravages of the river, and whose only hope for protection from future floods depended upon levees; but they were not disheartened, and in July, before the wa- ters had receded from the land, delegates from all over the Delta assembled in convention at Green- ville to devise ways and means for repairing and building up the levees to give better protection. The rate of taxation already burdensome was increased, authority was asked of the State Legis- lature to issue bonds, and an appeal made to the general Government for assistance. Work was soon begun in earnest, and has never abated for a 306 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ■ season since, and the levees have gradually grown in height and strength until they are now five times the volume they were in 1S83. In 1884 there was one crevasse at Hughes, forty miles below the upper end of the district, and flooded only a hm- ited portion of the territory. After this, each suc- cessive hig-h water was held until 1890, when the levee gave way at Five Points, Catfish Point, Eastern, Huntington, Offuts and Skipwith, inun- dating the greater portion of the district. Again in 1891 there occurred one crevasse at Stella. After this there were no more crevasses until the great flood of 1897, when the levees were overtopped by the water and gave way in five places, viz. : Sledges, Stokes, Stops, Deerfield and Promised Land, and again nearly the entire Delta was flooded. The lessons learned from the high water of 1890 and 1891 were of great value, in teaching the necessity of greater care in preparing the foundations and in methods of constructing the levees, and from Larjiisi^e that time may be dated the true beginning of levee construction according to scientific principles. The entire fine of levee of the district now has a grade three feet above the flood plane of 1897, the highest past water; the crown width is eight feet, and the slopes "one on three" on each side, and wherever the height exceeds ten feet the section is reinforced by a banquette on the land side of the levee. This banquette usually begins about eight feet below the top of the levee and is twenty feet wide with a slope downward from the levee of "one or ten" for twenty feet, and then "one on four" to the bottom, thus: In some localities the height of the levee is thirty feet, and over the highest ground not less than ten feet, and will average fifteen feet over the entire length of the line. The present levee, with its uniform section and smooth, well sodded slopes, bears but little re- semblance to the levees of a few years ago. From Hlvefstel^ 7Trr77^77777777777777-r7rT77777T77-rrm77r77 1865 to July, 1900, this Levee Board has expended $9,326,689.47, of which $5,768,771 was expended since July, 1882. The first assistance from the United States was in 1882, and since then the total expended by the Government for levees in this dis- trict amounts to $2,861,670.84. The greatest hindrance to the building up of a safe and permanent line of levee in this district has been the rapidly caving banks in many of the river bends. From this cause, principally, 135 miles, or over seventy per cent of the present length of the levee line of the district has been abandoned in the past eighteen years. In recent years, the policy has been adopted of locating the levees at a greater distance from the river bank than was formerly the practice, and in some places of revetting the banks to prevent the caving, where an expensive system of levee was in jeopardy. Comparing the levees of to-day with the con- ditions that existed a few years ago gives great en- couragement to continue the work until a safe and permanent line has been completed. That this can be done is not doubted in the least by those who have been most intimately connected with the de- velopment of the system, and they confidently look to the accomplishment of this end in the near fu- ture. The system has already reached the stage that insures protection from all but the extreme floods, and it is estimated that three feet more in height, with a relative strengthening of the base, will give protection from any flood that may be ex- pected in the future. There yet remains much more to be done before the levees have been brought to the stag"e of devel- opment just indicated, but the great results that will follow are more than worth the effort, for the pos- sibilities of this fertile valley, when once assured of protection from devastation by floods, can scarcely be estimated. With the uncertain protection that has been and is now afforded, the improvements throughout the valley have been remarkably rapid, and with the same measure of protection, the development will doubtless continue as in the past: But with a levee system that will give certain assurance of protec- tion from overflow, the advance and development in every line of industry that will at once take place throughout the Yazoo-Delta will be beyond that of any other territory of like area in the past histoiy of the United States. Past— Present— Prospective 307 HON. A. H. LONGINO Governor of Mississippi R. W. MILLSAPS THE LATE WILLIAM G. YERGER JOHN L. HEBRON, JR. ST. FRANCIS LEVEE BOARD IN MISSOURI HINA C. SCHULT Past— Present— Prospective 309 THE ST. FRANCIS LEVEE DISTRICT OF MISSOURI By HINA C. SCHULT By a special act of the Legislature of the State of Missouri, approved March 21, 1893, "All that , part or area of the State of iMissouri known as a part of the St. Francis Basin, lying in the Counties of Dunklin, New Madrid and Pemiscot, subject to inundation from the Mississippi river, including all that area of territory which has heretofore at any time, either directly or indirectly, been overflowed by the waters from the Mississippi river" w^as formed into^ a Levee District. The act provided for the appointment of three persons, land holders of each County, as a Board of Directors, and named William Petty, Reuben Chapman, and John Black, of the County of Dunklin, John J. Williams, J. F. Girvin, and Alphonso DeLisle, of the County of New Madrid, and John A. Cunningham, Joseph Brasher and George W. Carleton, of the County of Pemiscot as the first Board of Directors. These Directors were appointed for a term of one, two and three years, respectively, in the order in which they are named, and their successors to be appoint- ed by the Governor of the State on the first Monday in March in each year succeeding the year 1893. George AV. Carleton died on the 31st day of March, 1893, and Hina C. Schult was appointed to fill the vacancy. The act further provided "That said Board of Levee Directors shall have power and it is hereby made their duty, to Levee the St. Francis front in the Counties herein named in this State, and to protect and maintain the same in such effective condition as honest, able and energetic effort on their part may attain, by building, repairing and raising Levees on the right bank of the Mississippi river, or such other places as the said board may select; shall have power to employ all agents necessaiw to the execution of their duty; shall determine the base, crown, height, slopes and grades of the Levee, and make all needful regula- tions and do- all acts in their opinion necessary to secure the Levee District under their charge from overflow by the waters of the Mississippi river; to assess and levy annually a tax, not exceeding five per cent of the increased value or betterment esti- mated to accrue from protection given against floods from the Mississippi river by said Levee, on all lands within said Levee District; shall call a meeting of the land owners in each of the respec- tive Counties within said Levee District in each County, etc., at which time the proposition to levy said annual assessments shall be submitted tO' said land owners, and if a two-thirds majority of the land owners in such Levee District who appear at such meeting shall vote for such assessment, it shall then l3e the duty of said Board of Directors to levy annually said tax," etc. The total number of acres of land in the District, subject to overflow from the Mississippi river is as follows: Dunklin County, 42,848 acres; New Mad- rid County, 135,747 acres; Pemiscot County, 269,- 380 acres. The lands subject to- overflow in New Madrid County are in the South pait of the Coun- ty, and the lands in Dunklin County also are in the South part of that. County (Dunklin County lying west of Pemiscot County), and nearly all the land in Pemiscot County was subject to inundation by the floods of the Mississippi river. The distance or length of the Levee commencing at the high land, at or near Pt. Pleasant, Missouri, to the State line dividing the States of Arkansas and Missouri is about forty-seven miles, about seven miles of said Levee being in New Madrid County and about forty miles in Pemiscot County. The Board of Directors met at New Madrid, Missouri, on March 29, 1893, for the purpose of organization. The following officers were elected: Dr. J. J. AA'illiams, President; W. D. Schult, Sec- retaiy; John A. Cunningham, Treasurer; and Capt. H. N. Pharr, Chief Engineer. The Assessors and Collectors for the various Counties were also appointed, and Pt. Pleasant, Missouri, was selected as the domicile of the Board as provided by law. At the time of the enactment of the special law creating the St. Francis Levee District of Missouri, 310 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River a similar law was passed by the State of Arkansas, creating the St. Francis Levee District of Arkan- sas, which comprised all that territory in the St. Francis Basin in Arkansas commencing at the State line, dividing the States of Missomi and Arkansas, and running South to the mouth of the St. Francis i"iver. Both the Missouri and Ai'kansas law provided for the consolidation of the two Dis- tricts if possible. In the year 1892, the Mississippi River Commis- sion set apart the sum of $264,000 for the Lower St. Francis Levee District — said District com- mencing- at the high lands at Pt. Pleasant, Mis- souri, and thence south to the mouth of the St. Francis river in Arkansas, a distance of 210 miles — and to be expended as follows: $88,000 in the year 1893; $88,000 in the year 1894; and $88,000 in the year 1895. The Commission set apart this money as an inducement to the people of Arkansas and Missouri to organize this territory' intO' levee districts and to assist them in commencing the building of levees. This action of the Commission was directly the cause of the organization of these twO' levee districts in Missoiiri. In May, 1893, the two Levee Boards of Missouri and Arkansas met at ,West Memphis, Ark., for the purpose of discussing the consolidation of the two districts, to determine where the first allotment of $88,000 should be spent; the Government Engi- neer in charge of the lower St. Francis Levee Dis- trict having expressed a willingness to expend this money either in Missouri or Arkansas as requested by the two Boards in joint meeting. It was decided at this meeting that the most important work was the closing of the gap' between Bear Bayou, in Arkansas, and Pt. Pleasant in Missouri. The work was advertised and Capt. Roessler on the day the contracts were to^ be let arrived at Pt. Pleasant. Prior tO' letting the contract, he discovered that the right-of-way through some of the lands through which the levee would run could not be obtained. Some land owners refused to give the right-of-way, claiming that the Government ought to pay them for the same. The contract was let, however, con- ditional that the right-of-way be secured free of cost to the Government by the Board of Directors of the Missouri District. The Board used every effort tOi induce these people to give the right-of- way, but they absolutely refused. Right here it is but just to say that this refusal cost the people living in the St. Francis District of Missouri nearly $150,000, for it is safe to say that had the Govern- ment been permitted to expend the first allotment of $88,000 in building the levee south from Pt. Pleasant, that the work Vi"ould have been made continuous and the District would have received so much of the other two allotments of $88,000 each to have completed the levee to- the State line. Owing to the failure to procure the right-of-way, Capt. Roessler withdrew the contract and pro- ceeded to advertise for bids to construct the levee from Bear Bayou,, Arkansas, running north. Bear Bayou, we should have stated, is eighteen miles south of the Missouri and Arkansas State line. Losing this money convinced the people of Pem- iscot County that they must put their shoulders to^ the wheel. It convinced them that they could not get any Government aid, and if they got a levee they would have to. build it. All of our people realizing the importance of levee protection were anxious to^ go to work. They knew that without a levee the country would have to be abandoned and they would be compelled to leave their little homes, but that with levee protection our district would be the garden spot of southeast Missouri. The Levee Board met on the 30th day of May, 1893, and made an order submitting to the land holders of the district the question of voting a two per cent tax on the $1.00 betterment on all lands in the district. This was carried by an almost unani- mous vote, and the first contracts were let October 10th, 1893. The prices averaged from twelve to fifteen cents per cubic yard, which was a great sur- prise to the members of the Levee Board, as it was thought that as the contractors could be paid only in Scrip the prices would be higher and the bidders few. There were over two hundred bidders. The bidders were willing to go tO' work at once and take levee Scrip for pay, but were unable tO' buy scrap- ers. The Levee Board succeeded in buying $300,- 000 worth on a credit. These were turned over to the contractors. Nearly all of our people who failed to get contracts at once began to sub-contract. By the 20th of October between two hundred and three hundred teams were at work on the levee in Pemiscot and New Madrid Counties. Work was continued in proper season until October the fol- lowing year. An effort was made tO' pay off the Scrip. This was not successful, however. In fact an opinion rendered on the legality of the bond issue paid for bv the individual members of the Board themselves Past— Present— Prospective 311 was that the Board of Directors of the St. Francis District of Missouri could not legally issue bonds. But the contractors finished tfie work except in a very few places. The total length of the levee thus put up was twenty-seven miles, costing $117,642. So it will be seen that while the people in Pemis- cot County, during the years 1S93 and 1891, built twenty-eight miles of levee for which they received $117,642 in levee Scrip, which could not be sold for more than fifty cents on the dollar, our neigh- bor, the Arkansas District, had their levee built from near Bayou, Arkansas, to the State line, a distance of eighteen miles, by the Government at a cost of over one hundred and fifty thousand dollars. In Auarust, 1894, the members of the levee board from the Counties of New Madrid and Pemiscot went tO' Memphis, Tennessee, to urge upon Capt. Roessler the necessity of expending the last allot- ment of $88,000 of Government money in the State of Missouri. After discussing the matter thor- oughly with Capt. Roessler, the members of the board, being ably assisted by the late Capt. H. N. Pharr, who was then the Chief Engineer for both the Missouri and Arkansas Districts, Capt. Roess- ler agreed to spend the $88,000 in Missouri. Thirteen miles of levee were built in two^ con- tracts, being finahy finished in the Spring of 1895. We were left with several miles of unfinished work along our line estimated at about 70,000 cubic yards. The Legislature of the State of Missouri, in the year 1895, appropriated the sum of twenty thou- sand dollars to the St. Francis Levee District of Missouri, for the purpose of closing up these gaps and building the Tyler gap and the Gayoso gap. Contracts were let to do this work, or sO' much thereof as could be done with the twenty thousand dollars. The amount of twenty thousand dollars was not sufficient to do the work, and through the earnest efforts of the late Capt. H. N. Pharr the Board succeeded in procuring an additional five thousand dollars from the then Government Engi- neer, Capt. Fitch, who had succeeded Capt. Roess- ler, being a part of the balance on hand of the second allotment of $88,000 made to Arkansas. With this twenty thousand dollars from the State, the five thousand dollars received from the Govern- ment and some twenty or twentj-five thousand dollars of Levee Script issued by the Board, the Levee Board succeeded, in the spring of 1896, in finishing the levee from the high lands at Pt. Pleasant, Missouri, to the State line dividing the States of Missouri and Arkansas. Since the fall of 1893 the people of Dunklin County, claiming that their lands were overflowed from the St. Francis River and not from the i\Iisis- sippi River, have refused to pay levee taxes, and the members of the Board from that County with- drew or failed to attend any meetings of the levee Board. The Board of Dii-ectors of the St. Francis Levee District of Missouri is now composed of William H. Huft'man, President; Hina C. Schult, Secretary; Alphonso DeLisle, Treasurer; John A. Cunningham, Dr. J. J. Williams and Jesse DeLisle. The total cost, including all incidental expenses for building the levee from Pt. Pleasant to the State line, is about $250,000. This levee, when completed, in 1896, had an average height of eight feet with a slope of six to one with eight feet added, and an eight feet crown, with a base of fifty-two feet. In 1897 the levee broke about one mile below the City of Caruthersville, and also broke at Tyler and Cottonwood Pt., Missouri. The Government came to our assistance and rebuilt these breaks for us in the fall of that year, n 1898 the Government spent about $17,000 in strengthening the levees in Pemiscot County. In 1897 and the spring of 1898, a portion of the levee at Pt. Pleasant, Missouri, caved into the river. This is being rebuilt by the Government. In addition to this, the Government has expend- ed about thirty thousand dollars in strengthening the levee in Pemiscot County from a point at or near Gayoso to the State line. This gives Pemiscot and New Madrid Counties a levee that is fully two and one-half feet above the point reached by the flood of 1897, and absolutely insures protection from inundation by the Mississippi River. Too much credit for the splendid levee protec- tion that we are enjoying to-day cannot be given to the late Capt. H. N. Pharr, the Chief Engineer of both the Missouri and Arkansas Levee Districts. It was through the earnest efforts of Capt. Pharr that our people became interested in the subject of levees. As far back as the year 1891, Capt. Pharr visited Pemiscot and New Madrid Counties and urged the people to take an interest in the matter of levee building. He saw that by the building of levees along the river front through Missouri and Arkansas, the lands denominated as "Swamp lands" could be reclaimed and made the finest agri- cultural lands in the world. 314 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- k&ss.. :>a^7'^y^^i- v-^-^^i-^-^ Past— Present— Prospective 315 BRIEF HISTORY OF LEVEES IN THE LOWER ST. FRANCIS LEVEE DISTRICT. By harry N. PHARR, Chief Engineer St. Francis Levee Board Office of the St. Francis Levee Board, West Memphis, Oct. 37th, 1900. The Lower St. Francis Levee District is that part of the St. Francis Basin lying between the Mississippi River and Crowley's Ridge and ex- tending from the highlands of Big Prairie below- New Madrid to the mouth of the St. Francis River, including all of Mississippi and Crittenden counties and parts of Craighead, Poinsett, Cross, St. Francis, Lee and Phillips counties in Arkansas, and all of Pemiscot and parts of New Madrid and Dunklin counties in Missouri. The total area of the district is 3,490 square miles. Its length by river is about 218 miles; its average width is about 25 miles. The present state organizations were perfected in 1893 and are composed of the Independent Levee Boards of the St. Francis Levee District of Arkansas and the St. Francis Levee District in Missouri, each board being composed of three di- rectors from each county in the district. At the time of organization the overflows of the previous several 3'ears had been very destruc- tive to the levees and the property in the districts, especially those of 1892 and 1893. At this time there existed local protection for a slight area in the vicinity of Osceola afforded by a levee about 22 miles long extending from Bear Bayou to Craig- head Pt., built by the U. S. Government to improve the Mississippi River in 1886 and 1S87. Above and below this levee the water was prac- tically free to escape over the banks into the low lands of the basin. The remnants of the old state levee, long since abandoned, which remained here and there along the whole front of the district, formed no barrier to and retarded but little the general escape of flood water over the bank. This levee was first constructed by a state organ- ization which was created in 1850 immediately after the passag"e by Congress of the la^w donating the swamp lands to the State for levee and drain- age purposes. A "Board of Swamp Land Com- missioners"' was organized to fix the price of the o\-erflowed lands, to district the State, to deter- mine the necessary levees and drains and to let out the contracts to the lowest and best bidders. Under this organization a system of levees was construct- ed, the few previoush' constructed private levees being used where possible and absorbed as part of the system. In ordinary years the entire St. Francis Basin was protected from Mississippi River floodwater. From the Delta survey in the autumn of 1857 and the winter of 1858 the following actual condi- tion of the levee was found to exist: "From the highlands below New Madrid to the northern boundary of Arkansas the levees were nearly completed. Between the northern bound- ary of Arkansas and Osceola there were about 2-i miles of unfinished levees. In the bend below Osceola was a gap 1-J miles long. Opposite Island 34 was another gap I-2- miles long. Between Islands 36 and 37 was another 2-2- miles long. At the foot of Island 37 was another 4 miles long. At the foot of Island 39 was another li miles long. At the foot of Island 41 was another 3-10 mile long. Six miles below Memphis was another 1-J- miles long. In Council Bend, near Island 53, was an- other 3 miles long". At Walnut Bend, near Island 56. was another 1 mile long. The above list in- cludes the whole St. Francis bottom. By summing up the dift'erent gaps it will be found that they were about 25 miles in length. "It would be a great error to imagine that the bottom was securely leveed with the exception of these breaks. The levees had all been iiiade since the flood of 1851 and consequently had never been tested. They were much too low, hardly averag- ing three feet in height, although some of them across old bavous were of enormous size, as for JOHN B. DRIVER, President 'centerl, Mississippi Coun:y. 1. 3. E. L. WESTBROOK, Craighead County. 4. 6. T. H. MAGEE, Lee County. 7. 9. S. A. MARTIN, Crittenden County. II. 13. JAMES FUSSELL, St. Francis County. 14. 16. L. W. GOSNELL, Mississippi County. 17. W. N. STRAUB, Phillips County. 2. J. T. FULLER, Poinsett County. S. ADDISON HARRIS, Poinsett County. 8. L. A. FITZPATRICK, Phillips County. 12. W. C. DEWEY, Craighead County. 15. R. D. GRIFFIS, Lee County. 18. H. P. RODGERS, Lee County. J. A. EMERICH, Poinsett County. FRANK W. DE ROSSETT, St. Francis County. JAMES LE VESQUE. Cross County. J. M. WARD, Mississippi, County. O. N. KILLOUGH, Cross County. ST. FRANCIS LEVEE BOARD IN ARKANSAS Past— Present— Prospective 317 instance a short one near the northern boundary of Crittenden county, which was reported to be 40 feet high, 40 feet wide at the top, and 320 feet wide at the bottom. Generally their cross-section was much too small and upon the whole they were quite inadequate to effect the object for which they were intended." See Humphrey and Abbot Report, 1861. The Board of Swamp Land Commissioners was abolished in December, 1856. Another levee act was passed and approved in January, 1857. The Helena District, embracing the counties along- the Mississippi River, had already expended its quota of swamp lands and some of the counties were therefore making their own levee laws. There were seven swamp land districts in Arkansas. Within the St. Francis District, organizations ex- isted in Crittenden and Mississippi counties and 10 <:ents per acre, on cultivated land, was levied for levee purposes. The Boards in each county were composed of three resident land owners. From 1851 to 1858 there was no considerable overflow; but in the April rise of the latter year several breaks occurred in the levees along the St. Francis front and the maximum rise in June of the same year "washed away miles of the insignificant levees along the St. Francis front and poured rap- idly into the bottom lands of that river which were .already deeply overflowed from heavy rains and from the crevasses of the April rise. So small was the actual reservoir capacity of that region that the channels of the six large bayous and the St. Francis itself were insufficient to give waterway to the flood returning to the Mississippi. For miles above Stirling it poured over the banks them- selves, washing" the remains of the levees into the river." See Humphrey and Abbot Report, 1861. Another flood of about equal height occurred in March of the following year and found condi- tions as the previous flood had left them. The District had not recovered from the effect of these floods at the outbreak of the Civil War, and with the exception of levees constructed by individuals none had been built and no organiza- tion existed until the present organization in 1893, when the conditions were as has been stated. Under the present organizations the tax of four cents per acre is levied on all lands within the dis- tricts. With this, together with the lands donated by the State of Arkansas to the District for levee purposes the Arkansas Board has derived an in- come in excess of $100,000.00 a year, and the Mis- souri Board an income of about $20,000.00 a year. Since 1893 the United States Government, throug"h the Mississippi River Commission, has made yearly allotments to assist the Boards in levee construction. At the close of the present fiscal 3'ear there will have been constructed a continuous line of stand- ard levee of 156 miles, extending from the high- lands below New Madrid to Scanlan's Landing, Arkansas, about 20 miles below Memphis. There has also been constructed 17 miles in Lee county, Arkansas, extending- from Bledsoe to Walnut Bend Landing, and three large drainage canals have been cut. This has been done at a cost to the Arkansas Board of $1,215,000.00. to the United States Gov- ernment of $709,284.00, and to the Missouri Board of about $200,000.00, making a total expenditure of $2,124,284.00. There yet remains to be constructed the gap of 26 miles from Scanlan's Landing to Bledsoe, esti- mated to cost $612,000,00; and 12 miles from Wal- nut Bend to the mouth of the St. Francis River, estimated to cost $350,000.00. Also several large drainage canals to cost $200,000.00. The enlarge- ment of the levees already constructed, to the Mis- sissippi River Commission grade, is estimated to cost $1,260,000.00. This total of $2,422,000.00 is the amount estimated as necessary at the end of the present fiscal year for the completion of the lower St. Francis Levees. 318 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : E. C. TOLLINGER Past— Present— Prospective 319 THE LEVEES IN THE UPPER TENSAS DISTRICT IN ARKANSAS By E. C. TOLLINGER, U. S. Assistant Engineer About all the information we have about the earlier construction of these levees is found in Humphreys & Abbot's Reports, Henson's Book on Levees (published in 1858), in the Federal Gov- ernment grants of 1848 and 1850, and the several Acts of Arkansas, on file at Little Rock. The earliest settlements were made on high points along the banks where cut-offs had oc- curred. Point Chicot was one of these and about the highest land in that section, and from Colum- bia to Lakeport the overflow was little then (about 1843); the planters were protected by a small levee in front, with side levees running- back into the sv^-amp. These levees were built by the land own- ers. This method was general and was adopted on both sides of the river and afforded partial pro- tection except during great floods. Better protection was gradually secured as the countr}' developed b}' securing a more efficient local organization, by aid from the State, and a small amount of assistance in the beginning from the Federal Government. Humphreys and Abbott state that in 1844 there existed a continuous line of levees from the mouth of the Arkansas River to New Orleans; many of these must have been mere ridges thrown up with a plow, and in a few instances the high points had no levees. The levees generally were small except where they crossed depressions and bayous. It is not probable that these conformed to any particular standard, but were generally one foot above high water, and five feet base for one in height. The high water of 1844 broke the levees in many places and bankrupted many of the planters, numbers of them leaving- the country with their negroes for Texas from this cause. Under the provisions of the "Swamp Land Act" of 1852, a systematic building of levees was again commenced; the recjuirements of the law were, a levee thirty inches above the highest known water, seven feet base to one in height, and as many feet crown as the levee was higdi. From 1852 to 1858 there was much levee work done, and the levee was put in fairly good condition from the mouth of the Arkansas to New Orleans. The line constructed at this time crossed Cypress Creek about If miles north of Lucca Landing; the drainage of Cypress Creek being down Opossum Fork for a short period. During 1858 there occurred a flood which washed away man}' miles of levees, and from this time organized effort to maintain the line was abandoned for several years, other crevasses and caving increasing the gaps, leaving the system in a ragged and broken condition. After the Civil War, there was during the first few years some individual effort made to keep up portions of the levee, but no definite data of this can be obtained. The Chicot County Levee Board was organized in 1SS6, and the work of closing the crevasses and repairing and enlarging the levees began. This work was paid for by a county tax, and voluntary contributions from citizens. About this time the Federal Government began assisting in the work and built the line from Boggy Bayou to Matthews Bend, along- which front the old line had caved into the river. The levee work done in 1886 and 1887 gave a continuous line from the Amos Bayou Ridge to the Louisiana line, about eighty-six miles. This line had variable slopes, crown and grade line, and successfully re- sisted the high water of 1887. Little or no effort was made to clear or grub the ground occupied by the levee until about 1889, the former practice being to cut the trees off at or about two feet above the ground, only a few feet CHICOT COUNTY, ARK., FORMING CHICOT LEVEE DISTRICT Past— Present— Prospective 321 of berm being- left on either side and earth being procured at tlie most convenient place without re- gard to depth of borrow pits. The highest part of Lower Leland was not leveed until 1891-92. Little of the old construction from 1843 to 1860 now forms a part of the controlling lines; it is gener- ally on the outside of the controlling line, and much of it has caved into the river, or has been aban- doned because of faulty construction. The levees constructed in my sub-district from 1882 to 1890, when not exposed to caving banks, were given 3 to 1 slopes, crown four to eight feet and grade two feet above the highest known water. The old construction at its best, and this only in very exceptional cases, was 5 to 1 front and 3 to 1 back slope, with a ten foot crown, the major por- tion of the work being of no regular standard. Since the systematic construction of the levees has been undertaken in Arkansas by the United States, the section used has been a standard one of slopes 3 to 1, crown eight feet, and grade three feet above the highest known water; exceptions to this standard being made in favor of one as much greater as the occasion demanded in the crossing of water courses, old lake beds, etc. A very careful and thorough revision of the methods of construc- tion has taken place, so those now obtaining are as close as possible to the best practice in the con- struction of earthen dams. Since these changes there has been no break in levees thus constructed. This has practically given the Upper Tensas District in Arkansas immunity from overflow since 1894, except from a small break in the Amos Bayou levee in 1897, which damaged only the up- per end of this district, but did considerable dam- age to the Tensas Basin country in Louisiana. This would indicate that the section for levees now in use is approaching, with proper construc- tion, the correct one, and that the increase of this section to a point sufficiently great to meet the increased height of the flood line expected from the closing in of the basins above will solve the prob- lem, after which a systematic protection of the banks should be undertaken to avoid the destruc- tion of those sections exposed to caving. This should be done now in many places, where the con- struction of revetment would be cheaper than the renewal of existing works, to say nothing of the property saving incidental. We now know by actual experience, that pure earthen dams built without cover of masonry, pud- dle or other material, with slopes of five to one and crowns of ten feet, will hold fifty feet or more of water, provided they are well constructed and on a good foundation. It is to my mind impracticable to secure from the United States, or any other source, sufficient funds with which to complete a permanent line of levees, so long as local interests are allowed to in- fluence their location. The question of damages to the property interests locally affected should be disposed of by legislation in all of the States, such as would tend toward the securing of more per- manent locations, at a more reasonable cost. As the cost of rights of way is crippling the local Boards, and in many instances causes, from lack of means, locations known to be injudicious. LOUISIANA-TENSAS BASIN Having only been in charge of this portion of the district about two years, I am not familiar with the early history of levee building in it, but it seems to have been practically the same as in Arkansas, ex- cept that a better and more complete system has been enjoyed, since 1884, owing to the policyof the State Government in employing the convicts in the erection of the levees (as an aid to the contract sys- tem), and the fact that the area of cultivated land, affected by overflows, is veiy much greater than in the Arkansas portion of the district, which has af- forded a greater tax producing ability. I forward herewith a series of diagrams which explain themselves, showing old sections and pres- ent sections in use for levee construction, the com- parison of which will readily show the inadequacy of the first efforts at protection from floods as com- pared with those now in use and proven to be suc- cessful so far as completed to the required standard. 322 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; t / i \ a I! I I 5 s O tit o 2 < u O z < X (J o z ? o X o z a. a s a Past— Present— Prospective 323 III,," m /KfS O ■£ ' 15, Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : ■^^^j^'^j ,t: w X H 1 1 |.i| .,■.•!- -5 .J -lit 360 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River the uioileni iiiiiiroxenients and disco\eries in agri- culture will (ie\-elop. Then wh}^ should not this wonderful basin .be able to pour its extraordinary cornucopia of produc- tions to the great world through the most perfect system of water channels known to sciences? The growth of this basin in manufactures, wealth and population since 18S0 are sho\\^^ on the reverse of the map which follows page -Ui, and presents a picture of wonderful activity and success in all lines of ag"riculture. mining and in all forms of industrial art. The total luimher of miles of navigable streams which the JMississippi and its tributaries form is over sixteen tbotisaud and a liberal and rational improve- ment of internal waterways and the completion of i:)rojected canals will make this much larger. In fact when the deep water canals which will connect it w iih the Great Lakes are finished and become a part of its s\"stem, we will claim these Great Lakes and their tributaries as a part of the [Mississippi Ri\-er \'alle}-. It now has a comiection with these Great Lakes by means of small canals at different points, but the proposition w hich now claims the attention of the people of the ^Middle West is the connecting of the Great Lakes and this great river through the Chicag'o, Desplaines and Illinois Ixixers. The Chicag'o Drainage Canal now empties the waters of Lake iNlicbig-an by these channels through the Mississippi into the Gulf of INIexico. The deep- ening" of this canal and these ri\ers will afford a solu- tion of one of the greatest projects of modern times. \^'ith the completion of the Nicaragua Canal and the deepening of the channels mentioned, the gen- eral improvement of the ^Mississippi Ri\-er, and by the use of steel barges, it will be possible to ship grain and other burdens of commerce from these Lakes, down the Mississippi Ri\-er. through the Nic- aragua Canal and land them in unbroken cargoes at i\Ianila, Hc>ng" Kcwg" and Yokohama. These barges of perfect sea-going qualities are now in use on the Great Lakes and the recently suc- cessful trip of similar crafts from St. Louis to New- Orleans, of which illustrations will be found on page 290, demonstrates the correctness of these conclusions and the possibility of this prediction being realized in the not distant future. The contemplation of the second century of com- merce through this river opened up avenues of spec- ulation of abnost stupendous width and romantic insight. Just as the "laughable propositions" of IMulberry Sellers have been tliscounted by the act- ual accomplishments of science, mechanical devices and colossal business ventures, so w'ill the chimera known as the "Mississippi bubble" be discounted by actual accomplishments in this rapidly advancing era of commercial growth and development. ^^'itb the further ad\-ance of the Mississippi Val- ley (I speak of it in its wider significance) in com- merce, manufactures, agriculture, mining, etc.. this great stream will become more and more important, and should be made more and more perfect as a channel by which all these productions may be trans- ported cheaply to till the growing demands from South American countries, and from the Orient, as well as to the extension of our great trade with Europe. An admirable article in prececUng- pages, contrib- uted by Gen. Leon Jastremski, formerly United States Consul at Callao, Peru, has shown some of the possibilities of this trade to a part of the South American countries. AA'hen we consider the entire South and Central America, the islands of the Pa- cific, and the Orient with its teeming- millions, we can nudtiply these deductions many times over. But it is useless for me to try to add to the statements made by Hon. M. J. Sanders, ]Mr. Stuyvesant Fish, Capt. John W. Bryant, Elmer E. Corthell, Hon. Charles Scott, IMaj. James B. Ouin, and others whose articles adorn the pages of this book. An intelligent and comprehensive plan of im- provement of the internal waterways of the LTnited States is something- \vhich is demanded by the farm- er, the merchant, the manufacturer, and even the vast railroad systems, which lind water competition not only healthful, but improving to^ their trattic, and adding- to the net earnings of their roads. THE NAVIGABLE STREAMS AND THEIR VALUE There are in the L'nited States, according to Poor's iMannal for 1S99, lS-i.S94: miles of railroads. These cost $.10,200,275,586. The expense of maintenance and improvement runs into the hundreds of millions of dollars an- nually. Now the K'l.OOO miles of waterw-ays fonning the }vlississippi River svstem should be valued at not less than $900,000,000. and its improvement should be rated accordinc'lv. Past— Present— Prospective 351 THE ALLUVIAL VALLEY OF THE MISSIS- SIPPI RIVER Linked with tlie improvement of the River, becomes a problem of stupendous importance to the people of the entire United States. It is the protection of the alluvial basins through which this river runs. It is unnecessary for me tO' discuss the equity of this mat- ter, for this has been sO' ably done in the article by- Judge Blanchard of the Supreme Court of Louisi- ana, formerly Senator from Louisiana and prior to that a member of the National House of Repre- sentatives, and for two terms chairman of the Com- mittee on Rivers and Harbors of that body. If the Mississippi River be national in extent, in govern- ment ownership', and in benefits, it should also be national in the matter of control. The measurements of the Mississippi River Com- mission put the overflow section of the Mississippi River at 29,790 scjuare miles, or a total acreage of 19,065,600. The estimate of the alluvial lands along the Lower Mississippi and tributaries has been put by writers at 41,193 square miles, or 26,363,520 acres, but in this discussion I wish to assume to treat it from the standpoint of the measurements of the Mississippi River Commission, hut remarking en passant, that the highlands in the various basins of alluvial formation, but above overflow now, which are exempt from the calculations of the Mississippi River Commission, are almost equally interested in a system of protection which would allow the safe development of the overflow sections, since they are now hampered by lack of rail communication, the extension which necessarily depends on safety from the ravages of periodical overflows. In elaboration of this view see article of Judge Taylor of the Mis- sissippi River Commission on page As an eloquent and truthful presentation of the whole commercial aspect of this question, and a con- servative computation of its present commercial im- portance, and future commercial possibility, I could not do better than submit an open letter which the Hon. Charles Scott, President of the Interstate Mis- sissippi River Improvement and Levee Association, has addressed tO' the people of the United States, in belialf of those who' live liehind the Mississippi River levees. This letter has been, and is still being, widely circulated, and has created marked attention and much comment, the latter being in the nature of wonder and surprise that the g'overnment of the United States has permitted a subject of such great commercial importance to suffer from lack of the paltry millions which would make possible this won- derful development. The subjoined statement shows the population for 1880, 1890 and 1900 of the alluvial counties and parishes of the Mississippi River, including those of the Red, Arkansas, White and St. Francis River basins. There are others which have more or less alluvial land within their borders, but those men- tioned below are the principal alluvial counties and parishes. SUMMARY STATE OF ILLINOIS County PopuLition 1880 Alexander 14, 80S STATE OF TENNESSEE take 3,96s Lauderdale : i4i9iS Obion ., .... 22,912 Shelby 78,430 Tipton 21,033 Dyer I5>n8 STATE OF MISSOURI Cape Girardeau 20,998 Dunklin 9,604 Mississippi 9,270 New Madrid 7,694 Pemiscott 4,299 Scott 8,587 Butler 6,011 Stoddard ■ I3-43I Population 1890 Population 1900 16,563 I9.3«4 5.304 7,368 ■8,756 2t,97i 27.273 28,286 112,740 153.557 24,271 29.273 19,878 23,776 22,060 24,315 I5.0S5 21,706 10.134 ■1,837 9.317 11,280 5.975 12,115 11,228 13,092 10,164 16,769 17-327 24,669 352 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: STATE OF ARKANSAS Population Population County 1880 1890 Chicot 10,117 12,419 Clay 7.213 12,200 Craighead 7,037 1 2,025 Crittenden 9, 415 13,94° Desha 8,973 10.324 Greene 7,4So 12,908 Lee 13,288 i8,8S6 Mississippi 7,332 11,635 Poinsett 2,192 4,272 Pulaski 32,616 47,329 Jefferson 22,386 40,881 PhilHps 21,262 25,341 St. Francis - 8,389 I3>543 STATE OF MISSISSIPPI Bolivar 18,652 29,080 Coahoma 13.568 18, 342 DeSoto 22,924 24,183 Holmes 27,164 30,97° Issaquena 10,004 12,318 LeFlore 10,246 16,869 Quitman i ,407 3,286 Sharkey 6,3^6 8,382 Sunflower 4.66r 9,384 Tallahatchie 10,926 14.361 Tunica 8,461 12,158 Warren 31.238 33.164 Washington 25,367 40.414 STATE OF LOUISIANA Ascension 16,895 '9,545 Assumption 17,010 19,629 Avoyelles 16, 747 25,112 Bossier 16,042 20,330 Caddo 26,296 31.555 Caldwell 5.7^7 5.814 Catahoula " 10,277 12,002 Concordia 14,914 14.871 East Baton Rouge 19,966 25,922 East Carroll 12,134 12,362 Franklin 6,495 6,900 Iberia 16,676 20,997 Iberville 17.544 21,848 Jefferson 12,166 13.221 Lafourche 19.113 12,095 Madison 13906 I4.i35 Morehouse 14,206 16 780 Natchitoches 19,707 25,836 Ouachita 14.685 17.985 Plaquemine il,575 12,541 Pointe Coupee 17.785 19.613 Rapides 23.563 27,642 RedRiver 8,573 ii.3'8 Richland 8,440 10,230 St. Bernard 4.405 4.326 St. Charles 7. 161 7.737 St. John-the-Baptist 9,686 ii,359 St. Martin 12,663 14,884 St. Mary 19,891 22,416 St. James i4.7i4 iS,7i5 Tensas 17,815 16,647 Terrebone 17,957 20, 167 West Baton Rouge 7,667 8,363 West Carroll 2,776 Population 1900 14,528 15,886 19,505 14,529 11,511 16,979 19,409 16,384 7,025 63,>79 40,972 26,561 17,157 35.427 26,293 24.751 36,828 10,400 23.834 5.435 12,178 16,084 19,600 16,479 40,912 49,216 24,142 21,620 29,701 24.153 44.499 6,9(7 16,351 13.559 31.153 11.373 8,890 29,015 27,006 15,321 28,882 12,322 16,634 33.216 20,947 13,039 25,777 39.578 11,548 11,116 5.031 9,072 12,330 18,940 34.145 20,197 19,070 24,464 10,285 3,685 Past— Present— Prospective 353 The above summary will show that these counties and parishes are rapidly increasing in population; their wealth has increased even more rapidly. Im- proved levee conditions are responsible for most of this increase, and with the levees completed to the line of absolute security, giving confidence to capi- tal and an impetus to railroad building and general development in agriculture and timber manufactur- ers, these sections would develop with amazing- rapidity during the next decade. A discussion of the growth in population and de- duction which naturally grow out of a summary and comparison like the above, will be reserved for the description of the alluvial lands of the various states. It is impossible that, with the reaching out after new fields for the employment of capital and estab- lishment of happy homes that these extensive basins, unexcelled in fertility on the face of the Globe, should remain undeveloped. As aptly expressed by Mr. Scott in his letter : "The trade which should be developed from the fertile millions of acres now covered with virgin forest, as they are brought under the plow, may be greatly needed in the near future to foster and continue in- dustrial activity in the United States." Our country with even its vast resources and its ever-widening foreign trade cannot remain commer- cially prosperous and industrially progressive with- out increasing development at home, and certainly there is no greater field, none affording finer oppor- tunity for the employment of surplus labor, than the bringing into commercial activity of these millions of acres of land, with an annual trade capacity of two hundred millions of dollars, to the consum- mation of which the national government should devote its energies. To show the wonderful possibilities of develop- ment presented, we mig-ht take as a comparison in the little kingdom of Belgium, which, with a total of very little more than one-half of the area of the un- developed lands of these various alluvial basins o-f the Mississippi River, has a population of 6,750,000 souls. With the same density of population there would be on lands which are now absolutely in their virgin condition a total of 12,000,000 inhabitants; or of the density of Holland there would be 9,000,- 000 inhabitants, and the alluvial lands of the Mis- sissippi River are incomparably more fertile than those of either of these little kingdoms. As shown by Mr. Scott's letter, the bringing into cultivation of the 13,000,000 acres which now lie in their primeval condition would cause not less than two hundred million dollars' worth of trade per annum. When it is generally known that these lands will be pro- tected by the general government and that the dan- gers of overflow are over, the rush of people and capital into these basins will discount the wild rushes to Oklahoma and other abandoned Indian Reservations when thrown open for settlement. And the resultant trade will be a dynamic force to keep the wheels of commerce and manufacture in motion, and to hold and increase the present activ- ity in all branches of industry. Ifnterstate fllMssissippi IRivet Tfmprovement .AND- Xevee Hssociation. CHAS. SCOTT, President Rosedale, Miss. \ HIRAM R. STEELE, Vice-President ..... New York- » W. A. EVERMAN, Secretary Greenville, Miss' PATRICK HENRY, Representative . . . Washington, D. C. FRANK H. TOMPKINS, Special Kepre. . New Orleans, La. JNO. W. BRYAN T, In Charge River Statistics, New Orleans, La Executive Board. CHAS. SCOTT, Chairman Ex-Officio. HIRAM R. STEELE, N. Y. MURRAY F. SMITH, Miss, JOHN H. RICE, Kansas. JOHN A. MILLER, 111. JOHN P. PARKER, La. JOHN B. DRIVER, Ark. GREEN CLAY, Mo. t ^^^^^ ~ AT LARGE. t GEORGE ARNOLD, Memphis, Tenn. | JOHN M. PARKER, New Orleans, La. .JJt.JJt.JJL.JJL To Business Men of the United States Having Trade Relation with the Alluvial Sections of the Mississippi, Greeting: The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is the richest and largest on the globe. It comprises six great basins, of the following designation and area : ST. FRANCIS 6,706 YAZOO 6,548 WHITE RIVER 956 TENSAS 5,370 ATCHAFAIvAYA 8,109 PONTCHARTRAIN 2,001 Total Square Miles. 29,790 It rests in the States as follows : IlvUNOIS 65 MISSOURI 2,874 KENTUCKY 125 TENNESSEE 453 ARKANSAS 4,625 MISSISSIPPI 6,926 LOUISIANA..... 14,695 Total Square Miles 29,790 This splendid area contains 19,065,600 acres, of which probabl)' 18,000,000 acres are susceptible of the highest degree of cultivation, but it is estimated that up to this time less than 5,000,000 of acres have been utilized for agricultural purposes. The total value of the staple crops raised on these lands heretofore brought under the plow, will approximate seventy-five millions of dollars per annum. What a wonderful empire of richness lies here yet undeveloped ! ! In the face of disastrous overflows, and the dangers and uncertainties of high waters, this alluvial country is steadily advancing in its productive capacity and in its importance as a market for manufactured goods and agricultural products. Since 1S90 its cotton production has increased fully 40 per cent. The Louisiana sugar crop from 1S84 to 1SS9 averaged 140,000 tons per annum ; from 1890 to 1895, it averaged 265,000 tons per annum. The people of this valley are the largest buyers in the world in proportion to their means, even purchasing most of their meat and meal, while the}' do not produce, it is estimated, over one-half of the provender for their mules and other stock. The great mauufacturers of shoes, cotton and woolen goods, farm machinery, furniture, drugs, liquors, and hundreds of other articles, find in this valley their best customers, while the raisers of wheat, corn, haj', mules, hogs and cattle, always find here a steady and growing market. With millions more of these fertile areas quickened into life, and smiling with generous harvests as the direct result of adequate protection from the floods, will come double, or either quadruple, demands for the output of the industries and farms; of all parts of our common country. Past— Present— Prospective 355 That such protection is entirely practicable is no longer a debatable question. The holding of our entire levee front in the sugar district of Louisiana in 1897, and of the whole line in many of the upper districts in the face of the great flood of that year; and since then, the safe conduct to the sea of the high waters of iSgSand 1899, without a single disaster, will convince every impartial mind of the efficacy of an adequate levee system, and that our safety in the future is simply a matter of money and engineering skill. We ask you, then, to help us get these ; and we, in turn, will diffuse our increased trade throughout the length and breadth of the country, thus adding to your prosperity as well as ours. The trade which should be developed from the fertile millions of acres now covered with virgin forest, as they are brought under the plow, may be greatly needed in the neat future to foster and continue industrial activity in the United States. A word now as to the cost of these improvements, looking to the reclamation and protection of this vast fertile empire : The Committee on Commerce of the United States Senate recently gave this important subject an exhaustive and intelligent examination, and their report indicates that it would require but eighteen or twenty millions of dollars to complete and perfect the entire levee system of the Mississippi River. This is not more than one-fourth of the present annual production of staple products in the section to be protected, and is not equal to more than one-tenth of what could be produced on its thirteen or more millions of acres of land (as fine as any on the globe) which are not now in cultivation. If by the spending of this sum, small when compared with the results to be obtained, we can bring about this wonderful development, which would distribute annually an additional trade equal in value to two hundred milUons of dollars, what a wonderful return for the money ! ! As an economic move it would be the best investment ever made by our government, or ever championed by those who seek enlarged markets for the output of our factories, and of our Northern and Western farms. But aside from the business and financial aspect of the question, there is involved in it an element of justice to the people of the valley ; for it must be remembered that the rainfall from the Apalachees to the Rockies, flowing down through nearly 16,000 miles of navigable, utilized waterways, is a constant menace to those who dwell behind the Mississippi River levees. We appeal then with confidence to the whole commercial interests of the United States, and to the great grange interests of the country, whose prosperity is so closely interwoven with that of the dwellers of the valley, to use their influence with congress to get for us immediate protection, that we may quicken into life an unparalleled development, as we turn our riparian forests into fertile fields. Give us your active support that we may produce on these millions of acres of virgin soil rich and abundant crops of cotton, rice, sugar and tobacco. The eloquent Garfield once remarked — "If there is one thing that is more national than another, it is the great Missis- sippi River." Give us your influence and assistance, then, to control the nation's river for the nation's good. You can do this in an effective and practical way by writing urgent letters to your Representatives and Senators at Washington ; not in a perfunctory way, but asking them as a personal favor and as a public duty to vote liberal appropriations for the protection of the Missis- sippi Valley. Do not stop here, but induce your commercial, industrial and financial bodies to adopt strong resolutions, memoralizing congress to take the matter up and solve it in the interest of national trade and prosperity. And, after all, both the country and the Congress should remember that this great public work, beyond the power of the riparian States, is only an act of justice to a people who have spent over thirty-eight millions of dollars in an effort to protect their homes from the overflow of this great national sewer, whose accumulated waters from twenty-sis. states and territories, embracing nearly one- half of the United States, and from a part of Canada, is a constant menace to their prosperity and an obstacle to their development. With the intelligent and active co-operation of yourselves, and other iufluentlal men having trade relations with this alluvial basin, we cannot fail to obtain Congressional aid for the speedy completion of our levee system, and I venture to add that in helping us to this end, you are also helping yourselves and all parts of our common country. I have the honor to remain, yours respectfully, CHARLES SCOTT, President. (Facsimile from original plate.) 356 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; THE DAILY PRESS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER ALLUVIAL DISTRICT But mightiest of the mighty means. On which the arm of progress leans, Man's noblest mission to advance. His woes assuage, his weal enhance, His rights enforce, his wrongs redress — Mightiest of mighty is the press. — Sir John Browning. PAGE M. BAKER UZ.1 Editor New Orleans Times-Democrat c 2Z-: THE LATE HENRY J. HEARSEY Editor of New Orleans States Past— Present— Prospective 357 •w W. C. CHEVIS Editor Baton Rouge (La.) Advocate JAMES W. LAMBERT Editor Natchez (Miss.) Democrat MRS. JULIA SPARKS RULE Editor Shreveport (La.) Elite MRS. HALA HAMMOND BUTT Editor Clarl^sdale (Miss.) Cliallenge '658 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: J. S. M'NEILY Editor Vicksburg (Miss.) Commercial-Herald E. C. CARROLL Manager Vicksburg (Miss.) Commercial-Herald J. G. CASHMAN Editor Vicksburg (Miss.) Evening Post C. E. WRIGHT Editor Vicksburg (Miss.) Despatch Past— Present— Prospective 359 W. J. CRAWFORD President Memphis (Tenn.) Commercial-Appeal Co. LINDEN E. BENTLEY Editoi Donald son ville. La. ,Cliief A. E. PICKETT Editor Memphis (Tenn.) Evening Scimitar W. M. NEAL Editor Helenj i Ark.) World E. E. ELLIS Editor Cairo (III.) Telefiran 360 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : RAILROADS AND THE ALLUVIAL LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER Some of the Presidents and General Officers of the Railroads which are factors in the Development of the Alluvial Lands of the Mississippi River INCLUDING SOME OF THE PIONEER ORGANIZERS THE LATE JAY GOULD THE LATE COLLIS P. HUNTINGTON Past— Present— Prospective 361 GEORGE J. GOULD President Missouri Pacific System STUYVESANT FISH President Illinois Central and Y. & M. V. Railroads M. E. INGALLS President C, C., C. & St. Louis ( Big Four) and Chesapeake & Ohio R. R's EDWIN GOULD President St. Louis S.-W. R'y (Cotton Belt) 362 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- THE LATE EDWARD S. WASHBURN J. W. THOMAS President Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railroad B. L. WINCHELL President Kansas City, Ft. Scott & Memphis Railway C. G. WARNER Vice-President Missouri Pacific Railway! Past—Present— Prospective 563 H. E. HUNTINGTON Vice-President Southern Pacific Railway .1. T. HARAHAN Second Vice-President Illinois Central and Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroads JULIUS KRUTTSCHNITT Fourth Vice-President and General Manager Southern Pacific Railway RUSSELL HARDING Second Vice-President and General Manager Missouri Pacific Railway 364 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: F. S. GANNOiN General Manager Southern Railroad L. S. THORNE Third Vice-Pres. and Gen. Mgr. Texas & Pacific Railroad Past— Present— Prospective 365 W. A. TURK General Passenger Agent Southern Railroad H. C. TOWNSEND General Passenger Agent Missouri Pacifie Railroad T. J. HUDSON Traffic Manager Illinois Central and Y. & M. V. Railroads l*^'' A. H. HANSON General Passenger Agent Illinois Central and Y. & M. V. Railroads 366 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r C. C. HARVEY President O. & C. R'y ^■^^ W. C. DOTTERER Receiver and Gen'l Manager New Orleans & Western R. R. and Chalmette Terminals J. E. LOCKWOOD Gen'l Passenger Agt. Kansas City, Fort Scoti & Memphis R. R. M. GILLEAS Ass't Gen'l Superintendent Illinois Centra! and Y. & M. V, Railroads Past— Present— Prospective 367 jtjjSwiAas, CHARLES HYDE President New Orleans & N.-W. Railroad LOUIS K. HYDE General Manager New Orleans & N.-W. Railroad LOUIS B. HOUCK General Manager " Houck Railroads" E. M. FORD General Manager Deckerville, Osceola & Norlhern Railroad s o o a. z O z D Past— Present— Prospective 369 z o o o s U4 O z D a z D o 3 o H o z Q z z O' H H O U' H Z > O 0- tu H O z o to 370 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: __^ ALLUVIAL LANDS IN ILLINOIS AND KENTUCKY Past— Present— Prospective 371 CAIRO, ILLINOIS By J. R. RECTOR, Postmaster Cairo, standing at the gateway of Modem Egj'pt, the Queen City of Southern IlHnois, is a living, shining example of the benefits accruing from the very system of levees advocated in these pages. The Cairo levees are the outgrowth of years of experience in the building of these bulwarks of safety. Away back, early in the Nineteenth Cen- tury, when the natural advantages of the point of land at the confluence of the two greatest rivers in North America first presented themselves to the early pioneers, it was keenly apparent that the prime requirement of all was some means of keeping the waters of these two rivers from encroaching on the homes and workships of those who might be induced to locate on the peninsula. That the pressing need of what we now call good levees was not apparent at so early a da}^ is evidenced by the fact that when an English company sought to obtain a foothold in this section of the country and establish iron works, mills, etc., on the present site of the city, they were content to surround them with narrow ridges of earth, crudely, not to say rudely, thrown together, and when the floods came the costly buildings and expensive machinery were swept away and ruin and desolation followed. This disaster, which would have been foreseen had our English brethren realized the power of the mighty rivers, resulted in discouragement, and a long period of inaction resulted. The building of the first railroad marked a new era in Cairo's history, and the inaction which fol- lowed the first disaster was succeeded by a spirit of push and enterprise, which has at last resulted in success. Resting securely behind a system of massive levees more than seven miles in extent, every foot of which is now up to full fifty-eight feet above low-water mark, with bases, slopes and tops built after the most scientific methods under the per- sonal supervision of skillful engineers, the inhab- itants know they are secure from the highest floods since Noah's time. Inside those splendid bulwarks the streets have been filled to a height approximating the levees themselves, thus lending additional security to the enterprising people who had so long warred Avith nature for supremacy. Most of those streets have been paved with a material known as Elco concrete — a species of broken stone mingled with iron ore found in inexhaustible quantities in Alex- ander County, only a few miles away — which is practically indestructible, and possesses the rare virtue of becoming harder and more compact the longer it stands. Supplementary to this levee system, which is confessedly superior to the far-famed dykes of Hol- land, is a system of sewerage and pumps, by which the city is kept perfectly free from the accumula- tion of water inside the levees during protracted high stages in the rivers. The pumps alluded to are located on the Ohio River levee. They possess enormous lifting power and are capable of dis- charging many thousand cubic feet of water every minute. The sewer system conveys all the water which may accumulate from rainfall or natural sip- age directly to the pumps, from all parts of the city, and it is discharged into the river. The result is that Cairo is not inconvenienced by prolonged periods ot higk. water.. Here not a wheel stapSy not a factory suspends, not a mill ceases running because of the floods. Now, what have been the results? Simply ines- timable. The liberal, broad-gauge policy of the city in inaugurating the pumping system as an auxiliary to the levees has already borne good fruit, even though of comparatively recent origin. Old factories, realizing that they may now pro- ceed on a more extensive scale without fear of in- undation or even a temporary wetting, are branch- ing out and building extensive additions to their works. New manufactories have been attracted here by the double inducement : proximity to an in- exhaustible fuel and lumber supply, and perfect protection to their plants. The advantages that Cairo may offer to pros- pective enterprises, or old business concerns seek- JOHN A. MILLER President Business Men's League C. R. STUART Secretary Business Men's League E. A. SMITH President Cairo Board of Trad P. W. BARCLAY Secretary Cairo Board of Trade THE LATE THOS. W. SHIELDS THE LATE W. P. HALLIDAY VIEWS OF BUSINESS STREETS, RIVER, AND PART OF HARDWOOD LUMBER DISTRICT OF CAIRO, ILL. 374 Riparian Lands OF THE Mississippi River : ing a new location, are almost innumerable. Take world, and is one of the leading hardwood centers the lumber interests, for example : The idea pre- of the United States. vails to some extent that Illinois is one vast prairie. Cairo is now recognized as one of the leading This is erroneous. It is sixty miles north of Cairo railroad centers of the middle West. Entering the to the first small prairie and one hundi'ed miles to city from the North is the famous Illinois Central, the vast plains devoted to agriculture only. The with its double-track system; the Mobile & Ohio, region south of the prairies is still more than half- running direct from St. Louis, and the C, C, C. & covered with heavy timber. There are luxuriant St. L., or Big Four system. Coming from the forests, consisting of various species of oak, black South there are the Southern divisions of the Illi- and white walnut, white and yellow poplar, hard nois Central and Mobile & Ohio, both of which and soft maple, black and red gum, ash, hickory, cross the Ohio River on the magnificent steel sycamore, cottonwood, sassafras, mulbeny, and bridge, the finest structure of its kind in the United red cedar, all readily accessible to railroads. Then States, and the largest, with one exception, in the the States adjacent, Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky world. From the West, crossing the Mississippi and Tennessee all have vast forests — yet virginal River on transfer boats, which carry whole trains of in their luxuriance — of the same kinds of timber, cars at each trip, are the Missouri Pacific (the easy of access by river or rail. Iron Mountain and Southern), and the St. Louis & Next in importance to the supply of raw mate- Southwestern (Cotton Belt route). Then, too, rial for manufactories is fuel. It is not an exag- there is the Chicago & Eastern Illinois, a new road, geration to say that a large portion of Southern which crosses Alexander County and connects with Illinois is one vast coal field; mines being sue- the St. Louis Southwest-ern at Thebes, coming into cessfully worked in probably a hundred places, Cairo over the Mobile & Ohio tracks. These give in deposits that range from three to nine feet in railroad facilities unexcelled anywhere, affording thickness. means of rapid communication with any point in ' The facilities for drawing on these almost virgin the country, forests for timber and on the coal mines for fuel Cairo has the finest inland harbor in the United have already attracted the attention of capitalists States, with seven miles of river front, where the from the great manufacturing centers. More than water is never less than thirty feet deep. This city , a dozen large woodworking concerns are in sue- is recognized as being at the head of deep-water cessful operation, and probably as many more have navigation. eyes longingly fixed on Cairo as a Mecca to which Cairo has a larger number of arrivals and de- discerning business men must sooner or later jour- partures of steam vessels each year than any other jjgy_ inland river port in the United States. Low water As an illustration of the growth of the lumber ^"^ ^" "^^^^' interfere with river commerce south business during the past few years, the following .1 ■ , 1 r ,1 az ■ 1 J X i-i ' AA'ith such facilities for commerce, and with such IS a synopsis taken from the ofncial records of the T 1 TT 1 1-4-1 i 1 J--4. surroundings as it has in Illinois, Missouri, Arkan- Lumber Exchange, showing the actual cpiantity '=' ' handled each year- ^^'^' Kentucky and Tennessee, it is not surprising that, as the records show, Cairo has twice the trade 1^^^ 9,000,000 ft. q£ j^j.,y (.jj-y Qf j^.g ^'^^^ ^^ ^ j^ ^ Uuiou. The annual '^ • • ^5,000,000 tt. shipments by rail and river aggregate a sum ap- ^^•^^ 40,000,000 tt. proximating one hundred million dollars, about ^^^'^ 100,000,000 ft. equally divided between the two and consists of ■^°"^^ 1^6,000,000 tt. wheat, grain, produce and coal to the South, and •^^^^ ^00,000,000 ft. lumber and other finished timber products to the 1895 230,000,000 ft. ^orth. East and West. ' 1896 300,000,000 ft. j^ jg estimated that about five million dollars ' l""^ ' 3b5,000,000 .L. ^j.g invested here in such business as banking, fiour, 189° 400,000,000 ft. grain, iron and heavy hardware, groceries, drj 1899 .450,000,000 ft. goods, etc. The city is exceptionally well pro- Cairo is the largest cottonwood market in the vided with banking facilities, having four solid, sub- EPISCOPAL CHURCH CITY NATIONAL BANK 376 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: ?.!tt * PAEPCKE-LEICHT CO. PLANT NEW PLANT OF THE THREE STATES LUMBER CO. VIEWS OF THE HARDWOOD LUMBER DISTRICT OF CAIRO, ILLINOIS Past— Present— Prospective 377 stantial banks — two National and two Savings banks, with aggregate deposits of about two mil- lion dollars. In the way of postal facilities Cairo is far ahead of any city of its size in Illinois. The local post- oflice is the best equipped of any in the State, out- side of Chicag'o; every part of the city is covered by an efficient free delivery system and the import- ance of the city was recognized by the Depart- ment in making it and Chicago the only places in the State for the inauguration of the new system of registration of letters by letter-carriers. There are in connection with the main office, two stations where stamps and postal supplies may be purchased in large quantities, and where money order or reg- istry business may be transacted. The sale of postage stamps, envelopes, etc., for the year 1899, amounted to nearly $27,000.00. The United States has erected a large and hand- some building here for federal purposes, at a cost of $300,000.00. The location of Cairo has been officially recog- nized as a healthy one by the United States gov- ernment, which has erected here one of the finest Marine Hospitals in the country. Regarding this the Surgeon-General, in a communication to the Secretary of the Treasury, writes : "It has been my frequent duty to inspect the port of Cairo, 111., to study its sanitary laws and to dis- cuss and to direct its military hygiene. As a re- sult of my observations and experience, I am pre- pared to assert that it is quite as healthful as any other place in the Union." In addition to the Marine Hospital above alluded to, there is St. Mary's Infirmary, a very large, hand- some building, skillfully and scientifically managed by the Sisters of the Holy Cross. It cares for city patients and for private individuals who may de- sire experienced nursing when ill, and for those who suffer from accidents on the numerous lines of railroads centering here. Probably no city in the West is better supplied with water and light than Cairo. There is a mag- nificent system of water-works, erected at a cost of more than $200,000.00. It has about twenty miles of mains, ranging in size from twenty-four inches down to six inches in diameter, and has a capacity of two million gallons daily, or enough for a city of 60,000 inhabitants. The water is ob- tained from the Ohio River. Within the past few years several artesian wells have been sunk in va- rious parts of the city, with gratifying success. Water as clear as crystal and chemically pure, has been found in inexhaustible quantities. This dis- covery will be especially valuable in the manufac- ture of paper, and the attention of paper manu- facturers has been drawn to it. In the way of light and power, the city has two finely equipped electric companies, the Cairo and the Egypt, both of which operate street cars which cover all parts of the city and suburbs; both fur- nish light and power, and both are controlled by home capital. Immediately north of the city is another prac- tical illustration of the success of the levee sys- tem. It is a drainage district, embracing some eight thousand acres of land, which had for cen- turies been annually overflowed by both rivers, leaving a deposit of alluvium unsurpassed in rich- ness. This ground is now protected by a system of levees similar to that which incloses the city proper. Throug-h the energy of the drainage com- missioners this district has also been supplied with pumps like those used by the city, and the result has been that the entire district has not only been pro- tected from inundation, but is relieved from the accumulation of rain and sipe water during periods of a prolonged stage of high water in the rivers. Much of this ground has been sold outright, much has been leased, and it is only a question of a few years when every foot of it will be under cultiva- tion; mainly by market gardeners, who will be able to send their products to Northern and East- ern markets early in the season and reap large re- turns. Few cities of its size can boast of more hand- some churches than Cairo. Notable among them are the Church of the Redeemer (Episcopal), St. Patrick's and St. Joseph's (both Catholic), the First Methodist, the Presbyterian, the Cairo Baptist and the Calvary Baptist, besides nearly a dozen others of less pretension, including quite a number of really handsome edifices owned by colored peo- ple of different denominations. Cairo proudly boasts of her public school sys- tem and school buildings. The latter would be a credit to any city. The more prominent of these are the Douglas, the Safford, the Lincoln and the Cairo High School buildings. The latter, a new edifice, just erected at a cost of $30,000.00, is one of the most complete of its kind in the State. Then, there are the Sumner and Garrison schools, both «s=3!aatjii ILLINOIS CENTRAL RAILROAD BRIDGE AT CAIRO CAIRO ELEVATOR NITED STATES CUSTOM HOUSE \ KTtuelCrct LO ~ nitf ^ ^ 1 . ■ - Vf ] Elk B n CAIRO HIGH SCHOOL SAFFORD LIBRARY Past— Present— Prospective 379 -■4bk^l ' l3 — =ONifED StatesTrbiserConco^ IN Cairo Harbor, MayI6™™I9'" 1892 UNITED STATES MARINE HOSPITAL JH.UC:T hESON ST LOU i> uPPtR GHT tLYNMQH^bHiK* BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF CAIRO, ILLINOIS 380 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: "-^ THE H. L. HALLIDAY MILLING COMPANY PLANT HALLIDAY HOTEL Past— Present— Prospective 381 NAriONAL PUMP COMPANY MOUND CITY FURNITURE COMPANY SCENES AT MOUND CITY, ILLINOIS 382 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: very handsome buildings, devoted exclusively to the free education of colored pupils. In addition to the free schools, there are quite a number of private and parochial schools, the most noted of which is Loretto Academy, under the manag'ement of the Sisters of Loretto. In addition to the churches and school houses, mention should be made of the Safford Memorial Library, a magnificent building erected at a cost of $50,000.00 by Mrs. Anna E. Safford as a memorial to her husband, A. B. Safford, who, in life, was one of Cairo's most public-spirited citizens, and given to the city for public library purposes. This build- ing now contains more than ten thousand volumes which are accessible to eveiy one. It has also a public reading room, a museum and music, or re- ception, hall. Cairo's future prospects are brilliant. The Board of Trade and Merchants' League, organiza- tions devoted solely to the city's prosperity, are in constant communication with individuals and cor- porations seeking locations here.. Several of the railroad companies are planning a new union de- pot, which will probably be erected in the near future. A new grain elevator of enormous ca- pacity has just been erected by the H. L. HaUiday Mining Co. No article descriptive of Cairo would be com- plete without a mention of the late Capt. W. P. Halliday. In Hfe he was one of the city's stanch- est friends. No labor in her interests was too arduous for him to undertake, no expense for her welfare or promotion too great for him to assume. Numerous monuments to his far-seeing" sagacity exist to-day and will exist for centuries to come. In conclusion, it may be truthfully said that no city in the Mississippi Valley has reaped greater benefits from the levee system than has Cairo, and there is no city in the West that has more brilliant prospects for the future, especially follow- ing the development of contiguous alluvial districts in Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee and Arkansas, when they have been made safe by a permanent sys- tem of levees. THE MISSISSIPPI AND OHIO RIVERS AT CAlRO-"WHERE THE RIVERS MEET" Past— Present— Prospective 383! THE ALLUVIAL BASINS IN MISSOURI ABOVE THE ST. FRANCIS BASIN Assessed valuation in the alluvial and partly allu- vial counties of Missouri : Counties iS8o iSgo ig Cape Girardeau $4,034,538 14,449,178 fc, 547,196 Mississippi 1,295,657 2,106,418 2,770,128 New Madrid i, 193,854 1,638,067 2,246,160 Stoddard 1,581,113 2,326,117 4,222,380 Pemiscott 8iS,88S 1,040,276 2,150,407 Sutler 889,775 2,298,159 3,403,543 Dunklin 889,530 2,118,871 3,118,237 The alluvial lands in Missouri He in the counties of Cape Girardeau, Scott, Stoddard, Butler, Dunk- lin, Mississippi, New Madrid and Pemiscott. The first three are only partially alluvial; Dunklin, Mis- sissippi, New Madrid and Pemiscott wholly so. According to the measurements of the Missis- sippi River Commission, there are in this state 2,874 square miles, or 1,839,360 acres, of overflow lands.- The alluvial lands in this State are divided into two basins by the high lands, but of initial alluvial formation at New Madrid, that above New Madrid forming a separate basin from that below. The ower forms a part of the St. Francis basin, which lies in Missouri and Arkansas. There are three counties which are regarded as forming this basin — New Madrid, Pemiscott and Dunklin. Much of the alluvial lands in this State is above overflow, forming ridges and high lands that lie between the sections which are over- swept. Besides, the floods in that section of the alhn-ial valley recede, usually, before crop season begins, and thus those who dwell on ridges are enabled to make crop on lands which otherwise \ \. - - Past— Present--Pr©spect-we 385 would remain idle. But even with these advan- tages it was necessary for improved levee condi- tions to begin this active development. Now, the county of Pemiscott may be cited as an example of this statement. In 1S80 its population was 4,299. In 1890 it was 5,915. In 1900 it is 12,111. thus showing an increase in size to three times that of twenty years ago, and more than double that of ten years ago. Since 1880 an equally wonderful showing is made in the assessed valuation shown by these strictly alluvial counties. Take first Cape Girardeau county. This county had in 1880 an assessed val- uation of $4,034,538. Last year this valuation had increased to $5,547,196. This was not more than a normal increase for the state of Missouri; neither is Cape Girardeau very much alluvial — some in the extreme southern portion; and its development was not retarded by floods prior to- the present time. Mississippi county in 1880 showed an as- sessed valuation of $1,295,657. In 1899 a total assessment of $2,270,128 shows that it has doubled these figures. This county is nearly all alluvial. New Madrid county, which is all alluvial, but which has been retarded in growth by the absence of a cO'mplete levee system, still shows an increase from $1,193,854 in 1880 to $2,246,160 in 1899, or nearly double. Over two-thirds of this has accumulated within the last nine years. Stoddard count}^ shows a remarkable increase — from $1,581,113 in 1880 to $4,222,280 in 1899. As is seen by the summary given above, the in- crease in the stricth' alluvial counties has been almost entirely within the last nine years, or since the levee system became more secure. Pemiscott county, which in 1880 had an assessed valuation of $818,888, showed a growth up to 1S90 of about $200,000 in assessed valuation, but in 1899, nine years later, it had more than doubled the assessed valuation of 1890; that is, it had in- creased its valuation in the last nine years five times as much as it did in the first ten years pre- ceding. This is one of the best exemplifications of the benefit of a levee system to the growth of the country. Butler county has figures exceeding these, where, from $889,775 on the rolls in ISSO, it has increased to $3,403,543. Dunklin county nearly parallels it in the rapidity of its growth. In addition to the growth caused by natural development following improved levee conditions, the railroads have done much to hasten develop- ment. The magnificent timber interests of this section have drawn railroads hither until there are several new lines built through Pemiscott, New Madrid, Dunklin and Stoddard. These roads are the Houck system of roads, the Paragould & Eastern Railroad, the St. Louis, Memphis & Caruthersville, the main lines and branches of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, and the St. Louis South- western roads. In this section of the Mississippi River alluvial districts, and in the northern tier of the Arkansas counties, which lie back from the river, is found beautifully kept farms, on which are raised small grain and hay very similar to those of most of the northern prairie states, as illustrations accompany- ing this article show. While the assessed valuation and population have both increased very rapidly in the last twenty years, it will be noted, as remarked above, and as is shown by the comparison of the increases be- tween the two decades, this increase has *^een much more rapid of late years. No doubt, with perfect immunity from water, these counties will over double, and many of them will probably quad- ruple, their present assessed valuation and popula- tion in the next decade. Caruthersville, in Pemiscott county, is one of the most remarkable examples of the improvement in growth and facilities in this section. A few years ago it was simply an isolated town on the Missis- sippi River, without any especial claims to notice. Now it has stave factories and heading factories, sawmills, one of which has a capacity of one hun- dred thousand feet a day; ice plant of ten tons' capacity; a school building, heated by steam, cost- ing $13,000; a very fine courthouse, and a two- story brick jail, costing $8,000. It has two banks — • the Bank of Caruthersvihe, with a capital of $30,- 000, and the Pemiscott County Bank, with a capital of $25,000. It has two railroads — the St. Louis, Caruthersville & Memphis, and the St. Louis, Ken- nett & Southern — and others are reaching out in that direction. It has two newspapers — the Daily Press and the Dempcrat, which is printed twice a week. It has the largest wholesale hardware store between Memphis and St. Louis on the west side of the river. Its present population is 2,315. Sit- uated in the midst of a rapidly growing county, advancing both in wealth and population, and con- 386 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : LON V. STEPHENS Governor of Missouri DAVID R. FRANCIS Ex-Governor of Missouri WILLIAM J. STONE Ex-Governor of Missouri -^v— rir^~..>^«-//j -^^^^ y r ■'t.j^.m^^^ytj.^Ad& THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT CARUTHERSVILLE, MO. 388 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: nected by these railroads with rich counties in the rear, and equally rich counties on the south, in Arkansas, it has ever)? prospect of showing a more rapid increase in the next census. New Madrid, in New Madrid, is a very old town, as it was laid out by Pierre Foucher in 1789. It occupied an irregular piece of ground lying be- tween Baj'ou St. John and Bayou Desroches, and fronted the river on the southeast. Since the settle- ment of the town the Mississippi has made an annual encroachment upon it until now the original site lies about a mile from the bank on the Kentucky side. Addition upon addition has been made, only to be swallowed up; all the old landmarks have one by one succumbed to the devouring current, and New Madrid of to-day has nothing about it which suggests its origin. In November, ISOS, New Madrid was incorporated. It did not, however, improve much until after the year 1822, when the seat of justice was permanently located here. Its first newspaper was printed in 1846. There are now two newspapers in the city^ — the Record and the Southeast Missourian. It has now several fine brick store buildings, two large school buildings, one for the white and one for the colored. It has a large stave factoiy, cotton gin works, and electric light plant. Two railroads enter the cit}' — branch of the St. Louis Southwestern (Cotton Belt) and the St. Louis & Memphis Railroad. A third is projected that will he built early in the spring. The present population is about li.OOO. New Madrid is supported by a very rich surround- ing country, and its industries and trade are built on substantial lines, and will no doubt show rapid increase in the next few years. Other places in this rich alluvial belt which show rapid increases in size and industrial activity are Charleston, the county seat of Mississippi county: Hayti; Kennett, the county seat of Dunklin county, which is quite a new place, but a ver)? pros- perous one; Poplar Blufl, on the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, the county seat of Butler^ which has 4,321; Cardwell, on the St. Francis River, and on the Parag'ould, Southeastern Rail- road; Charleston, the county seat, which is situ- ated on both the St. Louis Southwestern and the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern Railroads; Minley, in Scott county, at the junction of three railroads; Moorehouse, on the borders of New Madrid and Stoddard counties; Portagevihe, in Pemiscott county. In fact, growing vihages and towns have sprung up all through the alluvial sec- tions of the state along lines of railroads which have been built through these sections. Maps are given in this connection which show the location of these cities and towns and also the location of the different lines of railroads. Figures accom- panving each map show the population of these counties in 1880, 1890, and 1900, demonstrating a wonderful improvement in the last twenty years, as increase in population is a sure sign of commer- cial or industrial activitv, or both. Past— Present— Prospective 389 NEW MADRID CAPE GIRARDEAU, MO. Taxable area 361,364 Assessed valuation, 1899 $5,547,196 1890 4,449,178 1880 4,034,53s Increase in 19 years 1,512,658 Population, see page 351 SCOTT COUNTY, MO. Taxable area 260,365 Population, see page 351 ALEXANDER COUNTY, ILLS. Population, see page 351 390 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : PE MISCOT NEW MADRID COUNTY, MO. Population, 1900 11,280 Assessed Valuation, 1899 . . , $2,246,160 1890 1,638,067 1880 1,193.854 Increase in 19 years 1,052,306 Taxable Area (acres) 350,489 MISSISSIPPI COUNTY, MO. Population, 1900 1I1837 Assessed Valuation, 1899 $2,770, 125 " " 1890 2,106,418 1880 1,295,657 Increase in 19 years 1,474,468 Taxable Area (acres) 247,852 Population 1880, 1890, see page 351. Past— Present— Prospective 391 CULTIVATING AN ALLUVIAL FARM — STODDARD COUNTY, MO. , M THE GOLDEN GRAIN AS GROWN ON THE RICH ALLUVIUM OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI 392 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: THESE THREE LOGS MADE 1 1,000 FEET OF LUMBER CUT FROM FARM OF LOUIS B. HOUCK, ST. FRANCIS BASIN ! mi ,A CUTTING RAILROAD ROUTE THROUGH A CYPRESS BRAKE, ST. FRANCIS BASIN Past— Present— Prospective 393 COURT HOUSE AT KENNETT, DUNKLIN COUNTY, MISSOURI "'•"-^'^-^--;P!r^.ti SHIPPING COTTON — SCENE IN THE ST. FRANCIS BASIN O r~>- c^^ t^ N CO M W \0 *0 fO f-- -" W CO c ^ Past— Present— Prospective 595 HARVEST TIME IN SOUTHEAST MISSOURI -SCENES NEAR DEXTER, STODDARD COUNTY 396 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: MAKING DRAINAGE CANAL, TO RECOVER SWAMP LANDS, NEAR MOOREHOUSE, NEW MADRID COUNTY, MISSOURI FINISHED DRAINAGE CANAL, THROUGH SWAMP LANDS, NEAR MOREHOUSE, NEW MADRID COUNTY. MISSOURI. THE BUILDING-UP OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI Past— Present— Prospective 397 RAILROAD YARDS AT KENNETT, MISSOURI ■*%^^ «^'*^"^ f PUBLIC SQUARE AT KENNETT, MISSOURI, 1894 SCENES IN THE BUILDING-UP OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI 398 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: BUILDING A NEW RAILROAD IN THE ST. FRANCIS BASIN PILING TRAIN IN THE ST. FRANCIS BASIN '^^i ^^'iiM-^i'ik^ M. <^i^^^^-'^>k .iSSk V --^aJS-ttiiSSKj^^ '''^^^^4kA^M^ ^ j'-^*! >/':::: -■nr^'m^ REAPING THE RESULTS-SCENES IN THE RICH BOTTOMS OF SOUTHEAST MISSOURI 400 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River 489 Assessed valuation, 1S80 $ 818,888 " 1890 2,298,159 1S99 3,118,237 Increase in 19 years 2,299,349^ Past— Present— Prospective 401 A RESIDENCE STREET AT KENNETT, MISSOURI PUBLIC SQUARE, KENNETT, MISSOURI, 1899 VIEWS OF NEW MADRID, MO. VIEWS OF CARUTHERSVILLE, MO. J. J. DOYNE Superintendent Public Education of Arl^ansas T. C. MONCURE State Auditor of Arkansas GEO. W. MURPHY Attorney-General of Arkansas JEFFERSON DAVIS Governor of Arkansas FRANK HILL Commissioner of Agriculture, Mines and Manufactures JAMES P. CLARKE Ex-Governor of Arkansas THOS. E. LITTLE State Treasurer of Arkansas wMfTm^if COUNTIES WHICH LIE PARTLY AND WHOLLY IN THE ALLUVIAL DIS- TRICTS OF ARKANSAS, ASSESS- ED VALUATION, AREA, ETC. CLAY, GREENE, PULASKI, PHILLIPS, DESHA, JEFFERSON, CHICOT. (For Population see Page 352.) Note. — Statistics were not secured of the assessed valuation of the last- named counties, but mention is made of their progress in the general description. — Ed. ST. FRANCIS COUNTY Total area 648 square miles ( ^4 alluvial ) Total assessed value, 1S90. 12,540,291 1899 2,645,586 LEE COUNTY Total area 600 square miles { ^4 alluvial) Total assessed value, 1890 12,423,535 " 1899 2,538,645 CROSS COUNTY Total area 600 square miles {^ alluvial) Total assessed value, i8go $1,930,252 1899 2,330,350 CRAIGHEAD COUNTY Total area 700 square miles ( ^3 alluvial) Total asse.ssed value, 1890 #3>o9ii765 '• " " 1S99 4,179,010 POINSETT COUNTY Total area 684 square miles ( ^X alluvial) Total assessed value, 1890 $1,686,731 1899 1,990,327 MISSISSIPPI COUNTY Total area 800 square miles ( all alluvial ) Total assessed value, 1890 11,862,167 " '• " 1899 2,232,270 CRITTENDEN COUNTY Total area 600 square miles (all alluvial) Total assessed value, 1890 12,115,079 " 1899 2,811,953 Past— Present— Prospective 405 E Y ! I'-'Saccesjr I CORNING CLAY AND GREENE COUNTIES, ARKANSAS (Size Reduced) For Population, see page 352. 406 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- THE TREES GROWN IN THE RIPARIAN LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER OPENING UP THE ALLUVIAL LANDS OF ARKANSAS Past— Present- alluvial LANDS IN ARKANSAS According to the surveys of the Mississippi River Commission, as shown m the large map which accompanies this pubhcation, the entire number of square miles of Mississippi River al- luvium, or rather of the overflow lands of the Mis- sissippi River, is 4,625 square miles, or a total of 2,960,000 acres. In addition to these lands there is alluvial soil of the Arkansas River, and White River, which is not counted in this total. It is quite safe to say that the entire alluvial districts of the state of Arkansas would approximate 6,000 square miles. In the northern part of the state, and in the out- lying sections back from the rivers, there is culti- vated considerable grain, and raising of cattle is largely the occupation of the people. The great staple crops of these alluvial sections are corn and cotton, and even the former is not raised in sufficient quantities for home consump- tion. It may be an error of judgment and develop- ing- a lack of conservative farming practice, but it nevertheless is a fact that the people of the alluvial sections of the Mississippi River depend on cotton — bu};- their meat, their meal, and much of their corn, which is unusual in a farming communit3^ The present condition of the great alluvial basins in Arkansas is shown by the fact that the develop- ment in that section is not over twenty per cent. In the northern and western portions of the Missis- sippi River bottom, in the upper St. Francis basin, it will probably exceed that amount, but lower down, in the White River basin, and in the upper Tensas, which is just above the Louisiana line, this estimate would be entirely too great. So^ of these 2,960,000 acres there is probably yet untouched by the plow 2,500,000 acres, a very large amount of which is heavily timbered, and practically all of it is fertile and well-drained. Eastern Ai'kansas has, besides the Mississippi River, which forms its boundary line, separating it from Tennessee and Mississippi, the White, St. Francis, Black and Cache rivers draining the up- per basin, and the lower White and Arkansas Rivers in the lower basin. The railroads which traverse these alluvial sec- tions are the Missouri Pacific system, (St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern), Cotton Belt; Houck system of railroads: St. Louis, Caruthersville & Memphis; Kansas City, Ft. Scott & Memphis, the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf, Arkansas Midland; -Prospective 40/ Mississippi River; Hamburg & Western; Deckers- ville, Osceola & Northern; Brinkley & Helena; and Batesville & Brinkley, and a few others which touch the alluvial sections at different points. The St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern division of the Missouri Pacific, and the St. Louis, South W^estern (Cotton Belt), have bi^anch lines running into nearly all of the different basins. Thus the facilities for marketing the productions of these basins are good, and new railroads and new branches of existing systems are being built or pro- jected in different directions, influenced, no doubt, by the present fairly satisfactory levee conditions, and the growing conviction that overflows will soon be a thing of the past. The average yield of cotton in these rich "bot- toms" is fully 1,500 pounds of seed cotton per acre. Corn and oats produce in proportion. In the lighter lands sweet potatoes, turnips, sor- ghum, Irish potatoes, and all kinds of garden truck are successfully g-rown, and the careful farmer nearly always has an abundance of these for his own use, and some to market when he goes to his nearest town. This, of course, applies to the smaller farmers. The larger plantation owners raise these things only for home use, and too frequently pay so much attention to King Cotton that these pro- ducts are overlooked. Arkansas is a great fruit state, especially for apples. These, however, are raised mostly in the hill sections of the northwestern portion of the state, but the climate and soil in the alluvia! section are eminently suitable for the successful raising of all kinds of fruit; and not only can they raise all kinds of fruit but, owing to the extreme fertility of these lands they attain an unusual perfection in size and flavor. The lands which have been cultivated and be- come worn, or at least as near worn as the extra- ordinary depth and fertility of this soil will permit, are sometimes planted in grasses, and these grow luxuriantly. The climate of this part of Arkansas is so equable and the density of the cane brakes so great that thousands of cattle roam the bottoms and thrive all the winter long without being fed. In fact there are numerous instances where even the finest grades of short-horn cattle have been successfully wintered with the use of only small quantities of cotton seed, and at trifling expense. Cattle raising. Past— Present— Prospective 409 VIEWS OF JONESBORO, ARKANSAS 410 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: i£ £MfL. MISSISSIPPI COUNTY ARKANSAS Lyin^ cunc//y cuithin ■ The St. Franc/ s Lefcr District. Area 800 square miles (all alluvial) Assessed valuation, 1899 13,232,270 Assessed valuation, 1890 1,862,167 Increase in 9 years $1,370,103 Population, see page 352 Past— Present— Prospective 411 mil Si, DEPOT OF THE DECKERVILLE, OSCEOLA & NORTHERN RAILROAD AT LUXORA, ARKANSAS VI EW OF PRINCIPAL BUSINESS STREET, LUXORA, ARKANSAS 412 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 'riarna^^^^ VIEWS OF OSCEOLA, ARKANSAS VIEWS OF ARKANSAS CITY, ARKANSAS CRITTENDEN COUNTY ARKANSAS The Sf. Francis Let/ee D/sfr/cf. Area 600 square miles (all alluvial) Assessed valuation, 1899 |2i8ii,953 Assessed valuation, 1S90 2,115,079 Increase in 9 years $695,874 Population, see page 352 Past— Present— Prospective 415 J m-^^M SCENES ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER IN ARKANSAS THE SPORTSMAN'S PARADISE SCENES ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER IN ARKANSAS DUCK HUNTING ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER FISHING IN THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER >>10 .3 lo 3 ^ CO o [fl 3 a, <; ■< g: — Thr^wmrnrr- W-i"^ 420 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: A "DUGOUT" AND BOATMAN ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER TRAINING RETRIEVERS ''^Wkr SCENE ON THE UPPER ST. FRANCIS RIVER IN ARKANSAS TROLLING ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER SCENE ON THE UPPER ST. FRANCIS RIVER IN ARKANSAS NEAR LONE GUM TREE ISLAND, ST. FRANCIS RIVER THE SPORTSMAN'S PARADISE- \«~ ^^ J;5^i^'v:?c^'^ r^ :'' {r^^'i^^H^H^m^H ^^^^Bhk''^ ^^^J ,..;gg^i^t p-^Jp^.,,.c_^^ p^ -^1 I^^B^'^il |p-;r'-T.-, ; '^^Ht^l 1 . .^j^Hj^im B^^j^^^^*^2^^^^^^^^M FISHING CLUBS ON THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER %'^'ir^'ffy ^ A ST. FRANCIS RIVER BAYOU ' !?>?/ DUCK SHOOTING WITH A RETRIEVER A FAIR SAMPLE SCENES NEAR LAKE CITY, ARK. SPEARING FROGS AT NIGHT ALONG THE ST. FRANCIS RIVER IN ARKANSAS 422 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r systematically and on business lines, would prove very profitable in this section. The increase in population for the entire state of Arkansas is 16.25 per cent., but the alluvial counties show a larger per cent, of increase than the average. Mississippi county, for instance, shows 40.82 per cent, increase; Craighead county 62.20 per cent., and Pulaski county, in which is situated Little Rock, and which is largely alluvial, 33.49 per cent. The population is a home-loving, church-going, school-supporting people, . and very kindly and sociable by nature. There is yet considerable government lands sub- ject to homestead entry; also, much state land sub- ject to donation to actual settlers, and a great deal 'of railroad lands, belonging principally to the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern Company, which are for sale. The sawmills have invaded these sections for the last dozen years, and have cut many hundreds of millions feet of the fine timber which grows in such profusion; yet their work of demolition has been almost imperceptible. There are yet in the bot- toms of Arkansas between the Missouri and the Louisiana borders, millions of acres of the finest hardwood timber land on the face of the globe. The principal growths are the gum, cottonwood, ash, poplar, white oak, walnut, and cypress. The manu- facture of lumber consists in preparing it for ship- ment in the half-manufactured state, to other parts of the United States and to Europe. Barrel heads, staves and stave timber are sent in large quantities across the ocean. Lumber for all commercial pur- poses, some partially manufactured into box ma- terial, is shipped to nearly all parts of the United States. Indeed the timber supply of Arkansas has been so attractive, and sO' immense that it is largely responsible for the smaller systems of railways which are now reaching out through these sections, and as the sawmills become more and more numer- ous these railroads will keep pace, either in new roads, or in spurs and branches of the existing sys- tems, and when this rich land shall have been de- nuded of its timber, the fertile farms will thus have ample railway facilities to ship their products to the markets of the United States, as well as the in- comnarable svstem of river navigation which thev now have. To write up all of these counties and their mani- fold attractions separately would require very much space, and would really be largely a repetition. At the head of this article is given the names of the alluvial and semi-alluvial counties, with their population in 1880, 1890 and 1900. Maps accom- panying this review show all of the existing lines of railroad, together with many projected branches, and give statistics of population and assessed valu- ation. The development in the alluvial sections of Ar- kansas has brought into existence of recent years several thriving towns, and has increased to the dignity of cities many more which were but strag- gling villages or small towns before the levee sys- tem begun. For instance, Paragould, which was not given a separate mention in population of 1880, from a town of 1,606 inhabitants in 1890 is now rated as one of the most wideawake, enterprising and growing cities of northeast Arkansas. Jones- boro, which in ISSOhad a verysmall population had, in 1890, increased to a little cityof 2,065, and the late census gives it a total of 4,508. This shows an increase to two and a half times its size of ten years ago. It has all the characteristics and push, and the full complement of industrial enterprises that are usually found in a growing city. Situated on Crowley's Ridge, the alluvial sections on both sides, and in the midst of some of the finest timber lands in the Mississippi valley, its prosperity and growth have been natural and regular, and it bids fair to exceed in another decade the remarkable progress it has made in the last. In Mississippi county we see on the banks of a river a very great improvement in the county seat, Osceola, and a new town with nearly 1,000 inhabi- tants, Luxora, a few miles north of Osceola, which does not appear in the census of 1890. It has in the past five or six years sprung into existence, and become a thriving and growing town. Wynne, in Cross comity, with its sawmills and other industrial enterprises, has grown up as if by magic. Forrest City, Marianna, the latter on the Flelena branch of the Missouri Pacific, the former also on this branch, and on the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf railway, are rapidly growing towns. Marianna holds the record for the shipment of lumber and timber. It is near the St. Francis River, and sawmills are cutting away the fine virgin timber, and shipping it to all parts of the United States, and across the ocean. Other towns bordering the alluvial sections which are partaking of the impetus following Past— Present— Prospective 423 &' — i^»^— nil aoa^^^^^^l^^^B^^^ M i 1 M jtmtgmjjt^^^ ^'> ^^^^^^Hl 1 LAKE CHICOT, IN CHICOT COUNTY. ARK. COUNTY COURT HOUSE BUILDING, NEWPORT, ARK. / oil V-. THE WHITE RIVER VALLEY ARKANSAS ■> ... '■ A Past— Present— Prospective 425 THE FERRY ACROSS WHITE RIVER, NEWPORT, ARK. WHITE RIVER, NEWPORT. ARK. SCENES ALONG THE BEAUTIFUL WHITE RIVER 426 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: the introduction of sawmills and the opening up of the rich lands are Marktree, Deckersville, Arkansas City, Lake City, Monette, Leachville, Blytheville, Tyranza, Harrisburg, Vanndale, Net- tleton. Lake Village, Marion, and others specially shown on the outline maps of the Arkansas and ^Vhite River vallevs. Li the latter pages of this book will be found a list of real estate agents and others, who will take pleasure in answering any inquiry regarding these favored and fertile sections, and the State Bureau of L-nmigration and Agriculture at Little Rock will be glad to furnish full information to all who desire it. PASTURE SCENE NEAR PARAGOULD, GREENE COUNTY, ARKANSAS Past— Present— Prospective 427 THE VALLEY OF THE ARKANSAS RIVER (Showing North to Little Rock.) 428 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: <=1-EV£lAND ! '- ' ^ JEFFERSON AND PULASKI COUNTIES ARKANSAS (Scale Reduced } For Population, see page 352. Past— Present— Prospective 429 LOGGING IN THE ALLUVIAL LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER ~tr COTTON PLANTATION IN THE ARKANSAS RIVER VALLEY COTTON PICKING IN THE ARKANSAS VALLEY, ARKANSAS. A HAPPY LITTLE ARKANSAS NIGGER." SCENES IN THE ARKANSAS RIVER VALLEY Past— Present— Prospective 431 (0 < U) z < X 4 y O z o > (75 z < w H W z w u CO 432 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: W. B. ALEXANDER Mayor of Pine Bluff, Arkansas. GEORGE R. BROWN Secretary Little Rocli Board of Trade. FRED FOX President Pine Bluff Commercial League. E. D. RUSSELL Secretary Pine Bluff Commercial League. Past— Present— Prospective 433 PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS Pine Bluff is the capital of Jefifei-son, the banner cotton-producing county of the world, as attested by the World's Fair first premiums and awards for long and short staple cotton. The city is located on the south bank of the Arkansas River, at the head of low-water navigation. A line of steamers ply between Pine Bluff and Memphis, giving healthful competition. Four railroads enter Pine Bluff, namely : The Missouri Pacific, the St. Louis-Southwestern, the Pine Bluff-Arkansas River, and the Pine Bluff & AVestern. The two former are trunk lines, which, through their connections, give easy access to all parts of the United States. The two latter are short lines, extending through the great agricul- tural and timber sections of the county. All have unexcelled depot and terminal facilities within the corporate limits of the city. The main shops of the St. Louis Southwestern Railway Co., the largest industrial plant in the South, are located at Pine Bluff. Among the other industries may be mentioned four large saw and planing mills, with combined daily capacity of 700,000 feet of lumber, two extensive cotton-oil mills, two modern cotton compresses, large foundry and machine shops, a splendid system of water works, gas and electric-lighting plants, the largest ice factory and cold storage plant south of St. Louis, two stave mills, and many other manufac- tories, too numerous for special mention here. The citizens of Pine Bluff enjoy the inestimable benefits of a splendid system of sewerage, which has done much to^ reduce the already low mortality rate. The health of the city is fully attested by the fact that in 1898, of the 2,500 children en- rolled in the public schools, not a single death oc- curred. Pine Bluft has two splendid systems of telephone, namely: The Pine Bluff Telephone Co., and the Southwestern Telegraph and Telephone Co. The former is owned and operated by local parties, and, in addition to its city exchange, operates a long- distance line, reaching many points in Jefferson and adjoining counties. The latter, in addition to its local exchange, extends its lines to more than fifty towns and cities within the State, and affords direct communication with St. Louis, Memphis, Chicago and New York. The Postal Telegraph-Cable Co., and the West- ern Union Telegraph Co. serve this point, which is a guai'anty that the facilities for telegraphing are unsurpassed by those of any city in the world. Pine Bluff has four solid and conservative banks to assist her business men, when necessary, in the conduct of their large industrial and commercial undertakings. The aggregate capital stock of the four amounts to $-100,000, with deposits, as shown by their last cjuarterly statements, approximating $1,750,000. The jobbing trade of Pine Bluff has kept pace with her increasing importance in other respects. The competition among the wholesale merchants is lively and capital ample, which attracts to this mar- ket many of the largest buyers in south Arkansas and north Louisiana. The annual cotton receipts amount to 100,000 bales, and the city has the largest incoming and outgoing tonnage of any city in the State. The wholesale mercantile houses do an annual business of $15,000,000. If the saying that the retail trade of a city or town is the pulse to its commercial character be true, then Pine Bluff holds first place among the cities of the South. The citizens engaged in the retail trade are among the most intelligent and progressive, and the benefits they enjoy by reason of the large pay- rolls of the various manufacturing plants, make them ever ready to encourage and give substantial assistance to prospective investors in any indus- trial line. Under the able direction of Mayor Alexander, assisted by the City Council and a Board of Public Affairs, composed of some of the most successful business men of the city, a comprehensive and in- telligent system of public improvements has been inaugurated, and the city's debt reduced to prac- tically nothing. The City Fire Department, under experienced and intelligent management, has done much for VIEWS OF PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS VIEWS OF PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS 436 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: the preservation of property and the reduction of insurance rates in recent years. There are four prosperous and ably edited news- papers in Pine Bluff, which labor for the advance- ment of every enterprise and interest touching the general progress and prosperity of the city and State. The hotel accommodations of Pine Bluff are ample and frrst-class. The rate of taxation for State, county and mu- nicipal purposes is twenty-two and one-half mills on the dollar. Pine Bluff is a city of churches, as well as schools and commerce, and her citizens are noted for tlie pride they take in their religious, as well as their educational and commercial institutions. Al- most all denominations are represented within her corporate limits, and many of them have magnifi- cent and stately church edifices. No city in the United States has better public or private schools than Pine Bluff.: Of the Public School buildings, eight in number, seven are sub- stantially built of brick and stone. Annunciation Academy, which is a Catholic school, under the management of the Sisters of Charity, is first-class in every respect. The Col- ored Industrial Institute, under Catholic auspices, and the Richard Allen Institute, under Presby- terian auspices, are doing much to educate, en- lighten and elevate the colored youth of Jefferson and surrounding counties. The Branch Normal College, the negro department of the University of Arkansas, was established at Pine Bluff in 1SS3 by act of the Legislature, and is the leading colored educational institution of the State. While the federal census for 1900 gives the city only 11,496 inhabitants, it is conservatively esti- mated that at least 1,000 persons living within the corporate limits of the city were overlooked by the enumerators. This is due largely to the fact that at the time the enumerators were compiling their reports, many of the people were out of the city on summer vacation. Besides this, the suburbs of Mechanicsville, Greenville, Battleville, Hoboken and Lakeside, have an aggregate population of 7,000, and contribute to the commercial and indus- trial importance of the city proper. This is an in- crease of about 8,000 souls in the past decade. The Pine Bluff State Fair Association holds at Pine Bluff in October of each year, and is largely attended by citizens from other sections of the State. The exhibits at these annual meetings bear unimpeachable evidence of the great natural re- sources of this section. Among the improvements contemplated in the near future are : An electric street railway, opera house, cotton factory, furniture factory and pulp and paper mill. The citizens of Pine Bluff are ever ready to en- courage any enterprise in the way of manufacturing- industries or public improvements calculated to re- dound to the ultimate benefit of their city and county. The Commercial League of Pine Bluff, of which Mr. Fred Fox is the President, and Mr. E. D. Russell is the Secretary, and having for its object the advancement of the commercial and industrial interests of the city and county, the in- culcation of just and equitable principles of trade and the establishment and maintenance of uniform- ity in the commercial usages of the city, earnestly desires the consideration of the home-seeker, de- veloper and capitalist, knowing that the city and county present unexcelled opportunities for acquir- ing desirable homes and the profitable employ- ment of energy, capital and enterprise. The arms of the officers and members of the Commercial League, as well as those of every other citizen of Pine Bluff and Jefferson County, are ever wide open for the reception of desirable immigration, and such as come among them to live or invest their capital to profitably develop the unsurpassed resources of the city or county will receive a most cordial welcome. The civilization is refined and property secure — so much so as in any State in the Union. Persons desiring special information relative to Pine Bluff or Jefferson County, should address the Secretary of the Commercial League, Pine Bluff, Arkansas. STREET SCENES AND GENERAL VIEWS OF PINE BLUFF, ARKANSAS 438 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : LITTLE ROCK, ARK. Little Rock is situated near the center of the State of Arkansas and is 287 feet above tide-water. Ten years ago it had a population of 25,874. The recently announced report of the census bureau gives it 38,307, a gain of 48.05 per cent for the decade. This does not include the population of that part of the city on the north side of the river known as Baring Cross, which has a distinct muni- cipal government. The bank clearings and the cotton receipts are well in line with the increase in population, both running about fifty per cent. In real-estate the ag- gregate business is about $150,000 a month. Dur- ing the last eighteen months, according tO' report of the R. G. Dun Mercantile Ao'encv, the increase leans, and the St. Louis Southwestern. The aggre- gate freight traffic for the year ending August 31, 1900, was 67,320 car loads, exceeding the traffic of the year before by 6,137. The area of the city is 11.45 square miles, with 225 miles open streets, of which 55 miles are im- proved. The streets around 12 city blocks are paved with granite; around 35 with brick; around 59 with Telford macadam, and around 612 with gravel. The sewer system of the city has a total length of 22 miles. The Arkansas River is spanned by four magnifi- cent bridges at this point, three of which are owned by the railroads, and one jointlv by the city and count^•. The last-named has been recently built of the number of new commercial enterprises has averaged one for each day, including Sundays and holidays. The enrollment at the pulilic school at this time is 3,269 whites, 2,028 colored, a gain from last 3'ear of 211 whites and 30 colored. The total church membership is 11,300. During the past two years the transportation fa- cilities of the city have been increased by the ex- tension of the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf Railway and the building of the Little Rock and Hot Springs A¥estern Railway, aft'ording a total of eight railroad outlets. The Arkansas River is navigable to this point nearly the year around. The railroads are the St. Louis, L'on Mountain & Southern, north, south and east. The Little Rock & Ft. Smith, the Pine Bluff & New Or- bird's-eye view 01 at a cost of $377,257.63, and saves to the people of the city and county annually over $80,000 in tolls. There are now 1,156 business houses in the city, three compresses, ten banks, one cotton mill, four cottonseed oil mills, twenty-seven news- papers and periodicals, two telephone systems, four lighting companies, a paid fire department, and a comprehensive electric street-railway system. The aggregate number of industrial plants is 157 and the number is steadily increasing. The bonded indebtedness is only $118,000, and the floating debt $35,000, and the rate of taxation is low. The aggregate commerce of the city last year was about $20,000,000, and it is estimated by conservative business men that the total this year will be increased by at least $10,000,000 more. Little Rock is not onl)^ the chief city of the State Past— Present— Prospective 439 in size and in commercial importance, but it is also the political and social center and the site of all the State institutions except the University. It is located in the richest cotton lands of the State, and at the same time its western suburbs reach to the foothills of the Ozark Mountains. The coun- try to the west is hilly, mountainous, heavily wooded and abounds in minerals. That to the east is level, alluvial, without rock and susceptible of a high state of cultivation. In fact, the first rock west of the Mississippi River is found here, and it was from this rock that the city was named by the French when the settlement was known as "petite Roche." The rock in question is now used as a pier for one of the railroad bridges. The entire Arkansas Valley may well be consid- ered as tributary to Little Rock. The territory tributary to the Arkansas River may be divided as follows : Agricultural lands, 2, 57;!, 632 acres; timber and mineral lands, 2,342,834 acres. The situation of Little Rock is particularly ad- vantageous. To the west of the city are coal mines, to the south bauxite, to the north zinc and marble and on all sides are great fields of cotton, grain, and some of the finest orchards in the United States. In the undeveloped alluvial districts between it and the Mississippi River, as well as in the moun- tainous sections to the north and west, and in the river bottoms along the Arkansas and White Rivers, are seemingly inexhaustible acres of mag- nificent timber of all descriptions. It is hardly necessary to dilate further on the business energy of the city, since the fact stands out by its increase in population. A city of progress, of good morals, of schools, of churches, of factories, and of general commercial and industrial activity, it afi'ords opportunity alike for the investor, the active business man and the home-seeker. Little Rock is not content with LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS When the Government rises to the importance even a nearly 50 per cent, growth in a decade, for, of improving its rivers, ti is vast area will make with a full appreciation of the wonderful surround- wonderful progress. In f. ct, even at the present ings, the undeveloped millions of timber and agri- time, no part of the count) y is growing- more rap- cultural lands, she has placed her figures for a full idly than Little Rock and adjacent cities and coun- 100 per cent, for the next census, and is working ties. steadilv for it. 1 United States court house and postoFfice. 2 Pulaski County court house. 3 Board of Trade building. 4 One of the buildings of the Arkansas School for the Blind. 5 Masonic Temple. 6 Arkansas State Lunatic Asylum. VIEWS OF LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS 1 Levee from Rock Street bridge. 2 Eird's-eye view of Little Rock- 3 Fifth street east from Masonic Temple. 4 Arkansas River from Rock street bridge. 5 View west from Centennial School. 6 View east from Centennial School. VIEWS OF LITTLE ROCK, ARK. 7 Main street south from Masonic Temple. 8 Free bridge. 9 Main street from Fourth street south. 1 Packing cotton near Little Rock. 3 Southern cotton oil mill. 2 Cotton market at the Board of Trade. 4 Consumers' cotton oil mill 7 Railroad bridge in course of construction. S Union depot. 5 Little Rock Brewery. 6 Main Street south from Fourth Street. 9 Choctaw depot. 10 Union compress. VIEWS OF LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS Past— Present— Prospective 443 lagbangb PHILLIPS COUHTTARK SHOWING COTTON BELT LE7BB DISTRICT For population see page 352 444 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: JOSEPH C. BARLOW Mayor of Helena, Arkansas JAMES B. MILES River Observer MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT HELENA, ARKANSAS Past— Present— Prospective 445 J. B. PILLOW, President W. N. STRAUB xfi: AARON MYERS, Treasurer LEE PENDERGRAS BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS HELENA CARK.) IMPROVEMENT DISTRICT 446 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River- HELENA, ARKANSAS The city of Helena is at the foot of the protecting hills known as Crowley's Ridge. It is one of the oldest towns in Arkansas, and is rated with the most prosperous of the same population in all the Southwest. South of the city lies the alluvial sec- tions of Phillips county, of which it is the county seat. This county is noted as being one of the most fertile in the entire Mississippi valley, and having a very large number of highly cultivated plantations lying in what is known as the Cotton Belt Levee District. Helena has two railroads: a branch of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain & South- ern, known as the Helena branch, which skirts the alluvial sections of the Mississippi River on the north, running along what is known as Crowley's Ridge, and through a country heavily timljered, and of exceptional fertility. The Arkansas Midland connects it with the interior sections of the state which lie west of it. It is a cotton market of large and growing importance. As an evidence of its growth in this direction may be cited the following figures: During the season of 1892-93 its receipts were 32,330 bales. In 1897-98 it had grown to 86,225 bales. The Helena Improvement District is a levee board which has charge of the protection of the city of Helena from the high water of the Mississippi River. The city is now surrounded by a splendid system of levees, built several feet above the high-water mark of 1897, which renders it abso- lutely safe from dangers in that direction. This protection is already having gratifying results in adding many fine brick business houses to the city, the improvement in that direction during the last few 3'ears having been verv great. There are two fine compresses in the city to handle the large re- ceipts of the fleecy staple. It has four oil mills — ■ the City Oil Works, the Farmers' Oil Works, the Arkansas Mill and the New South — all of which are in a prosperous condition, and most of the capi- tal stock is held by citizens of Helena. There are also several large wood-working* plants of vari- ous kinds, such as lumber mills, stave factories, a box factory, and other manufactures of lumber in various forms. One of the most important indus- tries is the Straub Pressed Brick Works, which ships its product to various sections of the country. Commercially speaking, it has a full complement of wholesale and retail houses, and does a large busi- ness of both kinds. It has three banks — the First National, the Bank of Helena, and the People's Savings Bank and Trust Company — which have ample capital to handle the large commercial and manufacturing business of the city. In churches and educational institutions it is fully abreast with places of its size, and a handsome United States l)uilding has been erected here for some years. An ample water supply for the city is afforded by a splendid system of water-works. The city also has a fine electric light and power plant. A move has been made recently in the direction of establish- ment of a comprehensive sewerage system. This is in the course of construction, and with the comple- tion of this important improvement Helena will rank in its various facilities as a city of modern con- \-eniences and conditions. 1 B!rd's-Eye View of City 3 Government Building 2 Street Scene 7 Public School Building 4, S, 6, 8, 9, 10, 1 1 Views of High Water, 1897 HELENA, ARKANSAS 448 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: SOME OF THE PRETTY RESIDENCES OF HELENA, ARK. £.A..ji.ite^ pP^ ^H L, ' ^" . THE SPORTSMAN'S PARADISE -ARKANSAS SCENES THE ALLUVIAL COUNTIES OF TENNESSEE EXTENT AND VALUATION OF ALLUVIAL AND PARTLY ALLUVIAL COUNTIES Counties 1880 1890 1899 Obion County 12,829,560 fc. 905.965 $4,659,935 Area, 339,439 acres, 40 per cent alluvial. Lake County 580,695 839,123 979,28? Area, ic8,350 acres, all alluvial. Dyer County i,9i7,4i5 2,059,133 2,545,425 Area, 3 13,779 acres, nearly % alluvial. Lauderdale County 1,456,207 1,460,852 ^ i.934,45o Area, 279,862 acres, about 20 per cent alluvial. TiptonCounty 1,990,322 2,041,565 2,149.390 Area, 267,112 acres, about "j alluvial. The alluvial lands in this State lie in the counties of Obion, Lake, Dyer, Lauderdale and Tipton. Of these mentioned, Lake county is entirely alluvial. This county was formed by constitutional enact- ment in 1870, embracing that portion of Obion county west of Reelfoot Lake. In this county there are 10,000 acres of land above overflow, 85,000 subject to inundation from floods by the Missis- sippi River, and 15,000 acres covered with the waters of Reelfoot Lake. Obion countv, which has a total acreage of THE ALLUVIAL LANDS IN TENNESSEE Past— Present— Prospective 339,439, is more than one-third aUuvial. Dyer county has a total area of 313,779 acres, about 20 per cent of which is alluvial land. Three-fourths of these lands mentioned will be absolutely pro- tected from overflow liy the Hickman, Kentucky, and Slough Landing levee, which will be twenty and one-fourth miles long. Part of this is now under contract and is in the course of construction, and will doubtless be fiinished within the next year or two. The building of this levee is largely due to the energetic and persevering industry of James C. Harris, who is at the head of the commissioners hav- ing the enterprise in charge. The remaining one- fourth of the 200,000 acres, wdiich lie in the alluvial belt in this section, will be greatly, benefited by lessening' the \'olume of water and breaking the current. Should the system of levee now com- menced be continued from the high land at Tip- tonville south to Ft. Pillow it would absolutely reclaim 400,000 acres of land, or 250,000 not pro- tected by the Hickman levee. In Lake county there are 30,000 acres of land now in cultivation which produce from 1,200 to 1,800 pounds of seed cotton, or an average of one bale to the acre. The balance of this area will show equal fertility when fully protected from the floods. There is active agitation for a division of the Illinois Central Rail- road around the river from Hickman, Kentucky, through Lake and Dyer counties to Dyersburg, Tennessee, with good prospect of being built. The population of Lake county in 1890 w?as 5,275. It is now 7,368, most of which is of recent acquisition. With the finishing of the levees above mentioned this countiy will grow much more rapidly. The timber of this alluvial section is very heavy, and oft'ers fine opportunity for the erection of wood working plants. There are already some very large sawmills in this section. Tiptonville, the county seat of Lake county, is situated on a ridge or highlands on the Mississippi River, and is a place of considerable commercial importance. It has a population of about 600 and good banking and mercantile facilities. Its com- mercial, importance is greater than its population would indicate, as it is the only trading place of any importance in Lake county and the shipping- point for the cotton and lumber products of the county. Especial mention may be made of the city of Dversliurg in this connection, which is a rapidly growing city on the Illinois Central main line from Cairo to Memphis. The following short sketch of Dyersburg and Dyer county is furnished by the kindness of Col. Tom W. Neal, the editor of the Gazette of that city: D3'ersburg, on the Illinois Central Railroad, is located at the head of navigation on the Forked Deer River, contains about 4,500 population, is easy of access by good roads from all parts of the county; has three substantial church edifices, an Odd Fellows and Masonic halls, one of the finest and best public schools in the State, at which the children of the entire district are educated free of charge. The faculty of this school is an admirable one, and consists of seven first-class teachers. Hei-e we also have a splendidly equipped steam sawmill, a fine first-class planing mill, two news- papers, one of the finest steam flouring mills in the State, three hotels, two banks, a to- bacco manufactory, two wagon factories, a first-class factory for the manufacture of slack barrel staves and headings, a fine cotton seed oil works, with the latest and most approved ma- chinery, a new machine works equal to every de- mand made on it, and about fifty other firms. Dyersburg is fortunately located for a manufac- turing town. There are lands in Dyer county that will bring over a bale of cotton to the acre, while all of the land is very fertile, being well adapted to the production of tobacco, fruits, grain and vegetables. No town in Tennessee has a more promising future before it than Dyersburg. The shiretown of certainlv one of the most productive counties in the State^ — at the head of steamboat navigation on the Forked Deer River, which empties into the A/Iis,sissippi at Hale's Point — far enough from any city to prevent any dangerous rivahy, and near enough to enjoy all its advantages — the very liest facilities are now oflfered in this favored section to capitalists who desire to engag-e in manufacturing pursuits of any kind, and the citizens would wel- come and co-operate with any parties who would locate here for that purpose. Dyersburg is seventy- six miles from Memphis and is increasing in population, wealth and importance. It already feels the inspiration of a bright future, and the outlook says now is the time for capitalists seeking investments, or those in search of new, pleasant and profitable homes, to see the town and make 452 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: permanent i^^■estments therein. Farmers seeking a Southern home will make no mistake if they locate near Dyersburg. Dyersburg- is also a mod- ern city, with electric lights, water works, first- class military company, and everything to entitle it to that appellation. Dyer county land yields from a half to one and a half bales of cotton, and from twenty to fifty bushels of corn per acre. Wheat is also very successfully grown. Plenty of excellent fruit is raised in ever\' section of the county, while the best grasses in the world can be raised in great abundance. There is plenty of the best wild land to be bought at from $5 to $10 an acre. In fact not one-tenth of the land has ever been under fence or cultivation. Improved farm lands are worth from $10 to $45 per acre. Society is peaceable and hospitable. The soil produces abundantly, and no one need remain poor who wall plow and hoe with energy and earnestness. As for health, the chances are as good here as anv place South. The people are strictly an agricultural people, raising cotton, tobacco and grain, and giv- ing some attention to raising cattle, hogs and sheep. Few horses or mules are raised beyond home wants, but some of the best farmers have embarked in the stock business, and in a few years many of the blooded horses and best mules of the country will be raised in Dyer county. AVater power is good and plenty. Fortunes can be made here by erecting flour and saw mills, while cotton, furniture and wagon factories, the raw material for which can be found here in abundance, would prob- ably be still better investments. Capitalists in search of a place to invest their funds should not pass over Dyer county and its shiretown. The assessed value of Dyer county in 1890 was $1,917,415. In 1899 it was $2,545,435, or an in- crease of nearly $GOO,000. Obion county, of which the enterprising and growing little town of Union Citv is the countv seat, had in ISSO an assessed valuation of $2,829,- 5r50. In 1899 it nearly doubled, being $4,659,935. Union City is a well built place on the Nashville,. Chattanooga & St. Louis and Mobile & Ohio rail- ways, having many industrial enterprises, and doing a very large wholesale and retail business with the contiguous upland sections of Tennessee and Kentucky, as well as the alluvial sections of both states. Its present population is 3,407. Lauderdale county, which lies south of Dyer county, has a total area of 279,862 acres, of which not quite 25 per cent, is alluvial. It had in 1890 an assessed value of $1,460,852, which was increased in 1899 by nearly one-half million dollars, amount- ing to $1,934,450. The county seat of this county is Ripley, which is a thriving and growing place,, showing- much industrial and commercial activity. Tipton county, of which the county seat is Cov- ington, has a total area of 267,112 acres. In 1890 its assessed valuation was $2,041,565, and in 1899- was $2,149,390. The alluvial lands in this county comprises about one-third of its area, nearly all of which is overflowed in times of extreme high water by the Mississippi River, and no doubt the small increase in its assesssment is attributable to this fact. When protected by levees this county Avill show the same rapid increase which has character- ized the better protected counties in Arkansas,, which lie opposite. As before mentioned the county seat of Tipton county is Covington, which draws a large business from the surrounding- countn'. It is a place of growing- importance, and of considerable commer- cial and industrial prestige. Here there has been recently erected a large cotton compress, of which an illustration is given. A map is given, in this connection, of the section lying jjetween Cairo and Memphis, showing the alluvial sections of Tennessee and Kentucky; also maps of the difi'erent counties accompanied by sta- tistics of population of 1880, 1890 and 1900. Past— Present— Prospective 453 1 Court House. 2 Elevator. 3 Bird's-Eye View from Railroad. 4 Citizens Bank VIEWS OF DYERSBURG, TENNESSEE I Court House. 2 Ripley Oil Works. VIEWS OF RIPLEY, TENNESSEE 3 Main Street 454 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: LAKE, OBION and DYER COUNTIES, TENNESSEE For Population and other statistics, see Pages 351 and 449. FULTON COUNTY, KENTUCKY Population, 1900 1 1 ^540 1S90 10,005 1S80 7,977 D y LAUDERDALE, TIPTON SHELBY COUNTIES, I TENNESSEE For Population and other statistics Pages 351 and 449. 456 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- JAMES C. HARRIS President Hickman and Tiptonville Levee Association COURT HOUSE AT TIPTONVILLE, TENNESSEE STREET SCENE AT TIPTONVILLE, TENNESSEE Past— Present— Prospective 457 I Court House. 3 Cotton Compress. 2 Street View VIEWS OF COVINGTON, TENN. DE SOTO DISCOVERING THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER Title Page to Memphis Compliments oF Memphis Sc.'m;:ar Past— Present— Prospective 459 MEMPHIS By GEORGE W. FOOSHE, Commercial Editor Scimitar GEORGE W. FOOSHE The growth of Memphis from the small Indian trading post awa}' back in the vounger days of the century now ending to the great commercial city which she is to-daj', is one of the most remarkable in the history of Southern cities, and nothing shOws more conclusively the wonderful possibilities of the Riparian Lands of the Mississippi and the great country that belongs to the basin in which Memphis lies than does the steady gxowth and development of the "Queen of the Valley," the Bluff City over- looking the father of waters. There is one remarkable feature about Memphis that belongs to scarcel}' another Southern city. She is simply a commercial city and nothing more, and she has always been. Other cities boast proudly of their numerous libraries, art studios, educational institutions, and all that goes to make up the cultural element that bring's into existence what Matthew Arnold has so beautifully called "Sweet- ness and light," but Memphis, while not neglecting the cultural altogether, has centered almost her en- tire energy and strength in the development of her commercial interests, until to-day thei'e is not an- other city of the same population in the United States that transacts the same amount of business per capita as does this city. There has been nothing of the mushroom growth that has characterized some of the Western cities, nor has there been any of the backward movement in the path of progress that belongs to some of the distinctly Southern ones. The development has been slow, steady, strong and powerful enough to overcome the ravages of war as well as the pesti- lences that God has sometimes visited upon her. Yellow fever came near wrecking her and turning the tide of progress from the flow to the ebb, but since the late Col. Geo. E. Waring did his wonder- ful engineering work after the scourge of 1878, and now that sewers traverse almost every portion of the city, and now that the health authorities have the ability to enforce quarantine restrictions against all epidemics at other points, the city is as healthy as any in the South, and business enterprises once afraid of Memphis are now eagerly seeking to locate here. While the city has assumed a high rank among all industrial and commercial cities, and while every branch of trade and industry has made its con- tribution tO' the high position the city occupies, the cotton trade, the cotton seed oil business and the lumber trade stand pre-eminent among these. Memphis has for long years enjoyed the distinc- tion of being the largest inland cotton market in the world. Situated in the most fertile section of the cotton belt, standing at the head of all the year round navigation of the Mississippi, she was the natural market to which the planter of ante bellum days brought his cotton on wagons or on the occasional steamers that plied between New Orleans and St. Louis. She was the nearest large city in reach of the planter, and the only one from which he could carry back the supplies and im- plements necessary for the conducting of fanning operations. Time was not a factor in those days. But there came a change with the war. The large 460 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River plantations were broken into smaller ones, and mar- keting had to be rapid. The river packets were in- creased in number. At the same time the building of railroads received a wonderful impetus from the development of the cotton growing industr};-, and those that sought the trade of the territory had their lines to pass through this city. Time became a consideration, and planters, in- stead of coming to this city to sell their cotton, consigned it tO' factors here, who sold it for them on commission. The business was of rapid growth until now there are 55 sellers or factors in this city, with warehouses of sufficient capacity to shelter all the cotton that finds its way to this city. The eleven lines of independent railways, competing among themselves as well as with the numerous packets on the Mississippi, gradually brought about reduced rates, which brought more and more cotton each year, until the receipts for the year just ended were 596,545 bales. The establishment of the Cotton Exchange has done much to develop the market. Up to 1873 there was no exchange in this city, and Memphis played only a minor part in the outside cotton world. But with the establishment of this the city rapidly forged to the front as a distributing center. Every marketable variety of staple was to be had here with the exception of the Sea Island. "Bend- ers" from the interior counties of Arkansas and Mississippi were to be had in large quantities, while other exclusive staples attracted world-wide atten- tion. The Cotton Exchange was a guarantee of promptness and perfection of standard. Thus it came about that representatives of prominent cotton houses in the United States came here, as well as those from Liverpool, the continent and every manufacturing cotton center in the old world. The result has been the sharpest competition among buyers and sellers, and the shipping of cotton to the mills of the North, the South, Canada, Bremen, Havre, Liverpool, Manchester and other foreign cotton centers. The advantage of cheap rates, both to and from. Memphis, as insured by the competi- tive railways with their connections leading to all the Atlantic and Gulf ports has attracted both buyers -and sellers here, since cotton can often be shipped direct to foreign ports at lower rates than from New Orleans and other port cities. The large number of buyers (56) has brought about the most intense competition, which guaran- tees to the planter the highest price his cotton could command. Owners of the large plantations in the Mississippi Valley do not sell in the small markets within easy reach of them, because there are none of the cotton experts there who will give them the full market value of their holdings. They ship into Memphis, where men who have devoted a lifetime to the cotton business sample it and give prices ac- cording- tO' the grade of the staple. This has had a wonderful influence on the growth of the city's cot- ton trade. Year by year the factors handle a larger percentage of the cotton crop, drawing it from bounds even beyond the 150 limit allowed to the Memphis district proper. That Memphis is an important cotton center is attested strongly by the fact that there are sent out daily cablegrams and telegraphic advices to every cotton market of the world. Memphis handles about 6@7 per cent of the entire cotton yield of the United States, and in this capacity has a right to speak, and what she says has a powerful effect on the speculative markets. Bad news from the Mem- phis district is always the signal for a bull cam- paign, while too good reports from the section start bear operations on a scale that is rather dishearten- ing to the planter at the South. But what Memphis has been and is is not what she is destined to be. Her progressive citizens recognize the commercial importance of the cotton crop, and .since they do recognize this they are grad- ually reaching out into new territory, bringing larg- er receipts to this market. The last railroad, the Choctaw, Oklahoma & Gulf, taps a fertile section of the Arkansas side of the valley, and the receipts hith- erto small from that section are expected to add materially to the total amount handled here in the years to come. At the same time the trend of the manufacturing of cotton goods is toward the South, and this will help the cotton trade of Memphis to a degree that was not only improbable but absolutely impossible less than a decade ago. The Memphis wholesale merchants are reaching out into new ter- ritory daily, and wherever a Memphis merchant sells his goods the cotton from that section finds its way to this market and helps to swell the total volume of business done. The industry that competes in most active rivalry with the cotton trade of Memphis is her lumber in- terests. This is as yet a comparatively young busi- ness, though the growth of it has been so rapid that it has already assumed proportions that are by no means inconsiderable. Situated in one of Past— Present— Prospective 461 W. A. GAGE President Memphis Cotton Exchange HENRY HOTTER Secretary Cotton Exchange J. W. THOAIPSON President Memphis Hardwood Lumber Association LEE MALLORY President Memphis Merchants' Exchange N. S. GRAVES Secretary Memphis Merchants' Exchange 462 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: J. J. WILLIAMS AUyor of Memphis THE LATE DR. D. T. PORTER A. S. CALDWELL a rman Committee on Greater Memphis BENTON M'MILLIN Governor oF Tennessee THE LATE R, C. GRAVES Past— Present— PRospECTivfc 46^ the richest lumber regions of the world, with the thickly wooded timber lands in Eastern Arkansas, Northern Mississippi and West Ten- nessee to draw from, and with railroad facilities that offer the minimum rate to both the domestic and export trade, it is little wonder that the business has grown so rapidly until Memphis has become the largest hardwood market and the second lumber center of the world. The beginning of the industry may be said to date from ISSO, when there were about ten or twelve mills directly contiguous to Memphis. The firms which began the development of the trade, however, made little progress. There were not enough sawmills in this section to get the timber in marketable shape, while there were at the same time no special lumber rates either to the do- mestic or foreign centers. As a result the industry developed rather slowly. But toward the latter part of ISSO lumber men from other sections were at- tracted to the virgin forests in easy reach of the city. The firms that had operated in the extensive forests of the North and Northwest, on account of the ex- haustion of the timber in their respective sections, began establishing branch offices here, and in some cases moving their entire plants within the ^lem- pliis lumber district. With them came a wonderful increase in the number of sawmills, the handling of large quantities of lumber, the application for special lumber rates, the preparation by the railroads of bills of lading to all the domestic markets as well as to those of the old world, and the establishment of the business on the gigantic scale on which it is con- ducted at present. The railroads have been a big- factor in the development of the business, as well as the rivers traversing the lumber section. The lumber yards of the city are situated very near the railroads or the water, and from both they have received aid that has been of the utmost importance, the former in enabling" the wholesaler to secure rea- sonable rates to all domestic and importing centers, the latter in getting the logs down to the mills by means of rafts. It is estimated now that there are more than 500 sawmills in the ^Memphis district, with an annual output of 1,825,000,000 feet,, and that the increase during the past three years has amounted to fully fi''/^ per cent. The business is now divided among the sawmill men, planing mill men, cooperage men. stave makers, box makers, wholesale and retail dealers. The lumber men estimate that about 40 per cent of the output goes for export purposes to Europe and the United Kingdom, while the 60 per cent remaining is taken by the domestic consump- ti\'e trade. The gross business, according to figures obtained at the ]Merchant's Exchange, amounts to $8. 091, GOG annually, while the capital invested in lands and plants reaches .$4,306,175. The number of feet handled amounts to 337,333, 350, and the number of hands employed to 4,366. The number of cars handled reaches 31,574, while the average price per 100 feet is $28.77. These figures, it must be understood, refer only to the business of Mem- phis proper and not to the Memphis district, '\^^ere figures obtainable for the latter the total in every item would be \-ery materially increased. There is almost no limit to the kinds of wood to be had in the timber belt contiguous tO' the city. There is nearly every variety of tree for the manu- facture of hard wood, and though the blow of the axman is heard in the forests and the hum of the saw at the hundreds of mills, the resources of this belt remain practically inexhaustible and there is every reason to believe that Memphis will for years to come hold the position as the largest hardwood market in the world. At the same time, on account of the access to the soft woods of Arkansas, made possible by the opening of the Choctaw. Oklahoma and Gulf railroad, there are some well informed lumbermen of this city who are confident that Memphis will not only hold the palm as the largest hardwood, but also as the most important lumber center of the world. The most logical reason for this prediction is the fact that the giant forests of the AVest and Northwest have l^een exhausted, and plant after plant is coming to the home of the tim- ber just as the cotton mills of the North are seeking location in the heart of the cotton belt. The other industry in which Memphis ranks firsT among the cities of the world is the manufacture of cotton seed oil and meal, her mills annually furnish- ing more than one-twentieth of the entire cotton seed oil output of this country. The cotton oil mill- ing industry was attempted during the latter part of the eighteenth century, but despite the encourage- ment offered by societies for the development of arts and commerce, the business was not put on a practical basis until about two decades ago. This industry belongs peculiarly to the South, on account of the fact that the weight and bulk of the seed ex- clude shipment to other manufacturing sections, and Memphis, located in the richest cotton producing section in the South took hold of the business in its 464 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; infancy. The first mill was erected before the civil war, and others, foreseeing the great field offered, put up other plants, till to-day there are plants as fine as any in the South, with a total daily crush of 1,350 tons when their full capacity is used. While the growth of the business was rapid, and Memphis soon outdistanced all competitors, it was not all smooth sailing. There came a great slump in the price of the oil. The formation of the A, C. O. Co. saved the situation by putting prices to a higher level as well as by developing the industry to such an extent as to make it possible to use every particle of the seed, now known as the by-products. Machinery was manufactured for reginning the seed, and the oiTering of the "linters" on the market. The hulls went as fodder to the cattle, while the mills sold their meal for cattle feeding and for fertilizer purposes. At the same time a cot- ton fiber company for manufacturing the hulls into pulp, to be used as the body for paper, was estab- lished. Another source of profit came in the broad- ening of the uses of the oil, large cpiantities going into the manufacture of soap, compound lard, and into other legitimate trade channels. The Mem- phis mills represent an investment of more than $1,000,000 and do an annual business of more than $1,. 500,000, and both the investment and the annual output are gradually increasing. Two of the plants this year added 1,500 tons to their daily crush- ing capacity, while all the mills have recently put in the most improved machinery at a consider- able increase of cost over the original outlay ex- pended. At the same time new territory from which seed are being drawn and the more favorable rates from Arkansas are gradually adding to the increase in the annual volume of business. The output of the Memphis mills are sold in both the domestic and foreign markets. The chief American consumptive points are St. Louis, Cincinnati, Chicago, Provi- dence, R. L, and New .York. A source of pride to Memphis is her banking institutions. She has six commercial banks and five savings ones and these, especially the former, are easily able to finance the large deals made in cotton, lumber, groceries and supplies and in other less important lines. It is to their crecht that they have been able to weather the financial storms that nave swept the country in recent years cind that their depositors have not had to make howling rushes on them for the safetv of their monev. It is also worthy of note that during 1899-1900 the deposits in the commercial and savings banks reached the highest figures in the history of the Blufl^ City, -and that the business transacted through these banks during the same period, as given by the Clearing House reports, showed an increase in round numbers of $26,389,000. The banking business of Memphis is in the hands of wise, prudent and progressive men, who are always on the cjui vive for something better for the city, and now that the volume of business is increasing so rapidly, they are using all their efforts towards bringing a sub-treasury here. The grocery and g"eneral supply business of ]\Jemphis is by no means inconsiderable. Trans- acting a business of $20,000,000 to $30,000,000, she is recognized throughout the United States as the ninth and at the South as the second distribut- ing center among Southern cities. Front street, the home of the wholesaler, is a beehive of industry, and the men who control the wholesale houses are steadily reaching out into new territory. Already they control all of Mississippi and the larger portions of Tennessee, Arkansas, Oklahoma and Louisiana. The competition with St. Louis and New Orleans is sharp sometimes in parts of these States, but the traveling men from the two latter cities, with whom the writer has talked re- centh', acknowledg'e without hesitation that they dread more and more the successful rivalry of the^ Memphis salesmen. Memphis cotton factors are widening the area from which they draw tlieir cot- ton, and Memphis grocers easily follow into the territory from which the fleecy staple finds its way to the Bluff City. The manufacturing" enterprises of the city already pass the 500 mark, and plans are now on foot for the attracting of new plants here. The organiza- tions in charge of the eft'orts in this direction are well ecjuipped now, and, being in a position to offer the most favorable concessions in the way of build- ing sites, side trackage, etc., the best of results are expected to follow, and new enterprises are ex- pected to locate here much more rapidly than in the past. There are other notable features about the com- mercial history of Memphis, but these must be passed over with the cursory remark that they are steadily developing and that the Bluff" City, over- 30 466 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: looking the Father of Waters, is by no means in the zenith of her commercial development. With her progressive citizenship filled with pride at the rapid strides of the past decade, with her merchants and cotton factors reaching out into new territory, with new hnes of railway seeking this city as the "Gateway" of the South, with her levees improved by the aid of the Mississippi River Improvement and Levee Association, the past is only an earnest of what is. to be, and, while Memphis may never be the first city of the South in population, she will always be the "Queen of the Valley, God Bless Her," and stand ahead of all her rivals except the Crescent City lower down by the sea. THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT MEMPHIS 1 Grand Opera House. 2 Lowenstein's Jean Pants Factory. 3 Cossitt Free Library. 4 Tennessee Brewery and other manufacturing plants. 5 Telephone Building. 6 Bank of Commerce Building. 7 Court Square and Main Street corner. 8 Lyceum Theater. 9 Front Street view. 10 H. Wetter Factory. SOME ATTRACTIVE VIEWS OF MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE 468 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 1 Murphey, Diebold & Sons. 2 Hardwood Lumber Co. 3 Cochran Lumber Co. 4 Moore & McFerren 5 Bird's-eye View of Lumber District. 6 E. E. Taenzer & Co. 7 Anchor Mills. 8 E. T. Bennett & Co. 9 Memphis Bending Co. THE HARDWOOD LUMBER MILLS OF MEMPHIS, TENN. Past— Present— Prospective 469 1 Scatchard & Sons 2 Memphis Coffin Factory 3 E. T. Bennett & Co. 4 Memphis Stave Manufacturing Co. 5 Cochran Lumber Co. Box Factory 6 Alfee Heading Co. 7 Charles Sadder 8 R.J. Darnell 9 Anderson-Tully Co. 10 Tennessee Furniture Co. 11 J. M. Darnell & Son 12 Memphis Furniture Co. 1 Crescent Cotton Oil Mills 2, 3 Tennessee Cotton Oil Mills (two views! 4 Richmond Cotton Oil Company 5 De Soto Cotton Oil Mills 1 Valley Cotton Oil Mills 2 Perkins Oil Company 3 The Southern Cotton Oil Company 4 Phcenix Oil Mills S Gayoso Oil Works THE COTTON OIL MILLS OF MEMPHIS, TENN. I, 3 Second Street, looking north. 5 Madison Street, looking east. 6 Main Street, looking north. 2, 4, 7 Views oF Front Street. 8 Court Square. VIEWS OF THE BUSINESS STREETS OF MEMPHIS CO D 03 O Z z o H o u Past— Present— Prospective 473 MEMPHIS IN GALA ATTIRE ARTESIAN WATER WORKS, MEMPHIS 474 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: PUBLIC SCHOOL BUILDINGS OF MEMPHIS, TENN. Past— Present— Prospective 475 SOME OF THE HANDSOME RESIDENCES OF MEMPHIS, TENN. 476 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: TWO PRETTY RESIDENCES OF MEMPHIS, TENN. a* 2 a 7.. 3 CO H / / O a. m d Q t' •■/- UJ . . ; X a 1 0. S u S [U S o w fl z I- z 3 3 z ; iTfc h k ■■■■■■ ■ I I — I I K \V'^Jyi> ^ ISSISSIPPI /"* TUNICA COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation tSSo $80^,251 1899 1,491,552 Area 271,731 acres, all alluvial COAHOMA COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation 18S0 Jr, 773,829 ■' " 1890 2,604,250 Area 333,521 acres, all alluvial BOLIVAR COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation 1880 $^.5 '2,753 1890 4.525.998 Increase in 10 years nearly two million. Area 550,892 acres, all alluvial WASHINGTON COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation iSSo fo. 412,973 " " " 1890 7,142,806 More than doubled in ten years. Area 570,669 acres, all alluvial SHARKEY COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation 1880 ' 11,063.183 1890 1.592. S74 Area 287,005 acres, all alluvial ISAQUENA COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation 1880 $1,454,966 " " !«»,,,. " 1890 1,651,166 Area 259,388 acres, all alluvial • QUITMAN COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation 18S0 $1,738,677 " " " 1890 1,073,358 Area 144,334 acres, all alluvial TALLAHATCHIE COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation 1880 I975.097 " " " 1S90 2,01,2500 More than doubled in ten years. Area 404,373 acres, nearly }/o alluvial COUNTIES WHOLLY AND IN PART ALLU- VIAL, COMPOSING THE YAZOO-MISSIS- SIPPI DELTA, WITH AREA OF EACH AND ASSESSED VALUATION FOR 1880 AND 1890. HOLMES COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation iS8o $2,643,157 " " " 1890 4,056,025 Area 526,679 acres, '/{ alluvial YAZOO COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation 1880 $4,626,335 1890 5.367663 Area 522,083 acres, )< alluvial (For Population see Page 352. Note. — While population statistics for igoo have been tabulated by the Cen- sus Bureau, the statistics of wealth, etc , have not. Comparison is therefore instituted between 1880 and 18Q0 dates. The increase in population as shown by the tables will serve to estimate the proportional growth of wealth. — £d, DE SOTO COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation $2,600,000 Area 306,092 acres, }{ alluvial SUNFLOWER COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation iSSo $[,195,962 " " '■ 1890 1,589,646 Area 458,777 acres, all alluvial LA FLORE COUNTY Total Assessed Valuation 1S80 .$1,890,682 1890 2.531.364 Area 257,881 acres, all alluvial 480 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; K L) CL, a, m H Z o u o o w a bo 3 o a o MILL OF THE MISSISSIPPI COTTON OIL CO., CLARKSDALE, MISS. COTTON PICKING IN THE YAZOO-MISSISSIPPI DELTA ■OtiSa^-i. . -r^ ^J^iimi^ NEW OIL MILL, TATE BROS., HOLLYWOOD, MISS. 482 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: ALLUVIAL LANDS IN MISSISSIPPI The area of alluvial lands in the State of Miss- issippi, as shown by the authority which we are using (the calculations of the Mississippi River Commission as to overflow lands) is 6,926 square miles, or 4,432,640 acres. This does not include the alluvial lands of initial formation, which lie above the overflow, nor some which skirt the river in the lower portion of the State. • Practically all of the lands included in this com- putation lie in the famous Yazoo-Mississippi River Delta which heads a few miles south of Memphis and extends to Vicksburg, and lies wholly in the State of Mississippi. The first settlement of the alhu'ial lands along the Mississippi River was begun in the early part of the century. Between 1830 and 1850 large areas were bought from the LTnited States government along the river front in nearly all of the counties which border the Mississippi River and were cul- tivated largely with slave labor. Indeed, some of the finest plantations in the entire Southern coun- try were opened up and developed in this section of the Mississippi River Valley between the years mentioned, in the fertile Yazoo-Mississippi delta, as well as many of the alluvial districts of the State further south in Wilkinson, Adams and Jefferson counties; so that prior to the late Civil war this was fast becoming the great cotton-producing center of the country. During the war the levees were swept away, and for many years thereafter the delta was at the mercy of each recurring spring overflow. There was, however, much activity displayed in efforts to pre- vent these disasters, but withal many plantations were allowed to remain uncultivated, especially when the price of cotton begun to descend. We might say that the upward tendency of im- provement begun after the overflows of 1882, 1883 and 1884. For instance, in 1881, in the county of Bolivar, which is now one of the richest and best- developed in the delta, there were only 1.50,000 acres on the assessment rolls in the county, leaving nearly 400,000 acres of land forfeited, of which 200,000 acres were held by what was known as the "Liquidating Levee Board" as lands forfeited for levee taxes. These levee taxes here mentioned consisted of an acreage tax and a bale tax as well; also, a direct ad \'alorem tax. The bale tax on cotton in the Yazoo-Mississippi delta has been as high as five dollars a bale at times, since the effort to reinstate the levee system was begun. The first railroad built north and south through this delta was known as the Louisville, New Or- leans & Texas railroad company, built during the vears 1883 and 1884, from Memphis to Vicksburg, by R. T. Wilson. This is now called the Yazoo & 'Mississippi Valley road, and is a part of the great Illinois Central system, of which Stu3we- sant Fish, of New York, is president, and James T. Harahan, of Chicago, second vice-president, in charge of the general operation of the road. In addition to the main line there was built, soon after the completion of the main line, what is known as the Riverside division, extending from Coahoma, in Coahoma county, to Rolling Fork, in Sharkey county, paralleling rather closely the Mississippi River as far as Greenville. Of late years considerable mileage has been added to this system in branch lines extending into nearly every countv in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta. Following the building of the Y. & M. V. came the Georgia Pacifix, entering the Delta a few miles west of Carrollton and traversing it, at its widest part, to Greenville on the Mississippi River. This railroad with a branch to Webbs, is now a part of the Great Southern Railway and is the coal carrying line which connects the rich coal fields of Alabama with the Mississippi River. At Greenville, its west- ern terminus, are located facilities for transfer of coal to barges. (See Greenville.) In the article furnished by C. H. West, chief en- gineer of the Mississippi Levee district, embracing the counties of Bolivar, Washington, Sharkey and Issaquena, and in the article furnished from the report of the chief engineer of the Yazoo-Mississ- ippi Levee board. Major T. G. Dabney, are given statements regarding the progress of levee bufld- ing in these sections, and it is unnecessary to re- capitulate these facts. As before mentioned, in 1881, 400,000 acres of land in Bolivar county had become forfeited, and were not on the lists as taxable property. In 1900 there is only about 8,000 acres of land claimed or held bv the State, and not taxable. There are more than 400,000 acres owned and held by indi- viduals and citizens, and over 225,000 acres of cleared and improved lands. This will give some Past— Present— Prospective 483 DESOTO Coaz/jy^ //V., ->s:/K/7 TUNICA :COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI For population see page 352; other statistics page 479. 484 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi Rivers C A 3 Pa-H-ison. ] lD HI E \ J L E F L Of R E, Ro&ebloom. O Cascills? ;, / Leverett^ ,0 i (TV Scotlandi G R E N /\ DA QUITMAN AND TALLAHATCHIE COUNTIES, MISSISSIPPI (Scale Reduced.) For Population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 479. Past— Present— Prospective 485 idea of the conditions which have prevailed, and the improvement which has taken place in this county, which is a criterion to the general progress of the Delta. Washington county, and the river along the Issaquena front, were even earlier in their settle- ment than Bolivar, and the same conditions ex- isted as mentioned in the description of Bolivar. By 1860 it had grown to be a veritable principal- ity in the beauty of its broad, highly-cultivated fields, palatial homes and magnificent plantations. Refinement and hospitality characterized the plan- ter. Indeed, here was to be found Southern hos- pitality and Southern culture in its highest devel- opment. There is an unusually large c^uantity of what is known as highlands, such as border the lakes, (formerly bends of the Mississippi River, which Avere made into> lakes by cut-oft's at different times Idj the river) and on the interior streams and riv- ers. Two of the most beautiful lakes in the entire Mississippi Valley, Lakes Lee and Washington, are in this county. Back from the river are the Bogue Phalia, the Deer Creek, the Yazoo River, :and several other streams along the banks of which abound these highlands, the soil of which is of a light sandy variety, easily cultivated, and very fertile. While Washington county is considered one of the older counties, its advance has been almost ■phenomenal within the last -twenty years. In 1880 the population was 25,367. The census of 1900 ■shows a population of 49,216. A more wonderful exhibit of its growth may be taken from the reports iurnished me by the courtesy of Major W. E. Mont- gomery, Secretary of the Board of Mississippi Levee Commissioners, which show that Washing- ton county paid levee taxes on 30,362 bales of cot- ton in ISSO, and on 90,423 bales in 189Y. Thus in seventeen years this county has increased its pro- duction of cotton over 200 per cent. In this con- nection it may be mentioned that Sharkey county has increased from 10,682 bales in 1880, to 29,884 bales, or almost the same per cent of increase. Bolivar county has increased from 27,584 bales of the eai-Her date, to 53,200 bales in 1897, or nearly dotible. Isaquena county from 18,801 bales to 21,119 bales. The explanation for the smallness of the increase in Isaquena is that it was almost as fully developed along the front in 1880 as in 1897, while the large increases in the other three counties are due to the building of railroad lines and opening up the back country through improved levee condi- tions. It might be well to call especial attention to and analyze the figures of the back counties. Sunflower county, in which are situated several of the rapidly growing little cities of the Delta, had in 1880 a pop- ulation of 4,661, while the census of this year gives it 16,084, nearly three and one-half times the pop- ulation of twenty years ago. Sharkey county from 6,003 has jumped to 12,178, or 100 per cent. Quit- man county, from 1,406 to 5,434, or nearly 300 per cent. La Flore, which is especially favored with large streams, along which there was considerable development prior to 1880, shows an increase of a little niore than 130 per cent, having sprung from 10,246 in 1880, to 23,834 in 1900. Tallahatchie has grown from 10,926 to 19,600. A large portion of this county is hill land, but it is safe to say that the largest increase in this population is due to development of that portion which lies in the river bottoms. A comparison, \\'hich may be instituted here, is very instructive in showing the relative increase in population of the river portions of the State and the hill lands. Take Warren and Washington counties for the comparison. In 1880 Warren county, in which is situated the city of Vicksburg, had a pop- ulation of 31,238. Nearly all of AVarren county is hill land; and that portion which lies on the river is nearly all below the beneficial eft'ect of the levee system, and has not kept pace with the protected lands in development. Washington county, which is wholly alluvial, had a population at that time of 25,367, or nearly 6,000 less than Warren. In 1900 Warren county has increased to 40,912, most of which may be attributed tO' an increase in popula- tion of the rapidly growing city of Vicksburg, while Washington county has increased to 49,216, and instead of being nearly 6,000 in the rear of Warren in population, shows an excess of over 8,000. Now one would suppose that with these rapid increases, and with the building of so many miles of branch roads, that this country would begin to be pretty well settled up, but such is not the case. There is probably not more that 30 or 35 per cent of the lands of the fertile Yazoo-Mississippi Delta that are in cultivation, and there are portions of it, 486 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: ^ "^^ ;h W»AS, >^^^, ^^^'^ ■V ^ y\. Sfi'L>-/t'n\ \t a _OA>/<^<^,,^ /? > ) 1 ^ 51: r^^4p^>ywoyUi^o/"^tx.. ^ J n\\ — > -** / / \) \ . S y© ^/^«2 6 /v^iy^ — ^ /f » V ■ Or )///y>4SCi/. / 1^/7 /i^y COi^n/TY R i"T'o«^■>^a,fe. ^ ^^ COAHOMA COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI For Population, see page 352; other statistics page 479- £or-m 5 7^ X27ccC /ir} O \ / u 7tvi/^ '■-■■"■ ■ ./^ ■••f' ■.*;"'^9F ■< IL^ f? ?. .'-■ " ■i« ^.>":\ ^*-:-Sfi^'**^ ■-.: r^ P fc: Mi ■r ■ ,-^ ■ \ ■ :*::'1^- ■ ^■"5" ■ " ■ ■ _ J .;>^:'-ii« ^.;=:> , 4 1 ■^»i n ,,-■■ ^■. ^i^ fc.^ :.-' ^^ ■ ; P^ '^il LgJ ..mui^ ^^1^ B^' ^ fl| .■"■>■■■S3^-;^.^^:.. - -•;■ r-1 i^ iPi 1 1 tt 1 ^ ^^^v Ui ^^H l^piun —"'■•- s^^i SMa|m||«t|aM ^fc::;.,L ,,, RESIDENCE ON DAHOMEY PLANTATION GENERAL VIEW OF THE CULTIVATION OF DAHOA^EY, THE LARGES CULTIVATING DAHOMEY PLANTATION X fi OTTON PLANTATION IN THE WORLD, BOLIVAR COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI 490 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- MAP OF BOLIVAR. COUNTY MISSISSiF'PI B.C.JOHNSON c-viL cuoiHCcit AND surrVEvoR MCMF-MIS TE NIM Jrt.WEATHERrORD.. 1CCHANICAI. CNOlNIE>*«~I> OnAUGMTSMAN ri^r-lPHIS, TCNN. For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 479. K" ' : WP/'^ wprpwijii';*!* '■■'■-•; ^s ' ■■ e; *■ ''^i tlMo| W'r :/ f m , jt";>v. :' Mi ■ -. -.-d '7 ' ^%m^d ' ■■■■ S'. ■'■-" i -' -- ■ J ■* ■■ ^ .■-"If V- ' ^- ■ m :f Pi* ■.'* ■' ■'^' > o o a. C/5 O < H -J UJ Q PL, D < oa w u Qi a: Q u to O 492 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River:, THE IMISSISSIPPI RIVER AT ROSEDALE, MISS., SHOWING THE MOUTHS OF THE ARKANSAS AND WHITE RIVERS COURT HOUSE, ROSEDALE, MISS. Past-Present-Prospective 493 HOLMES AND YAZOO COUN- TIES, MISSISSIPPI (Reduced scale) For population see page 352; other statistics page 479- COMPRESS OF THE PEOPLE'S WAREHOUSE COMPANY, YAZOO CITY \ 1 1* • '^i^A ; ^w^^l •^fm ffl^^H l^MHIiH E^vjpii i^p~^ ' "^'^^^^^ BROADWAY STREET, LOOKING WEST, YAZOO CITY YAZOO CITY SCENE RIVER FRONT, YAZOO CITY / f.:,f O o < 3 o X 0. o u o o u (J a o 496 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi kiver: to use the expression lately made, "where a white man has never put his foot." Even between par- allel lines of railways not more than fifteen or twen- ty miles apart, there lies almost unexplored terri- toiy of the most fertile land to be found on the face of the globe, and peculiarly adapted to cotton rais- ing. These lands are heavily timbered with the dif- ferent varieties of oak, cypress, cotton-wood, ash, hickory, elm, gum, Tupelo gum, and various other varieties of hardwood timber. This country is being rapidly brought to the front, large tracts of land having recently been sold to investors and sawmill men, and many large mills of the latest type are being erected tO' cut into a seemingly in- exhaustible wealth of timber. While much of this timber is being sent throughout the United States in the form of lumber, seemingly the largest indus- try is cutting and shipping of box and barrel ma- terial, large quantities of which are sent to Europe. As heretofore mentioned, the lands along the rivers and bayous are sandy loam, as they have been made by the heavier particles of silt which have come down the river, and, by processes which have been explained in other articles, been depos- ited nearest the banks of the streams. When the water flows backward from these streams, losing, in its dispersion, its ability to carry the heavier sedi- ment, it still holds in suspension the lighter parti- cles, and these, as the water clarifies, are deposited, and have formed what is known as the "buck shot" lands. These lands are extremely fertile, and richer in decomposed matter than the lighter land along the front. They are not so easily cultivated, but they are ideal cotton lands, as they hold moist- ure well, and cotton planted on them rarelv ever sufl:'ers from drought. Most of the lands yet undeveloped in the Delta are of this variety.. Prior to the building up of the present admirable levee system, when the over- flow was almost of yearly occurrence, these lands, being low, formed a basin for the accumulating waters, and consequently could not be brought under the plow with any degree of security, but now, since the levee system has become so nearly perfect, and since the prospect of entire relief from water is so good, these lands are being rapidly brought into cultivation, and this condition is largely responsible, no doubt, for the phenomenal increase in the production of cotton above men- tioned, where, in Washington county, an increase of only 100 per cent in population shows an in- crease of 200 per cent in production of cotton. This increase of cotton production is all the more remarkable when we consider that much of the increase of population is in cities, and engaged in occupations of industrial development other than farming, such as sawmills, lumber, stave fac- tories, oil mills, etc., which existed but slightly in ISSO. Mention has heretofore been made of the small amount of State and government lands in the front counties, but it might be mentioned in this connec- tion that in the back counties, Quitman, La Flore, Tallahatchie and others, there are considerable school lands and State lands. All the counties in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta have railroads within their borders, either of the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley or its branches, or the Southern Railway and its branches. Quitman county, the least undeveloped of all the counties of the Yazoo-Mississippi Valley Delta, is the latest to receive improvements of that char- acter. A branch of the Yazoo & Mississippi Vahey has just been completed to Riverside, with a pros- pective continuation northward to Memphis, and a railroad is now being surveyed to run east and west through the center of the countj^ from Water Valley, Miss., tO' the Mississippi River. These two' roads being completed, the comity will have exceptional railroad facilities. While it has, as mentioned elsewhere in this description, increased 300 per cent in population within the last twenty years, still its lands are largely in their virgin con- dition. There is a prevailing notion that the alluvial lands, or "bottoms," are not as healthy to live in as are other portions of the country. It is a well- known fact that all new countries north or south, east or west, especially those which have very rich soils, develop malaria as they are opened up to cul- tivation. A careful study of the history of various sections of the United States which have been set- tled up, show that malaria exists to a less degree in the opening up of the lands along the Mississ- ippi River than in the early days of Illinois, Indi- ana, and other States of like level and timber char- acter, and, while admitting the presence of some malaria, it may be stated that a great majority of the people never suffer from it at all, and there are verv few fatal terminations of diseases incident to Past— Present— Prospective 497 COAHOMA [ W A S H 1 N SUNFLOWER AND LA FLORE COUNTIES, MISSISSIPPI [Scale Reduced; For population, see page 352 ; other statistics page 479. 1 Street Scene at Leland 2 Leland Compress LELAND, MISS. 3 Leland Oil Mills 1 and 2 Blrd's-Eye Views of City 3 Main Street 4 and 5 Views of Yazoo River GREENWOOD, MISS. Past— Present— Prospective 499 its presence. In those portions of the Deha where the lands have been opened for manj^ years, and which he along the lakes and rivers, an almost en- tire absence of malaria is noticeable. Recenth? there have been built artesian wells which supply the drinking water, which heretofore came from cisterns. These wells are contributing very much to the health of the delta, and the day is not far dis- tant when all the cities and towns and many of the plantations will be supplied with crystal waters from the bowels of the earth by means of these wells. The impression must not be made that cis- tern water is unhealthy, for, indeed, it is considered that rain water when caught at the proper seasons, and carefully shielded from any unfavorable con- ditions, is the purest water in the world. The only trouble which people experience in this matter is from lack of attention and care given to their cis- terns, and to the proper storing and protection of their water supply. In connection with the map of each county which follows, is given its area and population dur- ing the past two' decades, which will be interesting to show the rapid increase in twenty years. In an article on page 346, regarding the Homo- chitto Levee district, is given some description of the alluvial lands which lie along the lower borders of the State of Mississippi, and which are unpro- tected at present by any adequate system of levees. In fact, nearly all are v.-ithout any levee protection wdiatever. The value of lands in the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta varies very largely; some of the finest culti- vated plantations can be had for from $35 to $50 an acre, while unimproved lands can be had very much cheaper.. It may be said that the market value of land in this delta has increased at least 100 per cent within the last five years, and the next five years will probably show a greater increase. As indicative of the price of timber lands in large quantities, the recent sale of 150,000 acres in this section by the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Rail- road Company to Messrs. George T. Houston & Company, lumber dealers of Chicago, at approxi- mately $1,000,000, is reported in the public news items. These are average timber lands, and this firm has bought them, it is presumed, largely for the timber which is on them, and that they will be thrown upon the market as farm lands as rapidly as they are denuded of the marketable timber. This is simply one of many large sales which have taken place within the last few years and indi- cates a good price for these lands, and also that the country will l^e opened up to cultivation with great rapidity. The Louisville, New Orleans & Texas Railway Company was granted a heavy subsidy in lands to aid the building of the railroad through the Delta. A large part of these lands have been sold, some to large investors who are placing sawmills in this section and cutting away some of the magnificent timber which abounds in such profusion; but much of it to small planters who are opening it up to cultivation. Some of the back counties, in which list may be included Quitman, Sunflower, LaFlore, Sharkey, and the alluvial sections of Yazoo, Tallahatchie and Holmes, as well as eastern parts of Tunica, Coahoma, Bolivar and Washington, are of com- paratively recent development; indeed, almost wholly so, except some portions lying on the high ridges along the banks of the rivers and bayous, which are always higher than the lands known as "buck shot" that lie away from the streams. As an indication of the development in these counties attention is called to the statistics of pop- ulation which appear at the head of this article, and the assessed valuations of many of the counties. NATCHEZ, MISSISSIPPI The city of Natchez is beautifully situated on the bluffs overlooking the Mississippi River, and the fertile alluvial basin lying in the State of Louis- iana at nearly its widest part in North Louisiana. It had a population in ISSO of 7,058, wdiich had increased in 1890 to 10,101. The last census gives it a still larger increase. The railway communication enjoyed by Natchez is excellent. Connecting with the alluvial dis- tricts in Louisiana are two railroads; one termin- ating at Bastrop, which traverses or borders the alluvial sections of the State for nearly the entire distance. Another wholly in the alluvial districts extends to Trinity. These roads have their ter- mini at Vidalia, wdiich is situated on the opposite side of the river from Natchez. On the east, Natchez is connected by the Natchez & Jackson division of the Y. & M. V. R. R. with Jackson, Mississippi, where it meets the Oueen & Crescent and the Illinois Central. At 500 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River r VIEWS OF NATCHEZ, MISS. Past— Present— Prospective 501 Harriston, 25 miles out, this division connects with the main line of the Y. & M. V. R. R, north and south, thus giving quick communication with all parts of the country. The Mississippi River, of course, affords navigation all the yesLV round. The enterprising people of Natchez have their own s_ys- tems of steamboat transportation lines both north and south, which do^ a large business and are pros- perous. At Natchez is located two of the finest cot- ton mills in the entire Southwest. They are both solidly built brick buildings of large size, and fully equipped with the latest machinery. These mills are both paying good dividends, and are owned by Natchez people. Natchez being an old cit}', and a very wealthy one in ante bellum times, has many fine residences built by the wealthy planters of those days, and also many which have been built since the war, in keeping with her gradual improvement in popula- tion and in business success. In all the necessary adjuncts to the well-regulated city, such as water works, ice factories, compresses, cotton oil mills, €tc., Natchez is fully abreast of any city of its size in the Valley. Commercially, Natchez occupies a very enviable position. She enjoys a large wholesale trade from the interior both east and west of the river, and, through her steamboat lines, from both above and below along the river. Her commercial houses. both wholesale and retail, are numerous, and have abundant capital. One of the largest manufactur- ing drug firms in the Southwest is domiciled here. The banking facilities of the town are especially good, and the deposits in the banks are large. No city in the Mississippi Valley is more interested in the development of the alluvial lands than Natchez, not only those of Louisiana, with which she has quick rail communication, but also on the Missi.ss- ippi side in what is known as the Homochitto Levee District, which extends as far south as Bayou Sara. VICKSBURG, MISSISSIPPI AVere this an historical narrative instead of a ■cursory view of present conditions, it would take a great deal of space to describe many things which have made Vicksburg famous. But our mission is not of the past but of the present and the future. Vicksburg in 1880 had a population of 11,814. The last census gives it l-kS.jl. This improvement in population has come through industrial enter- prises in which Vicksburg excels. Unfoi^tunately the overflows which have swept the Mississippi Val- ley have done their greatest damage in the neigh- borhood of A'icksburg on the Louisiana side, from which this city reasonably expects to get a large portion of its trade. These disasters have prevented the development of this rich alluvial section, con- sequently have prevented a natural increase in the population of Vicksburg which a development in this section would have brought about. That is, Vicksburg would have had a larger population than she now has if the farming trade had increased with the same rapidity as the manufacturing.- Another disadvantage under which Vicksburg has been compelled to labor is its distance from the river in times of ordinary and low stages of water. The cut-off, through what is known as the Grant Canal, in ISTti removed the business portion of Vicksburg fully two or three miles from the river. In times of high water boats can land at the old wharves through Centennial Lake, which was the former bed of the river. Some years ago General T. C. Catchings, the able member of Congress representing the congressional district in which Vicksburg is situated, secured from Congress ap- propriate legislation looking to the turning of Yazoo River, which empties into the Mississippi River only a few miles above Vicksburg, into Cen- tennial Lake, thence to the Mississippi some miles below its present mouth. This will afford all of the facilities which were lost by the cut-oft' in 1876. Accompanying this article is found a drawing showing the route of the Yazoo^ River through Centennial Lake. This improvement is rapidly progressing to completion and will be one of the engineering- wonders of the United States, as the Yazoo is a river of considerable importance, and has a large volume of discharge. In fact, it is rated, next to the Red and Arkansas Rivers, as one of the best and largest affluents of the Miss- issippi in the South. With the building of perma- nent levees beyond the danger of possible over- flow, and with the natural improvement which will take place in the Tensas basin therefrom, Vicks- burg will enjoy a large traffic from that section of the countr}^ In both the commercial and industrial lines Vicksburo- is unusually strong. Here are situated 1 Bird 's-Eye View 2 Court House 3 U. S Building 4 Episcopal Cliurcli 5 Distant View from the River 6 Cotton Picking on the River VICKSBURG, MISS. T Vv / *i ! ■i .muit^ I ' ■wlwiijBi*'-' kOLLlNG FORK OIL MILLS \SSA9u E N A 1 ^ <^ jYoKena \OBnerf"ieI|^^ONevsf fTown L.cJg- j3^SLCheha.w P-O ^ C L A \ WARREN COUNTY, MISSISSIPPI For population, see page 352. 504 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : SOME LOVELY HOMES AT VICKSBURG, MISS. VIEWS OF THE NATIONAL CEMETERY, VICKSBURG, MISS. THE RIVER FRONT, VICKSBURG, MISS. VIEWS OF THE NATIONAL CEMETERY, VICKSBURG, MISS. i«'|ji* I B'NAI B'RITH LITERARY CLUB, VICKSBURG, MISS NEWIPIAZZASHOTEL MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT VICKSBURG, SHOWING CANAL CONNECT- ING OLD RIVER, AND THROUGH IT, YAZOO RIVER, WITH CENTENNIAL LAKE. 508 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: WASH 1^JG,"^0 M ^ V- ISSAQUENA AND SHARKEY COUNTIES, MISSISSIPPI For population see page 352; other statistics see page 479. AN IDEAL HOME AT PETTIT, MISS. AN ANTE-BELLUM SOUTHERN HOME A HANDSOME RESIDENCE, NITTA YUMA, MISS. AN ATTRACTIVE DELTA HOME, NITTA YUMA, MISS. COTTON OIL MILL, FRIARS POINT, MISS., D. A. SCOTT, PRESIDENT; O. H. JOHNSON, MANAGER SCENE AT NITTA YUMA, MISS. >^i' MOOR HEAD COX TON MILl_S [^ jIIIIIp iiiiiiiiiiii ■■■■tfffy^ ^^"STiS " ^ ,. ^ «L^Ai8^^ME; THE BEGINNING OF COTTON MANUFACTURE IN THE DELTA P< a c o 3 o Oi o "/I 5x1.7 HERBERT ESKRIGGS President Greenville Cotton Exchange EDWARD LUKE Mayor of Yazoo City W. G. BENBROOKE Mayor of Natchez Past— Present— Prospective 513 some of the finest oil mills and lumber mills to be found on the Mississippi River. Her \Yholesale merchants do a large business both by rail and by boat, while the retailers secure a good trade from that portion of the population engaged in industrial enterprises, from a very fertile hill country which lies contiguous to it, as well as from the planta- tions of the rich bottoms. Vicksburg has exceptional banking facilities. All of her banks are financially strong, and there are several. These afTord ample capital to move the heavy crops which seek Vicksburg as an out- let. This city has two commercial organizations, the Cotton Exchange and the Merchants' Ex- change, each of which has a large membership. Recently Vicksburg has undertaken a compre- hensive system of sewerage, and one of the finest electric street car services has been installed for about two or three years. In connection with the building of this road was opened up a park near the city. Vicksburg in the coming years will be best known to distant sections through her national cemetery, and the national park, which Congress has decreed shall be established here. The pic- turescjue hills which lie around Vicksburg, and which were the scene of the sanguinary conflict in the last war, will be beautified and kept for future generations in memory of the gallant deeds of the American soldier on both sides — of those who were in the trenches in defending the gallant city, as well as of those whO' made the heroic assaults on the impregnable line of breastworks with its rows of frowning cannon. YAZOO CITY, MISSISSIPPI Yazoo City is the county seat of Yazoo county, which is one of the wealthiest in the State, and next to the largest. It is built on the bluffs overlooking the rich Yazoo-Mississippi Delta, in which lies a portion of the county of Yazoo. The population of Yazoo City in 1880 was 2,- 542: in 1890, 3,358, and in 1900 it shows a more rapid increase, having -±,994: inhabitants. It is one of the largest cotton markets in the State, and is doing a constantly increasing busi- ness. The Yazoo River is navigable all the year around, and has a regular packet company with headquarters at this place. It has fine natural drainage, and also a modern underground sewerage system. Artesian water is used exclusively. The city has three banks, the total capital stock being $200,000 : The First National Bank with a capital stock and surplus of $60,000, the Bank of Yazoo City with a capital stock and surplus of $110,000, and the Commercial State Bank with a capital and surplus of $60,000. It has the usual complement of wholesale and retail business houses and many industrial enter- prises. A library endowed by Mrs. Fanny J. Ricks, widow of the late General B. S. Ricks, is one of the features of the city; also, the $35,000 opera house. There are six miles of paved streets, electric lights and water works. A cotton mill with a capital of $100,000 is planned. The site has already been bought, and the factory will soon be a reality. There are two oil mills; one of the mills of the Mississippi Cotton Oil Company is situated here, and the Producers" company also have a mill. The People's '^Varehouse & Compress Co. have one of the largest warehouses in the South. The concern is capitalized at $165,000, all owned by home people. It has a storage capacity of 32,000 bales of cotton. Yazoo City has railway connection north and south b}^ the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railway, and as before mentioned, is situated on the Yazoo River, which, with its affluents, have the full sweep of the western side of the great delta, and these give Yazoo City splendid facilities for the transac- tion of its present trade, and for an increase which must inevitably come. Yazoo City is fully abreast of other places of like size and importance in churches and schools. GREENWOOD, MISSISSIPPI This is one of the most remarkable cities in the delta in its growth and in the growth of the indus- trial enterprises which largely support it. In 1880 Greenwood had a population of 308, in 1890 of 1,055, and in 1890 its population is 3,026, showing a most remarkable increase for the past two' decades. It is situated on the banks of the Yazoo River, and has railway communication by both the Georgia Pacific division of the Southern Railway and a branch of the Yazoo & iMississippi Valley. 1 Southern Railway's Coal Tipple 2 A Cotton Room 3 Grand Opera House 4 Planters' Oil Mill 7 Wineman Sawmill 5 Goyer Co., Wholesale Grocery Plant 8 Residence of W. A. Eresman 6 Leavenworth Sawmill 9 Church 10 Paepcke-Leicht Mill (near view) 1 1 Court House 12 Artesian Waterworks GREENVILLE, MISSISSIPPI Past— Present— Prospective In 1896 its entire assessed valuation was $3 357,494; in 1900 (in the space of four years) the 515 increase of assessed valuation has been $552,755, making the assessed valuation for the county of LaFlore nearly four millions of dollars. Greenwood has three banks; the Delta Bank and the Bank of Greenwood, each with $100,000 capi- tal, and the Bank of LaFlore with $50,000 capital. It has several wholesale houses, compresses, cotton oil mills, machine works and foundries, ice factor- ies, electric lights, and stave factory, and brick fac- tory, hardwood and planing mills, and several other industrial enterprises. A handsome school house is nearing completion at a total cost of $20,000. In addition to the rail- way facilities mentioned abo\-e, it has the Yazoo, Tallahatchie, and Yallobusha Rivers, which, as is well known, run through some of the finest alluvial sections of the State of Mississippi. This city has several fine churches, and a splen- did well-equipped public school system. One of the most attractive features of the city, which is becoming common in the Delta, is its magnificent artesian well water, which gushes out with great pressure, and is sufficient to. supply, by means of pipes, all the business houses and residences in the city. GREENVILLE, MISSISSIPPI Population 1880, 2,191; 1890, 6,658; 1900, 7,- 642. In the description of the alluvial lands of the Yazoo-Mississippi Delta mention has been made of the remarkable increase in population of the count}' of Washington. Greenville, its county seat, has kept full}' up with this increase in the county, perhaps exceeding it in per cent. It has grown within the last twenty years from a country village on the banks of the Mississippi River, with a small retail business, into one of the most prosper- ous and growing cities of the delta. It is metro- politan in all respects. It has a waterworks sys- tem, affording abundantly the best and purest of artesian water; a sewerage system rapidly coming to completion, a fire department and a thorough public school system. It has several wholesale houses that do a large business. In fact the largest wholesale grocery house in the State of Mississ- ippi is at Greenville. There are five banks here, six oil mills and three cotton compresses, besides several sawmills of the latest design. This is the terminus in the alluvial valley of the Great South- ern Railway system, which afl:'ords direct connec- tion with the coal fields of Alabama. This com- pany has a coal tipple at this place, and within the last fiive years has built up a splendid coal business down the Mississippi River, handling- the .Alabama coal. The exact figures showing the amount of these shipments is not at hand, but it is verv large and rapidly increasing. The Riverside division and two other branches of the YazoO' & Mississippi Valley enter Greenville. It is in direct connec- tion with all parts of the Mississippi Valley by rail- way communication, and is admirably situated for the extension of its business. There are se\'eral new industries either in course of erection or contemplated. A cordial invitation is extended to capitalists seeking location for any kind of industrial enterprises, either in cotton or wooden manufactures. A cotton mill is one of the enterprises which has assumed tangible shape, and will soon give this enterprising little city prestige in that direction. CLARKSDALE, MISSISISSPPI This city is one of the best examples of rapid growth caused by the development surrounding alluvial sections, and by the building of new rail- roads which largely center here. The ISSO cen- sus shows no such place as Clarksdale. The 1890 census gives it 781 inhabitants, and it was a busy and growing town then. The present census gives a population of 1,711 souls. Clarksdale is so sit- uated that, by means of railroad branches, it com- mands an important strategic position in the great delta. The Y. & M. V. R. R. branches out from it in several directions, and a rapid increa.se in pop- ulation, following the opening up of new planta- tions and new industries in all directions, must inevitably take place. At present it has cotton compresses, oil mills, woodworking industries, an ice factory, and other minor industries. It is one of the county seats of the large, rich county of Coahoma, and a fine court house adds to the beautv of the little city. Two sound, well-man- aged and successful banks afford ample capital for all purposes. This must develop into one of the largest cities of the delta. Its location and surroundings are such that improvement in this direction, which is now constantly going on, will GINNERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI COTTON OIL CO. THE PAEPCKE-LEICHT COMPANY LUMBER PLANT OIL MILL OF THE MISSISSIPPI COTTON OIL CO. INDUSTRIAL SCENES AT GREENVILLE, MISSISSIPPI Past— Present— Prospective 517 naturally increase with e\-en greater rapidity in keeping with the impro\-ement and railroad build- ing- around it. It offers fine opportunities for the investor, manufacturer and business man. Rosedale, one of the county seats, with its saw- mills and soon-to-be cotton oil mills; Cleveland, the other county seat, with its several industrial enterprises and its growing trade with the interior of the rich country wdiich is being opened up. Gun- nison, Shelby, Shaws, Benoit and others are among the thriving towns of Bolivar county. In Coahoma county. l:)esides Clarksdale, of which mention has been made. Friars Point, its first county seat, and at present dividing the honor with Clarksdale, is the oldest and second largest town in the county. It has a bank, an oil mill, and many handsome residences. Other towns are Lula, Jonestown, Bobo, Ly- ons, Coahoma, all showing an upward impulse of growth in keeping with the opening up of new- homes, the increase in the lumber traffic and the erection of woodworking plants. In Tunica -county, lying north of Coahoma, several towns show much growth and business activity : Tunica, which has several mills; Hollywood, where is situ- ated the fine oil mill of Tate Brothers, of Memphis; Robinsonville and other places. In the counties further west we find some rapidly growing places. Not only are there prosperous towns on the older railroads, liut even in the new, recently built branches, are growing towns, and industrial condi- tions which are particularl}^ gratifying: Moorhead, with its stave factories and sawmills, with its fine cotton mill; Indianola, the county seat of Sun- flower county; Baird, Tchula, Belzoni, Tutwiler, Webbs, Minter City, Philippi, Graball, Ittabena, Rolling Fork the county seat of Sharkey count)^; Cary, and in fact dozens of other rising places. Much of this development is the result of private ventures in railroad building, no less than three railroads, one from Rosedale to the southeast, another from Leland or Greenville to the east, and a third from Moorhead south. These were pro- jected and either partly or wholly built by their enterprising projectors. They all now form a part of the Yazoo & Mississippi A^allev R. R. REGISTERED CATTLE AS THEY CAME FROM THE RANGE AFTER WINTERING OUT. WASHINGTON COUNTY, MISS. PLANTATION OF GEO. M. HELM, \ I V »9^ r i-^-- t '. ^^t PARISHES WHOLLY AND IN PART ALLU- VIAL, WITH AREA AND ASSESSED VALUATION. (For Population see Page 352.) ASCENSION PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $2,038,260 1899 2,444,431 Area 373 square miles, all alluvial ASSUMPTION PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $2,014,370 1899 2,557,120 Area 327 square miles, all alluvial AVOYELLES PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,980,924 " " 1899 2,279,805 Area 843 square miles, four-fifths alluvial BOSSIER PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $2,252,440 •899 ... 2,357,760 Area 773 square miles, '3 alluvial CADDO PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $6,036,449 " " 1S99 6,952,200 Area 852 square miles CALDWELL PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $648,600 1899 856,886 Area 535 square miles CATAHOULA PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,208,690 1899 1,404,505 Area i)350 square miles, J3 alluvial CONCORDIA PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S99 $1,163,504 Area 620 square miles, all alluvial EAST BATON ROUGE PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $3. 358. 810 " " 1899 4,261,810 Area 395 square miles, ){ alluvial EAST CARROLL PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S99 $1,234,420 Area 4co square miles, all alluvial FRANKLIN PARISH A.ssessed Valuation 1890 $743,219 '■ " 1899 814,061 Area 55° square miles, 73 alluvial IBERIA PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $2,085,259 1899 • 3.878,027 Area 53^ square miles, all alluvial IBERVILLE PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 f 2.831.845 " 1899 3,021,371 Area 646 square miles, all alluvial Past— Present JEFFERSON PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 foi083,975 1899 .••■• 3.736,347 Area 395 square miles, all alluvial LAFOURCHE PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $2,376,925 1S99 •. ••• 2,560,334 Area 1,024 square miles, all alluvial MADISON PARISH Assessed Valuation 1899 jSi, 766,350 Area 670 square miles, all alluvial MOREHOUSE PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 J2, 106, 455 1S99 2,II2,lS8 NATCHITOCHES PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 ^^2,789,460 " " 1899 3,683,610 Area 1,290 square miles, y^ alluvial OUACHITA PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 {2,890,408 1899 3,601,045 Area. 640 square miles, 73 alluvial PLAQUEMINES PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $1,934,005 Area 930 square miles, all alluvia. POINTE COUPEE PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S99 $1,574,508 Area 575 square miles, all alluvial RAPIDES PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $3,516,700 1899 4,604,575 Area. . ._. 1,498 square miles, ^ alluvial RED RIVER PARISH Assessed Valuation 1899 $1,003,490 Area 386 square miles, % alluvial RICHLAND PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,260,898 1899 1,296.733 Area 578 square miles, }i alluvial ST. BERNARD PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 = $ 842,49a " " 1899 1,043,169 Area 680 square miles, all alluvial ST. CHARLES PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $1,347,118 " " 1S99 1,831,120 Area 284 square miles, all alluvial ST. JAMES PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,666,877 " " 1899 2,098,826 Area > 308 square miles, all alluvial ST. JOHN BAPTISTE PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $1,164,290 •' " 1899 1,683,078 Area 190 square miles, all alluvial ST. MARTIN PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,408,320 " '* 1899 1,904,200 Area 618 square miles, all alluvial —Prospective 519 ST. MARY PARISH Assessed Valuation 1S90 $3,385,360 " " 1899 5,011,090 Area 648 square miles, all alluvial TENSAS PARISH Assessed Valuation 1899 Si, 410,810 Area 612 square miles, all alluvial TERRE BONNE PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,692,744 " " 1899 2,493,049 Area 1,806 square miles, all alluvial WEST BATON ROUGE PARISH Assessed Valuation 1890 $1,086,580 " " 1899 2,306,160 Area 210 square miles, all alluvial WEST CARROLL PARISH Assessed Valuation 1899 $538,855 Area 380 square miles, J^ alluvial LOUISIANA Louisiana, the pearl of the southern tier of States, the mother of a populous g-alaxy of daug-hters, the possessor of the largest area of alluvium in the Mississippi Valley, the State from which the great Mississippi, througli several mouths, finds its wav to the sea, is attractive and interesting from many points of view. The romance of its early settlement, and of the "Mississippi Bubble," the antiquity of its cities, the ever-present interest in its quaint Spanish and French architecture lends charm and piquancy to its history. But this is not a book of history. It is a book of description. It is not a book of poetry, but a book of practicality, and therefore we must deal with Louisiana as she is to-day, and with her as she will be to-morrow when her alhnaum, the youngest land formation, but the richest on the American continent, full}'- responds to the efforts of the hus- bandman. Possessing nearly one-half of the entire overflow lands of the Mississippi River Valley it is the cane field and the rice field of our Southern coimtry. There are millions of acres of land lying almost on a le\'el with the sea which will, by drain- age and by land making- through some future sys- tem of hydraulics, become as fulh^ cultivated as are the fertile fields along the bayous and on the banks of the great Mississippi. When the levees shall have been built, like the dikes of Holland, beyond the danger of recurring floods, then will the river be permitted, under some intelligent system, to build up these waste places — the same process of land LEDOUX E. SMITH State Treasurer of Louisiana ALBERT ESlOPlNAL Lieutenant-Governor of Louisiana JOHN T. MICHEL Secretary of State WILLIAM \V. HEARD Governor of Louisiana WM. S. FRAZEE State Auditor of Louisiana '\' FRANCIS T. NICHOLLS Chief Justice of Louisiana Ex-Governor WALTER GUION Attorney-General of Louisiana Past— Present— Prospective 521 1)uil(ling liy which it was made wiU be continued to its perfection. About one-third of the State is aUuvium. In the northern part, cotton and corn are the chief pro- ductions in this section for, broadly speaking, the sug"ar beh exists only south of the mouth of the Red River. There are, however, a few nice planta- tions which culti^•ate sugar in the parishes of Rapi- des and Avoyelles, which lie north of the mouth of the Red River. Even the northern parts of the par- ishes of Pt. Coupee and East Baton Rouge, which lie south of the mouth of the Red River, is reck- oned as a part of the cotton producing district of the State. Below this to the Gulf of Mexico sugar and rice are the staple crops. There is, it might be well to mention, cpiite an ■extensive gardening or trucking business in the southern tier of parishes, near the city of New Or- leans. Up to within the last few years the orange industry was very remunerative, with some fine ■orchards through the parishes of St. Bernard and Plaquemine, and others lying on the southern tier. Two severe freezes within the last decade have near- ly swept these out of existence for the time jjeing, but experiments in the matter of protecting orange trees, and in producing, by grafting and experi- menting, hardier kinds give promise that the indus- industry will flourish again with a permanency and stability that it never had before. Cultivation of rice has increased even in the alluvial districts, while it might be added, paren- thetically, as this work does not include other than the alluvial section, that on the prairies of the west- ern part of the State this industry is assuming re- markable proportions, through the dig'ging of drainage canals and the boring of artesian wells, un- til Louisiana is easily the leading producer of rice in the United States, and this industry is yet in its infancy, as a large proportion of the State is well adapted to its cultivation. Rice has been reg'arded solely as a lowland product, but w-e must neces- sarily change that idea and regard it as a product to be raised on the alluvial lands of any part of the State. In the Ouachita Valley hundreds of miles away from the rice-raising- portions of the State, it has been successfully cultivated. A few miles below the city of Monroe is a rice plantation which has for the past two years turned out large and success- ful crops of this cereal. In these alluvial parts of the state are vast quanti- ties of hardwood timber, the cypress predominat- ing. There are at various points along the Atcha- falaya, the Teche, and in fact along all the bayous and lakes of this region, sawmills engaged in cut- ting and shipping to distant markets vast quanti- ties of cypress, and it forms one of the most im- portant industries of the State. The forests in the alhn-ial portions of the State, along the water courses, and in the swamps, are covered with moss, and its gathering and curing is an important in- dusti-y, employing thousands of people. Along the Gulf of Mexico, in the bays and lakes which mark the southern border of the State, are great quantities of fish and oysters, which also give employment to many thousands of people. The oyster industry is rather local at present, but it bids fair, under careful nursing, to be a source of great revenue to the inhabitants of the State. The area of sounds and shallow lakes, inlets, etc., which are adapted to the cultivation of oysters, is very large, in fact, the coastline of Louisiana is greater than that of any other State, save Florida. There is an error prevalent regarding the heat of the extreme South, and that as Louisiana lies very far south that it is oppressively warm. Such reason- ing is erroneous, as the water surface of the State is SO' great, and as in the summer time the south winds prevail, there is nearly always a cool sea breeze. The fact is, speaking of the climate of New Orleans, one might say that it is a perfect one in the winter- time, and pleasant in the summer. There are over 3,500 miles of navigable water- ways within the confines of the State. The Louisiana State Board of Agriculture has issued a truthful and conservative statement re- garding Louisiana. From its interesting pages is taken a description of the alluvial lands of the North and South of Louisiana, as well as some valuable facts regarding the raising of sugar and the possi- bilities of development in that line. ALLUVIAL LANDS OF THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER This region may be con\^eniently subdivided into three parts : First, alluvial of Mississippi River and its outlying bayous; second, alluvial of Red River and its outlying bayous; third, the marshes of the coast and lakes. This region occupies about 19,000 square miles, and its vast possibilities in the near future for sup- porting millions of beings are simply inconceivable. The lands of this section are now leveed against the C. HARRISON PARKER President Penitentiary Board J. Y. SANDERS Speaker House of Representatives JOHN MURDOCK Past— Present— Prospective 523 annual encroaching floods of the rivers which tra- verse tliem. Large sums are annually spent in en- larging and strengthening these protecting earth walls. When these streams, as the}' will be in a few years, shall be safely controlled in their annual rises, and the confidence of the people established in the ability of levees to thoroughly protect, then will a full appreciation of the intrinsic merits of these lands be realized, and high values be estal)- hshed. Dr. Hilgard speaks of this region as "the most fertile agricultural lands of the State, equalled by few and surpassed by none in the world in produc- tive capacity." The parishes of this region north of the mouth of Red River are East Carroll, Madison, Tensas and Concordia entirely, and parts of Morehouse, Oua- chita, Union, West Carroll, Richland, Franklin, Caldwell, and Catahoula. South of the mouth of Red River the whole of the following parishes are included in this region: Pointe Coupee, West Ba- ton Rouge, Iberville, Ascension, Assumption, St. James, St. John, St. Charles, Jefferson, Orleans, St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Lafourche, Terrebonne, St. Mary, St. Martin and Iberia. Parts of Avoyel- les, West FeHciana and East Baton Rouge are also alluvial. In treating of the soils of this region it would be best, perhaps, to adopt the local custom and call all of that portion north of the mouth of Red River north Louisiana, and all soutli of it south Louisiana. This should be done, also, from an agricultural standpoint, since the soils of the northern sections are of a lig"hter, hardier character than those of the southern section. Cotton is the chief crop in the former, while sugar cane predom- inates among crops in the latter. ALLUVIAL LANDS IN NORTH LOUISIANA Crossing the State from the 'Mississippi River westward along the Arkansas line, one encounters alluvial bottoms separated by spurs of hill land running down from Arkansas, until the hihs west of the Ouachita are encountered. Bayous Macon and Tiger are encountered after a journey over alluvial bottoms of eight miles from the river. West- ward of these bayous begin the bayou Macon Hills (bluff fonnation), which are here about eight miles wide. They extend in a widening belt to the south- ward eight-five miles, terminating in Sicily Island. Their widest extent occurrs just north of Winns- boro. in Franklin parish, and is here nearly twenty- five miles. Descending from these hills, going westward along the Arkansas line, the valley of the Boeuf River is entered. This extremely fertile vallev is here also about eight miles wide and extends south- ward, with about the same width until it merges into the valley of the Ouachita River, eighty miles distant. Westward of the Boeuf River "alluvials," we en- counter a true ridge of the tertiary formation stretching out from Arkansas well down into Louisiana, and cut ofT at some remote day from the main hills by the Ouachita River and its tribu- taries. This ridge has been intersected b)' bayou Bar- tholomew (which empties into the Ouachita), leav- ing a narrow tongue between it and its confluent. This ridge varies in width from four to thirty-five miles, and is known locally as Bastrop Hills, the town of Bastrop, the parish-seat of Morehouse par- ish, being situated thereon. The Ouachita River forms the western boundary of the flood plain of the Mississippi Valley, and borders the hill country (good uplands), of Union, Ouachita, Caldwell, and Catahoula parishes. Along this river and its tributaries, bayous d'Arbonne, De Siard and Bartholomew, some of the finest cotton plantations of the State are situated. These alluvial lands are in many respects most desirable, since their easy culture, profuse fertility and absence of levees (the upper Ouachita being above the highest overflow), all conspire to give profitable returns under good culture and management. The ter- tiary ridges mentioned above are similar to the good uplands described elsewhere. There are some "prairies"' scattered through these ridges, with soils ^•arying from pure sands to whitish clays. In Ash- ley county, Ark., similar prairies, with the latter soils, have, by drainage and tillage, been made highly profitable. Seymours' and Dubull's, in northern Morehouse, and Prairie du Bois, in southern Ouachita, are of sufficient size to merit a distinct coloring on the agricultural map of the State. Prairies Mer Rouge and Jeft'erson lie at the eastern foot of the ridge in Morehouse parish. They are extremely fertile tracts of a few thousand acres each, and properly belong to the "bluff formation." The name of the former, Mer Rouge (Red Sea), is derived from the prevalence of a sumac (Rhus copalina), whose ber- HENRY C. WARMOTH, Ex-Governor JOHN N. PHARR JOHN D. SHAFFER J. E. LE BLANC J. G. LEE Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration HENRY McCALL Past— Present— Prospective 525 ries in autumn are Ijrilliantly red. This shrub, and a few hawthorn, are the only trees grown on these prairies. Tlie Mississippi River Commission places tlie area of the overflow lands of Louisiana at 14,695 square miles or 9,40^.800 acres. Thus nearly one-half of the total area given by the Mississippi River Commission lies in the State of Louisiana. Descending the western banks of the Mississippi River from the Arkansas line to the Gulf, no up- lands are found, and the entire country adjacent is wholly alluvial. Levees constructed and main- tained at public expense extend this entire distance, and protect the lands from overflow in high water. Examination will show that the highest lands of this alluvial region are immediately on the banks of the river. This is true of every stream that over- flows its banks in high water. It is accompanied throughout its course by a ridge, the resultant of the debris deposited by it in each successive over- flow. From this ridge the lands slope gently to a low-lying cypress swamp, which is usually the drain- age basin between the two streams. The bank of the Mississippi River in Louisiana, opposite Vicksburg, Miss., is eight feet above the banks of the Tensas, twenty feet above the La- fourche, and ten above Monroe, on the banks of the Ouachita. Before the days of levees, every overflow carried the waters to these lower levels and frequently filled the entire alluvial district, even up to the banks on both streams. These floods re- stricted settlement on these lands in the past, but now, with our system of levees perfected, it is ex- pected that they will be rapidly occupied. The soil next to the river is not only the highest in elevation, but is, as a rule, the lightest, or sandi- est — the amount of sand depending largely upon the size and velocity of the stream, depositing it. Hence, on the Mississippi River, soils too sandy for profitable cultivation are sometimes found. These sandy or loamy front lands can easily be distinguish- ed from the stifT back lands by the tree growth. In north Louisiana the tree growth of the front land is Cottonwood, which is supplanted by the willow on similar lands in south Louisiana. As explained elsewhere, the front lands are formed of the de- posits from the present river, while the back lands are the deposits from an ancient stream which ante- dated our present river, and one which possessed little or no current. They closely resemble the clay soils now being formed in our swamps. They are universally known in north Louisiana as "buck- shot" lands, on account of the excellent quality which they possess of crumbling into small round- ish fragments on drying — a property which gives them the highest agricultural value, since they com- bine the high fertility of clay soils with the easy tilth of light, loamy ones. The dark, buckshot soils are esteemed, for permanent productiveness, the finest soils in the world. Analyses made of similar soils from Mississippi by Dr. Hilgard. show them to contain the largest amount of plant food, and "justify the reputation of being the most productive and durable soil of the Mississippi bottoms." Unlike most other clay soils, they may be tilted at almost any time when the plow can be propelled through them, because, on drying, they crumble spontaneously into a loose mass of better tilth than many an elaborately tilled upland soil. It is of such a depth that the deepest tillage, even by the steam plow, would not reach beyond the true soil material ; and its high absorp- tive power secures crops against injury from drought. At the same time (owing, doubtless, to its being traversed by innumerable fine cracks and underlaid by gravel or sand), it drains quite readily. The front lands are also highly esteemed, and but for the proximity of the "buckshot lands," with which they are compared, they would be held of the highest value. Drainage and proper tillage will al- ways evoke from these soils the highest yields. SOUTH OF RED RIVER Here the scene changes. Both the crops and the landscape vary from those described. Sugar cane now becomes the chief crop, while the culti- vatable soil adjacent to the banks decreases in width as we descend the river. Above the Red River all of the so-called bayous became ultimately tributaries of the Mississippi. Below Red River there is a perfect network of bayous, leaving the river outlets to the Gulf for the enormous volumes of water pouring through the Mississippi in times of flood. Along these bayous lie extensive areas of arable land, cultivated in sugar cane, corn, rice, etc. Here, as well as on the banks of the Mississippi, extensive and highly improved sugar plantations, with palatial homes, large and splendidly equipped sugar-houses, and well arranged laborers' quarters, are everywhere to be found. Between the bayous and back from the main river occur extensive swamps of cypress and swamp cane, the latter less 526 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: S O M For population, see page 352; other statistics, page 518. LANDING AT LAKE PROVIDENCE — TOWN IN THE DISTANCE THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER AT LAKE PROVIDENCE, LA. 3 a. o aHviHOia ii jo Hsiavj |gg Jina MYgLl ^| JO HSI'HVd: =■'= Past— Present— Prospective 529 O / Chocta CONCORD I A \M For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 518. 530 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- T E N^ii S A S For population, see page"352 ; other statistics, page 51S. Past— Present— Prospective 531 abundant near the coast. The land cuUivated on the river varies in breadth from one to three miles, while on the ba3'ous it is from a few hundred yards to one or two miles. Back of the cultivated lands are the wooded swamps, into which the drainage of the plantation is sent. Sometimes detached portions of high land, hav- ing no present reference to any of the existing streams, are found four to ten miles from the pres- ent water courses. They are usually covered with timber, and in clearing, the latter is burnt, hence such clearings are usually known as "Brulees." Again, small islands just up out of the marsh and abound in swamp cane, which furnishes excellent grazing for stock in the winter. To these islands, cattle were formerly sent in large numbers, and lience were called "Vacheries." As we descend the Mississippi, the soils are less varied in character. As a rule they are less sandy, and true buckshot soils are rare. The latter are probably too deep to take part in soil formation. Usualh- the soils of this region are divided into three classes — "sandy,"' "mixed," and "stiff." They vary only in the proportion of clay they contain — those with the least are cahed sandy, and those with the largest amount stiff. The mixed soils are inter- mediate in character. As a rule, the sandy soils are the most esteemed, being easier tilled and drained. Their relation to heat is such that they are the last to start vegetation in the spring and the last in the fall to be affected by frosts. The converse of this is true in regard to the stiff soils. Being dark in color, they absorb heat rapidly in the spring, and thus force an early vegetation. In the fall, on ac- count of rapid radiation of heat, they are the first to be hurt by the frost. They are difficult to drain and cultivate, and hence are not in high request. On the other hand, they usually give a sweeter cane, but a lower tonnage per acre than other soils. Mixed soils possess properties intermediate be- tween those described, and are very valuable. It is probable that for all purposes they are the most valuable of the three. It frequently happens that all three of these soils may occur in a small field. In fact, so frequent in the immediate past have been crevasses and overflows that the entire alluvial soil of south Louisiana may be ascribed to them. The original deposits made by the river when its banks were being formed, and before the days of the levees, are rarelv within the reach of the plow. Hence the diversification of soils within a small area. Numerous analyses of soils taken throughout south Louisiana have been made, covering every variety from the sandiest to the stiffest cla^■, and they all show them to be rich in the essential ele- ments of plant food, and, as a rule, require only physical amelioration (chiefly drainage and good culture), to produce excellent crops. Since all these lands slope away from the river to the- swamps, they can, as a rule, be easily drained by open ditches. Tiles have also been used successfully and exten- sively. Their great cost have prevented their gen- eral use. It would not be supposed that south Louisiana alluvial parishes, which have been largely devel- oped for generations, should show great increases like those counties in Mississippi, Arkansas, and Missouri, which are younger and have had less levee protection, but there are many surprises, no doubt, in store for even those who live in Louisiana. Take for example the parish of Ascension, one of the old pronounced sugar parishes of the state, and one generally regarded as well settled; in :!880 the population was 16,895. In 1900 we find it with 24,142, an addition of one-half to its population of the former date. And this is not due to the fact that it lies on the Mississippi River, for Iberia, which lies on the western edge of the alluvial sections has advanced from 16,676 in 1880 to 29,015 in 1900, a still larger increase. Ouachita parish in the Ouachita valley, Natchitoches,, Caddo, Rapides in the Red River valley, show the greatest increase. The three par- ishes named in the Red River valley have almost doubled in population. Nearly all of the towns and small cities show gratifying improvement. Louisi- ana plantation methods and the comparative ab- sence of general manufactures is not conducive to city growing, yet the towns and cities of Louisiana are steadily advancing in population in keeping with the general increase in the state. Many large hardwood lumber manufacturers have located in these regions, attracted by the magnificent wealth of cypress and other hardwood varieties of timber which abound in such profusion, and have either built up new towns, or materially increased the ex- isting ones near which they have located. Lutcher, in St. James parish, and White Castle in Ascension, are conspicuous examples of those built up by the 532 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : large mills. Lumber mills have also contributed largely to the growth of Baton Rouge, Donaldson- ville, Plaquemine, Morgan City, Alexandria, Shreve- port and other places. The improved conditions and the increase of population in southern Louisiana may be largely attributaljle to the almost perfect levee conditions which exist below the mouth of Red River. That this view is correct is shown by the fact that the upper tier of parishes, which lie on the river be- tween the Arkansas line and mouth of Red River, show very little increase in population. These par- ishes are large and fertile; indeed, Carroll parish was the banner parish of the United States in the production of cotton, as shown by one of the late decennial census reports, but these parishes have been a prey to fref|uent disasters by breaking of levees — all of them except East Carroll suffering in that manner as late as 1897. The last named parish escaped the overflow in that year. These parishes, as well as in others wdiich lie immediately in the rear of them, offer abundant opportunities to investors in timber and agricultural lands. There are all kinds of hardwood timber growing in the great bottoms and swamps which lie in the parishes of the Carrolls, A'ladison, Concordia, Tensas, Rich- land, Franklin, and the lands when denuded of their timber become the finest farming lands in the world. Large bodies of these lands have been sold within the last few years at very low prices, and there is still much more to be had at figures wdiich will enable almost anyone tO' secure a fertile and valuable farm for a very small amount of mone}^. In the back of this book are found two pages de- \ oted to a list of real estate agents and men who are interested sufficiently in the good of the country to reply to inquiries regarding these alluvial lands. SOME LEVEE DEFENDERS— POLICE JURY OF CONCORDIA PARISH VIDALIA, LOUISIANA, AND SCENES ALONG THE NEW ORLEANS AND N. W. RAILROAD DURING THE FLOOD OF 1897 ■\ ^^ ^-'-^-^t*. ■'■ ^^. "^m^^g jjist^ R I S II tsiQ^V- i S^f^a ^ ^;y,; ^:;jj',^.. NORTH OF RED RIVER 534 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi kiver; For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 51 Past— Present— Prospective 535 1" r i'0| Illation see p 'ge 3S2; other statistics, page 518. 536 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River.- POINTE COUPE For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 518. CONSTRUCTING LOCKS AT PLAQUEMINE. ( Later scene shown in a group further on— Ed. ) SHOWING LOSS BY MOVING LEVEE BEHIND PART OF THE TOWN OF PLAQUEMINE BAYOU PLAQUEMINE, LOCATION OF NEW LOCKS AT TOWN OF PLAQUEMINE 538 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; BATON ROUGE Population, ISSO, 7,197. Population, 1890, 10,478. Population, 1900, 11,269. The city of Baton Rouge is the capital of the state, and here are situated nearly all of the state institutions. , It is located well for a commercial city. Drawing- its trade from fertile hill lands, as well as from the rich river bottoms, its progress has been steady within the past two decades. The growth in pop- ulation, as shown by the census figures given ■ibove, testify to that. While the increase in population has been satis- factory, the increase in wealth and in industrial conditions and development has been proportion- ately greater. A recent bond issue of two hun- dred thousand dollars by the city, for public im- provements, has been wisely applied as follows: Constructing a sewerage system, $35,000; improv- ing and paving streets, $10,000; acquiring, by pur- chase, the city water-works, $35,000; erection Of a new city hall and school buildings; building- levees and repairing streets, $15,000; iron bridges and crossings, $10,000. In private improvement, the spirit of progress is equally manifest. The Elks Society have built a tine opera-house, several fine residences have been added to the beautiful total of lovely homes which are here in such numbers, and a general spirit of progressiveness has followed the public improve- ments. Baton Rouge has splendid shipping facil- ities and excellent modes of communication with the fertile sections which surround it. In addition to the Mississippi River, it has the main line of the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley Railroad, giving through northern and southern connections; the Texas & Pacific, which enters Port Allen, across the river, with ferryboat connection from the north and south, and also a new line built to New Roads, in Panute Coupee Parish. There is now hieing surveyed a branch of the Yazoo & Mississippi Val- ley Railroad tO' Hammond, to connect with the Illi- nois Central. This will add to its through facilities, besides giving Baton Rouge better communication with the fertile hill lands which lie east of the city^ The correspondent of the Times-Democrat of New Orleans has recently visited the city, and the following from his interesting letter fittingly fills out the description of Baton Rouge: "Baton Rouge, like all other cities, is on the out- look for factories. Let a man with money and influence come to Baton Rouge, and say that he is- there for the purpose of organizing a stock com- pany for the erection of some factoiw which will give daily employment to several hundred people,, and see how quickly the energetic citizens will assist him in the establishment of such an enter- prise. "'We are in for anything which will build up our city,' said a prominent citizen to the Times- Democrat correspondent. 'The very things essen- tial to the growth of any place are factories, and we propose to g-et our share of these, as we offer advan- tages scarcely to be found at any other point.' "The banking institutions of Baton Rouge show for themselves v.-hat prosperity and success they have achieved. "The forty-fourth quarterly report of the Bank- of Baton Rouge shows resources of $950,637.73,- the liabilities including a surplus fund of $125,000,- and undivided profits of $28,197.59. "The First National Bank shows resources of" $528,880.60, the liabilities including surplus fund of $50,000 and undivided profits of $10,749.94. "The deposits are: Bank of Baton Rouge, $748,- 096.14; First National, $338,234.02. "PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS "The sum of $10,000 is appropriated yearly by the state for the maintenance of the Louisiana institution for the education of the blind. This- institution is neither a hospital nor an asylum for those who are stricken blind. The aim is to give a practical education to the young blind residing in the state, and the teachings embrace all the branches of a first-class high school education. "The buildings of this institution are imposing- structures, cjuaint in architectural design, and sur- Past— Present— Prospective 5B0 A NEW AND BEAUTIFUL HOME OF BATON ROUGE FIRST NATIONAL BANK OF BATON ROUGE AT BATON ROUGE A NOTED SOUTHERN HOME, BATON ROUGE, LA. BANK OF BATON ROUGE. Past— Present— Prospective 541 NEW HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING. > LAYING THE NEW SEWER SYSTEM OF BATON ROUGE. 1 Boulevard 2 Boulevard 3 View of city, looking north from State House. 4 Mississippi River and southern portion of city, looking south 5 National Avenue, looking east 6 Levee Camp, near Baton Rouge BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA. 1 New City Hall 2 Government Post Office Building 3 Institute for Deaf and Dumb 4 Steamer at landing with levee outfit 5 Institute for Blind 6 Glimpse La Fayette Street 7 Parish Court Building 8 Capitol Building 9 Episcopal Church 10 Governor's home BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA 544 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: rounded with an inviting lawn and park of oak trees, which forms a most picturesque view, and makes the home of the deaf and dumb an abidino- place where one would want to live forever and enjoy the beauty and solitude of their surroundings. The present superintendent, Dr. John Jastremski, took charge in ISO-i, and has since that date suc- ceeded in building up an institution which is a credit to the state. The pupils are given a regular course in studies, similar to a high school training, and are also taught different branches of industry in the workshop, which fits them for usefulness in life, and perfects them in a trade which they can use to advantage when they are thrown on their own resources. "LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY "There is no more attractive spot in the South than the beautiful grounds of this great state col- lege. The flowers, the giant oaks, and the quaint old buildings, with here and there a more modern structure, form an ideal setting for the handsome cadets who gather in groups about the buildings. "The grounds lie between the northern limits of the city and the fine artificial lake that was formed some years ago by damming Bayou Grassie. They have a frontage of nearly half a mile on the bluff overlooking the Mississippi River, and extend back more than a mile. The front is occupied by the university proper, and the back by one of the three experiment stations of the university, the other two being located at Audubon Park, in New Or- leans, and at Calhoun, in Ouachita Parish. "The buildings and grounds were formerly used by the United States as a barracks, but were eiven to Louisiana in 1886 for the use of the State Uni- versity. Around this old militaiw post cluster his- toric associations and traditions of greatest interest. Occupied in succession by French, English, Span- ish and American garrisons, it has been at some time the temporary home of many a man who has become distinguished in the military history of the United States. What more fitting location could be found for a great military school? What boy would not be inspired to noble endeavors in tlie presence of such memories? "The Louisiana State University had its origin in certain grants of land made by the United States government 'for the use of a seminaiy of learning.' It was first established near Alexandria, in Rapides Parish, under the name of Louisiana State Sem- inary of Learning and Military Academy, and was opened on Jan. 2. 1S60, with Colonel (afterwards General) W. T. Sherman as superintendent. In October, 1869, its buildings were destroyed by fire, and the institution was removed to Baton Rouge. "The Agricultural and Mechanical Colleo-e which was founded on, land grants of the United States government made for that purpose, was temporarily located in New Orleans in 1874, and was combined with the State University in 1877. "No more important work can be done for the state than that which the Louisiana State Univer- sity is now so successfully accomplishing. With tuition free and with living expenses reduced to the minimum, it strives to bring higher education within the reach of every desening young man. "The object of the institution is to devote special attention to the sciences relating to agriculture and the mechanic arts, and at the same time to give to its students opportunities for broad and liberal literary and general scientific education. It offers eight regular courses of study — the agricultural, mechan-. ical, civil engineering, sugar engineering, general science, Latin, science and literary, besides special and post-graduate courses. The course in sugar engineering covers five years, the other courses four years. "The course in agriculture, for which the experi- ment stations, gardens and well-equipped laborato- ries give exceptional facilities, is designed to meet the educational needs of the farmer in this pro- gressive and competitive age. "The sugar planter is not only an agriculturist, but a manufacturer, and, to train experts in this important industry, courses of instruction are nec- essary that few colleges can offer. Located in our own sugar belt, with trained experts in its scientific chairs, workshops and sugar experiment station, the university has superior facilities for a thorough the- oretical and practical instruction in everything per- taining to the cultivation and manufacture of sugar. The student of the sugar course spends the grinding seasons of the junior years in practical work at the Audubon Park sugar experiment sta- tion, under the immediate direction of Dr. William C. Stubbs, who is acknowledged to be the highest authority in the United States on the cultivation and manufacture of sugar. This course is attract- ing students from distant states and from foreign Past— Present— Prospective 545 THOMAS D. BOYD President Louisiana State University WILLIAM GARIG President Executive Board, Louisiana State University WILLIAM C.STUBBS Director oF Evperimental Station, Louisiana State University ROBERTA. HART Mayor of Baton Rouge 546 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : president's residence, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. MISSISSIPPI RIVER FROM CADET BARRACKS, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. Past— Present— Prospective 547 CADET BARRACKS, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. THE "COLONY," LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE 548 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; ARTILLERY DRILL— LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. BASEBALL FIELD— LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LA. Past— Present— Prospective 549 DEPARTMENTS OF AGRICULTURE AND CHEMISTRY, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA BARNS, EXPERIMENT STATION, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE, LOUISIANA 550 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: A CORNER OF THE LIBRARY, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE CLASS ROOM OF AGRICULTURE, LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BATON ROUGE Past— Present— Prospective 551 countries, and most inviting and lucrative fields of employment are opening to its graduates. Experts in the various branches of the sugar industry are in great demand. One of the young graduates of the university has recently accepted a position in Hawaii, at a salary of $6,000 a year. "The courses in mechanical and civil engineering not only give thorough training in the higher mathematics, but fit the student to fill the positions that are rapidly opening to capable surveyors and engineers. The graduates in civil engineering find ready employment on our railroads and levees, or in our state and United States engineer offices. The course in mechanical engineering has been only recently made a separate course. "The commercial course, established last year, aims to meet the increasing demand in the com- mercial world for young business men of broad, liberal culture. Thorough instruction in the Span- ish language is .i prominent feature of this course. "In the general science course the student con- centrates his attention upon some one science or group of sciences. iMost of the students in this course specialize in chemistry, for which the State University offers facilities and advantages unsur- passed, if equaled, in the South. "The other courses aim at g-eneral, rather than special, culture. In them the student combines science with linguistic training; or. while not neg- lecting the broader divisions of science, becomes familiar with the masterpiece of literai-y art, an- cient and modern, and is thus trained in the appre- ciation of literary culture. "The discipline of the university is military, and is designed to develop^ obedience, promptness, neat- ness, order and true manliness of character. "The attendance, especially in the higher classes, is larger than ever before. There are now 350 stu- dents present, and the number will run over 400 before the close of the session. "The General Assembly at its last session was unusually liberal in its appropriations to the uni- versity, and in consequence many improvements are being made. Before the beginning of the next session a large three-story brick building will be completed and will contain a mess hall for 500 cadets and dormitories for 150. "The Louisiana State Universit}-, like many other Southern colleges, has suffered from lack of means, but the indications are that its growth will soon cease to be retarded by this cause. Not only is the state fully alive to its needs, but private indi- viduals are coming to its assistance. The most memorable event of the last year was the generous gift of an assembly hall by Mr. Wm. Garig of Baton Rouge, and the alumni of the university, under the leadership of their able and indefatigable president, Mr. Lewis S. Graham of New Orleans, will soon add a handsome alumni memorial hall to the build- ings on the campus. "The people of Louisiana have just cause to feel proud of their State University and to give it their hearty support. Since its foundation it has had within its walls hundreds of men who have achieved success or risen tO' eminence in private or public life. It may point with pride to a glorious past, but it may also look with hope and confidence to a far more glorious future. "It will reach the close of the old century with the prestige of forty years of usefulness and of suc- cess commensurate with its means and its oppor- tunities. It will enter upon the work of the new centui'y with a strong faculty of able and devoted instructors, with a growing corps of enthusiastic students, representing the highest type of young American manhood, and with increasing financial support from public and private sources." BATON ROUGE SUGAR REFINERY 552 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River-. SUGAR CANE Was first introduced into Louisiana by the J esuit Fathers in 1751. But it was not until 1794 or 1795 that Etienne de Bore made the first commercial crop of sugar therefrom. A large number of plant- ers soon followed Mr. Bore's example, and began the erection of sugar houses all over the southern part of the state. With each succeeding year names Avere added to the list of sugar planters, and all of them rapidly accumulated wealth. An additional impulse was given the industry in 1820 by the in- troduction of our present variety of cane by Mr. John J. Coiron. Previous to this time the Creole and the Tehili were the varieties used. The striped and purple varieties introduced by Mr. Coiron, now, with few exceptions, occupy the plantations of this state, and will doubtless remain, unless sup- planted by some of the promising seedlings now annually propagated on the sugar experimental station. Sugar cane is a gigantic grass, often reaching ten to fifteen feet in heig-ht, straight during grovvfth, but is bent or reclined often by its own weight, or by the winds at maturity. Its roots are fibrous and lateral, stretching in all directions, and usually not penetrating the soil to any depth. The cyhndrical stalk is composed of nodes and internodes (points), with alternate leaves, clasping during growth, re- ceding and falling oft' at maturity. Under the base of each leaf in the node is a bud or eye which con- tains the germ of the future cane. Until recently these buds were regarded as the true seed of the cane, but experiments first made by Nupes, Ham- son & Bovell, of Bachadoes, and since successfully repeated by many experimenters in tropical coun- tries, have shown that the panicle of flowers pro- duced in tropical countries, when the cane arrows, contained a few really fertile seeds. By planting the latter a large number of "seedlings" have been pro- duced, and by selection several of these are now coming forward with prominent qualities to dis- place the varieties heretofore used. The seed of cane are so small, and so many of them infutile, that they are useful only for augmenting new varieties. The cane crop of the world is therefore still pro- duced in the usual way, by planting the entire or portions of the stalk, and raising young plants from the eyes or the buds at each joint. The following is the method pursued in Louisi- ana: The ground is thoroughly prepared by deep breaking, followed by pulverization. Rows from five to seven feet wide are laid ofif and thrown with high ridges. The crest of these ridges is opened with a double mound board plow, and into this opened furrow stalks of cane (one tO' three) are placed in continuous lines, and carefully covered with plows or hoes. The drainage is established by quarter drains, ditches and canals. From each bud on the cane deposited comes a young shoot of cane, which litters rapidly, giving, later, a continu- ous stand of crowded cane of nearly double this quantity. Some of the present houses must soon succumb, and, with the enlargement of the capacity of the rest, a still greater output will be realized. The fields have undergone similar changes. With improved implements, the use of fertilizers and more careful cultivation, the acre yields have already been doubled. The spirit of progress is in the air, and larger results may be annually expected from both field and factory. area in cultivation The following parishes grow sugar wholly or in jjart, and the yields, taken from Bouchereau's re- port for 1896 and 1897, is given with each: Pounds. Ascension 46,677,172 Assumption 64,770,328 Avoyelles 2,228,500 E. Baton Rouge 7,087,450 Iberia 32,515,057 Ibei-ville 47,664,150 Jefferson 8,642,104 La Fayette 3,098,900 Lafourche 66,954,228 Orieans 2,779,272 Plaquemines . . . 17,773,433 Pointe Coupee 9,088,800 Rapides 7,272,750 St. Bernard 3,231,850 St. Charies 18,957.145 St. James 57,899,613 St. John 26,274,276 St. Landry 962,090 St. Martin 7,970,062 St. Mary 120,871,420 Terrebonne 59,205,770 Vermillion 1,986,050 W. Baton Rouge 24,850,876 Other Parishes 5,938,261 KENILWORTH SUGAR REFINERY, PLAQUEMINE PARISH. MACHINERY ROOM. CRYSTALIZER3 BOILER ROOM DRYERS VACUUM PANS 556 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : FILTER PRESSES. THE MYRTLE GROVE REFINERY OF THEO. S. WILKINSON. Past— Present— Prospective 00/ The above gives a total crop of 631,699.561 pounds of sugar, and was accompanied by a crop of molasses of 20,820.130 gallons. There were in operation in 1896 and 1897, 230 sugar houses, us- ing vacuum pans, which gave an output of 568,- 778,470 pounds of sugar, with an average of 161 pounds of sugar per ton of cane ground, and 3,220 pounds of sugar per acre. The crop now being gathered is the largest in the histoiy of postbellum sugar raising and will probably exceed 700,000,000 pounds. There were 165 small open kettle sugar houses, which turned out 62,921.091 pounds of sugar, equal to ISO pounds per ton of cane ground, and 2,360 pounds of sugar per acre. The land de- voted to sugar cane in Louisiana is about 300,000 acres. This can be almost indefinitely increased. Even in those parishes where sugar cane growing is the chief industiy, there are still large areas which may be profitably devoted to the culture of this plant, and will be in the very near future, when the central factories become more numerous, or those already erected shall increase their capacities. Sev- eral of the parishes given above are now growing cane only in very limited areas, while nearly every acre on them can be profitably used in the cane culture. In the parishes given above there are over 15,000 square miles, or about 10,000,000 acres. There are in cultivation at the present time about 1.000,000 of acres, or one-tenth of the area, of which only about 300,000 are in cane, producing about 300,000 tons of sugar annually, or about one-seventh of the total amount consumed in the United States. If the entire ai'ea now in cultivation in these parishes could be devoted exclusively to cane, this section would produce one-half of the sugar consumed by our entire countr}-'. But there are. beside, vast areas in these parishes susceptible, with but little expense of being brought under cultivation, and should this be done, the total area available for sugar culture in these parishes would be amply sufficient to grow all the sugar demanrled by the people of this entire country. CENTRAL FACTORIES The cost of a central factory capable of working daily from 300 to 1,500 tons of cane per day, A\ith all modern machinery suitable for the manufacture of the best sugars, will be from $75,000 to $300,000. The profits from such factories, if well located, will be sufficiently large to justify capitalists in erecting them. At the same time thousands of small farmers Note — On pages preceding are given engraving itterior views of It is merely a type of those cent al factories all over the pages views of many of these factories are shown — Ed. and planters stand read)- to grow the cane when- ever the factories are assured. Formerly every cane culturist was also a nianu- facturer. and upon every plantation of sugar cane was to be found a sugar house of sufficient capacity to work up the crop grown. To-day the scene is changing, changing rapidly. Central factories exist — some that do not cultivate cane at all, but pur- chase every stalk crushed; others that grow onlv a part, large or small, of the large amount consumed. The presence of central factories presupposes the existence of cane farmers in close proximity. Many central factories already exist, and others will soon be built. The fierce conflict between low prices and profitable returns has forced out of existence many a small and incomplete sugar house, and will ulti- mately drive out the remaining ones. Ponderous machines, with extensive capacities, must hereafter manufacture the crystalline product of sugar cane. It requires a large amount of cane to supply the daily demands of a large central factory; 1,000 to 1.500 tons per day is now a moderate allowance for the largest. Under these new conditions, the growing of sugar cane for sale to these factories is quite extensively practiced. Small farmers, with ten acres of sugar cane, can find a ready market for it. just as readily as the large planter, with one hundred times this crop. The crops of both are in demand. Growing cane bv the ton for sale to cen- tral factories is quite a profitable business, and many have embarked therein. Sugar cane is bought upon a basis of values for a certain grade of sugar, and hence, when the latter is riding high, the former conforms to it in price. No enterprise is more inviting than that of raising sugar cane by the ton for the factories. Lands in anv quantit\- may be purchased or rented well adapted lo the growth of cane. The capital re- quired will depend largely upon the magnitude of the enterprise. One's own labor, if intelligently de- cided, will accomplish a great deal towards the cul- tivation of twenty to thirty acres of cane. Addi- tional help will lie required in planting and harvest- ing the crop. Good land will make from twenty to forty tons of cane per acre, and at present the fac- tories are paying eighty-five cents to one dollar per ton for each cent per pound that prime yellow sugar brings in the market of New Orleans. There is a large field in Louisiana for the investment of cajiital in central factories and for intelligent labor to grow the cane. a representative Sugar Factory — the Kenilworth, lately built — State which are mentioned on the above page. In subsequent 1, 2, 3, 4 Cypress Cutting Scenes of the Lutcher & Moore Lumber Mills, Lutcher, La. 5 Convent Sacred Heart, St. James' Parish, Convent, La. 6 Headquarters Ponchartrain Levee Board, Convent, La. 7 Jefferson College, Jesuit Fathers, St. James' Parish VIEWS ALONG THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER SOUTH OF BATON ROUGE Past— Present— Prospective 559 ^ BouQe For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 518. 560 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River ; TRAIN For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 518. Past— Present— Prospective 561 1 Elm Hall Refinery, Napoleonville, La. 2 Raceland Refinery, Raceland, La. 3 Reserve Refinery 4 Godchaux Building, New Orleans, La. 5 Residence of the Late Leon Godchaux, New Orleans 6 Residence of Walter Godchaux, Napoleonville GRAMARCY SUGAR CO., GRAMARCY, LA. l*^^.:"* ■ig4 m iJHf'-t-Hil iUiiW^Wji^^ I ■::m^^L:"^^..-;::: HOME OF LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR ALBERT ESTOPINAL, ST. BERNARD PARISH THE BELAIR SUGAR REFINERY OF JOHN DYMOND /: N, \. * ' r r » J it ' CAFFERY REFINERY, FRANKLIN, LA. Past— Present— Prospective 563 BAYOU LA FOURCHE. One of the best cultivated sections of the State of Louisiana Hes on the two sides of this bayou, which debouches from the Mississippi River at Donald- sonville and empties finally into the Gulf of Mexico. From DonaldsonviUe to as far south as below Lock- port there are continuous sugar plantations — some of the largest and finest in the state. The tendency of all offshoots from the parent river is to close themselves. This tendency first shows itself nearest the point at which they enter the Gulf, and lower Bayou La Fourche has filled and shoaled to such an extent that it makes the problem of levees to hold the waters from sweeping over these magnifi- cent plantations, quite a serious one. These levees have, perforce, been raised almost yearly to meet these changing conditions at the mouth, and it has been almost impossible to prevent crevasses from taking place, especially near the lower end of the bayou. It is shown by the reports which have been made to Congress that a lock at the source of this river at DonaldsonviUe would be immeasurably cheaper than the present expensive levee system, be- sides giving approximately the same facilities of navigation. Were there no changing conditions in the bayou and had the line of high water remained at it was a few years ago, it is probable that the unrestrained navigation which has existed would have been regarded by the planters and merchants as sufficient compensation for the occasional dan- gers of crevasses, and the expense of maintaining these levees. ' But these conditions have decided them overwhelmingly in favor of a lock, and a strong movement, as above mentioned, is being made to secure prompt action from Congress in this direction. On accompanying pages are shown some engrav- ings of general scenes and fertile plantations along this bayou. By the very nature of things it was impossible to secure photographs of all the beauti- ful residences and fine sugar houses which exist so numerously. Indeed, some of the most attractive must remain unpictured by reason of lack of these from which to make engravings. Along- the banks of the La Fourche, besides DonaldsonviUe, which lies at its point of departure from the river, are Paincourtville, Plattenville, La- biedaville, Napoleonville, the parish seat of As- sumption parish, Thibodaux, the parish seat of La Fourche parish and one of the most prosperous as well as one of the largest of the south Louisiana towns, and Lockport, and several other smaller places. M'CALI,'S EVAN HALL REFINERY — ASCENSION PARISH 1 Robert Nicholson, East Carroll 8 2 Phillip McGuire, East Carroll 9 3 A. B. Armstrong, Madison 10 4 P. L. Lorio, Iberville 1 1 5 E. W. Pike, Assumption 12 6 J. Rumsey Duke. Ascension 13 7 Albert S. Coltharp, Madison 14 Jules B. Savoie, Plaquemine 15 Henry L. Weil, Ascension 16 John S. Bargas, Iberville 17 Martin Glynn, Point Coupee 18 A. E. Bass, Tensas 19 Henry C. Braud, Ascension 20 J. F. Lassus, St. Mary L. V. Landry, Iberville Amedie Frederick, Ascension H. M. Floyd, Madison R. Prosper Landry, Ascension H. S. Nichols, Tensas H. T. Brown, Ascension :i^^i;L:£;i:?g^-vsr. 21 J. B. Erwin, Madison 22 John Wilberts, Iberville 23 Wm. B. Bowers, Madison 24 P. D. Quays, East Carroll 25 John I. Brown, Iberville 26 Jules A. Ayraud, Ascension SOME MEN WHO HAVE BEEN ACTIVELY 1 Dudley Avery, Iberia 9 2 H. Romero, Iberia 10 3 Albert Landry, Iberia 1 1 6 John D. Broussard, Iberia 12 8 A. Decuir, Iberia 13 G. W.Bolton, Rapides 14 L. B. Claiborne, Pointe Coupee 15 John Ehret. Jefferson 16 Henry Hart, Jefferson 17 J. Spies, Jefferson 18 F. L. St. Martin, Jefferson Edwin P. Brady, Jefferson L. H. Marrero, Jefferson John R. Langridge, Jefferson Valentine Betz, Jefferson 1 9 Henry Gardey, Jefferson 20 Representative Wilbert, Iber- ville 2 1 Jules Godchaux, Lafourche 22 W. C. Carruth, Point Coupee 23 Wm. Rebentisch, Jefferson IDENTIFIED WITH LEVEE MATTERS IN LOUISIANA 566 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: BAYOU I,A FOURCHE — A PART OF THE GREAT SUGAR DISTRICT OF I,OUISIANA LA N O R ~Y R 1 For population, see page 352; other statistics, page 51S lASCENSION For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, p- ge 51S a; 0^ V « CO o . •3 CO o 1 Sugar Factory on Belle Alliance Plantation, Mr. 5 Sugar Factory on Greenwood Plantation, Thibod- 8 Residence of E. P. Munson, Napoleonville, La Koch, Prop. ayx La 2 Residence of E. J. Koch, Belle Alliance, La. . o ■. ' m . ■„ , ^ ^^ Fourche Refinery, Thibodaux, La. T c u rw 1^ -11 I ^ Bridge at Napoleonville, La. 3 entrance to Bayou La rourche, Donaldsonville, La. 4 Sugar Factory on Palo Alto Plantation, Donaldson- 7 Sugar Factory, Westfield Plantation, Paincourt- ville, La. ville. La. 1 1 Sugar Factory, Abbey Place Plantaiion 10 Sugar Mill on E. D. White Plantation SCENES ALONG THE LA FOURCHE 570 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: 1 Locks at Plaquemine 3 Wilberts & Bros'. Sawmili, Plaquemine 2 Residence of James A. Ware 4 VC. P. Miles' Residence, Burnside 9 Residence of VC. J. Behan 5 Houmas Sugar Refinery, Burnside 7 Court House, Donaldsonville 6 Bird's-Eye View of Houmas Plantation 8 Vega Building, Donaldsonville 1 Plant of the Donaldsonville Ice Co. Past— Present— Prospective 571 1 Acadia Sugar Factory 3 Bank of La Fourche, Thibodaux 5 Residence of John T. Moore, Shriever 7 Waubon Refinery 2 Court House and Water Works, Thibodaux 4 Mt. Carmel Convent, ThiboJaux- 6 Bank of Thibodaux 8 Sugar Factory, Laurel Grove Plantation VIEWS IN AND AROUND THIBODAUX AND SHRIEVER < z o u z o o o z s o o ■^ IfU iA t m m Jf^ L" H ^^^InlH lyMinn . ^g ■BH^^H ■MvJ |B SI -^^"1 P ""1 ■ ', '-*'l 1 .|^*/«i 1 Jsh 1 Mi iim mi ^^K|^M a t£; ^Jl^K^UI a z < u z < ttJ O 574 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: ■^ jtloidr, ads For population, see page 352; other statistics, page 518. o 2 X !^=2 > P Past— Present— Prospective 603 strike here is extremely rare, and, when it does occur, a peaceful and satisfactory solution is soon effected. There is an abundance of cheap labor here — the negro element. Living among the poorer class of the people is very cheap, compared to what it is in the cold northern countries. The dwellings are not expensive, and there is no need for the heavy clothing that is required eight nionths in the year in more northern climes. The ther- mometer rarely reaches the freezing point, and when it does it does not stay there more than a few days. There are many children of the poorer classes who go barefooted the whole year round. Necessities of life are abundant and cheap. Taken all together, the lot of the poorer classes is better here than elsewhere, and therefore they can afford to work for less wages. Now, as to the question of water and a fuel sup- ply. New Orleans is as well located as any of the big manufacturing centers of the north. Lying 011 the banks of the Mississippi, with its inexhaustible sup- ply of water to be had by simply running a pipe to the river, or, when the new water-works system is inaugurated under municipal control, at a mini- mum cost, that question is easily solved. As to fuel, the coal fields of West Virginia are placed practically at our doors by that same great river, while the developing coal fields of Alabam.a are ready to pour in any quantity by rail. If bought in large quantities, it can be had at very low rates. When you consider the question of the raw prod- uct, then you begin to wonder why for all these years New Orleans has been paying tribute to dis- tant manufacturers, when much of the raw material which she bought in manufactured form came from this vicinity. One of the first instances that attract notice is cotton. The fleecy staple is shipped all the way to the mills in the eastern states, manufactured into cotton goods, and then shipped back here to be sold to the producers, who pay sufihcient profit to enrich the eastern manufacturers and support that entire section. This particular branch of indus- try has been exhaustively discussed in this city, with the result that several projects for the organ- ization of cotton mills here have been set on foot, and some of them have been successfuUy launched. The southern country has taken up the cry of bringing the factories to the cotton fields, and dis- patches tell of the organization of cotton mill com- panies in several near-by towns. But not only should they be built there, but New Orleans should resound with the buzz of a million spindles, weaving not only the cloth to be worn by our own people, but a wealth for those people. In the cot- ton spindle there is a world of wealth, as has been demonstrated by the eastern spinners. If they can make a success of it, so far from the source of sup- ply, and under difficulties of climate and labor which do not exist here, how much more of a suc- cess can we make of it here? That it can be made a success, look at the successful mills in Georgia and North and South Carolina. There is no need to go that far. Look at the t.wo big cotton mills right here in the city, which have been so success- fully operated, and whose looms are never idle. Cotton, however, is not the only raw product that ought to be manufactured here in large quan- tities. New Orleans ought to be the center of the wood-working industries of the country, l^ouis- iana's forests teem with pines and oaks and ash, and there are millions of acres of cypress swamps. These woods are all suitable for manufacture into various commercial commodities, and particularly furniture. That furniture factories can be success- fully run here, there are two examples to point to which show what can be done when energy and enterprise, backed by a little capital, set to vv'ork on the proper line. At one time there were several furniture factories started here within a short period. Some of them failed, not because of the fact that such a business could not prosper here, but because they had not sufficient capital, or were improperly managed. Box factories have flour- ished here to a limited extent. Small wagon and buggy factories have been successful, but they lacked the capital to expand and grasp a trade that was within their reach, but which they saw taken away by the big concerns of the north, which have made most of their wealth by sending their farm wagons and buggies and other vehicles down here for sale. Woodenware factories ought to be suc- cessful, and one has been started in a neighboring- town, which has done fairly well. As for the manu- facture of fine furniture from the costlier hard woods, there could not be a better site for a fac- tory than in New Oideans. These woods come from the tropical countries, and our nearness to Central America and Mexico ought to make New Orleans the ideal place. In fact, thonsands of these logs come here and are shipped to the north. The New Orleans Picayune, one of the great 604 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: HOWARD MEMORIAL LIBRARY illlf lli:B.Mi|gjitJil«flii 11 11 if Ii|!I!ll!!!!!!f "•Illlflli Illllliiiai B pf if Iff If If THE NEW ST. CHARLES HOTEl, Past— Present— Prospective 605 dailies of this city, has issued a neat pamphlet en- titled "Cotton Mills and Manufactories," coiv taining a series of very interesting" and highly instructive letters, written by their twO' able and gifted staff correspondents, Messrs. H. H. Har- grove and Will M. Steele. These letters have attracted widespread atten- tion throughout the northern and southern states for the very able presentation of the' movement looking for the building of cotton mills and other manufactories in New Orleans. Any one interested can have a copy mailed to his address by applying to the oilices of the Daily Picayune or the New Or- leans Progressive Union. The nearness of New Orleans to the fast-develop- ing" iron region of Alabama ought to result in the development of iron and steel industries in this city. The great Carnegie plants in and around Pittsburg get all their ore from the mines on Lake Superior, but they have built a city, or, rather, a score of cities, at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers that has more tonnage than any city in the countr}'. Even Cincinnati, an inland city, far removed from the iron and coal re- gions, has a large number of immense manufactur- ing concerns which turn out iron and steel products. Iri fact, a great deal of the heavy foundry work for Louisiana sugar machinei'y is done in that city. It could as well and as easily be done right here. New Orleans presents superior advantag-es as a site for a rubber goods factory, owing to the devel- opment of the rubber tree plantations in Central America. Some rubber is already coming through here for shipment to northern concerns. " It could as well stop here and be manufactured and then sent abroad. There is a cork factory in Pittsburg which covers acres of ground, which, of course, imports all of its raw material from Spain and Portugal. The cork forests of Central and South America are nearer to New Orleans, and there is no railroad freight to pay, and such a concern could as well flourish here. Yet the various bottling establish- ments here get their corks evidently from one of these interior factories. Ships coming to this port from India, for cotton for Liverpool, bring- over thousands of bales of hemp, 'which is shipped to the bagging and twine and rope 'factories ol the interior, only to come back here in the shape of the marketable article, for which we pay. besides the profit to the manu- factui-er, the freight to and fro. New Orleans has shown that she could manu- facture shoes in large cjuantities, and profitable, for one concern here has shipped large quantities to the Baltic. There are dozens of other features which could be pointed out, but these are only thrown out as sug'gestions. An investigation of any one of them will show that these statements are based on fact. Another and a very important consideration to capital investing in manufacturing enterprises here is the encouragement offered by the state. The following article for the Constitution of the State of Louisiana, recently adopted, shows that exemp- tion from taxation is offered for a period of ten years, which in itself is no mean inducement: "There shall also be exempt from parochial and municipal taxation, for a period of ten years, from the 1st day of January, 1900, the capital, machinery and other property employed in mining operations, and in the manufacture of textile fabrics, yarns, rope, cordage, leather, shoes, harness, saddlery, hats, clothing", flour, machinei-y, articles of tin, cop- per and sheet iron, agricultural implements and furniture, and other articles of wood, marble or stone; soap, stationery, ink and paper, boat build- ing and fertilizers and chemicals; provided, that not less than five hands are employed in any one factory; provided, that nothing herein contained shall affect the exemptions declared in this con- stitution." MARDI GRAS IN NEW ORLBANS ^^^■^^^^I^HBHSj ^ J f^3i^^^ ^ **5"?f^-' ^' ^ iM^i^ ^^ j8i fe-- .^*-# ^^K: «:-^' ^ " ^- J ■ >■;>■' ""-V -<^r.!3l^^ p m 1- VIEWS IN THE PARKS OF NEW ORI^EANS NEW ORI,EANS FURNITURE MANUFACTORV Past— Present— Prospective 607 VIEW OF JACKSON SQUARE AND THE CATHEDRAL ^£i44!/!i ''°°°''''''-^^^^m^mmm ,mmmmmmm^^^^^^ DEPOT OF THE Il-LINOIS CENTRAl- AND YAZOO-MISSISSIPPI VALLEY RAILROADS 608 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River? -'^ *, i^A^ji-i GIBSON HALL-MAIN BUILDING, TULANE UNIVERSITY LAW DEPARTMENT, TULANE UNIVERSITY THE LATE WM. PRESTON JOHNSTON First President Tulane University DR. EDWIN A. ALDERMAN President Tulane University CHARLES E. FENNER President Board of Administrators Tulane University THE LATE DR. T. G. RICHARDSON THE TULANE UNIVERSITY OF LOUISIANA BOARD OF ADMINISTRATORS Charles Erasmus Fenner, President James McConnell, 1st Vice President Robert Miller Walmsley, 2d Vice President Edgar Howard Farrar, Benjamin M. Palmer, D. D., LL.D., Walter Robinson Stauffer, Henry Cinder, Joseph C. Morris, Ceorge Quintard Whitney, John B. Levert, Ashton Phelps, Charles Janvier, Walker Brainerd Spencer, Beverley Warner, D. D., Walter D. Denegre; with the Governor of Louisiana, Mayor of New Orleans, and State Superintendent of Public Education, as ex-officio. The Tnlane University of Louisiana, located in New Orleans, rests upon an endowment by Paul Tulane, a retired merchant of New Orleans, who spent the last years of his life in Princeton, New Jersey. In May, 1882, he signified his intention to donate "all the real estate owned and possessed by ik him in the City of New Orleans, State of Louisiana, for the promotion and encouragement of intellec- tual, moral and industrial education among the white young persons in the City of New Orleans, State of Louisiana, and for the advancement of learning and letters, the arts and sciences therein." 610 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: By an Act of the Legislature of 1884, ratified by a Constitutional Amendment in 1888, the admin- istrators selected by Mr. Tulane to carry out the purposes of his donation became the administrators in perpetuity of the Tulane University of Louisiana and to them was transferred possession -of all the rights, powers and privileges, formerly vested in the administrators of the University of Louisiana, with the buildings and propert}' belonging thereto. By subsequent gifts Mr. Tulane increased the endowment to over a million dollars. His noble example was followed by liberal gifts from Mrs. Newcomb and Mrs. Richardson, tO' which addi- tional reference is made under the heads of New- comb College and Medical Department. On "Founders' Day," celebrated with great eclat each year, the names of Tulane, Newcomb and Richard- son are greeted with reverence and grateful affec- tion by the friends of the University. In 1894 the Academical Departments were re- moved from the old buildings of the University of Louisiana to the extensive and admirably adapted grounds on St. Charles Avenue opposite Audubon Park. About eighteen acres have been set apart as a campus and upon this have been erected large and handsome buildings, known as Gibson Hall, the Physical Laboratory, the Chemical Laboratory, Mechanical and Electrical Laboratories, Drawing Rooms, Work Shops and Power House. There is also' a small working Observatory with two tele- scopes and astronomical instruments. These new buildings present a handsome architectural appear- ance, are commodious and well supplied with the appliances of instruction. Few institutions of the country are more admirably equipped. Gibson Hall, named after Hon. Randall Lee Gibson, first president of the Board of Adminis- trators, is the largest of these buildings, with a frontage of 250 feet. It is built of Bedford stone and contains the offices of administration, assembly hall, with various class rooms, lecture rooms and other facilities for work of faculty and students. A large hall and three adjoining rooms are devoted to the library, which contains about 25,000 vol- umes. The museum is located in the third story of Gib- son Hall and its valuable collection is being con- stantly increased. The Linton-Surget hall in the same building contains the paintings, statuary, bric-a-brac, and about 2,000 volumes of miscellaneous books, do- nated by Mme. Surget to the City of New Orleans and placed under the custody of Tulane University. The University as at present organized com- prises the LTniversity Department of Philosophy and Science, University Department for Teachers, College of Arts and Sciences, College of Technol- ogy, Art Department, H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Young Women, Department of Law and Department of Medicine. The faculty consists of seventy-eiglit professors and instructors, distributed as follows: University Department, 15; College of Arts and Sciences, 17; College of Technology, 17; Newcomb College, 23; Law Department, 6; Medical Department, 26. The attendance of students during the last ses- sion was, for all departments, 970, of whom 72 were in the Law Department, and 388 in the Medi- cal Department. From present indications these numbers will be largely increased for the session of 1899-1900. The departments of the college are well supplied with the best facilities. In the natural sciences laboratory work is required, and there are fuh courses of such work in physics, chemistry and biology. In these subjects large, special labora- tories are provided, which will compare favorably with any in the countr)'. In appropriate courses large use is also made of an excellent museum and of the special college library. The Cohege of Technology is devoted to the higher education of young men in engineering. It gives courses in mechanical, electrical, chemical, civil and architectural engineering and in the chem- istry and engineering of sugar-making. The courses of study have been carefully planned with the object of fitting- 3roung men to take a prominent part in the development of the great natural re- sources of the South. The equipment of apparatus, machines and mod- els for the different engineering courses is already extensive and is being steadily increased. Labo- ratory work is a prominent feature in physics and chemistry. In civil engineering the collection of instruments, etc., is good. In drawing and archi- tecture there are casts and examples of architec- tural details in plaster, terra cotta and metals. In electrical engineering the equipment is large and of an excellent character. Full work is done in all the engineering courses. Tlie course in sugar engineering' is practical and leads to the special instruction of the student in the Past— Present— Prospective 611 r f ^ T ^ T I lEI ffi-f*' rf '^•'^''a SHS ..^ RICHARDSON MEMORIAL-MEDICAL DEPARTMENT, lULANE UNIVERSITY H.SOPHIE NEWCOMB MEMORIAL FOR GIRLS, TULANE UNIVERSITY 612 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : details of design, proper erection and economical management of a sugar factory and its machinery. The student is trained also in the chemistry of clari- fication and chemical control of the various proc- esses of sugar-making. Students graduating from these engineering courses have found no difficulty in securing" re- munerative and responsible employment. The H. Sophie Newcomb Memorial College for Women was founded in 1886, by Mrs. Josephine Louise Newcomb, as a memorial to her daughter, and is devoted to the higher education of women. The college buildings occupy a large square, sev- eral acres in extent, situated on Washington, Chestnut, Camp and Sixth streets, in the residence portion of the city. The beauty of its situation and surroundings is unsurpassed. Its extensive grounds, shaded by numerous live oaks, palms and other trees and shrubbery, are most attractive, while the mildness of the climate permits open-air recreation throughout the entire winter. The group of buildings comprises: 1, New- comb Hall, which, in addition tO' various class rooms, contains the librarj' and an assembly hall capal)le of seating 700 persons; 2, Academy, with a gymnasium upon the first floor, and upon the second and third floors the biological, physical and chemical laboratories, lecture rooms and recitation rooms; 3, the College Chapel; 4, Art Building, containing numerous studios and class rooms, pic- ture galleries and an art library, where every facil- ity is offered for the study and practice of indus- trial and fine art; 5, the Pottery, with kilns and other appliances for a course in Ceramic art; ('). Josephine Louise House for boarding students. These buildings are of substantial character, at- tractive in architecture, and aft'ord one of the most pleasing prospects in the city. The Colleg'e ofTers three regular courses of study: Classical, Modern Language, and Scien- tific, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science. Graduates from either of these are admitted to university courses, at Tulane University, on the same conditions as aie the young men who graduate from the College of Arts and Sciences, or the College of Technology. In addition to the regular courses of study, New- comb College offers normal courses in art and ph3'sical education, and special or elective courses in ancient and modern languages, mathematics, science, history and art. The system of education is liberal and thorough, and the grade of work accomplished in its various departments is of the higdiest order. This college is an earnest attempt to secure for the South as efficient and as generous a system of education as can be found in any of the best institutions in the North. The Law Department is now in the fifty-second year of its existence. Its faculty has always been chosen from among the most distinguished mem- bers of the legal profession. Its graduates fill hon- orable positions at the bar and on the bench in this and other States. While the Civil Law is taught as the basis of the whole legal superstructure and ma- chinei-y of the State, and as the foundation of its civil code and jurisdiction, the course of instruc- tion is sufficiently comprehensive to prepare the students for admission to the bar, not only in this State, but also in any of the common law States of the Union. Students have access to^ the new State Law Library. Since its organization in 1834 the Medical De- partment has held the first place in the Southern States in the confidence of the medical profession. This eminence has been maintained tO' the present time by the ability and distinction of its faculty, its unsurpassed means of teaching and the large num- ber and eminence of its matriculates and graduates. The Medical Department now occupies the new building on Canal Street, erected and equipped through the munificence of Mrs. Ida A. Richard- son as a memorial to her late husband, Dr. T. G. Richardson, for many years the dean of the Medical Department. The new building, four stories in height, pro- \-ides ample accommodation for large classes and for all the needs now requisite to medical edu- cation, with large and better lecture and recitation rooms and well equipped laboratories. These admirable laboratories, chemical, pharma- ceutical, microscopical and for practical anatomy and operative surgery, now added to the unrivalled practical advantages for clinical, anatomical and pathological studies given by the Charity Hospital, enable the Medical Department to provide its stu- dents with unsurpassed advantages for their medi- cal education. These educational advantages have been still further increased by recent improvements, notably by the addition of the Milliken Memorial, a superb Past— Present— Prospective 613 modern and model building for the accommoda- tion of two hundred sick children. It is obvious that no purely theoretical instruc- tion can compensate for the lack of practical knowl- edge gained at the bedside and in presence of sick and suffering. This practical knowledge is ac- cjuired in the Charity Hospital. The use of the wards of this noble institution, with its 900 beds and 10,000 annual patients, and the use of the two clinical buildings with more than 20,000 annual out-door patients, have been given by Acts of the Legislature to the professors of the Medical De- partment of the Tulane University of Louisiana for the practical instruction of its students not only in medicine and surgery, but also in obstetrics and gynecology. Medical students are given access to the hospital for purpose of practical instruction. The superior advantages offered by the Medical Department serves to attract students from all parts of the country. The attendance this year is greater than ever before. Col. Wm. Preston Johnston was selected by the Board of Administrators in 1883 to^ organize the University under the terms of Mr. Tulane's dona- tion. He continued to guide its development with admirable tact and wisdom until his death, which occurred in July, 1899. On the 5th of April, 1900, Dr. Edwin Anderson Alderman was elected president of Tulane Univer- sity by the Board of Administrators of the Tulane Educational Fund. President Alderman is a young man, only thirty- eight years of age. He is a Southerner born and bred. He is a Christian gentleman. He is a man of splendid presence, and of refined, polished man- ners. His scholarship is brilliant and varied, not narrowed to any particular specialty, but evidenc- ing a broad and general culture. His entire life has been devoted to education, and his career as the president of the University of North Carolina has given him a large experience in university admin- istration and development. Tulane University is, in tone. Christian, but not sectarian. The discipline is mild, but firm. The regularly matriculated students of the colleges con- stitute the Academic Corps and elect a Board of Directors, to which, for the past thirteen years, has been entrusted the general discipline and good order of the Academic Corps. The system has worked satisfactorily. An Advisory Board, composed of representatives from the faculty, students and alumni, have the general direction of college athletics. Expenses are moderate and about two hundred scholarships are annually given in the Academic Departments. The admirable location of Tulane University in the great metropolis of the Southwest; the wealth of its endowment; the ability and zeal of its admin- istration and faculties; the extent and value of its ecj^uipment in laboratories and other appliances for the instruction of its students in the arts and sciences, and in preparation for technical and pro- fessional pursuits; its growing reputation for thor- ough intellectual and practical results, all com- bine to place the institution upon a strong and per- manent foundation and give reasonable assurance of a brilliant future of usefulness. ART DEPARTMENT, H.SOPHIE NEWCOMB MEMORIAL, TULANE UNIVERSITY HOME AND SUGAR REFINERY OF EX-GOVERNOR VCARMOTH, PLAQUEMINE PARISH 1 Loise) Refinery, Jeanerette 3 Residence Jno. N. Pharr, Berwick 2 Orange Grove Refinery, Olivier 4 Glenwild Refinery, Berwick VIEW OF SUGAR PLANTATIONS OF JOHN N. PHARR AND PHARR & BUSSEY Past— Present— Prospective 615 BAYOU TECHE "Just where the woodlands meet the flowery surf of the prairies."— £xang-c(iV 616 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River MAYOR LEWIS Franklin, La. MAYOR C. KLINE Donaldsonville, La. BAYOU TECHE Beautiful is the land, with its prairies and forests of fruit trees; Under the feet a garden of Bowers, and bluest of Heavens Bending above, and resting its dome on the walls of the forest. They who dwell there have named it the Eden of Louisiana. — Evangeline. That portion of Louisiana through which the beautiful Teche finds its way — the southern cen- tral portion of the State — is famous, not alone be- cause its attractions have been sung iu song by the poet, but because it has had its beauty and its countless attractions spread far and wide by those who have seen this "Eden of Louisiana.'' Not only is it beautiful, but it is fertile as well, and in its fertile area is located some of the finest sugar plantations, some of the greatest hardwood lumber mills, and some of the most prosperous Ht- tle cities of the State. In the parishes which border the Teche the sugar cane is the exclusive large crop, save in St. Landry, St. Martin and Ibe- ria cotton is grown to a more or less extent. The growth of this section of the State, both in wealth and population, is shown by the statistics which arc to be found on pages 352 and 518. The principal cities and towns are Breaux Bridge, New Iberia, Franklin, Patterson, Jean- nerette, Morgan City and St. Martinsville. They are all quite attractive in appearance and are pros- perous and growing places. The bayou region of the Teche and Lafourche also includes Bayou Plaquemine, Bayou Terrebonne, Bayou de Large, Bayou Petite and others along the banks of which are scenes of rare beauty to charm the eye. On the fertile high-lands of all these bayous are located fine sugar plantations. The views of this region given in this book speak their own praises and utter their own discriptions. Past— Present— Prospective 617 618 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River : "Garlands of Spanish moss and of mystic mistletoe flaunted, Such as the Druid's cut down with golden hatchets at Yule-tide." — Evangeline. SCENES ALONG THE BEAUTIFUL TECHE 1 Vanfrey Sugar Refinery, Jeanerelte 2 Residence of O. t,. Mounot 3 Sugar Factory O. L. Mounot, Jeanerette 4 Sugar Factory of Shelby H. Saunders 5 Segura Sugar Manufacturing Co., New Iberia 6 Adeline Refinery, Adeline, L,a. 7 Main street. New Iberia An important New Iberia industry Court House. New Iberia Morris Foundry, New Iberia VIEWS ALONG THE BEAUTIFUL TECHE I Shadyside Refinery, of J. W. Bainett, Calumet, La. 2 Hardwood Lumber^Mill. 3. Calumet Refinery, Calumet, La. 4. Logouda Refinery, Patterson, La. 5. Residence of J. W. Barnett, Calumet, La. 6. Oyster Industry, Morgan City, La. 7. F. B. Williams, Sawmill, Patterson, La. 8. Court House. Franklin, La. g. Belleview Refinery, Franklin, La. 10. County Jail, Franklin, La. II. Lumber Plant, Franklin, La. 12. Residence on Belleview Plantation, Franklin, La. 13. Franklin Sugar Refinery, Franklin, La. VIEWS ALONG THE BEAUTIFUL TECHE. 622 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River NEW IBERIA HIGH SCHOOL, NEW IBERIA, LA. CYPRESS TANK AND MANUFACTURING CO., PATTERSON, LA. A SUGAR PLANTER'S RESIDENCE-JOHN D. SHAFFER, TERRE BONNE, PARISH Past— Present— Prospective 623 THE VALLEY OF THE RED RIVER IN LOUISIANA 024 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: RED RIVER VALLEY Of all the x-alleys which form a part of the great Mississippi River allu\-ial lands, that of Reel River is the largest. In the State of Louisiana alone the alluvial lands of this river are estimated to be over 1,700 square miles, occupying, as il does, large por- tions of the Parishes of Caddo, Bossier, Red River, Natchitoches, Rapides, Avoyelles, St. Landr}' and a small part of two or three others. This valley has long been noted for its fertility and the generally- prosperous condition of its people. In the general description of the alluvial lands of Louisiana special mention is made of the growth in population of some of these parishes, and by reference to the table of assessed valuation in the same connection it will be seen that their financial improvement has, fully kept pace with the increase of population. Shreveport, its chief citv, is one of great com- mercial and industrial activity at present, and bids fair to be one of the largest inland cities of the Southwest. Shreveport has a greater number of railroads for its population than an\- city in the world. Besides this it has an all-the-year-round navigation of Red Ri\'er, both north and south. Thus it is admirably situated for a large wholesale or distributing point as well as for a center of in- dustrial activity, and it is already both of these. While its growth during the last twenty years has been satisfactory (having almost doubled in popu- lation), its commercial, manufactiu4ng and general shipping conditions have increased far beyond that ratio, and the population must, by the very nature of things, be more largely increased in the next two decades to keep pace with its facilities. The railroads which enter Shreveport are the Yicksburg, Shreveport & Pacific ; Texas & Pacific, with Southern and Western divisions; Houston, East & West Texas; St. Louis South Western: Kansas City Southern; Texarkana, Shreveport & Natchez; Shreveport & Red River Valley, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railroads. The cotton receipts by rail for the season of 1898-99 were over 200,000 bales, thus making Shreveport the largest cotton market in the world in proportion to its population. In all fairness to Shreveport it must be said that the population gi\'en by the census does not represent, by many thousands, the full figures, as outlying districts and that portion of the city called East Shreveport which lies on the opposite side of the river in Bos- sier are not included in this enumeration. At East Shreveport is situated many of her most pros- perous industrial enterprises, and must be consid- ered as an important part of the city. With its remarkable healthfulness, with its unex- celled facilities for distribution, and situated as it is in the center of a prosperous and growing section of the Southwest, Shreveport offers exceptional opportunities for successful manufactories of all kinds, and in addition to those industrial plants which she now has, and those in the course of erec- tion, many more are projected or contemplated. Mr. H. H. Hargrove, the well-known evangel of factories, especially cotton factories, in a recent article on Shreveport, writes as follows: "We need a $10,000 to $15,000 furniture com- pany; $10,000 woodenware, buckets, trays manu- facturing plant; a $5,000 broom factory; a $10,000 rope and twine plant; a $20,000 hosiery mill; a $25,000 to $50,000 flour mill ; a tannery, a shoe fac- tory, a harness and saddle factory, a large tin-work- ing plant, a chair and desk factory and, in fact, there are fifty small industries which by small stock- company subscriptions could be started in our midst without seriously affecting the cash of the people. We need a manual training school and a technical department of our public schools, to cost $25,000." Without doubt all these enterprises could be successfully inaugurated here, and probably the next census will find not only these, but many sim- ilar industrial organizations in successful operation. And Mr. Hargrove's allusion to the cash neces- sary to inaugurate these enterprises is very appro- priate, in view of the fact that, financially, Shreve- port is rather a remarkable city. With all these advantages mentioned and with the large accumu- lations of capital which are to be found here there is no reason to doubt the future of Shreveport. Shreveport is bound to be perhaps the largest in- land city of the Southwest. 1 Victoria Lumber Company's Mills 2 Typical Residence 3 Catholic Churcb 4 High School 5 Coming Home from a Fish Fry 6 Merchants and Farmers Bank SHREVEPORT, LA. 7 St. Mary's Convent 8 Shreveport Ice and Refrigerating Co" 9 A String of Beauties. FINE COURT HOUSE OF CADDO PARISH AND VIEW OF CITY v., S. & P. BRIDGE ACROSS RED RIVER VIEW OF SHREVEPORT FROM THE EAST SIDE OF RED RIVER SHREVEPORT, LA. Past— Present— Prospective 627 Alexandria, the second city of the Red River Valley, is one of the growing places of Louisiana. Twenty years ago it was a small town. It has quadrupled its population since then and become an industrial and commercial point of importance. Its railroads are the Texas & Pacific, Southern Pacific, St. Louis, Iron Mountain & Southern, Kansas City, Watkins & Gulf. The Shreveport & Red River Railroad wih soon be completed to this point. Thus equipped with railroads, extending in all directions, and having in addition the Red River, it is an ideal location for a city. And additional roads are projected and contemplated which will eventually reach Alexandria. Predictions have been freely made that here will be one of the larg- est cities of Louisiana. Natchitoches, quaint old Natchitoches, has al- ways been one of the most interesting towns of the State. It has been noted for its fine school, fine churches and the intelligence and culture of its people. When it was first located (and it is one of the oldest places in Louisiana), Natchitoches was on Red River, but in the early years of the "late departed" century the river changed its main course, leaving the town on the smaller branch of a divided river. It is now called Cane River, and is navigable only in times of high water in the main stream. But Natchitoches has a railroad with termini at Grand E'Core, on Red River, and at Cypress on the Texas & Pacific Railroad. The people of Natchi- toches are building a fine iron bridge across Red River at Grand E'Core, and this railroad will be built northward and will become valuable in ex- tending the trade of Natchitoches, as it will traverse a country not only fertile, but heavily timbered. Natchitoches is a progressive place and is grow- ing both in wealth and population. Here is sit- uated the Louisiana State Normal School, one of the most useful institutions of the State. Founded in 1S84, by Act of Legislature, its initial session opened in November, 1885. It has larg'c and commodious accommodations, beautiful parkings and extensive grounds. It is an ideal place for a school. During the fifteen years of its ex- istence it has been an important factor in the im- provement of the morale of the schools of Louis- iana. Under the direction, successively, of Prof. Edward E. Sheib, Col. Thos. D. Boyd, now presi- dent of the Louisiana State University, and Prof. B. C. Caldwell, it has prospered, developed and en- larged, and liecome indispensable to the educa- tional unfolding of Louisiana. The other towns of the Red River Valley are Pineville, Coushatta, Colfax, St. Maurice, Mont- gomery, Campti and others which are being located on the new Shreveport & Red River Valley road. The Red River Valley is a fair and fertile part of Louisiana and is rapidly increasing in wealth and population. A SAMPLE"BUSINESS BUILDING OF SHREVEPORT, LA. 628 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: h/atchez. /fed River S Texas THE VALLEY OF THE OUACHITA RIVER-LOUISIANA AND PART OF ARKANSAS Past— Present— Prospective 629 OUACHITA VALLEY AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE OUACHITA RIVER The United States Government has at different times made appropriations, in all amounting to nearly $300,000, for the purpose of preparing sur- veys, estimates, etc., of the Ouachita and Black Rivers to ascertain the practicability and feasibility of locks and dams to secure slack water navigation in times of low water. Maj. J. H. Willard, United States Engineer Corps, has made several favorable reports on these projects. Since Maj. Willard's transfer to Chicago, this work has developed upon Maj. Thos. L. Casey. Gen. Wilson, Chief of Engineers, requested Maj. Casey to include in his report some statistics of commerce tO' be affected by the river improvement. A convention held at Monroe, La.. November 9th, 1899, permanently organized the Ouachita and Black River Improvement Association, with Col. A. S. Morgan, of Camden, as president, represent- ing Arkansas interests, and Hon. Uriah Millsaps, -of Monroe, representing Louisiana interests, as vice president. This association, to assist Maj. Casey in securing these statistics, employed Mr. G. C. Strong, an expert statistician, to compile a com- prehensive report on the resources of the Ouachita Valley. This labor was performed in a very creditable manner, and the statement waj' not only correct and thorough in all its details, but was gratifying to the people of the Ouachita Valley and sustaining to the pi'oject by showing a probable benefit to very large interests. These figures are not unreasonable, nor are they speculative. They simply represent exact facts and estimates of future benefits caused by these im- provements are left tO' speculation. The Ouachita Valley contains either wholly or in part, twenty-one counties and parishes in Arkan- sas and Louisiana, and the reports above men- tioned develop the following facts regarding the area and commercial and manufacturing energy, capital invested, timber, etc. : Total number of square miles (area), 15,738; total number of acres, 10,072,318; total popula- tion, 355,940; total assesses valuation, $36,427,617; total number of live stock, 494,776; actual value of same, $6,189,874; total acres in cultivation, 1,575,255; number of bales of cotton raised, 384,771. A compilation on the total tonnage on the Ouachita tributary streams for the season of 1898-99 discloses the following facts: Cotton (bales), 91,250; cotton seed (sacks), 154,167; eggs, (cases), 1,564; live stock (head), 2,283; lumber (feet), 271,500; staves (pieces), 976,362; pro- visions, 61,912; grain (sacks), 45,237; miscella- neous freight (packages), 224,577; cotton seed meal (sacks), 40,635; total weight in tons, 73,968; total estimated value, $5,608,360. The miles of navigable streams included in this report is given as follows: Ouachita River (from mouth of Black River to Camden, Ark.), 400 miles; Little River, 150 miles; Tensas and Upper Tensas, 150 miles; Bayou Macon, 150 miles; Bayou Louis, 30 miles; Boeuf River, 200 miles; Bayou D'Ar- bonne, 80 miles; Bayou Bartholomew, 200 miles; Sahne, 125 miles; Ouachita River (Camden to Arkadelphia), 80 miles; total miles, 1,565. To show the dignity of the area represented by the Ouachita Valley the compiler compares it with the total area of the three States — Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, which is 14,555 miles. These three States have a total population of 4,142,257 by the late census. The area of the counties and parishes mentioned as tributary to the Ouachita River is about nine per cent greater than the area of the above named States. Many practical business men and manufacturers of timber were interviewed on this subject and gave some very valuable information. For instance, Mr. F. R. Pierce, vice president and general man- ager of the Louis Werner Sawmill Company, which have mills at Griffin, Kirkland, Lester, Sayr°, Mad- ison and Lansing, Arkansas, and Tioga, Louisiana, presents a statement in which he estimates that good navigation on the Ouachita River would open up a market for billions of feet of lumber 630 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: which are on the Ouachita and tributary streams, inaccessible now because of its distance from rail transportation, and that with good transportation facilities on these rivers the value of this inaccessi- ble timber would advance to an equality with the most favorably located timber along the different railway systems. There are large export firms dealing in lumber, staves and box material which are now shipping their productions through the Ouachita and Black Rivers, notwithstanding the shortness of the season. During the time of low water many millions of feet of timber, staves and other manufactured forms of lumber lie on the banks of these rivers awaiting a rise which is often delayed until very late in the season. This naturally hampers operations. With navigation in these rivers all the year around this delay would be obviated. The loss of time, money and the natural danger and hazard of fire and other complications would be avoided. The develop- ment which would follow this improvement would be very rapid, and the growth of the country in population and wealth would keep pace with it. CAMDEN COMPRESS, 1 H i; THIRD LAHGESl SHED IN THE UNITED STATES CAMDEN, ARK. Camden, Arkansas, on the upper Ouachita, is a well built, thriving city of nearly 3,000 inhabitants. It is the center of a large lumbering industry and, besides, is situated in the midst of a very fine agri- cultural country. It has always been a great cot- ton market, and is steadily enlarging in this direc- tion. There are two railroads at Camden; the St. Louis, South Western, main line, and the Arkansas Southern R. R., north and south. These, together with the Ouachita River, afford fine shipping facil- ities to the growing young city. The Ouachita River would be a source of much more economic value to Camden were it made navigable, as is proposed by a system of dams securing slack water navigation when the river is usually low. At Camden is located what is said to be the third largest cotton shed in the world, which is a part of the equipment of the compress. An engraving of this is shown. Engravings are in the nature of ocular demonstration, and those which represent Camden give some idea of its attractive features. In industrial enterprises, commercial firms, banks, schools, churches, etc., it is fully abreast with the most enterprising towns of the Southwest. In the beauty of its location, in its healthfulness, in its good morals, and the general tone of its society, it is really an exceptional place. VIEWS OF CAMDEN, ARK. VIEWS OF CAMDEN, 4RK. Past— Present— Prospective 633 MONROE, LOUISIANA A. A. FORSYTHE, Mayor of Monroe R. A. SHOTWELL, President Board of Trade, Monroe La. Monroe is favorable situated on the banks of the Ouachita River, about thirty miles by land, south of the Arkansas State line. It is on the main trans- continental railroad line which connects the East with the West on the 32nd parallel of latituae. This road, the Vicksburg, Shreveport and Pacific Railway, a part of the Queen and Crescent Railway, has recently inaugurated a double daily passenger service, running through trains in connection with the Missouri, Kansas and Texas R. R. at Shreve- port and the Southern Railway (Alabama Great Southern Division), at Meridian, Mississippi, thus giving unusual facilities for this section in the way of travel to the East and West. A branch of the St. Louis, Iron Mountain and Southern Railway, which has been built within the last few years, gives it both Northern and Southern connection, and through trains are run to New Orleans twice a day. The same facilities are afiforded from Monroe to Little Rock, and St. Louis on the north. Thus Monroe is put in cpiick touch with all of the com- mercial sections. In addition to these means of communication the Ouachita River affords a line of steamboats both North and South. Within the last few years Mon- roe has grown very rapidly and has made many im- provements and additions to its business facilities. It has added very greatly to its appearance by an improvement in the physical condition of its streets and by the building of new residences to accommo- date the increased population. In a statement issued in connection with the Ouachita Valley improvement statistics, it is shown that in the last three years improvements have been made as follows: New iron (free) bridge across the Ouachita River, costing $Y0,000; two miles vitrified brick paving, costing v$35,000; new brick schoolhouse (just completing), cost $47,000; several miles of gravel paving; a new brick opera house, cost $8,500; wholesale grocery house (Sugar Bros.), $4,400; new Fudikar (brick) hotel, sixty rooms, $7,500; Hudson (brick) office block, $3,750; four brick stores, $7,000; new cotton factory (brick), now under construction, including machinery, $70,000; new Presbyterian Church (brick), $15,000; new Methodist Episcopal Church (brick), $18,000; new Catholic Church, $14,500. 634 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi RiVer: Among the new manufactories are the Monroe Brick Works, the West Monroe Sash and Door Factory, West Monroe Lumber Company, new foundry and machine shops. In addition to this is the fine cotton mill which is being erected by Monroe capital, an engraving of which is shown, made from the original drawing. This building is being built of brick in a very sub- stantial manner and will be completed and in operation in a few months. The general industrial condition of Monroe is first-class. They have all the manufacturing facili- ties in the way of compresses and oil mills that are necessary to handle and prepare for market the large receipts of cotton and cotton seed which are brought to Monroe by rail, wagon and river. The timber development in the Monroe district is very great and rapidly increasing. With navi- gation all the year around on the Ouachita Rivef vast quantities of the finest timber, which are now inaccessible, would find its way to Monroe mills. The facilities for the handling of timber are not confined to the cruder manufactures, but they are turning out building material, floors, sashes, doors and other materials. Monroe's location and rail- way facilities have enabled it to build up a large commercial business which is rapidly increasing. Monroe has the finest public school building in the State, and several handsome and modern church buildings. In this description and in the engravings which accompany it. West Monroe is regarded and treated as part of Monroe. It is separate and dis- tinct in municipal government and in other ways, but financially, commercially and industrially the two places are really one. ST. LOUIS & IRON MOUNTAIN R. R, BRIDGE ACROSS OUACHITA RIVER AT COLUMBIA, LA. *>4«"-'?p i^iS'.ilPliiliCtli > r MONROE COTTON MILLS— CONTRACTORS, D. A. TOMPKINS CO. 1 Wagon Bridge, looking from West Monroe 2 Parish School 3 First Methodist Church 4 Monroe High School 5 Presbyterian Church MONROE, LA. 6 U. S. Government Building 7 Bird's-Eye View of Monroe from School Tower 1 A Heavy Haul 2 New Hotel 3 Monroe Cotton Yard 4 West Monroe Sash and Blind Factory 5 \Vest Monroe Oil Mills 6 West Monroe Water Works Planters Compress and Warehouse Company Compress, from the River West Monroe Lumber Company Railroad Bridge across Ouachita River Past— Present— Prospective 637 CTi 7i For population, see page 352 ; other statistics, page 518. 638 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: c A a.use^ N A (nl 'Bon if a. \ ;y° y<^'- Brodna.x H >d.llloii ,^ V\j T o ^^• .■^ 9^ o follinsfon O o % ^\ ^1 ^ DOSSy 'V? 'Oakn'dge l^ Q ^ T N^ ^ o 9^ \ For population, see page 352; other statistics, see page 51S. PAST— Present— Prospective 639 (Map Reduced Scale) For population, see page 352 other statistics, page 518. C^A^TA HO U L A 640 Riparian Lands of the Mississippi River: DESCRIPTION OF McCAUGHAN BROS.' PATENT DEVICE FOR THE PRO- TECTION OF LOW RIPARIAN LANDS FROM OVERFLOW To ALL WHOM IT MAY CONCERN: Be it known that we, William McCaughan and Harper McCaughan, of Gulfport, in the County of Harrison, and State of Mississippi, have invented a new and improved means for protecting riparian lands from overflow, of which the following is a specification: Our Invention relates to improved means of protecting riparian lands from the overflow of rivers whose banks are pro- tected by levees, as the Mississippi for instance, and it consists in the peculiar construction and arrangement of the several fea- tures of the invention, which we will now proceed to describe with reference to the drawing in which figure ( i ) is a plan view and figure (2) a sectional view taken through the XX; in the drawing A represents the river, whose banks upon each side are protected by raised embankments or levees, EB; in one of the banks we cut an outlet, C, and also provide an outlet channel C back of the opening; said channel C having levees DD upon each side of same; this outlet channel extends to a lower lying basin or reservoir, into which the surplus waters may be received and retained or be drained away to some other outlet. By this con- struction a portion of the water from the main stream A is led off through the out- let channel, but in order to prevent the water from the main stream from entering the outlet channel at all times we construct a dam E across said channel, near its mouth, which dam is of a predetermined height, being lower than that of the levees and just high enough to per- mit overflow here when the danger point in the altitude of the main stream is reached from a flood or other cause during the normal flow of the river. This dam forms a part of the levee on this bank of the river. This dam is inclined on each side of its middle to permit a steady rise upon the river side and an easy and gradual flow up- on the other side; to prevent violent washing and the de- struction of the dams, the levees and dam are constructed in any suitable manner and of any material, and in order to protect the entrance of the outlet channel we construct fenders F at each corner of the junction of the main stream and overflow channel, which fenders extend some distance up and down stream, and also some distance past the dam in the overflow channel. These fenders prevent the washing of the corners; to prevent washing the dam it is pro- vided with a nonerosive face G. As shown, the fenders are made of piles with a heavy plank or timber facing, and the non- erosive face of the dam is also constructed of sheet piles driven perpendicular across the outlet channel. Itis obvious, however, that both the fenders and the facing of the dam may be built of masonry, or any suitable material, without departing from our invention. From the foregoing description it will be seen that in times of flood or freshet the river will rise until it reaches the top of the dam E, and after this instead of endangering the banks of the river by cutting crevasses in the levees it will flow over the dam, and the superfluous water will thus be disposed of, so that the river cannot rise above a certain level, and its banks will at all times be preserved intact. The overflow passage and dams may be located at any point along the banks of the river, and as many of them may be provided as is necessary to dispose of the extra volume of water. Having thus described our Invention, what we claim as new, and desire to secure by letters patent is: 1st. The means for preventing the overflow of low-lying riparian lands protected by levees, which consists of a nonero- sive dam forming a part of one of the levees, and arranged with its top at a predetermined distance, below the tops of the said levees, an outlet channel lying back of the said dam, and means for confining the water in said channel substantially as and for the purpose described. 2d. The means for preventing the overflow of low-lying riparian lands protected by levees, which consists of a lateral channel way communi<:ating with the main stream and provided with levees, a nonerosive dam placed across the lateral channel near its mouth, and forming a part of the main levees of the stream at low water, but made of less height than said main levees and fenders or guards F, arranged at the junction of the lateral channel with the main stream and extending a short distance up and down stream, and also along the lateral channel past the dam sub- stantially as and for the pur- pose described. By the use of this sys- tem of outlets a guarantee of protection against floods from the Mississippi river can be secured to the lands subject to inundation; it will also add immense value to these lands, and when in use the country will be relieved of the levee tax, as by this system the levee will not be damaged by high water, so as to require being repaired ; and when such protection is secured it will induce capi- talists to invest large sums of money for the improve- ment of lands along the Mis- sissippi and its tributaries. This system can be adopted bj' the different States dam- aged by overflows, or the people interested in this im- provement can petition their respective Representatives in Congress to aid in getting this system adopted by the Government. The owners of this patent-right will make easy terms in the sale to the Gov- ernment or States of their Invention. By the use of this system, when the current of the river is increased by high water, a scouring is produced that deepens the channel; whereas, with the levee system the high water raises the current, causing still water below, in which lodges a deposit, raising the bottom of the river, thereby necessitating the building of high levees. WILLIAM MCCAUGHAN, HARPER McCAUGHAN. NOTE — By placing one of these c-utlets so as to surround svvainp or waste lands with the levees to said outlets, and with a second overflow dam in rear of said lands and levees, to continue and conduct the surplus water to a natural outlet, a still-water pond or lake is formed to receive and deposit the silt dur- ing high water, thereby producing a filling to reclaim said lands and raise the banks of the river in low places to form the most fertile fields in the world,