fX)PyRIOHT DfiPOMT 
 
Digitized by the Internet Arciiive 
 in 2011 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/prehistoricworldOOalle 
 
THE 
 
 Prehistoric World: 
 
 OR, 
 
 VANISHED RACES. 
 
 BY 
 
 K. A. ALLKN, 
 
 AUTHOR OF "THE GOLDEN GEMS OF LIFE. 
 
 
 Eaoh of the following well-known Scholars revie-wed one or more 
 Chapters, and made valuable suggestions: 
 
 C. C. ABBOTT, M. D., 
 
 Author of " Primitive Industry." 
 
 Prof. F. W. PUTNAM, 
 
 Curator of Peabody Museum of Archaeology 
 and Ethnology, Harvard University. 
 
 A. F. BANDELIER, 
 
 Explorer for Archaeological Institute of Amer- 
 ica, author of " Archaeological 
 Tour in Mexico." 
 
 Prof. CHARLES RAU, 
 
 Curator of Archaeological Department of 
 Smithsonian Institution. 
 
 ALEXANDER WINCHELL, LL. D., 
 
 Professor of Geology and Paleontology, 
 University of Michigan. 
 
 CYRUS THOMAS, Ph. D., 
 Of the Bureau of Ethnology. 
 
 G. F. WRIGHT, 
 Of the United States Geological Survey, Professor in Theological Seminary, Oberlin, Ohio. 
 
 
 FEB 21 1885^/ 
 
 CINCINNATI: ^**-.. — ..- 
 
 GBNTRAL PUBLISHING HOUSE. 
 
 1885. 
 

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 COPYRIGHT BY 
 
 FERGUSON, ALLEN, AND RADER, 
 
 1885. 
 
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 'RKKACK. 
 
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 THIS volume the author has sought to lay 
 before the reader a description of life and 
 times lying beyond the light of history. 
 This is indeed an extensive subject, and 
 calls for some explanation, both as to the 
 general design of the work and what steps 
 been taken to secure correct information. 
 History is a word of varied import. In general, 
 when we talk about history, we mean those accounts of 
 past events, times, and circumstances of which we have 
 written records. Not necessarily meaning alphabetical wri- 
 ting, because hieroglyphic records have furnished much true 
 history. Hieroglyphic writing, which long preceded alpha- 
 betical writing, is itself a comparatively recent art. In no 
 country do we find any records carrying us further back 
 than a few thousand years before the Christian era. We 
 have every reason to believe that the historical part of man's 
 life on the globe is but an insignificant part of the whole. 
 This historic period is not the same in all countries. It 
 •varies from a few centuries in our own country to a few 
 thousands of years in Oriental lands. In no country is there 
 a hard and fast line separating the historic period from the 
 prehistoric. In the dim perspective of years the light grad- 
 ually fades away, the mist grows thicker and thicker before 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 US, and we at last find ourselves face to face with the un- 
 known past. 
 
 This extensive period of time is not, however, utterly 
 lost to us. We have simply to gather our information in 
 some other way. Enthusiastic explorers, digging beneath 
 the ashes of Vesuvius, have brought to light the remains of 
 an entombed city. Of this city we indeed have historic 
 records, but even if all such records had long since disappeared, 
 "we would gather much information as to the nationality of 
 the inhabitants, their customs, and manners, by a simple in- 
 spection of the relics themselves. Everywhere over the 
 earth, entombed beneath the feet of the living, or crumbling 
 on the surface, are the few relics of a past far antedating 
 the relics of Pompeii. They are the proofs positive that 
 some people inhabited the land in far away times. 
 
 Our object is to gather together the conclusions of the 
 scientific world as to primitive man. We wish to see how 
 far back in the geological history of the globe we can find 
 evidence of man's existence, and we desire to learn his sur- 
 roundings and the manner of his life. There can be no 
 more important field than for us to thus learn of the past. 
 To read the story of primitive man, to walk with him the 
 earth in ages long ago, with him to wage war on the huge 
 animals of a previous epoch, to recede with him before the 
 relentless march of the ice of the Glacial Age, to watch his 
 advance in culture, to investigate whether there are any 
 races of men now living which are the direct descendants 
 of this primeval man. 
 
 The author makes no claims to original investigations. 
 He trusts, however, it will not be considered impertinent for 
 a mere loiterer in the vestibule of the temple of science to 
 attempt to lay before others the results of the investigations 
 of our eminent scholars. He has endeavored faithfully to 
 
PREFACE. 5 
 
 perform this task. As far as possible technical language 
 has been avoided. This is because he has written not for the 
 distinctively scientific men, but rather for the farmer, the 
 mechanic, and the man of business. Constant references are 
 made to the authorities consulted. The reader has a right 
 to know who vouches for the statements made in the text. 
 
 The pleasantest part of an author's duty is to return 
 thanks for assistance. After the manuscript was prepared 
 with what care could be bestowed on it, it was determined 
 to submit it to some of our best American scholars for criti- 
 cism. Accordingly, each of the gentlemen named on the 
 title page were requested to review one or more chapters. 
 As far as possible, each one was asked to review that chapter 
 or chapters for which, either by reason of the position they 
 held, or the interest they were known to take in such subjects, 
 they would by common assent be acknowledged as eminently 
 fitted to sit in judgment In justice to them, it should be 
 stated that they were not expected to concern themselves 
 with the literary merits or demerits of the manuscript, but 
 to criticise the scientific statements made therein. To each 
 and all of these gentlemen the author would acknowledge 
 his deep obligations. 
 
 We are indebted to Rev. J. P. MacLean, the well-known 
 archaeologist, both for many valuable suggestions, and for the 
 use of wood-cuts on pages 60, 138, and 396. We are also 
 Tinder obligation to Rev. S. D. Peet, editor of the American 
 Antiquarian, for cuts illustrative of the effigy mounds of Wis- 
 consin. The officials of the Smithsonian Institution, and the 
 Bureau op Ethnology have our thanks for many cuts, for 
 which credit is given them throughout the work. 
 
 Finally, the author wishes to say that it was the inten- 
 tion to make this work the joint production of the author 
 and his partner, Mr. S. C. Ferguson, but before any progress 
 
6 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 was made it was deemed advisable to change the programme. 
 While the literary work has all been performed by the au- 
 thor, the many details necessarily connected with the publi- 
 cation of a book were attended to by Mr. Ferguson. 
 
 E. A. ALLEN. 
 
 Cincinnati, January 1, 1885. 
 
 Ruins of Cannar, Ancient Peru. 
 
fe^ CONTKNTS. J^ 
 
 ^HflpiPEr? I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 DiFFiCDLTrES of the subject — Lesson to be learned — ^The pursuit 
 of knowledge — Recent advances — Prehistoric past of the Old World — 
 Of the New— Of Mexico and the South— The Isles of the Pacific— Sim- 
 ilar nature of the relics — The wonders of the present age — History of 
 popular opinion on this subject — The teachings of the Bible — Nature of the 
 evidence of man's antiquity— The steps leading up to this belief—Geology — 
 Astronomy — Unfolding of life — ^Nature of our inquiry, . . Page 19 
 
 ©HAPIFE^ II. 
 EARLY GEOLOaiCAL PERIODS. 
 
 Necessity of a general acquaintance with the outlines of Geology — 
 A time in which no life was possible on the globe — Length of this pe- 
 riod — History of life commences at the close of this period — On the for- 
 mation of rocks — The record imperfect — The three great periods in ani- 
 mal life on the globe — Paleozoic Age — Animal and vegetable life of this 
 period — Ideal scenes in this period — The Mesozoic Age — Animal and veg- 
 etable life of this period — Advance noted — Abundance of reptilian life — 
 First appearance of birds — Nature's methods of work — the Cenozoic Age — 
 Geological outline — Sketch of the Eocene Age — Of the Miocene Age — 
 What is sufficient proof of the presence of man — Discussion on the The- 
 nay flints — The Pliocene Age — Animal and vegetable life of this age — 
 Was man present during this age? — Discussion of this subject — Summing 
 up of the evidence — Conclusion, .30 
 
 ^HAPiPBI^ III. 
 
 MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 
 
 Beginning of the Glacial Age — Interglacial Age — Man living in 
 Europe during this age — Map of Europe — Proof of former elevation of 
 land — The animals living in Europe during this age — Conclusions drawu 
 from these different animals — The vegetation of this period^Different 
 climatic conditions of Europe during the Glacial Age — Proofs of the Gla- 
 
 7 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 <;ial Age — Extent of Glacial Ice — Evidence of warm Interglacial Age — 
 The primitive state of man — Early English civilization — Views of Hor- 
 ace — Primitive man destitute of metals — Order in which different mate- 
 rials were used by man for weapons — Evidence from the River Somme — 
 History of Boucher De Perthes's investigations. Discussion of the sub- 
 ject — Antiquity of these remains — Improvement during the Paleolithic 
 Age — Description of the flint implements — Other countries where these 
 implements are found — What race of men were these tribes — The Can- 
 stadt race — Mr. Dawkins's views — When did they first appear in Europe? 
 The authorities on this question — Conclusion, . . . Page 61 
 
 (sHAPiBEI^ lU. 
 
 CAVE-MEN. 
 
 Other sources of information — History of cave explorations — ^The 
 formation of caves — Exploration in Kent's Cavern — Evidence of two 
 different races — The higher culture of the later race — Evidence of pro- 
 longed time — Exploration of Robin Hood Cave — Explorations in Valley 
 of the River Meuse — M. Dupont's conclusions — Explorations in the Val- 
 ley of the Dordogne — The station at Schussenreid — Cave-men not found 
 south of the Alps — Habitations of the Cave-men — Cave-men were hun- 
 ters — methods of cooking — Destitute of the potter's art — Their weapons — 
 Clothing — Their skill in drawing — Evidence of a government — Of a re- 
 ligious belief — Race of the Cave-men — Distinct from the Men of the 
 Drift — ^Probable c?)nnection with the Eskimos, .... 99 
 
 ©HAPTEr? U. 
 
 ANTIQUITV OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 
 
 Interest in the antiquity of man — Connected with the Glacial 
 Age — The subject difficult — Proofs of a Glacial Age — State of Greenland 
 to-day — The Terminal INIoraine — Appearance of the North Atlantic — 
 Interglacial Age — Causes of the Glacial Age — Croll's Theory — Geograph- 
 ical causes — The two theories not antagonistic — The date of the Glacial 
 Age — Probable length of the Paleolithic Age — ^Time since the close of 
 the Glacial Age — Summary of results, ..... 139 
 
 (sHAPTBI^ UI. 
 
 THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 Close of the first cycle — Neolithic culture connected with the pres- 
 ent — No links between tlie two ages — Long lapse of time between the two 
 ages — Swiss lake villagos— Tliis form of \nllages widely scattered — Irish 
 <5ranogs — Fortified villages — Implements and weapons of Neolithic times — 
 
CONTENTS. 9 
 
 Possessed of pottery — Neolithic agriculture — Possessed of domestic ani- 
 mals — Danish shell-heaps — Importance of flint — ^The art of navigation — 
 Neolithic clothing — Their mode of burial — ^The question of race — 
 Possible remnants — Connection with the Turanian race — Arrival of the 
 Celts, Page 170 
 
 THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 Races of Men, like Individuals — Gradual change of Neolithic Age 
 to that of Bronze — The Aryan family — First Aryans Neolithic — Origin 
 of Bronze — How Great discoveries are made — Gold the first metal — Cop- 
 per abundant — No Copper Age — The discovery of Tin — Explanation of 
 an Alloy — Bronze, wherever found, the same composition — What is 
 meant by the Bronze Age — Knowledge in other directions — Gradual 
 Growth of Culture — Three Centers of Bronze production — Habitations 
 during the Bronze Age — The Bronze Ax — Implements of Bronze — Per- 
 sonal ornaments — Ornaments not always made of Bronze — Advance in 
 Arts of living— Advance in Agriculture — Warlike Weapons — How they 
 ■ worked Bronze — Advance in Government — Trade in the Bronze Age — 
 Religion of the Bronze Age — Symbolical figures — Temples of the Bronze 
 Age — Stonehenge, ......... 216 
 
 (sHAPfPEl^ UIII. 
 
 THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. y 
 
 Bronze not the best metal — Difficulties attending the discovery ot 
 Iron — Probable steps in this discovery — Where this discovery was first 
 made — Known in Ancient Egypt — How this knowledge would spread — 
 Iron would not drive out Bronze — The primitive Iron-worker — The ad- 
 vance in government — Pottery and ornaments of the Iron Age — Weapons 
 of early Iron Age — The battle-field at Tilfenau — Trade of early Iron 
 Age — Invention of Money — Invention of Alphabetic Writing — Invasion 
 of the Germanic Tribes — The cause of the Dark Ages — Connection of 
 these three ages — Necessity of believing in an Extended Past — Attempts 
 to determine the same — Tiniere Delta — Lake Bienue — British Fen-lands— 
 Maximum and Minimum Data — ^Argument from the wide-spread dis- 
 persion of the Turanian Race — Mr. Geikie's conclusions — The Isolation 
 of the Paleolithic Age, . . 244 
 
 ©HAPiPEI^ IX. 
 
 EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 Conflicting accounts of the American Aborigines — Recent discov- 
 eries — Climate of California in Tertiary Times — Geological changes near 
 
10 CONTENTS. 
 
 its close — Description of Table Mountain — Results of the discoverieff 
 there — The Calaveras skull — Other relics — Discussion of the question — 
 Early Californians Neolithic — Explanation of this — Date of the Pliocene 
 Age — Other discoveries beai'ing on the Antiquity of man — Dr. Koch's 
 discovery — ^Discoveries iu the Loess of Nebraska — In Greeue County, 
 m. — In Georgia — Difficulties in detecting a Paleolithic Age in this coun- 
 try — Dr. Abbott's discoveries — Paleolithic Implements of the Delaware — 
 Age of the deposits — The race of Paleolithic man — Ancestors of the Es- 
 kimos — Comparison of Paleolithic Age in this country with that in Eu- 
 rope — Eskimos one of the oldest races in the World, . Page 263 
 
 ©HAPTEr? X. 
 
 THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 Meaning of "Mound Builders" — Location of Mound Building 
 tribes — All Mounds not the work of men — Altar Mounds — Objects found 
 on the Altars — Altar Mounds possibly burial Mounds- — Burial Mounds — 
 Mounds not the only Cemeteries of these tribes — Terraced Mounds — Ca- 
 hokia Mound — Historical notice of a group of Mounds — The Etowah 
 group — Signal Mounds— Effigy Mounds — How thej' represented different 
 animals — Explanation of the Effigy Mounds — Effigy Mounds in other lo- 
 calities — Inclosures of the Scioto Valley — At Newark, Ohio — At Mari- 
 etta, Ohio — Graded Ways — Fortified Inclosures — Ft. Ancient, Ohio — 
 Inclosures of Northern Ohio — Works of unknown imj)ort — Ancient 
 Canals in Missouri — Implements and Weapons of Stone — Tlieir knowl- 
 edge of Copper — Ancient mining — Ornamental pipes — Their knowledge 
 of pottery — Of Agriculture — Government and Religion — Hard to distin- 
 guish them from the Indians, . . . . . . . 307 
 
 (sHAPTBI^ XI. 
 THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 Description of the Pueblo Country — Historical outline — Descrip- 
 tion of Zuhi — Definition of a Pueblo — Old Zuhi — Inscription Rock — Pue- 
 blo of Jemez — Historical notice of Pecos — Description of the Moqui 
 tribes — The Estufa — Description of the San Juan country — Aztec 
 Springs — In the Canon of the McElmo — The Ruins on the Rio Mancos — 
 On Hovenweep Creek — Descrii)tion of a Cliff-house — Cliff Town — Cave 
 Houses — Ruins on the San Juan — Cave Town — The Significance of 
 Cliff-houses — Moqui tradition.? — Ruins in Northern New Mexico — Ruins 
 in the Chaco Canon — Pueblo Bonito — Ruins in South-western Arizona — 
 
CONTENTS, 11 
 
 The Rio Verde Valley — Casa Grande — Ruins on the Gila — Culture of 
 the Pueblo Tribes — Their Pottery — Superiority of the Ancient pottery — 
 Conclusion, Page 414 
 
 (Shapiibi^ XII. 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 Different views on this Subject — Modern System of Government — 
 Ancient System of Government — Tribal Government universal iu North 
 America — The Indians not Wandering Nomads — Indian houses Com- 
 munal in character — Indian Methods of Defense — Maudan Villages — 
 Indians sometimes erected Mounds — Probable Government of the Mound 
 Builders — Traditions of the Mound Builders among the Iroquois — Among 
 the Delawares — Probable fate of the Mound Builders — The Natchez In- 
 dians possibly a remnant of the Mound Builders — Their early Tradi- 
 tions — Lines of resemblance between the Pueblo Tribes and the Mound 
 Builders — The origin of the Indians — America Inhabited by the Indians 
 from a very early time — Classification of the Indian Tribes — Antiquity 
 of the Indian Tribes, ........ 483 
 
 (sHAPIiBI^ XIII. 
 
 THE NAHUA TRIBES. 
 
 Early Spanish discoveries in Mexico — The Nahua tribes defined — 
 Climate of Mexico — The Valley of Anahuac — Ruins at Tezcuco — The 
 Hill of Tezcocingo — Ruins at Teotihiiacan — Ancient Tulla — Ruins in 
 the Province of Querataro — Casa Grandes in Chihuahua — Ancient re- 
 mains in Sinaloa — Fortified Hill of Quemada — The Pyramid of Cho- 
 lula — Fortified Hill at Xochicalco— Its probable use — Ruins at Monte 
 Alban — Ancient remains at Mitla- — Mr. Bandelier's investigations — 
 Traditions in regard to Mitla — Ruins ahmg the Panuco River — Ruins 
 in Vera Cruz — Pyramid of Papantla — Tusapan — Character of Nahua 
 Ruins, . . . ■ . 517 
 
 ©HAPIIEI^ XIU. 
 
 THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 The geographical location of the Maya tribes — Description of Co- 
 pan — Statue at Copan — Altar at Copan — Ruins at Quiriga— Patinamit- — 
 Utatlan^ — Description of Palenque — The Palace at Palenqne^The Tem- 
 ple of the Three Inscriptions — Temple of the Beau-relief — Temple of the 
 Cross — Temple of the Sim — Maler's Temple of the Cross — Significance of 
 the Palenque crosses — Statue at Palenque — Other ruins in Tobasco and 
 
12 CONTENTS. 
 
 Chiapas — Kuins in Yucatan — Uxmal — The Governor's House — The Nun- 
 nery — Room in Nunnery — The Sculptured Facades — Temple at Ux- 
 mal — Kabah — Zayi — Labna — Labphak — Chichen-Itza — The Nunnery — 
 The CastUlo — The Gymnasium — M. Le Plongon's researches — The tra- 
 dition of the Three Brothers — Chaac-Mal — Antiquity of Chichen- 
 Itza, . Page 564 
 
 ©HAPTEP^ XU, 
 
 THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 
 
 Different views on this question — Reasons for the same — Their 
 architecture — Different styles ot houses — The- communal house — ^The 
 tecpan — The teocalli — State of society indicated by this architecture — 
 The gens among the Mexicans — ^The phratry among the Mexicans — The 
 tribe — The powers and duties of the council — The head chiefs of the 
 tribe — The duties of the " Chief-of-men " — The mistake of the Span- 
 iards — The Confederacy — The idea of property among the IMexicans — 
 The ownership of land — Their laws — Enforcement of the laws — Out- 
 line of the growth of the Mexicans in power — Their tribute system — 
 How collected — ^Their system of trade — Slight knowledge of metal- 
 lurgy—Religion — Quetzalcohuatl— Huitzilopochtli — Mexican priesthood — 
 Human sacrifice — The system of Numeration — The calendar system — 
 The Calendar Stone — Picture-writing — Landa Alphabet — Historical 
 outline, 667 
 
 (sH APTE F^ XUI. 
 
 ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 First knowledge of Peru — Expeditions of Pizarro — Geography of 
 Peru — But a small part of it inhabitable — The tribes of ancient Peru — 
 How classified — Sources of our knowledge of Peru — Garcillaso De La 
 Vega — Origin of Peruvian civilization — The Bolson of Cuzco — Historical 
 outline — Their culture — Divided into phratries and gentes — Govern- 
 ment — Efforts to unite the various tribes — Their system of colonies — 
 The roads of the Incas — The ruins of Chimu — The arts of the Chimu 
 people — The manufacture of Pottery — Excavation at Ancon — Ruins in 
 the Huatica Valley — The construction of a Huaca — The ruins at Pach- 
 acamac — The Valley of the Canete — The Chincha Islands — Tiahu- 
 anuco — Carved gateway — The Island of Titicaca — Chulpas — Aboriginal 
 Cuzco — Temple of the Sun — The Fortress — General remarks, . 761 
 
t 
 
 t LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, f 
 
 e^ 
 
 -=C§b8>- 
 
 •o-^ia^<^^ 
 
 a/3 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1. Pyramids and Sphinx, .... 29 
 
 2. Paleozoic Forest, 33 
 
 3. The Pterodactyl, 36 
 
 4. Ichthyosauri, 38 
 
 5. The Labyrintliodon, 39 
 
 6. The Paleotheriura, 42 
 
 7. Miocene ]\Iamraals, 46 
 
 8. Cut Bones of a Whale, .... 57 
 , 9. Mastodon, 60 
 
 10. Map of Europe, 63 
 
 11. Scratched Stone, 70 
 
 12. Interglacial Bed, 74 
 
 13. Paleolithic Flints, 80 
 
 14. Flint Implements, 82 
 
 15. Section of Gravel-pit, 83 
 
 16. Paleolithic Flint, England, . . 86 
 
 17. Flint Flakes, 88 
 
 18. Spear-head Type, 89 
 
 19. Hatchet Type, 89 
 
 20. Neanderthal Man, ...... 93 
 
 21. Gailenreuth, 101 
 
 22. Spear-head, Lower Breccia, 
 
 Kent's Cavern, 106 
 
 23. Spear-head, Cave-earth, Kent's 
 
 Cavern 107 
 
 24. Flake, Cave-earth, Kent's Cav- 
 
 ern, 107 
 
 25. Harpoon, Pin, Awl, and Nee- 
 
 dle, Kent's Cavei-n, .... 108 
 
 26. Robin Hood Cave, 109 
 
 27. Horse incised on Piece of Rib, 110 
 
 28. Bone Implements, Cresswell 
 
 Crags, Ill 
 
 29. Bone Impl(Mnents, Dordogne 
 
 Caves, ll-T 
 
 30. Rock Shelter, Bruniquel, . . .120 
 
 31. Whale and Seal incised on Bone, 12^2 
 
 32. Cave-bear incised on Slate, . . 124 
 
 33. Glove incised on Bear's Tooth, 126 
 
 34. Reindeer grazing, 127 
 
 35. Group of Reindeers, 128 
 
 13 
 
 ^^Wb— <>♦ 
 
 -=3og>- 
 
 36. 
 
 37. 
 38. 
 39. 
 
 40. 
 
 41. 
 
 42. 
 
 43. 
 44. 
 45. 
 46. 
 47. 
 48. 
 49. 
 50. 
 51. 
 52. 
 53. 
 54. 
 55. 
 56. 
 57. 
 58. 
 59. 
 60. 
 61. 
 62. 
 6.']. 
 64. 
 65. 
 66. 
 (i7. 
 
 68. 
 69. 
 TO. 
 71. 
 72. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Man, and other Animals, . . . 128 
 Fish incised on Bear's Tooth, . 129 
 
 Ibex, 129 
 
 Mammoth, La Madeline Cave, 
 
 France, 130 
 
 Reindeer carved on Dagger 
 
 Handle 131 
 
 Flower on Reindeer's Horn, . 132 
 Ornamented Reindeer Horn, 
 
 use unknown, 133 
 
 Eskimo Art, 136 
 
 The jMammoth, 138 
 
 Antarctic Ice-sheet, 145 
 
 Earth's Orbit, 150 
 
 Lake Village, 177 
 
 Foundation Lake Village, • . .181 
 
 Irish Cranogs, 181 
 
 Fortified Camp, Cissbury, . . . 183 
 
 Neolithic Axes, 186 
 
 Neolithic Weapons, 188 
 
 Ax in Sheath, 189 
 
 Hafted Hatchet in Sheath, . . 189 
 Sheath with two Hatchets, . . 190 
 Chisels in Sheath, ...... 190 
 
 Horn Hoe, 190 
 
 Miner's Pick, ... 195 
 
 Polishing Stone, 197 
 
 Neolithic Boat-making, .... 198 
 
 Neolithic Cloth 199 
 
 Spindle Whorl, 200 
 
 AVeaver's Comb, 200 
 
 Chambered Burial Mound, ■ . 201 
 
 Dolmen, England, 201 
 
 Dolmen, France, ...... 202 
 
 Dolmen once covered with 
 
 Earth, 202 
 
 Menhir, 203 
 
 Stone Circle, England, .... 203 
 Chambered Tomb, France, • • 204 
 Bronze Axes, first Form, . . . 227 
 Bronze Axes, second Form, . . 228 
 
14 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 73. Bronze Axes, third Form, . 228 
 
 74. Chisel, 229 
 
 75. Hammer, 229 
 
 76. Bronze Knives, 229 
 
 77. Crescent, use unknown, . . . 230 
 
 78. Bracelet, 230 
 
 79. Hair-pin, 230 
 
 80. Bronze Pendants, 231 
 
 81. Necklace and Beads, .... 232 
 
 82. Ornamental Designs, .... 233 
 
 83. Bronze Sickle, 233 
 
 84. Clay Vessel and Support, . . 234 
 
 85. Bronze Weapons, 234 
 
 86. Mold, 235 
 
 87. Burial Mound, 239 
 
 88. Avebury Eestored, 240 
 
 89. Stonehenge Restored, .... 242 
 
 90. Ancient Tower, Scotland, . . 243 
 
 91. Ornaments, -250 
 
 92. Gold Ornament, 250 
 
 93. Swords, 251 
 
 94. Ornamental Sword-sheath, . 251 
 
 95. Lance-head and Javelin, . . . 252 
 
 96. Shields, 252 
 
 97. Gallic Coins, 253 
 
 98. Imaginary Section of Table 
 
 Mountain, 269 
 
 99. Calaveras Skull, 271 
 
 100. Implement found in Loess,. . 287 
 
 101. Spear-shaped Paleolithic Im- 
 
 plement, 293 
 
 102. Paleolithic Implement, Argil- 
 
 lite, 294 
 
 103. Stone Implement, 306 
 
 104. Mound Prairie, • 314 
 
 105. Mound and Circle, 315 
 
 106. Altar Mound, 317 
 
 107. Plan and Section of Altar, . . 317 
 
 108. Burial Mounds, . . .' . . . .321 
 
 109. Burial Mounds, 323 
 
 110. Grave Creek Mound, 324 
 
 111. Cro.s.s-section St. Louis Mound, 325 
 
 112. Terraced Mound, 327 
 
 113. Elevated Square, Marietta, . .328 
 
 114. Cahokia Mound, 330 
 
 llo. Temple Mound inclosed in a 
 
 Circle, 333 
 
 116. Ktowali Mound, Georgia,. . .335^ 
 
 117. Hill Mounds 337* 
 
 118. Miamisburg Mound 338 
 
 119. Efligy Mounds 340 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 20. Elephant Mound 341 
 
 21. Emblematic Mounds, .... 341 
 
 22. Grazing Elks— Fox in the dis- 
 
 tance, 342 
 
 23. Eagle Mound, 343 
 
 24. Hawks and Buffaloes, .... 344 
 
 25. Goose and Duck, 345 
 
 26. Turtle, 345 
 
 27. Salamander and Muskrat, . . 346 
 
 28. Man-shaped Mound 346 
 
 29. Emblematic Mound Inclosure, 347 
 
 30. Bird Mound surrounded by a 
 
 Stone Circle, ,351 
 
 31. The Big Serpent Mound, ... 352 
 
 32. The Alligator Mound, .... 356 
 
 33. High Bank Works, 359 
 
 34. Square and Circle Embank- 
 
 ment, 362 
 
 35. Square inscribed in a Circle, . 363 
 
 36. Circle and Ditch 363 
 
 37. Mound Builders' Works, New- 
 
 ark, Ohio, 365 
 
 38. Eagle Mound, 366 
 
 39. Gateway of Octagon, .... 367 
 
 40. Observatory Mound, 368 
 
 41. Works at Marietta, Ohio, . . 370 
 
 42. Graded Way, Piketon, Ohio, . 371 
 
 43. Fortified Hill, Hamilton, Ohio, 374 
 
 44. Fort Ancient, Ohio, 376 
 
 45. Fortified Headland, 380 
 
 46. Inclosure, Northern Ohio, . . 380 
 
 47. Square Inclosure, Northern 
 
 Ohio, 381 
 
 48. Sacrificial Pentagon, 383 
 
 49. Festival Circle, 384 
 
 50. Crescent Works 385 
 
 51. Triangular Works, 385 
 
 52. Arrow Points 390 
 
 53. Ax found in a Mound, .... .391 
 .")4. Weapons of Stone from Ten- 
 nessee, 392 
 
 .55. Copper Ax, 393 
 
 56. Cop[)er Piracelets, 394 
 
 57. Ancient IMine, ISIichigan, . . . 39t> 
 .58. Sculptured Face, 399 
 
 59. Face of a Female 399 
 
 60. Beaver, 400 
 
 61. Otter, 400 
 
 62. Birds on Pipes, 401 
 
 63. Group of Clay Vessels, . . . 404 
 04. Howls with Hunuin Faces, . ■ 405 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 15 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 165. Water Cooler, 406 
 
 166. Pottery Vessels, 407 
 
 167. Agricultural Implements, . . 409 
 
 168. Idols, 411 
 
 V 169. Map of the Pueblo Country, . 415 
 
 170. Zuni, 420 
 
 171. Ground Plan, 422 
 
 172. End View, 422 
 
 173. Old Zuni 423 
 
 174. Inscription Eock, 425 
 
 175. Wolpi, 432 
 
 176. Watch Tower, 433 
 
 177. Ruins at Aztec Springs, . . . 436 
 
 178. Ruins in the McElmo Canon, 438 
 
 179. Tower on the Rio Mancos, . . 441 
 
 180. Ruins in the Havenweep 
 
 Canon, 445 
 
 181. Two-storied House in the 
 
 Mancos Canon, 447 
 
 182. View of the Cliff in which the 
 
 House is Situated, 448 
 
 183. Plan of the House, 449 
 
 184. Doorway of the House, . . . 450 
 
 185. Room of the House, .... 450 
 
 186. Cliff Town, Rio Mancos, ... 454 
 
 187. Caves Used as Houses, Rio 
 
 Mancos, 456 
 
 188. Ruins in the^an Juan Canon, 457 
 
 189. Cave Town, 458 
 
 190. Battle Rock, McElmo Canon, . 461 
 
 191. Restoration of Pueblo Bonito, 467 
 '192. Plan of Pueblo Bonito, . . .469 
 
 193. Different Styles of Masonry, . 470 
 
 194. Room in Pueblo Bonito, . . . 471 
 
 195. Casa Grandes, on the Gila, . 475 
 
 196. Indented and Corrugated 
 
 Ware, 478 
 
 197. Painted Ware, 480 
 
 198. Long House of the Iroquois, . 492 
 
 199. Stockaded Onondaga Village, 493 
 
 200. Pomeiock, 494 
 
 201. Mandan Village, 495 
 
 202. Ruins near the La Platte, Val- 
 
 ley of the San Juan, . . . 510 
 
 203. Stone Mask, found in Tennes- 
 
 see, 516 
 
 204. Map of Mexico, ■ • 518 
 
 205. Bas-relief, Tezcuco, 523 
 
 206. Montezuma's Bath, 524 
 
 207. Aqueduct, Tezcoeingo, . . . 525 
 
 208. Teotihuacan 527 
 
 PAGB. 
 
 209. Casas Grandes, 535 
 
 210. Quemada, 538 
 
 211. Pyramid of Cholula, .... 543 
 
 212. Xochicalco, 548 
 
 213. Enlarged View of the Ruins, 549 
 
 214. Wall at Mitla 553 
 
 215. Ornamentation at Mitla, . . . 554 
 
 216. Hall at Mitla, 555 
 
 217. Papantla, 561 
 
 218. Tusapan, ■ 562 
 
 219. Map of Central America, . . 565 
 
 220. Ruins of Copan, 568 
 
 221. Statue, Copan, 571 
 
 222. Statue, Copan, 574 
 
 223. Hieroglyphics, Top of Altar, . 575 
 
 224. Bas-relief, East Side of Altar, 576 
 
 225. Portrait, Copan, 577 
 
 v226. Plan of Palenque, 587 
 
 227. General View of Palace, Pa- 
 
 lenque, 591 
 
 228. Cross-section of Palace, Pa- 
 
 lenque, 593 
 
 229. Trefoil Arch, 594 
 
 230. Entrance to Principal Court, 595 
 
 231. Stone Tablet, 596 
 
 232. Palace, Palenque, 597 
 
 233. Ruined Temple of the Three 
 
 Tablets, 598 
 
 234. Elevation Temple of the 
 
 Three Tablets, 600 
 
 235. The Beau-relief, 601 
 
 236. Temple of the Cross, .... 602 
 
 237. The Cross, 606 
 
 238. The Sun, 607 
 
 239. Maler's Cross, 609 
 
 240. Statue, Palenque, 612 
 
 241. Bas-relief, on the left hand of 
 
 the Altar of the Cross, . . 614 
 
 242. Plan of Uxmal, 620 
 
 243. The Governor's House, Uxmal, 623 
 
 244. Two-headed Monument, Ux- 
 
 mal, 626 
 
 245. End View, . 627 
 
 246. Ground Plan, 628 
 
 247.. Figure Over the Doorway, . . 630 
 
 248. Ornament Over the Doorway, 631 
 
 249. Elephant's Trunk, ".631 
 
 250. Plan of Nunnery, 633 
 
 251. Room in Nunnery, ..... 636 
 
 252. Facade, Southern Building, . 637 
 
 253. Fapade, Eastern Building, . . 638 
 
16 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 254. Serpent Facade, "Western 
 
 Building, 639 
 
 255. Temple, Uxmal 641 
 
 256. Arch, Kabah, 646 
 
 257. Zayi, 648 
 
 258. Plan of Zayi, 649 
 
 259. Gateway at Labna, 651 
 
 260. Castillo, Chichen-Itza, .... 655 
 
 261. Gymnasium at Chichen-Itza, 657 
 
 262. Ring, . 658 
 
 263. Building at end of Gymnasium,660 
 
 264. Painted Stucco Work, .... 661 
 
 265. Queen Consulting the H-men, 662 
 
 266. Chaac-Mol, 664 
 
 267. Bearded Itza, 665 
 
 268. Arizona Ruin, 666 
 
 269. Tribute Sheet, 700 
 
 270. Yucatan Axes, 707 
 
 271. Carpenter's Ax, 708 
 
 272. Mexican Carpenter, 708 
 
 273. Copper Tool 708 
 
 274. Huitzilopochtli, 717 
 
 275. Mexican Numeration Signs, . 723 
 
 276. Jlaya and Mexican Day Signs, 725 
 
 277. Maya Months, 727 
 
 278. Calendar Stone 738 
 
 279. Sign of Rain, 741 
 
 280. Sign of a Cycle, 742 
 
 281. Indian Picture-writing, . . . 743 
 
 282. Chapultepec, 744 
 
 283. Amen, 744 
 
 284. Historical Sheet 746 
 
 285. Chilapi Tribute, 747 
 
 286. Child- training, 748 
 
 287. Migration Chart 749 
 
 288. Landa Alphabet, .750 
 
 289. Maya T, 750 
 
 290. Maya Picture-writing 751 
 
 291. Hieroglyphics, Tablet of the 
 
 Cross, ■ . • • 753 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 292. Map of Peru, 763 
 
 293. Fortress, Huatica Valley, . . 768 
 
 294. Ruins at Pachacamac, .... 774 
 
 295. Relics from G uano Deposits, . 783 
 
 296. Burial Towers, 788 
 
 297. Palace, 790 
 
 298. Section of Palace Walls, . . .791 
 
 299. Ornamentation on Walls, . . 793 
 
 300. Adobe Ornament 793 
 
 301. Gold and Silver Vases, ... 794 
 
 302. Bronze Knives and Tweezers, 794 
 
 303. Water-jar, 795 
 
 304. Water-jars from Ancon, . . . 795 
 
 305. Cloth Found in Grave, . . . 79& 
 
 306. Wall in Huatica Valley, . . .797 
 
 307. Burial Mound, or Huaca, . . 798 
 
 308. Fortress Mound, 800 
 
 309. Temple Wall 801 
 
 310. Fortress, Huatica Valley, . . 801 
 
 311. General View of Pachacamac, 803 
 
 312. View of the Temple, .... 805 
 
 313. Relics from Graves at Pach- 
 
 acamac, 806 
 
 314. Relics found Buried in Guano 
 
 Deposits, 807 
 
 315. Prehistoric Pottery-ware, . . 808 
 
 316. Silver Cylinder-head, .... 809 
 
 317. Terrace Wall, Tiahuanuco, . 810 
 
 318. Method of Joining Stones, 
 
 Tiahuanuco, 811 
 
 319. Gateway, Tiahuacuno, ... 812 
 
 320. Ruins on the Island of Titi- 
 
 caca, 813 
 
 321. Ruins, Island of Coati, ... 814 
 
 322. Burial Tower 814 
 
 323. Terrace Wall at Cuzco, . . .815 
 
 324. Temple of the Sun 816 
 
 325. Fortress Wall 818 
 
 326. Section Fortress Wall, . . . .819 
 
 327. Quippos 820 
 
<f(sr^ ^\:^ ,^ ^^^__. 
 
 X >■ »>t '"O^^ — — ■ «!■ I -< X 
 
 ^ FULL-PAGE ENGRAVINGS. ^ 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 1. Cliff Houses, Rio Mangos CAnon, . . Frontispiece. 
 
 2. Engraved Title Page. 
 
 3. Paleozoic Forest 33 
 
 4. Rock Shelter at Bruniqxiel,. 119 
 
 5. Antarctic Ice Sheet, 145 
 
 6. Lake Village, Switzerland, 177 
 
 7. Pueblo of Zuni, 420 
 
 8. Cliff-town, Rio Mancos, 453 
 
 9. Restoration of Pueblo Bonito, 467 
 
 10. Painted Pueblo Pottery, 480 
 
 11. Pyramid of Cholula, 543 
 
 12. CoPAN. Statue, 571 
 
 13. General View op Palace, . . . . . . 591 
 
 14. Bas-relief on the left-hand of the Altar of the Cross, 614 
 
 15. Plan OF UxMAL, 620 
 
 16. The Governor's House, Uxmal, 623 
 
 17. Room in Nunnery, ........ 636 
 
 18. Zayi, . 648 
 
 19. Castillo, Chichen-uza, 655 
 
 20. Tribute Sheet, 700 
 
 21. Huitzilopochtli 717 
 
 \ 22. Calendar Stone, 738 
 
 ^ 23. Historical Sheet, 746 
 
 24. Pachacamac, 803 
 
 2 17 
 
4-_ 
 
 trfa 
 ^m^HOU unrelentino; Past ! 
 
 * 
 
 'o 
 
 strong are the barriers round thy dark domain- 
 
 -^{r-' And fetters, sure and fast,. 
 I Hold all that enter thy unbreathing reign. 
 
 Far in thy realm, withdrawn, 
 Old empires sit in sullenness and gloom; 
 
 And glorious ages, gone, 
 Lie deep within the shadow of thy womb. 
 
 Full many a mighty name 
 Lurks in thy depths, unuttered, unrevered : 
 
 With thee are silent fame, 
 Forgotten arts, and wisdom disappeared. 
 
 W. C. BRYANT. 
 
 18 
 
IMS: 
 
 THE 
 
 CHAPTER i 
 
 INTRODUCTION, 
 
 Difficulties of tlie subject — Lesson to be learned — The pnrsint of 
 knowledge — Recent Advances — Prehistoric past of the Old World — 
 ' Of the New — Of Mexico and the South — The Isles of the Pacific — 
 Similar nature of the relics — The wonders of the present age — His- 
 tory of popular opinion on this subject — The teachings of the 
 Bible — Nature of the evidence of man's antiquity — Geology- 
 Astronomy — Unfolding of liife — Nature of our inquirj^ 
 
 CAN read the book of the past? Who 
 can tell us the story of Creation s morn ? 
 It is not written in history, neither does 
 it live in tradition. There is mystery here; but it 
 is hid by <he darkness of by-gone ages. There 
 is a true history here, but we have not learned well the 
 alphabet used. Here are doubtless wondrous scenes ; but 
 our stand-point is removed by time so vast, the mist of years 
 
 19 
 
20 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 is SO thick before us, that onlj the ruder outlines can be de- 
 termined. The delicate tracery, the body of the picture, are 
 hidden from our eye. The question as to the antiquity and 
 primitive history of man, is full of interest in proportion as 
 the solution is beset with difficulties. We question the past; 
 but only here and there a response is heard. Surely bold 
 is he who would attempt, from the few data at hand, to 
 reconstruct the history of times and people so far removed. 
 We quickly become convinced that many centuries, and tens 
 of centuries, have rolled away since man's first appearance 
 on the earth. We become impressed with the fact, "that 
 multitudes of people have moved over the surface of the 
 Earth, and sunk into the night of oblivion, without lea^-ing 
 a trace of their existence : without a memorial through which 
 we might have at least learned their names."^ 
 
 To think of ourselves, is to imagine for our own nation 
 an immortality. We are so great, so strong, surely nothing 
 can move us. Let us learn humility from the past: and 
 when, here and there, we come upon some reminder of a 
 vanished people, trace the proofs of a teeming population in 
 ancient times, and recover somewhat of a history, as true 
 and touching as any that poets sing, let us recognize the 
 fact, that nations as well as individuals pass away and are 
 forgotten. 
 
 The past guards its secret well. To learn of it we must 
 seek new methods of inquiry. Discouraged by the difficul- 
 ties in the way, many have supposed it hidden from the 
 present by a veil which only thickens as time passes. In the 
 remains of prehistoric times they have failed to recognize the 
 pages of history. They saw only monuments of ancient skill 
 and perseverance : interesting sketches, not historical por- 
 traits. Some writers have held that we must give up the story 
 
 » Von Hellwald : " Smithsonian Report," 1866. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 21 
 
 of the past, "whether fact or chronology, doctrine or mythol- 
 ogy — whether in Europe, Asia, Africa, or America-— at Thebes, 
 or Palenque — on Lycian shore, or Salisbury plain — lost is 
 lost, and gone is gone for evermore." Such is the lament of 
 a gifted writer,^ amongst the first to ponder over the myste- 
 ries of the past. At the present day, with better means at 
 hand, a more hopeful view is taken. But here a caution is 
 necessary; for, in attempting to reconstruct the history of 
 primitive times, such is the interest which it inspires, that 
 many allow imagination to usurp the place of research, and 
 write in terms too glowing for history.^ 
 
 The human mind is sleepless in the pursuit of knowl- 
 edge. It is ever seeking new fields of conquest. It must 
 advance : with it, standing still is the precursor of defeat. 
 If necessary it invents new methods of attack, and rests not 
 until it gains its objective point, or demonstrates the hope- 
 lessness of its quest. The world needs but be informed that 
 on a given point knowledge is dim and uncertain, when there 
 are found earnest minds applying to the solution of the mys- 
 tery all the energies of their natures. All the resources 
 of science are brought to bear ; every department of knowl- 
 edge is made to contribute of its store : and soon a mass 
 of facts is established, and a new science is added to the 
 department of human knowledge. 
 
 Thus, with our knowledge of prehistoric times, what so 
 seemingly vain as to attempt to roll back the flight of time, 
 and learn the condition of primeval man ? All the light of an- 
 cient history makes but little impression on the night of time. 
 By its aid we can but dimly see the outlines of the fortieth 
 century back ; beyond is gloom soon lost in night. But a 
 few short years ago, men did not think it possible to gain 
 further information. With the materials at hand, this could 
 
 'Palgrave. ^Lubbock: " Prehistoric Times," p. 2. 
 
22 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 not be done. The triumph of the intellect was simply de- 
 layed, not hopelessly repulsed. Geology was but just begin- 
 ning to make good its claim to a place among the sciences. 
 This unfolded to man the physical history of the world as 
 read from the rocks, and deals with times so vast and pro- 
 found that we speak no longer of years, but of ages. And 
 with the aid of Geology grand secrets were wrung from the 
 past, and new light was thrown on the manners and cus- 
 toms of primitive man. Thus the foundation for still another 
 science was laid, called Archaeology, or the science of Human 
 Antiquities. These two sister sciences are the keys by 
 whose aid we have not only acquired much information of 
 a past that seemed a hopeless enigma — but, as Columbus on 
 the waste of waters could perceive traces of land as yet 
 invisible, so can the present seekers after knowledge trace the 
 signs of a satisfactory solution of many of the great ques- 
 tions relating to the origin and history of the vanished races 
 of mankind. 
 
 In whatever land we commence our investigations, we 
 quickly come upon the evidences of an ancient life long 
 antedating all historical information. Ancient Egypt has 
 been a fruitful theme for the antiquarian's pen. The trav- 
 eler has moralized over the ruins of her past greatness, and 
 many pointed illustrations of national growth and decay 
 have been drawn from her history. 
 
 Here was the seat of an ancient civilization, which was 
 in the zenith of its power many centuries before Christ. The 
 changes that have passed over the earth since that time are 
 far more wonderful than any ascribed to the wand of the 
 magician. Nations have come and gone, and the land of the 
 Pharaohs has become an inheritance for strangers ; new sci- 
 ences have enriched human life, and the fair structure of 
 modcfrn civilization has arisen on the ruins of the past. 
 
JJV TR OB UC TION. 2 3 
 
 Many centuries, with their burden of human hopes and fears, 
 have sped away into the past, since " Hundred-gated Thebes " 
 sheltered her teeming population, where now are but a 
 mournful group of ruins. Yet to-day, far below the remorse- 
 less sands of her desert, we find the rude flint-flakes that 
 require us to carry back the time of man's first appearance 
 in Egypt to a past so remote that her stately ruins become 
 a thing of yesterday in comparison to them. 
 
 In the New World, mysterious mounds and gigantic 
 earth-works arrest our attention. Here we find deserted 
 mines, and there we can trace the sites of ancient camps 
 and fortifications. The Indians of the prairies seem to be 
 intruders on a fairer civilization. We find here evidences of 
 a teeming population. In the presence of their imposing 
 ruins, we can not think that nomadic savages built them. 
 They give evidences rather of a people having fixed habita- 
 tions, and seem to imply the possession of a higher civili- 
 zation than that of the Indians. These questions demand 
 solution; but how shall we solve the problem? Save here 
 and there a deserted camp, or a burial mound, containing 
 perhaps articles of use or adornment, all traces have van- 
 ished. Their earth-works and mounds are being rapidly lev- 
 eled by the plow of modern times, and the scholar of the 
 future can only learn from books of their mysterious 
 builders. 
 
 In Mexico, and farther south, we find the ruins of great 
 cities. To the student of antiquity, these far surpass in 
 interest the ruined cities of the Nile or Euphrates valley. 
 Babylon of old, with its walls, towers, and pleasure resorts, 
 was indeed wonderful. In our own land cities, if not as 
 ancient, yet fiillen in more picturesque ruin, reward the 
 labors of the explorer. Uxmal, Copan, and Palenque, invite 
 our attention. Here are hieroglyphics in abundance, but 
 
24 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 no Rosetta Stone supplies the key by whose aid a Champol- 
 lion can unravel the mystery. 
 
 The luxuriant vegetative growth of the tropics, with its 
 fierce storms, is every year hastening the obliteration of 
 these ruins, and we must improve the time well, if we would 
 learn from them what they have to say of the past. 
 
 The isles of the Pacific give evidence that, long before 
 the dawn of authentic history, man lived there. Indeed, as 
 the islands which gem that ocean, from their configuration and 
 position, seem to be but the elevated plateaus and mountain 
 peaks of a continent that has gone down beneath the blue 
 wave of the Pacific, so, throughout Polynesia can be traced 
 the fragmentary remains of a civilization, the greater por- 
 tion of which has been completely buried by the waters of 
 oblivion, leaving only here and there a trace to reconstruct, 
 if we can, the entire structure. 
 
 The earliest remains of man are very similar in all lands. 
 They consist of weapons of war and of the chase, imple- 
 ments of domestic use, and articles of personal adornment. 
 Few and simple as they are, they are capable of imparting 
 useful information as to early times. By their aid we be- 
 come eye-witnesses of the daily life of primitive man. We 
 learn that though lacking in almost every thing we consider 
 essential for comfort and happiness, yet they were actuated 
 by much the same hopes and fears as the men of the present 
 age. The great burden of life was the same then as now. 
 There was the same round of daily labor made necessary by 
 the same ceaseless struggle for existence. Rude forts and 
 warlike implements show there was the same encroachment 
 of the strong on the weak as now. 
 
 This is a wonderful age in many respects. In none, how- 
 ever, more wonderful than in the wide-spread diffusion of 
 knowledge. The ordinary people now understand more of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 25 
 
 nature's secrets than the wise men of old. They are to-day 
 interested in researches that a former generation would have 
 relegated to the scholar and the man of leisure. No depart- 
 ment of knowledge is retained for the researches of a favored 
 few. The farmer, the mechanic, and the man of business are 
 iilike interested in a knowledge of prehistoric times. The 
 rude implements of the past appeal to the curiosity of all. 
 We arise from a study of the past with clearer ideas of 
 man's destiny. Impressed with the great advancement in 
 man's condition from the rude savagery of the drift, to 
 the enlightened civilization of to-day, what may we not 
 hope the advancement will be during the countless ages 
 we believe a beneficent Providence has in store for his 
 creature, man? 
 
 A history of the popular opinion of the antiquity of man 
 is not only of interest, but should teach a lesson to all who 
 think others are wrong because not holding the same views 
 as they do. Hardly fifty years have passed since scientific 
 men began to attribute to the human race an antiquity more 
 remote than that assigned them by history and tradition. 
 At first these views met with general opposition, much as 
 did the theory of the present system of astronomy when 
 it was first proclaimed. We laugh now at the ignorant fears 
 and prejudices used to combat both. 
 
 It was claimed that the Bible taught that man had lived 
 on the globe scarcely six thousand years. The Bible is the 
 book to which the Anglo-Saxon mind clings with the great- 
 est reverence. The memories of childhood are associated 
 with its pages, and its very appearance recalls the prayers 
 of long ago. It is not strange then that the Christian world 
 guards with jealous care against any thing which may be 
 thought to weaken the force of its statements. 
 
 But it is human nature to go to -extremes : and, when 
 
26 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 we give our support to one way of thinking, we find it diffi- 
 cult to be patient with those of the contrary opinion. 
 
 Now, the researches of some of the most eminent men 
 and learned divines have amply shown, that there are no data 
 given in the Scriptures on which to base an estimate as to 
 the antiquity of man. Happily the Christian mind no longer 
 shrinks from the conclusions reached by the scientist : and, 
 indeed, it is the contemplation of the stupendous periods of 
 Geological times, and the infinite greatness of the works 
 of Creation as disclosed by Astronomy, with the extreme 
 lowness of man's first condition as made evident by Archae- 
 ology, that lend new force to the words, "What is man, 
 that thou art mindful of him !" 
 
 The evidences on which we predicate an extreme an- 
 tiquity for man are necessarily cumulative. It is not from 
 one source alone that we obtain information, but from many. 
 Eminent men in nearly every department of knowledge have 
 lent their aid to the elucidation of this subject. It can only 
 be understood by those who will fairly weigh the facts that 
 modern discoveries have unrolled before their eyes. There 
 are many who have not done this, and are consequently 
 unable to project their mental vision so far back into the very 
 night of time, as is now demanded for the beginning of man's 
 first appearance on the earth. And, indeed, so enormously 
 has this period been extended — so far back does it require 
 us to go — that even the most enlightened investigator may 
 well recoil in dismay when he first perceives the almost 
 infinite lapse of years that are required by his calculation 
 since the creation of man. 
 
 At this day the scholar must be ready to explain the 
 steps by which he reaches his conclusions. Not necessarily 
 explaining the minutiiB of his journey hither, but the main 
 outlines of his course. This seems to call for a slight out- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 27 
 
 line of Geology. The animal and vegetable tribes which have 
 come and gone upon the earth, following each other like 
 the shadows of passing clouds on a Summer's day, have 
 left their remains in the rocks which at that time were form- 
 ing. A close investigation of these remains shows that they 
 form the record book of nature, wherein we are permitted 
 to read somewhat of her secrets. This had long been a sealed 
 book to man ; but science, as we have seen, constantly ex- 
 tending her domain, at length taught him the alphabet. 
 
 And the Geologist now unfolds the past age of our world 
 with a variety of detail, and a certainty of conclusion well 
 calculated to inspire us with grateful admiration. 
 
 It is no longer a question that many ages must have 
 rolled away, during which our world was totally unfit for 
 life of any kind, either animal or vegetable. 
 
 The nebular theory of Laplace, as modified by the mod- 
 ern astronomers, so satisfactorily explains many of the phe- 
 nomena of the solar system, that it takes rank almost as a 
 demonstrated fact. According to the terms of this theory, 
 our Earth, now so dependent on the sun for light and warmth, 
 w^as itself a glowing orb, and as a bright star radiated its 
 light and heat into space. Grand conception, and probably 
 true. It is now useless to speculate as to how many cycles 
 of almost infinite years had begun and ended, before Earth's 
 fading fires gave notice that they must soon expire in night. 
 
 The stages through which the Earth passed in turn await 
 the sun, save that there is no further beneficent luminary to 
 give him light and heat: when time shall have quenched his 
 fiery glow, death and night shall reign supreme, where now 
 is life and light. 
 
 Time is long, and nature never hurries. She builds for 
 infinite years, and recks not the time of building. The hu- 
 man mind is far too feeble to comprehend the duration of 
 
28 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 time that sped away and was gone ere the slowly falling 
 temperature of the Earth admitted the formation of a crust 
 over her surface. When that came, the first great scene 
 was closed. The star had expired, the planet rolled in her 
 annual course around the still glowing central sun. Now 
 came the formative age of the world, when the great conti- 
 nents were outlined. 
 
 The atmosphere gradually freed itself from its weight 
 of water-vapor, the rains descended, and the ocean took 
 form and contour. We are concerned only with the outlines 
 of Geology, not with its details. It is full of the most inter- 
 esting facts, but is foreign to our present purpose. We will 
 only say, there is a marked progression in the scale and im- 
 portance of life forms. 
 
 The lower forms of animals appear first to be followed in 
 time by the higher. It is true that some forms have sur- 
 vived through all the changes of Geological time to the 
 present : yet, speaking generally, some forms of life are pecu- 
 liar to each age, and the general phase of animal life is differ- 
 ent with each period. They thus form epochs in the his- 
 tory of the world as read from the rocks, and though the 
 beginning and ending of each age may blend by insensible 
 gradations with that of the preceding and following, yet, 
 taken as a whole, we observe in each such singularities of 
 form and structure as to give name to each particular age. 
 
 In the fullness of time man appears; and it is our pleas- 
 ant task to trace the evidence of his primitive state, his 
 growth in culture, and his advancement made before the 
 dawn of history. Our inquiry, then, is as to his prehistoric 
 state. We use this term in the same sense as Dr. Wilson 
 uses it: that is, to express the whole period disclosed to us 
 by moans of archicological evidence, as distinguished from 
 what is known tluouiih historical records. We can not doubt 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 29 
 
 but that this includes by ffir the largest portion of man's 
 existence. The time embraced within historical records, 
 though different in different portions of the world, is but a 
 brief period in comparison to the duration of time since he 
 first went forth to possess the Earth. If we can make 
 plain to our readers that man has lived in the Avorld an ex- 
 tremely long time, going back indeed to a former Geological 
 age — that his first state was very low and rude — that he has 
 risen to his present high estate by means of his own exer- 
 tions continued through long ages — and from this form a 
 prophecy of a golden age to come in the yet distant future, 
 we shall feel that we have not written in vain. 
 
 The Sphinx. 
 
30 
 
 THE FREHISTORIC WORLD, 
 
 EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS.* 
 
 Necessity of a general acquaintauce with the outlines of Geology — A 
 time in -which there was no life possible on the globe — Length of this 
 period — On the formation of rocks — The ret^ord imperfect — The three 
 great periods in animal life on the globe — Paleozoic age — Animal and 
 vegetable life of this period — The Mesozoic age — Animal and vege- 
 table life of this period — Advance noted — Abundance of reptilian 
 life — First appearance of birds — Nature's methods of work — The 
 Cenozoic age — Geological outline — Sketch of the Eocene age — Of the 
 Miocene age — Wliat is sufficient proof of the presence of man — 
 Discussion of the Tlienay flints — The Pliocene age — Animal and 
 vegetable life of this age — Was man living during this age ? — Dis- 
 cussion of this subject — Summing up the evidence — Conclusion. 
 
 A CLEAR understanding of questions 
 relating to early man, a more or less 
 extensive acquaintance Avitli Geology' 
 is required. This is by no means a difficult task 
 to accomplish. What so interesting as to under- 
 stand at least the outlines of the history of life on 
 the globe ? To see how, following a definite plan? 
 the vast continents haA^e grown to their present size and form ; 
 to see how animal and vegetable life have evolved successively 
 higher and higher forms ; to see where in this wondrous 
 drama of creation, this strange unfolding of life, the fir.'^t 
 faint, indecisive traces of man's presence are to be found; to 
 learn what great changes in climate, in Geogony,aii(l in life, 
 
 'The manuscript of this (•li.ni>tor wns mibniitti'd to Prof. Windu'll, of tlie 
 University of Micltigan, for criticism. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 31 
 
 had occurred before man's appearance, let us pass in brief 
 review the history of early geological periods. 
 
 As we have already stated, there must have been a very 
 long period of time during which no life was possible on 
 the globe. Of this era we know but little; for we find no 
 strata of rocks of an earlier date than we know life, in its 
 simplest forms, to have existed.^ Still we are not less con- 
 fident of the existence of this era, and the mind can dimly 
 comprehend the scene, when a nearly shoreless ocean surged 
 around the globe.^ 
 
 As to the extent of time during which there was no life, 
 we have no means of determining. That it was almost infin- 
 itely long is made apparent by the researches of eminent 
 scholars on the cooling of lava. Toward the close of this 
 extended period of time faint traces of life appear. Not 
 life as we are apt to think of it. No nodding flowers were 
 kissed by the sunshine of this early time. The earliest 
 forms of flowerless plants, such as sea-weeds, and in dry 
 places possibly lichens covering the rocks, were the highest 
 forms of vegetable life. Animal life, if present, for the fact 
 is denied by some, occurs in the very lowest form, merely 
 structureless bodies, with no especial organs of sense, or 
 nutrition : and their motion consisting simply in protruding 
 and withdrawing hair-like processes.^ Such was the begin- 
 ning of life. This vast period of time, which includes the 
 beginning, is known among geologists as Archean time. 
 
 From the close of this age, the history of life properly 
 commences. It might be well to explain the means which 
 the geologist uses to interpret the history of the globe. It 
 is now understood that the forces of nature have always 
 produced the same results as they do now. From the very 
 
 ' Dana's " Manual of Geology," p. 146. ^Tbid., p. 147. 
 
 ^ Nicholson's " Manual of Zoology," p. 59. 
 
32 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 earliest time to the present, rocks have been forming. There, 
 where conditions were favorable, great beds of limestone, 
 formed from shells and corals, ground up by the action of the 
 sea^ — in other places, massive beds of sandstone or of sand, 
 afterward consolidated into sandstone — were depositing. On 
 the land surface, in places, great beds of vegetable debris 
 were being converted into coal. Now we can easily see 
 how the remains of organic bodies, growing at the time of 
 the formation of these beds, should be preserved in a fossil 
 form. Limestone rocks are thickly studded in places with 
 all sorts of marine formations. Coal fields reveal wonders 
 of early vegetative growth. From sandstone rocks, and shaly 
 beds, we learn strange stories of animal life at the time 
 they were forming. From a careful study of these remains, 
 together with the formation in which they occur, not only in 
 one locality but all over the earth, geologists have gradu- 
 ally unfolded the history of life on the globe. It is a-dmit- 
 ted that, at best, our knowledge in that direction is frag- 
 mentary. This arises from errors in observation as well 
 as that fossil formations are rare, or at least localities 
 where they are known to exist are but few. So our 
 knowledge of the past is as if we were examining some 
 record from which pages, chapters, and even volumes, have 
 been extracted. 
 
 In consequence of this imperfect record we can not, as 
 yet, trace a gradual successive growth from the low forms of 
 animal and plant life, that characterized the closing period 
 of Archean time, to the highly organized types of the pres- 
 ent. The record suddenly ceases, and when we again pick 
 up the thread we are surrounded by more advanced types, 
 higher forms of life. Though we may hope that future disco\- 
 eries will do much toward completing the records, we can ncit 
 
 ' Dana's " Manual of Geology," p. 74. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 35 
 
 hope that they will ever really be perfected. So, from our 
 present stand-point, the history of life on the globe falls 
 naturally into three great divisions.^ This is not only true 
 of one country, but of all. This is no more than we might 
 expect, when we reflect that nature's laws are universal in 
 their action, and that the world, as a whole, has been sub- 
 jected to the same set of changes. 
 
 The period following on after Archean time is called, by 
 geologists. Paleozoic time. 
 
 During the long course of time embraced in this age, 
 the forms of life present wide differences from those of ex- 
 isting time. 
 
 This period produced the great beds of coal we use 
 to-day. But the vegetation of the coal period would present 
 strange features to our eyes. The vegetation commenced 
 with the lowest orders of flowerless plants, such as sea-weeds; 
 but, before it was brought to a close, there was a wonderful 
 variety and richness of plants of the flowerless or Crypto- 
 gamic division. In some of the warmest portions of the 
 globe, we have to-day tree-ferns growing four or five feet 
 high. During the closing part of the Paleozoic time, there 
 were growing all over the temperate zone great tree-ferns 
 thirty feet or so in height. Some varieties of rushes in our 
 marshes, a foot or two in height, had representatives in the 
 marshes of the coal period standing thirty feet high, and 
 having woody trunks.^ Near the close of the Paleozoic 
 time, vegetation assumed a higher form of life. Flowering 
 plants are represented. Pines were growing in the coal meas- 
 ures. 
 
 In animal life a similar advance is noted. The class of 
 animals having no backbone, or invertebrate animals, were 
 
 ^Nicholson's "Manual of Zoology," p. 42. 
 2 Dana's " Manual of Geology," p. 323. 
 
 3 
 
36 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 largely represented. But, toward the close of the Paleozoic 
 time, we meet with representatives of the backbone family. 
 The waters swarmed with fishes.^ Besides these, there were 
 amphibians -^ and reptiles in the closing portions.^ 
 
 The Pterodactyl. 
 
 Thus we see what a great advance was made in life dur- 
 ing this period. The forms of life during the early stages 
 of this age were inferior in this, also, that they were all 
 water species.'' But, before it closes, we have a rich and 
 varied terrestrial vegetation, and also air-breathing animals. 
 The class Mammalia, to which man belongs, had no repre- 
 sentative on the earth during the extended Paleozoic time. 
 
 'Nicholson's " Zoolojiy," p. 402. = Dana's "Geology," p. 302. 
 
 ^ Duwkin'B " Karly Man in Britain," p. G. * Dana's " Geolotr}-," p. :JS2. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 37 
 
 We can easily see, from the foregoing, how appropriately 
 this period has been named that of old life forms. In im- 
 agination we can recall a scene of this old age. The air is 
 sultry and full of vapors. The soil seems hot and steaming. 
 This is a veritable forest, but we see none of the beautiful 
 flowers which we associate with tropical vegetation to-day. 
 In the branches of the graceful tree-ferns, we will look in 
 vain for birds. They were yet far in the future. Neither 
 were there any of the higher orders of animals present. Not 
 a single representative of the great class of mammals en- 
 livened the depths of the forest. There were fishes in the 
 waters, but not the fishes of to-day. Some true reptiles and 
 amphibians disported themselves in swampy jungles, but 
 they were unimportant. Almost the only sound to break the 
 stillness, was the hum of marsh-loving insects, the whistling 
 of the wind, and the roar of the tempests, which we may 
 well believe raged with the more than tropic severity of the 
 present.-^ 
 
 The time at last came for the dawning of a new era. 
 Vast changes had been taking place in the geography of 
 both continents. The region to the south-west of the Green 
 Mountains was upturned. The Alleghany Mountains were 
 formed, and the region east of the Mississippi River became 
 part of the stable land of the continent.^ In Europe, nearly 
 as great changes occurred. The conditions of life must 
 have been greatly modified by these geographical changes. 
 The life-forms bear testimony to this changed condition. 
 Old forms die away, and are succeeded by those approach- 
 ing more nearly our own times. The name of this period is 
 the Mesozoic time, or the period of middle life forms.'' It 
 is instructive to notice the steady advance in the type of 
 
 ' Haywood's, Heer's, " Primeval World of Switzerland." 
 
 =" Dana's "Man. Geology," p. 395. => Nicholson's "Man. Zoology," p. 42. 
 
as 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 life, both animal and vegetable. The abundant flowerless 
 vegetation of the coal formation of the preceding epoch 
 
 dwindles away. But 
 the flowering trees 
 increase in number 
 and importance un- 
 til, in the closing 
 period of Mesozoic 
 time, we have trees 
 with deciduous 
 leaves. A great 
 many of our forest 
 trees had represent- 
 h^ atives in the forests 
 iv of that epoch. 
 
 Palms and spe- 
 cies like the big tree 
 of California were 
 growing side by side 
 with species akin to 
 our w n common 
 trees. But in the 
 animal world there 
 were many strange 
 forms. This was 
 the age of reptiles. 
 They domineered on 
 the land, in the 
 air, and in the sea. 
 lohthyoaauri. On the land there 
 
 stalked huge reptiles filly and sixty feet long, and, when 
 standing erect, at least thirty feet high.' Some of these huge 
 
 'Marsh: " Americ-au Assoc. Hep.," 1877. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 
 
 39 
 
 creatures were carnivorous, living on other animals. Others 
 fed on the foliage of trees. In the air, huge reptilian bats, 
 veritable flying dragons with a spread of wings from ten to 
 twenty feet, disported themselves.^ In the sea there swam 
 great reptilian whales, seals, and walruses.^ There was a mar- 
 velous abundance of reptilian life. At the present day, there 
 are not more than six species of reptiles in the whole world 
 having a length of over fifteen feet, and not more than 
 
 •»«=.=ss* 
 
 The Labyrinthodon. 
 
 eighteen species exceeding ten feet in length. But from 
 one limited locality, representing but one era of this age in 
 England, there haA'^e been discovered four or five species of 
 carnivorous reptiles twenty to fifty feet long, ten or twelve 
 species of crocodiles, lizards, and swimming reptiles from 
 ten to sixty feet long — besides multitudes of great flying 
 reptiles and turtles. Doubtless similar scenes of animal 
 life were everywhere represented. 
 
 ^ Marsh : " American Assoc. Eep.," 1877. 
 ' Dawkin's "Early Man in Britain," p. 6. 
 
40 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Birds made their first appearance during the Mesozoic 
 time, and here we obtain a clear view of nature's methods of 
 work. There is no longer a doubt but that the first birds 
 were simply modified reptiles. The first bird had a long 
 jointed tail, and a bill well supplied with formidable teeth.^ 
 It was during this period that the first representative of the 
 class Mammalia, to which man belongs, appears.^ It is in 
 the rocks of this era that we meet with remains of marsupials, 
 the order to which opossums belong. This is the lowest of 
 the Mammalian class. To the class Mammalia belong the 
 most highly organized animals. They have been the ruling 
 animals since the close of Mesozoic time. We must now 
 watch their development with especial care. For this brief 
 review, as far as it has gone, has shown a steady and grad- 
 ual progress in life forms, the lower invariably preceding 
 the higher. We therefore feel that it will be vain to seek 
 for any trace of man until we find undoubted proofs of the 
 existence of all the forms of animals below him. The last 
 great division of time is called Cenozoic.^ This means new 
 life forms. In this age, the forms of life are much nearer 
 our own. As it was some time during this epoch when man 
 makes his appearance, we deem it best to go into more detail, 
 and give the subdivisions of this period. It has been amply 
 sufficient to give simply the outlines of the other periods. 
 
 ' Nicholson's " Manual of Zoologj'," pp. 419 and 504. 
 
 2 When we talk of first appearance, we mean the discover}' of remains. 
 All who believe in the doctrine of evolution, know that the class Mammalia 
 must have appeared early in Paleozoic times. Thus, Mr. Wallace says, " Bats 
 and whales — strange modifications of mammals — appear perfectly well devel- 
 oped in the Eocene. What countless ages back must wo go for the origin of 
 these groups — the whales from some ancestral carnivorous animal, the bats 
 from the insectivora ! " and oven then we have to seek for the common origin 
 of these groups at far earlier ix'riod.s. " So that, on the lowest estimate, we 
 must place the origin of the Mammalia very far back in Paleozoic times." 
 ("Island Life," p. 201.) 
 
 ' This word is al.so s|)clled Kainozoic, and Cainozoic. We follow Dana, p. 140. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 
 
 41 
 
 In order to fix more clearly the sequence of life, we will 
 give an outline showing the periods we have reAdewed, and 
 also the subdivisions of the Cenozoic time, which we are now 
 to examine with more care. 
 
 OUTLINE. 
 
 
 Archaean Time. 
 Paleozoic Time.^ 
 
 Mesozoic Time.- 
 
 « 
 
 Cenozoic Time. < 
 
 The Beginning • 
 Includes the long lapse of time when the 
 globe could not support life, but towards 
 its close faint traces of life, both animal 
 and vegetable appeared. 
 
 The Period of Old Life Forms. 
 Forests of flovverless trees; but pines grew 
 in the coal measures. Animal life 
 largely invertebrate ; but amphibians 
 and reptiles among the vertebrate ap- 
 pear at the close. 
 
 The Period of Middle Life Forms. 
 Flowering trees increasing in number and 
 importance. Deciduous trees make their 
 appearance. Animal life largely rep- 
 tilian. The class Mammalia represented 
 ^ by marsupials. 
 
 ' Tertiary, C Eocene, 
 or -j Miocene. 
 Age of Mammals. (^Pliocene. 
 
 Quaternary, f Glacial or Pleistocene, 
 or 
 ^ Age of Man . (^ Recent. 
 
 At the close of the Mesozoic time, great elevations of 
 land took place in both America and Europe, especially in 
 the northern portions.^ This could not fail to have a great 
 efl'ect on life, both M.nimal and vefijetable. 
 
 During the Eocene, or first division of the Tertiary Age, 
 we have simply to note the steady progress of life. There 
 were forests of species of oaks, poplars, maples, hickories, 
 
 Dana, " .Aranual of (leology," p. 488. 
 
42 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 and other common trees, and others now found only in trop- 
 ical regions. Palm trees were growing in the upper Mis- 
 souri region of the United States. And England was decid- 
 edly a land of Palms, as no less than thirteen species are 
 known to have been growing there. Cypresses, yews, and 
 pines graced the scene.-^ Our special interest centers, how- 
 ever, in the mammals of this epoch. 
 
 In the preceding epoch marsupials only were represented. 
 But in beds of the middle and closing portions of the Eo- 
 
 The Paleotherium. 
 
 cene period we meet with a sudden increase of Mammalian 
 life. Whale-like animals were especially abundant in the 
 seas ; and on our Western plains were animals like the tapirs 
 of India, and rhinoceros-like animals as large as elephants^ 
 but having no trunks, and diminutive little animals not larger 
 than foxes, from which have come our horses. Europe also 
 
 * Diuvkin's " Early Man in Britain," p. 28. 
 
 'Many of these animal forms were common during tlio oarlv Eocene. 
 (Winchell.) 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 43 
 
 had a varied Mammalian fauna. There were numerous hog- 
 like animals. Animals, like the tapirs of tropical Asia and 
 America, wandered in the forests and on the banks of the 
 rivers. Herds of horse-like animals, about the size of Shet- 
 land ponies, fed on the meadows.^ Animals that chew the 
 cud were present, or at least had near representatives.^ 
 
 Among the flesh-eating animals were creatures resem- 
 bling foxes, wolverines, and hyenas.^ This shows what a 
 great advance had been made. But, besides all these, we are 
 here presented with representatives of the order of Quadru- 
 mana, or four-handed animals. Several genera of lemurs 
 are found in both America and Europe. 
 
 Now the Quadrumana are the order below man. There- 
 fore it seems that, in the Eocene period, all the forms of life 
 below man are represented. The time seems to be at hand 
 when we can look, with some confidence, for traces of 
 the presence of man himself. We must therefore be more 
 cautious in our investigations. 
 
 The epoch following on after the Eocene is designated as 
 the Miocene. We must remember that, though recent in a 
 geological sense, yet it is immensely remote when measured 
 by the standard of years. We must inquire into all the 
 surroundings of this far away time. The geographical fea- 
 tures must have been widely different from the present. 
 
 In the first place, the elevation of land to the north 
 must have been sufficient to have connected the land areas 
 of the Northern Hemisphere — North America, with Asia^ 
 and Greenland ; and this latter country must have been 
 united with Iceland, and, through the British Islands, with 
 Europe. But, to compensate for this land mass to the north. 
 
 ' Dawkin's " Early Man in Britain," p. 29. ^ Dana, " Geology," p. 517. 
 ' Dawkin's " Early Man in Britain," p. 32. 
 * Marsh: " American Assoc. Rep.," 1877. 
 
44 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 large portions of Central and Southern Europe were beneath 
 the waves. ^ The proof of this extended mass of land is to be 
 found in the wide distribution of similar animals and plants 
 in the Miocene time. All the chief botanists are agreed 
 that the north Polar region was the center from which plants 
 peculiar to the Eocene and Miocene epochs spread into both 
 Europe and America.^ We may mention that the famous 
 big trees of California are simply remnants of a wide-spread 
 growth of these trees in Miocene times. They can be found 
 in a fossil state at various places in British America, in 
 Greenland, and in Europe. They are supposed to have 
 originated somewhere in the north, and spread by these land 
 connections we have mentioned into both Europe and Amer- 
 ica. But this is not the only tree that grew in the Miocene 
 forests of both continents. The magnolia, tulip-tree, and 
 swamp cypress are other instances.^ Eleven species, grow- 
 ing in the Rocky Mountain regions in Eocene times, found 
 their way to Europe in the Miocene times,* driving before 
 them the plants of a tropical growth that had hitherto flour- 
 ished in England. Now this implies land connection be- 
 tween the two continents. Furthermore, animals both large 
 and small are found common to the two countries.'' The 
 climate over what is now the North Temperate Zone, and 
 even further north, must have been delightful. There is 
 ample testimony to this effect in the rich vegetative remains 
 over wide areas. 
 
 In Spitzbergen, within twelve degrees of the pole, 
 where now a dwarf willow and a few herbaceous plants 
 form the only vegetation, and the ground is most of the 
 time covered with snow and ice, there were growing, in Mi- 
 
 ' Haywood's Heer's " Primeval World of Swit^erhuid," p. 296. 
 ' Dawkin's " Early Man in Britain," p. 20. ' Il>id., p. 43. 
 
 ' Dana's " Manual of (icdlo^'v," p. 498. 
 ' iJawkin's " Early Man in Britain," p. 42. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 45 
 
 ocene times, no less than ninety-five species of trees, includ- 
 ing yews, hazels, elders, beech, elms, and others.^ But it is 
 in the Miocene forests of the continent of Europe where we 
 meet with evidence of a singularly mild climate. 
 
 There were at least eleven species of palms growing in 
 Switzerland ; and one variety of them grew as far north as 
 Northern Germany.^ 
 
 We can not give a list of all the species. On the one 
 hand, there were elms, willows, poplars, oaks, and beeches, 
 thus far similar to the forest growth of temperate regions. 
 Mingled with these were forests of trees like the tulip-tree, 
 swamp cypress, and liquid amber or sweet gum of the south- 
 ern part of the United States — plants whose home is in the 
 warm and moist regions of the earth. But there were also 
 representatives of the tropical regions — such as fig-trees, 
 cinnamon-trees, and camphor-trees : these are found growing 
 now in tropical countries. Fruit-trees of the cherry, plum, 
 and almond species were also to be seen. Prof. Heer points 
 out how all this should convince us that a large part of Eu- 
 rope, in the Miocene Age, possessed a climate not unlike 
 that of the Madeira or Canary Islands to-day. He calls 
 especial attention to the fact that these trees were nearly all 
 of evergreen species, and that a severe winter would destroy 
 them. He finds one hundred and thirty-one species of tha 
 Temperate Zone — species that can stand a moderate amount 
 of cold, but not very hot and dry climates. He finds eighty- 
 five species of tropical plants that could not possibly live 
 where the Winters are severe. Mingled with these were 
 nearly three hundred species whose natural home is in the 
 warm, temperate portions of the earth. The only way you 
 can explain this motley assemblage of trees is, to suppose 
 
 ' Dana's " Manual of Geology," p. 514. 
 
 ' Haywood's Heer's " Primeval World of Switzerland," p. 334. 
 
46 
 
 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 that itt what is now Europe was a climate free from ex- 
 tremes, allowing the trees to put forth flowers and fruits all 
 
 Miocene Mammals. 
 
 the year round. "Reminding us," says Prof. Ileer, "of 
 those fortunate zones where Nature never goes to rest."' 
 Let us now inquire as to the animals that ronniod through 
 
 'Haywood's Ileer's "Primeval Wmlii of Switzorlanil." 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 47 
 
 these great forests we have been describing. The Miocene 
 period extended over a long lapse of time, and considerable 
 change took place among the animals belonging to the differ- 
 ent parts of this age. We will only give a general outline 
 for the whole period. The marsupials lingered along into 
 the early stages of this period, and then disappeared from 
 Europe. The rhinoceros were present in the early stages, 
 and continued through the entire age. We meet in this 
 period animals of the elephant kind, two species, the masto- 
 don and deinotherium. Antelopes and gazelles wandered in 
 vast troops over the plains of Hungary, Spain, and Southern 
 France. Carnivorous animals resembling tigers and hyenas 
 found abundance of animal food. Herds of horse-like ani- 
 mals fed on the rich herbage of the meadows. The birds 
 were largely represented. In the woods were to be seen 
 flocks of gayly feathered paroquets and trogons. On the 
 plains secretary-birds hunted the serpents and reptiles, which 
 furnished them food — and eagles were on the watch for their 
 prey. Cranes waded in the rivers for fish. Geese, herons, 
 and pheasants must have been abundant. 
 
 Our main interest centers in the order Quadrumana. We 
 must remember that this order appeared in the Eocene. Sev- 
 eral species were present in the Miocene. They wandered in 
 the forests of France, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, and 
 doubtless found abundant food in the figs and bread-fruit, 
 walnuts, almonds, dates, and other nuts growing there.^ One 
 of the most important is regarded as belonging to the same 
 genus as the Gibbons.^ This is the genus which has been 
 sometimes regarded as making a nearer approach to man 
 than any other monkey.^ Others, however, consider it as 
 
 1 Dawkin's " Early Man in Britain," pp. 57 and 64. 
 
 ^Ibid., p. 57: also, Haywood's Heer's "Primeval World of Switzerland." 
 
 3 Nicholson's "Manual of Zoology," p. 605. 
 
48 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 belonging to an extinct family.^ In addition to this species 
 there were at least three other species : thus there was no 
 absence of simian life in the Miocene.^ 
 
 From the sketch we have thus far drawn of the Miocene 
 Age, it seems to have been a very favorable one in every 
 respect. One writer^ affirms, that " the world never expe- 
 rienced a more beautiful period." And indeed it seems as 
 if the facts bear out this statement. A genial, temperate 
 climate was the rule, even to high northern latitudes. We 
 need not doubt but that there were grassy plains, wooded 
 slopes, and rolling rivers. Was man present to take advan- 
 tage of all these favorable surroundings ? Did he wander 
 through the evergreen forests, and hunt the deer, antelope, 
 and hogs — the hipparions, and mastodons, and deinotheres — 
 then so numerous ?^ We know of no inherent improbability 
 of his existence at that time. An ape belonging to a highly 
 organized genus was then living in Europe. Every condi- 
 tion considered necessary for the primeval Garden of Eden 
 was then satisfied. Let us stop for a minute and examine 
 the nature of the evidence considered sufficient to prove 
 the presence of man during any of the past geological ages. 
 
 Should we be so fortunate as to find portions of the 
 bones of the human skeleton in a geological formation in 
 such positions that they could not possibly have been intro- 
 duced there since the deposition of the containing bed, it 
 would of course prove that man was at least as old as the 
 formation itself. But it happens that human remains in 
 beds of a previous geological age are very rare. Indeed, 
 human remains in formations of the Pleistocene Age,'' during 
 which we have ample testimony, as we shall see, of the 
 
 ' Dawkin's "Early Man in Britain," p. 58. 'Ibid., 58. 
 
 ^ M<:l>(;an: "Mastodon, Mammoth, and Man," p. 07. 
 
 * Dawkin'.s "Early Man in Europe," p. G6. * See " Outline," p. 41. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 49 
 
 presence of man, are very rare. The cases in which there 
 can be no doubt can be reckoned on the fingers. The ex- 
 planation of this state of things is not at all difficult, for it 
 is only under very rare circumstances that portions of the 
 bones of animals even larger than man are preserved to us 
 in geological strata. Vast numbers die and vanish away 
 without leaving a trace behind them for every fragmentary 
 bone we recover. In the case of man we must remember 
 that, in previous eras, he was present in very small numbers ; 
 that, owing to his intelligence, he would not be as liable to 
 be drowned and swept away, and so mingle his remains 
 with beds of river detritus then forming, as were ani- 
 mals. Mr. Lyell has made some remarks on the draining 
 of the Haarlem Lake by the government of Holland in 
 1853, which shows that even favorable circumstances do not 
 always preserve remains for future inspection. Though 
 called a lake, this body of water was an arm of the sea, 
 covering about forty-five thousand acres. The population 
 which had lived on the shores of the lake was between 
 thirty and forty thousand souls. " There had been many a 
 shipwreck, and many a naval fight on those waters, and 
 hundreds of Dutch and Spanish soldiers and sailors had 
 met there with a watery grave," yet not a solitary portion 
 of the human skeleton was to be found in its bed.^ Thus 
 we see that, in the majority of cases, we must rely on other 
 evidence than the presence of human bones to prove the 
 existence of man in the geological periods of the past. In 
 the case of the Haarlem Lake again, there was found the 
 wreck of one or two vessels, and some ancient armor. So, 
 had it been a disputed point whether man was a denizen of 
 this planet at the time when the area in question was cov- 
 ered by water, it would have been settled beyond a doubt 
 
 1 Lyell's " Antiquity of Man," p. 193. 
 
50 ' THE PREHIiSTORIC WORLD. 
 
 by these relics of Ms industry, even though portions of the 
 human frame itself were entirely wanting. And, in reality, 
 proofs of this nature are just as satisfactory as it would be 
 to discover human bones. If, on a desert island, we find arrow- 
 heads, javelins, a place where there had been a fire, split 
 bones, and other debris of a feast, we are as much justified in 
 asserting that man had been there, as we would be had we 
 seen him with our own eyes. In the same manner, if we 
 detect in any strata of the past any undoubted products of 
 human industry — such as weapons, or implements and orna- 
 ments — in such position that we know they could not have 
 been deposited there since the formation of the bed itself, 
 we have no hesitancy in asserting that man himself is of the 
 same antiquity as the strata containing the implements. In 
 the great majority of cases, this is the only kind of evidence 
 possible to advance. 
 
 It is now well known that the first stage in the culture 
 of any people, is what is called the Stone Age. That is to 
 say, their weapons and implements were made from stone, or 
 at least the majority of them were. We will discuss on 
 another page this point, and also the grounds leading us to 
 infer that many of the extremely rude forms are really the 
 work of man. 
 
 Let us now return to the Miocene Age, in which we are 
 to seek for the presence of man. In 1867 a French geolo- 
 gist, by the name of Bourgeois, who had been searching 
 some beds of the Miocene Age, near Thenay, France, found 
 a number of flints of such a peculiar shape, that he concluded 
 they could only be explained by supposing that man formed 
 them. In this case there is no question as to the age of the 
 stratum containing the flints. A>1 geologists are agreed that 
 it is of the Miocene Age. The question then is, whether 
 the flints were artificially cut or not. On this question 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 51 
 
 there has been a great division of opinion, and we can not 
 do better than to examine and see where the principal scien- 
 tific men stand on this point. 
 
 In 1872, at the scientific congress in Brussels, this ques- 
 tion was referred to a committee composed of the most com- 
 petent men from the difierent countries of Europe. We are 
 sorry to say that, after a thorough consideration of them, the 
 judges were unable to agree. Some accepted them, others 
 rejected them, and still others were undecided. Some of 
 the latter have since become convinced by recent discoveries.^ 
 
 Since this discovery, similar specimens have been de- 
 scribed as having been found in Portugal, and from another 
 locality in France. Some men of the highest authority ac- 
 cept these flints as proving the presence of man in Miocene 
 times. This is supported by such men as Quatrefages, 
 Hamy, Mortillet, and Capellini.^ These are all known to 
 be competent and careful geologists. Another class does 
 not think the evidence strong enough to declare these flints 
 of human origin, and so do not think it proved that man 
 lived in Europe in Miocene times; but do believe that we 
 will eventually find proofs of his existence during that era 
 in the warm and tropical regions of the globe. This is the 
 view of such men as Lubbock, Evans, Huxley, and Win- 
 chell. Still others say that, during the vast lapse of years 
 since Miocene times, all the species of land mammals then 
 alive have perished^ — their place being taken by other spe- 
 cies — and therefore it is incredible that man, the most 
 highly specialized of all animals, should have survived. 
 
 ' Quatrefages's "Human Species," p. 151. 
 
 ^Prof. AVinchell says: "Quatrefages does not now consider the proof deci- 
 sive (Hommes Fossiles et Hommes Sauvages, Paris, 1 884, p. 95)." He cites, as agree- 
 ing with him, MM. Cotteau, Evans, " and, I believe, most of the members who 
 have not publicly pronounced themselves." 
 
 ^Dawkin's "Early Man in Britain," p. 67. 
 
 4 . 
 
52 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Aad hence, if these Theuay flints are really artificial in their 
 origin, it is more reasonable to supjiose they were cut by 
 one of the higher apes, then living in France, than by man. 
 This is the view of Prof. Dawkins and Prof. Gaudry.^ As 
 to the last view, it is surely but reasonable to suppose, with 
 Quatrefages/ that the superior intelligence of man would 
 serve to protect him from the operation of causes that would 
 eifect the extinction of lower animals. Hence, unless some 
 evidence be produced to show that species of apes are known 
 to make rude stone implements, or some evidence that they 
 did this in past ages, we must believe, Avith Geikie and 
 others, that these flints prove that Miocene man lived in 
 France, unless indeed Ave refuse to believe that they are 
 artificial. 
 
 It also seems to us that those who hold to the view that 
 man Avas living in other parts of the world, as Asia, during 
 the Miocene Age, ought readily to admit that a few Avander- 
 ing bands might penetrate into Europe.^ The climate was 
 tropical, there was an abundance of animal life, and, if man 
 was living anywhere, it is very reasonable to suppose that, at 
 some epoch during the course of the Miocene Age, he would 
 have found his way to Europe, unless shut off by the sea. 
 It therefore seems to us that the presence of those cut flints 
 is conclusive of the i^resence of man in Europe during the 
 Miocene Age. At the same time we can not affirm tliat this 
 is the conclusion of the scientific world. They seem to have 
 heeded the remark of Quatrefages, that " in such a matter 
 there is no great urgency," and are Avaiting for further dis- 
 coveries. 
 
 Thus far in our review we have noticed the steady progress 
 
 ' Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," \\ 08. - " Human Species," p. 152. 
 
 •• Prof. Winchell remarks that, though some savage races might have been 
 living in 1ro()ical lands (hiring the Miocene, still the oldest skull and jaws ob- 
 tainable in iMiroiM' ari' ol a higher type than these. 
 
' EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 53 
 
 in the forms of life. In the Miocene Age we have seen all 
 the types of life below man present, and some indications 
 of the presence of man himself. We must now learn what 
 we can of the Pliocene Age, the last division of the Terti- 
 ary Age. 
 
 The Pliocene Age need not detain us long. Considerable 
 changes in the geography of both Europe and America were 
 going forward during the Miocene Age, and the result was 
 quite a change in climate. There was a steady elevation 
 of the Pacific coast region of America, and, as a consequence, 
 a period of great volcanic outbursts in California and Ore- 
 gon.^ At the same time the bridge connecting Asia and 
 America was severed.^ In Europe the Mediterranean area 
 was elevated ; but the land connecting Greenland with Eu- 
 rope sank, allowing the cold waters of the Arctic to commu- 
 nicate with both the North Sea and the Atlantic — England 
 at that time forming part of the great peninsula extending 
 north and west from Europe.^ The climate during the Plio- 
 cene Age was cooler than that of the Miocene. This is 
 marked in the vegetation of that period. The palms and 
 the cinnamon trees, which in Miocene times grew in Ger- 
 many, flourished no farther north than Italy during the Pli- 
 ocene.^ 
 
 Count DeSaporta, who made special researches in the 
 flora of this period, found the remains of a forest growth 
 buried under lava on the side of a mountain in Cantal 
 France, at an elevation of about four thousand feet above 
 the level of the sea. This consisted principally of pines. 
 This shows that probably all Northern Europe was covered 
 with somber forests of pine. In the same section he found, 
 buried under volcanic ash, a vegetation consisting mostly of 
 
 ' Dana's " Manual of Geology," p. 523. 
 
 ^Marsh: "American Assoc. Rep.," 1877. 
 
 •'Dawkins's "?:arly Man in Britain," p. 73. -"Ibid., p. 78. 
 
54 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 deciduous trees — maples, alders, poplars, willows, elms, and 
 ashes. As this was growing at the height of about twenty- 
 three hundred feet in Cantal France, it probably represents 
 the vegetation of Britain and Northern Germany. Finally, 
 the vegetation of Central and Southern France, as well as 
 Northern Italy, was intermediate in character between the 
 luxuriant evergreen forests of the Miocene Age and that 
 now growing there. The tropical character of the vegetation 
 was evidently passing away. The climate over a large part 
 of Europe was now temperate, though probably warmer 
 than at present.^ 
 
 In the Mammalia we have to notice the disappearance of 
 some species, and the arrival and spread of some others. 
 The apes living as far north as Germany in the Miocene Age 
 were restricted to Southern France and Italy in the Pli- 
 ocene, and, at its close, vanished altogether from Europe. 
 The first living species of mammals is found in the remains 
 of the hippopotamus that frequented the rivers of Pliocene 
 times. The mastodon of Miocene times was still to be seen, 
 but along with it was a species of true elephants. The hip- 
 parion survived into this epoch, but the horse also makes its 
 appearance. Great quantities of deer roamed over the land; 
 and, as might be expected where they were so abundant, the 
 carnivorous animals, allied to the bears and wolves, panthers, 
 linxes, and tigers, were also to be found. "At night," says 
 Mr. Dawkins, " the Pliocene forests of Central France echoed 
 with the weird laughter of the hyena." 
 
 The gradual lowering of the climate is also shown by the 
 remains of the mollusks deposited in beds of marine or sea 
 formation during different eras of this age. It is found that 
 the earlier the bed, the more southern mollusks are found 
 in it. This shows us that, all through the Pliocene Age, the 
 
 ' DMwkins's " Early :\I:in in Britain," p. 77. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 55 
 
 waters of the seas surrounding England were gradually 
 growing cooler, thus compelling the retreat of those mollusks 
 fitted only for a warm climate, and allowing a gradual in- 
 crease in those species fitted for cold or northern latitudes. 
 We also find, in deposits made near the close of Pliocene 
 times, numbers of stone which show all evidence of having 
 been borne thither by means of ice. So we may conclude 
 that rafts of ice came floating down the North Sea during 
 the closing period of the Pliocene Age.^ Still, during the 
 entire length of the Pliocene Age, Europe certainly offered 
 an inviting home for man. Not only were the higher orders 
 of animals present, but at least one living species was 
 known. We find more proofs of his presence, but whether 
 they are sufficient to convince us that man really lived dur- 
 ing that epoch is to be seen. 
 
 Prof. Whitney has brought to the attention of the scien- 
 tific world what he considers ample evidence of the presence 
 of Pliocene man in California. We reserve this for discus- 
 sion in another place. We will only remark, at present, 
 that the evidence in this case is regarded as sufficient by 
 some of the best of American scholars.^ We simply mention 
 them here, so that they may be borne in mind when we see 
 what evidence Europe has to offer on this point. In 1863, 
 M. Desnoyers, of France, discovered, in a stratum which he 
 considered Pliocene, some bones of elephants and other an- 
 imals cut and scratched in such a manner that he considered 
 the cuts .to be the work of man. As showing how cautious 
 geologists are of accepting such conclusions, we mention 
 this case. There was found in the same bed the remains 
 of an extinct beaver. The question was at once raised, 
 whether rodents by gnawing these bones could not have pro- 
 
 > Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 76. 
 
 ^ Winchell's "Pre- Adamites," Whitney's "Auriferous Gravels of Califor- 
 nia," Marsh's " Address before American Assoc," 1879. 
 
56 , THE FREBISTOBIC WOELD. 
 
 duced the cuts in question. Sir Charles Lyell, by actual 
 experiments in the Zoological Gardens in London, soon 
 showed that this was probably the fact.^ Yet Sir John 
 Lubbock thinks it quite likely some of them were of human 
 origin.^ Subsequently, however, M. Bourgeois discovered 
 in the same bed worked flints, about the human origin of 
 which there seems to be no doubt ;^ but a more careful 
 study of the formation in which they occur has raised ques- 
 tions as to its age. Though usually held to be Pliocene, 
 some careful observers consider it to be of a later age. Ge- 
 ologists can not be accused of rashly accepting statements 
 as to the antiquity of man. 
 
 In 1867 there was discovered, in Northern Italy, a hu- 
 man skull in a railway cutting at a dej^th of nearly fifty 
 feet. This stratum contains remains of several Pliocene 
 animals. This is held to prove the existence of Pliocene 
 man by several eminent observers, amongst others Prof. 
 Cocchi, of Italy, and Forsyth Major.^ But in this case Mr. 
 Dawkins contends that it was not found under such condi- 
 tions as render it certain that the stratum had been undis- 
 turbed, and so does not prove to a certainty that it was of 
 the same age as the stratum.^ And ]\Ir. Geikie thinks that 
 the stratum itself is of a later age than the Pliocene."* It 
 is but right that geologists should thus carefully scan all the 
 evidence produced. 
 
 In 1876 Prof. Capellini discovered, in a Pliocene deposit 
 in Italy, the bones of a whale, Avhich were so marked with 
 cuts and incisions that he thought the only explanation was 
 to say they had been cut by men. In this case^ there is no 
 
 ' " Antiquity of Mnu," p. 284. ^ " Prehistoric Times," p. 433. 
 
 ^ Gcikie's " rreliistoric Europe," p. 343. 
 
 * Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain." * Ibid. 
 
 '" Prehistoric EnrojH'," p. 318. 
 
 ' Qiiatrefages's " Ilnni. SjR-cies," p. 150; Geikie's " Prehistoric Eur.," p. 345. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 
 
 57 
 
 dispute as to the age of the stratum. Neither is there much 
 doubt but that the cuts are the work of man. It is quite 
 true that Mr. Evans has suggested that they may be the 
 work of fishes. In this he is followed by Prof. Winchell.^ 
 But there appears to be little ground for such belief, because 
 the cuts are all on the outside faces of rib-bones, and the 
 outer faces of the backbones. From the position occupied 
 by the remaining portions of the skeleton. Prof. Capellini is 
 sure that the animal had run aground, and, in that condi- 
 tion, was discovered and killed by men, who then, by means 
 
 Cut on Bones of. a Whale from Pliocene Deposit. 
 
 of flint knives, cut away such portions of food as they 
 wished. It must have been lying on its left side, since the 
 cuts were all made on bones of the right.^ It is not proba- 
 ble that fishes would have been apt to choose the outside 
 faces of the ribs on the right side for their meals. These cut 
 bones have been carefully examined by many competent 
 men, who have agreed with Capellini that they are the work 
 of men.^ Mr. Dawkins thinks the cuts were artificial, but 
 he siiys, " It is not, however, to my mind satisfactorily 
 shown that these were obtained from undisturbed strata."^ 
 
 1 " Pre-Adaiiiites." 
 ' Ibid. 
 
 2 Geikie's " Prehistoric Europe," p. 344. 
 *" Early Man in Britain," p. 92. 
 
58 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Now these bones have been found in several localities, al- 
 ways in Pliocene deposits, which formed the shores of the 
 Pliocene sea.^ Knowing how carefully geologists inquire 
 into all the surroundings of a find, surely, if Capellini and 
 others are the competent men they are admitted to be, they 
 would have informed us long ago if they were not found in 
 undisturbed strata. 
 
 Mr. Dawkins also objects because fragments of pottery 
 were found in the strata. "Pottery," says he, "was un- 
 known in the Pleistocene Age,^ and therefore is unlikely to 
 have been found in the Pliocene."^ Mr, Geikie says this ob- 
 jection is founded on a mistake, as Prof. Capellini told him 
 the pottery was found lying on the surface, and was neA'er 
 for a moment imagined by him as, belonging to the same age 
 as the cut bones.^ There is also the objection, that, inas- 
 much as all the mammals then alive except one have per- 
 ished, it is more than likely that, had man been in existence 
 then, he too would have disappeared. 
 
 We considered this point fully when speculating as to 
 the presence of man in the Miocene: so we have nothing 
 further to oifer. We might, however, suggest that, if the 
 hippopotamus amongst mammals could survive all the chang- 
 ing time since the Pliocene, as it has done, it seems no more 
 than fair to admit equal power of endurance to the human 
 species. The position then of the scientific Avorld as to the 
 Pliocene Age of man is, on the whole, more decided in its fa- 
 vor than for the Miocene Age. Quite a number of eminent 
 scholars, whose conclusions are worthy of all respect, unhes- 
 itatingly affirm the existence of Pliocene man in Europe. 
 Others are not quite ro;uly to admit his existence in Europe. 
 
 'Geikio's "Prcliistoric Kiiropn," p. 344. 
 
 ^Sllmo as Glaciiil. Soo "Outline," p. 41. 
 
 " " Early Man in Britain." \\ 92. * " Prehistoric Europe," p. .^45, note 2. 
 
EARLY GEOLOGICAL PERIODS. 59 
 
 but do think he was in existence elsewhere. Still others, 
 with all due respect for the discoveries of Capellini, think it 
 more prudent to await further discoveries. The reader, 
 who has followed us through this brief outline of the past, 
 can join which of the classes he will, and be sure of finding 
 himself in good company. 
 
 This completes our review of past geological ages. With 
 the termination of the Pliocene Age we find ourselves on 
 firmer ground. We only wish to call attention once more to 
 the gradual unfolding of life. We see that the rule has 
 been that everywhere the lower forms of life precede the 
 higher. In the plant world flowerless plants precede the 
 flowering ones. The coal we burn to-day is mainly the re- 
 mains of the wonderful growth of the flowerless vegetation 
 of the Paleozoic Age. When flowering plants appear, it is 
 the lower forms of them at first. 
 
 It was long ages before trees with deciduous leaves ap- 
 peared. The growth of animal life is equally . instructive. 
 First invertebrate life, then the lowest forms of vertebrate 
 life. The fishes are followed by amphibians — then reptiles, 
 then birds. The first mammal to appear was the lowest or- 
 ganized of all — the marsupials. And we have seen the 
 sudden increase of mammalian life in Tertiary times. We 
 notice, in all the divisions of life, a beginning, a culmination, 
 and a decline. There has' never been such a growth of flow- 
 erless plants as in the Paleozoic, and flowering plants prob- 
 ably culminated in the Miocene. The same rule holds good 
 for the animal world also. As man is the most highly or- 
 ganized of all the animals, we can not hope to find any evi- 
 dence of his presence until we find proofs of the presence 
 of all the lower types of life. Of course future discoveries 
 may change our knowledge when the series is complete ; but, 
 from our present stand-point, he could not have lived before 
 
60 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the Miocene Age, and we have seen how faint and indecisive 
 are the proofs of his presence even then. But should it 
 finally be proved, beyond all dispute, that man did live in the 
 Miocene Age, we must observe that this is but a small por- 
 tion, but a minute fraction, of the great lapse of time since 
 life appeared on the globe. We are a creation of but yester- 
 day, even granting all that the most enthusiastic believer in 
 the antiquity of man can claim. 
 
 The Mastodcn. 
 
MEN OF THE RII;EE DRIFT. 61 
 
 CHAPTER m 
 
 MEN OF THE RIYER DRIFT.^ 
 
 t 
 
 Beginning of the Glacial Age — Inter-glacial Age — Man living in Eu- 
 rope during this age — Map of Europe — Proof of former elevation 
 of land — The animals living in Europe during this age — Conclu- 
 sions drawn from these different animals — The vegetation of this pe- 
 riod — Different climatic conditions of Europe during the Glacial 
 Age — ^Proofs of a Glacial Age — Extent of the Glacial Ice — Evi- 
 dence of warm Inter-glacial Age — The primitive state of man — 
 Early English civilization — Views of Horace — Primitive man desti- 
 tute of metals — Order in which different materials were used by man 
 for weapons — Evidence from the River Somme — History of Boucher 
 de Perthes's investigations — Discussion of the subject — Antiquity 
 of these remains — Improvement during Paleolithic Age — Descrip- 
 tion of the flint implements — Other countries where these imple- 
 ments are found — What race of men were these tribes — The Can- 
 stadt race — Mr. Dawkins's views — When did they first appear in 
 Europe — The authorities on this question — Conclusion. 
 
 TERTIARY Age, with its wonderful 
 wealth of animal and plant life, gradually 
 drew to its close. In our " Outline " we have 
 named the period that next ensued the Glacial 
 Age.^ This was sufficiently exact for our purpose 
 then, but we must remember this is the name^ 
 for a long series of years. During this period great changes 
 in, climate occurred. At its commencement, a genial tem- 
 perate climate prevailed throughout Europe; and this, as we 
 
 ' This chapter was submitted to Prof. G. F. Wright, of Oberlin, for criticism. 
 ^Lyell's "Antiquity of Man;" Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," p. 332. 
 ^ It is, however, applicable to only a portion of the Qtiaternary, or Post- 
 tertiary period. (Wright.) 
 
62 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 know, was preceded, during the Miocene Age, by a warm 
 tropical one.' This succession, then, shows us that, for some 
 reason or other, the climate had been gradually growing 
 colder. This change went forward uninterruptedly. Doubt- 
 less very gradually, from century to century, the seasons 
 grew more and more severe, until, finally, the Summer's sun 
 no longer cleared the mountains of the Winter's snow. This 
 Avas the beginning of the Glacial Age proper. 
 
 The best authorities also suppose that the reign of snow 
 and ice was broken by at least one return (possibly more) 
 of genial climate, when animals and plants from the south 
 again visited the countries of Northern Europe — only, how- 
 ever, to be once more driven forth by a return of arctic 
 cold. But finally, before the increasing warmth of a genial 
 climate, the glaciers vanished, not to return again, and the 
 Glacial Age became merged in that of the present. 
 
 It is no longer a question that man lived in Europe dur- 
 ing the largest portion of this age, if not from the begin- 
 ning. It is necessary, then, to come to a clear understand- 
 ing of the successive stages of this entire age, and to trace 
 the wonderful cycles of climate — the strange mutation of 
 heat and cold, which must have exerted a powerful influence 
 on the life, both animal and vegetable, of the period — and 
 see when we first find decisive proofs of man's presence, 
 and learn what we can of his condition. 
 
 The map of Europe, at the close of Pliocene times and 
 the commencement of the Glacial Age, is of interest to us 
 in several ways. From this it will be seen that it was con- 
 siderably more elevated than at the present. As this is no 
 fancy sketch, but is based on facts, it is well to outline them. 
 Without the aid of man, land animals can not possibly pass 
 from the main-land of a continent to an island lying some 
 
 ' Page 48. 
 
iMEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 
 
 63 
 
 distance off the shore. But it is well known that animals 
 like the rhinoceros, and several others, wandered as well 
 over the surface of the British Islands as on the adjacent 
 coast of Europe. We are therefore compelled to assume, that 
 at that time the English Channel and the Irish Sea were 
 not in existence. This necessitates an elevation of at least 
 four hundred feet, which Avould also lay bare a large portion 
 
 Hap of Europe. 
 
 of the North Sea.^ In proof of this latter statement is the 
 fact, that, at a distance from land in the North Sea, fisher- 
 men at the present day frequently dredge up bones and 
 teeth of animals that then roamed in Europe.^ 
 
 While there is no necessity for supposing an elevation 
 greater than that required to lay bare a passage for animals 
 
 'Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," p. 339. 
 ^Dawkins's "Cave Hunting," p. 365. 
 
64 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 back Hud forth, yet soundings undertaken by the British 
 government have established the fact, that the ocean deep- 
 ens very gradually away from the shores of the main-land 
 until a depth of six hundred feet is reached, when the shore 
 falls away very suddenly. This is supposed to be the sea- 
 coast of that time. The English Channel would then have 
 existed as the valley of the Seine, and the Rhine have pro- 
 longed its flow over the present bed of the North Sea. As 
 the land stood at this height through a large portion of the 
 Glacial Age, it is not at all unreasonable to suppose that 
 primitive tribes hunted back and forth along these valleys, 
 and so doubtless many convincing proofs of their presence 
 at that early day lie buried underneath the waves of the sea. 
 In like manner, at the south, we know that elephants, lions, 
 and hyenas passed freely from Africa to Spain, Italy, and 
 the Island of Crete, ^ and, consequently, the Mediterranean 
 Sea must have been bridged in one or two places at least.^ 
 
 The change from Pliocene times to early Glacial was so 
 gradual that quite a number of animals lived on from one to 
 the other, and, as we have already stated, one of these 
 species has even survived to our own times.^ 
 
 But we note the arrival in Europe of a great number of 
 neV animals, and the diversity of species seems at first an 
 inexplicable riddle. The key, however, is to be found in 
 the great climatic changes, which we have already men- 
 tioned as occurring during this age. On the one hand, we 
 
 ' Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 112. 
 
 ^Geikie's " Prehistoric Europe," p. 337. 
 
 ^The majority of the Pliocene animals disappeared from Europe at the 
 close of the period in question. This includ(\s .such animals as the mastodon, 
 hipparion, and many kinds of deer (Geikie's " Prehistoric Europe," p. .334). 
 The following animals survived into the Glacial .\ge, and some even into Inter- 
 glaciai periods: African hii)poi)otanius (still living), .saher-toothed lion, hear 
 of Auvergnc, hig-nosed rhinoceros, Etruskan rhinoceros, Sedgwick's deer, deer 
 of Polignac, Southern olejiliMnt. (" Prehistoric Europe," p. 95.) 
 
MEy OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 65 
 
 find such auinials us the musk-sheep, reindeer, and arctic 
 fox, animals whose natural home is in high northern lati- 
 tudes, where snow and ice })revail most of the year.^ Yet 
 during this age they lived in Southern France and Italy, 
 which must then have had a far different climate than that 
 at present. 
 
 Were we to confine our attention to these alone we 
 would be convinced that the climate of Europe at that time 
 was arctic in its severity. But side by side with the re- 
 mains of these animals are found others which imply an 
 altogether different climate. The hippopotamus, now fre- 
 queijting the rivers of Africa, during that period roamed as 
 far north as Yorkshire, England.^ This animal could not 
 live in a country w. re the cold was severe enough to form 
 ice on the rivers. The remains of a number of other ani- 
 mals are found whose natural home is in the warm regions 
 of the earth. ^ These two groups of animals, one from the 
 north and one from the south, show how varied was the 
 climate of Europe^ during the Glacial Age. 
 
 In addition to these, there was also a large number of 
 animals whose home is in the temperate regions of the earth — 
 animals that thrive in neither extremes of heat and cold. 
 This includes a great many animals of the deer kind, several 
 varieties of bears and horses ; in fact, the majority of those 
 with which we are acquainted.^ 
 
 ' The northern animals include the following : Alpine hare, musk-sheep, 
 glutton, reindeer, arctic fox, lemming, tailless hare, marmot, spermophile, 
 ibex, snowy vole, chamois. (Geikie's " Prehistoric Europe," p. 32.) 
 
 ^ Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," p. 28. 
 
 ' The following animals are given as southern species : Hippopotamus, 
 African elephant, spotted hyena, striped hyena, serval, caffer cat, lion, leop- 
 ard. In addition to the above there were also four or five species of elephants 
 and three species of rhinoceros, which have since become extinct. (Geikie's 
 "Prehistoric Europe," p. 32.) 
 
 'It is scarcely neces.sary to give a list of these animals. Prof. Dawkins 
 enumerates thirty-three species. The following are some of the most import- 
 
66 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Now, what conclusion follows from this assemblage of 
 animals ? Many theories have been put forward in explana- 
 tion. It has been suggested that Europe at that time had 
 a climate not unlike that of some portions of the earth at pres- 
 ent ; that is, a long and severe Winter was followed by a short 
 but warm Summer. During the Winter reindeer and other 
 northern animals would press from the north in search of 
 food, but would retire on the approach of Spring, when their 
 feeding grounds would in turn be occupied by bisons and 
 animals of a southern habitat. In confirmation of this view 
 it is pointed out that a vast collection of bones, from the 
 bottom of a sink-hole or pond in Derbyshire, England,- con- 
 clusively show that in the summer-time it was visited by 
 bisons with their calves, and in Winter by reindeer.-^ This 
 theory is open to a great many objections. As is well 
 known, some animals make quite extensive migrations an- 
 nually, but we can scarcely believe that heavy, unwieldy 
 animals, like the hippopotamus, were then such industrious 
 travelers as to wander every year from Ital}^ to Northern 
 England and return.^ But the very ground on which this 
 theory rests, that of strongly contrasted summers and win- 
 ters, could not be true of Europe or the western portions of 
 it, owing to the presence of the Atlantic Ocean, and the in 
 fluence which it inevitably exerts on the climate.'^ We see, 
 then, that the presence of these different animals can be 
 explained only by supposing great secular changes in cli- 
 mate. Let us see if we can strengthen this view by an 
 appeal to the vegetation of this period. 
 
 We have seen how important a guide as to climate were 
 
 ant: Urns, bison, liorso, stag, roe, beaver, rabbit, otter, weasel, martin, wild- 
 cat, fox, wolf, wild boar, brown bear, prizzly bear. (Geikie's " Prehistoric 
 Europe," p, 32.) ' Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," p. 191. 
 
 -' Lubbock's " Prebistoric Times," p. :il6. 
 
 •' Tieikic's " Prcbisfniic Knrope," n. ?>7. 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 67 
 
 the remains of the vegetation of the early times. We there- 
 fore turn with more confidence to such discoveries as will 
 tell us of the flora of this age. But there are many reasons 
 why remains of plant growth should be few. As we shall 
 soon learn, this was a period of flooded rivers ; and in the 
 gravels and loams thus formed is found our principal source 
 of information as to the life of the age. Bat such a rush of 
 waters would form gravelly banks or great beds of loam, and 
 would sweep any plants which might be washed into its 
 floods far out to sea; or if by chance tiiey should become 
 buried in such gravel beds, the action of water would speed- 
 ily cause the decay of the tender portions, such as leaves, 
 bark, and soft wood, in which case no profitable investigation 
 could be made. Occasionally, however, around the shores 
 of old lakes, vegetable beds have been buried, and we know 
 that some mineral springs deposit a sort of protecting sedi- 
 ment on every thing with which they come in contact. By 
 such means, at rare intervals, leaves, seeds, and fruits have 
 been sealed up for future inspection, and from a careful study 
 of all such instances much valuable information has been 
 obtained. At one place in the valley of the Seine was dis- 
 covered, under a bed of tufa, the remains of a, forest growth. 
 It is not doubted that the deposit belongs to the Glacial 
 Age.^ 
 
 Yet the forest growth reminds us of that prevalent during 
 the Miocene Age. The fig-tree, canary, laurel, and box-tree 
 grew in profusion. These are all southern forms. One 
 severe winter would kill them all, and even hard frosts 
 would prevent the ripening of their fruits. 
 
 Neither were the Summers hot and. dry. This is shown 
 by the presence of numerous plants which can not thrive in 
 hot and dry localities, but live in the shady woods of North- 
 
 ' Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," p. 50. 
 
 5 
 
68 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ern France and Germany. The e\'idence of this forest growth 
 surely presents us an inviting picture of Europe during a 
 portion of the Glacial Age. 
 
 We are not without evidence, also, of a much more severe 
 climate. In a lignite bed (a species of coal) found in nearly 
 the same latitude as the forest growth just mentioned, we 
 detect the presence of trees that grow only in cold northern 
 climates, such as birch, mountain pine, larch, and spruce.^ 
 And in some peat-bogs of Southern Europe belonging to 
 this age^ are found willows now growing only in Spitzbergen, 
 and some species of mosses that only thrive far to the north. 
 It is quite evident that this deposit testifies to an altogether 
 different climate from that indicated by the deposit before 
 mentioned. No theory of migration can explain this assem- 
 blage of plants, unless it be migration taking place very 
 slowly, in consequence of an equally slow . change of 
 climate. 
 
 From what we have just learned of the animals and plants 
 living in Europe during this age, we can frame some concep- 
 tion of the different climatic conditions of Europe. On the one 
 hand, we have a country with a mild and genial climate. 
 Trees of a warm latitude were then growing as far north as 
 Paris, and we may well suppose Europe to have abounded 
 in shady forests and grassy plains, through which flowed 
 large rivers. It was just such a country as that in which 
 elephants and southern animals wouhl flourish, while A\ast 
 herds of deer and bovine animals wnndered over the entire 
 length and breadth of the land. Where animal life was so 
 abundant there were sure to be carnivorous animals also, 
 and lions, hyenas, tigers, and othcM- animals added to the 
 variety of animal life. 
 
 This, however, is but one side of the picture. The other 
 
 ' Geikie's " rrcliistoric l'4iroi)C'," p. 54. '' Ibiil., ji. oj. 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 69 
 
 presents ns with a very diii'erent scene ; instead of an abun- 
 dant forest growth, the land supported only dwarf birch, 
 arctic willows, and stunted mosses. Arctic animals, such as 
 musk-slieep and reindeer, lived all the year around in South- 
 ern France. The woolly mammoth lived in Spain and Italy. 
 In short, the climate and conditions of life were vastly dif- 
 ferent in the two stages. 
 
 We must now turn our attention to the proofs of glaciers 
 in Europe, the phenomena from which this age derives its 
 name. Descriptions of Alpine glaciers are common enough, 
 but as glaciers and the Glacial Age^liave a great deal to do 
 Avith the antiquity of man, we can not do better than to 
 learn what we can of their formation, and their wonderful 
 extension during this period. The school-boy knows that 
 by pressure he gives his snowball nearly the hardness of ice. 
 He could make it really ice if he possessed sufficient strength. 
 The fact is, then, that snow under the influence of pressure 
 passes into the form of ice. In some cases nature does this 
 on a lai'ge scale. Where mountains are sufficently elevated 
 to raise their heads above the snow line we know they are 
 white all the year around with snow. What is not blown 
 away, evaporated, or, as an avalanche, precipitated to lower 
 heights, must accumulate from year to year. But the weight 
 pressing on the lower portions of this snow-field must soon 
 be considerable, and at length become so great, that the snow 
 changes to the form of ice. But as ice it is no longer fixed 
 and immovable. We need not stop to explain just how this 
 ice-field moves, but the fact is that, though moving very 
 slowly, it acts like a liquid body. It will steal away over any 
 incline however small, down which water would flow. Like 
 a river it fills the valleys leading down from the mountains. 
 But, of course, the lower down it flows the higher the tem- 
 perature it meets, and it will sooner or later reach a point 
 
70 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ized, and drasrired aloni;' with it 
 
 where it will melt as fast as it advances. This stream of 
 ice flowing down from snow-clad mountains is called a gla- 
 cier. Those we are best acquainted with are but puny things 
 compared with those of the polar regions, where in one case 
 a great river of ice sixty miles wide, flowing from an un- 
 known distance, some thousands of feet in depth (or height), 
 pours out into the sea.^ 
 
 We at once perceive that such a mass of ice could not 
 pour down a valley without leaving unmistakable signs of 
 its passage. The sides of the mountains would be deeply 
 scarred and smoothed. Projecting knobs would be worn 
 away. The surface of the valley, exposed to the enormous 
 grinding power of the moving ice, would be crushed, pulver- 
 
 Pieces of stone, like 
 that here repre- 
 sented, would 
 form part of 
 this moving 
 cUhrls, and as 
 they were 
 crowded along 
 they w o u 1 d 
 now and then 
 grate o\e r 
 
 another piece of stone more firmly seated, aiul so their sur- 
 face would bo deeply scratched in the direction of their 
 greatest length. There is always more or less water circu- 
 lating under thi; Alpine glaciers, and the streams that flow 
 from them arc always very nuuldy, containing, as they do, 
 quantities of crushed rock, sand, and clay. 
 
 If, for any reason, this cnrthy matter was not washed 
 out, it would form a bod of hard clay, in places p;ickcd with 
 ' Kane's "Arctic E.xplnration," Vol. I, p. 225. 
 
 Scratched Stone. 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 71 
 
 these striated stones. Such beds of clay are known as "till" 
 or bowlder clay.^ 
 
 This is descriptive, though in a very general way, of the 
 glaciers as they exist to-day. Geologists have long been 
 aware of the fact that they have convincing proofs of the 
 former presence of glaciers in Northern Europe, where now 
 the climate is mild. The mountains of Scotland and Wales 
 show as distinct traces of glaciers as do those of the Alps. 
 It is not necessary, in this hasty sketch, to enumerate the 
 many grounds on which this conclusion rests. It is sufficient 
 to state that by the united labors of many investigators in 
 that field we are in possession of many conclusions relating 
 to the great glaciers of this age which almost surpass be- 
 lief; and yet they are the results of careful deductions. 
 The former presence of this ice sheet itself is shown in a 
 most conclusive manner by the bowlder clay formed under- 
 neath the great glacier, containing abundant examples of 
 stone showing by their scratched surface that the}^ have 
 been ground along underneath the glacier. The rocks on the 
 sides of the mountains are scratched exactly as are those in 
 the Alps. By observing how high up on the mountains the 
 strise are, we know the thickness of the ice-sheet; and the 
 direction in which it moved is shown in several ways.^ 
 
 Briefly, then, the geologist assures us that when the cold 
 of the Glacial Age was at its maximum glaciers streamed 
 down from all the mountains of Scotland, Wales, and North- 
 ern England ; that the ice was thick enough to overtop all 
 the smaller hills, and on the plains it united in one great 
 sea of ice some thousands of feet in thickness, that it 
 stretched as far south as the latitude of London, England. 
 But that to the west the ice streamed out across the Irish 
 Sea, the islands to the west of Scotland, and ended far out 
 
 1 Geilde's " Prehistoric Europe," p. 189. ^ Wallace's " Islnn<l Life," p. 104. 
 
72 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 into what is now the Atlantic.^ But these glaciers, vast as 
 they were, were very small compared Avith the glaciers that 
 streamed out from the mountains of Norway and Sweden. 
 These great glaciers invaded England to the south-west, beat 
 back the glacier ice of Scotland from the floor of the North 
 Sea, overran Denmark, and spread their mantle of bowlder 
 clay far south into Germany.^ 
 
 While such was the condition of things to the north, the 
 glaciers of the Alps were many times greater than at pres- 
 ent. All the valleys were filled with glacier ice, and they 
 spread far out on the plains of Southern Germany and west- 
 ward into France. The mountains of Southern France and 
 the Pyrenees also supported their separate system of gla- 
 ciers. Ice also descended from the mountains of Asia Minor 
 and North Africa.^ In America we meet with traces of gla- 
 ciers on a vast scale; but we can not pause to describe them 
 here.* 
 
 It need not surprise us, therefore, to learn of reindeer and 
 musk-sheep feeding on stunted herbage in what now consti- 
 tutes Southern France. When a continuous mantle of snow 
 and ice cloaked all Northern Europe, it is not at all surpris- 
 ing to find evidence of an extremely cold climate prevaihng 
 
 1 Geikie's '' Prehistoric Europe," p. 189. = Ibid., p. 192, d seq. 
 
 'Dawkins's " I*:arly Man in J^ritain." 
 
 * For fuller inforiiuUion on this topic see James Geikie's ''The Great Ice 
 Age;" also, by the same author, " Prehistoric Europe." In Api)en(iix " B " of 
 this latter work the author gives a map of Enrojie at the climax of tlie Glacial 
 Age, showing tlie great extension of the glaciei's. Tliis map embodies the re- 
 sults of the labors of a great many eminent scholars. See also Croll's " Cli- 
 mate and Time;" also Wallace's '•L'jland T.ife," pji. 102-202. We are not 
 aware that the statements as set fr)rth above are seriously questioned by any 
 geologist of note. Some consider it quite possible that the bowlder clays of 
 Soutlicrn Enjzland and Central (lermaiiy were de])osited duringa jieriod of sulv 
 mergence from melting icebergs, i Dawkins's " lOaiiy ■Man in liiitain," ji. lltl.) 
 But even this demands vast glaciers to t^)e nortli of this supposed submergence 
 to i)roduce the icebergs. The weijiht of authority, however, is in favor of the 
 glaciers. (Geikie's " l'rehist(jric J^irope,'' p. 175.) 
 
MEN OF THE RIVE 11 DRIFT. " 73 
 
 throughout its southern borders. We thus see how one 
 piece of evidence fits into another, and therefore we may, 
 with some confidence, endeavor to find proofs of more genial 
 conditions when the snow and ice disjippcared, and a more 
 luxuriant vegetation possessed the land, and animals accus- 
 tomed to warm and even tropical countries roamed over a 
 large extent of European territory. In Switzerland it was 
 long ago pointed out that iifter the ancient glaciers had for 
 a long time occupied the low grounds of that country they, 
 for some cause, retreated to the mountain valleys, and al- 
 lowed streams and rivers to work o^•er the debris left behind 
 them. At Wetzikon most interesting conclusions have been 
 drawn. We there learn that, after the retreat of the gla- 
 ciers, a lake occupied the place, which in course of time 
 became filled with peat, and that subsequently the peat was 
 transformed into lignite. To judge from the remains of 
 animals and plants, the climate must have been at least as 
 warm as that at present ; and this condition of things must 
 have prevailed over a period of some thousands of years to 
 explain the thick deposits of peat, from which originated the 
 lignites.^ 
 
 But we also know that this period came to an end, and 
 that once more the ice descended. This is shown by the 
 fact that directly overlying the lignite beds are alternating 
 layers of sand and gravel, and, resting on these, glacier- 
 born bowlders. The same conclusion follows from the dis- 
 coveries made at many other places. 
 
 In Scotland it is well known that the bowlder clay con- 
 tains every now and then scattered patches of peat and beds 
 of soil either deposited in lakes or rivers. The only ex- 
 planation that can be given for their presence is that they 
 represent old land surfaces; that is, when the land was 
 
 'HaywoQil'o Heer'.s " Primeval World of Switzerland," p. 200. 
 
74 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 freed from ice, and vegetation had again clothed it in a 
 mantle of green. In this cut is shown one of these beds. 
 Both above and below are the beds of bowlder clay. The 
 peat in the center varies from an inch to a foot and a 
 half in thickness, and contains many fragments of wood, 
 sticks, roots, etc.; and of animals, numerous beetles were 
 found, one kind of which frequents only places where deer 
 and ruminant animals abound. 
 
 From a large number of such discoveries it is conclu- 
 sively shown that, after all, Scotland was smothered under 
 
 -^•3% 
 
 Intergla:;ial Bed. 
 
 one enormous glacier, a change of climate occurred, and the 
 ice melted away. Then Scotland enjoyed a climate capable 
 of nourishing sufficient vegetation to induce mammoths, 
 Irish (leer, horses, and great oxen to occupy the land. But 
 the upper bowlder clay no less conclusively shows that once 
 more the climate became cold, and ice overflowed all the low- 
 lands and buried under a new accumulation of bowlder clay 
 such parts of the old land surface as it did not erode. 
 Substantially the same set of changes are observed in English 
 and Gorman geology.^ 
 
 ' " Prehistoric Kiiropc," ji. 2f>l. Tt is no lonper a question that there was 
 at least one mild period soimratinp two periods of rold in F.urope. Pee T-ul)- 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 75 
 
 Having thus given an outline of tiie climatic changes 
 which took place in Europe during the Glacial Age, and the 
 grounds on which these strange conclusions rest, we must 
 now turn our attention to the appearance of man. 
 
 The uncertainties which hung over his presence in the 
 earlier periods, spoken of in the former chapter, do not ap- 
 ply to the proofs of his presence during this age, though it 
 is far from settled at what particular portion of the Glacial 
 Age he came into Europe. We must remember we are to 
 investigate the past, and to awaken an interest in the his- 
 tory of a people who trod this earth in ages long ago. The 
 evidence on which we establish a history of the early tribes 
 of Europe is necessarily fragmentary, but still a portion 
 here and a piece there are found to form one whole, and enable 
 us to form quite a vivid conception of manners and times 
 now very far remote. 
 
 It is not claimed that we have surmounted every diffi- 
 culty — on the contrary, there is yet much to be deciphered ; 
 but, in some respects, we are now better acquainted with 
 these shadowy tribes of early times than with those whose 
 history has been recorded by the historian's facile pen. He 
 has given us a record of blood. He acquaints us with the 
 march of vast armies, tells us of pill.iged cities, and gives 
 us the names of a long roll of titled kings ; but, unfortu- 
 nately, we know little of the home life, the occupation, or 
 of those little things which make up the culture of a people. 
 But the knowledge of primitive tribes, gathered from the 
 scanty remains of their implements, from a thorough explo- 
 
 bock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 316 ; Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," pp. 
 115-120; Lyell's "Antiquity of Man," pp. 282-285; Dana's "Manual of Geol- 
 ogy'," first edition, p. 561 ; Haywood's Heer's " Primeval World of Switzer- 
 Innd." Vol. II, p. 203; Wallace's "Island Life," p. 114; CroU's "Climate and 
 Time." l\Ir. Geikie, in his works, " The Great Ice Age " and " Prehistoric 
 Europe," maintains there were several warm interglacial opochs. 
 
76 THE PIlEinSTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ration of their caAern homes, has made us acquainted with 
 much of their home life and surroundings : and we are not 
 entirely ignorant as to such topics as their trade, govern- 
 ment, and religion. We must not foriret that this is a 
 Icnowledge of tribes and peoples who lived here in times im- 
 measurably ancient as compared with those in existence at 
 the A^ery dawn of history. 
 
 We must try and form a mental picture of what was 
 probably the primitive state of man; and a little judicious 
 reasoning from known facts w'ill do much for us in this di- 
 rection. Some writers have contended that the first condi- 
 tion of man was that of pleasing innocence, combined with 
 a high degree of enlightenment, which, owing to the wicked- 
 ness of mankind, he gradually lost. This ideal jiicture, how- 
 ever consoi^ant with our wishes, must not only give way 
 before the mass of information now at our command, but has 
 really no foundation in reason; "or, at any rate, if this prim- 
 itive condition of innocence and enlightenment ever existed, 
 it must liave disappeared at a period preceding the present 
 archaeological investigations."^ Nothing is plainer than that 
 our present civilization has been developed from barbarism, 
 as that was from savagism.^ We need go back but a few 
 centuries in the history of any nation, before we find them 
 emerging from a state of barbarism. The energy and intel- 
 ligence of the Anglo-Saxon has spread his language to the 
 four corners of the globe ; he has converted the wilderness 
 into fruitful fields, and reared cities in desert lands : 3'et his 
 history strikingly illustrates our point. A century back, 
 and we are already in a strange land. The prominent points 
 of present civilization were yet unthought of. No bands of 
 iron united distant cities ; no nerves of wire flashed electric 
 speech. The wealth of tbat day could not buy many arti- 
 
 ' Wright. 'Morgan's " Antioiit Society," p. 29. 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 77 
 
 cles conducive of comfort, such as now grace the homes of 
 the poor. The contrast is still more apparent when we re- 
 call another of the countless centuries of the past. England, 
 with Europe, w^as but just awakening to modern life. Print- 
 ing had but just been invented. Great discoveries had been 
 made, and mankind was but just beginning those first feeble 
 eiforts which were to bring to us our modern comforts. But 
 a millennium of years ago, and the foundation of English 
 civilization had but just been laid by the union of the rude 
 Germanic tribes of the Saxons and the Angles. Similar re- 
 sults attend the ultimate analysis of any civilization. It was 
 but yesterday that wandering hordes, bound together by the 
 loose cohesion of tribal organization, and possessing but the 
 germ of modern enlightenment, held sway in what is now 
 the fairest portion of the world : and we, the descendants 
 of these rude people, must reflect that the end is not yet — 
 that the onward march of progress is one of ever hastening 
 steps — and that, in all human probability, the sun of a 
 thousand years hence, will shine on a people whose civiliza- 
 tion will be as superior to ours as the light of day exceeds 
 the mellow glow of a moon-lit night. 
 
 If such are the changes of but a few centuries, what must 
 we not consider the changes to have been during the count- 
 less ages that have sped away since man first appeared on 
 the scene ! The early Greek and Roman writers were much 
 nearer right when they considered primitive man to have 
 been but a slight degree removed from the brute world. 
 Horace thus expresses himself: "When animals first crept 
 forth from the newly formed earth, a dumb and filthy herd, 
 they fought for acorns and lurking places — with their nails, 
 and with fists — then with clubs — and at last with arms, which, 
 taught by experience, they had forged. They then invented 
 names for things, and words to express their thoughts; after 
 
78 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 which they began to desist from war, to fortify cities, and 
 enact laws." The learning of modern times leads to much 
 the same conclusion. 
 
 It is evident that primitive man must have been desti- 
 tute of metals; for it requires a great deal of knowledge 
 and experience to extract metals from their ores. In the 
 eyes of savages, the various metallic ores are simply so many 
 varieties of stone — much less valuable for his purposes than 
 flint, or some other varieties. We know it to be historically 
 true, that a great many nations have been discovered utterly 
 destitute of any knowledge of metals. 
 
 When we reflect how much of our present enlighten- 
 ment is due to the use of metals, we can readily see that 
 their discovery marks a most important epoch in the his- 
 tory of man. There is, then, every reason to suppose that 
 stone was a most important article for primitive man. It 
 was the material with which he fought his battle for exist- 
 ence, and we need not be surprised that its use extended 
 through an enormously long period of, time. Not only was 
 primitive man thus low down in the scale, but of necessity 
 his progress must have been very slow. 
 
 The time during which men were utterly destitute of 
 a knowledge of metals, far exceeds the interval tluit has 
 elapsed since that important discovery.' Scholars divide 
 the stone age into two parts. In the first, the stone imple- 
 ments, are very few, of simple shapes, and in the m:iin 
 formed of but one variety of stone — generally flint — and 
 they were never polished. In the second division, we meet 
 with a great many diflfercnt implements, each adapted to a 
 dilferent purpose. Dilferent varieties of stone wore etn- 
 jjloyed, and they also made use of bone, shell, and wood, 
 which were often beautifully polished. 
 
 'Geikie's " Prphistoric Kiiropo," ]>. ;W5. Mnr<xan'.s ".Vticicnt i^dcicty," p. 39. 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 
 
 79 
 
 From what we have learned of the development of prim- 
 itive society, it will not surprise us to learn that the first 
 division of the age of stone comprises a vastly greater por- 
 tion of time, and is far more ancient, than the second. We 
 will give an' outline showing the order of use of different 
 materials ; but it is here necessary to remark that Bronze 
 was the first metal that man learned to use, and Iron the 
 second. 
 
 ORDER IX WHICH DIFFERENT MATERIALS WERE USED FOR WEAPONS AND IMPLE- 
 MENTS BY PRIMITIVE MAN. 
 
 Age of Stone. 
 Age of Metals. 
 
 ' Eough,or01d|p^j^^lj^j^.^_ 
 
 btone Age. j 
 
 Polished, ^^ 1 fO" rfV,- 
 ^ New Stone Age. j 
 
 \ Bronze Age. 
 [ Iron Age. 
 
 In this outline the words Paleolithic and Neolithic are 
 the scientific terms for the two divisions of the Stone Age, 
 and will be so used in these pages. 
 
 The only races of men that we could expect to find in 
 Europe during the Glacial Age would be Paleolithic tribes, 
 and it is equally manifest that we must find traces of them 
 in beds of this age, or in association with animals that are 
 characteristic of this age, or else we can not assert the ex- 
 istence of man at this time. The valley of the river 
 Somme, in Northern France, has become classical ground to 
 the student of Archaeology, since it was there that such in- 
 vestigations as we have just mentioned were first and most 
 abundantly made. It is now well known that the surface 
 features of a country — that is, its hills and dales, its 
 uplands and lowlands — are mainly due to the erosive 
 power of running water. Our rivers have dug for them- 
 
80 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 selves broad valleys, undermined and carried away hills, 
 and in general carved the surface of a country, until the 
 
 present appearance is 
 the result. It must be 
 confessed that when we 
 perceive the slow appar- 
 ent change from xeav to 
 year, and from that at- 
 tempt to estimate the 
 time required to produce 
 the effects we see before 
 us, Ave are apt to shrink 
 from the lapse of time 
 demanded for its accom- 
 plishment. Let us not 
 forget that " Time is 
 long," and that causes, 
 however trifling, work 
 stupendous results in the course of ages. 
 
 But a river which is thus digging down its channel in 
 one place, deposits I he materials so dug away at other and 
 lower levels, as beds of sand and gravel. In the course of 
 time, as the river gradually lowers its channel, it will leave 
 behind, at varying heights along its banks, scattered patches 
 of such beds. Wherever we find tliem, no matter how far 
 removed, or how high above the present river, we are sure 
 that at some time the river flowed at that lieight; and 
 standing there, we may try and imagine how different the 
 country must have looked before the present deep valley 
 was eroded. 
 
 In the case of the river Sonnne, we have a wide and 
 deep valley, a large part of wliiih has been excavated 
 in chalk rock, through which the river now winds its way in 
 
 Paleolithii Flints. 
 
-MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 81 
 
 ,1 sinuous course to the English Channel. Yet we feel sure 
 that at some time in the past it was a mighty stream, and 
 that its waters surged. along over a bed at least tAvo hundred 
 feet higher than now. In proof of this fact we still find, at 
 different places along the chalky bluff, stretches of old gravel 
 banks, laid down there by the river, " reaching sometimes as 
 high as two hundred feet above the present water level, 
 although their usual elevation does not exceed forty feet."-^ 
 The history of the investigation of the ancient gravel 
 beds of the Somme is briefly this : More than one instance 
 had been noted of the finding of flint implements, apparently 
 the work of men, in association with bones of various ani- 
 mals, such as hyenas, mammoths, musk-sheep, and others, 
 which, as we have just seen, lived in Europe during the Glacial 
 Age. In a number of cases such finds had been made in caves. 
 But for a long time no one attributed any especial value to 
 these discoveries, and various were the explanations given to 
 account for such commingling. A French geologist, by the 
 name of Boucher DePerthes, had noted the occurrence of 
 similar flint implements, and bones of these extinct animals, 
 in a gravel pit on the banks of the Somme, near Abbeville, 
 France. He was convinced that they proved the existence 
 of man at the time these ancient animals lived in Europe. 
 But no one paid any attention to his opinions on this subject, 
 and a collection of these implements, which he took to Paris 
 in 1839, was scarcely noticed by the scientific world. They 
 were certainly very rude, and presented but indistinct traces 
 of chipping, and perhaps it is not strange that he failed to 
 convince any one of their importance. He therefore deter- 
 mined to make a thorough and systematic exploration of 
 these beds at Abbeville. In 1847 he published his great 
 work on this subject, giving over sixteen hundred cuts of 
 
 'Rau's "Early Man in Europe," p. 14. 
 
82 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the various articles he had found, chiiming that they were 
 proof positive of the presence of man when the gravels were 
 depositing. 
 
 Now there are several questions to be answered before 
 the conclusions of the French geologist can be accepted. In 
 the first place, are these so-called flint implements of human 
 
 workmanship? From our illus- 
 trations, we see that they are of 
 an oval shape, tending to a cut- 
 ting edge all around, and gener- 
 ally more or less pointed at one 
 end. The testimony of all com- 
 petent persons who have exam- 
 ined them is, that however rude 
 
 Flint Implements, so-called. 
 
 they may be, tfiey were undoubtedly fashioned by man. 
 Dr. C. C. Abbott has made some remarks on iniitlements 
 found in another locality, e([ually applicable to the ones 
 in question. He says: "We find, on comparing a spec- 
 imen of these chipped stones with an accidentally fractured 
 pebble, that the chipped surfaces of tli(> loiinor nil (end 
 toward the production of a cutting edge, and there is no por- 
 tion of the stone detached which does not add to tin- a\ail- 
 
MEX OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 
 
 83 
 
 
 ability of the supposed implement .as such; while in the case 
 of a pebble that has been accidentally broken, there is nec- 
 essarily all absence of design in the fracturing.^ 
 
 Like the watch found on the moor, they show such mani- 
 fest evidence of design, that we can not doubt that they 
 were produced by the hand of man. But it is not enough 
 to know that they are artificial, we must also know that they 
 are of the same age as the beds in which they are found. 
 
 This cut represents ^ , ggi s^a ^ m /9 '->% 
 
 a section of a gravel pit ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^Jg^^-^C^^^^" 
 at St. Acheul, on the 
 Somme. The imple- 
 ments are nearly always 
 found in the lowest 
 strata, which is a bed 
 of gravel from ten to 
 fourteen feet thick. 
 Overlying this are beds 
 of marl, loam, and sur- 
 face soil, comprising in 
 all a depth of fourteen 
 feet. It has been suggested that the implements are compara- 
 tively recent, and have sunk down from above by their own 
 weight, or perhaps have been buried in artificial excavations. 
 The beds are however too compact to admit of any supposition 
 that they may have been sunk there ; and if buried in any 
 excavation, evident traces of such excavation would have re- 
 mained. We can account for their presence there in no other 
 way than, that when the river rolled along at that high 
 elevation, and deposited great beds of sand, these implements 
 were someway lost in its waters, and became buried in the 
 gravel deposits. 
 
 E) 
 
 O ^ (Em ,S3 
 
 Seetirin of Gra-srel Pit. 
 
 Primitive Industry," p. 485. 
 
84 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Finally, we have to consider the age of the deposits. 
 This is a question that can be answered only b)'' geologists, 
 and we may be sure that more than ordinary attention has 
 been bestowed upon them. The remains of many animals 
 characteristic of the Glacial Age were found in the beds at 
 Abbeville. These include those of the elephants, rhinoceros, 
 hyenas, cave-bear, and cave-lion.^ 
 
 In the formation of these gravel beds, ice has undoubt- 
 edly played quite an important part. Bowlders that could 
 have got there only by the aid of ice, are found in several 
 localities. Evidence gathered from a. great many different 
 sources all establish the fact that these gravels date as far 
 back as the close of the Glacial Age at least, and there are 
 some reasons for supposing them to be interglacial. 
 
 We can easily see that the melting away of the immense 
 glaciers that we have been describing would produce vast 
 floods in the rivers, and it is perhaps owing to the presence 
 of such swollen rivers that are due the great beds of surface 
 soil, called loam or loess, found in all the river valleys of 
 France and Germany.^ These deposits frequently overlie 
 the gravel beds. They are then of a later date than the 
 beds in which are found such convincing proofs of the presence 
 of man, and if they themselves date from the close of the Gla- 
 cial Age, it is no longer a question whether the gravel beds 
 themselves belong to that age. Thus we see that we can no 
 longer escape the conclusions of Boucher DePerthes. The 
 discovery of rudely worked flints in the drift of the Somme 
 River thus • establishes the fact that some time during the 
 Glacial Age, man in a Paleolithic state lived in France. 
 
 ' Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," 384. 
 
 'Geikie's " Prclustonc Europe," cliap. ix. Most poolodsts suppose there 
 wa.s a f^enoral (lejiression of the rcfrion beluw the sea level, or so as to form in- 
 land lakes, and that the loess was thus deposited, ns perhaps it is depositing at 
 the present time in the lakes of Switzerland. (Wrifrht.) 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 85 
 
 Geological terms convey to us no definite ideas as to the 
 lapse of time, and we have an instinctive desire to substi- 
 tute for them some term of years. In most cases this is 
 impossible, as we have no means to measure the flight of 
 past time, nor are we yet prepared to discuss the question 
 of time, since to do so we must learn a great deal more 
 about the cause of the Glacial Age. We might, however, cite 
 statements which can not fail to impress us with the fact 
 that a great extent of time has passed. 
 
 In the case of the river Sonime we have a valley in some 
 places a mile or more in width, and about two hundred feet 
 in depth. This has mostly been excavated in chalk rock. 
 Taking our present large rivers as a basis, it would require 
 from one to two hundred thousand years for the Somme to per- 
 form this work.^ It will not do, however, to take the present 
 action of our rivers as a guide, since we have every reason 
 to suppose this work went forward much more rapidly in 
 past times. But we can not escape the conclusion that it 
 demands a very long time indeed to explain it: The valley 
 has remained in its present shape long enough to admit the 
 formation of great beds of peat in some portions. Peat is 
 formed by the iiecomposition of vegetable growth. Its 
 growth is in all cases slow, depending entirely upon local 
 circumstances. European scholars who have made peat forma- 
 tion a special study assure us that to form such immense beds 
 as occur near Abbeville, several thousand years are required, 
 even under the most favorable conditions. 
 
 Yet we would be scarcely willing to rest such important 
 conclusions as the foregoing on the researches of one individ- 
 ual, or in one locality. As already stated, DePerthes made his 
 discoveries public in 1847. Yet they were so opposed to all 
 that had been believed previously, that but few took the 
 
 ' Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 423. 
 
86 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 pains to investigate for themselves. In 1853, Di-. Rigollot, 
 of Amiens, who had been skeptical as to DePerthes, com- 
 menced to look for himself in the gravel beds at St. Acheiil, 
 about nine miles below Abbeville. As might be expected, 
 he was soon convinced. 
 
 It may be said that the scientific world formally ac- 
 cepted the new theory when such English scientists as 
 Evans, Falconer, Lyell, and Prestwich reported in its 
 favor. Since that time, many discoveries of ancient imple- 
 ments have been made at various places in France and Eng- 
 land under circumstances similar to those in the valley of 
 
 the Somme. In England they have 
 been found along almost all the 
 rivers in the southern and south- 
 eastern part. One class of discov- 
 eries there gives us new ideas as 
 to the extent of time that has 
 passed since they were deposited. 
 That is where they occur in gravel 
 beds having no connection with 
 the present system of rivers. In 
 one case the gravel forms a hill fifteen feet high, situated in 
 the midst of a swampy district, surrounded on all sides by 
 low, flat surfaces. Several such instances could be given; 
 but, in all such cases, we can not doubt that, somewhere 
 near, there once rolled the waters of an ancient river, that 
 man once hunted along its banks, and that, owing to some 
 natural cause, the waters forsook their ancient bed — and 
 that since then, in the slow course of ages, the action of 
 running water has removed so much of the surface of the 
 land near there, that we can not guess at its ancient config- 
 uration : we only know, from scattered patches of gravel, 
 that we are standino- on the banks of an ancient wnter-course. 
 
 Paleolithio Flint, England. 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 87 
 
 One instance, illustrative of the great change that has come 
 over the surface features of the country, demanding for their 
 accomplishment a great lapse of time, is furnished by the 
 Isle of Wight. That island is now separated from the main- 
 land by a narrow channel, called the South Hampton Water, 
 or the Solent Sea. 
 
 It is now known that this is nothing but an old river 
 channel, in which the sea has usurped the place of the river. 
 The coast is a river embankment, with the usual accompani- 
 ments of gravel beds, flint implements, and fresh water 
 shells. On the shores of the island we find the opposite 
 bank of the old river. A very great change must have 
 taken place in the surface features before the sea could 
 have rolled in and cut off the Isle of Wight from the main- 
 land. 
 
 In speaking of the length of time demanded for this 
 change, Dr. Evans says : " Who can fully understand how im- 
 measurably remote was the epoch when what is now that vast 
 bay was high and dry land, and a long range of chalk downs, 
 six hundred feet above the sea, bounded the horizon on the 
 South? And yet that must have been the sight that met 
 the eye of primitive man who frequented the banks of that 
 ancient river, which buried their handiwork in gravels that 
 now cap the cliffs — and of the course of which so strange 
 and indubitable a memorial subsists in what has now be- 
 come the Solent Sea ?"^ 
 
 The illustrations scattered through this essay are repre- 
 sentations of the stone implements found in the drift of Eu- 
 ropean rivers. During all the long course of time supposed 
 to be covered by the Paleolithic Age, there are but very few 
 evidences of any improvement, as far as we can judge from 
 the implements themselves. This is in itself a melancholy 
 
 'Evans's "Ancient Stone Implements,"' p. 621. 
 
88 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Flint Flakes. 
 
 proof of the low condition of miin. He had made so little 
 advance in the scale of wisdom, he possessed so little knowl- 
 edge, he was so much a creature of instinct, that, during the 
 thousands of years demanded for this age, he made no ap- 
 preciable progress. The advance of the last century was 
 many times greater than that of the entire Paleolithic Age. 
 
 A blow struck on one end of 
 a piece of flint will, owing 
 to the peculiar cleavage of 
 flint, split off pieces called 
 flakes. This is the sim- 
 plest form of implement 
 used by man. It is impos- 
 sible to say with certainty 
 how they were used; but, 
 from the evidence observed on them, they were probably 
 used as scrapers. The men of that day doubtless knew 
 some simple method of preparing clothing from the skins of 
 the animals they had killed, and probably many of these 
 sharp-rimmed flakes were used to assist in this primitive 
 process of tanning. 
 
 When the piece of flint itself was chipped into form, it 
 was one whose shape would indicate a spear-head or hatchet. 
 We present illustrations of each. Forms intermediate be- 
 tween these two are found. Some have such a thick heavy 
 base that it is believed they were used in the hand, and 
 had no handle or haft. 
 
 Others, with a cutting edge all round, may have been 
 provided with a handle. M. Mortillet, of France, who has 
 had excellent opportunities of studying this question very 
 thoroughly, thinks that the hatchet was the only type of 
 implement they possessed, and that it was used for every 
 conceivable purpose — but that Iheir weapon was a clnl). all 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 
 
 89 
 
 traces of which have, of course, long since vanished away.^ 
 These few implements imply that their possessors were sav- 
 ages like the native Australians. In this stage of culture, 
 
 man lived by hunting, and had not 
 yet learned to till the ground, or to 
 seek the materials out of which his 
 implements were made by mining. 
 He merely fashioned the stones which 
 
 Spear Head Type. 
 
 happened to be within his 
 reach in the shallows of the 
 rivers as they were wanted, 
 throwing them away after 
 they had been used. Inj 
 this manner the large num- 
 bers which have been met 
 with in certain spots may be 
 accounted for. Man at this 
 time appears before us 
 as a nomad hunter, poorly 
 equipped for the struggle 
 of life, without knowledge 
 of metals, nnd ignorant of the art of grinding his stone 
 tools to a sharp edge.^ Of course we can not hope to learn 
 
 » Pup. Srh'nce Montlily, Oct., 1883. ^ Dawkins's "Ear, jMan in Drit.," p. 1G:^,. 
 
 Hatahet Type. 
 
90 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 much of their social condition, other than that just set 
 forth. 
 
 DePerthes found some flints which show evidence of 
 their human origin, and yet it would be veiy difl&cult to say 
 what was their use. He thinks they may have a religious, 
 significance, and has set forth a great variety of eloquent 
 surmises respecting them. It only need be said that such 
 theorizing is worse than useless. That while it is very 
 probable these tribes had some system of belief, yet there 
 is no good reason for supposing these flints had any connec- 
 tion with it. It has been supposed, from another series of 
 wrought flints, that the men of this epoch were possessed 
 of some sentiments of art, as pieces have been found thought 
 to represent the forms of animals, men's faces, birds, and 
 fishes ; but as very few have been able to detect such re- 
 semblances, it is safe to say they do not exist. 
 
 As the love of adornment is almost as old as human na- 
 ture itself, we may not be surprised to find traces of its 
 sway then. Dr. Rigollot found little bunches of shells 
 with holes through either end. The supposition is that 
 these were used as beads ; which is not at all strange, con- 
 sidering how instinctively savage men delight in such orna- 
 ments. These ancient hunters made use of beads partially 
 prepared by nature. 
 
 Europe is not the only country where the remains of 
 this savage race nre found. They are found in the coun- 
 tries bordering the Mediterranean in Northern Africa, and 
 in Egypt. In this latter country they nre doubtless largely 
 biiriod under the immense deposits of Nile mud ; yet in 1878 
 Professor llaynes discovered in ll^ppor Egypt scrapers and 
 hatchets, pronounced by archaeologists to be exactly similar 
 to tliose of the river Somin(\ We .iro not inforin(Ml as to 
 their geological age, bnt 11i(M(> can be no ((lu'slion tiiat (liey 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 91 
 
 are much older than any monument of Egyptian civiliza- 
 tion hitherto known.^ 
 
 Paleolithic implements have also been found in Pales- 
 tine and in India. In the latter country the beds are so 
 situated that they present the same indicia of age as do 
 those of the Somme Valley. A great portion of the forma- 
 tion has been removed, and deep valleys cut in them by 
 running water.^ They have also been found in at least 
 one locality in the United States ; that is in the glacial 
 gravel of the valley of the Dehnvare at Trenton, New Jersey. 
 We must not confound these remains with those of the In- 
 dian tribes found scattered over a large extent of surface. 
 Those at Trenton also are not only in all respects, except 
 materials, similar to those of the Somme, but are found im- 
 bedded in a formation of gravel that was deposited at least 
 as far back as the close of the Glacial Age, thus requiring 
 the passage of the same long series of years since they 
 were used, as do the implements of European rivers.^ We 
 must also bear in mind that no country has been so care- 
 fully explored for these implements as has Europe, and that 
 the very country, Asia, where, for many reasons, we might 
 hope to find not only unequivocal proofs of man's presence, 
 but from our discoveries be able to clear up many dark 
 points, as to the race, origin, and fate of these primitive 
 tribes, is yet almost a sealed book. 
 
 But the scattered discoveries we have instanced show us 
 1hat the people whose implements have been described in this 
 chapter were very widely dispersed over the earth, and every- 
 thing indicates that they were far removed from us in time. 
 The similarity in type of implements shows that, wherever 
 
 > Wright's "Studies in Science and Religion," p. 278. See also British As- 
 Eociation Report, 1882, p. fi02. 
 
 2 Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 356. ^ Abbott's " Primitive Industry." 
 
92 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 found, they were the same people, iu the same low savage 
 state of culture — "Alike in the somher forests of oak and 
 pine in Great Britain, aud when surrounded by the luxuri- 
 ant vegetation of the Indian jungle."-^ 
 
 We haA^e yet two important points to consider. The 
 first is, what race of men were these river tribes ? and sec- 
 ond, when did they arrive in Europe? Did they precede 
 the glacial cold? did they make their appearance during a 
 warm interglacial period ? or was it not until the final re- 
 treat of the glaciers that they first wandered into Europe? 
 These questions are far from settled; yet they have been 
 the object of a great aniount of painstaking research. 
 
 To determine the first point, it is necessary that anat- 
 omists have skeletons of the men of this age, to make a 
 careful study of them. But for a great many reasons, por- 
 tions of the human skeleton are very rarely found in such 
 circumstances that we are sure they date back to the Paleo- 
 lithic Age, and especially is this true of the men of the 
 River Drift. In a few instances fragmentary portions have 
 been found. 
 
 M. Quatrefages, of France, who is certainly a very high 
 authority on these points, thinks that the hunter tribes of 
 the River Drift belonged to the Canstadt race — " so named 
 from the village of Canstadt, in Germany, near which a fos- 
 sil skull was discovered in 1700, and which appears to be 
 closely allied to the Neanderthal skull, discovered near 
 Dusseldorf iu 1857, and about which so much has been 
 written."^ Quatrefages supposes that this type of man is 
 still to be found in certain Australian tribes. These arc not 
 mere guesses, but are conclusions drawn from careful study 
 by eminent European scholars.^ 
 
 ' Dawkins's "Early M;in in Britain," j). 172. ' Wright. 
 
 ' Quatrefages's "Human Species," p. 307. 
 
MElSf OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 
 
 93 
 
 It is well known that a competent naturalist needs but 
 a single fossil bone to describe the animal itself, and tell us 
 of its habits. So also anthropologists need but fragments 
 of the human skeleton, especially of the skull, to describe 
 the characteristics of the race to which the individual be- 
 longed. 
 
 This cut, though an ideal restoration, is a restoration 
 made in accordance with the results of careful study of 
 fragmentary skulls found 
 in various localities in Eu- 
 rope. The head and the 
 face present a savage 
 aspect; the body harmon- 
 ized with the head; the 
 height was not more than 
 five feet and a half; yet 
 the bones are very thick 
 in proportion to their 
 length, and were evidently ^ 
 supplied with a powerful ^ 
 set of muscles, since the 
 little protuberances and Neanderthal nan. 
 
 depressions where the muscles are attached are remarkably 
 well developed.^ Huxley and Quatrefages have both pointed 
 out that representatives of this race are to be found among 
 some Australian tribes. "Among the races of this great isl- 
 and there is one, distributed particularly in the province of 
 Victoria, in the neighborhood of Port Western, which repro- 
 duces, in a remarkable manner, the characters of the Can- 
 stadt race."^ Not the least interesting result of this discovery 
 is the similarity of weapons and implements. "With Mr. 
 Lartet, we see in the obsidian lances of New Caledonia the 
 
 1 " Human Species," p. 305. ^ j^^j^j^ p 397, 
 
94 THE I'REHltiTORIC ]\Ol:LD. 
 
 flint heads of the lower alluvium of the Somme. The 
 hatchet of certain Australians reminds us, as it did Sir 
 Charles Lyell, of the Abbeville hatchet.^ 
 
 Yet some hesitate about accepting these interesting in- 
 ferences, thinking that the portions of the human skeleton 
 thus far recovered, which are beyond a doubt referable to 
 this period, are too fragmentary to base such important con- 
 clusions upon. This is the view of Boyd Dawkins, who 
 thinks " we can not refer them to any branch of the human 
 race now alive."^ " We are without a clew," continues he, 
 " to the ethnology of the River Drift man, who most prob- 
 ably is as completely extinct as the woolly rhinoceros or the 
 cave bear."^ Future discoveries will probably settle this point. 
 
 It is yet a much disputed point to what particular por- 
 tion of the Glacial Age we can trace the appearance of 
 man. We can profitably note the tendency of scientific 
 thought in this direction. But a short time has elapsed 
 since a few scholars here and there began to urge an an- 
 tiquity for man extending back beyond the commonly ac- 
 cepted period of six thousand years. Though it is now 
 well known and admitted that there are no good grounds for 
 this estimate, yet such was its hold, such its sway over sci- 
 entific as well as popular thought, that an appeal to this 
 chronology was deemed sufficient answer to the discoveries 
 of DePerthea, Schmerling, and others. It was but yesterday 
 that this popular belief was overthrown and due weight 
 given the discoveries of careful explorers in many branches, 
 and the antiquity of man referred, on indisputable grounds, 
 to a point of time at least as far back as the close of the pre- 
 ceding geologicjil age.^ 
 
 ' Quatrefairo's " Tinman Ppccips," p. 30G. 
 
 » "Early iSIan in Britain," p. ITft. » Ibid., p. 233. 
 
 * We do not give any estimate in years as to tliis antiquity in this chapter. 
 
MEN OF THE RIVER DRIFT. 95 
 
 It seems cas if here a lialt had been called, and all possi- 
 ble objections are urged against a further extension of time. 
 It is, of course, well to be careful in this matter, and to 
 accept only such results as inevitably follow from well au- 
 thenticated discoveries. But it also seems to us there is 
 no longer any doubt that man dates back to the beginning 
 of that long extended time we have named the Glacial Age.^ 
 
 In the first place, we must, recall the animals that sud- 
 denly made their appearance in Europe at the beginning of 
 this age. Though there were a number of species, since become 
 extinct, the majority of animal forms were those still living.^ 
 
 These are the animals with which man has always been 
 associated. There is therefore no longer any reason to sup- 
 pose the evolution of animal life had not reached that stage 
 where man was to appear. We need only recall how 
 strongly this point was urged in reference to the preceding 
 geological epoch, to see its important bearings here. Mr. 
 Boyd Dawkins has shown that the great majority of animals 
 which invaded Europe at the commencement of this age, can 
 be traced to Northern and Central Asia, whence, owing to 
 climatic changes, they migrated into Europe.^ 
 
 Inasmuch as man seems to have been intimately asso- 
 ciated with these animals, it seems to us very likely that he 
 came with them from their home in Asia. We think the 
 tendency of modern discoveries is to establish the fact that 
 man arrived in Europe along with the great invasion of spe- 
 cies now living.* 
 
 ' We must remember that this age is also variously called the Quaternary, 
 Pleistocene, and Post Tertiary. We do not now refer to the evidence of man's 
 existence in the Miocene and Pliocene, treated of in the preceding chapter. 
 
 ^ Mr. Dawkins finds that fifty-five out of seventy-seven species are yet 
 living. "Early Man in Britain," p, 109. 
 
 3 "Early Man in Britain," p. 110. 
 
 * Those who reject the proofs of the existence of man in Pliocene times be- 
 cause the evolution of life had not then reached a stage where v/e could hope 
 
96 THE PREHISTRRIC WORLD. 
 
 Turning now to the authorities, we find this to be the ac- 
 cepted theory of many of those competent to form an opinion. 
 In Enghmd Mr. Geikie has strongly urged the theory that 
 the Glacial Age includes not only periods of great cold, but 
 also epochs of exceptional mildness ; and he strongly argues 
 that all the CAddence of the River Drift tribes can be referred 
 to these warm interglacial epochs; in other words, that they 
 were living in Europe during the Glacial Age.^ 
 
 In answer to this it has been stated that the relics of 
 River Drift tribes in Southern England overlie bowlder clay, 
 and must therefore be later in origin than the Glacial Age.^ 
 
 But, Mr. Geikie and others have shown that the ice of 
 the last great cold did not overflow Southern England,^ so 
 that this evidence, rightly read, was really an argument in 
 favor of their interglacial age.* The committee appointed 
 by the British Association to explore the Victoria Cave, 
 near Settle, urge this point A'ery strongly in their final 
 report of 1878. *" To this report Mr. Dawkins, a member of 
 the committee, records his dissent, but in his last great work 
 he freely admits that man was living in England during the 
 Glacial Age, if he did not, in fact, precede it.*' 
 
 Mr. Skertcitley, of the British coast survey, in 1879,'^ an- 
 nounced the discovery in East Anglia of Paleolithic imple- 
 
 to find mail, are here confronted with a difficnlty. If I^Ir. Dawkins be right 
 (as stated above) then tlie various animals in question must Iiave been living 
 in Asia during the preceding Pliocene Age. There is no reason to suppose 
 man was not associated with them, since lie beloncrs to the same stage of evo- 
 lution (Le Qinte's " Klonients of Geology," p. 5(iS), and though, owing to 
 climatic and geograpiiical causes, the animals themselves might have been con- 
 fined to Asia, there is surely no good reason why man may not, in small bands, 
 and at various times, have wandered into Europe. 
 
 ' " rreiiistnric Europe," " The Great Ice -Age." 
 
 'Dawkin's "Early Man in Britain," p. 170. 
 
 ' " Prchisforic Europe," p. 2(58. ■• Ibid., 360. 
 
 'British Assoc. Re])., 1S7S. 
 
 * " Early Man in Britain," pp. ir.7, 141, ami \C,\). with note. 
 
 ' British .\ssoc. Hep., 1879. 
 
MEX OF nil-: RIVER DRIFT. 97 
 
 ments underlying the bowlder clay of that section. Mr. 
 Geikie justly regards this as a most important discovery.^ 
 
 Finally Mr. Dawkins, in his address as President of the 
 Anthropological section of the British Association, in 1882, 
 goes over the entire ground. After alluding to the discovery 
 of paleolithic implements in Egypt, India, and America, he 
 continues : " The identity of implements of the River Drift 
 hunter proves that he was in the same rude state of civili- 
 zation, if it can be called civilization, in the* Old and the 
 New World, when the hand of the geological clock struck 
 the same hour. It is not a little strange that this mode of 
 life should have been the same in the forests of the North, 
 and south of the Mediterranean, in Palestine, in the tropical 
 forests of India, and on the western shores of the Atlantic." 
 This, however, is not taken as proving the identity of race, 
 but as proving that in this morning-time of man's existence he 
 had nowhere advanced beyond a low state of savagism. Mr. 
 Dawkins then continues : '' It must be inferred from his 
 wide-spread range that he must have inhabited the earth for 
 a long time, and that his dispersal took place before the 
 Glacial epoch in Europe and America. I therefore feel in- 
 clined to view the River Drift hunter as having invaded 
 Europe in preglacial times, along with other living species 
 which then appeared." He also points out that the evidence 
 is that he lived in Europe during all the changes of that 
 prolonged period known as the Glacial Age.^ 
 
 Sir John Lubbock also records his assent to these views. 
 He says on this point: "It is, I think, more than probable 
 that the advent of the Glacial Period found man already in 
 possession of Europe."^ 
 
 ' Prehistoric Europe, p. 263. 
 
 ^British Assoc. Rep., 1882. 
 
 ^ Preface to Kains-Jackson's " Our Ancient Monuments." 
 
98 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 In our own country Prof. Powell says : " It is now an 
 established fact that man was widely scattered o\qv the 
 earth at least as early as the beginning of the Quaternary 
 period, and perhaps in Phocene times." ^ 
 
 This completes our investigation of the men of the River 
 Drift. We see how, by researches of careful scholars, our 
 knowledge of the past has been enlarged. Though there are 
 many points which are as yet hidden in darkness, we are ena- 
 bled to form quite a clear mental picture of this early race. 
 Out of the darkness which still enshrouds the continent of 
 Asia we see these bands of savages wandering forth; some 
 to Europe, Africa, and the west; others to America and the 
 east. 
 
 This was at a time when slowly falling temperature but 
 dimly prophesied a reign of arctic cold, still far in the 
 future. This race does not seem to have had much capacity 
 for advancement, since ages came and went leaving him in 
 the same low state. During the climax of glacinl cold ho 
 doubtless sought the southern coasts of Europe along with 
 the temperate species of animals. But whenever the cli- 
 matic conditions were such that these animals could find 
 subsistence as far north as England he accompanied them 
 there, and so his remains are found constantly associated 
 with theirs throughout Europe. Though doubtless very low 
 in the scale, and at the very foot of the ladder of liuniau 
 progress, we are acquainted with no facts connecting them 
 with the higher orders of animals. If such exists, we must 
 search for them further back in geological time. The men 
 of the River Drift were distinctively human beings, and as 
 such possessed those qualities which, developing throughout 
 the countless ages that have elapsed, have advanced man to 
 his present high position. 
 
 ' "First AnniKil Rcimrt, Bureau of Etlinulo-ry," ]>. 73. 
 
CA VE~MEN. 
 
 99 
 
 CAYE-MEN.' 
 
 Other sources of Information — History of Cave Exploration — The for- 
 mation of Caves — Exploration in Kent's Cavern — Evidence of two 
 different races — The higher culture of the later race — Evidence of 
 prolonged time — Exploration of Robin Hood Cave — Explorations in 
 Valley of the River Meuse — M. Dupont's conclusions — Explorations 
 in the Valley of the Dordogne — The Station at Schussenreid — Cave- 
 men not found south of the Alps — Habitations of the Cave-men — 
 Cave-men were Hunters — Methods of Cooking — Destitute of the 
 Potter's art — Their Weapons — Clothing — Their skill in Drawing — 
 Evidence of a Government — Of Religious belief — Race of the Cave- 
 men—Distinct from the men of the Drift — Probable Connection 
 with the Eskimos. 
 
 HAVE been delving among the sands 
 of ancient river bottoms for a proof of 
 man's existence in far remote times. 
 Slight and unsatisfactory as they may 
 be to some, they are the materials with which we 
 \'i'\\, reconstruct a wondrous story of life and times re- 
 moved from us by many a cycle of years. 
 
 Men have frequently resorted to the' caverns of the 
 earth for protection. In places we find caA^es that served 
 this purpose during the Paleolithic Age. The men of the 
 Drift, however, do not appear to have used them, save as 
 temporary places of refuge, perhaps as a protection from 
 bands of savage enemies, or from unusually inclement 
 weather. But yet most surprising results have attended 
 
 ' The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to Prof. G. F. Wright, of 
 Oberlin, for criticism. 
 
 7 
 
100 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the exploration of caves in England, France, and Belgium. 
 We find in those gloomy places that the men of the Drift 
 were not the only tribes of men inhabiting Europe during 
 the Glacial Age. In fact, liAdng at later date than the Drift 
 tribes, but still belonging to the Paleolithic Age, were tribes 
 of people who appear to have utilized caverns and grottoes 
 as places of permanent resort, and, judging from their re- 
 mains, they had made considerable adA'ance in the arts of 
 living as compared with the tribes of the Drift. 
 
 But before pointing out the grounds upon Avhich these 
 conclusions rest, it may be well to give a slight review of 
 the history of caA^e research. The dread and awe which 
 kept people away from caves during the Middle Ages pre- 
 served their contents for later discoA^erers. In the seven- 
 teenth century some adA^enturous spirits began to search in 
 them for Avhat they called Unicorn horns, which w^ere deemed 
 a most efficacious remedy for A^arious diseases. This search 
 served the good purpose of bringing to light A'^arious fossil 
 bones of animals, and calling the attention of scientific men 
 to the same. 
 
 The cave of Grailenreuth, in BaA^aria, was explored by Dr. 
 Groklfuss in 1810. He came to the conclusion that the 
 bones of bears and other extinct animals Avere proofs of the 
 former presence of the animals themselves. Dr. Buckland, 
 a celebrated English writer, visited the cave in ISIG, and 
 became much interested in the Avork ; so much so tliat 
 when Kirkdale Cavern, in England, Avas discovered in 1821, 
 he at once repaired to the spot and made a careful explora- 
 tion. The results satisfied liiin that hyenas and other ex- 
 tinct animals had once lived in England. He foUoAved up 
 his explorations in a number of cases, and published a Avork 
 on this subject in 1822, Avhich marks the commencement of 
 a new era in cave research. 
 
CAVE-MEN. 
 
 101 
 
 In 1825 Kent's Cavern, near Torquay, was discovered, 
 and Rev. J. McEnry made partial explorations in it. He 
 discovered flint implements, and perceived they might be a 
 proof of the presence of man vi^ith these extinct animals. 
 Dr. Bucklund had not found these relics, or else had passed 
 them by as of no importance, for he refused to entertain the 
 theory that man and the extinct animals had been contem- 
 poraneous. Explorations made in France in 1827-8 had 
 
 GailenreTith. 
 
 furnished such strong evidence on this point that it v^as 
 deemed established by some scholars, but being opposed to 
 the prevailing belief, nothing came of it. 
 
 In 1829 Schmerling commenced his investigations in the 
 caves df the valley of the Meuse. For years he continued 
 his work under many difficulties. Sir Charles Lyell tells us 
 he was let down day after day to the opening of the Bngis 
 Cave by a rope tied to a tree. Arriving there he crawled 
 on all fours through a narrow passage way to the enlarged 
 
102 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 chamber, where, standing in mud and water, he superin- 
 intended the investigations. lie examined over forty of 
 those caves, and published his results in 1833. He clearly 
 showed that man must have been living along with various 
 animals now extinct in Belgium. But, as before remarked, 
 it was deemed sufficient answer to this careful explorer to 
 point out that his results were opposed to the accepted 
 chronology, and so they wei-e passed by. When the time 
 at last came, and their true worth was recognized, Schmer- 
 ling himself had passed away. 
 
 We have already seen what great results followed the 
 exploration of DePerthes in the river gravels. When it had 
 been clearly established that man and extinct animals had 
 coexisted in Europe, the results of cave explorations were 
 eagerly recalled, and governments vied with royal societies 
 and private individuals in continuing the researches. The 
 results are that a rich store of facts has been gathered from 
 those gloomy resorts, illustrative of the later stages of Pa- 
 leolithic art. 
 
 A word as to the formation of caves, grottoes, caverns, 
 and rock shelters. These vary greatly in size, some being 
 • so small as to furnish protection to but few individuals ; 
 others, especially caves, so large that whole tribes might 
 have found a ])lace of resort within their chambers. They 
 are found in all limestone countries. The formation of caves 
 is now recognized as due to natural causes acting slowly 
 through many years. Limestone rock is very hard and du- 
 rable, but chemistry teaches us that water charged with 
 carbonic acid gas will readily dissolve it. Ilain-water falling 
 fiom the clouds is sure to come in contact with masses of 
 decaying vegetable matter, which wo know is constantly 
 giving off quantities of this gas. Laden with this the water 
 sinks into the ground, and, if it comes in contact with lime- 
 
CAVE-MEN. 103 
 
 stone, readily washes some of it away in solution. But 
 beds of limestone rock are noted for containing great fissures 
 through which subterranean Avaters penetrate far into the 
 ground. We can readily see how this percolating water 
 would dissolve and wear away the surface of the rocks along 
 such a fissure, and in process of time we would have the 
 phenomenon of a stream of water flowing under ground. 
 
 Owing to a great many causes — such, for instance, as the 
 meeting of another fissure — we would expect that portions 
 of this underground way would become enlarged to spacious 
 halls. In some such a way as this it is now understood 
 that all caves have originated. 
 
 Owing to m^y^ natural causes the river may, after a 
 while, cease tc^lli^, living enlarged portions of its channel 
 behind as a successi6rr«of chanfl)-ers inj^a cave. But water 
 would still come trickling inf#om the tops and sides, and 
 be continuously dripping to^'the floor, where it speedily 
 evaporates. When such is the case it leaves behind it the 
 limestone it held in solution. So, in process of time, if the 
 deposition is undisturbed, there will be formed over the floor 
 of the cave a more or less continuous layer of limestone 
 matter known as stalagmite. The same formations on the 
 top and sides of the cave are called stalactites. In places 
 where the drip is continuous the stalactite gradually assumes 
 the shape of an immense icicle; while the stalagmite on the 
 flooK,^|>f.,;,^^ cave, underneath the drip, rises in a columnar 
 mas§..^d"^m,1|et the descending stalactite. A union of these 
 is not unc»Mnvon, and we have pillars and columns present- 
 
 the smwij|£. fantastic appearance on which tourists de- \^ 
 ^ht to dwfesll-.jifh "their notes of travel. \-, 
 
 W^ile these. ;fi!eumul§,ti,ons^i^e in all cases very slow,,;.' 
 s^.-we|can nat'measur^'h.aktii}j,e since it commenced by the^' 
 
 j*# •-,'■*». % -.?<«#>.> • jrf.-^jA'*' ■ I'* ^; "^ j /■{'' 
 
 fvate*fcf ^reseM'^''gfo1ivth^.bScause this rate varies greatly at 
 
104 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 different times aud places even in the same cave. And we 
 must also remark that this complete series of changes only 
 occur in a few localities, the majority of caves being insig- 
 nificant in size.^ 
 
 From what has been said as to the formation of caA'es, 
 we would expect them to occur in river valleys, and this is 
 the case, though in some instances there have been such 
 immense changes in the surface level of the country that we 
 can now find no trace of rivers near them. This is exactly 
 similar to some gravel deposits, which, as we have seen, 
 are occasionally found where is now no running water. 
 The most noted caverns, however, are found high up on the 
 banks of existing rivers. We can not doubt that the rivers 
 were the cause of the caves. But having excavated their 
 beds below the level of the then existing caves, they ceased 
 to flow in them, and left them to be occupied by savage an- 
 imals and the scarcely less savage men. But at times, 
 swollen by floods, the river would again assert its suprem- 
 acy and roll its waters through its old channels. 
 
 These floods would not only tear up and rearrange what- 
 ever debris had already accumulated, but would introduce 
 quantities of sediment and animal remains. In some such a 
 manner as is here pointed out (though exactly how geolo- 
 gists are not agreed) caves were invaded, after being long 
 occupied by men or animals, by floods of water. In many 
 cases the evidence would seem to indicate that after such a 
 visitation by water the cave and its water-rolled and water- 
 arranged contents were left to silence, visited by neither 
 man nor beast. In such instances stalagmitic coverings 
 would gradually form over the confused debris, and in some 
 places acquire a thickness of several feet. In some instances 
 
 ' On the formation of caves consult Geikie's "Prehistoric Europe," i>. 71 ; 
 also Evans's " Ancient intone Inipk-nionts," p. 429. 
 
CAVE-MEN. 105 
 
 several such floors are found one above the other, pointing to 
 a prolonged period of usage, and then a quiet stage, in which 
 the drip of falling water alone broke the silence, and nature 
 sealed up another chapter of cave biography beneath the 
 layer of stalagmite. 
 
 One of the most important caves of England is Kent's 
 Cavern, before mentioned. This cave w^as carefully explored 
 under the direction of a committee appointed by the British 
 Association, and to show the care and thoroughness of the 
 work we need only state that this work occupied the greater 
 portion of sixteen years, and hence the results obtained 
 may be regarded as, in a general way, illustrative of the life 
 of the cave dwellers. " This cave is about a mile east of 
 Torquay harbor, and is of a sinuous character, running 
 deeply into a hill of Devonian limestone, about half a mile 
 distant . from the sea. In places it expands into large 
 
 chambers, to which various distinctive names have been 
 
 " 1 
 given. ^ 
 
 Let us see what general results have been reached by 
 this committee. The investigation disclosed several different 
 beds of stalagmite, cave earth, and breccia. The lowest 
 'layer is a breccia.^ The matrix is sand of a reddish color, 
 containing many pieces of rock known as red-grit and some 
 pieces of quartz. This implies the presence of running 
 water, which at times washed in pieces of red-grit. The 
 surface features must have been quite different from the 
 present, since now this rock does not form any part of the 
 hill into which this cave opens.^ And this change in drain- 
 age took place before this lowest layer was completed, since 
 not only bears, but men, commenced to visit the cave. The 
 
 ' Evans's " Ancient Stone Innplements," p. 445. 
 
 ^ Pronounced Bret'-cha, a rock composed of fragments of older rock, united 
 by a cement. 
 
 ^ Geikic's " Prehistoric Europe," p. 92. 
 
106 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 presence of bears is shown by numerous bones, and that of 
 man by his implements. 
 
 We must notice that all the implements found in the 
 breccia are similar to those of the Drift, being rudely formed 
 and massive. No doubt these are the remains of Drift men,, 
 
 who, for some cause or other, 
 temporarily visited the cave, 
 perhaps contending with the 
 cave bear for its possession. 
 But a time at length arrived 
 when for some reason neither 
 animals nor man visited the 
 cave. The slow accumula- 
 tion of stalagmite went for- 
 ward until in some places 
 it had obtained a thickness 
 of twelve feet. Freely ad- 
 mitting that we can not de- 
 termine the length of time 
 demanded for this deposi- 
 tion, yet none can doubt 
 that it requires a very long" 
 time indeed. Says Mr. 
 Geikie : " How many cen- 
 turies rolled past while that 
 old pavement was slowly accreting, no one can say; but that 
 it represents a kipse of ages compared to which the time 
 embraced by all tradition and written history is but as a 
 few months, who that is competent to form an opinion can 
 doubt?" But after this long period of quiet, from some 
 source great torrents of water cMnic rolling through tlio 
 cave. We know this to be so, because in i)lacos it l(rok(> up 
 this layer of stalagmite antl wasJKMl it a\v:iy, as well as largo 
 
 Spear-head— Lower Breccia, Kent's 
 Cavern. 
 
CA VE-MEN. 
 
 107 
 
 Spear-head— Cave-earth, Kenl's 
 Cavern- 
 
 portions of the breccia below, and after the floods had ceased, 
 occasionally inundations still threw down layers of mud and 
 silt. This accumulation is known as cave earth, and is the 
 layer containing the numerous re- 
 mains of the Cave-men. Here the 
 explorers were not only struck with 
 the large number of implements, but 
 at once noticed that they were of 
 a higher form and better made. In- 
 stead of the rude and massive im- 
 plements of the Drift tribes, we 
 have more delicate forms chipped 
 all around. And we also meet 
 with those that from their form 
 may have been used as the heads 
 of spears or arrows. Flakes were 
 also utilized for various purposes. We also find implements, 
 weapons, and ornaments of bone — a step in ad- 
 vance of Drift culture. They had " harpoons for 
 spearing fish, eyed needles or bodkins for stitch- 
 ing skins together, awls perhaps to facilitate the 
 passage of the slender needle through the tough, 
 thick hides ; pins for fastening the skins they 
 wore, and perforated badgers' teeth for necklaces 
 or bracelets." ^ Nothing of this kind has yet 
 been shown as belonging to the men of the 
 Drift. 
 
 The bones of a large number of animals are 
 also found in the cave earth. The most abundant 
 is the hyena, and no doubt they dragged in a 
 great many others; but the agency of man is equally ap- 
 parent, as the bones have often been split for the extraction 
 ^ Pengelly, quoted by Geikie, " Prehistoric Europe," p. 93. 
 
 Flake — Cave 
 earth, Kent': 
 Cavern. 
 
108 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 of marrow. Besides bones of the hyena, we have also 
 those of the lion, tiger, bear, and reindeer.^ 
 
 With these animals man, from time to time, disputed pos- 
 session of the cave. At one place on the surface of the 
 
 Harpoons, Pin, Awl, and Keedle— Kent'8 Cavern. 
 
 cave earth is found what is known as the "black band." 
 This is nothing more or less than the fire-place of these old 
 tribes. Here we find fragments of partially consumed wood, 
 
 ' Evans's "Ancient Stone Implements," p. 402. 
 
CA VE~MEN. 
 
 109 
 
 bones showing the action of fire — in short, every thing in- 
 dicating a prolonged occupancy by man. 
 
 No one can doubt but that this deposit of cave earth 
 itself requires a prolonged time for its accumulation.^ But 
 this period, however prolonged, at length comes to an 
 end. From some cause, both animals and man again aban- 
 doned the cave. Another vast cycle of years rolls away — 
 a time expressed in thousands of years — during which na- 
 ture again spread 
 over the entombed 
 remains a layer of 
 stalagmite, in some 
 places equal in thick- 
 ness to the first for- 
 mation. Above this 
 layer we come to a 
 bed of mold contain- 
 ing remains of the 
 later Stone Age, of 
 
 the Bronze, and • .:'---^^ -•-'-:• v-^:'-5^-%^:--;--?^---'^^^=^^'-^'^^ 
 
 even of the Iron Age. ^ 
 
 Below the first layer 
 
 of stalagmite — the " 
 
 completed biography Kobm Hood cave. 
 
 nf PnlpnlifViip fimPQ • t Stalagmite uniting roof to breccia; a Stalagmite 
 Ui ITclitJUliLlliL LUlltJb , breccia with bones and implements, to 36 inches; 6 Cave 
 above the Unfin- ^^^^ with bones and implements, 21 to 52 inches; cRed 
 ' clayey sand, 24 to 48 inches; d Light-colored santl with 
 
 ished book of the Hmestone Wocks, 24 inches. 
 
 present. Such are the eloquent results obtained by the 
 thorough exploration of one cave. The results of all the 
 other explorations, in a general way, confirm these. Mr. 
 Dawkins explored a group of caverns in Derbyshire, Eng- 
 land. These caverns and fissures are situated in what is 
 
 > Evans's " Ancient Stone Implement," p. 463. 
 
110 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 known as Cresswell Crags, the precipitous sides of a ravine 
 through which flows a stream of water dividing the counties 
 of Derby and Nottingham. 
 
 This cut represents the different strata in Robin Hood 
 cave. It will be seen that, at one place, the stalactite has 
 united with the stalagmite below. It is not necessary to 
 go into the details of this exploration. All the relics of 
 man found in d, c, and the lower portions of b, are the rude 
 and massive forms peculiar to the River Drift tribes. But 
 the relics found in the breccia a, and the upper portion of 
 the cave earth b, denote a sudden advance in culture. The 
 rude tools of the lower strata are replaced by more highly 
 finished ones of flint. 
 
 . The most important discovery was that of a small frag- 
 ment of rib, with its polished surface ornamented with the 
 incised figure of a horse. The peculiar value of this discov- 
 ery is, that it serves to connect the Cave-men of England 
 with those of the continent, who, as we shall afterward see, 
 excelled in artistic work of this kind. 
 
 In another cave of this series, in association with similar 
 
 — I flints, were found 
 the following bone 
 implements. We 
 can only conjec- 
 
 ture the use of 
 
 Horse Incised on Piece of Rib. the notched bone. 
 
 The pieces of reindeer horn, terminating in a scoop, may 
 have served as a spoon to extract marrow. 
 
 We must not fjiil to notice that the more highly finished 
 relics of the Cave-men are found in strata overlying those of 
 the River Drift; and, in the case of Kent's Cavern, these 
 two sets of implements are separated hy a layer of stalag- 
 mite requiring a very prolonged time for its formation. This 
 
 
CAVE-MEN. 
 
 Ill 
 
 ni 
 
 m 
 
 would imply that the Cave-men came into England long 
 after the tribes of the River Drift ; and, judging from the 
 relics themselves, they must have been a distinct people. 
 We must recall how completely the climate and animals in 
 England varied 
 during the Gla- 
 cial Age. We 
 have also seen 
 how closely 
 connected the 
 River Drift 
 tribes were with 
 the animals of 
 the warm tem- 
 perate regions. 
 Coming at a 
 later date, to- 
 tally distinct 
 from them in 
 culture are 
 those Cave- 
 men — perhaps 
 they may prove 
 to be associated 
 with the Arctic 
 animals. But, 
 before specu- 
 lating on this 
 point, we must 
 
 lenrn the results attending the exploration of the caves of 
 Belgium, France, and other countries on the continent of 
 Europe. 
 
 In the valley of the river Meuse (Belgium), and its 
 
 Bone ImpTements— CressweU Crags. 
 
112 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 tributaries, have been found a number of caves and rock- 
 shelters. It was in the caves of the Meuse that Schmerling 
 made his explorations. When the real value of his work 
 was recognized, the Belgian government had a thorough ex- 
 ploration made by M. Dupont, director of the Hoyal Mu- 
 seum in Brussels. This gentleman scientifically examined 
 forty-three of these resorts. His opinions, therefore, are 
 deserving of great weight; but, unfortunately, they are not 
 accepted by all. These caves vary greatly in size — many 
 being mere rock-shelters. From their position, we are at 
 once struck with the prolonged period of time necessary 
 to explain their formation. They are found at very differ- 
 ent heights along the river's bank. In one case two caves 
 are so situated that the river must have sunk its bed nearly 
 two hundred feet between the time of their formation.^ 
 
 M. Dupont thinks the evidence very clearly points to the 
 presence of two distinct stages in cave life — one of which he 
 calls the Mammoth period, and the other, which is more recent, 
 the Reindeer. It is, however, known that the mammoth lived 
 all through the Reindeer epoch, if not to later times; so the 
 names bestowed on these periods do not seem very nppropriate. 
 We can readily see, however, that, while the names might be 
 wrong, the two periods might be reality. In many cases, the 
 same cave contained remains of both stages, separated by lay- 
 ers of cave earth, and it is noticed that, in such cases, those 
 of the Reindeer stage are invariably of a later date. In gen- 
 eral terms, M. Dupont finds that the implements of the Mam- 
 moth period are of a rude make, con.sisting of a poor kind 
 of flint, and poorly finished. But, in beds of the Reindeer 
 epoch, the flint implements consist, principally, of Avell- 
 shaped blades and flakes — with numerous bodkins, or awls — 
 javelins, or arrow-heads — besides articles of bone and horn, 
 
 * Geikie's " Prehistoric Europe," p. 102. 
 
CA VE-MEN. 113 
 
 such as harpoons, and teeth of various animals drilled as if 
 suspended for ornaments. Their workmanship indicates de- 
 cidedly more skill than that of the implements obtained 
 from the lower levels. But the most remarkable finds of 
 the E-eindeer epoch consist of portions of reindeer horn, 
 showing etchings or engravings which have been traced by 
 some sharp point, no doubt by a flint implement. One small 
 bit of horn has been cut ox scraped so as to present the 
 rude outline of a human figure. 
 
 So far the evidence seems to bear out the same conclu- 
 sions as do those of the British caves, though it also shows 
 that the men of the Drift inhabited caves quite extensively. 
 We must remember, however, that the greatest wealth of 
 cave relics belongs to the so-called Cave-men, but that savage 
 tribes have always resorted to caves as a place for occa- 
 sional habitation.^ 
 
 It is in France that we find the greatest wealth of relics 
 of Cave-men. Sir John Lubbock has left us a description of 
 the valley of the Vezere, where these caverns occur. The 
 Vezere is a small tributary of the Dordogne. " The rivers of 
 the Dordogne run in deep valleys cut through calcareous 
 strata : and while the sides of the valley in chalk districts 
 are generally sloping, in this case, owing probably to the 
 hardness of the rock, they are frequently vertical. Small 
 caves and grottoes frequently occur : besides which, as the 
 
 ' Mr. Dawkins (" Early Man in Britain," p. 203) does not consider M. 
 Dupont justified in dividing the remains found in the caverns of Belgium 
 into two epochs- He considers them to be the remains of the same people, 
 some tribes being, perhaps, farther advanced than others. Mr. Dawkins is, ,of 
 course, high authority, but we think his argument could also be applied to 
 prove there was no real difference between the men of the River Drift and 
 the so-called Cave-men. This, in fact, is the opinion of many, including Mr. 
 Evans, who is exceptionally well qualified to judge of these remains. We 
 think, however, in view of the evidence adduced by Mr. Pengelly, Mr. Geikie, 
 Mr. Dawkins, and others, few will venture to doubt that there is a wide differ- 
 ence between the men of the River Drift and those of the Caves. 
 
114 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 different strata possess unequal power of resistance against 
 atmospheric influence, the face of the rock is, as it were, 
 scooped out in many places, and thus ' rock-shelters ' are 
 produced. In very ancient times these caves and rock- 
 shelters were inhabited by men, who have left behind them 
 abundant evidence of their presence. 
 
 " But as civilization advanced, man, no longer content 
 with the natural but inconvenient abode thus offered to 
 him, excavated chambers for himself, and in places the 
 Avhole face of the rock is honey-combed with doors and win- 
 dows, leading into suits of rooms, often in tiers one over the 
 other, so as to suggest the idea of a French Petra. Down 
 to a comparatively recent period, as, for instance, in the 
 troublous times of the Middle Ages, many of these, no 
 doubt, served as very efficient fortifications, and even now 
 some of them are in use as store-houses, and for other pur- 
 poses, as, for instance, at Brantome, where there is an old 
 chapel cut in solid rock. *" 
 
 "Apart from the scientific interest, it was impossible not 
 to enjoy the beauty of the scene which passed before our 
 eyes, as we dropped down the Vezere. As the river visited 
 sometimes one side of the valley, sometimes the other, so we 
 had at one moment rich meadow lands on each side, or found 
 ourselves close to the perpendicular and almost overhanging 
 cliff. Here and there we came upon some picturesque old 
 castle, and though the trees were not in full leaf, the rocks 
 were, in many places, green with box and ivy and evergreen 
 oak, which harmonized well with the rich yellow brown of 
 the stone itself."^ 
 
 Thus it will be seen this valley has been a favorite re- 
 sort for people at widely different times, and amongst others, 
 the cave dwellers of the Paleolithic Age. As in the caves 
 
 ' " Prehistoric Times," p. 330. 
 
CAVE-MEN. 
 
 115 
 
 of Belgium, some of them are at a considerable height above 
 the stream, while others are but little above the present 
 flood line. Mr. Dawkins refers us to the results of the ex- 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Bone Implements, Dordogne Caves. 
 
 ploration of a French scientist in one of the grottoes of 
 this section, which seem to be exactly similar to the results 
 obtained from the caves of Cresswell Crags and Kent's 
 Cavern. The implements obtained from the two lower strata 
 are rough choppers and rude flakes of jasper and other 
 
116 THE PREHISTOlilC WORLD. 
 
 simple forms. Above these beds was a stratum of black 
 earth, underneath a sheet of stalagmite. Here were found 
 implements of a far higher type : those of flints, consisting 
 of flakes, saws, and scrapers, with finely chipped lance- 
 heads and arrow-heads, and awls and arrow-heads of bone 
 and antler.^ Now these results can only be interpreted as 
 were those in the English caverns. The lower and ruder 
 implements belong to the men of the Drift; the later and 
 more polished ones to the CaA'^e-men. 
 
 Most of the relics obtained from these caverns belong 
 to the Cave-men proper. However, the implements from 
 one of them, known as Le Moustier, are of a rude type, and 
 may belong to those of the Drift. But most of them are 
 of superior make and finish. These specimens are all from 
 caves in this vicinity.^ 
 
 We have seen that the men of the Drift were very 
 widely scattered over the earth. We find, however, that the 
 Cave-men had a much more limited range. Dr. Fraas has 
 shown their presence in Germany. At Schussenreid, in 
 Bavaria, was found an open air station of these people. It 
 was evidently a camping-ground, one of the few places 
 where proofs of their presence have been discovered out- 
 side of caves. Here we found the usual debris, consisting 
 of broken bones, charcoal, blackened hearth-stone, and im- 
 plements of flint and horn. We must stop a minute to 
 notice a bit of unexpected proof as to the severity of 
 climate then prevailing in Europe. This deposit was cov- 
 ered up with sand, and on this sand were the remains of 
 
 • " Early Man in Britain," p. 198. 
 
 ' French writeri? make four divisions of these caves, accordinp; to the 
 degree of finish, wliich the si)eciinens sliow. Mr. Dawkins does not think tlie 
 difference in the implements sufficient to justify this view. With the possible 
 exception of Le Moustier, as stated above, we think his vii'w correct, which is 
 also the opinion of Mr. Evans. (" Ancient Stone Iniplenionls," p. 439.) 
 
CAVE-MEN. 117 
 
 moss, sufficiently perfect to determine the kind. We are 
 assured that it is composed of species now found only in 
 Alpine regions, near or above the snow-line, and in such 
 northern countries as Greenland and Spitzbergen.^ Dr. 
 Fraas also proved their presence in several caves in Suabia. 
 One known as the Hohlefels Cave was very rich in these 
 relics. They have been found in Switzerland, as at Thay- 
 engen ; but are not found south of the Alps or the Pyrenees. 
 Men, indeed, inhabited caves in Italy, but they did not use 
 the implements characteristic of the Cave-men.^ Mr. Daw- 
 kins points out that this range corresponds very nearly to 
 that of the northern group of animals, thus differing widely 
 from the men of the River Drift. In this connection we 
 must notice that the reindeer is the animal whose remains 
 are most commonly met with in the debris they have left in 
 the caves. This animal surely testifies to a cold climate. 
 We are thus justified in concluding that the Cave-men are 
 associated with the Arctic group of animals.^ 
 
 We must now turn our attention to . the culture of the 
 Cave-men. We must reflect that long ages, with great changes 
 of climate and life, both animal and vegetable, have rolled 
 away since the remains of these early races were sealed by 
 the stalagmite formation in caves. The relics at their best 
 are but scanty memorials of a people long since passed, and 
 we can not expect, can not hope, to recover more than a 
 general outline. But this will be found full of interest, for it 
 is a picture of Paleolithic life and times existing in Europe 
 long ages before the pyramids of Egypt were uplifted. 
 
 With respect to habitations, we have already seen that 
 he took up his abode in c;vves, at least 'where they were 
 suitable. According to their depth and the light penetrating 
 
 1 Rail's "Early Man in Europe," p. 88. 
 
 2 Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," p. 205. 3 j^j^^j^ p_ 
 
118 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 them, he either occupied the whole extent of them, or estab- 
 lished himself in the outlet only. About the center of the 
 cave some slabs of stone, selected from the hardest rock, such 
 as sandstone or slate, were bedded down in the ground, and 
 formed the hearth for cooking his food. But in no country 
 are such resorts sufficiently numerous to shelter a large pop- 
 ulation; besides, they are generally at some distance from 
 the fertile plains, where game would be most abundant. 
 In such cases they doubtless constructed rude huts of 
 boughs, skins, or other materials. Such an out-door settle- 
 ment was the station at Solutre, France, where has been 
 found an immense number of bones of horses, reindeers, 
 also, though in less abundance, those of elephants, aurochs, 
 and great lions. ^ 
 
 Where no cave presented itself, these people made for 
 themselves convenient sheltering places under the cover of 
 some great overhanging rock. In vai'ious places in France 
 such resorts have been discovered. The name of "rock 
 shelters " has been given to such resorts. In such places, 
 where we may suppose they built rude huts, are found rich 
 deposits of the bones of mammals, birds, and fishes, as well 
 as implements of bone and horn. 
 
 We have frequently referred to the presence of hearths, 
 showing that they used fire. Like other rude races, it is 
 probable that they obtained fire by the friction of one piece 
 of wood upon another. M. Dupont found in one of the Bel- 
 gium caves a piece of iron pyrites, from which, with a flint, 
 sparks could be struck. 
 
 Speculations have been indulged as to the probable con- 
 dition of man before he obtained a knowledge of fire. If 
 the acquisition of fire be regarded as one of the results of 
 
 ' It is, however, thought that the station was used as a camping-ground by 
 very different people, at widely dllTcrent times. 
 

 ROCK SHELTER AT BRUNXQUEL. 
 
 Ud 
 
CAVE-MEN. 121 
 
 human endeavor, it must surely be classed as one of the 
 most valuable discoveries which mankind has made. We do 
 not believe, however, that we shall ever discover relics of 
 races or tribes of men so low in the scale as to be ignorant 
 of the use of fire. Even some of the flints which M. Bour- 
 geois would refer to the Miocene Age show evidence of its 
 action.^ 
 
 The men of the Caves supported life by hunting. But a 
 very small part of their food supplies could have been 
 drawn from the vegetable kingdom. When the climate was 
 so severe that Alpine mosses grew at Schussenreid, acorns 
 and like nuts would be about all they could procure from 
 that source. The animals hunted by the Cave-men were 
 principally reindeer, horses, bisons, and, occasionally mam- 
 moths and woolly rhinoceros. But they were not very 
 choice in this matter, as they readily accepted as food any 
 animal they could obtain by force or cunning. Wolves and 
 foxes were not rejected, and in one cave large numbers of 
 the bones of the common water rat were obtained. We 
 know what animals Avere used as food, because we find their 
 bones split for the purpose of procuring the marrow they 
 contained. This was evidently to them a nutritious article 
 of diet, since they were careful to open all the bones con- 
 taining it, and bones so split are frequently the only means 
 of detecting the former presence of man in some bone caves. 
 
 We must not forget that at that time the shore of the 
 Atlantic Ocean, during a large part of the Paleolithic 
 Age, was situated much farther west than it is now, and 
 so in all probability many refuse heaps are now underneath 
 the waves. From certain drawings that are found in some 
 French caves, we know they were used for hunting both 
 seals and whales. 
 
 ' Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 434. 
 
122 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 We can not doubt that the capture of a whale afforded 
 as much enjoj-ment to them as it does to a tribe of Eskimos 
 now. Bones of birds and fishes are found in many instances. 
 The salmon appears to have been a favorite among fishes. 
 Among the birds are found some species now only living in 
 cold countries, such as the snowy owl, willow grouse, and 
 flamingo. This is but another proof that the climate of 
 Europe was then very cold. 
 
 The Cave-men were not afraid to attack animals greatly 
 superior to them in strength. In the Hohlefels Cave in Ger- 
 
 Whale and Seal, Incised on Bone. 
 
 many were found great quantities of the broken and split 
 bones of cave bears, an animal very similar to the grizzly, 
 and probably its equal in strength. The reindeer was the 
 main reliance of these tribes. Its bones are found in great 
 abundance, and it doubtless was to them all it is to the 
 Lapps of Europe to-day, except, of course, that it was not 
 domesticated. 
 
 Though fire would naturally suggest some rude method 
 of cooking, we can scarcely find a trace of such operations, 
 
CA VE-MEN. 
 
 123 
 
 and it has been a matter of conjecture how they proceeded. 
 Sir John Lubbock thinks they boiled their food, and iu the 
 absence of jjottery used wooden or skin vessels, bringing the 
 water to a boiling point by means of stones heated red hot 
 and thrown into the water. He points out the presence of 
 peculiarly shaped stones found in some caves, which he 
 
 Cave Bear, Incised on Slate. 
 
 thinks were used for this purpose.^ It is not supposed they 
 had any articles of pottery during this epoch. This is quite 
 an important point, because a knowledge of pottery marks 
 an important epoch in the culture of a people. 
 
 A people possessed of this knowledge have passed from 
 Savagism into the lower status of Barbarism.^ A piece of 
 jjottery is as little liable to destruction as a piece of bone, 
 
 ' " Prehistoric Times," p. 3?)5. - ^lorgan's " Ancient Society," p. 12. 
 
124 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 and so, had those people possessed pottery, there is no rea- 
 son why pieces of it should not be louud in every refuse 
 heap, and amongst the debris of all caves. But such is not 
 the case; no frugments of pottery have yet been found 
 which can be referred with confidence to the epoch of the 
 Cave-men.^ 
 
 Some speculations have been indulged in as to whether 
 the men of this age were cannibals or not. It need occasion 
 no surprise if they Avere, since ancient writers assert that 
 even during historical times this pi'actice prevailed in Eu- 
 rope.- Though not definitely proven, there are many facts 
 diflficult of explanation, except on this supposition. How- 
 ever, it may well be that this, after all. only amounted to 
 the custom of eating parts of an enemy killed in battle, as 
 certain modern savages do that we would not call can- 
 nibals.^ 
 
 It is not necessary to speak at much length of the meth- 
 ods of hunting. They had bows and arrows, daggers of 
 reindeer horn, spears tipped with flint or bone, and harpoons. 
 Besides, they made a formidable club of the lower jaw-bone 
 of the cave-bear with its cnnine tooth still left in its place. 
 Fishing with nets is not supposed to have been known, 
 Harpooning was jjrobably their favorite way. M. G. DeMor- 
 tillet thinks they fished as follows : They fastened a cord to 
 the middle of a small splinter of bone. This was tlion 
 
 'Lnbbock'.s " Preliistorio Times," p. 338. J. C. Southall, in his v:ilu:ilile 
 work, " Recent Origin of M:ui," ]>. TO."), ct x.v/., artrui's that jxitteiy w;,s i<nii\\ n 
 at this time, iuid cites instances wliei-i' it is stated tn liave been found. Tliis 
 is the opinion of Fi<jnier also. ("Primitive Man," p. i-iA.) But Mr. Dawkins 
 points out tliat these pieces of pottery are clearly of a Neolithic .style, and <loes 
 not think it proven that they are of Paleolithic ay;e. Mr. Geikie'also denies tliat 
 there is any proof that they were acquainted witli the potter's art. (" Prehis- 
 toric Europe," p. IS.) So the liifrhest i>lace in tiie scale of civilization we can 
 a.ssitrn these peo])le to is that of I^))per Savaj^eism- 
 
 -' Rau's " Early Man in Euroi)e," p. 79. 
 
 ^(ieikie's " Prehistoric Europe," \\ 22. 
 
CAVE-MEN. 125 
 
 "baited, and when swallowed by the fish, was very certain to 
 get caught in the body.^ 
 
 We know that rude tribes of to-day hu^e many means 
 of snaring animals. Doubtless similar scenes were enacted 
 on their primeval hunting-grounds. French books contain 
 illustrations of the men of this period driving game over 
 precipitous sides. They had no dogs to assist them in the hunt, 
 and though reindeer were around them in great abundiince, it 
 is not supposed that they thought of domesticating them. 
 
 Man is the only animal which seeks to piotect his body 
 from the Summer's heat or the cold of Winter by the use 
 of clothing. We are, unfortunately, not able to present 
 many details of the dress of man during the early Stone 
 Age. We are, however, quite certain that when the climate 
 was severe enough to permit such animals as the musk-sheep 
 and the reindeer to inhabit South-western Europe, man must 
 have been provided with an abundance of warm clothing, 
 though doubtless rudely made and fashioned. Many reindeer 
 horns found in France are cut and hacked at the base in 
 such a way as to indicate that it was done when removing 
 the skins-. We also know that the rudest of savage tribes 
 are never at a loss for some process of tanning hides and 
 rendering them fit for use. From the immense number and 
 variety of scrapers found among the cave debris, we are sure 
 the preparation of clothing occupied no inconsiderable por- 
 tion of their time. We also find numerous awls and splinters 
 of flint and bone, which they doubtless used in exactly the 
 same manner as similar tools are used by the Lapps to-day 
 in Europe, that is, to pierce holes in the hides, through which 
 to pass their rude needle and thread. The needles are made 
 of reindeer horn, and they were not only smoothly polished, 
 but the eyes are of such a minute size, and withal so regu- 
 
 'Figuier's "Primitive Miin," p. 90. 
 
126 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 larly made, that many at first could not believe they were 
 drilled by the use of flint alone. This, however, has been 
 shown to be the case by actual experiments. The thread 
 employed was reindeer tendons, for bones of these animals 
 are found cut just where they would be cut in removing 
 
 • Glove, Incised on Bear's Tooth. 
 
 these tendons. This cut shows that they protected their 
 hands by means of long gloves of three or four fingers.^ 
 
 We have thus far been considering those arts which per- 
 tain more directly to living. We have presented some 
 sketches found engraved on pieces of bone. We first noticed 
 this among the relics found in one of the Creswell caves in 
 England. It was also noticed in Belgium. It was among the 
 Cave-men of Southern France that this artistic trait became 
 highly developed. Among the reindeer hunters of the Dor- 
 dogne were artists of no mean ability. We must pause a 
 minute and mark the bearing of this taste for art. We have 
 seen many reasons for supposing the men of the caves much 
 farther advanced in the scale of culture than those of the 
 Drift, but we have also seen that we can not rank them 
 higher than the highest grade of savages. 
 
 Sir John Lubbock thus speaks of them : " In considering 
 the probable condition of these ancient Cave-men, we must 
 give them full credit for their love of art, such as it was ; 
 while, on the other hand, the want of metal, of polished 
 
 > Davvkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 210. 
 
CAVE-MEN. 
 
 i2r 
 
 flint implements, and even of potteiy, the ignorance of agri- 
 culture, and the apparent absence of all domestic animalSy 
 including even the dog, certainly imply a very low state of 
 civilization."^ 
 
 They were certainly not as far advanced in civilization 
 as the next race we will describe, yet the Neolithic people 
 had no such skill as was possessed by the cave-men. This 
 
 Reindeer Grazing, 
 
 need not surprise us, because "an artistic feeling is not 
 always the offspring of civilization, it is rather a gift of na- 
 ture. It may manifest its existence in the most barbarous 
 ages, and may make its influence more deeply felt in nations 
 which are behind in respect to general progress than in oth- 
 ers which are more deeply advanced in civilization."^ 
 
 In regard to the objects themselves, a glance at the illus- 
 trations show us that they are quite faithful sketches of the 
 animals at that time common. As might be expected, 
 sketches of the reindeer are numerous. This cut is rep;?.rd6d 
 as the highest example of Paleolithic art, sketched on a 
 
 1 " Prehistoric Times," p. 341. ^ Figuier's " Primitive Man," p. 105. 
 
128 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 piece of horn and found in Switzerland. The animal is 
 grazing, and the grass on which it feeds is seen below. We 
 have on a piece of slate the outlines of a group of reindeer, 
 
 Group ol Reindeers. 
 
 :generally considered as representing a fight, though it may 
 mean a hunt, and that the hunter has succeeded in killing a 
 portion of the herd. Some, as we see, are on the ground. 
 It would be exceedingly interesting could we but find 
 well executed sketches of the men of this period, but, un- 
 
 T.Ian and Other Animals. 
 
 fortupately, with one or two exceptions, no representations, 
 however rude, have yet been discovered of the human form. 
 Perhaps an explanation of this (ait may bo found in the well- 
 
CA VE-MEN. 
 
 129 
 
 known reluctance of savage tribes to have any engravings 
 taken of themselves, and we ,can well imagine that if any 
 one was known to make drawings of human beings he would 
 
 Fish, Incised on Bear's Tooth. 
 
 be regarded with suspicious distrust, and it would hardly 
 be a safe accomplishment to possess. One very curious 
 group represents a man, long and lean, standing between two 
 horses' heads, and by the side of a long serpent or fish, 
 having the appearance of an eel. On the reverse side of 
 this piece of horn were represented the heads of two aurochs 
 or bisons. Mr. Daw kins thinks this also represents a hunt- 
 ing sketch, and that the man is in the act of striking one of 
 the horses with a spear. 
 
 On a fragment of spear-head found in France several 
 human hands were engraved, but having only four fingers 
 each. On this point Mr. 
 Lartet assures us that 
 some savage tribes still 
 depict the hand without 
 the thumb .^ Representa- 
 tations of birds and rep- 
 tiles are very rare ; fishes 
 are more common. On a 
 piece of reindeer's horn itex. 
 
 was found this representation of the head and chest of an 
 ibex. Of special interest to us is a representation of a 
 
 'Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 111. 
 
130 
 
 THE 1' RE HISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 mammoth found en- 
 graved on a piece of 
 mammoth tusk in 
 one of the Dordogne 
 caves. We have no 
 doubt that the artist 
 who engraved it was 
 perfectly familiar 
 with the animal it- 
 self. 
 
 Their artistic skill 
 was not confined to 
 the execution of 
 drawings. They fre- 
 quently carved pieces 
 of reindeer horn into 
 various animal forms. 
 Our next cut shows us 
 a dagger, the handle 
 of which is carved to 
 imitate a reindeer. 
 It will be seen how 
 the artist has adapted 
 the position of the 
 animal to the neces- 
 sities of the case. 
 Flowers are very sel- 
 dom represented; but 
 one implement from 
 Mammoth— La Madeline Cave, France. France has a very 
 
 nice representation of some lloworing plant engraved on it. 
 Tak(> il ;ill in nil, the possession of this artistic instinct 
 
 is cerl.iiiil\' icinarkablc — the more so when we remember the 
 
CA VE-MEN. 
 
 131 
 
 rudeness of his surroundings, and the few and simple means 
 at his command for work. "A splinter of flint was his sole 
 graving tool ; a piece of reindeer horn, or a flake of slate or 
 
 Reindeer Carved on Dagger Handle. 
 
 ivory, was the only plate on which primitive man could 
 stamp his reproduction of animated nature."^ 
 
 Some speculations have been indulged in as to whether 
 "we have any traces of a government amongst the Paleolithic 
 people. That they had some chief or leader is more than 
 probable. In the caves of France we find a number of frag- 
 ments of reindeer horn. Generally speaking, they show evi- 
 dence of a good deal of care in making them. They are 
 carved and ornamented with sketches of various animals, 
 and invariably have one or more holes bored in the base. 
 The idea has been quite freely advanced, that these are em- 
 blems of authority.^ And some have pointed out, that, though 
 they are too light for use as weapons, yet their "frequent 
 •occurrence, and uniformity of type, show that they possess 
 a conventional significance."^ Mr. Geikie says that these 
 conjectures "are mere guess-work."^ And Mr. Dawkins 
 points out that they are very similar in design and ornament 
 with an implement of the Eskimos known as an "arrow- 
 straightener."'^ 
 
 Whatever may be our conclusions in regard to these or- 
 namented pieces of-reindeer horn, we can not doubt but that 
 
 ' Figuier's " Primitive Man," p. 105. ' Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 102. 
 = Rail's " Eariy Man in Europe," p. 7.3. * "Prehistoric Europe," p. 18. 
 sDawkin,s's "Eariy Man in Britain," p. 2.']7. 
 
132 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 their social instincts found expres- 
 sion in some sort of alliance for the 
 common good. This is shown by 
 several facts : such, for instance, as 
 the evidence of trade or barter be- 
 tween localities considerable dis- 
 tances apart. The inhabitants of 
 Belgium must have gone to what is 
 now Southern France to procure the 
 flint they used. They also procured, 
 from the same source, fossil sea- 
 shells, which they valued highly.^ 
 We also notice the fact, that certain 
 localities appear to have been used 
 as the place of manufacture for cer- 
 tain articles, to the exclusion of 
 others. In other words, the primi- 
 tive people appear to have learned 
 the great utility of a division of la- 
 bor. One of the caves in Belgium 
 appears to have been used as a place 
 to make flint implements. Over 
 twenty thousand articles of flint 
 were found in this cave.^ In France, 
 while in one cave the implements 
 were all of the spear-head type, in 
 a neighboring cave horn was almost 
 the only article used in the manu- 
 facture of implements. We must 
 Flowers on Reindeer's Horn, not, however, form an Gxalted idea 
 of their trade — it was simply barter in a rude state of society.^ 
 Various opinions have been held as to whether we have 
 
 ' Figuior's "Priinitivo Man," p. 117. ' Ibi.l., p. 118. ' Ibid., pp. 94 and 95. 
 
CA VE-MEN. 133 
 
 any trace of a religious belief. Theoretically speaking, they 
 had some sort of a religion, though doubtless very vague 
 and indistinct; for we know of no nation as far advanced as 
 they were destitute of it.^ It has been pointed out, that the 
 bones of some animals, as the horse, were very rare, and their 
 absence explained as the result of superstitious reasons. It 
 
 Omajnented Reindeer Horn— Use Unkno-wm. 
 
 has also been conjectured that some of the perforated bones 
 and teeth of animals found in various deposits were amulets 
 worn for religious purposes ; and some have gone so far as 
 to infer, that the ornamentations on some of these so-called 
 amulets represent the sun, and that, consequently, sun-worship 
 prevailed among the Cave-men. While these various con- 
 jectures are, of course, possible, it is equally certain they are 
 all "mere guess-work." 
 
 Early explorers describe with considerable degree of con- 
 fidence the manner of burial among the Cave-men, and in- 
 ferred from the remains found buried with the bodies that 
 they had some notion of a life beyond the grave — and, ac- 
 cordingly, placed near the body food and drink to support him 
 on his journey, weapons wherewith to defend himself, and 
 his favorite implements, so that, arrived at the land of spirits, 
 he would be well provided for. These result are not borne 
 out by later investigations. The instance mentioned most 
 prominently, that of the burial cave at Aurignac, France, 
 has been shown to have no bearing on the question, as 
 every thing indicates that the burials were of a much later date. 
 
 ' This, as Sir John Lubbock points out, depends on our meaning of the 
 word "religion." ("Prehistoric Times," p. 589.) 
 
134 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 We have yet a most important questiou before us — one 
 that is still engaging the attention of scientific men in Eu- 
 rope. That is the question of race. Who were these early 
 tribes? Are they in any way connected with the men of the 
 Drift ? Have we any representations of them now living 
 upon the earth ? On these questions there is quite a diversity 
 of opinion. In various caves in France and Belgium, skulls 
 and other bones of the human skeleton have been found. 
 These have been studied with care by the best scholars in 
 Europe; and M. Quatrefages has set forth the results in his 
 various works, in which he connects them, not only with 
 the men of the River Drift, but with the race of men 
 that inhabited Europe during the succeeding Neolithic Age, 
 and, indeed, with men now living in France and Belgium. 
 
 There is no question as to the correctness of these infer- 
 ences — the only one is, whether the skulls and fragmentary 
 skeletons are really remains of the Cave-men. This must 
 be made perfectly clear and unquestioned before we are to ' 
 accept them. Mr. Dawkins reviews the various cases where 
 skeletons have been found in caves.^ He points out that, 
 in every instance, very- serious doubts can be raised as to 
 whether they are really remains of the Cave-men or not. 
 
 Until these objections are met, we do not see how the 
 opinion of M. Quatrefages (above) can be accepted. But 
 if these instances are not accepted, then, in all other in- 
 stances where there is no doubt, the remains are in such a 
 fragmentary condition that no conclusion can be made from 
 them. So as far as remains of the human skeleton are con- 
 cerned, we can form no conclusions as to the race to which 
 the Cave-men belonged. 
 
 ' " The principal instance are Cro-Magnon, Frontal, and Furfor?;, in Bel- 
 gium ; Aurignac, Bruniquel, and Mentone, in France. " Cave-Hunting," 
 chap. vii. , 
 
CAVE-MEN. 135 
 
 We have already noted, that the Cave-men came into 
 Europe much later than the men of the Drift, and that their 
 range was very limited, corresponding, in fact, with that of 
 the northern group of animals. When the cold of the Glacial 
 Age passed away, the musk-sheep, reindeer, and other ani- 
 mals, were diiven out of Europe. They are found now only 
 in high northern latitudes, such as Greenland. Mr. Daw- 
 kins thinks that there, also, are to be found the Cave-men of 
 the Paleolithic Age, now known as the Eskimos. Though 
 not accepted by all authorities, yet some of our best schol- 
 ars find much to commend in this theory. 
 
 We have undoubted proofs that, in America, the Eskimos 
 formerly lived much farther south. ^ And Dr. Abbott thinks 
 the Paleolithic implements discovered in New Jersey, bear- 
 ing such striking resemblance to those of Europe, are un- 
 doubtedly their work.^ Therefore, there is no absurdity in 
 asserting that they once lived in Western Europe; the more 
 so, when we reflect that the climate, the animals — in fact, all 
 their surroundings-^— must have been similar to those of their 
 present habitats. 
 
 When we come to examine the customs and habits of 
 these Eskimos, we are at once struck with their resemblance 
 to what we have seen was the probable state of life among 
 the Cave-men. At Solutre, for instance, we have vast 
 refuse heaps of bones of animals. We find similar heaps 
 around the rude huts of the Eskimos to-day. Captain 
 Parry describes one as follows : " In every direction 
 round the huts were lying innumerable bones of walruses 
 and seals, together with skulls of dogs, bears, and foxes."* 
 
 ' " Contributions to N. A. Ethnology," vol. i, p. 102 ; " U. S. Geographical 
 Survey West of the 100th Meridian," vol. vii, p. 12; Abbott's "Primitive In- 
 dustry," p. 517. 
 
 ' " Primitive Industry," 518. 
 
 ' Quoted by Lubbock," Prehistoric Times," p. 507. 
 
136 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Other points of comparison strike us 
 when reading Sir John Lubbock's account 
 of their habits and customs. For instance : 
 £ ^1 \ " Their food, if cooked at all, is broiled or 
 
 boiled; their vessels, being of stone or 
 wood, can not, indeed, be put on the fires, 
 but heated stones are thrown in until the 
 water becomes hot enough and the food is 
 cooked." " Their food consists principally of 
 reindeer, musk-ox, walrus, seals, birds, and 
 salmon. They will, however, eat any kind 
 of animal food. They are very fond of fat 
 and marrow, to get at which they pound 
 the bones with a stone." " The clothes of 
 the Eskimos are made from the skins of the 
 reindeer, seals, and birds, sewn together 
 with sinews. For needles they use the 
 bones of either birds or fishes." " The Eski- 
 mos have also a great natural ability for 
 drawing. In many cases they have made 
 rude maps for our officers, which have 
 turned out to be substantially correct. Many 
 of their bone implements are covered with 
 sketches." 
 j^ H In this cut we have a bone drill on 
 
 •^ T^r which are sketched reindeer, geese, a baider 
 *^ J L *\1 or flat-bottomed boat, a tent around which 
 various articles of clothing are hung up to 
 dry, a woman apparently engaged in the 
 preparation of food, and a hunting scene. 
 Now, we know that savage tribes, widely 
 separated by time and space, will, after all, under the pres- 
 sure of common necessities, invent much the same implements 
 
 L' 
 
 Eskimo Art. 
 
CAVE-MEN. 137 
 
 and live much the same life. But still, where every thing 
 seems to coincide, the climate, the animals, the mode of life 
 proved the same, and especially when both are seen possessed 
 of a common artistic skill, together with the known fact that 
 in the Western Continent the Eskimos did formerly live 
 much farther south ; there is surely a strong case made out, 
 and therefore the probabilities are that the Eskimos are the 
 representatives of the Cave-men of Europe.^ And yet we must 
 be cautious on this point; or rather we remember that the 
 phrase, " predecessors of the Eskimos," does not imply that 
 they were in all respects like them. An examination of the 
 rude sketches of the Cave-men left by themselves seems to 
 indicate that the whole body was covered with hair. " The 
 hunter in the Antler from Duruthy Cave has a long, pointed 
 beard, and a high crest of hair on the poll utterly unlike the 
 Eskimo type. The figures are also those of a slim and long- 
 jointed man."^ 
 
 This completes our review of the Paleolithic people, and 
 it only remains to present some general conclusions. The 
 Glacial or Pleistocene Age is seen to have been of immense 
 duration, and characterized by great changes in climate. We 
 have found that two races of men occupied Europe during 
 this time. The men of the River Drift are the most ancient. 
 
 We have seen that they can be traced over wide-ex- 
 tended areas. They seem to have invaded Europe, along 
 with the great invasion of animals from Asia, constituting 
 the temperate group of animals ; and with those animals they 
 probably shifted back and forth, as the cold of the Glacial 
 Age increased or waned. These people seem to have com- 
 pletely vanished. At a later date, v.'hen the cold of the 
 Glacial Age was once more severe, associated with animals 
 
 'Dawkins's "Eiirly Miin in Britain," ]>. 241'. 
 
 ^ Prof. Grant Allen, I'dpular Scinicr Mniillihi, Xuvcinbcr, 1S82, p. 
 
138 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 now living only in high northern latitudes, came the Cave- 
 men, whose discussion has formed the subject of this 
 chapter. 
 
 It will be seen how much we owe to patient investi- 
 gators. The results are, indeed, bewildering. They make 
 us acquainted with a people the very existence of whom 
 was not known a few years back. Though the whole life 
 of those ancient races seemed hopelessly lost in the night of 
 time, the gloom is irradiated by the light of modern science, 
 which lays before our astonished vision the remains of arts 
 and industries of the primitive tribes that occupied Europe 
 during the morning-time of human life. 
 
 '^^=^^^^ 
 
 
 The Mammoth 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 139 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 AHTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE.i 
 
 Interest in the Antiquity of man — Connected with the Glacial Age-^ 
 The Subject Difficult — Proofs of a Glacial Age — State of Greenland 
 to-day — The Terminal Moraine — Appearance of the North Atlantic — 
 Interglacial Age — Causes of the Glacial Age — Croll's Theory — 
 Geographical causes — The two theories not Antagonistic — The date 
 of the Glacial Age — Probable length of the Paleolithic Age — Time 
 since the close of the Glacial Age — Summary of results. 
 
 WE have already remarked, geological 
 
 1 I \ i\ 
 
 ' '^ ^ periods give us no insight as to the 
 
 *^ actual passage of years. To say that 
 man lived in the Glacial Age, and that 
 we have some faint traces of his presence in still 
 earlier periods, after all conveys to our minds only 
 vague ideas of a far-away time. The more a geologist studies 
 the structure of the earth, the more impressed is he with the 
 magnitude of the time that must have passed since " The 
 Beginning." At present, however, there are no means 
 known of accurately measuring the time that has passed. 
 It is just as well that it is so, since, were it known, the 
 human mind would be utterly incapable of comprehending 
 it. But as to the antiquity of man, it is but natural that 
 we should seek more particularly to solve the problem and 
 express our answer in some term of years. 
 
 Now, we have seen that the question of the antiquity 
 of man is intimately connected with that of the Glacial 
 
 'The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to Prof. G. F. Wright, of 
 Oberlin, for criticism. 
 
140 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Age. That is to say, the relics, of man as far as we 
 know them in Europe, are found under such circum- 
 stances that we feel confident they are not far removed 
 from the period of cold. For it will be found that those 
 conservative scholars who do not think that man preceded 
 the Glacial Age, or inhabited Europe during the long course 
 of years included in that period, do think he came into Eu- 
 rope as soon as it passed away. So, in any case, if we can 
 determine the date of the Glacial Age, we shall have made 
 a most important step in advance in solving the problem of 
 the antiquity of man himself. So it seems to us best to go 
 over the subject of the Glacial Age again, and see what con- 
 clusions some of our best thinkers have come to as to its 
 cause, when it occurred, and other matters in relation to it. 
 It is best to state frankly at the outset that this topic 
 is one of the great battle-grounds of science to-day, and that 
 there are as yet but few points well settled in regard to it. 
 One needs but attempt to read the literature on this subject 
 to become quickly impressed with the necessity of making 
 haste slowly in forming any conclusions. He must invoke 
 the aid of the astronomer, geologist, physical-geographer, 
 and physicist. Yet we must not suppose that questions re- 
 lating to the Glacial Age are so abstruse that they are of 
 interest only to the scholar. On the contrary, all ought to 
 be interested in them. They open up one of the most won- 
 derful chapters in the history of the world. They recall 
 from the past a picture of ice-bound coasts and countries 
 groaning under icy loads, where now are harbors enlivened 
 by the commerce of the world, or ripening fields attesting 
 the vivifying influence of a genial sun. Let us, therefore, 
 follow after the leaders in thought. When we come to 
 where they can not agree we can at least see what both 
 sides have to say. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 141 
 
 Somewhat at the risji of repetition, we will try and im- 
 press on our readers a sense of the reality and severity of 
 the Glacial Age. There is danger in regarding this as sim- 
 ply a convenient theory that geologists have originated to 
 explain some puzzling facts, that it is not very well founded, 
 and is liable to give way any day to some more ingenious 
 explanation. On the contrary, this whole matter has been 
 worked out by very careful scholars. " There is, perhaps, 
 no great conclusion in any science which rests upon a 
 surer foundation than this, and if we are to be guided by 
 our reason at all in deducing the unknown from the known, 
 the past from the present, we can not refuse our assent to 
 the reality of the Glacial Age of the Northern Hemisphere 
 in all its more important features.^ At the present day gla- 
 ciers do exist in several places on the earth. They are 
 found in the Alps and the mountains of Norway, and the Cau- 
 casus, in Europe. The Himalaya mountains support immense 
 glaciers in Asia; and in America a few still linger in the 
 more inaccessible heights of the Sierra Nevada: It is from 
 a study of these glaciers, mainly however, those of the Alps, 
 that geologists have been enabled to explain the true mean- 
 ing of certain formations they find in both Europe and Amer- 
 ica, that go by the name of drift. 
 
 When in an Alpine valley we come upon a glacier, fill- 
 ing it from side to side, there will be noticed upon both 
 sides a long train of rock, drift, and other debris that have 
 fallen down upon its surface from the mountain sides. K 
 two of these ice-rivers unite to form one glg,cier, two of 
 these trains will then be borne along in the middle of the 
 resulting glacier. As this glacier continues down the valley, 
 it at length reaches a point where a further advance is ren- 
 dered impossible by the increased temperature melting the 
 
 1 Wallace's "Island Life," p. 113. 
 
 ^ 
 
142 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ice as fast as it advances. At this point the train of rocks 
 and dirt are dumped, and of course form great mounds, 
 called moraines. The glacier at times shrinks back on its 
 rocky bed and allows explorers to examine it. 
 
 In such cases they find the rocks smoothed and polished, 
 but here and there marked with long grooves and striae. 
 These points are learned ]Crom an examination of existing 
 glaciers. Further down the valley, where now the glaciers 
 never extend, are seen very distinctly the same signs. There 
 are the same moraines, striated rocks, and bowlders that 
 have evidently traveled from their home up the valley. The 
 only explanation possible in this case is that once the gla- 
 ciers extended to that point in the valley. 
 
 It required a person who was perfectly familiar with the 
 behavior of Alpine glaciers, and knew exactly what marks 
 they left behind in their passage, to point out the proofs of 
 their former presence in Northern Europe and America, 
 where it seems almost impossible to believe they existed. 
 Such a man was Louis Agassiz, the eminent naturalist. 
 Born and educated in Switzerland, he spent nine years in re- 
 searches among the glaciers of the mountains of his native 
 country. He proved the former wide extension of the gla- 
 ciers of Switzerland. With these results before them, geolo- 
 gists were not long in showing that there had once been glacial 
 ice over a large part of Europe and North America. 
 
 The proofs in this case are almost exactly the same as 
 those used to show that the ancient glaciers of Switzerland 
 were once larger than now. But as the great glaciers of the 
 glacial age were many times larger than any thing we know 
 of at the present day, there were of course different results 
 produced. For instance, the water circulating under Alpine 
 glaciers is enabled to wash out and carry away the mass of 
 ipulvorized rock and diit ground along underneath the ice. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 143 
 
 But when the glaciers covered such an enormous extent of 
 country as they did in the Glacial Age, the water could not 
 sweep away this detritus, and so great beds of gravel, sand, 
 and clay would be formed over a large extent of country. 
 But to go over the entire ground would require volumes; it 
 is sufficient to give the results. 
 
 The interior of Greenland to-day is covered by one vast 
 sea of ice. Explorers have traversed its surface for many 
 miles; not a plant, or stone, or patch of earth is to be seen. 
 In the Winter it is a snow-swept waste. In the Summer 
 streams of ice-cold water flow over its surface, penetrating 
 here and there by crevasses to unknown depths. This great 
 glacier is some twelve hundred miles long, by four hundred 
 in width. ^ Vast as it is, it is utterly insignificant as com- 
 pared with the great continental glacier that geologists as- 
 sures us once held in its grasp the larger portion of North 
 America. 
 
 The conclusions of some of our best scholars on this sub- 
 ject are so opposed to all that we would think possible, 
 according to the present climate and surroundings, that they 
 seem at first incredible, and yet they have been worked out 
 with such care that there is no doubt of the substantial truth 
 of the results. 
 
 The terminal moraine of the great glacier has been care- 
 fully traced through several States. We now know that one 
 vast sea of ice covered the eastern part of North America, 
 down to about the thirty-ninth parallel of latitude. We have 
 every reason to think that the great glacier, extending many 
 miles out in the Atlantic, terminated in a great sea of ice, 
 rising several hundred feet perpendicularly above the surface 
 of the water. Long Island marks the southern extension of 
 this glacier. From there its temporal moraine has been traced 
 
 ' Nordenskiold's " American Journal of Science," vol. 110, p. 58- 
 
144 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 west, across New Jersey and Pennsylvania, diagonally across 
 Ohio, crossing the river near Cincinnati, and thence west 
 across Indiana and Illinois. West of the Mississippi it bears 
 off to the north-west, and finally passes into British America.^ 
 
 All of North America, to the north and north-east of 
 this line, must have been covered by one vast sea of ice.^ 
 Doubtless, as in Greenland to-day, there was no hill or patch 
 of earth to be seen, simply one great field of ice. The ice 
 was thick enough to cover from sight Mt. Washington, in 
 New Nampshire, and must haA^e been at least a mile thick 
 over a large portion of this area,^ and even at its southern 
 border it must in places have been from two hundred to 
 two thousand feet thick.^ This, as we have seen, is a pic- 
 ture very similar to what must have been presented by 
 Europe at this time.^ 
 
 The Northern Atlantic Ocean must have presented a 
 dreary aspect. Its shores were walls of ice, from which 
 ever and anon great masses sailed away as icebergs. These 
 are startling conclusions. Yet, in the Southern Hemisphere 
 to-day is to be seen nearly the same state of things. It is 
 well-known that all the lands around the South Pole are 
 covered by a layer of ice of enormous thickness. Sir J. A. 
 Ross, in attempting to reach high southern latitudes, while 
 yet one thousand four hundred miles from the pole, found 
 his further progress impeded by a perpendicular wall of ice 
 one hundred and eighty feet thick. He sailed along that 
 barrier four hundred and fifty miles, and then gave up the 
 attempt. Only at one point in ;ill that distance did the ice 
 
 ' Wright's "Studies in Science and Religion," p. IJOT, where a map of this 
 moraine is given. 
 
 ^Tliere is, however, a small area in the south-west part of Wisconsin 
 where, for some; reason, the ice passed by. 
 
 = Dane's " Manual of Geology," p. ftliS. 
 
 * Wright's "Studies in Science and lieligion," p. 308. 
 
 '"Men.jf the Drift," p. 71. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 147 
 
 wall sink low enough to allow of its upper surface being seen 
 from the mast-head. He describes the upper surface as an 
 immense plain shining like frosted silver, and stretching away 
 as far as eye could reach into the illimitable distance.^ 
 
 The foregoing makes plain to us one phase of the Glacial 
 Age. Though it may not be quite clear what this has' to do 
 with the antiquity of man, yet we will see, in the sequel, 
 that it has considerable. As to the periods of mild climate 
 that are thought by some to have broken up the reign of 
 cold, we do not feel that we can say any thing in addition 
 to what has been said in a former chapter.^ 
 
 We might, however, say, that the sequences of mild and 
 cold climate are not as well made out in America as they 
 seem to be in Europe; or at least our geologists are more 
 cautious as to accepting the evidence as sufficient. And yet 
 such evidences are not wanting: as in Europe, at various 
 places, are found layers of land surfaces with remains of ani- 
 mals and plants, but both above and below such surface soil 
 are found beds of bowlder clay. These offer undeniable evi- 
 dence that animals and plants occupied the land during tem- 
 perate inter-glacial epochs, preceded and followed by an Arc- 
 tic climate, and ice-sheets like those now covering the interior 
 of Greenland, and the Antarctic Continent.^ 
 
 We have thus, though somewhat at length, gone over the 
 evidence as to the reality and severity of the Glacial Age. 
 It was during the continuance of such climate that Paleolithic 
 man arrived in Europe, though it was not perhaps until its 
 close. We must not lose sight of the fact that our principal 
 object at present is to determine, if we can, a date for either 
 the beginning or ending of this extraordinary season of cold, 
 
 'Geikie's "Great Ice Ace," p. 93. 2<<jyjgj, qJ ^he Eiver Drift." 
 
 'Abbott's "Primitive Industry," p. 545; Quoted from "Geology of Min- 
 nesota." Report, 1877, p. 37. 
 
148 THE PREBISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 and thereby achieve an important step in determining the 
 antiquity of man. 
 
 A moment's consideration will show us that a period of 
 cold sufficient to produce over a large portion of the North- 
 ern Hemisphere the results we have just set forth must 
 have a cause that is strange and far-reaching. It can not be 
 some local cause, affecting but one continent, since the effect 
 produced is observed as well in Europe as in America. 
 
 Every year we pass through considerable changes in 
 climate. The four seasons of the year seem to be but an 
 annual repetition, on a very small scale of course, of the 
 great changes in the climate of the earth that culminated in 
 the Glacial Age; though we do not mean to say, that pe- 
 riods of glacial cold come and go with the regularity of our 
 Winter. The changes in the seasons of the year are caused 
 by the earth's position in its orbit, and its annual revolution 
 around the sun. It may be that the cause of the Glacial 
 Age itself is of a similar nature ; in which case it is an astro- 
 nomical problem, and we ought, by calculation, to determine, 
 with considerable accuracy, dates for the beginning and end- 
 ing of this epoch. 
 
 Nothing is clearer than that great fluctuations of climate 
 have occurred in the past. Many theories have been put 
 forth in explanation. It has been suggested that it was 
 caused by loss of heat from the earth itself. That the earth 
 was once a ball of incandescent matter, like the sun, and has 
 since cooled down, is of course admitted. More than that, 
 this process still continues; and the time must come when 
 the earth, having yielded up its internal heat, will cease to 
 be an inhabitable globe. But the climate of the surface of 
 the earth is not dependent upon the heat of the interior. 
 This now depends "according to the proportion of heat 
 received either directly or indirectly from the sun; and so it 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 149 
 
 must have been during all the ages of which any records 
 have come down to us."^ 
 
 Some have supposed that the sun, traveling as it does- 
 through space, carrying the earth and the other planets with 
 him, might, in the course of ages, pass through portions of 
 space either warmer or colder than that in which it now 
 moves. When we come to a warm region of space, a genial 
 climate would prevail over the earth; but, when we struck 
 a cold belt, eternal Winter would mantle a large part of the 
 globe with snow and ice. This, of course, is simply guess-work. 
 No less than seven distinct causes have been urged ; most of 
 them either purely conjectural, like the last, or manifestly 
 incompetent to produce the great results which we have seen 
 must be accounted for. But, amongst these, two causes have 
 been advanced — the one astronomical, the other geograph- 
 ical; and, to the one or the other, the majority of scholars 
 have given their consent. 
 
 It will be no harm to see what can be said in favor of 
 both theories. So, we will ask the reader's attention, as it 
 is our earnest desire to make as plain as possible a question 
 that has so much to do with our present inquiry. In the 
 course of our investigations, we can not fail to catch glimpses 
 of wonderful changes in far away times; and can not help 
 seeing what labor is involved in the solution of all questions 
 relating to the same.^ 
 
 The earth revolves around the sun in an orbit called an 
 ellipse. This is not a fixed form, but slowly varies from 
 year to year. It is now gradually becoming circular. It 
 
 1 Geikie's " Great Ice Age," p. 97. - 
 
 ^ The astronomical theory, which we will first examine, was first enunciated 
 by Mr. Croll, following a suggestion of the astronomer Adhemer. Mr. Croll's 
 views were set forth in many able papers, and finally gathered into a volume 
 entitled " Climate and Time in their Geological Relation." The ablest defense 
 of these views is that by Mr. James Geikie, in his works "The Great Ice 
 Age," and " Prehistoric Europe." 
 
150 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 will, however, not become an exact circle. Astronomers as- 
 sure us that, after a long lapse of time, it will commence to 
 elongate as an ellipse again. Thus, it will continually change 
 from an ellipse to an approximate circle, and back again. In 
 scientific language, the eccentricity of the earth's orbit is 
 said to increase and decrease. 
 
 In common language we would state that the shape of 
 the path of the earth around the sun was sometimes much 
 more elongated and elliptical than at others. The line drawn 
 through the longest part of an ellipse is called the major 
 
 axis. Now the sun does not oc- 
 cupy the center of this line, but is 
 placed to one side of it ; or, in 
 other words, occupies one focus of 
 the ellipse. It will thus be seen 
 that the earth, at one time during 
 Earth's Orbit. j|.g yearly joumcy, is considerably 
 
 nearer to the sun than at others. The point where it ap- 
 proaches nearest the sun is called Perihelion, and the point 
 where it reaches the greatest distance from the sun is called 
 its Aphelion. It will be readily seen that the more elliptical 
 its orbit becomes the greater will be the difference between the 
 perihelion and aphelion distance of the sun. At present the 
 earth is about three millions of miles nearer the sun in perihelion 
 than in aphelion. But we must remember the orbit of the 
 «arth is now nearly circular. There have been times in the 
 past when the diiference was about thirteen millions of miles. 
 We must not forget to add, that the change in the shape of 
 the earth's orbit is not a regular increase and decrease be- 
 tween well-known extremes. It is caused by the attrac- 
 tion of the other planets. It has been calculated at intervals 
 of ten thousand' years for the last million years. In this 
 way it has been found that " the intervals between connec- 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 151 
 
 tive turning points are very uneqnal in length, and the ac- 
 tual maximum and minimum values of the eccentricity are 
 themselves variable. In this way it comes about that some 
 periods of high eccentricity have lasted much longer than 
 others, and that the orbit has been more elliptical at some 
 epochs of high eccentricity than at others."^ We have just 
 seen that the earth is nearer the sun at one time of the 
 year than at another. At present the earth passes its peri- 
 helion point in the Winter of the Northern Hemisphere, and 
 its aphelion point in the Summer. We will for the present 
 suppose that it always reaches the points at the same sea- 
 son of the year. Let us see if the diminished- distance from 
 the sun in Winter has any thing to do with the climate. 
 
 If so, this effect will be greatly magtiified during a 
 period of high eccentricity, such as the earth has certainly 
 passed through in the past. We will state first, that the 
 more elliptical the orbit becomes, the longer Summer we 
 have, and the shorter Winter. Astronomically, Spring 
 begins the 20th of March, and Fall the 22d of September. 
 By counting the days between the epochs it will be found 
 that the Spring and Summer part of the year is seven days 
 longer than the Fall and Winter part. But if the earth's 
 oi?bit becomes as highly eccentrical as in the past, this dif- 
 ference would be thirty-six days.^ 
 
 This would give us a long Spring and Summer, but a 
 short Fall and Winter. This in itself would make a great 
 difference. We must bear in mind, however, that, at such a 
 time as we are here considering, the earth would be ten mil- 
 lions of miles nearer the sun in Winter than at present. It 
 would certainly then receive more heat in a given time dur- 
 ing Winter than at present.^ Mr. Croll estimates that 
 
 ' Geikic's " Great Ice Age," p. 114. 
 
 2 Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times," p. 420, Table 4. ^ ji^jj^ rj,^-^]^ ^ 
 
 10 
 
152 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 whereas the difference in heat received during a given time 
 is now one-fifteenth/ at the time we are considering it 
 would be one-fifth. Hence we see that at such a time the 
 Winter would not only be much shorter than now, but at 
 the same time would be much milder. 
 
 These are not all the results that would follow an in- 
 crease of eccentricity. The climate of Europe and North 
 America is largely modified by those great ocean currents — 
 the Gulf Stream and the Japan current. Owing to causes 
 we will not here consider, these currents would be greatly 
 increased at such a time. As a result of these combined 
 causes, Mr. CroU estimates that during a period of high 
 eccentricity the difference between Winter and Summer in 
 the Northern Hemisphere would be practically obliterate. 
 The Winter would not only be short, but very mild, and but 
 little snow would form, while the sun of the long Summers, 
 though not shining as inte'nse as at present, would not have 
 to melt off a great layer of snow and ice, but the ground 
 became quickly heated, and so warmed the air. Hence, if 
 Mr. CroU be correct, a period of high eccentricity would 
 certainly produce a climate in the Northern Hemisphere such 
 as characterized many of the mild interglacinl epochs as long 
 as the earth passed its perihelion point in Winter. 
 
 We have so far onlv considered the Northern Hemi- 
 sphere. As every one knows, while we have Winter, the 
 Southern Hemisphere has Summer. So at the very time we 
 would enjoy the mild short Winters, the Southern Hemi- 
 sphere would be doomed to experience Winters of greatly 
 increased length nnd severity. As a consequence, immense 
 fields of snow would be formed, which, by pressure, would 
 be changed to ice, and creep away as a dosohiting glacier. 
 It is quite true that the short Summer sun would shine with 
 
 ' Geikie's "Great Ice Age," p. 123. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 153 
 
 increased warmth, but owing to many causes it would not 
 avail to free the land from snow and ice. 
 
 As Mr. Geikie points out, "An increased amount of 
 evaporation would certainly take place, but the moisture- 
 hiden air would be chilled by coming into contact with the 
 vast sheets of snow, and hence the vapor would condense 
 into thick fogs and cloud the sky. In this way the sun's 
 rays would be, to a large extent, cut off, and unable to reach 
 the earth, and consequently the Winter's snow would not be 
 all melted away." Hence it follows that at the A'^ery time 
 the Northern Hemisphere would enjoy a mild interglacial 
 climate, universal Spring, so to speak, the Southern Hemi- 
 sphere would be encased in the ice and snow of an eternal 
 Winter. 
 
 But the earth has not always reached its perihelion point 
 during the Winter season of the Northern Hemisphere. 
 Owing to causes that we need not here consider, the earth 
 reaches its perihelion point about twenty minutes earlier 
 each year, so if it now passes its perihelion in Winter of the 
 Northern Hemisphere, in about ten thousand years from now 
 it will reach it in Summer, and in twenty-one thousand years 
 it will again be at perihelion in Winter. But see what im- 
 portant consequences follow from this. If during a period 
 of high eccentricity we are in the enjoyment of short mild 
 Winters and long pleasant Summers, in ten thousand years 
 this would certainly be changed. Our Summar season would 
 become short and heated; our Winters long and intensely 
 cold. Year by year it would be later in the season before 
 the sun could free the land from snow, and at length in deep 
 ravines and on hill-tops the snow would linger through the 
 brief Summer, and the mild interglacial age will have passed 
 away, and again the Northern Hemisphere will be visited by 
 snow and ice of a truly Glacial Age. If, therefore, a period 
 
154 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 of liigli eccentricity lasts through the iiiauy thousand years, 
 we must expect more than one return of glacial cokl inter- 
 spersed by mild interglacial climates. 
 
 We haA^e tried in these last few pages to give a clear 
 statement of what is known as CrolFs theory of the Glacial 
 Age. There is no question but what the earth does thus 
 vary in its position with regard to the sun, and beyond a 
 doubt this must produce some effect on the climate, and we 
 can truthfully state that the more the complicated question 
 of the climate of the earth is studied, the more grounds do 
 scholars find for affirming that indirectly this effect must 
 have been very great. And yet Ave can not say that this 
 theory is accepted as a satisfactory one even by the major- 
 ity of scholars. Many of those who do not reject it think 
 it not proven. Therefore, before interrogating the astrono- 
 mer as to the data of the Glacial Age, according to the 
 terms of this theory, let us see what other causes are ad- 
 duced ; then we can more readily accept or reject the con- 
 clusions as to the antiquity of man which this theory would 
 necessitate us to adopt. 
 
 The only other cause to which we can assign the glacial 
 cold, that . is considered Avith any favor by geologists, is 
 geographical ; that is to say, depending on the distribution 
 of land -and water. Glaciers depend on the amount of snoAV- 
 fall. In any country Avhere the amount of snow-fall is so 
 great that it is .not all evaporated or melted by the Sum- 
 mer's sun, and consequently increases from year to yenr, 
 glaciers must soon appear, and these icy rivers Avould ere- 
 long floAV away to loAver levels. If Ave suppose, with Sir 
 Charles Lyell, that the lands of the globe Avere all to be 
 gathered around the equator, and the Avaters Avere gathered 
 around the poles, it is manifest that there Avould be no such 
 a thing as extremes of temperature, and it is. jxM'liMps, doubt- 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 155 
 
 ful whether ice would form even in polar areas/ At any 
 rate, no glaciers could be formed, as there would be no land 
 on which snow could gather in great quantities. 
 
 If, however, we reverse this picture, and conceive of the 
 land gathered in a compact mass around the poles, shutting 
 out the water, but consider the equatorial region of the earth 
 to be occupied by the waters of the ocean, we would mani- 
 festly have a very different scene. From the ocean moisture- 
 laden winds would flow over the polar lands. The snowfall 
 would necessarily be great. In short, we can not doubt but 
 what all the land of the earth would be covered with gla- 
 ciers.^ 
 
 Although these last conceptions are purely hypothetical, 
 they will serve the good purpose of showing the great in- 
 fluence that the geographical distribution of land and water 
 have on the climate of a country. Of one thing, however, 
 geologists have become more and more impressed of late 
 years. That is, that continents and oceans have always had 
 the same relative position as now ; that is to say, the con- 
 tinents haA'e followed a definite plan in their development. 
 The very first part of North America to appear above the 
 waters of the primal sea clearly outlined the shape of the 
 future continent. Mr. Dana assures us that our continent de- 
 veloped with almost the regularity of a flower. Prof. Hitch- 
 cock also points out that the surface area of the very first 
 period outlined the shape of the continent. " The work of 
 later geological periods seems to have been the filling up of 
 the bays and sounds between the great islands, elevating the 
 consolidated mass into a contiental area."^ So it is not at all 
 probable that the lands of the globe were ever grouped, as 
 we have here supposed them. 
 
 'Wallace's "Island Life," p. 143. UhiA., p. 124. 
 
 ^"Geology of New Hampshire," Vol. II, p. 5. 
 
156 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 This last statement is liable, however, to leave us under 
 a wrong impression ; for although, as a w^hole, continental 
 areas have been permanent, yet in detail they have been 
 subject to wonderful and repeated changes. " Every square 
 mile of their surface has been again and again under water, 
 sometimes a few hundred feet deep-^sometimes, perhaps, 
 several thousand. Lakes and inland seas have been formed 
 and been filled up with sediment, and been subsequently 
 raised into hills, or even mountains. Arms of the sea have 
 existed, crossing the continent in various directions, and 
 thus completely isolating the divided portions for varying 
 interA^als. Seas have become changed into deserts and des- 
 erts into seas." ^ 
 
 It has been shown beyond all question that North-west- 
 ern Europe owes its present mild climate to the influence of 
 the Gulf Stream.^ Ocean currents, then, are a most impor- 
 tant element in determining the climate of a country. If 
 we would take the case of our hypothetical polar continent 
 again, and, instead of presenting a continuous coast line, 
 imagine it penetrated by long straits and fiords, possessing 
 numerous bays, large inland seas, and in general allowing a 
 free communication with the ocean, we are very sure the 
 effect would be widely different. 
 
 Under these circumstances, says Mr. Geikie, the "much 
 wider extent of sea being exposed to the blaze of the trop- 
 ical sun, the temperature of the ocean in equatorial regions 
 would rise above what it is at present. This warm water, 
 sweeping in broad currents, would enter the polar fiords and 
 seas, and everywhere, heating the air, would cause warm, 
 moist winds to blow athwart the land to a much greater 
 extent than they do at present; and these winds thus dis- 
 tributing warmth and moisture, might render even the high 
 ' Wallace's " Island Life," p. 99. ^Geikie's " Great Ice Age," p. 103. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 157 
 
 latitude of North Greenland habitable by civilized man." 
 So we see that it is necessary to look for such geographicjil 
 changes as will interfere with the movements of marine 
 currents. 
 
 Now, it is easy to see that comparatively small geo- 
 graphical changes would not only greatly interfere with 
 these currents, but might even cause them to entirely change 
 their course. An elevation of the northern part of North 
 America, no greater in amount than is supposed to have 
 taken place iit the commencement of the Glacial Age, would 
 bring the wide area of the banks of Newfoundland far above 
 the water, causing the American coast to stretch out in an 
 immense curve to a point more than six hundred miles east 
 of Halifax, and this would divert much of the Gulf Stream 
 straight across to the coast of Spain. ^ 
 
 Such an elevation certainly took place, and if continued 
 westward, Behring's Strait would also have been closed. It, 
 is to such northern elevations, shutting out the warm ocean 
 currents, that a great many geologists look for a sufficient 
 explanation of the glacial cold. 
 
 Prof. Dana savs : " Increase in the extent and height of 
 high latitude lands may well stand as one cause of the Glacial 
 Age." Then he points out how the rising of the land of 
 Northern Canada and adjacent territory, which almost cer- 
 tainly took place, "all a sequel to the majestic uplift of the 
 Tertiary, would have made a glacial period for North Amer- 
 ica, whatever the position of the ecliptic, or whatever the 
 eccentricity of the earth's orbit, though more readily, of 
 course, if other circumstances faA'^ored it."- 
 
 It may occur to some that if high northern lands be ail 
 
 1 Wallace's "Island Life," p. 149. Hitchcock's "Geology of New Hamp- 
 shire," A'ol. II, p. 7, gives a map showing what immense areas in that section 
 would be raised to the surface by a raise of three hundred feet. 
 
 ^ Amrrican Journal of Science, 1871, p. 329. 
 
158 THE PllEHISTOKIC WORLD. 
 
 that is necessary for a period of cold, we ought to have had 
 it in the Miocene Age, when there was a continuous land 
 connection between the lands of high polar areas and both 
 Europe and America, since we know that an abundant veg 
 etation spread from there, as a center, to both these coun-] 
 tries. But at that epoch circumstances were different. The 
 great North Temperate lands were in a '' comparatively 
 fragmentary and insular condition."'^ There were great in- 
 land seas in both Europe and Asia, through which powerful 
 currents would have flowed from the Indian Ocean to Arctic 
 reuions. 
 
 Somewhat similar conditions prevailed in North America. 
 The western part was in an insular condition. A great sea 
 extended over this part of the country, joining the Arctic 
 probably on the north, through which heated water would 
 pour into the polar sea. And so, instead of a Glacial Age, 
 we find evidence of a mild and genial climate, with an abun- 
 dant vegetation. 
 
 \V'e thus see that there are two theories as to the cause 
 of the Glacial Age presented for our consideration. Both 
 of them have received the sanction of scholars eminent for 
 their scientific attainments. On inspection we see they are 
 not antagonistic theories. They may both be true for that 
 matter, and all would admit that whatever effect they would 
 produce singly would be greatly enhanced if acting together. 
 Indeed, there are very good reasons for supposing both 
 must have acted in unison. 
 
 There seem to be very good reasons for not believing 
 that the eccentricity of the earth's orbit, acting alone, ])ro- 
 duced the glacial cold. If that were the case, then when- 
 ever the eccentricity was great we should have a Glacial 
 Aue. Now. at some period o.f time during the long-e.Ktended 
 
 ' Wallace's "l.-hm.l l.il\-," p. 1S4. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 159 
 
 Tertiary Age we ure certain the eccentricity of tiie earth's 
 orbit became A'ery great, much more so, in fact, than that 
 which is supposed to have produced the cold of the Quater- 
 nary Age. But we are equally certain there was no glacial 
 epoch during this age." ^ What other explanation can we 
 give for its non-appearance except that geographical condi- 
 tions were not favorable? 
 
 But, on the other hand, there are certain features con- 
 nected with the phenomena of the Glacial Age that seem 
 very difficult of explanation, if Ave suppose that geograph- 
 ical changes alone produced them. We must remember that 
 evidences of the former presence of glaciers are found widely 
 scattered over the earth. We shall, therefore, have to as- 
 sume an elevation not only for America' and Europe, but 
 extend it over into Asia, and take in the Lebanon Mount- 
 ains, for they also show distinct traces of glaciers. And 
 this movement of elevation must also ha\e affected the 
 Southern Hemisphere, the evidence being equally plain that 
 at the same comparatively late date glaciers crushed over 
 Southern Africa and South America.^ This is seen to prove 
 too much. Again, how can we explain the fact that some 
 time durino; the Glacial A2:e we had a submergence, the land 
 standing several hundred feet lower than now, but still re- 
 mained covered with ice, and over the submerged part there 
 sailed icebergs and ice-rafts, freighted with their xx&ual dehHs ? 
 That such was the state of things in Europe we are assured 
 by some very good authorities.^ 
 
 Neither do geographical causes afford an adequate ex- 
 planation of those changes of temperature that surelv took 
 
 MVallace's "Island Life." p. LS2. 
 
 ^Ibid., p. 157 and note. Prof. Wright thinks this statement doubtful. 
 He refers to the date of the Glacial Age in the Southern Hemisphere. 
 
 MVallace's " Island Life," p. 20n ; Pawldns's "Early Man in Britain," p. 
 119 ; Geikie's " Great Ice Age," p. 256 ; Quatrefages's " Human Species," p. 288. 
 
160 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 place during the Glacial Age. These last considerations 
 show us how difficult it is to believe that geographical causes 
 could have produced the Glacial Age. 
 
 We are assured that ail through the geological ages the 
 continents had been increasing in size and compactness, and 
 that just at the close of the Tertiary Age they received a con- 
 siderable addition of land to the north. The astronomer also 
 informs us that at a comparatively recent epoch the eccentric- 
 ity of the earth's orbit became very great. The conditions 
 being favorable, it is not strange that a Glacial Age supervened. 
 
 We have been to considerable length in thus explaining 
 the position of the scientific world iu regard to the cause of 
 the Glacial Age. Our reason for so doing is that this age is, 
 we think, so connected with the Paleolithic Age of man, that 
 it seems advisable to have a clear understanding in regard to 
 it. What we have to say is neither new nor original. It 
 is simply an earnest endeavor to represent clearly the con- 
 clusions of some of our best scholars on this subject, and we 
 have tried to give to each theory its due weight. Our con- 
 clusions may be wrong, but, if so, we have the consolation of 
 erring in very good company. 
 
 We have now gone over the ground and are ready to see 
 what dates can be given. Though the numbers we use seem 
 to be very large indeed, they are so only in comparison with 
 our brief span of life. They are insignificant as compared 
 with the extent of time that has surely rolled by since life 
 appeared on the globe. Let us, therefore, not be dismayed 
 at the figures the astronomer sets before us.^ 
 
 About two hundred and fifty thousand years ngo the 
 earth's path around the sun was much the same as that of 
 the present. No great changes in climate were liable to take 
 
 ' For these results, see McFarland's Calculations in " American Journal of 
 Science," 1880, p. 105. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AQE. 161 
 
 place at that time. During the next fifty thousand years 
 the eccentricity steadily increased. Towards the end of that 
 time all that was necessary to produce a glacial epoch in the 
 Northern Hemisphere was favorable geographical causes, and 
 that our earth should reach its point nearest the sun in Summer. 
 This it must have done when about half that time had elapsed. 
 
 We can in imagination see what a slow deterioration of 
 climate took place. Thousands of years would come and go 
 before the change would be decisive. But a time must have 
 at length arrived when the vegetation covering the ground 
 was such as was suited only for high northern latitudes. 
 The animals suited for warm and temperate regions must have 
 wandered farther south; others from the north had arrived 
 to take their place. We can see how well this agrees with 
 the changes of climate at the close of the Pliocene Age. The 
 snows of the commencing Glacial Age would soon begin to 
 fall, finally the sun would not melt them off of the high lands, 
 and mountain peaks, and so a Glacial Age would be 
 ushered in. 
 
 We have referred to the fact that the earth reaches its 
 perihelion point a little earlier each year, and, as a conse- 
 quence, we would have periods of mild climate alternating 
 the cold. This extended period of time, equal to twenty- 
 one thousand of our ordinary years, has been named the 
 Great Year of our globe. Mr. Wallace has pointed out some 
 very good reasons for thinking Mr. Croll's theory must be 
 modified on this point. He thinks that when once a Glacial 
 Age was fairly fastened on a hemisphere, it would retain its 
 grasp as long as the eccentricity remained high, but when- 
 ever the Summer of the Great Year came to that hemisphere, 
 it would melt back the glacial ice for some distance, but this 
 area would be recovered by the ice when the Winter of the 
 Great Year supervened. These effects would be different 
 
162 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 when the eccentricity itself became low. Then we would 
 expect the glacial conditions to vanish entirely when the 
 Summer of a Great Year comes on.^ 
 
 As we have made the theoretical part of this chapter 
 already too long, we must hurry on. We can only say that 
 this view is founded on the fact that when a country was cov- 
 ered with snow and ice, it had, so to speak, a great amount 
 of cold stored up in it, so much, in fact, that it would not be 
 removed by the sun of a new geological Summer. This 
 ought to be acceptable to such geologists as are willing to 
 admit the advance and retreat of the great glacier, but yet 
 doubt the feet of the interglacial mild climate. 
 
 But now to return to the question of time about two 
 hundred and twenty thousand years ago. Then the North- 
 ern Hemisphere, according to this theory, was in the grasp 
 of a Glacial Age. According to Mr. Wallace, as long as the 
 eccentricity remained high, there could be no great amelio- 
 ration of climate, except along the southern border of the 
 ice sheet, which might, for causes named, vary some distance 
 (luring the Great Year. Two hundred thousand years ago 
 the eccentricity, then very high, reached a turning point. 
 It then steadily, though gradually, diminished for fifty thou- 
 sand years; at that time the eccentricity was so small, 
 though considerably larger than at present, that it is doubt- 
 ful if it was of any service in producing a change of climate.^ 
 At that time, also, the Northern Hemisphere was passing 
 through the Summer season of the Great Year. We ought, 
 therefore, to have had a mild interglacial season. Except 
 in high northern latitudes the ice should have disappeared. 
 This change we would expect to find more marked in Europe 
 than in America. 
 
 We need only recall how strong are the evidences on 
 
 ' " Island Life," i>. 153. ^ See clwiit, p. 124, Wallace's " Island Life." 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 163 
 
 this poiat. Nearly all European writers admit at least one 
 such mild interval, and though not wanting evidence of such a 
 period in America, our geologists are much less confident of 
 its occurrence. 
 
 But from that point the eccentricity again increased. So 
 when the long flight of years again brought secular Winter to 
 the Northern Hemisphere, the glaciers would speedily appear, 
 and as eccentricity was again high, they would again hold the 
 country in their grasp. Fifty thousand years later, or one 
 hundred thousand years ago, it passed its turning point again; 
 eighty thousand years ago, it became so small that it probably 
 ceased to effect the climate. Since then it has not been very 
 large. Twenty-five thousand years ago it was less than it is 
 now, but it is again growing smaller. According to this theory, 
 then, the Glacial Age commenced about two hundred and 
 twenty thousand years ago. It continued, with one interrup- 
 tion of mild climate, for one hundred and forty thousand 
 years, and finally passed away eighty thousand years ago. 
 
 What shall we say to these results? If true, what a 
 wonderful antiquity is here unfolded for the human race, and 
 what a wonderful lapse of time is included in what is known 
 as the Paleolithic Age! How strikingly does it impress 
 upon our minds the slow development of man! Is such an 
 antiquity for man in itself absurd ? We know no reason 
 for such a conclusion. Our most eminent scholars nowhere 
 set a limit to the time of man's first appearance. It is true, 
 many of them do not think the evidence strong enough to 
 affirm such an antiquity, but there are no bounds given be- 
 yond which we may not pass. 
 
 'Without investigation some might reject the idea that 
 man could have lived on the earth one hundred thousand 
 years in a state of Savagism. If endowed with the attri- 
 butes of humanity, it may seem to them that he would 
 
164 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 long before that time have achieved civilization. Such per- 
 sons do not consider the lowliness of his first condition, and 
 the extreme slowness with which progress must have gone for- 
 ward. On this point the geologists and the sociologists agree. 
 Snys Mr. Geikie : " The time which has elapsed from the 
 close of the Paleolithic Age, even up to the present day, can 
 not for a moment compare with the aeons during which the 
 men of the old stone period occupied Europe." And on this 
 subject Mr. Morgan says: "It is a conclusion of deep im- 
 portance in ethnology that the experience of mankind in 
 Savagery was longer in duration than all their subsequent 
 experience, and that the period of Civilization covers but a 
 fragment of the life of the race." ' The time itself, which 
 seems to us so long, is but a brief space as compared with 
 the ages nature has manifestly required to work out some 
 of the results we see before us every day. We are sure, 
 but few of our scholars think this too liberal an estimate. 
 All endeavor to impress on our minds that the Glacial Age 
 is an expression covering a very long period of time. 
 
 As to the time that has elapsed since the close of the 
 Glacial Age there is some dispute, and it may be that we 
 will be forced to the conclusion that the close of the Glacial 
 Age was but a few thousand years ago. Mr. Wallace assures 
 us, however, that the time mentioned agrees well "with 
 physical evidence of the time that has elapsed since the cold 
 has passed away."^ 
 
 Difficulties are, however, urged by other writers. We 
 can see at once that as quick as the glaciers are removed the 
 denuding forces of nature, which are constantly at work, 
 would begin to rearrange the debris left behind on llio sur- 
 face, and in the course of a few thousand years must effect 
 great changes. Now, in some cases the amount of such 
 
 Ancient Society," p. 39. ' "Island Life," p. 201. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 165 
 
 change is so small that geologists are reluctant to believe a 
 A'ast lapse of time has occurred since the glaciers withdrew. 
 Mr. Geikie tells us of some moraines in Scotland that they are 
 so fresh and beautiful "that it is diflficult to believe thej can 
 date back to a period so vastly removed as the Ice Age is 
 believed to be."^ In our own country this same sort of ev- 
 idence is brought forward, and we are given some special 
 calculations going to show that the. disappearance of the gla- 
 ciers was a comparatively recent thing.^ 
 
 It will be seen that these conclusions are somewhat 
 opposed to the results previously arrived at. In explanation 
 Mr. Geikie thinks the cases spoken of in Scotland were not 
 the moraines of the great glaciers, but of a local glacier of 
 a far later date. He thinks that the climate, while not se- 
 vere enough to produce the enormous glaciers of early times, 
 was severe enough to produce local glaciers still in Scot- 
 land.^ It is possible that a similar explanation may be given 
 for the evidence adduced in the United States. We can only 
 state that, according to the difference in climate between 
 the eastern' and western sides of the Atlantic Ocean, when 
 the climate was severe enough to produce local glaciers in 
 Scotland, it would produce the same effect over a large part 
 of eastern United States down to the latitude of New York 
 City.* And while it is true there would not be as much 
 difference in climate on the two sides of the Atlantic in Gla- 
 cial times as at present, since the Gulf Stream, on which 
 such difference depends would then have less force, still it 
 was not entirely lacking, and the difference must have been 
 considerable.^ 
 
 ' " Prehistoric Europe," p. 312. 
 . ^ On this point consult Wright's "Studies in Science and Religion," pp. 
 232-347; also Prof. Lewis in " Primitive Industry," pp. 547-551. 
 
 ^ " Prehistoric Europe," p. 560. * See any isothermalmap. 
 
 5 Wallace's " Island Life," p. 154, note. 
 
166 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Prof. Hitchcock has made a suggestiou that whereas we 
 know a period of several mouths elapses after the sun crosses 
 the equator before Summer fairly comes on, so it is but 
 reasonable to suppose that a proportionate length of time 
 would go by after the eccentricity of the earth's orbit be- 
 came small, before the Glacial Age would really pass awjiy. 
 lie accordingly suggests it may have been only about forty 
 thousantl years since the glaciers disappeared.^ 
 
 At the close of the Glacial Age Paleolithic man vanished 
 from Europe. This, therefore, brings us to the conclusion 
 of our researches into what is probably the most mysterious 
 chapter of man's existence on the earth. 
 
 It may not come amiss to briefly notice the main points 
 thus far made in our iuA^estigation of the past. As to the 
 epoch of man's first appearance, we found he couhl not be 
 expected to appear until all the animals lower than he had 
 made their appearance. This is so because the Creator of 
 all has apparently chosen that method of procedure in the 
 development of life on the globe. According to our present 
 knowledge, man might have been living in the Miocene Age, 
 and with a higher degree of probability in the Pliocene. 
 But we can not say that the evidence adduced in favor of 
 his existence at these early times is satisfactory to the ma- 
 jority of our best thinkers. All agree that he was living in 
 Europe at the close of the Glacial Age, and we think the 
 evidence sufficient to show thnt he preceded the glaciers, 
 and that as a rude savage he lived in Europe throughout (he 
 long extended portion of time known as the Glacial Age. 
 
 We also found evidence of either two distinct races of 
 men inhabiting Europe in the Paleolithic Age, or else tribes 
 of the same race, widely different in time and in culture. 
 
 '"Geology of Now TTampshire," V(.l. TTT, ]\ :V27, roforred to in Wviglit's 
 ".Studies in Science aiitl Kcligion," p. 327. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 167 
 
 The one people known as the men of the River Drift appar- 
 ently invaded Europe from Asia, along with the species of 
 temperate animals now living there. This people seem to 
 have been widely scattered over the earth. The race has 
 probably vanished away, though certain Australian tribes 
 may be descendants of them. They were doubtless very low 
 in the scale of humanity, having apparently never reached a 
 higher state than that of Lower Savagism. The second race 
 of men inhabiting Europe during the Paleolithic Age were 
 the Cave-dwellers. They seem to have been allied to the 
 Eskimos of the North. They were evidently further ad- 
 vanced than the Drift men, but were still savages. 
 
 The Paleolithic Age in Europe seems to have terminated 
 with the Glacial Age. But we are not to suppose it came to 
 an end all over the earth at that time. On the contrary, 
 some tribes of men never passed beyond that stage. When 
 the light of civilization fell upon them they were still in the 
 culture of the old Stone Age. We are to notice that in such 
 cases the tribes thus discovered were very low in the scale. 
 The probable data for the Paleolithic Age have formed the 
 subject of this chapter. While claiming in support of them 
 the opinions of some eminent scholars, we freely admit that 
 it is not a settled question, but open to very grave objec- 
 tions, especially the date of the close of the Glacial Age, 
 which seems to have been comparatively recent, at least in 
 America. We think, however, that these objections will yet 
 be harmonized with the general results. Neither is this 
 claimed to be nn exhaustive presentation of the matter. It 
 is an outline only — the better to enable us to understand the 
 mystery connected with the data of Paleolithic man. 
 
 In these few chapters we have been dealing with people, 
 
 manners, and times, of which the world fifty years ago was 
 
 ignorant. Many little discoveries, at first apparently discon- 
 
 11 
 
168 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 nected, are suddenlj'' brought into new relation, and behold, 
 ages ago, when the great continents were but just com- 
 pleted, races of men, low in the scale, it is true, but yet 
 with the stamp of humanity upon them, are seen filling the 
 earth. With them were many great animals long since 
 passed away. The age of animals was at an end. That of 
 man had just begun. 
 
 The child requires the schooling of adversity and trial 
 to make a complete man of himself, and it is even so with 
 races of men. Who can doubt that struggling up from 
 dense ignorance, contending against adverse circumstances, 
 compelled to wage war against fierce animals, sustaining life 
 in the midst of the low temperature which had loaded the 
 Northern Hemisphere with snow and ice, had much to do 
 in developing those qualities which rendered civilization 
 possible. 
 
 As to the antiquity of man disclosed in these chapters, 
 the only question that need concern us is whether it is true 
 or not. Evidence tending to prove its substantial accuracy 
 should be as acceptable as that disproving it. No great 
 principle is here at stake. The truth of Divine Revelation 
 is in no wise concerned. There is nothing in its truth or 
 falsity which should in any way affect man's belief in an 
 overruling Providence, or in an immortality beyond the 
 grave, or which should render any less desirable a life of 
 purity and honor. On the contrary, we think one of the 
 greatest causes of thanksgiving mortals have is the posses- 
 sion of intellectual powers, which enable us to here and 
 there catch a glimpse of the greatness of God's universe, 
 which the astronomer at times unfolds to us ; or, to dimly 
 comprehend the flight of time since "The Beginning," which 
 the geologist finds necessary to account for the stupendous 
 results wrought by slow-acting causes. 
 
ANTIQUITY OF THE PALEOLITHIC AGE. 169 
 
 It seems to us eminently fitting that God should place 
 man here, granting to him a capacity for improvement, but 
 bestowing on him no gift or accomplishment, which by exer- 
 tion and experience he could acquire ; for labor is, and ever 
 has been, the price of material good. So we see how nec- 
 essary it is that a very extended time be given us to ac- 
 count for man's present advancement. Supposing an angel 
 of light was to come to the aid of our feeble understand- 
 ing, and unroll before us the pages of the past, a past of 
 which, with all our endeavors, we as yet know but little. 
 Can we doubt that, from such a review^, we would arise 
 with higher ideas of man's worth ? Our sense of the depths 
 from which he has ascended is equaled only by our appre- 
 ciation of the future opening before him. Individually we 
 shall soon have passed away. Our nation may disappear. 
 But we believe our race has yet but fairly started in its line 
 of progress ; time only is wanted. We can but think that 
 that view which limits man to an existence extending over 
 but a few thousand years of the past, is a belittling one. 
 Rather let us think of him as existing from a past separated 
 from us by these many thousand years ; winning his present 
 position by the exercise of God-given powers. 
 
170 
 
 THE i'HEHlSIORIC WORLD. 
 
 6IHAPTER V1. 
 
 THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE." 
 
 Close of the first cycle — Xeolithic culture connected with the present — 
 No links between the two ages — Long lapse of time between the two 
 ages — Swiss lake villages — This form of villages widely scattered — 
 Irish cranogs — Fortified villages — Implements and weapons of Neo- 
 lithic times — Possessed of pottery — Neolithic agriculture — Possessed 
 of domestic animals — Danish shell-heaps — Importance of flint — Tlie 
 art of navigation — Neolithic clothing — Their modes of burial — The 
 question of race — Possible remnants — Connection with the Turanian 
 race — Arrival of the Celts. 
 
 THE preceding chapters we have sought to 
 learn what we couhl of the Paleolithic Aire. 
 We have seen what strange people and ani- 
 mals occupied the land, and have caught some 
 glimpses of a past that has been recovered 
 to us out of the very night of time. From 
 under the ashes of Vesuvius archreologists have brought 
 to light an ancient city. We gaze on it with great interest, for 
 we there see illustrated the state of society two thousand years 
 ago. But other cities of that time are still in existence, and 
 not only by the aid of tradition and song, but from the pages 
 of history, we can learn of the civilization of the Roman peo- 
 ple at the time of the destruction of Pompei ; so that, in 
 this case, our knowledge of the past is not confined to one 
 source of information. But no voice of history or tradition, 
 
 ' The nianuscri])t of tliis cliaptor was submitted to Prof. Chas. Rau, of the 
 Smithsonian Instilntiim, for criticism. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 171 
 
 or of existing institutions, speaks to us of the Paleolithic 
 Age. Of that remote time, the morning time of human life, 
 we learn only from the labors of geologists and archaeologists. 
 We are virtually dealing with a past geological age. The long 
 term of years thus defined drew to its close amidst scenes 
 of almost Arctic sterility. In all probability, glaciers reflected 
 the sun's rays from all the considerable hills and mountains 
 of Central and Northern Europe, though forming, perhaps, 
 but a remnant of the great glaciers of the Ice Age. The 
 neighboring seas must have been whitened by the glistening 
 sails of numerous icebergs. Such was the closing scene of 
 Paleolithic life. 
 
 The first great cycle of human life, as far as we know 
 it now, was concluded in Europe. We do not mean to 
 say that it terminated all over the world. lu other regions 
 it survived to far later times. But, in Europe, Paleolithic 
 animals and men had worked out their mission, and we ba^'e 
 now to record the arrival and spread of a new race, bringing 
 with them domestic animals, a knowledge of rude husbandry, 
 and many simple arts and industries of which their Paleo- 
 lithic predecessors were ignorant. 
 
 We recall, that the men of the Paleolithic Age seemed 
 incapable of advancement;^ or their progress was so slow- 
 that we scarcely notice it. But we can trace the lines of ad- 
 vancement from the Neolithic culture to that of the present. 
 We have, however, to deal with people and times far removed 
 from the light of history. 
 
 We have before us, then, a new culture and a new peo- 
 ple. On the one hand is Paleolithic man, with his rude 
 stone implements, merely chipped into shape — surrounded 
 
 ' The Cave-men were, nndoubtedly, considerably in advance of the Men of 
 the Drift. If we regard the two as but one race of men, then the statement 
 is not true. We have, however, given onr reasons for considering the Cave- 
 men as a different race. Hence the statement made above. 
 
172 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 by many animals which have since vanished from the theater 
 of life — inhabiting a country which, at its close at least, was 
 more like Greenland of to-day than England or France. The 
 scene completely changes, when the misty curtain of the' 
 past again rises and allows us to continue our investigations- 
 into primitive times. 
 
 We would naturally expect to find everywhere, connect- 
 ing links between these two ages — the culture of the one 
 gradually changing into the culture of the other. This, how- 
 ever, is not the case. The line of demarkation between the 
 ages is everywhere plainly drawn; and, furthermore, we are 
 learning that a very long time elapsed between the depar- 
 ture, or disappearance, of the Paleolithic tribes, and the ar- 
 rival of their Neolithic successors. This is shown in a great 
 many ways, and we will notice some of them. We learn 
 that Neolithic man occasionally used caves as a place of hab- 
 itation. In such cases there is nearly always a thick hiyer 
 of stalagmite between the strata containing the Paleolithic 
 implements and the Neolithic strata — though this stalag- 
 mite is unmistakable evidence of the lapse of many years, 
 we can not determine how many, as we do not know the rate 
 of formation. 
 
 This lapse of time is shown very plainl}^ when we come 
 to consider the changes wrought in the surface features of 
 the country by the action of running water. We know that 
 rain, running water, and frost, constituting what we call de- 
 nuding forces, are constantly at work changing the surface 
 of a country. We know that, in general, this change is 
 slow. But great changes have been wrought between these 
 two ages. 
 
 In the Britisli Islands, we know that the I'ivers luul time 
 to very materially change the surface features of the land. 
 The important rivers of Scotland had carved out channels 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 173 
 
 one hundred feet deep in places ; and along their courses, 
 especially near their mouths, had plowed out and removed 
 great quantities of glacial material — forming broad flats 
 which became densely wooded before Neolithic man made 
 his appearance on the scene. In some cases the entire sur- 
 face of the land had been removed, leaving only knolls and 
 hills of the old land surface. Examples of this occur on the 
 east coast of England, and in what is known as the Fen-lands. 
 The final retreat of the glaciers must have left the country 
 covered with debris. After this had been largely denuded, 
 the country became densely wooded. It was not until these 
 changes had taken place, that Neolithic man wandered into 
 Europe.^ 
 
 But still another ground exists for claiming a long interval 
 between these t\vo ages, namely, the great changes that took 
 place in the animal world of Europe during these two 
 epochs. Many different species of animals characteristic of 
 the Paleolithic Age vanished as completely from Europe as 
 the rude tribes that hunted them, before the appearance of 
 Neolithic tribes. But little change in the fauna of England has 
 taken place in the last two thousand years. So it is obvious 
 that the great change above-mentioned demands many cen- 
 turies for its accomplishment. Huge animals of the elephant 
 kind, such as the mammoth, no longer crashed through the 
 underbrush, or wallowed in the lakes. The roars of lions 
 and tigers,- that haunted the caves of early Europe, were no 
 longer heard .^ In short, there had disappeared forever from 
 Europe the distinctly southern animals that diversified the 
 fauna of Paleolithic times. Even the Arctic animals were 
 banished to northern latitudes, or mountain heights. 
 
 ' Consult Geikie's " Prehistoric Europe," chapters on " British Post-glacial 
 and Recent Deposits." 
 
 ^ Lions still lived in Greece at the time of Herodotus. See " Polymnia," 
 vii, 125, etc. 
 
174 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 We have dwelt to some length on the proofs of a long- 
 extended time between these two ages. The more we re- 
 flect on these instances, the more impressed are we with a 
 sense of duration A^ast and profound, in w'hich the great for- 
 ests and grassy plains of Europe supported herds of wild 
 animals all unvexed by the presence of man. We will only 
 mention one more point and then pass on. 
 
 We have seen that the highest rank we can assign to 
 Paleolithic man in the scale of civilization is Upper Savagism. 
 But when Neolithic man appeared, he was in the middle 
 status of Barbarism. The time, therefore, between the dis- 
 appearance of Paleolithic man and the arrival of Neolithic 
 man w^as long enough to. enable primitive man to pass one 
 entire ethnical period, that of Lower Barbarism. But this 
 requires a very long period of time, probably several times 
 as long as the entire series of years since Civilization first 
 appeared, which is supposed to be in the neighborhood of 
 five thousand years ago.^ 
 
 We must now turn our attention to Neolithic man him- 
 self and learn what we can of his culture, and discover, if 
 possible, what race it was that spread over Europe after it 
 had been for so long a time an uninhabitable country. A 
 few remarks by way of introduction will not be considered 
 amiss. 
 
 We are learning that tribal organization, implying com- 
 munism in living, is characteristic of prehistoric people.'"^ 
 Tribal organization sufficed to advance man to the very con- 
 fines of civilization. We have no doubt but that this was 
 the state of society amongst the Neolithic people. But this 
 implies living in communities or villages. We need not pic- 
 
 ' This last argument is drnwii from Mr. Morgan's work. It is well to state 
 that his divisions are vory far from being accepted by all authorities. 
 ' Morgan's " Ancient Society." 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 175 
 
 lure to ourselves a country dotted with houses, the abodes 
 of single families; such did not exist, but here and there 
 were fortified villages. 
 
 Still another consequence follows from this tribal state 
 of society. There was no such thing as a strong central 
 government. Each tribe obeyed its own chief, and a state 
 of war nearly always existed between different tribes. Such 
 we know was the state of things among the Indian tribes 
 of America. Travelers tell us that it is so to-day in Africa. 
 Each* tribe stood ready to defend itself or to make war on 
 its neighbors. One great point, therefore, in constructing a 
 village, was to secure a place that could be easily defended. 
 
 Bearing "these principles in mind, let us see what we can 
 learn of their habitations. Owing to a protracted drouth, 
 the water in the Swiss lakes was unusually low in the Win- 
 ter of 1854, and the inhabitants of Meilen, on the Lake 
 Ziirich, took advantage of this state of affairs to throw up 
 embankments some distance out from the old shore, and thus 
 gain a strip of land along the coast. In carrying out this 
 design, they found in the mud at the bottom of the lake a 
 number of piles, some thrown down and others upright, 
 fragments of rough pottery, bone and stone instruments, and 
 various other relics. 
 
 Dr. Keller, president of the Ziirich Antiquarian Society, 
 was apprised of this discovery, and proceeded at once to ex- 
 amine the collection made and the place of discovery. He 
 was not long in determining the prehistoric nature of the 
 relics, and the true intent of the pile remains. He proved 
 them to be supports for platforms, on which were erected 
 rude dwellings, the platforms being above the surface of the 
 water, and at some distance from the shore, with which they 
 were connected by a narrow bridge. 
 
 This was the first of a series of many interesting discov- 
 
176 THE FREBISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 eries from which we have learned many facts as to Neolithic 
 times. The cut we have introduced is an ideal restoration 
 of one of these Swiss lake villages. It needs but a glance 
 to show how admirably placed it was for purposes of de- 
 fense. Unless an enemy was provided with boats, the only 
 way of approach was over the bridge. But the very fact 
 that they resorted to lakes, where at the expense of great 
 labor they erected their villages, is a striking illustration of 
 the insecurity of the times. 
 
 This discovery once made, it is surprising what numbers 
 of these ancient lake villages have been discovered. Switz- 
 erland abounds in large and small lakes, and in former times 
 they must have been still more numerous, but in the course 
 of years they have become filled up, and now exist only as 
 peat bogs. But we now know that during the Neolithic Age 
 the country was quite thickly inhabited, and these lakes were 
 the sites of villages. Over two hundred have been found 
 in Switzerland alone. Fishermen had known of the exist- 
 ence uf these piles long before their meaning was under- 
 stood. Lake Geneva is one of the most famous of the Swiss 
 lakes. Though in the main it is deep, yet around the shore 
 there is a fringe of shallow water. 
 
 It was in this shallow belt that the villacres Avere built. 
 The sites of twenty-four settlements are known. We are 
 told that on "calm days, when the surface of the water is 
 unruffled, the piles are plainly visible. Few of them now 
 project more than two feet from the bottom, eaten away by 
 the incessant action of the water. Lying among them are 
 objects of bone, horn, j)ottery, and frequently even of bronze. 
 So fresh are they, and so unaltered, they look as if they 
 were only things of yesterday, and it seems hard to believe 
 that they can have remained there for centuries."^ 
 
 ' Lubbock's " Picliistoric Times," ji. 189. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 179 
 
 A lake settlement represents an immense amount of work 
 for a people destitute of metallic tools. After settling on the 
 locality, the first step "would be to obtain the timbers. The 
 piles were generally composed of the trunks of small-sized 
 trees at that time flourishing in Switzerland. But to cut 
 down a tree with a stone hatchet is no slight undertaking. 
 They probably used fire to help them. After the tree was 
 felled it had to be cut off again at the right length, the 
 branches lopped off, and one end rudely sharpened. It was 
 then taken to the place and driven into the mud of the lake 
 bottom. For this purpose they used heavy wooden mallets. 
 It has been estimated that one of the settlements on Lake 
 Constance required forty thousand piles in its construction.^ 
 
 The phitform which rested on these piles was eleA^ated 
 several feet above the surface of the water, so as to 
 allow for the swash of the waves. It was composed of 
 branches and trunks of trees banded together, the whole cov- 
 ered with clay. Sometimes they split the trees with wedges 
 so as to make thick slabs. In some instances wooden pegs 
 were used to fasten portions of the platform to the pile- 
 work. 
 
 As to the houses which were erected on these platforms, 
 though they have utterly vanished, yet from a few remains 
 we can judge something as to the mode of construction. 
 They seem to have been formed of trunks of trees placed 
 upright, one by the side of the other, and bound together 
 by interwoven branches. This was then covered on both 
 sides with two or three inches of clay. A plaster of clay 
 and gravel formed the floor, and a few slabs of sandstone did 
 duty for a fire-place. The roDf was of bark, straw, or rushes. 
 There does not seem to have been much of a plan used in 
 laying out a settlement. As population increased other piles 
 
 'Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 223. 
 
180 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 were added, and thus the village gradually extended. No 
 one village would be likely to contain a great number of iii- 
 Iiabitants. Calculations based on the area of one of the 
 largest settlemonts in Lake Geneva, gives as a result a popu- 
 lation of thirteen hundred, but manifestly nothing definite 
 is known. 
 
 This brief description gives us an idea of a method of 
 constructing villages which, as we shall soon see, extended 
 all over Europe, though varied somewhat in detail. The 
 condition of the remains indicate that these settlements were 
 often destroyed by fire. At such times quantities of arms, 
 implements, and household industries would have been lost 
 in the water, and so preserved for our inspection. 
 
 This mode of building found such favor among the early 
 inhabitants of Europe that it continued in use through the 
 Neolithic Age, that of Bronze, and even into the age of 
 Iron. Passages here and there in ancient histories evidently 
 refer to them. Though they have long since passed away 
 in Switzerland, the Spaniards found them in Mexico, and 
 they are still to be seen in some of the isles of the Pacific. 
 Remembering this, we need not be surprised if we find in 
 one small lake settlements belonging to widely different 
 ages. Here one of the Stone Age, there one of tiie Bronze, 
 or even a confused mingling of what seems to be several 
 ages in one settlement.^ 
 
 There is scarcely a country in Europe that docs not con- 
 tain examples of lake villages. From their wide distribu- 
 tion we infer that a common race spread over the land. We 
 will now mention some differences in construction discov- 
 ered at some places, where, from the rocky nature of the bed 
 
 ' On lake Bettlcments, consult Keller's "Lake Dwcllinjrs;" Rau's "Early 
 Man in Europe," oliaj). v; Sir John Lubbork's " Prchi.sl(jri<' Tiiiu's," cliap. 
 vi ; Figiiier's "Primitive Man," p. 218, et seq. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 181 
 
 of the lake, it was impossible to drive piles so as to form a 
 firm foundation. They sometimes packed quantities of stone 
 around the piles to serve as supports in a manner as here 
 indicated. " In all probability the stones used were con- 
 
 Foundation, Lake Yillage. 
 
 veyed to the required spot by means of canoes, made of hol- 
 lowed out trunks of trees. Several of these canoes may 
 still be seen at the bottom of Lake Bienne, and one, indeed, 
 laden with pebbles, which leads us to think it must have 
 foundered with its cargo."^ 
 
 In some cases these heaps of stone and sticks rise to 
 the surface of the water, or even above it, the piles in 
 such cases serving more to hold the mass together than as a 
 support to the platform on which the huts were erected. 
 This mode of construction could only be employed in small 
 lakes. This makes in reality an artificial island, and seems 
 
 Irish Crannog 
 
 to have been the favorite method of procedure in the Brit- 
 ish Islands. In Ireland and Scotland immense numbers of 
 these structures are known. They are called crannogs. 
 This cut represents a section of one in Ireland. Though 
 
 ' Figuier's " Primitive Man," p. 222. 
 
182 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 they date back to the Neolithic Age, yet they so exactly 
 meet the wants of a rude people that they were occupied 
 down to historic times. 
 
 The advantage of forming settlements where they could 
 only be approached on one side were so great that other 
 places than lakes were resorted to. Peat-bogs furnished 
 nearly as secure a place of retreat as do lakes. These have 
 been well studied in Northern Italy. They do not present 
 many new features. They were constructed like the lake 
 villages, only they were surrounded by a marsh, and not by 
 a lake. In some of the Irish bogs they first covered the 
 surface of the bog with a layer of hazel bushes, and that by 
 a layer of sand, and thus secured a firm surface.^ In this 
 case the villages were still further defended by a breast- 
 work of rough spars, about five feet high. One of the 
 houses of this group was found still in position, though it 
 had been completely buried in peat. No metal had been 
 used in its construction. The timbers had been cut with a stone 
 ax, and the explorer was even so fortunate as to find an ax, 
 which exactly fitted many of the cuts observed on the timbers. 
 
 But we are not to suppose that lakes and bogs afforded 
 the only sites of villages. They are found scattered all over 
 the surface of the country, and, as we shall soon see, they 
 show the same painstaking care to secure strong, easily de- 
 fended positions. They have been generally spoken of as 
 forts, to which the inhabitants resorted only in times of dan- 
 ger. We think, however, they were locations of villages, 
 the customary places of abode. For tliis is in strict accord- 
 ance with what we find to be the early condition of savage 
 life in every part of the world. 
 
 Traces of these settlements on the main-land have been 
 mostly obliterated by the cultivation of the soil during the 
 
 'Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 270. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 183 
 
 many years that have elapsed since their Neolithic founders 
 occupied them. In Switzerland the location of five of these 
 villages are known. In all instances they occupied places 
 very difficult of approach — generally precipitous sides on all 
 but one or two. On the accessible sides ramparts defended 
 them. The relics obtained are in all respects similar to 
 those from the lake villages.-^ 
 
 Fortified inclosures have been described in Belgium. 
 We are told, " They are generally established on points 
 
 
 Fortified Camp, Cissbury. 
 
 overhanging valleys, on a mass of rocks forming a kind of 
 headland, which is united to the rest of the country by a 
 narrow neck of land. A wide ditch was dug across this nar- 
 row tongue of land, and the whole camp was surrounded by 
 a thick wall of stone, simply piled one upon another, with- 
 out either mortar or cement." " One of these walls, when 
 described, was ten feet thick, and the same in height." 
 " These intrenched positions were so well chosen that most of 
 
 1 Keller's "Lake Dwellings." Translated by Lee. 
 
184 THE PREHISTORW WORLD. 
 
 them continued to be occupied during the ages which fol- 
 lowed." The Romans occasionally utilized them for their 
 camps. Over the whole inclosure of these ancient camps 
 worked flints and remains of pottery have been found.^ These 
 fortified places have been well studied in the south of England. 
 
 What is known as the South-Downs in Sussex is a range 
 of hills of a general height of seven hundred feet. This sec- 
 tion is about five miles wide and fifty miles long. Four rivers 
 flow through these downs to the sea. In olden times their 
 lower courses must have been deep inlets of the sea, thus 
 dividing those hills into five groups, each separated from the 
 other by a wide extent of water and marsh land. To the north 
 of these hills was a vast expanse of densely wooded country. 
 It is not strange, then, to find traces of numerous settlements 
 among these hills. As the surface soil is very thin, old em- 
 bankments can still be traced. The cut given is a repre- 
 sentation of Cissbury, one of the largest of these camps. It 
 incloses nearly sixty acres. The rampart varies according 
 to the slope of the hill. Where the ascent was at all easy 
 it was made double. Fortified camps are very numerous 
 throughout the hill country. They vary, of course, in size, 
 but the situation was always well chosen.^ 
 
 As for the buildings themselves, or huts of the Neolithic 
 people, we know but little. They were probably built much 
 the same as the houses in the lake settlements. We meet 
 with some strange modifications in Kngland. Frequently 
 within these ramparts wo find circular pits or depressions in 
 the ground. They are regnrdcd as vestiges of habitations, 
 and they must have been mainly under ground. " They oc- 
 cur singly and in groups, and are carried down to a depth 
 of from seven to ten feet through the superficial gravel into 
 
 1 Fignier's "Primitive Man," p. 153. 
 .'General Lane Fox's "Hill Forts of Sussex," Architology, vdI. xvii. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 185 
 
 the chalk, each pit, or cluster of pits, haring a circular shaft 
 for an entrance. At the bottom they vary from five to seven 
 feet in diameter, and gradually narrow to two and a half or 
 three feet in diameter in the upper part. The floors were 
 of chalk, sometimes raised in the center, and the roof had 
 been formed of interlaced sticks, coated with clay imperfectly 
 burned."^ 
 
 In the north of Scotland, instead of putting them under 
 ground, they built them on the natural surface, and then 
 built a mound over them all. In appearance this was 
 scarcely distinguishable from a mound, but on digging in we 
 discover a series of large chambers, built generally with 
 stones of considerable size, and converging toward the cen- 
 ter, where an opening appears to have been left for light and 
 ventilation. In some instances the mound was omitted, and 
 we have simply a cluster of joining huts, with dry, thick 
 walls. These have been appropriately named "Bee-hive 
 Houses."^ 
 
 We can form a very good idea of Neolithic Europe from 
 what we have learned as to their habitations. A well- 
 wooded country, abounding in lakes and marshes, quite 
 thickly settled, but by a savage people, divided into many 
 tribes, independent of and hostile to each other. The lakes 
 were fringed with their peculiar settlements ; they are to be 
 noticed in the marshes, and on commanding heights are still 
 others. The people were largely hunters and fishers, but, 
 as we shall soon see, they practiced a rude husbandry and 
 had a few domestic animals. Such was the condition of 
 Europe long before the Greek and Latin tribes lit the beacon 
 fires of civilization in the south. 
 
 It is evident that the builders of the lake settlements 
 
 ^ Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 267. 
 ^ Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 56. 
 
 12 
 
186 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 and of the fortified villages were an intelligent and indus- 
 trious people, though their scale in civilization was yet low. 
 
 neolithic Axes. 
 
 Their various implements of hone, horn, and stone display 
 considerable advance over the rude articles of the Drift. 
 
 One of the most important implements was the ax. The 
 Paleolithic hatchet, we remember, was rude, massive, and 
 only roughly chipped into shape, and was intended to be 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 187 
 
 held in the hand. The Neolithic ax was a much better 
 made one, and was furnished with a handle. They were 
 enabled to accomplish a great deal with such axes. " Be- 
 fore it, aided by fire, the trees of the forest fell to make 
 room for the tiller of the ground, and by its sharp edge 
 wood became useful for the manufacture of various articles 
 and implements indispensable for the advancement of man- 
 kind in culture."^ These axes vary in size and finish. As 
 a general thing they are ground to a sharp, smooth edge, 
 but not always, nor were they always furnished with a 
 handle. 
 
 Some axes are found with a hole bored in them, through 
 which to pass a handle. These perforated axes are found 
 in considerable numbers, and some have denied that they 
 could be produced without the aid of metal. It is almost 
 self-evident that the perforated axes are later in date than 
 the solid ones, and probably many of them are no earlier in 
 time than the Age of Metals. There is, however, nothing 
 to show that all belong to so late a time. Besides, ex- 
 periments have amply shown that even the hardest kind of 
 flint can be drilled without the aid of metals.^ 
 
 Warlike implements are, of course, quite common. 
 Many of the axes found are probably war axes. Then be- 
 sides we have arrow-heads, spears, and daggers. These are 
 considered to be "marvels of skill in flint chipping."'^ Stone 
 was used for a great many other purposes, such as scrapers, 
 sling-stones, hammers, saws, and so on. Flint was generally 
 the kind of stone used. Our civilization owes a great 
 ■deal to this variety of stone. It is not only hard, but 
 its cleavage is such that it was of the greatest use to 
 .primitive man. In a general way the Neolithic stone 
 
 'Mr. Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 274. 
 
 '■' Smithsonian Report, 1868. •' Lu})])ock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 103. 
 
188 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 implements are seen to be better adapted to the object 
 in view than the Paleolithic specimens. They are also 
 generally polished. 
 
 Wood was largely used in their common household im- 
 plements. But it is only in exceptional cases that it has 
 been preserved to us. They have been recovered, however, 
 in peat-bogs and in the remains of lake settlements. These 
 wooden utensils consist of bowls, ladles, knives, tubs, etc. 
 
 neolithic V/eapons. 
 
 They used fire to hollow them out, and the blows of the 
 flint hatchet, used to remove the charred portions, are still 
 to be observed in some specimens. 
 
 The Neolithic people had learned how to manufacture 
 pottery, though not of a very superior quality. It is all hand- 
 made : so the potter's wheel had not yet been introduced. 
 The material is clay mixed with gravel or pounded shells. 
 Very often they ornamented their clay vessels with lines 
 and dots. The bowls or jars were evidently suspended by 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 189 
 
 cords, for the bottom was made too roundina- for them to 
 stand erect. Besides, we find the holes 
 for the cords, and in some places handles. 
 No nptice of Neolithic tools would be 
 complete without mentioning the use 
 made of horn and bone. One pecu- 
 liar use for which they employed horn 
 was as a socket for holding other im- 
 plements. Thus this figure shows us 
 an ax in a socket of horn. The mid- 
 dle of the socket is generally perfo- 
 rated with a round or oval hole, in- 
 tended to receive a handle of oak, birch, 
 or some other kind of wood adapted for 
 such a use. The cut below represents a 
 hatchet of this kind. A number of 
 these sockets have been found, which ax in sheatn. 
 
 were provided at the end opposite to the 
 stone hatchet with a strong and pointed 
 tooth. These are boars' tusks, firmly 
 
 buried in the 
 stag's horn. 
 These instru- 
 ments, therefore, 
 fulfilled double pui'poses : they cut or 
 crushed with one end and pierced with the 
 other. Sockets are also found which are not 
 only provided with the boars' tusks, but 
 are hollowed out at each end, so as to 
 hold two flint hatchets at once, as is seen 
 in our next figure. Chisels and gouges were also sometimes 
 placed in bone handles. Portions of horn probably at times 
 did duty as hoes. We give a representation of such an 
 
 Hafted Hatchet in 
 Sheath. 
 
190 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORID. 
 
 Sheath, ■with two 
 Hatchets. 
 
 implement.^ We must now seek some in- 
 formation as to how the men of the Neo- 
 lithic Age supported life. 
 
 From the remains of fish at all the lake set- 
 tlements it is evident they formed no incon- 
 siderable portion of their food. Fishing nets 
 and hooks have been discovered. They were 
 successful hunters as well. But the men 
 of this age were no longer dependent on the 
 chase for a livelihood. We have mentioned 
 several times that they were acquainted with 
 agriculture. This implies 
 a great advance over the 
 primitive hunters of the 
 early Stone Age. 
 On the shores of the lakes which 
 furnished them with a place of habitation 
 they raised many of our present species 
 of grain. Owing to a cause of which we 
 have already spoken — that is, destruc- 
 tion of the lake settlements by fire— the ^^'^^^' ^^ Sheath. 
 
 carbonized remains of 
 these cereals have been 
 preserved to us. There 
 were four varieties of 
 wheat raised, none exactly like our com- 
 mon wheat. In addition to this they 
 raised barley and millet, several varieties 
 of each. Nor were the fruits neglected. 
 Apples and pears were dried and laid 
 Horn Hoe. away for use in the Winter. Seeds 
 
 of the common berries were found in abundance, show- 
 
 ' Figuier's " Primitive Man," ])]>. 101-166. 
 
THE NFAJLITHJC AGE IN EUROJ'E. 191 
 
 ing that these primitive people were fully alive to their 
 value. 
 
 From this it follows that the Neolithic people were not 
 only tillers of the soil, but horticulturists as well. Accord- 
 ing to Dr. Keller, the vegetable kingdom furnished their 
 principal supply of food. Hazelnuts, beechnuts, and chest- 
 nuts were found in such quantities as to show they had 
 been gathered for use. Neither hemp, oats, nor rye were 
 known. Not only do we find the remains of the grains, 
 fruits, seeds, etc., from which the above conclusions are 
 drawn, but, farther than this, pieces of bread have been 
 found in a carbonized state, and thus as effectually pre- 
 served as the bread of a far later date found in the ovens 
 of Pompeii. According to Figuier, the peasant classes of 
 Tuscany now bake bread, after merely bruising the grain, 
 by pouring the batter on glowing stones and then covering 
 it with ashes. As this ancient prehistoric bread is of sim- 
 ilar shape,' it was probably baked in an equally primitive 
 fashion.'^ 
 
 Aside from the natural interest we feel in these evidences 
 as to ancient industry, a study of the remains of plants cul- 
 tivated by the Neolithic people reveals to us two curious 
 and suggestive facts. It has been found that the wild plants 
 then growing in Switzerland are in all respects like the wild 
 plants now growing there. But the cultivated plants — 
 wheat, millet, etc. — differ from all existing varieties, and 
 invariably have smaller seeds or fruits.^ This shows us that 
 man has evidently been able to effect considerable change 
 by cultivation, in the common grains, during the course of 
 the many centuries which separate the Neolithic times from 
 our own age. But if this rate of change be adopted as a 
 measure of time, what shall we say as to the antiquity de- 
 
 1 "Primitive Man," p. ]71. -Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times," p^ 219. 
 
192 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 manded to explain the origin of cultivated grain from the 
 wild grasses of their first form ? 
 
 We learn, in the second place, that the cultivated plants 
 are all immigrants from the south-east — their native home be- 
 ing in South-eastern Europe and Asia Minor. We shall after- 
 ward see that this is true of the domestic animals also. 
 There can be but one explanation for this. The ancient in- 
 habitants of Europe must have come from that directi(5n, and 
 brought with them the plants they had cultivated in their 
 eastern homes, and the animals they had reduced to their 
 service. The traces of agriculture thus found in Switzer- 
 land are by no means confined to that country. In other 
 countries of Europe, such as England aijd France, we also 
 find proofs that men cultivated the earth. In localities 
 where we do not find the grain itself, we find their rude 
 mills, or mealing stones, which as plainly indicate a knowl- 
 edge of the agricultural art as the presence of the cereals 
 themselves.^ 
 
 As we have stated. Neolithic man in Europe possessed 
 domestic animals. He was not only a cultivator of the soil, 
 but he was a herdsman as well ; and he kept herds of oxen, 
 sheep, and goats. Droves of hogs fattened on the nuts of 
 the forest, and the dog associated with man in keeping and 
 protecting these domestic animals. We know that the Swiss 
 Lake inhabitants built little stalls by the sides of their 
 houses, in which they kept their cattle at night. But these 
 domestic animals were not descendants of the wild animals 
 that roamed the forests of Europe. Like the plants, they 
 are immigrants from the south-east. Our best authorities con- 
 sider they were brought into Europe by the invading Neo- 
 lithic tribes. 
 
 The knowledge of husbandry, though rude, and the pos- 
 
 ' Dawkins'.s " Early Man in Britain," p. 268. 
 
THli NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 193 
 
 Session of domestic animals, though of a few species only, 
 strikingly iuclicute the advance over the Paleolithic tribes. 
 They also had fixed places of living. This culture spread 
 all over Europe. That it was substantially the same every- 
 where there is no doubt. Certain refuse heaps in Denmark, 
 Scotland, and indeed in all the sea-coast countries, have 
 been thought to support a different conclusion. Those of 
 Denmark have been very carefully studied, and so we will 
 refer to them. All along the Baltic coast, but especially in 
 Denmark, have been discovered great numbers of mounds, 
 which were found to consist "almost entirely of shells, espe- 
 cially of the oyster, broken bones of animals, remains of 
 birds and fishes, and, lastly, some wrought flints." The first 
 supposition in regard to those shell-heaps was that they were 
 of marine formation, accumulated beneath the sea, and ele- 
 vated to the surface along with the gradual rise of the land. 
 But they are now known to be nothing more or less than the 
 sites of ancient settlements. The location of the rude cabins 
 can still be traced. The ancient hearths are still in place. 
 " Tribes once existed here who subsisted on the products of 
 hunting and fishing, and threw out around their cabins the re- 
 mains of their meals, consisting especially of the debris of shell- 
 fish." These heaps gradually accumulated around their rude 
 dwellings, and now constitute the refuse heaps in question.^ 
 The careful investigation of their contents has failed to 
 disclose any evidence of a knowledge of agriculture, and the 
 only domestic animal found is the dog. The implements 
 are altogether of stone and horn. No trace of metal has 
 yet been obtained. As a rule, they are rudely made and 
 finished. Though of the Neolithic type, they are not pol- 
 ished except in a few instances. The principal interest 
 
 •These heaps are generally called " kjokken-moddings " — meaning kitchen 
 refuse. 
 
194 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 turns on the question of age of these refuse heaps. Some 
 think they were accumulated at the very beginning of the 
 Neolithic Age — that these tribes preceded by many years 
 the men of the Swiss Lakes. Others think they were tribes 
 of the same great people, living at the same time. On such 
 a point as this, only those who have carefully studied the 
 deposits are entitled to speak. 
 
 Some few facts stand out quite prominently. The size of 
 the mounds^ indicate long-continued residence — showing that 
 these people had permanent places of abode. As they are 
 not confined to Denmark, but are found generally through- 
 * out Europe, it would seem to imply that the Neolithic peo- 
 ple preferred to live as fishers and hunters wherever the 
 surroundings were such that they could by these means ob- 
 tain an abundant supply of food. Some shell-heaps in Scot- 
 land were still forming at the commencement of the Bronze 
 Age ; and Mr. Geikie, on geological grounds, assigns the 
 shell-heaps of Denmark to a late epoch of the Stone Age. 
 
 It seems to us quite natural that isolated tribes, living 
 where game was abundant, and where fishing met with a 
 rich reward, should turn in disgust from the agricultural life 
 of their brother tribes, and, resuming the life of mere hunt- 
 ers and fishers, speedily lose somewhat of their hardly won 
 culture — for civilization is the product of labor. Whenever 
 a people from necessity or choice abandon one form of labor 
 for another demanding less skill to triumph over nature, a 
 retrogression in culture is inevitable.^ 
 
 From what we have stated as to the use of flint we can 
 
 • One inomul is spoken of as lieinj; one thousand feet long, two to three 
 hundred feet wide, and ten feet high. 
 
 '■'On Danisli Shell Mounds, consult Koary's "Dawn of History," p. .%9, et 
 seq.; Lubbock's "Prohisforic Tim(>s," chap, vii ; Gpikio's "Prehistoric Europe," 
 pp. 365-9; Figuier's "Primitive Man," pp. 129-134; Rau's ''Early Man in Eu- 
 rope," pp. 108-113; Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," pp. .302-305. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. . 195 
 
 readily see that it was a valuable material. Sections where 
 it was found in abundance would as certainly become thickly 
 populated as the iron and gold regions of our own day. In- 
 Paleolithic times the supply of flint was mostly obtained' 
 from the surface and in the gravel of rivers. In Neolithic 
 times men had learned to mine for flint. Flint occurs in 
 nodules in the chalk. Near Brandon, England, was discovered 
 a series of these workings. They consist of shafts connected 
 together by galleries. These pits vary in size from twenty 
 to sixty feet in diameter, and in some cases were as much- 
 as thirty feet deep. From the bottom of these shafts they 
 would excavate as far as they dared to the sides. They 
 made no use of timbers to support the roof, and so these 
 side excavations were not of great extent. In these old 
 
 workings the miners sometimes left 
 behind them their tools. The prin- 
 cipal one was a pick made of deer's 
 horn, as is here represented. Besides these, they 
 had chisels of bone and antler. The marks of 
 stone hatchets on the sides of the gallery are vis- 
 ible. 
 
 In one instance the roof had caved in, evidently 
 during the night, and on clearing out the gallery 
 near the end where the roof stood firm, there were 
 found the implements of the workmen, iust as they 
 
 Hiner's 7 o j 
 
 Pick, were left at the close of the day's work; and in 
 one place on the pick, covered with chalk dust, was still to 
 be seen the marks of the workman's hand. How many 
 years, crowded with strange scenes, have swept over Eng- 
 land since that chalky impression was made ! The surface 
 of the earth is a palimpsest, on which each stage of culture 
 has been written over the faint, almost obliterated, records 
 of the past. Not only the living man, who has left there 
 
196 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the impression of his hand has passed away, but also his 
 people and his culture. And now it is only here and there 
 that we catch a faint tracing underlying our later civilization, 
 by which we reconstruct the history of these far-away times. 
 
 Nothing would be more natural than that where flint was 
 found in abundance a regular manufactory of implements 
 would be established. Such was the case at Cissbury, 
 which we have already mentioned as one of the early Brit- 
 ish towns. Mines had been dug within the walls inclosing 
 the town. The surface of the ground near the old mines at 
 this place is literally covered by splinters of flint in every 
 stage of manufacture, " from the nodule of flint fresh out of 
 the chalk, spoilt by an unlucky blow, to the article nearly 
 finished and accidentally broken.^ Here the flint was mined 
 and chipped into rudimentary shape, but carried away to be 
 perfected and polished. 
 
 A very important place in Neolithic manufactures was 
 noticed near Tours, France. Here was an abundant supply 
 of flint, and very easily obtained, and the evidence is con- 
 clusive that here existed real manufactories. Of one stretch 
 of ground, having an area of twelve or fourteen acres, we are 
 told : " It is impossible to walk a single step without tread- 
 ing on some of these objects." Here we find " hatchets in all 
 stages of manufacture, from the roughest attempt up to a 
 perfectly polished weapon. We find, also, long flakes or flint- 
 knives cleft off with a single blow with astonishing skill." 
 
 But in all these objects there is a defect; so it' is con 
 eluded tliat these specimens were refuse thrown aside in the 
 process of manufacture. As at Cissbury, very few polished 
 flints are found, so we may conclude the majority of weap- 
 ons were carried elsewhere for completion. But some 
 weapons were completed here. In the neighborhood have beea 
 
 ' Dawkins's " Kaily .M:iu in liriiaiii," ]). '11\). 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 197 
 
 found the stones used as polishers. This cut shows us one 
 used in polishing the axes. The workmen would take one 
 of the rough-hewn instruments, and, rubbing it back and 
 forth on such a stone as this, gradually produced a smooth 
 surface and a sharpened edge.^ 
 
 We have suggested that our civilization owes a great 
 deal to flint. If we will consider the surroundings of their 
 manufacturing sites, we will see the force of this remark. 
 
 Polishing Stone. 
 
 It must have taxed to the utmost the powers of these prim- 
 itive men to sink the shafts and run the galleries to secure 
 a supply of this valuable stone. In short, they had to in- 
 vent the art of quarrying and working mines. This would 
 lead to the division of labor, for while one body of men 
 would become experts as miners, others would become skill- 
 ful in chipping out the implements, and still others would 
 do the finishing and polishing. A system of barter or trade 
 
 ^Figuier's " Primitive Man," pp. 147-150 and 154i Another very import- 
 ant place was the Island of Riigen, in the Baltic Sea. Rau's " Early Man in 
 Europe," p. 137. 
 
198 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 would also arise, for the workmen at the mines and factories 
 would have to depend on others for food and clothing, and 
 in payment for the same would furnish them implements. 
 As localities where flint could be obtained in suitable quan- 
 tities are but few, we can see how trade between widely 
 
 Neolithic Boat-making. 
 
 scattered tribes would arise. This kind of traffic is shown 
 to have extended over wide distances in Neolithic times. 
 For instance, there has been found scattered over Europe 
 axes made of varieties of stone known as nephrite and jade. 
 They were highly valued by primitive tribes, being very 
 hard and of a beautiful green color. They are thought to 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 199 
 
 have been employed in the observance of superstitious rites. 
 But quarries of these varieties of stone do not occur in Eu- 
 rope. An immense amount of labor has been expended in 
 finding their native home. This is now known to be in 
 Asia.^ Manufactured in Asia, axes of these materials may 
 have drifted into Europe and finally arrived in England. 
 
 Trade between different tribes must have been greatly 
 facilitated by means of canoes, which Neolithic man knew 
 well how to make. The art of navigation was probably 
 well advanced. The canoes were formed of the trunks of 
 large trees. In most cases they were hollowed out by 
 means of the ax and fire combined. Sometimes the ends 
 were partially rounded or pointed, but often cut nearly 
 square across — rather a difficult shape to propel fast or to 
 guide properly. These ancient boats have been found 
 in nearly all the principal rivers of Europe, and in many 
 cases, no doubt, come down to much later date than the 
 Neolithic Age. From the remains of fish found in their re- 
 fuse heaps we are confident that in some such a shaped boat 
 as this they trusted themselves far out at sea. They 
 served to transport them from the shores of Europe to Eng- 
 land, and at a later date to Ireland. 
 
 The clothing of the men of the 
 Neolithic Age doubtless consisted 
 largely of the prepared skins of the 
 animals, and some fragments of 
 leather have been found in the 
 lake settlements. But a very im- 
 portant step in advance was the Meoiithic cioth. 
 invention of spinning and weaving, both of which processes 
 were known at this time. The cloth which is here repre- 
 sented " is formed of twists of interwoven flax, of rough 
 
 *" Proceedings American Antiq. Society, April, 1881," p. 286. 
 
200 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Spindle-whorl. 
 
 workmanship, it is true, but none the less remarkable, con- 
 sidering the epoch in which it was manufactured. Balls of 
 
 thread and twine have also been 
 found.' This cut is a spindle-whorl. 
 These have been discovered very 
 often. They were made sometimes 
 of stone and at other times of pottery 
 and bone. The threads were made of 
 flax, and the combs which were used 
 for pushing the threads of the warp 
 into the weft show that it was woven into linen on some 
 kind of a loom. Several figures of the loom have been given, 
 but we have no certainty of their correctness.^ 
 
 Let us now see if we can gather any thing as to the re- 
 ligious belief of Neolithic man. On this point we pf 
 can at best only indulge in vague conjectures. Yet 
 some light seems thrown on this difficult subject by 
 examination of the burial mounds. This introduces 
 us to a subject of much interest which, in our hur- 
 ried review, we can but glance at. 
 
 Scattered over Europe are found numbers of 
 mysterious monuments of the past. Some of them 
 we have mentioned already as the embankments 
 surrounding ancient villages. But aside from these 
 are other monuments, such as burial mounds, rude 
 dolmens, and great standing stones, sometimes ar- 
 ranged in circles, sometimes in rows, and some- 
 times standing singly. Many of these remains may be of 
 a far later date than the Neolithic Age, still it is extremely 
 
 ' Figuier's " Primitive iSfan," p. 262. 
 
 *See remarks of Prof. Rau on this subject ("Early Man in Europe," pp. 
 128-9 and note.) Mr. Dawkins thinks it " probable also that the art of weaving 
 woolen cloth was known, although, from its perishable nature, no trace of it 
 has been handed down to us." (" Early !Man in Briiani," j). '21o.) 
 
 Weaver'8 
 Comb. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 201 
 
 Chambered Burial Hound, Denmark. 
 
 difficult to draw a dividing line between the monuments of 
 different ages. 
 
 Burial mounds are found everywhere, many in Europe 
 going back to the Neolithic Age, though some are of a very 
 recent construction. The Egyptian Pyramids are burial 
 
 
 
 Dolmen, England 
 
 mounds on the grandest scale. The first cut represents a Dan- 
 ish Tumulus, or burial mound, of this Age. The openings 
 lead to the center of the mound, where they connect with 
 
 13 
 
202 
 
 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 chambers in which the bodies were formerly placed. There 
 are, of course, various modifications of this tumulus. Often 
 the gallery was omitted, a rude chamber was erected, and a 
 mound reared over it. Sometimes, indeed, no chamber was 
 made, but simply a mound placed over the body. 
 
 There have been found in England a great many stones 
 arranged as in the preceding cut, though generally not built 
 with such regularity as is there represented. They are named 
 Dolmens, a word meaning stone tables. They were more 
 
 Dolmen, France. 
 
 generally made of rough stones, rudely arranged. This cut 
 represents one found in France. In early times these were 
 supposed to have been rude altars used by the mysterious 
 Druids in celebrating their rites. They are now known to 
 be the tombs of the Neolithic Age. They arc, in fact, the 
 
 
 HJZVtJT^^pKSy^Vr^^^c^ 
 
 ~:a".V-^.'-i-<J^l'^'' 
 
 
 Dolmen, onoe Covered with Earth. 
 
 chambers above mentioned. The mound of earth has since 
 disappeared and left its chamber standing exposed to the air. 
 Traces of the old pnssnge way are still met. Whether all 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 203 
 
 Dolmeas were once covered with earth or not, is not jet known. 
 In the majority of cases they probably were. In the last 
 cut portions of stone are still buried in the earth. We are 
 told that in India the people in 
 some places still erect Dolmens 
 similar to those of Neolithic times.^ 
 Aside from the tombs them- 
 selves, there are other arrangements 
 of great stones which must have 
 once possessed great significance to 
 their builders, but their meaning is 
 now lost. Of this nature are the 
 blocks of rough stone set up in 
 the ground generally in the vicinity of tombs. These are 
 the standing stones, or menhirs, which, as we have stated, 
 are arranged in various forms. When arranged in circles, 
 
 stone Circle, England. 
 
 they are generally regarded as tombs. When placed in long 
 parallel rows, as at Carnac, in France, we are not sure of 
 their meaning. We are told that the Hill tribes of India to 
 this day erect combinations of gigantic stones into all the 
 shapes we have here described.^ 
 
 The peculiar shape of the burial mounds, with a passage 
 way conducting us to an interior chamber, ,or series of cham- 
 bers, probably arose from the belief entertained by many 
 
 'Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times," p. 132. 
 2 Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 130. 
 
204 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 savage people, that the dead continue to live an existence 
 much like that when alive, and consequently the same sur- 
 roundings were deemed necessary for their comfort. So the 
 tomb was made similar to the house of the living. The or- 
 dinary Winter huts of the Laplander are very similar in shape 
 and size to the burial tumuli, and amongst some people, as 
 
 Chamtered Toml), France. 
 
 the inhabitants of New Zealand, the house itself is made the 
 grave. It wns closed up and painted red, and afterward 
 considered sacred. 
 
 So it may quite well be that the Neolithic inhabit- 
 ants of Denmark, "unable to imagine a future altogether 
 different from the present, or a world quite unlike our own, 
 showed their respect and affection for the dead' by burjdug 
 with them those things wliich in life they had valued most; 
 with women, their ornaments, with warriors, their weapons. 
 They buried the house with its owner, and the grave was 
 literally the dwelling of the dead. When a great man died 
 he was placed on his favorite seat, food and drink was ar- 
 ranged before him, his weapons were placed by his side, his 
 house was closed, and the door covered uj), sometimes, 
 however, to be opened again when his wife or children joined 
 him in the land of spirits." 
 
 That they believed in a life beyond the grave is shown 
 by the objects they buried with the individuals. These 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 205 
 
 are implements of various kinds, flakes, arrow-heads, 
 scrapers, celts, and pottery, doubtless intended to be of ser- 
 vice to the deceased. We know this to be a very common 
 proceeding amongst all barbarous people. In some cases it 
 would appear as if they realized that the material things them- 
 selves could be of no service to the departed, but imagined 
 that in some vague way the spirits of things might be of 
 service to the spirits of men, and so they would purposely 
 break the flints and throw the fragments into the grave. 
 Sometimes they may have buried only models of the objects 
 they wished to give to the dead, imagining that in this way 
 the spirits of the objects represented would accompany and 
 be of service to the spirits of the departed. To this day the 
 Eskimos bury small models of boats, spears, etc., rather than 
 the objects themselves. The ancient Etruscans buried jew- 
 elry, but made it so thin and fragile that it could not have 
 been of service to the living. In China this is carried still 
 further, and paper cuttings or drawings of horses, money, 
 etc., are burned at the grave. 
 
 These remarks may explain the absence of remains so 
 often noticed in Neolithic burials in England. But other 
 evidence can be given to' show this belief in future life. The 
 mounds were of course often erected over noted chiefs, and 
 we are not without evidence that he was not allow^ed to go 
 unattended into the other w^orld. It has been noted that 
 often skeletons have been met with having the skull cleft, 
 and in one case, at least, all but one presented that appear- 
 ance. It is but reasonable to suppose that these skeletons 
 were those of captives or slaves sacrificed to be the attend- 
 ants of the chief in the spirit world. Funeral feasts were 
 also held in honor of the dead. Thus we may gather from 
 burial mounds something of the religious belief of their occu- 
 pants. 
 
206 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 It is not improbable that ancestor worship, or the worship 
 of the dead, was part of their faith, so that the mounds be- 
 came temples. On this point we are told "it is impossible 
 not to believe then that the people who made these great, 
 and iq some cases elaborately constructed, tombs would con- 
 tinue ever after to regard them as in some sort consecrated 
 to the great chiefs who were buried under them. Each tribe 
 would have its own specially sacred tombs, and perhaps we 
 may here see a germ of that ancestor-worship which may be 
 traced in every variety of religious belief."^ 
 
 We now approach a difhcult part of our inquiry, but, at 
 the same time, one that possesses for us a great interest. 
 Who were these people into whose culture we have been 
 inquiring ? While laying the foundation of our present civi- 
 lization, though being the fountain head from whence many 
 of the arts and industries, which now make our existence 
 comfortable and happy, take their feeble origin, gradually 
 developing and expanding as the time rolls on, have they 
 themselves, as a race, vanished in the mighty past, or are 
 their descendants still to be found in Europe? Who were 
 they? Whence and when? Difficult problems, but we have 
 read to but little purpose if we have not already learned that 
 earnest observers need but the slightest clue to suable them 
 to trace out brilliant results. 
 
 In the first place, are there any grounds for supposing 
 the Neolithic people to be the descendants of those who 
 hunted the reindeer jtlong the Vezere? This view has its 
 supporters. M. Quatrefnges, a very able scholar indeed, 
 maintains that the Neolithic people were the same race as 
 
 ' On this subject consult I.uhbock's " Prehistoric Times," chap, v.; Kcarj-'s 
 " Dawn of History," p. 3()3-6 ; Geikie's " Prehistoric Europe," p. 373 ; Dawkins's 
 "Early Man in Britain," p. 2S4-9; Fcvfruson's " Hiule St(wc Mcinnnicnts;" 
 Kiguier's "Primitive Man," chap, iii.; Rau's "Early Man in Europe," p. 139; 
 "ArchjBology," Vol. XLII. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 207 
 
 those who inhabited the caves and found shelter in the rock 
 grottoes of France.^ This, to others, does not seem credible. 
 We must recall the long lapse of time that it is apparent has 
 elapsed between the two ages. We have seen how different 
 were the two cultures ; as Mr. Geikie remarks, " So great, 
 indeed, is the diiference between the conditions of life that 
 obtained in the two ages of Stone, that we can hardly doubt 
 that the two people came of different stocks."^ The Neo- 
 lithic people brought with them domestic animals and plants 
 whose native home is in Western Asia. We can hardly ac- 
 count for this fact, if we suppose them to be the descendants 
 of Paleolithic tribes in France. 
 
 Abandoning, therefore, any attempt to trace lines of con- 
 nection between the people of the two ages, let us carefully 
 study all the facts connected with the Neolithic people and 
 their culture, to see if we can solve the problem by so 
 doing. We have noticed that substantially the same stage 
 of culture existed throughout Eui-ope from Switzerland to 
 the British Islands. This points to the presence of a common 
 race during at least a portion of the time. But if there was 
 a common race living in Europe they would certainly pos- 
 sess common physical features. As a race they may have 
 been tall in stature, or medium, or short, and portions of the 
 human skeleton would show a uniformity in this regard. 
 
 Now one of the means that scientists use to determine 
 the races of men is a comparison of skulls, measured in a 
 systematic manner. The objection has been made that no 
 reliance can be placed on these results, because at the 
 present day skulls of all sorts of shapes and sizes can be ob- 
 tained among people of the same nationality. But the;-e 
 objections would not apply to people of prehistoric times. 
 Their surroundings would be simple and natural — not arti- 
 
 1" Human Species," p. 335. ^ "Prehistoric Europe," p. 547. 
 
208 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ficial and complex, as in modern times. In our times people 
 of different nationality are constantly coming in contact, and 
 intermarriage results ; but in prehistoric times this was not 
 liable to occui*, and so the comparative purity of blood "would 
 certainly produce a much greater uniformity of physical" 
 features.^ 
 
 From a very careful examination of a great number of 
 burial mounds in Great Britain, it has been ascertained that 
 in all of those that date back to Neolithic times, and contain 
 portions of human skeletons, the bones are always those of indi- 
 viduals small in stature, the average height being about five 
 and a half feet. The skulls are of that variety known as long 
 skulls. From this we can at once form a mental picture of the 
 Neolithic inhabitants of Britain. No less important conclu- 
 sions have been deduced from the study of burial mounds 
 on the continent. We meet with remains of these same 
 small-sized people. " They have left traces of their j)res- 
 ence in numerous interments in chambered tombs and caves 
 in Belgium and France, as well as in Spain and Gibraltar. 
 We may therefore conclude that at one period in the Neo- 
 lithic Age the population of Europe, west of the Rhine and 
 north of the Alps, was uniform in physique and consisted 
 of the same small people as the Neolithic inhabitants of 
 Britain and Ireland."^ 
 
 We must now inquire whether there are any people living 
 in Europe which might have descended from the original 
 stock. We are in the position of those who, from a few 
 broken down arches, a ruined tower and dismantled wall, 
 would seek to form a mental picture of the stately building 
 that once stood there. If we can here and there discover, 
 by the light of history or exploration, some races or tribes 
 that, owing to their geographical position, have escaped the 
 
 ' Dawkins's " Eiirly M;in in Britain," p. 310, note 3. '■' Iliiil., j). ;il4. 
 
THE SEOLlTUia AGE IN EUROPE. 209 
 
 fiite that befell the great body of their countrymen, we may 
 perhaps replace our mental picture by one founded on re- 
 ality. Nor need we be in doubt where to seek for such 
 scattered remnants of people. Successful invaders always 
 appropriate to their own use the fertile lowlands and the 
 fruitful portions of the country of their helpless foes. But 
 a weak people have often, in the rocky fastnesses of their 
 land, made a successful stand. So, to determine the race, 
 we will examine the people living, in such regions, and see 
 if there are any that physically conform to what is already 
 known of the Neolithic people, and so entitled to claim a re- 
 lationship by descent. 
 
 Both slopes of Pyrenees Mountains, between France 
 and Spain, have been occupied from time immemorial by a 
 peculiar race of people known as the Basque. Secure in 
 their mountain homes, they have resisted foreign civiliza- 
 tion, and retained their national characteristics as well as 
 their liberties, though they have been nominally vassals to 
 many powers, from the early Carthaginians to the later 
 French and Spanish. From the many invasions they have 
 undergone the Basque language and people are by no means 
 uniform. But Dr. Broca, one of the most learned anthro- 
 pologists in Europe, has shown that the original Basques 
 were dark in complexion, with black hair and eyes. In ad- 
 dition to this, the efforts of some of the most eminent 
 scholars in Europe,^ who have made numerous examinations 
 of skulls and skeletons obtained from ancient Basque ceme- 
 teries, have conclusively shown that in all physical features 
 the Basques agree with men of Neolithic times.^ 
 
 The Basques do not belong to the great division of the 
 
 ' Thurman, Vircliow, Huxley, and others. 
 
 ^ Mr. Dawkins is inclined to view them as a remnant of the Neolithic peo- 
 ple. Whether our scholars will ultimately accept his views, remains to he 
 seen. 
 
210 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 human family known as Aryans, to which the English- 
 speaking races, as well as the nations of Europe generally, 
 belong. They belong to a far older division of the human 
 family — the Turanian^ — and were doubtless in possession of 
 Europe long before the Indo-European nations commenced 
 their westward migrations from Central Asia. They are 
 described as being, brave, industrious, and iVuyal, with patri- 
 archal manners and habits. They scorn authority, except 
 what emanates from themselves, and have but few nobility. 
 They are impetuous, merry, and hospitable, fond of music 
 and dancing.^ Of their warfare we are told they are '"not 
 distinguished in open warfare, but unconquerable in guerrilla 
 warfare, and famed for defense of walled cities."^ Such are 
 the Basques of to-day, and many of these traits of charac- 
 ter, we doubt not, were the same amongst the Neolithic 
 people. 
 
 Mr. Dawkins also thinks that two tribes, living in North- 
 ern Italy, in the very earliest historical times, are other rem- 
 nants of the same people. One of these were the Ligurians. 
 Investigations and traditions show that some time before 
 the dawn of history they had been driven out of the pleasant 
 parts of Southern France, but had made a successful stand 
 in the mountain regions of Northern Italy. They, like the 
 Basques, were strong, active, and warlike. They were small 
 in stature, swarthy in features, and long-headed. To the 
 south of these were the Etruscans. But little is known of 
 them, though the evidence is that long before the Christian 
 Era they were a powerful people. In physical features they 
 resembled those already described. Their sculpture exhibits 
 only short, sturdy figures, w'ith large heads and thick arms. 
 
 ' Brace's " Races of the Ol.l World," p. 82. 
 
 ' Am. Encyclopedia, Art. Basque. 
 
 " Brace's "Races of tlie Old World," p. 82. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 211 
 
 Another possible remnant of these people existed at the very 
 dawn of history in the mountainous regions of Wales. 
 They were known as Silures, but have since become ab- 
 sorbed in the surrounding population. In civilization and 
 physical features they agree with the remnants already 
 described. 
 
 In the north of Russia are found the Finns. Their origin 
 and migrations are alike unknown. One thing is certain, 
 they belong to the Turanian family, and so are probably al- 
 lied to the Basques and Etruscans. It is possible that they 
 also are but a sorry remnant of the once wide-spread Neo- 
 lithic people. Driven out of the fairer portions of Europe, 
 they have found an asylum in their present bleak surround- 
 ings. Like the people already described, they are short in 
 stature, and dark visaged.^ 
 
 The tribes we have thus briefly mentioned are regarded 
 by some as representatives of the Neolithic people. Prof. 
 Winchell, speaking of the wide-spread extension of the Tu- 
 ranian race, assures us, that "history, tradition, linguistics, 
 and ethnology conspire to fortify the conclusions that, in 
 prehistoric times, all Europe was overspread by the Mongo- 
 loid (Turanian) race, of which remnants have survived to 
 our own times in the persons of the Basques, Finns, Esths, 
 Lapps, and some smaller tribes."^ Researches into the sur- 
 roundings of these people, combined with what we have al- 
 ready learned as to the culture, customs, and manners of the 
 Neolithic people in the preceding pages, throw no little 
 light on this age. The darkness of oblivion seems dispelled 
 by the light of science, and we behold before us the Europe 
 of Neolithic times, thickly inhabited by a race of people, 
 small in stature, dark visaged, and oval-faced — fond of war 
 and the chase, yet having a rude system of agriculture. The 
 
 ' Brace's " Races of the Old World," p. 82. ^ « Pre-Adamites," p. 150. 
 
212 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 picture seems complete; and we have now only to raise 
 some inquiries as to the great stock of people to which they 
 belonged, and conjecture as to the date of their arrival in 
 Europe.^ 
 
 We are now learning that far hack in the past, when 
 mankind was yet young in the world, the great Turanian 
 family held a commanding position. They seem to have dis- 
 persed widely over the earth. Their migrations began long 
 before that of the Aryan and Semitic people. When tribes 
 of these later people began their wanderings, they found a 
 Turanian people inhabiting the country wherever they went. 
 Long before the times of Abraham, the fertile plains of Chal- 
 dea were the home of powerful tribes of this family. Egypt, 
 and the fertile Nile Valley, the home of ancient civilization, 
 was their possession at a time long preceding the rise of the 
 Pharaohs. Their Asiatic origin is corroborated by what we 
 have learned of their domestic animals and cereals, which we 
 know to be also from Asia, or the south-east. These Tura- 
 nian tribes, at some far remote time, must have appeared in 
 Asia Minor. Urged onward by the pressure of increasing 
 population, they passed into Europe and Northern Africa. 
 Their progress was, doubtless, slow; but they gradually 
 filled Europe. The English Channel must have presented 
 no inconsiderable barrier, and it was after Europe had been 
 populated for a long time that they ventured to brave its 
 passage in their rude canoes. 
 
 The Neolithic culture, which we have treated of in ref- 
 erence to Europe only, is seen to have been of Turanian 
 origin. From its Asiatic home it spread over the entire 
 
 ' It is unnecessary to cantif)n the reader, tliat, after all, our knowedfro of 
 "prehistory" is vague. Prof. Virchow, who is eminent authority on these 
 points, thinks it not yet possible to identify the prehistoric people of Europe; 
 and good authorities hold that the Turanian tribes just named are the rem- 
 nants of Paleolithic tribes, instead of Neolithic. 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 213 
 
 world — to the islands of the Pacific, and even America. 
 The road that leads from barbarism to civilization is long 
 and difficult, and 'it is not strange that but one or two fami- 
 lies of men were able to attain that end by their own un- 
 aided effort.^ The Turanian Family, which probably ad- 
 vanced man from savagism into barbarism, seems to have 
 at that stage exhausted its energies. This is but an illus- 
 tration of the fact that a race, like an individual, has a 
 period of growth, a maturity of healthful powers, and an old 
 age of slow decadence. After thus dispersing over the 
 world, carrying with them the culture of the Neolithic Age, 
 they seem to have halted in their progress. It remained for a 
 new people, starting, perhaps, from the same state of culture, 
 but with new energies, to discover and employ metals in the 
 construction of tools and implements. This gave them so 
 great a command over nature that civilization became pos- 
 sible. But whatever considerable advance the Turanian 
 races were able to make beyond the Neolithic culture was 
 by reason of intercourse with these later people. Where 
 completely isolated from them, as in the New World, they 
 remained, for the most part, in the Neolithic culture." 
 
 We have hitherto spoken as if there was but one race in 
 Europe during Neolithic times. In the main this is true; 
 yet, near the close of this time, a different race arrived in 
 Europe. That this is so, is proved by the same line of evi- 
 dence used to determine the Neolithic people. We shall 
 have much to say of them hereafter. They were the van- 
 guard of the great Aryan race. This calls for some explana- 
 tion. It has been found that the principal languages of 
 Europe and South-western Asia have certain common chnrac- 
 
 ' Morgan's "Ancient Society," p. 39. 
 
 ^The exceptions to this statement are tlie higher classes of sedentary In- 
 dians, of which we shall treat in future pages. 
 
214 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 teristics; so much so that we are justified, even compelled, to 
 assume that the nations speaking these languages, such for 
 instance as the Teutonic, Selavic, Italic,* Greek, Persian, 
 Hindoostanee, and others, are descendants from a common 
 ancestor. These people are called, collectively, Aryans. 
 They were the ones who drove the Turanians out of the 
 fairest portions of Europe. Though they appeared at a late 
 date, they have filled the most important places in history, 
 and the civilization of the world to-day is Aryan. 
 
 Now we must again form a mental picture of Neolithic 
 Europe — after it had been for a long time in the possession 
 of the Turanian tribes, the first band of Aiyan invaders make 
 their appearance. They must have appeared somewhere 
 near the south-eastern confines cff Europe, but they pressed 
 forward to the western portion. They firmly seated them- 
 selves in the western and central parts of Europe, driving 
 out the Turanian tribes who had so long possessed the land. 
 They were themselves still in the Neolithic stage of culture. 
 But they probably did not long antedate the knowledge of 
 metals. Mr. Dawkins thinks that it caught up with them 
 before they arrived in Britain, and that they are the ones 
 who introduced bronze into that island. The Aiyan tribe, 
 who thus made their appearance in Europe, are identified as 
 the Celts of history. 
 
 The Neolithic Age thus drew to its close, but not all at 
 once. It disappeared first in the southern portion of Eu- 
 rope — from Greece and Italy; but it lingered to a far later 
 date in the north: among the scattered tribes of Turanian 
 people it would still assert its sway. Even after metals 
 were introduced, the cheapness and abundance of stone 
 would cause it to be used, among the poorer people at least. 
 But finally this culture gives way to a higher one in En- 
 rope — though it still survived in portions of Asia, the Isles 
 
THE NEOLITHIC AGE IN EUROPE. 215 
 
 of the Pacific, and in America. We can but reflect on the 
 difference between the two ages of stone. The former ends 
 amidst Arctic scenes — and, in the darkness that ensues, ages 
 pass before we again detect the presence of man. The 
 Neolithic closes gradually, everywhere giving way to a 
 higher culture. We must not forget that our present civili- 
 zation owes much to our far away Neolithic ancestors. 
 When we reflect on the difficulties that had to be overcome 
 before animals could be profitably held in a domestic state, 
 or cultivation of the earth made profitable, we almost 
 wonder that they succeeded in either direction. Aside 
 from these, we turn to them for the origin of trade, naviga- 
 tion, and mining. No inconsiderable part of the battle of 
 civilization had thus been won. 
 
216 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 6HAPTER Vtl, 
 
 THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE.i 
 
 Races of Men, like Individuals — Gradual change of Neolithic Age to 
 that of Bronze — The Aryan family — First Aryans Neolithic — 
 Origin of Bronze — How Great discoveries are made — Gold the first 
 metal — Copper Abundant — No Copper Age — The discovery of Tin — 
 Explanation of an Alloy — Bronze, wherever found, the same Com- 
 jDosition — What is meant by the Bronze Age — Knowledge in other 
 Directions — Gradual Growth of Culture — Three Centers of Bronze 
 Production — Habitations during the Bronze Age — The Bronze Ax — 
 Implements of Bronze — Personal ornaments — Ornaments not always 
 made of Bronze — Advance in Arts of living — Advance in Agricul- 
 ture — Warlike Weapons — How they worked Bronze — Advance in 
 Government — Trade in the Bronze Age — Religion of tbe Bronze 
 Age — Symbolical figures — Temples of the Bronze 
 '^iJ^ J -^g^ — St(mehenge. 
 
 IS with races of men as with individ- 
 uals, the progressive growth of 3'oulli 
 soon reaches its limit and maturity of 
 -z,u, ^ power. While it brings greater strength, it has 
 /|if 'T ^ot ^^^^ "buoyancy of early years, so the man- 
 ner of life becomes fixed, and onward piog- 
 ress stops. They can then only hope to hold on the even tenor 
 of their way, happy if increasing years do not bring again their 
 childhood state. The Neolithic people entered Europe early 
 in the youth of the race which spread their civilization over 
 the globe, but the race to which they belonged appear to have 
 reached their zenith of development long ages ago, since whidi 
 time, whatever higher culture they have reached has boon a 
 
 ' The nmnuscriiit of tins cliaptcr was submitted to Trof. Cb:is. Ixiin, of tlio 
 h?initlisonian Institution for criticism. 
 
THE BR ONZE AGE IN E UR OPE. 217 
 
 gift to them by other people. Their energies became ex- 
 hausted, and for a long series of years Europe was filled by 
 the camps, lake villages, and fortified places of Neolithic 
 times. 
 
 As to the absolute length of time during which they in- 
 habited Europe, we have no data to determine. Relatively, 
 their sojourn, however long, was but a short time compared 
 to the duration of the old Stone Age. It presents no such 
 evidence of lapse of ages as can be observed in the older 
 deposits, yet we may be sure that it was for no inconsider- 
 al3le period. 
 
 The Paleolithic Age was apparently terminated in Europe 
 by the cold of the last glacial epoch. No such natural 
 course put an end to the Neolithic Age, but as the strong 
 have an advantage over the weak, the young over the old, 
 so does a race young, undeveloped, or in the early maturity 
 of its powers, have an advantage over the older and more fixed 
 civilization with which it comes in contact. To understand 
 the causes which introduced into Europe the Bronze Age, we 
 must refer to the Aryan race and to Asia. 
 
 We have in the preceding chapter briefly mentioned the 
 Aryan race. They have so much to do with the higher cul- 
 ture of the Metallic Ages, that it seems not out of place to 
 refer once more to their origin. The evidence goes to show 
 that the ancient Aryans inhabited some portion of South- 
 western Asia. As a race or family, they appear to have been 
 one of the latest developed. Yet a record of their progress 
 is a record of civilization. 
 
 Unless we reflect, we are liable to be misled by the ex- 
 pression, recent development. The Hindoos, one of the latest 
 members of this family, were in India several thousand years 
 before Christ.^ But however far back we trace them, we find 
 
 'Brace's "Kaces of the Old World," p. 60. 
 
 14 
 
218 THE FREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 them in possession of metals. Aside from this, we know 
 that before the different Aryan tribes had commenced their 
 migration (with the exception, however, of the Celts), while 
 they formed but one mass of people, they worked some of 
 the metals.^ They could have acquired this knowledge only 
 after the passage of many years, when they were ignorant 
 of it. This bespeaks a profound antiquity for the Aryan 
 family. 
 
 As we have seen, Europe, while yet inhabited by Neo- 
 lithic people, was invaded by a branch of the Aryans. We 
 do not know the date of this invasion, yet it must have been 
 an early date, since the Celts separated from the Aryans be- 
 fore the use of metals. The Aryans have ever been noted 
 as an aggressive people, and under diff'erent names have, in 
 modern times, carried victorious arms in all quarters of the 
 globe. This is equally characteristic of the primitive Aryans. 
 Though it is not apparent that they possessed any higher 
 culture than the people who already inhabited Europe, yet 
 they everywhere triumphed over them and possessed them- 
 selves of the fairest portion of the Neolithic domain, driving 
 the primitive inhabitants to those mountainous regions where 
 their descendants are found to-day. 
 
 It is not probable that the Aryan invaders waged exter- 
 minating war against the Neolithic tribes. The evidence 
 shows that there was considerable mingling of the two races. 
 It has been suggested, however, that the Neolithic people 
 who were not driven away were reduced to slavery.^ How- 
 ever that may be, the remains of the two people are found 
 side by side in chambered tombs and sepulchral caverns, 
 showing that they dwelt together in the same area. As be- 
 fore remarked, the Aryan invaders are identified as the Celts. 
 
 ' Brace's " Races of the Old World," p. 61. 
 * Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," p. 343. 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 219 
 
 That it was relatively late in the Neolithic Age when they 
 made their appearance, is shown by the fact that they had 
 only reached the English Channel when a knowledge of bronze 
 caught up with them. 
 
 We must now endeavor to learn the origin of bronze. 
 The impulsive energies of this newer race found vent not only 
 in conquest over the neighboring tribes, but it is extremely 
 probable that they are the ones who first compelled nature 
 to yield up her metallic stores to be of service to man. If 
 the knowledge of fire was the starting point of human ad- 
 vancement, surely the knowledge of metals, their useful prop- 
 erties, and how to extract them from their ores, may lay claim 
 to being the starting point of our present enlightenment. We 
 have but to glance around us to see how many of our daily 
 comforts are dependent on the use of metals. Should we, by 
 any mischance, become deprived of the use of iron, or of the 
 useful alloys, bronze and brass, our civilization would be in 
 great danger of reverting to Savagism. Man, destitute of 
 metals, can do but little to improve his surroundings ; but 
 grant him these, and victory over his environment is 
 secured. 
 
 We can not retrace the exact steps of this beautiful dis- 
 covery; we are not sure to what family it is to be ascribed. 
 Perhaps not to any one alone. Nature may have taken her 
 children by the hand, and kindly guided their feeble steps 
 in the line of experiments leading up to this knowledge, and, 
 finally, one family, more fortunate than the others, succeeded 
 in the attempt. All great discoveries have been approached 
 in different directions, by different people. No sooner is it 
 made than this fact appears, and people widely separated by 
 time and place are found to be on the verge of the same 
 great truth. It was probably so at the discovery of metal- 
 lurgy. 
 
220 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 The Turanian tribes, who had so long inhabited Europe, 
 were suddenly confronted by the victorious hosts of the 
 Celts, the vanguard of the Aryans, the precursors of a higher 
 culture. The movements of these primitive people could not 
 fail to have a great effect on the human mind. It would 
 become alert, keen, and active. Such was the state of an- 
 cient society when a knowledge of bronze was introduced — 
 a discovery which consigned stone, hitherto the substance 
 most commonly made use of to advance human interests, to 
 a subordinate position, and opened up for man the exhaust- 
 less mineral stores of nature. 
 
 It is suggested by some that gold was the first metallic 
 substance employed. Its glittering particles would attract 
 the attention of primitive man, and little articles of orna- 
 ment were early manufactured from it. To be sure, the sup- 
 ply was very limited; but what there was would serve the 
 useful purpose of imparting to men some idea of metallic 
 substances. Portions of it falling in the fire might have 
 suggested the idea of smelting and of molding — might, at least, 
 have lead to experiments in that line. The supply of gold 
 existing in a native state is so small, that no use could have 
 been made of it except for ornaments. 
 
 Iron, we know, is the most abundant mineral. But it is 
 very rare in a native state, and its ores have nothing dis- 
 tinguishing about them, and so it is not strange that another 
 metal received the attention of primitive man. That metal 
 was probably copper. It is often found in a pure state in na- 
 ture. In the Michigan mines of our own country, masses of 
 pure copper many tons in weight have been discovered.^ No 
 such rich deposits are found in the Old World; but consid- 
 erable quantities of native copper were obtained, and it was 
 
 ' "One mass estimated to weigh two hundred tons" Dana's " Manual of 
 Mineralogy," ]>. 291. 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 221 
 
 by no means a rare metal. Copper possesses several quali- 
 ties that would attract attention. It is quite malleable; 
 that is, it can be easily hammered into shape. We can im- 
 agine the surprise of the old stone-workeis at finding a stone 
 that, instead of breaking or splitting, could be hammered 
 into shape. By accident, or otherwise, it would be learned, 
 in time, that it could be melted. This would lead to the 
 idea of molding. 
 
 If the above process were followed out, there would be 
 a real Copper Age preceding that of Bronze : no trace of 
 such an age has yet been detected in Europe. " But there 
 is, however, every reason for believing, that, in some parts 
 of the world, the use of native copper must have continued for 
 a lengthened period before it was discovered that the addition 
 of a small portion of tin not only rendered it more fusible, 
 but added to its elasticity and hardness."^ The absence of a 
 Copper Age in Europe would imply that the art of manu- 
 facturing bronze was discovered in some other locality. 
 
 Copper by itself is so soft that it would not be of much 
 use to man, except the experience they would gain of melt- 
 ing and molding. In our own country the aboriginal inhab- 
 itants were well acquainted with copper, and even knew how 
 to mold it. Yet, except as just pointed out, it is not probable 
 that it exerted any marked influence on their development.^ 
 In the old world supplies of native copper are limited, and 
 recourse must be had to the ores of copper. Now these 
 ores, such as copper-pyrites, are nearly always of a bright 
 color, and as such would attract the attention of primitive 
 man. They might suspect that these bright colored ores 
 
 ' Evans's " Ancient Bronze Implements," p. 2. 
 
 ^ Rau's "Anthropological Subjects," p. 89. In his preface to this collection 
 he asserts his belief, that "former inhabitants of North America, notwithstand- 
 ing all assertions to the contrary, were unacquainted with the art of melting 
 copper." Ibid., vii. 
 
222 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 contained copper from finding similarly colored ores in con- 
 nection with native copper, in ftict passing from one form to 
 the other. But it requires no little skill to reduce the ores of 
 copper; and, when obtained, for reasons just pointed out, it 
 would not be of great utility. But primitive man was thus 
 cautiously and experimentally feeling his way to a knowl- 
 edge of metallurgy. 
 
 All the evidence obtainable goes to show that tin war 
 known as early as copper, or at least soon after. Its ores 
 though not striking on account of their color, are on account 
 of their great weight. It is comparatively easy to reduce 
 it from its ores. It is quite widely distributed over the 
 earth. It often occurs in the gravels of rivers, where, as 
 we have already mentioned, primitive men must have, at a 
 very early date, sought for gold. Owing to their weight, 
 the gravel of tin-stone would remain behind with the gold 
 when it was washed. "In process of time its real nature 
 might have been revealed by accident; and, before the eye 
 of the astonished beholder, the dull stone, flung into the fire, 
 became transfigured into the glittering metal."^ 
 
 When two metals come together in a molten state, they 
 often form, not a mixture of the two, part copper and part 
 tin, for example, but a new compound, diiferent from either, 
 called an alloy. Copper is, so to speak, a sociable metal, 
 and readily unites with many difi'erent metals — amongst 
 others with tin, when it forms bronze, the article that marks 
 a new state in the history of primitive culture. It seems to 
 us strange that an alloy, a combination of two different 
 metals, should have been the first used by man, and not a 
 simple metal like iron. Such, however, is the fact of the 
 case; and we have tried to point out the probable steps 
 which led up to the invention of bronze. We can scarcely 
 
 > Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," p. 401. 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 223 
 
 comprehend the difficulties which attended the labors of the 
 primitive metal-workers. There were no books containing 
 the wisdom of many, from which the investigator could 
 draw his stores of knowledge : and the only way that knowl- 
 edge could be disseminated was by word of mouth. 
 
 Now, when one man makes an important step in a discov- 
 ery, hundreds of earnest workers, some, perhaps, in distant 
 places, are quickly made aware of the fact, and extend its 
 scope, or point out its imperfections, and thus hasten on the 
 desired end. Then, each individual, or community, must, of 
 necessity, have commenced at the beginning, and the discov- 
 eries made would hardly be perpetuated in the memory of 
 others. There were so many obstacles to be overcome be- 
 fore a knowledge of bronze could be acquired, in the then 
 existing state of human knowledge, that it must ever remain 
 a source of wonder to us, at the present day, that it was in- 
 vented at all. 
 
 We may picture to ourselves the ancient copper-worker, 
 after numerous experiments, guided by some good genius, 
 finally hitting on some process by which, from his mass of 
 ore, he extracted a nearly pure piece of copper. Having 
 learned how to reduce these ores, there are many ways in 
 which it might have been found that a mixture of the two 
 metals would form a new compound of greatly increased 
 value. 
 
 It must have taken a long course of experiments to de- 
 termine what proportions of each metal to use to" make the 
 best bronze. It is interesting to know that these early 
 workers had learned the proportions of each to use, not 
 varying a great deal from the results of modern research — 
 that is, from ten to twelve per cent of tin. Bronze relics, 
 no 'matter where obtained, whether in the Old or the New 
 World, do not widely depart from this standard, and such 
 
224 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 instances as do would probably denote that the supply of tin 
 became short. This uniformity of composition would imply 
 that the art of making bronze was discovered in one place, 
 from which it gradually spread over the globe. 
 
 This fact is a key to the culture of the Bronze Age. 
 Widely separated communities, destitute of a knowledge of 
 metals, would instinctively make use of stone. In this case 
 uniformity of type would not imply community of knowl- 
 edge. But a knowledge of metals is altogether different. 
 It is wonder enough that one community should have hit 
 on the invention of bronze. The chance would be against 
 its independent discovery in widely separated areas. They 
 would be more apt to chance on the production of some 
 other metal. Thus; tribes in the interior of Africa are said 
 to have passed direct from the Stone to the Iron Age, a 
 knowledge of bronze not having been cai'ried to them. 
 
 We are thus able to form a true conception of the Bronze 
 Age. It did not prevail over the world at the same time. 
 Indeed, as we shall subsequently see, there is every reason 
 to suppose it spread very slowly, and that it still lingered in 
 Central and Northern Europe long after its use had been 
 abandoned for that of iron in the South. Neither, when it 
 was first introduced, did it put a stop to the use of stone. 
 It was necessarily costly, and on its first appearance in a 
 country, brought hither by trade, could only be afforded by 
 rich and powerful chiefs find warriors. As time advanced, 
 and they learned to make it cheaper, and each country took 
 up its separate manufacture, it would gradually supersede 
 stone. But bronze was never cheap enough to drive out the 
 use of stone altogether. This only occurred when the art 
 of working iron was discovered. 
 
 We shall learn that the knowledge of bronze, while a 
 very important and distinguishing phase of culture of the 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 225 
 
 Bronze Age, was not its only characteristic. It was distin- 
 guished by the arrival and spread of the Aryan races, by a 
 great extension of commerce, by more refinements in the 
 comforts of life, by the increasing strength of government, 
 which in after ages flowered out in the mighty nations of 
 antiquity, and rendered historic civilization possible. 
 
 Some facts stand out with great prominence. The origin 
 of this culture is lost in the very night of time. We may 
 be surt that it goes back to a profound antiquity, and that 
 it extended over a long series of years. 
 
 It is evident there was no great and sudden change from 
 the culture of the Stone Age to that of Bronze. It was as 
 if the darkness of night had given place to the roseate light 
 of dawn, to be shortly followed by the full day of historic 
 times. It was probably introduced by trade. The articles 
 introduced in this way would consist of simple implements, 
 weapons, and ornaments. Following after the trade would 
 be found the smelter with his- tools, and, where the condi- 
 tions were favorable, local manufactories would be set up. 
 But this home industry would not prevent importation of 
 more pretentious articles from abroad. This would account 
 for the rich collections of shields, swords, and golden cups 
 found in Denmark that betray an Etruscan origin. 
 
 Investigations of recent scholars show that the bronze of 
 the early Bronze Age came from Asia Minor. Subsequently 
 there were three great centers of bronze production, each 
 having certain styles. These were the Russian on the east, 
 the Scandinavian on the north, and the Mediterranean on 
 the south. If this view be correct, bronze must have been 
 in use in the South of Europe long before it was in the 
 North. This view of the introduction of bronze is, we 
 think, that of the best scholars in Europe. Others, how- 
 ever, think bronze was brought in by the invasion of the 
 
226 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Aryan tribes. Mr. Keary says : " The men of the Bronze 
 Age were a new race, sallying out of the east to dispossess 
 the older inhabitants, and if, in some places, the Bronze men 
 and the Stone men seem to have gone on for a time side by 
 side, the general characteristic of the change is that of a 
 sudden break."^ We have shown that it was carried to 
 England by an invasion, and it was, perhaps, so introduced 
 into Denmark, but in other countries of Europe by trade.^ 
 
 Let us now see what change in the home life, in the cul- 
 ture of the people, would be brought about by the use of 
 bronze. We must reflect that we are not to deal with some 
 new race, but with the same race that inhabited Europe at 
 the close of Neolithic times. The people who had triumphed 
 over nature with their implements of stcne were now put in 
 possession of weapons and implements of greatly increased 
 efficiency. The results could not fail to advance their cul- 
 ture. We would not expect any great change in the 
 houses. They would, however, be much better built. The 
 metallic tools were certainly a long ways ahead of the best 
 stone implements. With the aid of metallic axes, knives, 
 saws, gouges, and chisels, their cabins could be increased in 
 size and appearance. They still built settlements over the 
 lakes, but the Bronze Age settlements were more substan- 
 tially built, and placed farther out from shore. Fortified 
 places were still numerous ; the remains of thousands of 
 them of this age have been found in Ireland. But the for- 
 ests were cleared, wild animals disappeared, society became 
 more settled, and we may be sure that an increasing number 
 of little hamlets were scattered over the country. 
 
 Caves were resorted to during this ej)och only in times 
 
 ' "Dawn of History," p. 367. 
 
 'For an excellent discussion of this subject, about which there is yet much 
 uncertainty, we would refer the reader to Evans's " Ancient Bronze Imple- 
 ments,' chap. xxii. 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 227 
 
 of danger. One at Heathbury Burn, in England, contained 
 portions of the skeletons of two individuals, surrounded by 
 many articles of bronze and a mould for casting bronze axes. 
 It is not difficult to read the story. In some time of sudden 
 danger workers in bronze fled hither with their stores, but 
 owing to some cause were unable to escape the death from 
 which they were fleeing, and their bodies, with their mineral 
 stores, were lost to sight until the modern explorer made 
 them a subject of 
 scientific specula- 
 tions.^ 
 
 The most impor- 
 tant implement 
 was the ax. Our 
 civilization has 
 originated from 
 many small things. 
 It is difficult to 
 overestimate the 
 importance of the 
 ax in advancing 
 civilization. The 
 
 stone axes, easily Bronze Axes-First Form. 
 
 blunted and broken, could have made but little impression 
 on the vast forests of pine, oak, and beech, covering the 
 greater part of Britain and the continent in the Neolithicr 
 Age. Clearings necessary for pasture and agriculture must 
 unquestionably, then, have been produced principally by the 
 aid .of fire. Under the edge of the bronze ax clearings 
 would be rapidly produced, pasture and arable land would 
 begin to spread over the surface of the country ; with the 
 disappearance of the forests the wild animals would become 
 
 * Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," p. 355. 
 
228 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 scarce, hunting would cease to be so important, agriculture 
 would improve, and a higher culture in- 
 evitably follow. " When first the sound of 
 the woodman's ax was heard in the forests 
 of the north, the victory of man over his 
 natural environments was secured, and the 
 forest and morass became his forever."^ 
 
 The bronze ax was used for a great vari- 
 ety of purposes, not only as an ax, but as 
 chisel, hoe, etc. As might be expected, the 
 oldest axes were simply modeled after the 
 stone ones. The preceding cut represents 
 
 these simple forms. 
 They were inserted 
 into the handle much the same as 
 they did the stone axes. It never 
 occurred to these ancient workers to 
 cast the axes with a hole in them 
 
 Bronze Axes-Second Form. f^j. ^.^g handle. 
 
 The above cut represents the second 
 form of the ax. The trouble "with the 
 first was that much usage would inevit- 
 ably split the handle. To remedy this, 
 a stop or ridge was raised across the celt, 
 and the metal and the wood were made to 
 fit into one another. 
 The small figure 
 illustrates this 
 method of hafting. 
 It would be quite 
 natural to bend the 
 
 sides of this second Bronze Axes— Third Form. 
 
 » Dawkine's " Early M;iii in Hritnin." p. SoO. 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 229 
 
 form around, and thus would arise a third form, in which 
 the handle was let into a socket, of which we also give a 
 cut. As a general thing, bronze axes were plain, 
 but they were sometimes ornamented with ridges, 
 dots, and lines. 
 
 In addition to axes, they of course had many 
 other implements of bronze. Chisels were made 
 much the same as at present, except that the handle 
 fitted into a socket. A few hammers have been 
 discovered in the Swiss lake villages. Bronze 
 knives of different styles and sizes were quite nu- 
 merous. The workmenship on them is generally ohisei. 
 skillful. They were, as a rule, fitted into a handle of bone, 
 horn, or wood, and the blade was nearly always carved. 
 In some cases the knives also ended in a 
 socket, into which the handle fitted.^ 
 
 In matters of personal ornament, the men 
 and women of the Bronze Age were as willing 
 to make use of artificial helps as their de- 
 scendants to-day, and no doubt fashion was 
 Hammer, quite as arbitrary in her rule then as now. 
 Among some savage nations the dressing of the hair — 
 especially of the men — is carried to a very elaborate pitch.^ 
 
 Bronze KniYes. 
 
 In this respect, some of the dandies of the Bronze Age cer- 
 tainly excelled. They evidently built up on their heads a 
 
 ■ "Prehistoric Times," p. 34. ^ " Emly l\:an in Britain," p. 351. 
 
230 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 great pyramid of hair; in some cases large enough to allow 
 of the use of hair-pins two feet long. Of course 
 such a structure as this was intended to last a life- 
 time. So careful were they of this head-dress that 
 they used a crescent-shaped pillow of earthenware, 
 so that it might not be disturbed when they slept. 
 Dr. Keller, who first described these crescent-shaped 
 
 articles, thought they were 
 religious emblems of the 
 moon. He may be right, 
 as the matter is not yet de- 
 cided, but some think they 
 were the pillows in ques- 
 tion. At first thought this 
 
 Cresoent-Use Doubtful. ^^^^^^ ^^^^ absurd, but 
 
 when we learn of the habits of the natives of 
 Abyssinia and other savage races, we cease to 
 wonder. 
 
 In speaking of the ornaments of the Bronze 
 Age, a caution is necessary, because ornaments of 
 bronze may belong to any age. Bracelets and 
 rings have been quite numerous. The bracelets 
 vary much in shape, are decidedly artistic in 
 
 workmanship, and often set 
 offwith carved designs. Some 
 of this shape are composed 
 of a single ring of varying 
 width, the ends of which 
 almost meet and terminate 
 by a semicircular clasp ; oth- 
 ers are a combination of Hair-pin. 
 straight or twisted wires ingeniously joined to one another. 
 " Some of these ornaments remain even up to the present 
 
 Bracelet 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 231 
 
 day in a perfect state of preservation. In an urn from one of 
 the lake settlements six specimens were discovered, the de- 
 signs of which appeared quite as clearly as if they had only 
 just been engraved."^ 
 
 We are called on to notice one important point in refer- 
 ence to these bracelets and rings. That is, they are so 
 small they could scarcely be worn nowadays ; a fact lead- 
 ing us to infer that the people must have been of small 
 size. It has also been noticed that the handles of the 
 
 Bronze Pendants. 
 
 swords are smaller than would be convenient for soldiers 
 now. Some ornaments of bronze were worn as pendants. 
 For this purpose they were provided with a circular hole, 
 and were probably worn suspended around the neck. 
 
 Ornaments were not always of bronze. Necklaces were 
 sometimes made of amber, and gold beads were quite com- 
 mon. We give a cut of both. They are from burial 
 mounds of this age in England. We remember the or- 
 namentations on implements in the Paleolithic Age was 
 by engraving animal forms. In the Neolithic Age they 
 seem to have cared very little for ornamenting. During 
 the Bronze Age the ornamentation was of a, simple but 
 
 ' Figuier's " Primitive Man," p. 255. 
 
232 
 
 THE PREHliSTOniC WORLD. 
 
 pleasing and uniform style. It consisted of simple geomet- 
 rical patterns, combination of circles, dots, and straight lines. 
 
 In this next figure we 
 have given the prin- 
 cipal designs found 
 in France. 
 
 In the arts of liv- 
 ing an increase in 
 culture is noticeable. 
 We have seen that in 
 Neolithic times they 
 were acquainted with 
 the use of the distaff. 
 In the Bronze Age 
 they manufactured 
 woolen cloth. We 
 have but few speci- 
 mens of this cloth, 
 because it is under 
 only very exceptional 
 circumstances that 
 woolen fabrics can be 
 preserved for any 
 great length of time. 
 From examinations of 
 burial mounds of this 
 period, it would ap- 
 pear that the better 
 class of people were 
 clad in linen and 
 iTecMace and Beads. wooleu. Probably the 
 
 use of the skins of animals for dress purposes was mostly 
 discontinued diirinu: this ngc. Woolen cloaks of this period 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 233 
 
 have been found in Denmark, though probably dating from 
 near the close. 
 
 In agriculture we detect only such advances as improved 
 
 + H 
 
 r 
 
 ode 
 
 Ornamental Designs. 
 
 / 
 
 implements would suggest. They used the sickle in gather- 
 ing in the harvest. We find no implements which we are 
 sure were used for agricultural purposes. Yet they must 
 have had some means of preparing the ground for the cereals. 
 The day of wild animals was gone. In the lake settle- 
 ments of this age the domestic 
 animals outnumbered the wild 
 species.^ 
 
 During this age the horse 
 was used for riding and driving, 
 and oxen were used for plowing. 
 Bronze Sickle. The proof of this fact is cer- 
 
 tain sketches found in Denmark. But the use of Bronze in 
 that country continued after iron had been introduced in the 
 south of Europe. Pottery was. more carefully made — though 
 the wheel for turning it was not yet introduced. The shapes 
 were varied and elegant ; sometimes, instead of having a 
 
 ' Eau's "Early Man in Europe," p. 135, and note. 
 
 15 
 
234 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 flat base, they came to a point below — in which case thej 
 had to be placed in a support before they could stand up- 
 right. Nearly all the pottery bears the 
 ornamentation peculiar to the Bronze 
 Age — that is, straight lines, dots, etc. 
 
 During this age, the inhabitants were 
 as much given to war and conquest as 
 any rudely civilized people: we, there- 
 fore, meet with remains of their weap- 
 ons. The principal ones were swords, ciay vessel and support- 
 daggers, spear-heads, and 
 arrows. The swords are 
 always more or less leaf- 
 like in shape, double-edged, 
 sharp-pointed, and intended 
 more for stabbing and thrust- 
 ing, rather than cutting. No 
 hand guards were used. 
 
 Sometimes the handles 
 were fastened to the swords 
 by means of rivets; and, at 
 other times, the handle was 
 plaited with wood or bone. 
 They are of different lengths, 
 intermediate between the 
 sword and the dagger. It 
 is doubtful Avhether they 
 made use of shields. 
 
 Bronze shields are, in- 
 Bronze Weapons. ^ccd, fouud ; but, from the 
 ornaments and other circumstances, they are generally con- 
 sidered to belong to the Iron Age : for we shall subsequently 
 learn that the introduction of iron did not prevent the con- 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 235 
 
 tinued use of bronze. The bow was well known ; and this 
 must have necessitated the use of arrows. Some bronze 
 arrows have been found ; but a flint arrow is nearly as ser- 
 viceable as bronze, and much cheaper, so we may be sure 
 they were more common. They also employed spears and 
 javelins, and the bronze heads of these weapons are found 
 in various places. The invading Celt found many camps 
 and fortified places already in existence, and continued them 
 in use after the original occupant had been driven away. 
 
 As we have spent some time in learning the different 
 objects manufactured out of bronze, it may be of interest 
 to learn somewhat of their methods of 
 working bronze. We have already 
 stated how the amateur worker in 
 bronze would follow on after the 
 trader — and so the objects of bronze 
 M^ould be made in all the countries of 
 Europe. Molds have been found in 
 various places. This is a mold for 
 casting the axes having a socket in 
 which to put the handle. It was found 
 in the cave at Heathbury Burn, al- 
 ready mentioned. None of the bronze 
 objects were forged out, as a smith 
 forges out objects of iron — they were cast, 
 of steel, it would be almost impossible to cut bronze; 
 hence it was necessary to make the casting as nearly per- 
 fect as possible. Sometimes the molds were cut out of 
 stone, as in the figure just given. The molds themselves 
 were, in this case, difficult to make; besides, they could 
 scarcely be made so perfect as not to leave a little ridge, 
 where the two halves of the mold came together, which, 
 as just explained, owing to the absence of steel, it would be 
 
 Hold. 
 
 In the absence 
 
236 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 very difficult to remove. In process of time they discov- 
 ered an easier way of making the molds, that employed at 
 the present day — that is, by the use of sand. The ridge 
 would still remain, and is to be plainly seen on specimens 
 of ancient bronze. 
 
 To overcome the difficulty just mentioned, they invented 
 a third method of casting, which displays great ingenuity. 
 A model of the object desired was made of wood or wax, 
 and inclosed in prepared earth mixed with some inflammable 
 material, in order that, when subjected to heat, it might be- 
 come porous. The whole was then heated until the wax or 
 wood disappeared. The mold was then ready for use. The 
 great advantage of this method Avas that there were no pro- 
 jecting lines of junction to disfigure the complete imple- 
 ment. This seems to have been the most common method 
 employed. This explains the fact, that we seldom find any 
 two bronze objects exactly similar to one anolher. Any 
 impression left on the wax model would be faithfully repro- 
 duced. Marks of the spatula, with which the wax was 
 worked, are frequently found; and, in one case, the impres- 
 sion of the human finger Avas observed.^ 
 
 A people as highly cultured as those of the Bronze Age 
 must have had some system of government, and one that 
 was a sensible advance over the government of the Neolithic 
 people. In the Neolithic Age it was, doubtless, tribe against 
 tribe. Confederacies, the union of several tribes for common 
 purpose of defense, must have been more common at this age.^ 
 The first Aryan tribes to arrive in Europe, as we have seen, 
 were the Celts. In time, they had to withstand the pres- 
 sure of invasion themselves. The Belga), and other Ger- 
 manic tribes, were also on the move. But war at this pe- 
 
 ' Lubbock's "Prehistoric Times," p. 39. 
 'Morgan's " Ancient Society," pp. 110, 120/ 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 237 
 
 riod would partake more of the nature of people against 
 people, than of tribe against tribe. The civil and the mili- 
 tary departments of government must have taken more definite 
 shape, and we are not without evidence of fairly organized and 
 disciplined forces. As early as two thousand eight hundred 
 years before Christ, the sea-coast people of Europe, while 
 yet in the Bronze Age, allied their forces for the conquest 
 of Egypt.^ 
 
 We have referred to the influence of trade in shaping 
 civilization. It is commerce that to-day is carrying civili- 
 zation to remote corners of the globe. Long before the 
 dawn of history, it was an active agent in advancing culture. 
 It is important to note the great expanse of commerce, both 
 inland and marine, which prevailed during the Bronze Age. 
 An important article of trade was, of course, bronze. The 
 people who first learned the secret of its manufacture would 
 speedily find a demand, for their wares from surrounding 
 tribes, and we have already pointed out how this trade 
 would quickly give rise to local manufactures. But, to pro- 
 duce bronze, we know tin is just as necessary as copper — 
 and all the countries of Europe are not provided with these 
 metals; so more or less trade would inevitably take place. 
 In various ways the stores of the bronze merchant might be 
 lost, and only revealed in after years by accident. One of 
 these deposits, found in France, is evidently the store of a 
 merchant or trader from Etruria to the tribes of the north 
 and west, and so gives us a quite a vivid idea of the trade 
 of that early time. It consisted of over four hundred arti- 
 cles of bronze, " comprising knives, ' sickles, lance-heads, 
 horse-bits, rings, buttons, pendants, and bracelets."^ 
 
 As an article of adornment, amber was highly prized, not 
 
 ' Dawkins's "Early Man in Europe," p. 449. 
 ^Dawkins's "Early Man in Britain," p. 383. 
 
238 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 only by the people of Europe during the Bronze Age, but 
 also by the people of the preceding Neolithic Age. This 
 caused a trade to spring up which certainly did its share in 
 enlightening the people. The main supply must have been 
 obtained from the shores of the Baltic. That the trade was 
 of importance, is evidenced by the fact that amber has been 
 found scattered over Europe in the tombs of the Neolithic 
 and Bronze Ages. 
 
 We have given a passing glance at the religion of each 
 age we have examined. It must be confessed that great 
 uncertainty hangs over the results. From a close examina- 
 tion of their industries, we can gather considerable as to the 
 home life and general enlightenment of prehistoric times. 
 A knowledge of religious belief is gathered mainly from a 
 study of their burial customs. This is a very important part 
 of our investigation, because a religious belief is one of the 
 exponents of the culture of a people. 
 
 We have seen that in the Neolithic Age the dead were 
 buried surrounded by implements, weapons, and ornaments 
 for use in the future life. The descendants of these people 
 throughout Europe, even in the Bronze Age, would still con- 
 tinue this custom. The implements buried with the body 
 were more often of stone than bronze. We must constantly 
 bear in mind that bronze was costly. This will explain its 
 absence in many cases. It is interesting to note in this 
 connection that these are " cases in which it is evident that 
 flint implements were deposited in graves rather in deference 
 to ancient customs than because they were still in every-day 
 use."' We also notice that during this age, often the objects 
 placed in the graves were, from their shape, obviously not in- 
 tended for daily use. This would clearly indicate that the 
 popular mind became impressed with the fact that these vo- 
 
 ' Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 157. 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 239 
 
 tive offerings, however freely given, could be of no assistance 
 to the departed, but they still continued the custom because 
 it was sanctioned by usage of past years. 
 
 But the dead were not always buried during the Bronze 
 Age, nor, indeed, as a general rule. The invading race 
 doubtless brought with them a new religion. Many of the 
 ornamentations on their swords, vases, and other articles, 
 are supposed by some writers to be religious symbols. From 
 the frequent occurrence of the circle, and combinations of 
 circles, it has been suggested that they worshiped the sun. 
 And the occurrence of customs observable even at a late 
 day, in various portions of Europe, as pointed out by Prof. 
 Nelson, show that the worship of the fire-god, or the sun, was 
 once widely extended in Europe.^ On this point we are 
 further told : " That even as late as tlie time of Canute the 
 Great,^ there is a statute forbidding the adorement of the 
 
 „-,..- ^ISi^^^-' ■■'!:,.::„" '^■^-'- 
 Burial Ho-and. 
 
 sun and the moon.""^ So it is not strange that in the new 
 faith a different method of burial would be followed. That 
 was by cremation. "The dead were burned, were purified 
 by being passed through the fire along with their posses- 
 sions."* The ashes was then gathered together and placed in 
 urns and burial mounds and barrows. The votive offerings 
 of flint and bronze articles in daily use were also thrown in 
 the fire, and their burnt remains placed with the other ashes 
 
 ' Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 74. ^ A. D., 995—1035. 
 
 'Ferguson's "Rude Stone Monuments." 
 ♦Dawkins's "Early Man in Rritain." p. .367. 
 
240 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. . 
 
 in the burial urn. The cut is that of a bell-shaped barrow 
 of the Bronze Age. 
 
 We have just seen what inferences have been drawn from 
 the use of the circle as an ornament. This is not the only 
 sign that has been thought to have some symbolical meaning. 
 The cross was also used as an ornament, and possessed prob- 
 ably some religious significance. A third figure which has 
 caused some discussion was the triangle. " It is, on the whole, 
 very probable that all these signs, which are not connected 
 with any known object, bear some relation to certain relig- 
 ious or superstitious ideas entertained by the men of the 
 
 sct»s»-, 
 
 
 
 Avebury Restored. 
 
 Bronze epoch, and, as a consequence of this, that their hearts 
 must have been inspired with some degree of religious feeling."^ 
 We have mentioned the use of stone circles in Neolithic 
 times. During the Bronze Age they built the circle very 
 large, sometimes twelve hundred feet in diameter, and they 
 were sometimes made of earth. These circles are regarded 
 by some^ as being simply burial places, and many of them 
 have been proved to be such. But others regard them as 
 temples, meaning thereby not a building, in our sense of the 
 
 ' Figuier's "Primitive Man," p. 283. 
 ' Ferguson's " Rude Stone Monuments." 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 2A1 
 
 word, but a place of sanctity, and probably where some form 
 of worship was held. "Even if we allow that they were 
 originally tombs in every case, it does not follow that they 
 have not also been temples, for the religious sentiment has, 
 in all ages, and in all places, tended to center in tombs, which 
 ultimately have become places of worship. Many of our 
 Christian Churches have originated in this manner, and it is 
 a most obvious transition from the tomb to the temple. The 
 worship of the spirits of the dead at the one would naturally 
 grow into the worship of the Great Unknown in the other.^ 
 
 The preceding cut is a restoration of one of the largest 
 of these temples. Here we see a circle twelve hundred feet 
 in diameter, of upright stones, guarded by both a ditch and 
 embankment. From the two openings in the embankment 
 formerly extended two long winding avenues of stone. Be- 
 tween them rises Silbury Hill, the largest artificial mound 
 in Great Britain, being one hundred and thirty feet high. 
 The area of the large inclosure was about twenty-eight and 
 a half acres. This was a temple of no inconsiderable size. It 
 was of course in ruins when the earliest account of it was 
 written, and we can only speculate as to the lapse of time 
 since it was venerated as a place of worship. 
 
 Stonehenge, on Salisbury Plain, is a better known ruin, 
 though not on as large a scale as at Avebury. The cut 
 gives us a restoration of it. The outer circle of standing 
 stones is one hundred feet in diameter, and when entire 
 consisted of one hundred stones. These are of sand- 
 stone, and were obtained in the vicinity. A course of stone 
 was laid along the top. We notice within a smaller circle of 
 stone. The material of these stones is such that we know 
 they must have come from a distance. Mr. James tells us 
 that they are erratic — that is, bowlders brought from the 
 
 ' Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," p. 377. 
 
242 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 North of Scotland by the glaciers — and that others of the 
 same kind are still to be seen lying around the country.^ But 
 the more common opinion is that they were brought there 
 by the people from a distance, perhaps Cornwall or the 
 Channel Islands. If this be true, it is evidence of a strong 
 religious feeling, and a peculiar value must have been at- 
 tached to the material, since for any ordinary monument the 
 stones in the neighborhood would have sufficed. Still nearer 
 the center were five groups of tliree great stones each, and 
 
 Stonehenge Restored. 
 
 immediately within these a horseshoe of smaller stones. 
 Finally, near the head of the horseshoe, a great slab of sand- 
 stone is supposed to haA'^e served for an altar. The date of 
 the two structures just described has been a matter of some 
 dispute. 
 
 It is worthy of notice that in the imuicdiate neighbor- 
 hood of both of them are found a great number of barrows 
 of the Bronze Age. Over three hundred were erected in 
 the neighborhood of the latter. In the opinion of many this 
 fixes their date in the Bronze Age. Stonehenge, in its 
 ruined state, has formed the subject of no little speculation. 
 
 ' James's " Stonelicn.L'c," p. 3. 
 
THE BRONZE AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 245 
 
 Modern explorers, in connecting it with the Bronze Age, 
 have not dispelled from it the enchantment of mystery. We 
 must ever wonder as to the nature of the rites there ob- 
 served. Our questionings meet with but feeble response; 
 for though we have learned somewhat of past times, it is 
 comparatively but little. Ruined columns, crumbling burial 
 mounds, and remains of stone and bronze will always be 
 surrounded with more or less mystery — a striking illustra- 
 tion that science is able to dispel but little of the darkness 
 which unnumbered years have thrown around the culture of 
 the past. 
 
 Ancient To'wer, Scotland. 
 
244 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 Bronze not the best metal — Difficulties atteudiug the discovery of Iron — 
 Probable steps in this discovery — Where this discovery was first 
 made — Known in ancient Egypt — How this knowledge would 
 spread — Iron would not. drive out Bronze — The primitive Iron- 
 worker — The advance in government — Pottery and ornaments of 
 the Iron Age — Weapons of early Iron Age — Tlie battle-field at Til- 
 fenan — ^Trade of early Iron Age — Invention of Money — Invention 
 of Alphabetic Writing — Invasion of the Germanic Tribes — The cause 
 of the Dark Ages — Connection of these three Ages — Necessity of 
 believing in an extended past — Attempts to determine the same — 
 Tiniere Delta — Lake Bienne, British Feu-beds — Maximum and Min- 
 imum data — Argument from the widespread dispersion of the Tu- 
 
 f^mi^sA "^ ranian Race — Mr. Geikie's conclusions — The isola- 
 
 ^vTUT^^ ^m tion of the Paleolithic Age. 
 
 INTRODUCTION of bronze was the har- 
 binger of better days to the various tribes 
 of Europe. Without metals it is doubt- 
 ful if man would ever have been able to raise 
 himself from barbarism. His advance in civ- 
 ilization has been in direct proportion to his 
 ability to work metals. As long as he knew how 
 to work bronze only he could not hope for the 
 best results. The trouble was not in the metal itself, 
 but in the su|)ply ; for copper and tin, the constituents 
 of bronze, arc; found only in limited amounts. When we 
 reflect on the multiplicity of purposes for which some 
 metallic substance is needed, we nt once perceive that men 
 require a metal which can not only be worked cheaply, 
 
THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. 245 
 
 but must exist in great abundance, so that the needs of a 
 rich and varied culture may be met. 
 
 The Divine Author of nature has stored away just such 
 a metal, and in such exhaustless quantities that it forms an 
 ingredient in nearly all soils, and flows away in the waters of 
 many springs and rivers. It exists in abundance in nearly 
 every country of the globe, in some forming veritable mountain 
 masses. We refer to iron, the king of metals ; and when 
 man had learned to reduce it from its ores he had taken the 
 first step in a new direction, the end whereof is yet far 
 distant. 
 
 We have in the preceding chapter presented some reasons 
 why copper would be known before iron. In the first place, 
 how were men to learn there was such a thing as iron? 
 Supposing its ores did occur in abundance, there was nothing 
 to attract attention to them. They were not of great heft, 
 like tin ore, or of striking color, like the ores of copper. 
 In the hills, and under the foot of man, nature indeed had 
 imprisoned a genius ; but there was no outward sign by 
 which man was to divine his presence. Copper, as we have 
 seen, occurs frequently in a natiA^e form that is ready for 
 use, without reducing from its ores. Native iron, on the 
 contrary, is almost the rarest of substances, though it is re- 
 ported as occurring in one or two localities on the earth.^ 
 Almost the only examples of native iron has been obtained 
 from meteorites. Strange as it may seem, these wanderers 
 in space, which occasionally flame athwart the sky, consist 
 largely of pure iron ; at least this is true of such specimens 
 as have from time to time been found on the earth's sur- 
 face. This supply is of course extremely limited, yet some 
 Siberian tribes are said to make knives from iron obtained 
 in this manner.^ Moreover the evidence of language, as 
 
 ' Dana's "Manual of Mineralogy," p. '-'"0. ^ "Primitive Man," p. 298, 
 
246 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. ' 
 
 used by the ancient Greeks and Egyptians, would imply 
 the meteoric origin of the first known form of the metal.^ 
 But though such accidental finds might prove the existence 
 of another metal, they would furnish no hint how to extract it 
 from its ores, or indeed, that it existed in the form of ores. 
 
 The prolonged schooling in metallurgy, which men re- 
 ceived during the Bronze Age, could not fail to give them 
 many hints, and doubtless accidental discoveries of metallic 
 substances were made. We can conceive how, by accident 
 or design, iron ore, treated in a similar manner to copper 
 and tin ore, would leave behind a mass of spongy iron. The 
 difficulty would be in working it ; for, as we have seen, 
 they were in the habit of casting their articles of bronze. 
 But iron is very difficult of fusion. It was a long while 
 before they learned how to do that. They had therefore to 
 learn an entirely new art — that is, to fashion their imple- 
 ments of iron by hammering the heated mass. 
 
 There is no reason to suppose that iron was first discov- 
 ered in Europe. Its spread has been from the east and 
 south to the north and west. It, in all probability, was dis- 
 covered, like bronze, in Asia. Although evidence, both ar- 
 chaeological and traditional, goes to show that bronze was 
 in use long before iron, yet iron has been known from time 
 immemorial. Explain it how we will, civilization and his- 
 tory follow close after the knowledge of iron. Wherever 
 the light of history first falls on the nations of the Old 
 World, we find them acquainted with iron, but such knowl- 
 edge, at least on the part of the Mediterranean nations, does 
 not long precede history, for at that early time, iron was 
 still a most precious metal. It was not yet produced in suf- 
 ficient quantities to take the place of bronze ; hence the pre- 
 historic Iron Ajre was there but of short duration. 
 
 ■ Evans's " Ancient Stone Implements," p. 5. 
 
THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. '2>^'J 
 
 Among the early Egyptians iron was known, but was 
 probably not very common. There is on this subject some 
 diversity of opinion; some believing that at the very earli- 
 est historical period they were skilled in working it, and 
 employed it in all the affairs of life, but others assure us 
 that at the most ancient period they did not really use iron, 
 and that bronze was the metal employed for all ordinary 
 purposes.^ 
 
 A wedge of iron is said to have been found in a joint 
 between the stones of the great pyramid. Here, then, at 
 the dawn of historic times, iron seems to be making its way 
 among a bronze-using people. The ancient Chaldeans em- 
 ployed iron as an ornament, but not for implements. With 
 them it was therefore a precious metal. Among the Assyr- 
 ians, iron was largely used, and at a comparatively early 
 date. A careful study of the poems of Homer shows that 
 the Greeks of nearly three thousand years ago had a knowl- 
 edge of iron, though it was a highly prized metal. But to 
 the north of the Mediterranean the prehistoric Iron Age 
 was of longer duration. 
 
 We can readily see that a knowledge of iron would 
 spread in much the same way as did bronze. When first 
 introduced, it would be rare and costly, and so would be 
 used sparingly. Bronze axes have been found with the 
 edge of iron. Afterwards, as it became more abundant, it 
 would be used altogether for cutting instruments and weap- 
 ons, while bronze, being more easily worked, would still be 
 used for ornaments, brooches, etc. At Hallstadt, in Austria, 
 was discovered a cemetery which evidently belongs to a 
 time when iron was taking the place of bronze. In this 
 case, the implements of bronze are those forms which we 
 have learned were produced near the close of the Bronze 
 
 ' Evans's " Ancient Bronze Implements," p. 8. 
 
248 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Age. The iron implements are not those forms best suited 
 for that metal, but imitations of those of bronze.^ We re- 
 member when bronze was first introduced, the weapons were 
 simply copies of those forms already made in stone.^ 
 
 We may suppose that a knowledge of iron would spread 
 rapidly. The knowledge of metallurgy necessary for the 
 production of bronze was at this time widely disseminated. 
 It would require, therefore, but a hint to start them in ex- 
 periments. In the dissemination of this knowledge, com- 
 merce, of course, played a most important part. Whenever 
 the early Greek and Roman writers have occasion to men- 
 tion the arms of the less civilized tribes of Europe, we learn 
 they were of iron. This shows that at a very early time 
 this knowledge had spread all over Europe."^ 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to remark that the use of iron 
 would not drive out the use of bronze. That would still be 
 used for many purposes ; and even stone would continue in 
 use, at least for some purposes. At the battle of Marathon, 
 arrow-heads and lances of stone were largely used. We 
 can easily understand how, by one of a number of causes, 
 some rude tribes, yet unacquainted with the use of metal, 
 would come to occupy the site of some settlement, the in- 
 habitants of which had been in the Bronze or Iron Age. 
 This actually happened at ancient Troy, where the remains 
 of a stone-using folk have been found above those of a peo- 
 ple using metal. This, though an exception to the general 
 rule, need give us no surprise. 
 
 Iron manufacture at the present day, is one of our great 
 industries. In its present form it is the final development 
 of an industry whose first unfoldings we have now to glance 
 at. That the first process man employed to procure iron 
 should have been very rude, is what we would expect. 
 
 ' "Ancient Bronze Implements," p. 3. - Ihiil., p. 10. ^ Ibid., p. 19. 
 
THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. 249 
 
 Some of the partially civilized tribes of to-day may give us 
 an insight into the process employed. We are told that in 
 Tartary each native makes the iron he needs, just as every 
 household would make its own bread. The furnace is a 
 very small affair, not holding more than three pounds of 
 ore. This is filled with ore and charcoal. The bellows are 
 used, and after the charcoal is all burned out, the result is 
 a small piece of spongy iron, which needs only repeated 
 heating and hammering to be made serviceable.^ Primitive 
 furnaces, on a somewhat larger scale, have been discovered 
 in Switzerland. Here the excavation was made in the side 
 of a hill, and a rude, dome-shaped chimney built over it. 
 
 We must not forget that our task ends where the his- 
 torian's begins. The use of iron did not long precede his- 
 tory, so we have but little to describe as to the customs 
 and manners of life during the prehistoric Iron Age.- A 
 general advance in all the social arts must surely have taken 
 place. Improved tools, and more cheaply produced, could 
 not fail to advance man very materially in culture. Some 
 lake settlements were still in use as places of residence, but 
 better means of protection than water was now known — 
 walled cities were in use, especially .around the Mediterra- 
 nean sea. 
 
 Mr. Morgan has traced for us the evolution of govern- 
 ment. At this early date the Greek and Roman people 
 were engaged in substituting for ancient society the modern 
 idea of government founded on territory.^ The great body 
 of European tribes were now in the final stage of barbaric 
 life. Their system of government was doubtless the high- 
 est known to ancient society — that of confederacies; the 
 union of tribes speaking dialects of the same language, for 
 offensive and defensive purposes. 
 
 ' Figuier's " Primitive Man," p. 300. ^ "Ancient Society," p. 216. 
 
 16 
 
250 
 
 THE PREHISTOEIC WORLD. 
 
 As characteristic of tiie advance of this epoch, we may 
 mention the appearance of pottery made on the potter's 
 wheel, and baked in an improved kind of furnace. Pre- 
 
 Ornaments. 
 
 vious to this epoch all the pottery had been moulded by 
 hand and baked in .an imperfect manner in the open air. 
 This may be thought to be but a small improvement. Our 
 
 civilization, however, depends 
 upon small improvements. Only 
 during the early part of this age, 
 while iron was scarce, and there- 
 fore valuable, would it be used for 
 the purpose of ornaments. Iron 
 brooches have been found in considerable quantities in the 
 lake settlements. Bronze would still be the principal article 
 used for ornaments. The articl(>s of bronze manufactured 
 for ornamental i)urposes, are certainly very tasty, and dis- 
 
 coid Ornainent. 
 
THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. 
 
 251 
 
 play a great deal of skill. Nor was gold entirely forgotten. 
 The cap-shaped ornament of gold was found in Ireland. 
 During the Bronze age, as we have seen, there was no at- 
 tempt made to represent animal 
 forms by way of ornaments ; but we 
 meet with such representations 
 during the early part of the Iron 
 Age. This shows how they orna- 
 
 Ornamental Svj-ord-sh.eatli. 
 
 mented the sheath of a sword found 
 in one of the Swiss lakes. 
 
 The warriors of the early Iron 
 Age possessed leaf-shaped swords 
 for stabbing. The hilts were of 
 bronze. This period was a struggle 
 for existence, on the part of the va- 
 rious tribes of Europe. War must 
 have been very common, so it is not 
 strange that a large number of 
 relics of this age are of warlike im- 
 plements. Lance-heads, javelins, 
 and arrow-heads have been found 
 in abundance. It appears, from ex- 
 periments ordered by the Emperor 
 Napoleon III, that the javelins could 
 only have been used as missile weapons, and that they were 
 .thrown, not by the hand merely grasping the shaft, but 
 
 Swords. 
 
252 
 
 THE J'liEIJLSTORIC WORLD. 
 
 by means of a cord or thong, something after the principle 
 of a sling. ^ 
 
 Some years ago an old battle-field was discovered at Tiefe- 
 
 nau, in Switzerland. On it were found 
 a great number of objects made of 
 iron, such as fragments of chariots, 
 bits for horses, wheels, pieces of coats 
 of mail, and arms of various sorts, 
 including no less than a hundred two- 
 handed swords. All of these were 
 made of iron.^ The soldiers also car- 
 ried with them shields, made some- 
 times of bronze, as in the cut below, 
 or of wood, studded with iron. 
 
 There is evidence of considerable 
 volume of trade at this time. The 
 Mediterranean was the theater of an 
 extended commerce. Phoenician sail- 
 ors not only ventured to brave the Mediterranean sea, but 
 carried their vessels out on the Atlantic at as early a 
 
 Lance-head and Javelin. 
 
 Shields. 
 
 date as 500 B. C. The Greek traders were also active. 
 Massilia, or as it -is known in modern times, Marseilles, was 
 
 * Figuier's "Primitivi' Man,"' p. :?25. ' " Prcliistoric Thnes," p. 7. 
 
THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. 253 
 
 the seat of a thriving trade. African ivory has been found in 
 the tombs of Hallstadt, in Austria, in connection with ornaments 
 of amber from the Baltic, and gold from Transylvania. The 
 inhabitants of this town possessed in their salt mines the 
 source of a lucrative trade. The trader of the Iron Age was 
 able to take an immense stride by reason of the invention 
 of money. Heretofore, in Europe, wc have not met with 
 coins, and trade must have been carried on by means of 
 barter. 
 
 Acquainted as we are at the present day with money and 
 the mechanism of exchange, it is difficult to see how any ex- 
 tended trade could be carried on without some unit of value, 
 yet no coins are known earlier than the Iron Age.^ The 
 most ancient coins known are Greek, and date back to the 
 eighth century before Christ. This 
 coin is one found in one of the lake 
 settlements. It is made of bronze, 
 and the figures are not stamped, 
 but obtained by melting and cast- Gaiiic com. 
 
 ing.^ This, however, is not a Greek coin, but a Gallic one. 
 On the battlefield of Tiefenau, mentioned above, several 
 Greek coins, struck at Massilia, were found.'' 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to point out, that though iron 
 gives its name to this age, it by no means follows that the 
 only difference between this and the Bronze Age is the use 
 of iron. " The pottery is different, the forms of the imple- 
 ments and weapons are diff'erent, the ornamentation is dif- 
 ferent, the knowledge of metallurgy was more advanced, 
 silver and lead were in use, letters had been invented, coins 
 
 ' M. Desor, in " Smithsonian Reports," 1865, tells us that small brass rings 
 were probably used by people of the Swiss lake villages of the Bronze Age 
 epoch as money. 
 
 '^ Figuier's " Primitive Man," p. 310. 
 
 ' Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 7. 
 
254 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 had been struck."^ That wonderful invention, the phonetic 
 alphabet, was made during the early part of this age. The 
 past was no longer simply kept alive in the memory of the 
 living, handed down by tradition and song. Inscriptions, 
 and monuments, and books abounded, and we are no longer 
 confined to an inspection of their handiwork, or examination 
 of their habitations, and explanation of ancient burial mounds 
 for our knowledge of their life and surroundings. It is no 
 longer the archaeologists' collections, but the writings of the 
 historian that unfolds past times and customs. 
 
 Let us cast a glance at the condition of Europe at the 
 dawn of history. We have seen that in general terms the 
 Bronze Age coincided with the arrival and spread of the 
 Celts, though the earlier Celts were still Neolithic. The use 
 of iron could scarcely have been inaugurated before the innu- 
 merable hordes of the Germanic tribes, probably driven from 
 their Asiatic homes by the presence of invading people, were 
 on the march. The world has, perhaps, never witnessed 
 such a movement of people as convulsed Europe for several 
 hundred years, beginning the second century before Christ 
 and continuing until the fall of the Western Empire of Rome. 
 The light of history dawns on a stormy scene in Europe. 
 The Celts confined to the Western portion had been largely 
 subjected by the Roman armies, but the largest portion of 
 Europe held by the Germanic tribes was the seat from whence 
 assault after assault was made on the Roman Empire, which 
 at length, weakened by internal dissensions and enervated 
 by luxury, split in twain, and the western, and most import- 
 ant part, fell before its barbarian foes. 
 
 The various tribes could not keep alive the civilization 
 they had overthrown. The wandering hordes of Germanic 
 people could not easily forget their former barbaric life, tiieir 
 
 » Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 17. 
 
THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. 255 
 
 mai'ches of conquest, and careers of pillage. But the claims 
 of civilization, though light and pleasant, are none the less 
 imperative, and a people who seek her rewards must form 
 settled communities, develop public spirit, organize govern- 
 ment, and sink the individual in the public good. Not ap- 
 preciating these claims, it is not strange that the incipient 
 civilization neiirly expired, and that the night of the Dark 
 Ages enwrapt Europe. From out that darkness, composed 
 of the descendants of the people whose culture we have been 
 investigating, (inally emerged the mediaeval nations of Europe. 
 
 The review has been a pleasant one, for it is a record 
 of progress. The difference between the culture of the Neo- 
 lithic and the Iron Age is great, but it is simply a develop- 
 ment, the result of a gradual growth. Civilization and 
 history have only hastened this growth. If we look around 
 us to-day we can trace the elements of our civilization back 
 through the eras of history, and though the faint beginning 
 of some can be noticed, yet many of them come down to us 
 from prehistoric times. We have treated of these early peo- 
 ple in the three stages of culture known as the Neolithic, 
 Bronze, and Iron Ages. We have seen there is no hard and 
 fast line dividing the different stages of culture. To borrow 
 the words of another, these stages of progress, like the three 
 principal colors of the rainbow, overlap, intermingle, and shade 
 off the one into the other, and yet in the main they are 
 well defined.^ 
 
 We instinctively long to set hounds to the past, to meas- 
 ure it by the unit of years. It affords us satisfaction to 
 give dates for events long since gone by. For any event in 
 the domnin of history, it is natural and appropriate to gratify 
 this desire. It gives precision to our thoughts, and more 
 firmly fixes the march of events. But the historical portion 
 
 ' Evans's " Anoirnt Bronze Implements," p. 1. 
 
256 THE PREHISTORIC ]VORLD. 
 
 of human life on the globe is but a small part of the grand 
 whole. When we pass beyond history, or into prehistoric 
 times, we find ourselves utterly at a loss as to dates. 
 
 We have referred in the preceding pages to the com- 
 monly accepted belief of a few years ago, that, at most, a 
 few thousand years express the whole period of human life 
 on the globe. This was supposed to be the teaching of the 
 Scriptures, but Infinite Wisdom left not only his word, but 
 he left an imperishable record of the past in rocky strata and 
 excavated valley, in dripping caves and mountain masses. 
 When it was seen that the claims of geology for a greatly 
 extended past, one transcending the powers of the human 
 mind to conceive its length, could no longer be successfully 
 denied, then it was that earnest investigators in tiie field of 
 human antiquity could no longer shut their eyes to the fact 
 that if geological evidence were worth any thing, man must 
 have existed in the world for a far longer time than one cov- 
 ered by the brief period hitherto relied on. 
 
 This truth is so patent and plain that it has received the 
 unqualified indorsement of the most learned scholars. Dis- 
 tinguished divines have been amongst its able expounders, 
 and instead of being in opposition to the Bible, as already 
 stated, the earnest reader finds in the periods of the geolo- 
 gists unexpected confirmation of its truths. The evidence 
 of an extended past for man is not, however, wholly of a geo- 
 logical nature, though these have been the ones principally 
 relied on. The arclireologist to-day summons to his aid the 
 science of langunge, studies into the origin of civilization 
 and the comparison of the different races of men, and derives 
 from each nnd all of these concurrent testimony as to a vast, 
 shadowy, and profound antiquity for man, one stretching way 
 beyond the dawn of history, far into the very night of time. 
 
 As we have now spent some time in tracing out the cul- 
 
THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. 257 
 
 ture of these early ages, it may be well to see if there are 
 any means at our command to determine the absolute chro- 
 nology of the various ages. At the very outset of our in- 
 quiry, we shall perceive that we have no such class of facts 
 as guided our investigations into the age of the Paleolithic 
 remains. We have but to recall the situation in which the 
 implements of that age were found, always under such cir- 
 cumstances, that we see at once that a great lapse of time 
 has passed since they became imbedded where found, and 
 then the bones of the various extinct animals, found so as- 
 ■sociated with the implements, that we are justified, even 
 compelled, to admit they occupied the same section of coun- 
 try , and then, from a variety of causes, we are satisfied that 
 they occupied Europe at the close of the Glacial Age, if not 
 for long ages before. All this gave us a point of departure, 
 and we have showed with what care scholars have studied 
 all questions relating to the date of the Glacial Age. 
 
 But aside from the fact that geology points out that a 
 long time went by after the close of the Glacial Age before 
 Neolithic man arrived on the scene, we are largely deprived 
 of its aid in our investigations; for all the various implements 
 and specimens of the household industries, from which we 
 derive our knowledge of these latter ages, are found only in 
 surface deposits ; that is, in the modern alluvia and silt of 
 river bottoms, in superficial deposits, in caves, and in peat- 
 bogs; and even in other instances where apparently deeply 
 buried, as in the submerged forest deposits of the British 
 coasts, we know^ that, geologi'cally speaking, their age is 
 recent. 
 
 But in spite of these difficulties, attempts have been made 
 from time to time to determine the absolute chronology of 
 these ages. The results, however, can only be considered 
 as approximations of the truth. We will call attention to 
 
258 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 some of these calculations. Their value to us consists in 
 showing us the methods by which this problem has been at- 
 tacked, and not in the results obtained. M. Moilot, of Switz- 
 erland, has sought to determine this question by a study of 
 the delta of the Tiniere, which is a small river flowing into 
 the lake of Geneva. Like all mountain streams, it brings 
 down considerable (quantities of sediment, with which it has 
 formed a conical shaped delta. Cuttings for a railroad ex- 
 posed a fine section of this cone, and showed that at three 
 different times layers of vegetable soil, which must once have 
 been, its old surface were found. 
 
 The lowest surface was some twenty feet beneath the 
 present surface, and here were found relics of the Stone Age. 
 The second layer was at the depth of ten feet, and contained 
 relics of the Bronze Age. Finally the first buried layer, 
 three feet beneath the present surface, was found to contain 
 relics of the Roman Age. Obtaining from other data the 
 time that has elapsed since the deposits of the Roman layer, 
 he readily calculates the age of the Stone and Bronze layers. 
 By this means he obtains for the Bronze Age an antiquity 
 of between three and four thousand years, and for the Neo- 
 lithic Age from five to seven thousand years. ^ M. Morlot 
 does not claim for his calculation more than ai>proximate 
 accuracy.^ But if wc were to allow it a greater accuracy 
 than its author claims, it would still only show us that from 
 a period of from five to seven thousand years ago, tribes of 
 stone using folks lived in Switzerland. It tells us nothing 
 as to their first appearance, or the total length of this age.^ 
 
 > "Smitlisonian Report," 1800, p. 342. ' Ibid. 
 
 'Mr. Southall, in " Rcc-ont Origin of Man," p. 475, quotes, from Dr. 
 Andrews, of Cluca<ro, to the efTeet that these caleulations are very erro- 
 ueons, as he thinks tliat M. Morlot forgot that the size of tlie cone would in- 
 crease more and more slowly. On the contrary, 1\I. Morlot says as follows: 
 "Only thi.s growth nuist liave gone on at a gradually diminishing rate, because 
 
THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. ■ 259 
 
 Other calculations, of a similar nature have been made. 
 The Lake of Bienne, in Switzerland, has been gradually 
 silting up along its margins from time immemorial. About 
 seven hundred and fifty years ago there was an abbey built 
 at one place on the then existing shore of the lake. Since 
 that time the gain of land has been about twelve hundred 
 feet. A considerable distance further up the valley are 
 found the remains of a lake settlement of the Stone Age* 
 If the gain of land has been uniform, it has not been far 
 from seven thousand years since the lake washed round the 
 ancient settlement. Of course the land may have gained 
 faster at one time than at another, but from the general con- 
 figuration of the valley it is considered that its gain was 
 regular.^ 
 
 Mr. Skertchly, of the Geological Survey of England, has 
 furnished still another estimate, based on the growth of the 
 Fen-beds on the east coast of England. It is sufficient to 
 state that he also arrives at an estimate of about seven 
 thousand years for the Neolithic period.^ Now these results 
 are interesting, and their substantial agreement is, to say 
 the least, striking. We must remember, however, that none 
 of them are free from error. They may serve to clear up 
 our thoughts on this subject, but we notice they tell us 
 nothing as to the beginning of the Neolithic Age. 
 
 Abandoning the effort to obtain dates for the various 
 ages, attempts have been made to calculate the entire inter- 
 val that has elapsed since the close of the Glacial times, 
 and thus set bounds to the first appearance of Neolithic 
 
 the volume of a cone increases as the cube of its radius. Taking this fact into 
 consideration, etc." (Smithsonian Eeport, 1860, p. 341.) There are, however, 
 several objections to this calculation, for which see Lubbock's " Prehistoric 
 Times," p. 400; also Quatrefages's "Human Species," p. 138. 
 
 ^ Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," p. 402. For criticisms on this calcula- 
 tion see Southall's " Recent Origin of Man." ^British Assoc. Rep., 1879. 
 
260 . THE PHEHISTORIC ]\'ORLD. 
 
 man. We briefly touched on this question in determining 
 the anti(iiiity of the Paleolithic Age, and we say, as far as 
 this country was concerned, it was comparatively a recent 
 thing, but as for Europe, it must be at a very remote time. 
 M. Quatrefages has called our attention to two investiga- 
 tions in Europe, which, in order to understand this question, 
 we will now glance at. The waters of the Rhone carry into 
 Lake Geneva every year quantities of sediment. In other 
 words, from this and other sources, the lake is gradually 
 being filled up. Carefully calculating the amount carried 
 into the lake in a year, estimates have been made of the 
 length of time it has taken the river to fill up the lake as 
 much as it has. 
 
 But in making this calculation the date arrived at was a 
 maximum one — that is, a point beyond which it is not rea- 
 sonable to suppose the time extended. These calculations 
 gave as a result one hundred thousand years. The meaning 
 of this is that the time elapsed since the close of the Gla- 
 cial Age was something less than the number just stated. 
 On the other hand, a minimum date for this time has been 
 obtained by estimating the amount of erosion in the valley 
 of the River Saone, in France. From this we know that 
 the time can not be less than seven thousand years. ^ 
 
 It is, perhaps, doubtful whether we shall ever be able to 
 obtain satisfactory answers to these questions. From what 
 we have repeatedly se(!n of the slowness of develop- 
 ment of primitive man, we do not donht but wiiat the 
 antiquily of Neolithic Man goes much farther l)a(k than 
 seven thousand years. When a naturalist finds in widely 
 separated parts of the world animals belonging to a common 
 order, he is justified in concluding that the order is a very 
 ancient one. To illustrate, the opossum belongs to an order 
 
 ' Cinatrefncos's "lluinnii Species," p. 139, etseq. 
 
. THE IRON AGE IN EUROPE. 261 
 
 of animals of which the only other representatiA^es are found 
 in Australia and the neighboring islnnds.^ We are not sur- 
 prised, therefore, to learn that this order was the first to 
 iippear in geological timc.'^ We think the rule is equally 
 applicable to races of men. We are told that the Turanian 
 race, or, as it is often named, the Mongoloid race, is a very 
 widely scattered one. Its representatives are found over the 
 larger portion of Asia, in Northern Europe, the islands of 
 the Pacific ; and they were the only inhabitants of the New 
 World at the time of the conquest.^ This wide dispersion 
 would imply that they were one of the ancient races of the 
 world, and as such their antiquity must be far greater than 
 the above named number of years. 
 
 This point gro'ws clearer when we see what light is af- 
 forded on this subject by historical research. The Turanian 
 people were in full possession of Europe while yet the an- 
 cestors of the Hindoos and the various European nations 
 dwelt together as one people in Asia. As a race they had 
 urown old when the Celts commenced their wanderings. 
 Egypt comes before us as a powerful people, at a time at 
 least as early as six thousand years ago. Even at that time 
 they had attained civilization. But we need not doubt that 
 there is a long series of years lying back of that, during, 
 which this people were slowly advancing from a previous 
 condition of barbarism. The Egyptian people themselves 
 are, in part at least, descendants of a Turanian people that 
 probably in former times occupied the valley of the Nile 
 and North Africa.* . 
 
 Mr. Geikie has lately gone over the entire ground from 
 
 1 Nicholson's "Manual of Zoology," p. 535. 
 ^Dana's "Manual of Geology," p. 416, note. 
 
 'Keary's "Dawn of History," p. 382; Morgan's " Systems of Consanguin- 
 ity and Affinity." 
 
 * Dawkins's " Early Man in Britain," p. 324. 
 
262 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. . 
 
 the point of view of a geologist. He ranges over a wide 
 field, and appeals in sup[)ort to writers of acknowledged 
 ability in all branches of learning^ Yet the impression we 
 gather from his writings is that of ill-defined, bnt far-reach- 
 ing antiquity, one necessary to account for the great climatic 
 and geographical changes which he shows us have taken place 
 since the Glacial Age. But he tells us that any term of 
 years he could suggest would be a mere guess. We can 
 not do better than leave the matter here. Perhaps as a 
 result of the research of our present scholars, we may soon 
 have more precise results. 
 
 These closing essays have impressed on us clearly and 
 distinctly the isolation of the Paleolithic Age. When we 
 reflect on its prolonged duration, its remoteness in time, and 
 its complete severance from the Neolithic and succeeding 
 ages, we are almost ready to wonder whether they were in- 
 deed human beings. But beginning with the Neolithic Age, 
 we come to our own era. This primitive culture seems to 
 have been the commencement of our own culture, and so the 
 industries, household implements, and weapons oC these ages 
 possess a greater interest to us. We have now completed 
 our inquiry into prehistoric life in Eurojje, and aie ready to 
 turn our attention to other parts of the field. What we have 
 thus far learned shovs us how true it is that tlie past of 
 human life on the globe is full of mystery. We trust that 
 what has been written will enable our readers to form clearer 
 conceptions of life in Europe during these far away times. 
 
 ' '' Prehistoric Europe," chap, xvi to xxii 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 263 
 
 EARLY MAN IN AMERICA.' 
 
 Conflicting accounts of the American Aborigines — Recent discoveries — 
 Climate of California in Tertiary Times — Geological changes near its 
 close — Description of Table Mountain — Results of the discoveries 
 there — The Calaveras skull — Other relics — Discussion of the ques- 
 tion — Early Californians Neolithic — Explanation of this — Date of 
 the Pliocene Age — Other discoveries bearing on the Antiquity of 
 man — Dr. Koch's discovery — Discoveries in the Loess of Nebraska — 
 In Greene County, 111. — In Georgia — Difficulties in detecting a 
 Paleolithic Age in this country — Dr. Abbott's discoveries — Paleo- 
 lithic Implements of the Delaware — Age of the deposits — The race 
 of Paleolithic man — Ancestors of the Eskimos — Comparison of Paleo- 
 lithic Age in this country with that in Europe — Eskimos one of the 
 oldest races in the World. 
 
 1^ THE energy and skill of Columbus 
 
 were crowned with success, and the 
 storm-tossed Atlantic was found to 
 lave the shores of a western conti- 
 nent, reflecting minds in Europe 
 ^ were much interested in the strange 
 stories they heard of the inhabitants of the 
 New World. On the one hand Spanish adventurers told scarcely 
 credited stories of populous cities, temples glittering with gold 
 and silver ornaments, and nations possessed of a barbaric civil- 
 ization scarcely inferior to their own. On the other hand were 
 accounts of morose savages, cruel and vindictive in nature, de- 
 pending on fishing and the chase for a livelihood. Nearly 
 four centuries have elapsed since that time. The aboriginal 
 
 ' The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to Dr. C. C. Abbott, of 
 Trenton, New Jersey, for criticism. 
 
264 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 inhabitants have nearly diaappeared, leaving their origin and 
 prehistoric life almost as great a riddle to us as it was to 
 the early colonists. 
 
 But in endeavoring to unroll the pages of their history, 
 we have chanced upon some strange discoveries. The Az- 
 tecs, that people whose culture is to-day such an enigma to 
 our scholars, are known to be a late arrival in the valley of 
 Anahuac. They were preceded in that section by a mys- 
 terious people, the Toltecs, whose remains excite our liveliest 
 curiosity, but of which we have yet learned but little. Yuca- 
 tan is shown to have been for many centuries the home of 
 a people whose advancement equaled that of the Aztecs at 
 their palmiest day. Like important discoveries attended the 
 labors of explorers in the North. The entire valley of its 
 great river is known to have been the home of a numerous 
 population, that, from the nature of their remains, we call 
 the Mound-builders. Who these people were, when and 
 whence they came, and whither they went, are questions 
 whose solution is by no means accomplished. Nor are such 
 discoveries the only results. A study of their institutions 
 has done much in revealing the constructions of ancient so- 
 ciety, and thereby throwing light on some mysterious chap- 
 ters of man's existence. 
 
 Of late years interest in the antiquity of man in America 
 has been reawaked by the discoveries of human remains in 
 Pliocene deposits in California, and the Glacial gravel of the 
 Delaware at Trenton, New Jersey. Before this it was sup- 
 posed that we had no authentic instance of human remains 
 in America found under such circumstances tliat it was nec- 
 essary to assign to them a profound antiquity. If these 
 latter day discoveries be true, we can not escape the conclu- 
 sion that man lived in America at as early a date as that 
 indicated by any of the European explorations. Some hold 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 265 
 
 that the proof of his existence hero in Pliocene times is far 
 more satisfactory than any evidence of his presence in Eu- 
 rope during that time. There is something fascinating in this 
 belief. If some of the most eminent scientists of America are 
 not mistaken, man lived on our Pacific coast before the great 
 ice-sheets that pulverized the surface of the earth and dis- 
 persed life before them came down from the north. He 
 ranged along the western rivers before the volcanic peaks of 
 the Sierras were uplifted, and his old hunting-grounds are 
 to-day buried underneath the great lava flow which desolated 
 ancient California and Oregon. But this assertion has no,t 
 been allowed to pass undisputed, nor has it received the as- 
 sent of all scientists. 
 
 We can easily understand why scholars subject all ques- 
 tions relating to the first appearance of man to very careful 
 scrutiny. If a competent geologist should assert that he had 
 found, in undoubted Pliocene formations, bones of some spe- 
 cies of animals not hitherto suspected of living at that date, 
 his statement would be accepted as proof of the same. But 
 in the case of man, every circumstance is inquired into. It 
 is but right that the utmost care should be exercised in this 
 direction. But, on the other hand, we are not justified in 
 demanding mathematical demonstration in every case of the 
 accuracy of a reported discovery. Yet such seems to be the 
 position of a portion of the scientific world. For, although 
 they willingly admit that man has lived on the earth for a 
 very long time indeed, they urge all sorts of objections to 
 extending that time into a past geological age. 
 
 Accordingly, when Professor Whitney states as the result 
 of many years spent in the investigation of the Tertiary 
 formation of California, that ho finds evidence of the exist- 
 ence of man in the Pliocene Age, it is not strange that one 
 
 part of the scientific world listens incredulously to his state- 
 
 17 
 
266 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ments, and are at once ready to explain away the facts on 
 which he relies. He may, of course, be mistaken, for it is 
 human to err, but his proofs are sufficiently strong to con- 
 vince some of the best scholars in America. We can do no 
 more than to lay the facts before the reader and let him 
 judge for himself. 
 
 We have seen what a genial climate prevailed in Europe 
 during the Tertiary Age. This must also have been true of 
 California. A rich and varied vegetation decked the land. 
 The great trees of California of our day then flourished in 
 Greenland, Iceland, and Western Europe. The cypress of 
 the Southern States was then growing in Alaska and other 
 high northern latitudes. The climate probably passed from 
 a tropical one, in early Tertiary times, to a milder or tem- 
 perate one in Pliocene times. Amongst the animals inhab 
 iting America were three species of camels. Rhinoceroses, 
 mastodons, and elephants trooped over the land. Tigers and 
 other carnivora prowled in the forests. Herds of horse-like 
 animals, one scarcely distinguishable from our common horse, 
 grazed in the valleys, along with several species of deer. 
 From the presence of the old drainage beds, we know that 
 majestic rivers rolled their watery burden through the land. 
 Such a country might well afford a home for man if he were 
 present. 
 
 To understand fully the course of events which now took 
 place we must venture on geological ground. The great 
 Pacific Ocean, lying to the west of America, is constantly 
 exerting a lateral pressure, which during Tertiary times 
 showed its effect in the uplifting of the great mountain 
 ranges of the western coast.^ During late Tertiary times, 
 as a counterpart to the upward movement, a great subsidence 
 commenced in the Pacific region.^ Doubtless many islands, 
 • Dana's " Manual of Geology," p. 735, el seq. 'Ibid., p. 763. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 267 
 
 some think an entire continent even, disappeared beneath 
 the waves. The completion of the various mountain ranges 
 left the coast firm and unyielding; hence, as it could not 
 bend before the fiery flood forced upward from below by the 
 downward motion just mentioned, it broke, and the torrent 
 of molten rock leaped out as a lava flow. In consequence 
 of this, near the close of Pliocene times, tho surface of Cal- 
 ifornia and Oregon, especially the north of California, be- 
 came buried under the lava and ashes of the most desolat- 
 ing volcanic outbreak that the earth has ever known. 
 
 Let us now see what bearing this has on the question of 
 the antiquity of man. Scattered here and there throughout 
 California are numerous masses of basaltic lava, which ap- 
 pear as elevated ridges, the softer strata around having been 
 denuded away. They have received the general name of 
 Table Mountains. They have not only been noted for their 
 picturesque beauty, but miners long since found that the 
 gravels underneath the lava covering were rich in gold. In 
 Tuolumne County the Table Mountain is a flow of lava which 
 originated in lofty volcanoes several miles away. 
 
 It extends along the north side of the Stanilaus, which 
 is a small river flowing in a south-westerly course through 
 the county. The mountain is in the form of a ridge about 
 two thousand feet above the present level of the river. At 
 one point the river breaks through this ridge, which has 
 been worn away for a considerable distance. From this 
 point the ridge appears as a continuous mountain, stretching 
 away to the south for a distance of twenty miles, from 
 where it crosses the river. "As seen from a distance the 
 Table Mountain reveals its origin at once, in the contrast 
 between .the long, straight line of its upper edge and the 
 broken and curving ones which the eroded hills of the aurif- 
 erous strata everywhere exhibit. Its dark color and com- 
 
268 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 parative absence of trees and shrubs on its top and sides 
 also indicate very clearly that the materials of which it is 
 composed are very different from that of the surrounding 
 hills."^ 
 
 This is the celebrated Table Mountain of Tuolumne 
 County. It is simply a vast flow of lava. It must have 
 been a grand sight when this river of fire came rolling down 
 from its volcanic fount. Its present position on top of an 
 elevated ridge is a very singular one. In explanation of 
 that we arrive at some very important conclusions, and we 
 can not fail to be impressed with the fact that countless 
 ages have rolled away since that lava flood poured down 
 the mountain side. " No one can deny that a stream of 
 melted lava, running for forty miles down the slope of the 
 Sierra, must have sought and found a depression or valley in 
 which to flow ; for it is impossible that it should have main- 
 tained for any distance its' position on the crest of a ridge." 
 Lava is about as thick as molten iron, and would as surely 
 seek some valley in which to flow as would so much water. 
 " The valley of the Stanilaus, now two thousand feet deep, 
 could not then have existed ; for this flow of lava is clearly 
 seen to have crossed it at one point." 
 
 " The whole face of the country must, therefore, have 
 undergone an entire change since the eruption took place, 
 during which this mass of lava was poured out. The valley 
 of the Stanilaus must have then been occupied by a range 
 of mountains. The same is true of the other side, where 
 now is the valley of Wood's Creek ; for such ranges must 
 have oxisted in order to form and wall in the vallev in 
 which the current of lava flowed. There has been, there- 
 fore, an amount of denudation during the period since this 
 volcanic mass took its position of not less than three or four 
 •Whitney's "Geology of California," Vol. I. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 269 
 
 thousand feet of perpendicular depth, and this surprising 
 series of changes is not peculiar to one locality, but the 
 whole slope of the Sierras, through the gold region, is the 
 scene of similar volcanic outflows and subsequent remodeling 
 of the surface into a new series of reliefs and depressions."^ 
 In order to fully realize the change here spoken of, an 
 imaginary section of Table Mountains is here presented. 
 Here we see the two valleys on the sides, and "the mass of 
 
 Imaginary Section of Table Mountain. 
 
 lava covering the top of the mountain. The dotted lines rep- 
 resent the position of the old line of hills, which must once 
 have inclosed the valley down which coursed the fiery tor- 
 rent. 
 
 We require to dwell on this fact before we can fully 
 understand its meaning. The " eternal hills," two and three 
 .thousand feet in height, have been completely washed away, 
 and where they stood is now a deep valley. But the old 
 valley, protected by its stony covering, is now a mountain 
 ridge ; and this, we are told, is not a solitary instance, but 
 
 'Whitney's "Geological Survey of California," Vol. I. 
 
270 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the entire surface of the country has been thus denuded. 
 We stand in awe before the stupendous results, which 
 nature, working through vast cycles of time, has accom- 
 plished. 
 
 But if this lava flow took place in a pre-existing valley, 
 we ought to find under the rocky covering beds of gravel, 
 rolled stones, and other debris peculiar to a river bed. Such, 
 in fact, we do find extended along directly underneath the 
 lava, about fifteen hundred feet above the general level of 
 the country. These old river gravels are found to be very 
 rich in gold, and miners have tunneled into them in numer- 
 ous places in search of the valuable metal. In order to de- 
 termine the geological age of these gravels, and subsequent 
 lava flow, a careful examination of portions of plants and 
 bones of animals found therein has been made. The plants 
 are pronounced by competent authority ' to be Pliocene, 
 totally distinct from any specimens now growing in Califor- 
 nia. The animal remains are rhinoceroses, camels, and an 
 extinct species of horse. The age of these gravels is, 
 therefore, pronounced to be Pliocene. We would say in this 
 connection that the auriferous gravels of California have been 
 the object of a very careful research by Prof. Whitney. 
 He adds to his conclusions that of another of the State 
 geologists. We need not give in detail his arguments, but 
 he reaches the conclusion that the auriferous gravels of the 
 Pacific slope represent the whole of the Tertiary Age.^ 
 
 We have seen that in the ancient gravels of European 
 rivers archaeologists have found the materials wherewith to 
 build a fascinating story of man's appearance in Quaternary 
 times. We have underneath the lava flow of California the 
 gravel beds of rivers far antedating the gravels of the 
 
 ' Dr. Newberry's " Geological Survey of California." 
 ■'Whitney's " Auriferous (irnvcls of California," p. 283. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 
 
 271 
 
 Somme. It is therefore not a little interesting to learn from 
 Prof. Whitney that he finds many proofs of the existence 
 of man in the gravels of the Pliocene Age iu Califoinia. 
 Under the solid basalt of Table Mountain have been found 
 many works of men's hands, as well as the celebrated "■ Ca- 
 laveras Skull." 
 
 This skull was taken from a mining shaft at Altaville, at 
 a depth of one hundred and 
 thirty feet from the sur- 
 face, beneath seven differ- 
 ent strata of lava and 
 gravel. Prof. Whitney 
 w;is not present when it 
 was found. He, however, 
 made it his business to 
 examine into the facts of 
 the case, and he thus 
 speaks of it: "That the 
 skull was found in these 
 old, intact, cemented grav- caiaveras sku;:. 
 
 els has been abundantly proved by evidence that can not be 
 gainsaid." And again : " So far as human and geological 
 testimony can at present be relied on, there is no question 
 but that the skull was found under Table Mountain, and is 
 of the Pliocene Age."^ 
 
 This would seem to be pretty explicit, but, as we have 
 said before, Prof. Whitney, in his formal report as the State 
 geologist of California, reaches the conclusion that the aurif- 
 erous gravels of the Pacific are all of the Tertiary Age. It 
 is therefore not a little interesting to learn that numerous 
 instances ;ire recorded of the finding of human remains or 
 the works of man in these gravels. Prof. Whitney men- 
 
 ' Cambridge Lecture, 1878. 
 
272 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 tions twenty such instances.^ Mr. Bancroft furnishes us a 
 list of such discoveries, giving as his authority Mr. C. D. 
 Voy, of the California Geological Survey, of Oakland, Cali- 
 fornia. He states that Mr. Voy personally vijitcd most of 
 the locahties where the discoveries were made, and took all 
 possible pains to verify their authenticity, and in many cases 
 obtaining sworn statements from the parties who made them.^ 
 
 Two stone mortars and spear-heads, six and eight inches 
 long, were found in the gravel under Table Mountain, just 
 mentioned. These relics were found about three hundred 
 feet from the surface. A hundred feet and more of this depth 
 was of solid lava. At another place a stone bead was found 
 three hundred feet from the mouth of the tunnel, under a 
 thick layer of lava. Many other instances might be given 
 of such discoveries, not always under lava coverings, but 
 always in such instances that we are compelled to assign to 
 them an immense antiquity. As, for instance, at San An- 
 dreas, according to a sworn statement in Mr. Voy's posses- 
 sion, large stone mortars were taken from a layer of 
 cemented gravel, overlain by one hundred and twenty-five 
 feet of volcanic and gravel materials. Many similar instances 
 are on record, but enough have been mentioned to serve the 
 purpose of the chapter.^ 
 
 As we hiive briefly gone over the ground on which the 
 antiquity of man in America' is, by some, referred to the 
 Pliocene Age, it is but fair to notice some of the objections 
 that have been raised. It is not necessary to point out (hat 
 the only questions worthy to be considered are of a scien- 
 tific nature. 
 
 • Cambrirlfjo Lcotnro," 187S. "^ " Nnlivo Riiccs," Vol. IV, p. 698. 
 
 ' In genoral, all about Scjiiora, in the auril'crona pravels, are found bones 
 of extinct animals, and, associated with them, many relies of the works of 
 human bands. Those are found at various depths down to one hundred feet. 
 (Whitney's " Auriferous Cravels," p. 203.) 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMEBIC A. 273 
 
 We must deny either the age of the gravels themselves 
 or that the objects of human handiwork were found as 
 claimed, or else that they are of the same age as the grav- 
 els. Prof. LeConte thinks, from the nature of the gravels 
 and the peculiar circumstances which surround them, that 
 they are not older than the close of the Pliocene Age. He 
 thinks they, in fact, belong to the transitory period between 
 that age and the Quaternary.^ But as we are considering 
 the question of Pliocene man, it makes but little difference 
 if the gravels do belong to the very close of that period. 
 They may still be called Pliocene. 
 
 One great trouble with those remains is that they were 
 not discovered by professed geologists. We have to depend 
 upon the statements of miners. But if their statements 
 can be believed (and why should they not ?), there is no 
 doubt about their genuineness. The testimony, as Mr. 
 Whitney says, "all points in one direction, and there has 
 never been any attempt made to pass off on any member 
 of the survey any thing out of keeping, or — so to speak — 
 out of harmony with what has been already found, or might 
 be expected to be found. It has always been the same 
 kind of implements which have been exhibited to us, 
 namely, the coarsest and the least finished, which one would 
 suppose could be made, and still be implements at all."^ 
 This result would hardly be possible, where so many par- 
 ties are concerned in furnishing the evidence, if the objects 
 were not genuine.^ 
 
 In opposition to this conclusion it has been urged that 
 the stone mortars, pestles, etc., have become imbedded in 
 the gravel by the action of streams, or slips from the 
 
 ' American Journal of Science, Vol XIX, p. 176, 1880. 
 • " " Auriferous Gravels," p. 279. 
 
 ' Wright's "StnrlipR in Science and Religion," p. 289. 
 
274 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 mountain side in modern times, or are the results of inter- 
 ments or mining operations.^ As an illustration of how 
 the}^ might become buried by the action of streams, refer- 
 ence is made to somewhat similar discoveries in the tin- 
 bearing streams of Cornwall (Wales). We know with con- 
 siderable certainty that at a very early date the Phoenicians 
 worked in the gravels of these streams for tin ores. Imple- 
 ments made use of by them and others — such, for instance, 
 as shovels, mortars, pick-axes, stone bowls, and various 
 dishes — have been found at all depths in this gravel, by 
 more modern miners.^ 
 
 This may explain the presence, in some instances, of 
 similar remains in California, but it utterly fails to do so, 
 where the remains have been buried underneath a la^a flow 
 or a bed of volcanic materials, as is the case in many of 
 the instances we have cited. Manifestly no water has dis- 
 turbed their strata since the volcanic materials were laid 
 down. Neither can we think of a land-slide carrying these 
 remains into the heart of a mountain, or burying them under- 
 neath a hundred feet of lava. The peculiar position in which 
 they were often found is surely lost sight of by those who 
 think they might have been placed there by interment. 
 We can not think of a savage people digging a grave in 
 such a position. 
 
 It has been urged with considerable force that these 
 relics have been left behind by ancient miners when they 
 mined for gold. Dr. Wilson is cited as authority for the 
 statement that the Mexicans obtained "silver, lead, and tin 
 from the mines of Tasco, and copper was wrought in the moun- 
 tains of Zacotollnn by means of galleries and shafts, opened 
 with persevering toil where the metallic veins were imbed- 
 
 ' Dnwkins, in SoutliaD's " Pliorciio Man," p. 18. 
 'Southall's "Pliocene Man," p. 19. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 275 
 
 ded in the solid rock." Prescott, the historian, also testi- 
 fies to the same fact. 
 
 We need only add to this, that wherever these ancient 
 galleries were opened in the solid rock, they still exist. 
 Schoolcraft mentions finding one two hundred and ten feet 
 deep.^ The chances are not worth considering, that these 
 old mines would be overlooked. If, for instance, the Cal- 
 averas skull is that of a prehistoric miner, killed in an old 
 mining gallery only a thousand years or so ago, it is incon- 
 ceivable that all evidence of this mine should have disap- 
 peared. Or, if in one case it should have done so, it would 
 surely have been detected in other instances. The variety 
 and explicitness of the testimony brought forward makes 
 all such supposition improbable.^ 
 
 It is best, in this matter, to hold the judgment in sus- 
 pense. Wo have stated Mr. Whitney's position, and the ob- 
 jections that have been raised to it. The amount of thought 
 bestowed on the antiquity of man will doubtless soon clear 
 up the whole matter. We can not do better than to con- 
 sider his surroundings, supposing that he was really present. 
 The country must have been very different from the Cali- 
 fornia of to-day. Dr. Cooper says, " The country consisted 
 of peninsulas and islands, like those of the present East In- 
 dies ; resembling them also in climate and productions."^ 
 The probabilities are that to the west and southwest of 
 California, instead of watery expanse of the Pacific, only 
 
 » Schoolcraft's " Archeology," Vol. I, p. 105. 
 
 ' As bearing on the que.stion of Pliocene man, we might refer to the im- 
 pression of human (?) foot-prints in the sand-stone quarry of the State prison 
 at Nevada. At one time this area was the bottom of a lake, and we can 
 plainly see the tracks of various animals that came down to drink. A huge 
 mammoth visited the place; so also did horses and other animals. Among 
 these is one series of tracks evidently made by a biped. Some think they are 
 the sandaled foot of a human being. This question is still under discussion. 
 
 ' "Geographical Survey West of the 100th Meridian," Vol. VII, p. 11.' 
 
276 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 broken here and there by an ever-verdant islet, there was 
 either a continental expanse of land or, at any rate, a vast 
 archipelago. We knov7 that over a large part of the North- 
 ern Pacific area the land has sunk not less than six thou- 
 sand feet since late Tertiary times. ^ 
 
 We are certain the ocean area must have presented a 
 vastly different aspect before that depression commenced. 
 It is not unreasonable to suppose that communication between 
 North America and Asia was much easier than in subse- 
 quent epochs. It might have been an easy matter for man 
 to pass back and forth without losing sight of land. It is 
 therefore reasonable to suppose that if Pliocene man was in 
 existence, he would have occupied both sides of the Pacific 
 at this early time.^ These last conclusions are very im- 
 portant ones to reach, and as there is reasonable foundation 
 for them, we must bear them in mind in the subsequent pages. 
 
 It will be remembered that the races of men who in- 
 habited Europe in the Paleolithic Age had only very 
 rudely formed, unpolished implements. It is not until we 
 arrive at the Neolithic stage of culture that we meet with 
 specimens of polished stone implements. To judge from 
 the ripecimens of early Californian art, the beautifully pol- 
 ished pestles, beads, plummets or sinkers, spear-heads, etc., 
 Pliocene man in California must have been in the Neolithic 
 stage of culture. Though they were not acquainted with 
 the potter's art, yet from their skill in working vessels of 
 stone, they had undoubtedly passed entirely through Sav- 
 agism, and had entered the confines of Barbarism,^ as far 
 advanced, in fact, as many of the Indian tribes the Span- 
 iards found in possession of the country. 
 
 ' Dana'B "Manual of Goolojry," p. 583. 
 
 ' PntJiam, in "(4c()i.'i:iiil)ical Survey We.st of the 100th Meridian," Vol. 
 VII, p. 11. ^ Il)iii., p. 18. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 277 
 
 It must be confessed, this seems very singular.. It is 
 this statement that causes many to shut their eyes to what 
 would be otherwise at once admitted and refuse to believe 
 the genuineness of the discovery. If the implements 
 brought to light had been of the rude River Drift type — 
 celts but little removed from nodules of flint — scholars 
 would not be so cautious about accepting them. But when we 
 learn they are Neolithic, we at once see why they hesitate, 
 and ask for more conclusive proofs ; yet this is no reason 
 to disregard the discoveries. They may be a great surprise, 
 they may be an unwelcome discovery to the holder of some 
 theories, yet the only question is, whether they are true or 
 not, and if true, theories must be modified to fit the facts. 
 Prof. Putnam thus speaks, in reference to them : " As the 
 archseologist has no right to be governed by any pre-con- 
 ceived theories, but must take the facts as he finds them, 
 it is impossible for him to do otherwise than accept the de- 
 ductions of so careful and eminent a geologist as Prof. Whit- 
 ney, and draw his conclusions accordingly, notwithstanding 
 the fact that this Pliocene man was, to judge by his works in * 
 stone and shell, as far advanced as his descendants were at 
 the time of the discovery of California by the Spaniards."^ 
 
 Perhaps a partial explanation of this matter may be 
 found when we consider all the circumstances of the case. 
 The origin of man is generally assigned to some tropical 
 country. Sir John Lubbock thus speaks of it: "Our near- 
 est relatives in the animal kingdom are confined to hot, al- 
 most tropical climates ; and it is in such countries that we 
 are, perhaps, most likely to find the earliest traces of the 
 human race."^ This is also the opinion of other eminent 
 scholars. M. Quatrefages thinks that man probably origi- 
 
 ' " Geographical Survey West of the 100th Meridian," Vol. VII, p. 12. 
 ' " Prehistoric Times," p. 436. 
 
278 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 nated in Asia. He points out, however, that, during Tertiary 
 times, the climate was much milder, and man might have 
 originated in Northern Asia/ Now, if it be true that a 
 great mass of land has disappeared beneath the waves of the 
 Pacific, why may we not suppose that, if this sunken land 
 was not the original home of man, it was at a very earl}-- 
 time inhabited by him; that here he passed through his 
 experience in savagism?^ We know how suited the islands 
 of the Pacific are to the needs of a savage people; and we 
 must not lose sight of the probable ease with which they 
 could reach the coast of California — and also of what Dr. 
 Cooper has told us of the climate and geographical surround- 
 ings of California at that early time. So it may not be un- 
 reasonable to suppose that man reached California long ages 
 before he wandered into Europe, and so reached the Neolithic 
 stage of culture much earlier than he did in other parts of 
 the world .^ 
 
 It might be objected, that if a people in the Neolithic 
 stage of culture lived in California in the Pliocene Age, they 
 ought to have reached a very high stage of culture indeed 
 when the Spaniards invaded the country. This is what we 
 would expect hnd they been left to develop themselves. 
 The great geographical changes that took place near the 
 close of the Pliocene would cut off the primitive Califor- 
 nians from the Asiatics. Not only was the land connec- 
 tion — if it indeed existed — now destroyed, but causes were 
 changing the climate. Ice and snow drove from the north 
 life of both animals and plants, and for an entire geological 
 
 ' " Human Species," p. 147. 
 
 ' The researches of Mr. Dall in the Aleutian Islands demonstrate the long, 
 continued occupation of them by a savage jieople, and a gradual advance of 
 tlie same in culture — though this apparent advance may have been simply 
 the inroads of more advanced tribes. U. S. Geographical Survey W. of 100th 
 M., p. 12. ' Wright's " Studies in Science and Religion," p. 292. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 279 
 
 period communications with Asia by way of the north must 
 have been very difficult, if not cut off altogether. Who can 
 tell what changes now came to the Asiatic branch of these peo- 
 ■dle? We are but too familiar with the fact that nations and 
 races sicken and die : many examples could be given. Tlie 
 natives of the Sandwich Islands seem doomed to extinc- 
 tion. In a few centuries, the Indians of America will live 
 only in tradition and song. 
 
 Such may have been the fate of the early inhabitants of 
 the Pacific continent: certainly it would not be surprising, 
 if the immense climatic and geographical changes which then 
 took place would produce that result. Or it may be that 
 but a scanty remnant lived on, absorbed by more vigorous, 
 though less highly cultivated stocks of the same people, 
 whose homes had been on the main-land of Asia — and the 
 remnant left along the Pacific coast must have lived on un- 
 der vastly different circumstance. The interior of North 
 America was largely a dreary expanse of ice and snow 
 down to the 39th parallel of latitude. It is quite true, this 
 great glacier did not reach the Pacific Slope; but it must 
 have exerted a powerful influence on the climate : and the 
 evidence points, that the Sierra Nevada were occupied by 
 local glaciers which reached down into the fertile expanse 
 of the plains. 
 
 This was certainly a far different climate, and a far dif- 
 ferent country, than that which sustained a vegetation of a 
 tropical growth. It may well be that the people should, as 
 a result of their changed conditions, have deteriorated in, 
 culture ; or, at any rate, their progress toward civilization 
 may have been stopped, and many thousands of years may 
 have passed with no perceptible improvement. It may be ob- 
 jected, that man will improve under any state of existence, 
 give him time enongli. This is. doubtless, in the main true. 
 
280 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 But a race may early reach its limit of culture; ia which 
 case, as a race, it will not improve: we may do much with 
 the individual, but nothing, or but very little, for the race. 
 
 In these considerations which have been advanced we 
 may find some reason for the early appearance of Neolithic 
 man, as^ well as the fact that he advanced no farther in cul- 
 ture. But whether man first arrived in California in Plio- 
 cene times or not, he continued to inhabit the land to the 
 present day. He would, however, be exposed to assault 
 after assault from invading tribes. We do not wish to exam- 
 ine the question of the origin of the native Americans. It 
 is held, by the best authorities, that at least a portion of 
 them came from Asia, using the Kurile Islands as a step- 
 ping stone. Reaching the main-land of America, and passing 
 down the coast, they would, sooner or later, reach the Val- 
 ley of the Columbia — which has been characterized as the 
 most extraordinary region on the face of the earth in the 
 variety and amount of subsistence it afforded to tribes des- 
 titute of a knowledge of agriculture. At certain seasons of 
 the year the rivers are crowded with fish, and they are 
 then caught with the greatest ease. As a mixture of forest 
 and prairie, the country is an excellent one. for game. A 
 species of bread-root grew on the prairies ; and, in the Sum- 
 mer, there was a profusion of berries. To these advantages 
 must be added that of a mild and equable climate.^ 
 
 These combined advantages would make this valley one 
 of the centers of population, from whence would issue suc- 
 cessive bands of invading people. A portion of these, pass- 
 ing over into Cnlifornia, would come in contact with the de- 
 scendants of Pliocene man. The result would be, that the 
 primitive inhabitants, unable to escape to the west, would 
 come in contact with wave after wave of invading tribes. 
 
 'Morgan's *' Ancient Socit'ly,'* p. lOS, note. 
 
SA EL Y MAN IN AMERICA. 281 
 
 This is not altogether theory. All inquirers into the cus- 
 toms, arts, and languages of the primitive Californians have 
 been struck with the remarkable commingling of the same. 
 We are driven to the conclusion that here has been the 
 meeting ground of many distinct tribes and nations. " From 
 such a mixture, and over-population of the most desirable 
 portions of the country, would naturally result the formation 
 of the hundreds of petty tribes that existed in both Upper 
 and Lower California when first known to the Spaniards."^ 
 
 In view of these facts, it is not strange that no advance 
 in culture is noticeable ; and the grounds just mentioned may 
 go far to explain why we catch sight, here and there, of bits 
 of customs, habits, and manners of life which strangely 
 remind us of widely distant people — though it will not 
 explain the presence of words of Malay or Chinese origin 
 which are claimed to exist.^ What is known as the Eskimo 
 trace is quite marked in the physical characters and in the 
 arts of the Californians.^ It is, probably, the continuance 
 of the type of the primitive American race. 
 
 It would naturally be interesting to know whether any 
 date can be given for the Pliocene Age, and so give us 
 some ideas as to the antiquity of man, if he were really 
 here during that epoch. This, however, is one of the most 
 difficult questions to answer, and in the present state of our 
 knowledge incapable of solution. Approximations have, of 
 course, been made, and, as might be expected, vary greatly 
 in results. When it was acknowledged on all hands that 
 on geological grounds the age of the earth was certainly 
 very great, many times the few thousand years hitherto 
 relied on, it is not strange that popular thought swung to 
 
 1 "Geographical Survey West of the 100th Meridian," Vol. VII, p. 3. 
 
 2 Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. Ill, pp. 646, 647. 
 
 ' "U. S. Geographical Survey West of the 100th Meridian," Vol. VII, p. 12. 
 
 18 
 
282 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the other extreme, and hundreds of millions of years were 
 thought necessary to explain the series of changes which 
 the geologists unfolded. This demand for a greatly extended 
 time was strengthened when the law of the gradual evolu- 
 tion of life was expounded by the modern school of natural- 
 ists, and as great a lapse of time as five hundred millions of 
 years was not deemed an extravagant estimate. Sir William 
 Thompson has, however, demonstrated that the time that 
 has elapsed since the crust of the earth became solidified 
 can not be far from one hundred millions of years, and con- 
 sequently we know the time since the appearance of life 
 must be greatly less than that number of years. 
 
 Attempts have been made to estimate the length of time 
 required to form the sedimentary crust of the earth. The 
 results are so divergent on this point that it is best not to 
 adopt any standard at present. Our views on this matter 
 are also dependent on the time that has elapsed since the 
 close of the Glacial Age, which, as we have seen, is not yet 
 a settled point. If it be true that the islands of the Pacific 
 commenced to sink during late Tertiary times, then we have 
 a measure of that time in the growth of coral, which has re- 
 quired at least four hundred thousand years to form reefs 
 the thickness of some that are known to exist.^ 
 
 But here, again, it seems we are not certain when this de- 
 pression commenced.^ In a previous chapter we have gone 
 over the Glacial Age, and have seen when, according to Mr. 
 Croll's theory, it commenced. This was probably not far 
 from the close of the Pliocene Age. We might as well leave 
 the matter here. There are so many elements of uncertainty 
 that it is doubtful if we Avill ever be able to assign satisfac- 
 tory dates to the epoch.^ 
 
 ' Dana's "Man'l of Geology," p. ri91. - LeConte's "Elements of Geologj-." 
 ' Prof. Winchdl, in liis last work, " World Lifo," p. ri(i3, H nrq., poes over 
 
EARL Y MAN IN AMERICA. 283 
 
 In bringing to a conclusion this somewhat extended 
 notice of early man in California we have to admit that much 
 of it is speculative ; still it is an endeavor to explain known 
 facts. The main statement is that man lived in California in 
 the Pliocene Age, in the Neolithic stage of culture. Whether 
 the arguments adduced in support of this statement are suf- 
 ficient to prove its accuracy must be left to the mature judg- 
 ment of the scientific world. There is no question but that 
 the climate and geography, the fauna and the flora, were 
 then greatly different from those of the present. Starting 
 with these known facts, so strange and fascinating, it need 
 occasion no surprise if the pen of the enthusiastic explorer 
 depict a scene wherein facts and fancy are united. 
 
 In this case truth is certainl}^ stranger than fiction, and 
 when, in imagination, we see the great Pacific archipelago 
 emerge from the waves, and, in place of the long swell of the 
 ocean, we picture the pleasing scenes of tropic lands, the 
 strange floral growth of a past geological age, the animal 
 forms which have since disappeared, with man already well 
 advanced in culture: when we recall all this, and picture 
 forth the surprising changes which then took place, the 
 slowly subsiding land, the encroaching waters, and the re- 
 sultant watery waste, with here and there a coral-girt island, 
 the great volcanic uplift on the -main-land, the flaming rivers 
 of molten lava, which come pouring forth, followed by the 
 night of cold, ice, and snow: when we consider these, and 
 the great lapse of time necessary for their Rccomplishment, 
 how powerless are mere words to set forth the grandeur and 
 
 the entire subject. As might be expected, no decisive results are obtaine(L 
 He sums up the arguments to show that in this country the close of the Gla- 
 cial Age is not more than seven thousand years ago (p. 375). The student 
 who reads these pages and then Mr. Geikie's work, " Prehistoric Europe," 
 will be sorely puzzled to know what conclusions to adopt. We can not do 
 better than refer to the chapter on Antiquity Paleolithic Age. 
 
284 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the resistless sweep of nature's laws, and to paint the insig- 
 nificance and trifling nature of man and his works ! 
 
 The discoveries in California are not the only instances 
 of the relics of man and his works found under such cir- 
 cumstances that they are relied on by some to proA'e the 
 great age of man in America. But on account of the rarity 
 of these finds, and the contradictory statements and opinions 
 respecting them, the scientific world has until lately re- 
 garded with some distrust the assertion of a great antiquity 
 for man on this continent ; but a review of the evidence on 
 this point, and especially of Dr. Abbott's discoveries in New 
 Jersey, must impress on all the conclusion that tribes of 
 men were living here at the close of the Glacial Age, and 
 probably long before that time. 
 
 It need occasion no surprise to learn that several of the 
 discoveries of former years, relied on in this connection, 
 have since been shown to be unreliable. They have not 
 been able to stand a careful examination at the hands of 
 later scholars. They were made when European savants 
 were first communicating to the world the results of the ex- 
 plorations of the river gravels and caves of that country. 
 The antiquity of man being amply proven there, may afford 
 some explanation why more discriminating care was not 
 employed. Of this nature were some of the discoveries in 
 the valley of the Mississippi ; such, for instance, as the por- 
 tion of the human skeleton found mingled with the bones 
 of extinct animals a few miles below Natchez, and the 
 deeply buried skeleton at New Orleans, in both of which 
 cases a simple explanation is at hand without the necessity 
 of supposing a great flight of years. \ 
 
 Some of these discoveries'yet remain an unsettled point. 
 Such is the discovery of flint arrow-heads in connection 
 with the bones of a mastodon found in Missouri. Dr. Koch, 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 285 
 
 who made the discovery, draws from the facts of the case 
 such a suggestive picture that we will give his own words. 
 After describing where found, he says : " The greater por- 
 tion of these bones had been more or less burned by fire. 
 The fire had extended but a few feet beyond the space oc- 
 cupied by the animal before its destruction, and there was 
 more than sufficient evidence that the fire had not been an 
 accidental one, but, on the contrary, that it had been kin- 
 dled by human agency, and, according to all appearance, 
 with the design of killing the huge creature which had been 
 found mired in the mud, and in an entirely helpless condition. 
 All the bones which had not been burned by the fire had 
 kept their original position, standing upright and apparently 
 quite undisturbed in the clay, whereas those portions which 
 had been extended above the surface had been partially con- 
 sumed by the fire, and the surface of the clay was covered, 
 as far as fire had extended, by a layer of wood ashes, min- 
 gled with larger or smaller pieces of charred wood and burnt 
 bones, together with bones belonging to the spine, ribs, and 
 other parts of the body, which had been more or less in- 
 jured by the fire. It seemed that the burning of the victim 
 and the hurling of rocks at it had not satisfied the destroy- 
 ers, for I found also, among the ashes, bones, and rocks, sev- 
 eral arrow-heads, a stone spear-head, and some stone axes." 
 Such is Dr. Koch's very interesting statement of this 
 find. " It was received by the scientific world," says Foster, 
 " with a sneer of contempt," and, it seems to us, for very in- 
 sufficient reasons. It is admitted that his knowledge of 
 geology was not as accurate as it should have been. He 
 made some mistakes of this nature, which have been clearly 
 shown.^ Still, he is known to have been a diligent collector, 
 and we are told "no one who knew him will question but 
 
 * Dana's Am. Journal of Science, May, 1875. 
 
286 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 that he was a competent observer."^ It seems to us useless 
 to deny the truth of his statements. There is, however, 
 nothing to necessitate us believing in an immense age for 
 these remains. This is not to be considered a point against 
 them, for there is no reason for supposing that the masto- 
 don may not have lingered on to comparatively recent times, 
 and that comparatively recent men may not have intercepted 
 and destroyed helpless individuals. Indeed, we are told 
 there are traditions still extant among the Indians of these 
 monsters.^ 
 
 We have other facts showing that, in this country as 
 in Europe, man was certainly living not far from the time 
 when the land was covered with the ice of the Glacial Age, 
 whatever may be true of still earlier periods. We are told 
 that, when the time came for the final breaking up .of the 
 great glaciers, and while they still lingered at the head wa- 
 ters of the Platte, the Missouri, and the Yellowstone rivers, 
 a mighty lake — or, rather, a succession of lakes — occupied 
 the greater portion of the Missouri Valley. The rivers 
 flowing into them Avere of great size,^ and heavily freighted 
 with sediment, which was deposited in the still waters of 
 the lakes, and thus was formed the rich loess deposits of 
 Nebraska. 
 
 From several places in this loess have been t^iken rude 
 stone arrows, buried at such depths and under such circum- 
 stances, that Ave must conclude they were deposited there 
 when the loess was forming. But this requires us to carry 
 them back to a time when elephants and mastodons roamed 
 over tlie land, for bones of these huge creatrures'* are quite 
 
 'Foster's " Preliistoric Races," p. 62. 
 
 ' See Loekwood, in Popiilar Science Monthly for 1883, for account of beaver 
 dam built on a mastodon skeleton ami evidence of contemporaneity of Indians 
 and niastodon.s. 
 
 ' "The Missouri was a stream thirty miles wide." * " Hayden," p. 255. 
 
EARLY MAX IN AMERICA. 287 
 
 frequently found. This urrow-po'.ul. — or, it uiay be, spear- 
 head — was found twenty feet from the surface; and almost 
 directly above it, and distant only thirteen inches, was a 
 vertebra of an elephant. "It appears, then, 
 that some old races lived around the shores of 
 this lake, and, paddling over it, accidentally 
 dropped their arrows, or let them fly at a pass- 
 ing water-fowl;" and, from the near presence 
 of the elephant's bone, it is shown that "man 
 here, as well as in Europe, was the cotempo- 
 rary of the elephant, in at least a portion of 
 the Missouri Valley ."^ 
 
 Other examples are on record. In Greene 
 County, Illinois, parties digging a well found, 
 at the detjth of seventy-two feet, a stone 
 
 ' "^ Implement found 
 
 hatchet. Mr. McAdams carefully examined ^"- ^°~^s- 
 the well, to see if it could have dropped from near the 
 surface. He tells us the well was dug through loess de- 
 posits; and from the top down was as smooth, and almost 
 as hard, as a cemented cistern.^ The loess was, as in Ne- 
 braska, deposited in the still waters of the lake which once 
 occupied the Valley of the Illinois.^ And we need not doubt 
 but that it dates from the breaking up of the glacial ice. 
 The position of this hatchet, then, found at the very bottom 
 of the loess deposits, shows that, while yet the glaciers ling- 
 ered in the north, and the flooded rivers spread out in great 
 lakes, some tribes of stone-using folks hunted along the 
 banks of the lakes, whose bottoms were to form the rich 
 prairies of the West. 
 
 Previous to this discovery, Mr. Foster had recorded the 
 
 ' For the facts on which this paragraph rests, see Report of Samuel Aughey, 
 Ph. D., in " U. S. Survey of the Territories, for 1874," p. 243, et seq. 
 2" American Assoc. Rep.," 1880, p. 720. 
 3 "Illinois Geological Reports," Vol. Ill, p. 123. 
 
288 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 finding, in this same formation, distant but a few miles, a 
 rude hatchet. There was in this case a possibility that the 
 stone could have been shaped by natural means, and so he 
 did not affirm this to be a work of man ; but he says, " had 
 it been recovered from a plowed field, I should have unhes- 
 itatingly said it was an Indian's hatchet."^ We think it but 
 another instance of relics found under such circumstances, 
 that it points to the presence of man at the close of the 
 Glacial Age. 
 
 No doubt many similar discoveries have been made, but 
 the specimens were regarded as the work of Indians; and 
 though the position in which they were found may have ex- 
 cited some surprise, they were not brought to the attention 
 of the scholars. Nor is it only in the prairie regions of the 
 West where such discoveries have been made. Col. C. C. 
 Jones has recorded the finding of some flint im})lements in 
 the drift of the Chattahooche River, which we think as con- 
 clusively proves the presence of man in a far away time as 
 do any of the discoveries in the river gravels of Europe. 
 It seems that gold exists in the sands of this river, and the 
 early setlers were quick to take advantage of it. They dug 
 canals in places to turn the river from its present channel — 
 and others, to reach some buried channel of former times. 
 These sections passed down to the hard slate rock, passing 
 through the surfiice, and the underlying drift, composed of 
 sand, gravel, and bowlders. " During one of these excava- 
 tions, at a depth of nine feet below the surface, commingled 
 with the gravels and bowlders of the drift, and just above 
 the rocky substratum upon which the deposit rested, were 
 found three [Paleolithic] flint implements."^ 
 
 He adds that, "in materials, manners of construction, and 
 
 • " Prehistoric Earos," ji. f.O. 
 
 'Jones's "Antiquities of tlie Southern Indians," p. 293. 
 
EARLY ^fAN IN AMERICA. 289 
 
 in general appearance, so nearly do they resemble some of 
 the rough, so-called flint hatchets, belonging to the drift 
 type, as described by M. Boucher De Perthes, that they 
 might very readily be mistaken, the one for the other." 
 "They are as emphatically drift implements, as any that 
 have appeared in the diluvial matrix of France." On the 
 surface soil, above the flints, are found the ordinary relics 
 of the Indians. The works of the Mound Builders are also 
 to be seen. Judging from their position, the Paleolithics 
 must be greatly older than any of the surface remains. 
 Many centuries must go by to account for the formation of 
 the vegetable soil above them 
 
 Speculating on their age, Mr. Jones eloquently says, "If 
 we are ignorant of the time when the Chattahooche first 
 sought a highway to the Gulf; if we know not the age of the 
 artificial tumuli which still grace its banks; if we are uncer- 
 tain when the red Nomads who, in fear and wonder, carried 
 the burdens of the adventurous DeSoto, as he conducted 
 his followers through primeval forests, and, by the sides 
 of their softly mingling streams, first became dwellers here, 
 how shall we answer the question as to the age in which 
 these rude drift implements were fashioned and used by 
 these primitive people ?"^ 
 
 The examples we have quoted, even though the case of 
 California be not considered, are all suggestive of a great 
 antiquity for man, taking us back in time to when the glaciers 
 still "shone in frigid splendor" over the northern part of the 
 United States. When European savants had established the 
 science of Archseology, and shown the existence of separate 
 stages of culture, it was but natural that those interested 
 in the matter on this side of the Atlantic should turn with 
 renewed energy to investigate the archseology of this coun- 
 
 ' Jones's "Antiquities of the Southern Indians," p. 295. 
 
290 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 try, to see if here, too, they could fiud evidence of a Paleo- 
 litliic Age. But the scholar iu this country is confronted 
 with a peculiar ditiiculty. Owing to the very multiplicity 
 and variety of relics of prehistoric times, it is difficult to 
 properly classify and understand them. The field is of great 
 extent, the time of study has been short, and the explorers 
 few; so it is not strange that but few localities have been 
 thorougly searched. But, until this is done, we can not hope 
 to reach definite conclusions. 
 
 The peculiar culture of the Indians, prevailing among 
 them at the time of the discovery, proved a hinderance, 
 rather than a help, in this matter. The Indians are cer- 
 tainly not Paleolithic, many of their implements being finely 
 wrought and polished; but their arrow-heads, hatchets, and 
 celts were sufficiently rude to spread the conviction that all 
 weapons and implements of stone should be referred to them. 
 This belief has done much to hinder real progress. It is 
 not to be wondered at that some difference of opinion has 
 prevailed, among our scholars, whether the different stages 
 of culture, discovered in Europe, have any existence here. 
 
 On one hand, it is denied that diflerent stages can be de- 
 tected. Says Prof. Whitney: "It is evident that there has 
 been no unfolding of the intellectual faculties of the human race 
 on this continent .similar to tlint which has taken place in 
 Central Europe. We can recognize no Paleolithic, Neolithic, 
 Bronze, or Iron Ages."^ Others assure us, that if present, 
 the ages stand in reverse order. " The relics last used were 
 by far the rudest, atul the historic races, which are the sur- 
 vivors of the prehistoric, are the wildest of the two; the 
 lower status remainintr, while the higher has passed away."" 
 In still another place we read: "The Neolithic and 
 
 ' Quoted by Abl)r)tt's ' Primitive Industry," )). ?>. 
 ' Peel's " A rcliffiolojiy of Europe and America," p. 11. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 291 
 
 Bronze Ages preceded the Paleolithic, at least in the Missis- 
 sippi basin."^ 
 
 Notwithstanding these quotations, we think it will yet 
 be shown that in this country, as in Europe, there was a 
 true Paleolithic Age, and that there was no such inversiorTas is 
 here spoken of. In some places sedentary tribes may have 
 been driven away and their territory occupied by more war- 
 like, but less highly cultivated tribes. But take the whole 
 Indian race, and they were steadily advancing through the 
 Neolithic stage of culture. They were acquainted with 
 copper, and were drawing near to the discovery of bronze 
 and metals, and, indeed, the discovery had been made of 
 bronze in the far south. But lying back of the true Indian 
 Age, long preceding it in time, to which probably belong the 
 relics mentioned in the preceding discoveries, is a true Paleo- 
 lithic Age. 
 
 We are indebted for the facts on which the above con- 
 clusion rests more to the writings of Dr. C. C. Abbott, of 
 Trenton, New Jersey, than any other individual, and his 
 results are based on an extensive study of the relics them- 
 selves and the position in which found. In a collection of 
 stone implements of this country arranged in a cabinet, we 
 find rude and unpolished specimens, as well as those of a 
 finely wrought Neolithic type. Now the Indians, when first 
 discovered, frequently made use of very rudely^ formed im- 
 plements, and from a knowledge of this fact, it came about 
 that but little attention was paid to the position in which 
 the relics were discovered. They were all classified as In- 
 dian relics. But the greatest and most valuable discoveries 
 in science have occurred as a result of the attention paid to 
 little things ; in this case by carefully scrutinizing the posi- 
 tion in which they occurred. 
 
 ^ Short's " North Americans of Antiquity," p. 27. 
 
292 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Dr. Abbott commenced by gathering a very extensive 
 collection, carefully searching his section of country and 
 gathering all specimens of artificially shaped stones. These 
 must have existed there in considerable quantities, as, in 
 thre^ years' time, he collected over nine thousand specimens,^ 
 carefully examining them as they came from the soil.^ As 
 a result of this extensive and careful research, he is able to 
 present us some general conclusions. The surface specimens, 
 including in this classification also those specimens turned 
 up by the plow,^ are characteristically Indian. The material is 
 jasper and quartz, and they are generally carefully made. 
 They used other varieties of stone as well. Like the Neo- 
 lithic people of Europe, they sought the best varieties of 
 stone for their purpose. But his collection also included 
 rude Paleolithic forms, and he found by taking the history 
 of each specimen separately, that just in proportion as the 
 relics were rude in manufacture and primitive in type the 
 deeper were they buried in the soil.^ Writing in 1875, he 
 says : " We have never met a jasper (flint) arrow-head in or 
 below an undisturbed stratum of sand or gravel, and we have 
 seldom met with a rude implement of the general character 
 of European drift implements on the surface of the ground.^ 
 
 These are not theoretical opinions, but are deductions 
 drawn from a very extensive experience. From figured 
 specimens of these rudest formed implements, we see they 
 are veritable Paleolithic forms, resembling in a remarkable 
 manner the rude implements of the old Avorld, whether col- 
 lected in France or in India. We learned that the Paleo- 
 
 ' Up to the present time (1884) Dr. Abbott has collected over 20,000 speci- 
 mens of stone implements, ami all his more recent "finds" but confirm the 
 opinion he expressed as to their sijinifioance ten years apro. His collection is 
 at the Poabody Museum of ArclneDlofry, at Cambridge, Mass. (See last Pea- 
 body Report.) 
 
 •^ " Nature," Vol. XI, p. 215. ' Ibid. * " Nature," Vol. XI, p. 215. 
 
 ' Ibid. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA 
 
 293 
 
 lithic people of Europe utilized the easiest attainable' stone 
 for their iinplemeuts. They contented themselves with such 
 pieces of flint as they could gather in their immediate 
 vicinity. The easiest attainable rock in the valley of the 
 Delaware is not flint, but argillite, and such is the material 
 of which the Paleolithic implements are formed. Thus it is 
 shown that the first appearance of a stone-using folk in the 
 valley of the Delaware 
 was in the Paleolithic 
 stage of their culture. 
 Judging from the depths 
 of their buried imple- 
 ments, this long preceded 
 the Neolithic stage. 
 
 These conclusions 
 have been sustained in a 
 very marked manner by 
 late discoveries in the 
 valley of the Delaware, 
 to which we will now 
 refer. After reaching the 
 conclusion that the relics 
 of the Stone Age in New 
 Jersey clearly pointed to 
 
 Spear-stiaped Paleolithio Implement. 
 
 a Paleolithic beginning, when argillite, the most easily at- 
 tainable stone, was utilized in the manufacture of weapons 
 and implements. Dr. Abbott made the further discovery that 
 in the ancient gravels of the Delaware River Paleolithic 
 implements only were to be found. We must remember that 
 it was in the gravels of European rivers that the first dis- 
 coveries were made which have since resulted in so wonder- 
 fully extending our knowledge of the past of man. 
 
 The city of Trenton, New Jersey, is built on a gravel 
 
294 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD 
 
 terrace whose surface is between forty and fifty feet above 
 the flood plain of the Delaware. We are told that this gravel 
 is clearly a river deposit, and must have been laid down by 
 the Delaware at some former time in its history. It is in 
 this gravel deposit that quite a large number of Paleolithic 
 implements have been found. 
 
 This cut is a representation of one of them, found under 
 such circumstances that there can be no question about its 
 
 antiquity. We are told it wms taken 
 from the face of the bluff fronting 
 the river. Owing to heav}' rains, 
 a large section off of the front of 
 the bluff became detached just the 
 day before this specimen was discov- 
 ered. It was found in the fresh 
 surface thus exposed, twenty-one 
 feet from the surface, almost at the 
 bottom of the gravel. Immediately 
 above it, and in contact with it, was 
 a bowlder estimated to weigh over 
 one hundred pounds. Immediately 
 above this last was a second and 
 much larger bow^lder. It is manifest 
 the implements coukl never have 
 gotten in the place found after the gravel had been 
 deposited.^ 
 
 This is nnlv one of the many examples that could be 
 given. But it is to be noticed that implements of the Neo- 
 lithic type do not occur in the gravel, except on the surface. 
 Dr. Abbott is not the only one who has found those imple- 
 ments. Many of our best American scholars have visited 
 the locality and secured specimens, amongst others. Prof. 
 
 Paleolithic Implement. 
 Argillite. 
 
 ' "Priniitivo TiKhistry," A])bott, p. 500. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 295 
 
 Boyd Dawkins, of England, who is so familiar with this class 
 of relics in Europe. We may consider it proven, then, that 
 in this country there was also a Paleolithic Age. Our pres- 
 ent information in regard to it is only a beginning. 
 
 Since this interesting discovery was made in New Jersey 
 we have received news of similar discoveries in Minnesota. 
 A lady. Miss Frank Babbitt, has found in the modified drift 
 of the Mississippi River, at Little Falls, Minnesota, evidence 
 of the existence of Paleolithic man. The implements are 
 made of quartz, and not argillite, but closely resemble im- 
 plements made of this later material as described by Dr. 
 Abbott. It is, to say the least, an interesting coincidence 
 that one of a very few flint implements found in the Tren- 
 ton gravel by Dr. Abbott should be identical in shape with 
 some of the flint implements in Minnesota.^ 
 
 This point being determined, others at once spring up 
 asking solution. Among the very first is the question of 
 age. The river terrace on which Trenton is built is a geo- 
 logical formation, and if we can determine its age we shall 
 also determine at least one point in the antiquity of man, 
 for we know the implements are as old as the gravels. It 
 is not necessary for our purpose to give more than the re- 
 sults of the careful labors of others in this direction. We may 
 be sure that this question has been carefully studied. When 
 the implements were first discovered, the gravels were con- 
 sidered of glacial origin, and to that period they were 
 assigned by Dr. Abbott. Subsequently Prof. Lewis, a mem- 
 ber of the Pennsylvania State survey, decided that they 
 were essentially post-glacial — that is, more recent in time 
 than the Glacial Age.^ Still more recently Prof. Wright, of 
 Oberlin, but also of the State survey of Pennsylvania, con- 
 
 ' Seventeenth Report Peabody Museum, p. 354 and note. 
 '"'Primitive Industry," p. 551. 
 
296 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 eludes that they are, after all, a deposit made at the very 
 close of the Glacial Age.^ 
 
 He thinks the sequence of events were about as fol-' 
 lows : When the ice of the Glacial Age reached its great- 
 est development, and came to a pause in its southward 
 march, it extended in an unbroken wall across the northern 
 part of New Jersey, crossing the Delaware about sixty-five 
 miles above Trenton. In front of it was accumulated the 
 great terminal morain — a long range of gravelly hills still 
 marking its former presence. 
 
 It is certain that the close of the Glacial Age was com- 
 paratively sudden, and marked by floods far exceeding any 
 thing we are acquainted with at the present day. For, 
 when the formation of the ice ceased, we must bear in mind 
 that the country to the north of the terminal morain was 
 covered with a great glacier, in some places exceeding a 
 mile in thickness. When glacial conditions were passing 
 away, and the ice commenced to melt faster than it was 
 produced, the thaw would naturally go on over the entire 
 field at an increasing rate, and hence would result floods in 
 all the rivers. 
 
 He considers the gravels in question to have been de- 
 posited near the close of this flooded period, when the land 
 stood at about its present level and the glaciers had re- 
 treated perhaps to the Catskill Mountains. The rivers were 
 still swollen and would be heavily charged with coarse 
 gravel brought from the morains and lying exposed on the 
 surface of the ground vacated by the glaciers.^ 
 
 Probably but few geologists will take exceptions to these 
 views. Thus we have very satisfactory reasons for connect- 
 ing these Paleolithic people with the close of the Glacial 
 Age — a conclusion to which the scattering discoveries men- 
 
 > " Studies in Science and Religion," p. 324. ' Ibid., p. 324. 
 
EARL Y MAN IN AMERICA. 297 
 
 tioned in the preceding pages also points. But as regards 
 Dr. Abbott's discoveries, they are on such a scale, and 
 vouched for by so many eminent observers, that we need no 
 longer hesitate to accept them, or complain of the scattering 
 nature of the finds. 
 
 But we might inquire whether this is the earliest period 
 to which the presence of man can be ascribed in this coun- 
 try ? Excepting, of course, California, we do not know of 
 any well established fact on which to base a greater an- 
 tiquity for man. However, this subject is very far from be- 
 ing as closely studied as in Europe. Believing that in 
 Europe man was living before the Glacial Age, and that in 
 all probability he was living in California at the same early 
 time, we would naturally expect to find some evidence of his 
 presence in the Mississippi JBasin and along the Atlantic 
 seaboard. But no explorer has yet been fortunate enough 
 to make such discoveries.^ 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to point out that we have only 
 the relative age of these gravel deposits. We have not yet 
 arrived at an answer in years. This we are not able to do. 
 As we have several times remarked, our American scholars, 
 as a rule, do not think many thousands of years have 
 elapsed since the Glacial Age, and, yet they are not all 
 agreed on that point. From the depths in the gravel and 
 loess deposits that the stone relics are found, we may sup- 
 pose that man was present during the entire series of years 
 their formation represents. Prof. Aughey, to whose dis- 
 coverias in loess deposits in Nebraska we have referred, 
 estimates the length of time necessary to produce those de- 
 
 ^ We believe that similar results will attend the careful exploration in 
 other sections. As bearing on this subject, it is interesting to know that Paleo- 
 lithic implements are reported from one locality in Mexico. Our information 
 in regard to them is very slight. (Brit. Assoc. Keports, 1881 ; Pres. Address, 
 Count De Saporte, Popular Science Monthly, Sept., 1883.) 
 
 19 
 
298 TIIi: PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 posits as between nineteen and twenty thousand years, and 
 this he considers a low estimate. So we see that, at any 
 rate, the date of man's first appearance in America was cer- 
 tainly very far in the past. 
 
 In forming a mental picture of the conditions of life at 
 that early time, it is not necessary to imagine a dreary 
 scene of Arctic sterility. This is not true of the time when 
 the Glacial Age was at its greatest severity. But at the 
 time we are now considering, the glaciers had retreated over 
 a large part of the country, though they still lingered in 
 northern and mountainous regions. Great lakes and majes- 
 tic rivers were the features of the country. The St. Law- 
 rence was still choked with ice, and the great lakes must 
 have discharged their waters southward.^ The Mississippi, 
 gathering in one mighty stream the drainage of the Central 
 Basin, sped onward to the Gulf, doubtless many times larger 
 than its present representative. The animals then living in- 
 cluded several species that have since become extinct. 
 Mastodons and elephants must have been numerous, as their 
 remains are frequently found in loess deposits.^ They have 
 also been found in the gravels of New Jersey, in connection 
 with the rude implements already mentioned. Probably 
 keeping close to the retreating glaciers were such animals as 
 the moose, reindeer, and musk-ox, while the walrus disported 
 itself in the waters off the coast. At any rate those ani- 
 mals now only found in high northern latitudes were living 
 during Glacial times as far south as Kentucky and New 
 Jersey.^ 
 
 A good deal of interest is connected with the finding of 
 one mastodon's tooth. It was found in the gravel deposit, 
 
 ' Dana's "Manual of Geolofn'," p. 540. 
 
 ' " Goopraphioal and Gpolopical Survey," 1S74, p. 254. 
 
 'Abbott's "Primitive Industry," p. 483. 
 
EARLY 31 AN IN AMERICA. 299 
 
 about fourteen feet beneath the surface. It must have been 
 washed to the position Avhere found when the great floods 
 from the melting glacier, with their burden of sand and 
 gravel, were rolling down the valley. We can either con- 
 clude that the climate was such as to permit the existence 
 of such animals, or that the animal to which it belonged 
 lived in some far away pre-glacial time. But our interest 
 suddenly increases when we learn that, but a few feet away, 
 under exactly similar circumstances, was found the wisdom 
 tooth of a human being. It, too, was rolled, scratched, and 
 polished, and had evidently been swept along by the tumult- 
 uous flood. "The same agency that brought the one from 
 the Upper Valley of the Delaware brought the other, and, 
 after long years, they come again to light, and jointly testify 
 that, in that undetermined long ago, the creatures to which 
 they respectively belonged were living together in the valley 
 of the river." ^ 
 
 We must now consider the question of race. Who were the 
 men that fashioned the implements ? Were they Indians ? or 
 were they a different people? As far as we know the In- 
 dians, they were Neolithic. Their implements and weapons 
 are often polished, pecked, and finely wrought; and, as be- 
 fore remarked, they employed the best kind of stone for 
 their purpose. Dr. Abbott, who speaks from a very exten- 
 sive personal experience, tells us, that it is not practical 
 to trace any connection between the well-known Indian 
 forms and the Paleolithic implements of the river gravels: 
 " The wide gap that exists between a full series of each of 
 the two forms is readily recognized when the two are 
 brought together."^ Besides this difference in form, there is 
 also a difference in material. The ruder forms not being of 
 
 ' Abbott : " Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History," VoL 
 XXII, p. 102. ^'Trimitive Industry," p. 512. 
 
300 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 jasper and allied minerals, but are almost exclusively 
 of argillite.^ lu addition to the foregoing, we must consider 
 the different positions they occupy — the former being found 
 only on or near the surface, the latter deeply buried within. 
 These different reasons all point to the same conclusion : 
 that is, that the Indians were preceded in this country by 
 some other j^eople, who manufactured the Paleolithic speci- 
 mens recently discovered. 
 
 In Europe, Prof. Dawkins, as we have seen, maintains 
 that the Cave-men were the predecessors of the Eskimos. 
 This may serve us as a point of departure in the inquiry as 
 to who the pre-Indian people were ? It is manifest, however, 
 that we must have some ground on which to base this the- 
 ory. The Eskimo seem to belong to the Arctic region, as 
 naturally as the white bear and the walrus. At the early 
 time we are considering in America, glaciers had not re- 
 treated very far. So his climatic surroundings must have 
 been much the same as at present. But the E:<kimo may 
 not live where he does now by choice : we may beliold in 
 him a people driven from a fairer heritage, who found the 
 ice-fields of the North more endurable than the savage enemy 
 who envied him his possession. It seems very reasonable 
 to suppose that the Eskimos long inhabited this country be- 
 fore the arrival of the Indians, if it was not, in ftict, their 
 original home. 
 
 Mention has been made of the Eskimo traits still to be 
 observed among the tribes of California. Prof. Putnam 
 thinks that this fact can best be explained on the supposi- 
 tion that these tribes came in contact with primitive Eskimo 
 people.^ Dr. Rink, from investigation of the language and 
 traditions of the different Eskimo tribes, thinks they are of 
 
 ' "Primitive Industry," p. 512. 
 
 = "U. S. Survey West of tlie lOOlh Mcri.lian," V..1. VII. p. 12. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 301 
 
 American origin, and must once have lived much farther 
 south/ He says, " The Eskimos appear to have been the last 
 wave of an aboriginal American race, which has spread over 
 the continent from more genial regions — following principally 
 the rivers and water-courses, and continually yielding to the 
 pressure of the tribes behind them until they have at last 
 peopled the sea-coasts."^ Mr. Dall, in his explorations of the 
 Aleutian Islands, comes to the same conclusion as Dr. Rink. 
 He says his own conclusions are, "that the Eskimos were 
 once inhabitants of the interior of North America — have 
 much the same - distribution as the walrus, namely, as far 
 south as New Jersey."^ 
 
 All this tends to prove that the Paleolithic people of 
 New Jersey were ancestors of the Eskimos. This becomes 
 highly probable when we pursue the subject a little farther. 
 Dr. Abbott has shown, from the similarity of implements, 
 position in which found, and so forth, that the Paleolithic 
 people continued to occupy the country down to compara- 
 tively recent times, when Indian relics took their place.* 
 This is such an important point th;it we must give his rea- 
 sons more in detail. . Remember that Dr. Abbott speaks 
 from the experience gained by gathering over twenty thou- 
 sand specimens of stone implements, and paying especial 
 attention to the position in which they were found. The 
 surface soil of that section of New Jersey, where he made 
 his explorations, was formed by the slow decomposition of 
 vegetable and forest growth. In this layer he found great 
 numbers of undoubted Indian implements. The number, 
 however, rapidly decreases the deeper we go in this stratum. 
 This would show that the Indians were late arrivals. Be- 
 
 ' Abbott's "Primitive Industry," p. 520. ^ "Ibid., p. 519. 
 
 ^ " U. S. Geographical Survey of the Rocky Mountain Region," Vol. I, p. 
 102, quoted from " Primitive Industry," p. 519. 
 * Poptdar Science Monthly, Jan., 1883. 
 
302 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 low this surface soil is a stratum of sand, overlying the 
 gravelly beds below and passing into the surface soil just 
 mentioned. In this layer were found great numbers of im- 
 plements inferior to the Indian types found on the surface, 
 but superior to the Paleolithic specimens described. They 
 are not only inferior in finish to the Indian specimens, but 
 are of different material. They are always formed of argil- 
 lite. It was further noticed that the number of these rap- 
 idly decreased in the layer of surface soil, and are but 
 rarely found on the surface. 
 
 Now it might be said that these rude forms were fash- 
 ioned by Indians when in a rude state of culture, and, as 
 they became more advanced, they learned the superior qual- 
 ities of flint, and so dropped the use of argillite. But it so 
 happens that we have found several places where were ver- 
 itable manufactories of Indian implements. It is very sig- 
 nificant that we never find one where the workman used 
 both flint and argillite. He always used flint alone. Every 
 thing seems to point to the fact, that the tribes who fash- 
 ioned the argillite implements were different from the In- 
 dian tribes who made the flint implements. It is Dr. Ab- 
 bott's conclusions that the former, the descendants of the 
 Paleolithic tribes, were the Eskimos, who, according to these 
 views, must have inhabited the eastern portion of the 
 United States to comparatively recent times. 
 
 In further support of these views, we think we have 
 grounds for asserting that we have veritable historical ac- 
 counts of tlie Eskimo people slowly retiring before the 
 aggressions of their Indian foes. It is no longer doubted 
 but that Norsemen, as early as the year 1000, made voy- 
 ages of discovery along the coast of North America, as far 
 south as Rhode Island : they called the country Vineland. 
 It is true that the Icelandic accounts of these expeditions 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 303 
 
 contain some foolish and improbable statements; but so do 
 the writings of Cotton Mather, made many years later. 
 
 These accounts refer but very briefly to the inhabitants 
 they saw, but enough is given to show that the people were 
 not Indians, but Eskimos. The language used is: "The 
 men were small of stature and fierce, having a bushy head 
 of hair, and very great eyes, and wide cheeks."^ Their small 
 size is frequently referred to, which would surely not be the 
 case if they were describing the Algonkins that the English colo- 
 nists found in the same section of country many years later. 
 To the same effect is the assertion that the Eskimos did not 
 reach Greenland until the middle of the fourteenth century.^ 
 The traditions of the Tuscarawas Indians that place their 
 arriA'al on the Atlantic coast in the year 1300, also refer to 
 a tribe of people that were at least much like the Eskimos.^ 
 
 Thus we are led, step by step, to the recognition of a 
 Paleolithic Age in America, and finally to the belief that the' 
 descendants of these people were Eskimos. We at once no- 
 tice the coincidence of these results with some of the con- 
 clusions of Prof. Dawkins, of England, and it is desirable to 
 trace a little further the points of resemblance and difference 
 between this age in America and in Europe. In this latter 
 country we have seen the Paleolithic Age can be divided 
 into two stages, or epochs, during which different races in- 
 habited the country. The first, or the epoch of the men of 
 the River Drift, long preceded the epoch of the Cave-men. 
 It was those latter tribes only that Mr. Dawkins connects 
 with the Eskimos. 
 
 We have not yet found evidence in this country that 
 points to such a division of the Paleolithic Ae:e. We have 
 
 ' DeCosta's " Precolumbian Discovery of America," p. 69. 
 
 ' Winchell's "Preadamites," p. 389. 
 
 ' Brinton's " Myths of the New World," p. 23. Note. 
 
304 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 no relics of Cave-men as distinguished from the men of the 
 RiA^er Drift. It is true, we are not lacking evidence of the 
 use of caves by various tribes/ but there is nothing to show 
 that such use was very ancient, or that the people were prop- 
 erly Paleolithic. We can not say what future discoveries 
 will unfold, but as yet we have only implements of the 
 River Drift type, and these are the men Dr. Abbott consid- 
 ers to be the ancestors of the Eskimos. In this country, 
 then, we have shown the existence of but one race of men 
 in the same stage of culture as the men of the River Drift, 
 but of the same race as the men of the cave. These results 
 may be cited as an argument in favor of those scholars who 
 think that the men of the River Drift and the men of the 
 Cave were in reality the same people.^ 
 
 In Europe there was apparently a long lapse of time be- 
 tween the disappearance of the Paleolithic tribes and the 
 arrival of the Neolithic people, but we have no evidence of 
 such a period in America. The Paleolithic people remained 
 in possession until driven away by the Neolithic ones. All 
 evidence of Paleolithic man in Europe terminated with the 
 Glacial Age, and there is little doubt but what they date 
 from preglacial times. Our present knowledge does not carry 
 us any farther back in this country than the close of Glacial 
 times. If Ave consider that the Glacial Age in America 
 coincides in time with the same age in Europe, then the last 
 statements would imply that the Paleolithic Age here was 
 later than in Europe; in fact, that Paleolithic man had run 
 his course in Europe before he appeared in America, and 
 some might even go further, and say that he migrated from 
 Europe to America. There are, however, no good grounds for 
 such conclusions. We believe that future discoveries will 
 
 'Prof. DcHass's "Pnpcr road before Am. Assoc, 1882. 
 'See chapter, "Cave-men," p. 113. Note. 
 
EARLY MAN IN AMERICA. 305 
 
 show that in America also Paleolithic man was living in Gla- 
 cial and preglacial times .^ 
 
 We feel that we have done but scant justice to this sub- 
 ject, but we assure our readers that this question has been 
 but little studied in this country. Referring all rehcs of 
 stone to the Indians, our scholars have been slow to recog- 
 nize traces of an earlier race in America. Our sources of 
 information are as yet but few, and much remains to be 
 done in this field. In Europe as in America, scholars are 
 still hard at work on the Paleolithic Age, and we are 
 to hold ourselves in readiness to modify our opinions, or 
 to reject them entirely and adopt new ones as our knowl- 
 edge increases. 
 
 There is one thought that occurs to us. From the com- 
 bined investigations of both European and American scholars, 
 the Eskimo is seen to be one of the oldest (if not the oldest) 
 races of men now living. They afford a striking illustration 
 of the fact that a race may early reach a limit of culture 
 beyond which, as a race, they can not pass. Should the 
 American discoveries establish the fact that the River Drift 
 tribes are also Eskimos, then we are fairly entitled to consider 
 them the remnant of a people who once held possession of 
 all the globe, but who have been driven to the inhospitable 
 regions of the North by the pressure of later people. What 
 changes have come over the earth since that early time ? 
 In the long lapse of years that have gone by newer races, 
 advancing by slow degrees, have at last achieved civilization. 
 The fiat of Omnipotent power could have created the world 
 in a perfected form for the use of man, but instead of so 
 doing, Infinite Wisdom allowed slow-acting causes, working 
 through infinite years, to develop the globe from a nebulous 
 mass. Man could, indeed, have been created a civilized being, 
 
 ' See remarks of Prof. Boyd Dawkins quoted on page 97. 
 
306 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 but instead of this, his starting-point was certainly very 
 low. He was granted capacities in virtue of which he has 
 risen. We are not to say what the end shall be, but we 
 think it yet far off. 
 
 stone Implement. 
 
TBE MOUND BUILDERS. 307 
 
 THE MOUND BUILDERS.i 
 
 Meaning of "Mound Builders" — Location of Mound Building tribes — 
 All Mounds not the work of men — Altar Mounds — Objects found on 
 the Altars — Altar Mounds possibly burial Mounds — Burial Mounds — 
 Mounds not the only Cemeteries of these tribes — Terraced Mounds — 
 Cahokia Mound — Historical notice of a group of Mounds — The Eto- 
 wah group — Signal Mouuds — Effigy Mounds — How they represented 
 different animals — Explanation of the Effigy Mounds — Effigy Mounds 
 in other localities — Inclosures of the Scioto Valley — At Newark, 
 Ohio — At Marietta, Ohio — Graded "Ways — Fortified Inclosures — Ft. 
 Ancient, Ohio — Inclosures of Northern Ohio — Works of unknown 
 import — Ancient Canals in Missouri — Implements and Weapons of 
 Stone — Their knowledge of Copper — Ancient mining — Ornamental 
 pipes — Their knowledge of pottery — Of Agriculture — Government 
 and Religion — Hard to distinguish them from the Indians. 
 
 E 
 
 PAST of our race is irradiated here and 
 there by the light of science sufficiently 
 to enable us to form quite vivid concep- 
 tions of vanished peoples. As the naturalist, from 
 the inspection of a single bone, is enabled to deter- 
 mine the animal from which it was derived, though 
 there be no longer a living representative, so the archaeologist, 
 by the aid of fragmentary remains, is able to tell us of manners 
 and times now long since removed. In the words of another : 
 " The scientist to-day passes up and down the valleys, and 
 among the relics and bones of vanished people, and as he 
 
 ' The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to Prof. F. W. Putnam, 
 curalor of the Peabody Museum of Archseology and Ethnology, Harvard Uni- 
 versity, for criticism. 
 
308 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 touches them with the magic wand of scientific induction, 
 these ancient men stand upon their feet, revivified, rehabil- 
 itated, and proclaim with solemn voice the story of their 
 nameless tribe or race, the contemporaneous animals, and phys- 
 ical appearance of the earth during those prehistoric ages." 
 
 We have already learned that the world is full of mys- 
 teries, and though, by the exertion of scholars, we begin to 
 have a clearer idea of some topics, yet our information is 
 after all but vague and shadowy. The amount of positive 
 knowledge in regard to the mysterious tribes of the older 
 Stone Age, or the barbarians of the Neolithic period, or the 
 struggling civilization of the early Metallic Ages, is lament 
 ably deficient. On our Western Continent we have the mys- 
 terious remains in the gold-bearing gravels of the Pacific 
 coast, the significance of which is yet in dispute. We have 
 the Paleolithic Age of Europe, represented by the remains 
 found in the gravels of the Delaware at Treiiton, New Jersey. 
 When deposited there, and by what people used, is, perhaps, 
 still enshrouded in doubt. 
 
 Leaving now the past, expressed by geological terms, or 
 by periods of thousands of years, we draw near to our own 
 tribes, near, at least, comparatively speaking, and behold, 
 here, also, we discern evidence that an ancient culture, as 
 marked as that which built its cities alon^ the fertile water- 
 courses of the Old World, had its seat on the banks of our 
 great rivers ; that here flourished in full vigor for an unknown 
 length of time a people whose origin and fate arc yet in 
 doubt, though, thanks to the combined efforts of many able 
 men, we begin to have clearer ideas of their social organiza- 
 tion. We know them only by reason of their remains, and 
 as these principally are mounds, we call them the "Mound 
 Builders." 
 
 ' Conanl's " Footprints of Vanished Races," p. V. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 309 
 
 The name is not a distinguishing one in every sense, 
 since mankind, the world over, have been mound and pyra- 
 mid builders. The pyramids of Egypt and the mound-dotted 
 surface of Europe and Asia bear testimony to this saying, 
 yet nowhere else in the world are they more plainly di- 
 vided into classes, or marked with design than here. In 
 some places fortified hills and eminences suggest the citadel 
 of a tribe or people. Again, embankments of earth, mostly 
 circular or square, separate and in combination, generally 
 inclosing one or more mounds, excite our curiosity, but 
 fail to satisfy it. Are these fading embankments the boun- 
 daries of sacred inclosures, or the fortification of a camp, 
 or the foundations on which to build communal houses ? 
 Here graded ways, there parallel embankments raise ques. 
 tions, but suggest no positive answer. We are equally in 
 doubt as to the purposes for which many of the mounds 
 were built. Some seem to have been used as places of sep- 
 ulcher, some for religious rites, and others as foundation site 
 of buildings. Some may have been used as signal mounds, 
 from which warning columns of smoke, or flaming fires, gave 
 notice of an enemy's approach. 
 
 Before coming to details let us, at a glance, examine the 
 picture as a whole. This country of ours, with its wide 
 plains, its flowing rivers and great lakes, is said by scholars 
 to have been the home of a people well advanced in the arts 
 of barbarian life. What connection, if any, existed between 
 them and the Indians, is yet unsettled. We are certain that 
 jnany years before the Spanish discovery of America they 
 made their settlements here, developed their religious ideas, 
 and erected their singular monuments. That they were not 
 unacquainted with war, is shown by their numerous fortified 
 inclosures. They possessed the elements of agriculture, and 
 we doubt not were happy and contented in their homes. We 
 
310 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 are certain they held possession of the fairer portions of this 
 country for many years. 
 
 We must now seek to gather more particular knowledge 
 of them, and of the remains of their industry. We must 
 not forget that these are the antiquities of our own country; 
 that the broken arch geological fragments we pick up will, 
 Avhen put together, give us a knowledge of tribes that 
 lived here when civilization was struggling into being in 
 the East. It should be to us far more interesting than the 
 history of the land of the Pharaohs, or of storied Greece. 
 Yet, strange to say, the facts we have just mentioned are 
 unknown to the mass of our people. Accustomed to regard 
 this as the New Woild, they have turned their attention to 
 Europe and the East when they would learn of prehistoric 
 times. In a general way, we have regarded the Indians as a 
 late arrival from Asia, and cared but little for their early 
 history. It is only recently that we have become convinced 
 of an extended past in the history of this country, and it is 
 only of late that able writers have brought to our attention 
 the wonders of an ancient culture, and shown us the foot- 
 prints of a v.'inished people 
 
 We must first try and locate the territor}^ occupied by the 
 remains of the mound builders. They are not to be found 
 broadcast over the whole country. We recall, in this connection, 
 that the early civilization of the East arose in fertile river val- 
 leys. This is found to be everywhere the case, so we are 
 not surprised to learn that the broad and fertile valley of 
 the Mississippi, with its numerous tributaries, was the ter- 
 ritory where these mysterious people reared thoir monuments 
 and developed their barbarian culture. Throughout the 
 greater portion of this area we find numerous evidences of a 
 prolonged occupation of th(> counlry. We arc amazed at 
 the number and magiiiludc ol" the remains. Though this sec- 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 311 
 
 tion has been under cultivation for many years, and the plow 
 has been remorselessly driven over the ancient embank- 
 ments, yet enough remain to excite our curiosity and to 
 amply repay investigation. 
 
 This portion of the United States seems to have been 
 the home, the seat of the mound building tribes. We can 
 not expect to find one type of remains scattered over this 
 entire section of country. Indeed, to judge from the differ- 
 ence of the remains, they must have been the work of dif- 
 ferent people or tribes, who were doubtless possessed of 
 different degrees of culture.^ We will notice in our exami- 
 nation how these remains vary in different sections of the 
 countiy. But it is noticeable that these remains become 
 scarce and finally disappear as we go north, east, and west 
 from the great valley. Although they are numerous in the 
 Gulf States, yet they are not to be found, except in a few 
 cases, in States bordering on the Atlantic.^ Some wander- 
 ing bands, perhaps colonies from the main body of the people, 
 established works on the Wateree River, in South Carolina.^ 
 In the mountainous regions of North Carolina occur mines 
 of mica, which article was much prized by the mound build- 
 ers; and here also are to be found traces of their early 
 presence.* We do not know of any authentic remains in 
 New England States. In Western New York there exists a 
 class of remains which, though once supposed to be the work 
 of these people, are now generally considered as the remains 
 of works erected by the Indians,^ and of a similar origin 
 
 ^ Force: "Some Considerations on the Mound Builders," p. 64; "Am. An- 
 tiquarian," March, 1884, pp. 93-4; "10th Annual Report, Peabody Museum," 
 p. 11. 
 
 ^ Short's " North Americans of Antiquity," p. 28. 
 
 ' Squier and Davis's "Ancient Monuments," p. 105. 
 
 * Foster's " Prehistoric Races," p. 148. 
 
 ^ Squier's "Aboriginal Monuments of New York," Smithsonia Contribu- 
 tion No. 11, p. 83. 
 
312 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 appears to have been the singular fortification near Lake 
 "Winnipiseogee, in New Hampshire.^ 
 
 We have no record of their presence north of the great' 
 lakes. Passing now to the western part of the valley, we do 
 not find definite traces of their presence in Texas. On this 
 point, however, some authors state the contrary, apparently 
 basing their views on a class of mounds mentioned by Prof. 
 Forshey.^ But the very description given of these mounds, 
 and the statements as to the immense number of them,^ seem 
 to show they are not the work of men.'* We do not think 
 the West, and especially the North-west, has been carefully 
 enough explored to state where they begin. It is certain 
 that the head waters of the Mississippi and the Missouri were 
 thickly settled with tribes of this people, and some writers 
 think that they spread over the country by way of the Mis- 
 souri Valley from the North-west. Mr. Bancroft quotes 
 from the writings of Mr. Dean, to show the existence of 
 mounds and inclosures on Vancouver Island, and in British 
 Columbia. And the statement is made that a hundred miles 
 north of Victoria there is a group of mounds ranging from 
 five to fifty yards in circumference, and from a few feet to 
 fifty feet in height.^ 
 
 The inclosures, however, are described as being very 
 similar to those in Western New York, and are probably 
 simply fortified sites, common among rude people the world 
 over, and such as were often erected by Indians. The re- 
 mains on the upper Missouri and its tributaries are very 
 numerous, and to judge from the brief description given us 
 
 ^ Sqnier's "Aboriginal Monumeuts of New York," Sinithsonia Contribu- 
 tion No. 11, p. 87. 
 
 ^ Foster's "Prehistoric Races," p. 121. 
 
 * "They are numbered by millions." Ibid. 
 
 ^ Prof. Forshey could frame no satisfactory hypothesis of their origin. 
 Ibid, p. 122. 
 
 * "Native Races," Vol. IV, pp. 739 and 740. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 313 
 
 of them, they must be very interesting.^ This section has, 
 however, been too little explored to speak with confidence 
 of these works. 
 
 As showing how much care should be exercised in this 
 matter, we refer to the account given by Capt. Wilkes in his 
 journal of the United States exploring expedition. Speak- 
 ing of the mounds on the gravelly plains between the Co- 
 lumbia River and Puget Sound, he tells us that the Butte 
 Prairies are covered with small mounds at regular distances 
 asunder. Some of them are thirty feet in diameter, six or 
 seven feet above the level of the ground, and many thousands 
 in number. He opened some of them and found a pavement 
 of round stones, and he thought he could detect an arrange- 
 ment of the mounds in groups of five, thus. 
 It was his impression that they were the works 
 of men, and had been constructed successively % 
 
 and at intervals of several years .^ This obser- 
 vation of Capt. Wilkes is referred to by many * • 
 as evidence of the former existence of Mound Builders in 
 this section. 
 
 More careful research in recent times has established 
 the fact that these mounds were certainly not erected by 
 human hands, and no one else has been able to discover the 
 supposed arrangement in groups of five. The pavement of 
 round stones is common to the whole prairie. 
 
 But the greatest objection is the number of the mounds. 
 A population larger than could have found a living in the 
 country must have been required to erect them, unless we 
 assume that a great length of time was consumed in this 
 work. Some other explanation must be given for these 
 mounds, as well as for those mysterious ones mentioned by 
 
 ' Smithsonian Eep., 1870, p. 406. 
 
 ' Narrative of U. S. exploring expedition during the year 1838-42, Vol. 
 IV, p. 334. ^^ 
 
314 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Prof. rorslie3\ This cut gives us a fair idea of the scenery 
 of this section and the mounds.^ 
 
 Within the area we have thus defined are located the 
 works of the people we call the Mound Builders. What 
 
 Hound Prairie. 
 
 we wish to do is to learn all about these vanished people. 
 A great many scholars have written about them, and large 
 collections of the remains of their handiwork have been 
 made. There is, however, a great diversity of opinion re- 
 specting the Mound Builders and their culture. So we see 
 we have a diflficult subject to treat of. In order to gain a 
 clear understanding of it, we must describe the remains 
 more closely. About all we can learn of these people 
 is from a study of their monuments. We can not call 
 
 • Prof. Gibbs in Frank Leslie's Monthly, Ausrust, 1883. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 315 
 
 to our aid history or tradition, or rock-carved inscription, 
 but must resort to crumbling mounds, broken down em- 
 bankments; study their location, and observe their forms. 
 To the studies in the field we must add those in the cabinet, 
 and examine the many objects found in and above the mounds 
 and earth-works, as well as the skeletons of the builders of 
 the works. Rightly used, we can draw from these sources 
 much valuable information of a people whose council-fires 
 
 MoTina and Circle. 
 
 l)lazed all along the beautiful valleys of the Ohio and Mis- 
 sissippi rivers in times far removed from us. 
 
 We will first speak of the simplest form of these works, 
 the ordinary conical mound. This is the one form found all 
 over the extensive area designated. They exist in great 
 numbers on the banks of the upper Missouri, as well as the 
 river bottoms of the South. This cut represents a very fine 
 specimen of a mound, in this instance surrounded by a cir- 
 cular embankment. We must not forget that mounds are 
 found all over the world. "They are scattered over India, 
 they dot the steppes of Siberia and the vast region north of 
 the Black Sea ; they line the shores of the Bosphorus and 
 
316 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the Mediterranean ; they are found in old Scandinavia, and 
 are singulai"ly numerous in the British Islands."^ 
 
 The principle in human nature which leads to the erec- 
 tion of mounds is living and active to-day. The shaft which 
 surmounts Bunker Hill is but a modern way of memorizing 
 an event which in earlier ages would have led to the erec- 
 tion of a mound, and the polished monument which marks 
 the resting place of some distinguished man was raised for 
 the same purpose as the mounds heaped over the chiefs and 
 warriors of another age. The feeling which moves us to 
 crown with steeples or spires our houses of worship is evi- 
 dently akin to that which induced older races to erect a 
 mound on which to place their temples, their idols, and altars 
 of sacrifice. 
 
 If mounds were the only works remaining of these an- 
 cient people, we would not take so great an interest in 
 them, and, as it is, we are not to suppose that all the mounds 
 are the works of those people we call the Mound Builders. 
 Recent investigation and historical evidence unite in show- 
 ing that some comparatively recent Indian tribes formed and 
 used mound structures. Early explorers have left abundant 
 testimony to show that in many cases the Indians resorted 
 to mound-burial. Thus, it seems that it was the custom of 
 the Iroquois, every eighth or tenth year, or whenever about 
 to abandon a locality, to gather together the bones of their dead 
 and rear over them a mound. To this custom, which was not 
 confined to the Iroquois, are doubtless to be ascribed the bar- 
 rows and bone mounds which have been found in such numbers 
 in various parts of the country.- Although it is well to bear 
 these facts in mind, yet it is not doubted that the larger 
 number, and especially the more massive ones, were erected 
 
 ' "Ancient :MonumontP," p. loO. 
 
 * Jones's " Kxi)loriition.s in Tennessee," p. 15. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 317 
 
 by the same people who built the other mysterious works, 
 and so it is necessary that they be carefully studied. 
 
 In the valley of the Ohio there have been found a class 
 of mounds known as Altar Mounds. These, it should be 
 stated, nearly always occur in or near inclosures. This cut 
 gives us a good idea of mounds of this kind. Near the top 
 
 Altar Mound. 
 
 is seen an instance of what is called " intrusive " burial. 
 After the mound was completed it had been dug into and a 
 body buried near the surface. 
 This burial was evidently later in 
 time, and had no connection with 
 the purpose for which the mound 
 was originally built. We also no- 
 tice in this mound the different 
 layers of which it was "composed. 
 These layers are of gravel, earth, and sand, the latter being 
 only a few inches thick. Mounds made in this manner are 
 called stratified mounds, and all altar mounds are probably 
 of this kind. The lines of stratification have been described 
 as curving so as to correspond with the shape of the 
 mound, and such we are told is the general rule.^ 
 
 The peculiar feature, however, is the altar at the bottom 
 of the mound, directly above the natural surface of the 
 
 1 "Ancient Monuments," p. 143. Explorers for Bureau of Ethnology so 
 report it in the South. Prof. Putnam, who has certainly had great experience, 
 says he has always found the layers to be horizontal. 
 
318 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ground. The small cut gives us a clear idea of the altar, 
 the light lines running around it showing the plan. These 
 altars are almost always composed of clay, though some of 
 stone have been discovered. They are of various shapes 
 and sizes. We notice the dish-shaped depression on the top 
 of the altar. The clay of which they are composed seems 
 to have been moulded into shape directly over the surface of the 
 ground. Sometimes a layer of sand was put down as a founda- 
 tion. They are nearly always thoroughly burned,'the clay being 
 baked hard, sometimes to the depth of fifteen or twenty inches. 
 This must have required intense and long continued heat. 
 
 We are at once curious to know the object of this altar. 
 Within the basin-shaped depression are generally found all 
 manner of remains. Sometimes portions of bones, or frag- 
 ments of wood, arranged in regular order ; pieces of pottery 
 vessels, and implements of copper and stone ; spear-heads, 
 arrow-heads, and fragments of quartz and crystals of garnet. 
 Pipes are a common find, carved in miniature figures of ani- 
 mals, birds, and reptiles. Two altar-mounds but recently 
 examined near Cincinnati had altars about four feet square 
 that were loaded down with ornaments. 
 
 One especially contained quantities of ornaments of 
 stone, copper, mica, shells, the canine-teeth of bears and 
 other animals, and thousands of pearls. They were nearly 
 all perforated, as if for suspension. Several of the copper 
 ornaments were covered with native silver which had been 
 hammered out into thin sheets and folded over the copper. 
 One small copper pendant seems to have been covered with 
 a thin sheet of hammered gold, as a small piece w^as still 
 clinging to it. This is the first example of finding native 
 gold in the mounds.' On this altar were also found masses 
 
 ' "Sixtocntb Annnal TJoport Peabody Museum," p. 171. An ornament 
 ehaped to resemble the head of a wood-pecker, made of gold, derived from 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 319 
 
 of meteoric iron, and ornaments of the same material. One 
 piece of mica showed the profile of a face.^ 
 
 In all cases the articles found on the altars show the ac- 
 tion of fire. We seem justified, then, in supposing that after 
 the altar was formed, fires were lit on them, and into 
 this fire were thrown the various articles just enumerated. 
 But what was all this for? This will probably never be 
 very clear to us, beyond the fact that it was a religious rite. 
 Portions of the human skeleton have been found on these 
 altars, and it has been suggested that human victims were 
 at times part of the sacrifice ; but as it is known that this 
 people practiced cremation, it may be that the, altars were 
 sometimes used for that purpose, the remains being after- 
 wards gathered and buried elsewhere. 
 
 After the offerings had been flung into the fire, while it 
 was yet glowing on the altar, earth or sand was heaped 
 over them for a few inches, then successive layers of earth 
 and sand, or ashes, clay, or gravel. Sometimes the altars 
 were used several different times, in which case a layer of 
 clay several inches thick was laid over the old altar. In 
 one case three layers had been burned in before the final 
 addition of earth and sand were heaped over it. These 
 strange monuments of a by- gone people hint to us of mys- 
 terious rites. We wish we had more positive knowledge of 
 the ceremonies they commemorated; but at present we 
 must rest satisfied with conjecture. 
 
 The next class of mounds are known as burial mounds, 
 some of which are stratified, and resemble the so-called altar 
 
 some Spanish source, was found in a mound in Florida. This particular 
 mound must have been erected after the discovery of America. ("Smith- 
 sonian Report," 1877, p. 298, et seq.) 
 
 ' " Sixteenth and Seventeenth Report Peabody Museum." These orna- 
 ments were made of hammered iron. This is the first time that native iron 
 has been found in tbe n)ounds. (Putnam.) 
 
320 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 mounds. A mound explored in Butler County, Ohio, had 
 in the center a layer of clay an inch thick, which had been 
 bui-ned until it was red. Underneath this was another 
 layer of clay, beneath which was found charcoal, burnt cloth, 
 and charred bones. Mr. Foster thinks that in this mound 
 the body was placed on a rude altar, fires were lit, and that 
 while yet burning, clay was thrown over it all, and that then 
 fires were built all over the mound, sufficient to burn the clay 
 for an inch in thickness.^ We have also a description of a 
 group of mounds explored near the Mississippi River, in 
 which there were evident signs of cremation. At least in 
 several mounds fires had been built close above the bodies. 
 But in cremation other victims may have been burned to 
 accompany the departed chiefs or warriors. In one mound 
 evidence of such a custom was observed. 
 
 In another mound the center was found to be a mass of 
 burned clay interspersed with calcined human bones. No 
 less than ten or fifteen bodies had been burned here. 
 "They must have worshiped some fierce ideal deity, and 
 the ceremony must have been considered of great importance 
 to have required so many victims." This may have been, 
 however, nothing more than simple cremation.^ 
 
 Pidgeon has described mounds in Minnesota, in many re- 
 spects like the altar mounds. In one case he mentions there 
 was an altar or pavement of stone on the original surfiice of 
 the ground, a few feet above which was a layer of clay, show- 
 ing the action of fierce and long-continued fires. We fur- 
 thermore are told that cremation, especially of chiefs, was 
 more or less common among the Village Indians of North 
 America, that similar usage was observed among many of 
 
 1 " Prehistoric Races," p. 178. 
 
 ^ J. E. Stevens's Paper, read before the ISIuscatine Acadoiny of Science, 
 Dec, 1878. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 321 
 
 the tribes of Mexico, and that the Mayas, of Yucatan, burnt 
 the bodies of their lords, and built temples over their re- 
 mains. So it may be that the altar mounds are but varie- 
 ties of funeral mounds, the remains of the bodies burned 
 iere being buried elsewhere.^ 
 
 The nations that celebrated their mysteries around these 
 mounds have long since departed ; the altar fires long since 
 burned low. We are not sure that we understand their 
 
 Burial Mounds. 
 
 purport, but we are certain they were regarded as of great im- 
 portance, and we can readily imagine that when the fires were 
 lit on the altars, gathering crowds stood round, and partici- 
 pated in the religious . observance, throwing into the fire 
 their most valued ornaments, in this manner paying their 
 last respects to the departed chiefs and great men of their 
 tribe. 
 
 The true burial mounds are very numerous, and com- 
 
 ' That this was at any rate sometimes the case See "Ancient Monuments," 
 p. 159. 
 
322 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 prise by far the larger number of mounds. They are to 
 be found all over the Mound Builder's territory, and are 
 about the only class of remains found in the prairie regions 
 of the West. From the upper waters of the Missouri and the 
 great lakes on the north to the Gulf States on the south, and 
 from west of the Mississippi to the AUeghenies of the East, in 
 all this vast region they are the prevailing class of remains, 
 and occur by hundreds, and even thousands, along the val- 
 leys. The mounds themselves are often not very conspicu- 
 ous; as a rule they are simply heaps of dirt raised above 
 the surface and rounded over, and from two or three to fif- 
 teen or twenty feet high, although many are of much larger 
 size. They are seldom found on the lower or recent river 
 terrace, but are. common on the upper terrace, and are often 
 built upon the high bluffs bordering the streams, where a 
 wide stretch of country is exposed to view. Black-bird, an 
 Omaha chief, who died about the year 1800, desired to be 
 buried on a high bluff overlooking the Missouri, so that he 
 might see the boats passing up and down the river. Per- 
 haps from a similar superstitious wish the Mound Builders 
 sometimes chose the sites of their burial mounds where they 
 could watch over their country ; or it may be that the 
 monuments over the dead were placed in such conspicuous 
 positions that they might be readily seen by the people. 
 
 The next cut represents an ordinary burial mound, which 
 was explored by tunneling in from one side. We notice there 
 are no different layers or stratifications in Ihis case. In 
 some cases, at least, the building of such a mound occupied 
 several years. We can see where the dirt was thrown 
 down in small quantities, averaging about a peck, as if from 
 a basket. Tn one case grass had started to grow on the un- 
 finished surface of the mound, lo be covered up by fresh dirt.^ 
 
 ' " Peabody Museum i;ci>i)rts," Vi.l. II. ]). .')8. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 323 
 
 In the majority of cases the mounds contain the remains 
 of but one individual, with various relics of a rude and bar- 
 barous people. Where but one body was buried, the usual 
 mode of procedure seems to have been to first clear a space 
 on the surface of the ground; the body was then placed in 
 the center of this prepared place, and often a rude frame- 
 work of timber was placed around it, sometimes a stone 
 
 Burial Hounds. 
 
 chamber was built up. Over this the mound was erected 
 to the desired height. This description would apply to 
 nearly all of the many thousands of burial mounds in the 
 country. 
 
 In the cut a layer of charcoal is noticed near the top. 
 Naerly all mounds show evidence of the existence of fire 
 during some period of their construction. In some cases 
 these fires were fierce and long continued, as if the object 
 had been to cremate the body. It may have been a part 
 of their religious belief that it was necessary to keep fires 
 blazing on the mound for a short length of time to keep off 
 evil spirits, or to comfort the soul of the departed. Such 
 at any rate was the custom among some Indian tribes. We 
 are told that among the Iroquois, a " fire was built upon the 
 grave at night to enable the spirit to prepare its food."^ 
 
 ^ Jones's "Explorations in Tennessee," p. 15. See also "First An. Rep. 
 Bureau of Ethnology," p. 198. 
 
324 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 In some cases, many individuals were buried in the same 
 mound. These may be communal burials, such as we have 
 already referred to. Mounds of this kind have been examined 
 near Nashville, Tennessee. One mound alone was the burial 
 place of over two hundred persons. Pidgeon describes some tri- 
 angular burial mounds in Minnesota, diifering in shape only 
 from the ordinary circular mounds that belong to this division. 
 In general, burial mounds are not very high, yet there are ex- 
 ceptions to this rule. 
 
 Grave Creek Mound. 
 
 This cut represents one of the largest of these mounds. 
 It is situated at the junction of Grave Creek and the Ohio 
 River, twelve miles below Wheeling, in West Virginia. It 
 measures seventy feet in height, and its base is nearly one 
 thousand feet in circumference. An excavation made from 
 the top downward, and from one side of the base to the cen- 
 ter, disclosed the fact that the mound contained t\YO sepul- 
 chral chambers, one at the base and one near the center of 
 the mound. These chambers had been constructed of logs, 
 and covered with stone. Tho lower chamber contained two 
 skeletons, one of which is suiiposod lo have been a female. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 325 
 
 The upper chamber contained but one skeleton. In addition 
 to these, there were found a great number of shell beads, 
 ornaments of mica, and bracelets of copper.^ 
 
 A moment's thought will show us what a great Avork such 
 a mound must have been for a people destitute of metallic 
 tools and domestic animals. The earth for its construction 
 was probably scraped up from the surface and brought 
 thither in baskets. A people capable of erecting such a 
 monument as this, with only such scanty means at their com- 
 mand, must have possessed those qualities which would 
 sooner or later have brought them civilization. 
 
 Another very interesting mound of this class once stood 
 in the city of St. Louis. The rapidly growing city de- 
 
 Cross-3e3tion St. Louis Mound. 
 
 manded its removal in 1869. It was an oblong mound, one 
 hundred and fifty feet long by thirty in height. In its re- 
 moval it was shown that it contained a burial chamber sev- 
 enty-five feet long, from eight to twelve feet wide, and from 
 eight to ten feet high, in which about thirty burials had 
 
 ' " Ancient Monximents," p. 169. See also note on same page for another 
 account of a larojer nnniber of skeletons. 
 
826 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 taken place. The surface of the ground had first been lev- 
 eled, then the walls raised to the desired height, made firm 
 and solid, and plastered with clay. Timbers formed the roof, 
 over which the mound had been raised to the desired height. 
 
 In process of time the roof decayed and fell in, thus giv- 
 ing a sunken appeai-ance to the top of the mound. This 
 view is a cross section of the mound as it was revealed by 
 the workmen. We notice where the roof has fallen in, and 
 the outline of the interior chamber. This burial chamber 
 was perhaps an exact model of the cabins in which the peo- 
 ple lived. Can it be that this mound was the final resting- 
 place of some renowned chief, and that the other bodies 
 were those of his attendants sent to accomjiany him to the 
 other world? This is perhaps as reasonable a conjecture as 
 any. Certain it is that this tumulus and that at Grave Creek 
 were fit pyramids for the Pharaohs of the New World. 
 
 It is not to be supposed that the mounds were the sole 
 cemeteries of the people who built them. Like the barrows 
 of Europe, they were probably erected only over the bodies 
 of the chiefs and priests, the wise men, and warriors of the 
 tribe. The amount of work required for the erection of a 
 mound was too great to provide one for every person. The 
 greater number of the dead were deposited elsewhere than 
 in mounds, but it is doubtful whether we can always distin- 
 guish the prehistoric burial places from those of the later 
 Indians. An ancient cemetery, discovered near Madison- 
 ville, Ohio, proved to be a most interesting find, as it was 
 thought to be a burial place of the Mound Builders,' but it 
 seems there is strong doubt on this point. One writer thinks 
 this was a cemetery of the Erie tribe of Indians, and not 
 very ancient in date.^ 
 
 ' Short's "North Ainoricans of Antiquity," App. A. 
 ' Jaines'M " Popuhir Science," File 1883, p. 445. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 327 
 
 In Tennessee are to be found numerous burial places 
 known as the stone-grave cemeteries. Stone graves of a 
 similar character are found in Kentucky, Ohio, and Missouri. 
 These are as yet but few facts which can be used as indi- 
 cating that all the stone graves are of one people. Many of 
 these cemeteries are of great antiquity, while similar stone 
 graves are of quite recent date. In some places the cem- 
 eteries cover very large areas. 
 
 We have now to describe a class of mounds that are 
 
 Terraced Hound. 
 
 always regarded with great interest, as a number of our 
 scholars think they see in them the connecting link between 
 the remains in this country and those of Mexico and the 
 South. These are generally known as " temple mounds," 
 from the common impression that they were sites of temples 
 or public buildings. In general terms, mounds of this class 
 are distinguished by their large size and regularity of form, 
 and they always have a flat or level top. On one side there 
 is generally a graded way leading up to the summit, in some 
 instances several such methods of approach. Sometimes the 
 sides of the mound are terraced off into separate stages.^ 
 
 ' "Ancient Monuments," p. 173. 
 
328 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 We have already noticed that different sections of country 
 are distinguished by different classes of mound remains. In 
 the present State of Ohio are found many altar mounds and in- 
 closures. In the West are large numbers of burial mounds, 
 but the so-called temple mounds are most numerous in 
 the South. At one place in Wisconsin is found a low em- 
 bankment inclosing four low mounds with leveled tops. But 
 the resemblance between these and the regular temple mounds 
 is certainly slight. Only a fcAv instances of these flat-topped 
 mounds are found in Ohio. Of these the still existing " ele- 
 vated squares" at Marietta are good examples. 
 
 This cut represents the mound preserved in the park at 
 
 Marietta. It is ten feet high, one hundred and eighty-eight 
 
 _ -- - s==?7^^z.:^-r:- ^'^^t loug, by ouo hundred and 
 
 thirty-two feet wide. The 
 platform on the top has an 
 area of about half an acre. 
 Graded ways lead up on each of 
 the four sides. These grades 
 are twenty-five feet wide, and 
 sixty feet long.^ 
 
 As we approach the Gulf 
 
 Elevated Sc[nare. Marietta. g^^^^^^ ^^^^^ platform mouuds 
 
 increase in number. The best representative of this class, 
 the most stupendous example of mound builder's work in 
 this country, is situated in Illinois, not far from St. Louis. 
 The mound and its surroundings are so interesting that they 
 deserve special mention. One of the most fertile sections of 
 Illinois is that extending along the Mississippi from the 
 Kaskaskia to the Cahokia river, about eighty miles in length, 
 and five in breadth. Well watered, and not often over- 
 flowed by the Mississippi, it is such a fertile and valuable 
 
 ' "Ancient Monuments," p. 74. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 329 
 
 tract that it has received the name of the " Great American 
 Bottom." It is well known that the Mound Builders chose 
 the most fertile spots for their settlements, and it is there- 
 fore not surprising to find the evidence that this was a 
 thickly settled portion of their territory. Mr. Breckenridge, 
 writing in 1811, says : " The great number of mounds, and 
 the astonishing quantity of human bones everywhere dug 
 up or found on the surface of the ground, with a thousand 
 other appearances, announces that this valley was at one 
 time filled with habitations and villages. The whole face 
 of the bluff, or hill, which bounds it on the east, appears to 
 have been a continuous burying ground."^ 
 
 Mounds are numerous in this section. We learn that 
 there are two groups of mounds or pyramids, one about ten 
 miles above the Cahokia, and the other about the same dis- 
 tance below it, more than one hundred and fifty in all. 
 Speaking of the group above the Cahokia, Mr. Breckenridge 
 says : " I found myself in the midst of a group of mounds 
 mostly of a circular shape, and, at a distance, resembling 
 enormous hay-stacks scattered through a meadow. One of 
 the largest which I ascended was about two hundred paces 
 in circumference at the bottom, the form nearly square, 
 though it had evidently undergone considerable alteration 
 from the washing of rains. The top was level, with an area 
 sufficient to contain several hundred men." He represents 
 the view from the top of the mound to be a very extensive 
 and beautiful one. From this elevation he counted forty- 
 five mounds or pyramids, besides a great number of small 
 artificial elevations. This group was arranged in the form 
 of a semicircle, about a mile in extent, the open space being 
 on the river. 
 
 Three miles above occurs the group in which is found 
 
 ^ "Views of Louisiana." „^ 
 
330 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the famous big mound/ This cut gives us a good idea of 
 the mound as it was in its perfect state. All accounts given 
 of this mound vary. From a cut of the model, as prepared 
 by Dr. Patrick, the area of the base is a trifle over fifteen 
 acres.^ The ascent was probably on the south side of the 
 mound, where the little projection is seen. The first plat- 
 form is reached at the height of about fifty feet. This plat- 
 form has an area of not far from two and four-fifth acres. 
 Large enough for quite a number of houses, if such was 
 the purpose for which this mound was erected. The second 
 platform is reached at about the height of seventy-five feet, 
 
 Cahokia Mound. 
 
 and contains about one and three-fourth acres. The third 
 platform is elevated ninety-six or ninety-seven feet, while 
 the last one is not far from one hundred feet above the 
 plain. The area of the last two is about three-fourths of an 
 acre each. The areas of all the platforms are not far from 
 six acres. We require to dwell on these facts a moment 
 before we realize what a stupendous piece of work this is. 
 The base is larger than that of the Great Pyramid,^ and we 
 
 > This cut represents the mound as it probably was before the outlines 
 -were destroyed by cultivation. It is based on a model prepared by Dr. 
 Patrick for the Pcabody IMuseum. 
 
 » " Peabody Museum Report," Vol. II, p. 473. As this may include some of 
 the wash from the mound, perhaps it would be better to give the real area of 
 the base as over twelve acres. ' That is. if we follow the plan. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 331 
 
 must not lose sight of the fact that the earth for its con- 
 struction was scraped up and brought thither without the 
 aid of metallic tools or beasts of burden, and yet the earth 
 was obtained somewhere and piled up over an area of fifteen 
 acres in one place to a height of one hundred feet, and even 
 the lowest platform is fifty feet above the plain. Some 
 have suggested that it might be partly a natural elevation. 
 There seems to be, however, no good reason for such 
 suggestions. 
 
 What motive induced the people to expend so much la- 
 bor on this mound? It is not probable that this was a 
 burial mound, though it may ultimately prove to be so. The 
 most probable supposition is that the mound was erected so 
 as to secure an elevated site, perhaps for purpose of defense, 
 as on these platforms there was abundant room for a large 
 village, and an elevation or height has always been an im- 
 portant factor in defenses. In this connection, Prof. Put- 
 nam has called our attention to a fact which indicates that 
 a very long time was occupied in the construction of the 
 mound, and further, that a numerous population had util- 
 ized its platforms as house sites — that is, that " everywhere 
 in the gullies, and over the broken surface of the mounds, 
 mixed with the earth of which it is composed, are quanti- 
 ties of broken vessels of clay, flint chips, arrow-heads, char- 
 coal, bones of animals, etc., apparently the refuse of a 
 numerous people." The majority of writers, however, think 
 that this elevated site, obtained as the result of so much 
 labor, was utilized for important public buildings, presum- 
 edly the temple of their gods, and no one can help 
 noticing the similarity between this structure and those 
 raised by the ancient Mexicans for both religious purposes 
 and town sites. 
 
 Mr. Foster thinks that " upon this platform was reared 
 
332 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 a capacious temple, within whose walls the high-priests 
 gathered from different quarters at stated seasons, celebrated 
 their mystic rites, while the swarming multitudes below 
 looked up with mute adoration.^ Mr. Breckenridge, whose 
 writings we have already referred to, at the time of his 
 first visit, "everywhere observed a great number of small 
 elevations of earth, to the height of a few feet, at regular 
 distances apart, which appeared to observe some order : near 
 them pieces of flint and fragments of earthen vessels." 
 From this he concludes that here was a populous town, and 
 that this mound was a temple site. It is doubtful whether 
 we shall ever pierce the veil that lies between us and this 
 aboriginal structure. The pyramids of the Old World have 
 yielded up their secret, and we behold in them the tombs 
 of Egypt's kings. But this earthen pyramid on the western 
 prairie is more involved in mystery, and we do not know 
 even its builders. If the result of religious zeal, we may 
 be sure that a religion which exacted from its votaries the 
 erection of such a stupendous piece of work was one of 
 great power. 
 
 As before remarked, "temple mounds" increase in num- 
 bers and importance as we go south. "In Kentucky they 
 are more frequent than in the States north of the Ohio 
 River, and in Tennessee and Mississippi they are still more 
 abundant.^ We also learn that they are often surrounded, 
 or nearly so, with moats or ditches, as if to fortify their 
 location. Our next cut illustrates such an arrangement — a 
 circular wall of earth four feet high and two thousand three 
 hundred feet in circumference, incloses four mounds, two of 
 which are temple mounds. According to the late Prof. 
 Forshey, temple mounds abound in Louisiana. He described 
 a group situated in Catahoola County, in which the principal 
 
 ' "Prehistoric Races," p. 107. ' " AnciciU .Muiiiniu-nl.s," p. 174. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 333 
 
 mound has a base of more than an acre, a height of forty- 
 two feet, and the upper platform an area of nearly one-third 
 of an acre. The smaller mounds are arranged around this 
 larger one. This group is defended by an embankment. 
 Prom this point for a distance of twenty miles along the 
 
 Temple Mounds Incloseci in a Circle. 
 
 river, are scattered similar groups of mounds ; in all cases 
 the smaller ones arranged around the larger one, which is 
 presumably the site of a temple. 
 
 A digression right here may not be devoid of interest. 
 We are not sure but that the dim, uncertain light of history 
 falls on the origin of this group of mounds. When the 
 French first commenced their settlement in the lower Mis- 
 sissippi Valley, the Natchez Indians was the most powerful 
 tribe in all that section. In the course of time, wars en- 
 sued between them and the French, and in the year 1730 
 they fled into Upper Louisiana, and settled at the place 
 where these mounds are now found. But the French fol- 
 
334 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 lowed them a year or so afterwards, and nearly extermi- 
 nated them. Some of our scholars think that they erected 
 these mounds.^ The historian of that epoch simply says 
 they had " built a fort there." It is however questioned 
 whether they had time to build works of such magnitude. 
 But they were both a mound-building and a mound-using 
 people, and we are not prepared to say how long it would 
 take them to do the work, until we know the number en- 
 gaged, methods employed, and other considerations.^ If 
 they did not build these works, they doubtless cleared them 
 of trees and utilized them; and this place was therefore the 
 scene of the final downfall of the Natchez — a people we 
 have every reason to regard as intimately connected with 
 the prehistoric mound-building tribes. 
 
 The largest temple mound in the South is near Seltzer- 
 town, Mississippi. Its base covers about six acres, and it 
 rises forty feet. This slope was ascended by means of a 
 graded way. The summit platform has an extent of nearly 
 four acres. On this platform three other mounds had been 
 reared — one at each end, and a third in the center. Recent 
 investigation by the Bureau of Ethnology have shown that 
 the base of this mound is a natural formation. Lumps of 
 sun-dried, or partially burnt clay, used as plastering on the 
 houses of the Mound Builders, gave rise to a sensational ac- 
 count of a Avail of sun-dried bricks two feet thick, support- 
 ing the mound on the northern side.^ The famous Messier 
 Mound, in Georgia, is said to reach a height of ninety-five 
 feet. But a large part of this elevation is a natural emi- 
 nence ; the artificial part is only a little over fifty feet. 
 
 » Pickett's "History of Alabama," Vol. I., p. 301. 
 
 2 Carr's " Mounds of the Mississippi Valley," pp. 91, 02; uote, 103. 
 
 ' "Ancient Monuments," p. 117. Note.— For tbe statement made in this 
 text we are under oblifjation to Prof. Thomas, of the Bureau of Ethnology, 
 who, in answer to a letter of inquiry, kindly fni-nished the information. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 335 
 
 A work of unusual interest occurs on the Etowah River, 
 Georgia. This cut gives us a plan of the work. We 
 notice, first of all, the moat or ditch by which they 
 fortified their position. The ditch is still from five to 
 
 Eto'wah MoTind, Georgia. 
 
 twenty-five feet deep, and from twenty to seventy-five feet 
 wide. It connects directly with the river at one end, but 
 stops short at the other. It surrounds nearly fifty acres of 
 land. At two points we notice reservoir^, each about an 
 [acre in size, and an average depth of not less than 
 twenty feet. At its upper end is an artificial pond. This 
 ditch, Avith its reservoirs and pond, is no slight work. The 
 large mound seen in the center of the space is one of the 
 largest of the temple mounds. Its shape is sufficiently 
 shown in the cut. The height of the mound is sixty-five 
 feet. We call especial attention to the series of terraces 
 leading up the south side of the mound. Graded ways af- 
 ford means of access from one terrace to the other. A path- 
 way is also seen on the eastern side. 
 
 To this group of works an interest attaches similar to 
 that of the group of works mentioned in Louisiana. We 
 
336 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 are not certain but that we catch a glimpse of it while it 
 was yet an inhabited Indian town. This is contained in the 
 brief accounts we have of the wanderings of the unfortunate 
 De Soto and his command. One of the chroniclers of this 
 expedition, La Vega, describes one of the towns where the 
 weary Spaniards rested, and which we are sure was some- 
 where in Northern Georgia, in such terms, mentioning the 
 graded way leading to the top, that Prof. Thomas, who has 
 spent some time in this investigation, thinks his description 
 can apply only to the mound under consideration. ■" Whether 
 this conclusion will be allowed to stand, remains to be seen. 
 But, if true, then the darkness which rests upon this aborig- 
 inal structure lifts for a moment and we see around it a 
 populous Indian town, able to send five hundred warriors to 
 battle. The Spaniards marched on to sufferings and death, 
 and darkness again closed around the Etowah Mound. When 
 the Europeans next beheld it around it was the silent wil- 
 derness; the warriors had departed; the trees of the forest 
 overspread it. 
 
 We have now described the principal mound structures, 
 and shown the different classes into which they are divided. 
 But a large class of mounds are found scattered all through 
 the Mound Builders' territory that \vere probably used as 
 signal mounds. Burial mounds were also often used for this 
 purpose.^ This was because their location was always very 
 ffivorable for signal purposes. Signaling by fire is a very 
 ancient custom. The Indians on our western plains convey 
 intelligence by this means at the present day. Some tribes 
 
 ' "Am. Antiqnariav" March, 1884, p. 99. 
 
 - It may t)o tliat no iiiouiuls were built for sifrnalin.2 purposes alone. The 
 work of erecting; inound.s was so great that it is quite likely tiiey were always 
 erected for some other purpose, and used only secondarily for signal purposes. 
 Such is shown to he the case witli many of the signal mounds in Ohio. Such 
 is the oj)inion of Mr. MacLean, who has made extensive researches. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 337 
 
 use such materials as will cause different shades of smoke, 
 using dried grass for the lightest, pine leaves for the dark- 
 est, and a mixture for intermediate purposes. They also 
 vary the signal by letting the smoke rise in an unbroken 
 column, or cover the fire with a blanket, so as to cause puffs 
 of smoke. The evidence gathered from the position of the 
 
 Hill Mounds. 
 
 mounds, and traces of fire on their summit, is that the 
 Mound Builders had a very extensive system of signal 
 mounds. 
 
 To illustrate this system, we would state that the city 
 of Newark, Ohio, was the site of a very extensive settle- 
 ment of the Mound Builders. This settlement was in a 
 valley, but on all the surrounding hills were located signal 
 mounds. And it is further stated that lines of signal mounds 
 can be traced from here as a center to other and more dis- 
 tant points. The large mound at Mt. Vernon, twenty miles 
 
338 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 to the north, was part of this system. As the settlements 
 of the Mound Builders were mostly in river valleys, we 
 would expect to find all along on the blulis fronting these 
 valleys traces of signal mounds. In the Scioto Valley, from 
 Columbus to Chillicothe, a distance of about forty miles, 
 twenty mounds "may be selected, so placed in respect to 
 each other that it is believed, if the country was cleared of 
 forests, signals of fire might be transmitted in a few min- 
 utes along the whole line." Some think the chain is much 
 more extensive than this, and that the whole Scioto Valley^ 
 
 Miamisburg Mound. 
 
 from Delaware County to Portsmouth, was so provided with 
 mounds that signals could be sent in a very few minutes the 
 whole distance.^ 
 
 The valley of the Miami River was equally well provided 
 with signal mounds. This great mound, at INIiamisburg, 
 Ohio, rising to the height of sixty-eight feet, was one of 
 the chain by which signals were transmitted along the val- 
 ley. Not only was each river valley thus ]>rovided, but 
 there is evidence that communication was established between 
 different river systems, so we can easily see how quickly 
 the invasion of their country by an cnoiny from any quarter 
 
 ' Force's "Sonic C'onsiilcnition <if tin.- MoiukI r.iiildcrs," ji. Oo. 
 
THE MO UND B UILDERS. 339 
 
 would become known in widely scattered sections. Imme- 
 diately across the river from Chillicothe, Ohio, on a hill 
 nearly six hundred feet high, was located a signal mound. 
 A fire built upon it would be visible twenty miles up the 
 valley, and an equal distance down. It would be also visi- 
 ble far down the valley of Paint Creek. Some think that 
 such a system of lofty observatories extended across the 
 whole State of Ohio, of Indiana, and Illinois, the Grave 
 Creek mound, on the east, the great mound at Cahokia, on 
 the west, and the works in Ohio filling up the line. We do 
 not believe, however, it is safe to draw such conclusions. 
 It is doubtful whether there was any very close connection. 
 between the tribes in these several sections. 
 
 In the State of Wisconsin are found some of the most 
 interesting remains of the Mound Builders. They are so 
 different from the ordinary remains found elsewhere that we 
 liiust admit that the people who built them differed greatly 
 from the tribes who built the great temple mounds of the 
 South, or the earthworks of Ohio. The remains in Wiscon- 
 sin are distinguished not by their great size or height, but 
 by their singular forms. Here the mound building instincts 
 of the people were expressed by heaping up the earth in the 
 shape of animals. What strange fancy it was that led them 
 to mould the figures on the bluffy banks of the rivers and the 
 high lands about the lakes of their country, we shall perhaps 
 never know. That they had some design in this matter is, 
 of course, evident, and if we would try and learn their se- 
 cret, we must address ourselves to a study of the remains. 
 Effigy mounds are almost exclusively confined to the 
 State of Wisconsin. We, indeed, find effigy mounds in other 
 sections, but they are of rare occurrence.^ They, however, 
 
 ^ Similar effigy mounds have been recently observed in Minnesota, but 
 they have not yet been described. (Putnam.) 
 
340 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 show that the same reasons, religious, or otherwise, exists 
 in other localities, while in the area covered by the south- 
 ern portion of the State of Wisconsin it found its greatest 
 expression. This cut affords us a fair idea of effigy mounds. 
 
 Here are seen two 
 animals, one behind 
 the other. On paper 
 we can readily see 
 the resemblance. 
 Stretched out on the 
 ground, and of gigan- 
 tic proportions, the 
 resemblance is not so 
 marked, and some 
 might fail to notice it 
 at first sight. Either 
 of those figures is 
 over one hundred 
 feet long, and about 
 fifteen feet wide. 
 With few exceptions, 
 effigy mounds are in- 
 considerable in height, varying from one to four feet. 
 These mounds have been carefully studied of late years, and 
 there is no doubt that in many instances we can distinguish 
 the animals represented. 
 
 We learn, then, that tribes formerly living in Wisconsin 
 had the custom of heaping up the earth in the shape of the 
 various animals peculiar to that section.. But no effigies are 
 found of animals that have since become extinct, or of ani- 
 mals that are to be found only in other lands. 
 
 Our next cut represents the famous elephant mound of 
 Wisconsin, on the strength of which a nunibor of fair theories 
 
 Effigy Hounds. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 341 
 
 have been given relating to the knowledge of the mastodon, 
 by the builders of the mound, and its consequent antiquity. 
 It now bears some resemblance to an elephant, but we learn 
 that the trunk 
 was probably 
 produced by ^ 
 the ^ 
 
 ^iiliiii 
 
 washing of p ^11^^^ 
 the banks, and, ^^^ % 
 from the same • I 
 
 4ff% 
 
 M-ll*^^^^^^^ 
 
 ■■III 
 
 mg 
 
 ^^mii^^^_ 1 
 
 cause, a projec- | 
 tion above the 
 head, supposed 
 
 jil 
 
 mwm 
 
 Klephant Hound. 
 
 to represent horns, has disappeared. Taking these facts into 
 consideration, it is quite as likely that it represented a buf- 
 falo.^ One writer even thinks he found a representation of a 
 
 Emblematic Hounds. 
 
 camel, but the fact is, the more these effigy mounds are 
 studied, the more certain are we that they are representations 
 of animals formerly common in that region. 
 
 The manner in which they represented the various ani- 
 
 ' Peet's American Antiquarian, May, 1884, p, 184. 
 
342 
 
 THE FREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 mals is full of interest to us. It has been discovered that 
 they worked on a system. The last cut represents a group of 
 three animals discovered a few miles from the Blue Mounds 
 
 in Dane County. 
 We notice at once 
 a difference be- 
 tween the central 
 animal, with a tail, 
 and the other two. 
 It will also be ob- 
 served that the ani- 
 mals are repre- 
 sented in profile, 
 with only two pro- 
 jections for legs. 
 They are never 
 separated so that 
 we can distinguish 
 ^^ 1 i the two front and 
 
 the two hind feet. 
 
 Animals so figured 
 
 are the bear, fox, 
 
 y^ 1 ^ wolf, panther, and 
 
 others. Grazing 
 animals, such as 
 the buffalo, elk, and 
 deer, are rejjre- 
 
 Grazing Elks. Fox in the Distance. SCUtcd with U pro- 
 
 jection for horns. In the last cut the other two animals 
 are bufffiloes. In various ways the particular kind of animal 
 can nearly always be distinguished.' 
 
 ' Peet's American Aniii/uarian, January, 1884. "Wo are indebted to the 
 writings of Mr. Peet in this periodical for the months of January, May, and 
 
 TO ftN INCH 
 
TMJi: 310 UNB BUILDERS. 
 
 SIS 
 
 The preceding cut represents two elks grazing, and a 
 fox in the distance. The long embankments of earth at 
 one side are considered by Mr. Peet as in the nature of 
 game drives. But we call attention to the expressiveness 
 with which these figures are delineated. What could be 
 more natural than the quietly grazing elks, with the suspic- 
 
 Eagle Hound. 
 
 ious prowling fox in the distance. In the cut we also see 
 two cross-shaped figures. This was their method of repre- 
 senting birds, a projection on each side of a central body 
 denoting wings. These figures are often very expressive. 
 In this cut we have no difficulty in recognizing an eagle. 
 It is represented as soaring high in the air. On the bluffs 
 above it is a wolf effigy, and several conical and long mounds. 
 In the cut preceding this the eagle and the hawk are hov- 
 
 July, 1884, for many interesting facts in reference to the effigy mounds. He 
 has studied them more than any other person, and his conclusions are conse- 
 quently of great value. 
 
344 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ^V" 
 
 ering over the feeding elks, 
 while in this cut a flock of 
 hawks are watching some buf- 
 faloes feeding in the distance. 
 This group of effigies was found 
 on the banks of the Kickai)oo 
 River Our next cut represents 
 a wild goose with a long neck 
 and beak followed by a duck 
 ■with a short neck, flying to- 
 wards the lake. 
 
 Water-loving animals, such 
 as salamanders and turtles, are 
 represented in still another 
 way, two projections on each 
 side of a central figure. The 
 next following cut represents 
 a turtle. The tail was not al- 
 ways added. The salamander 
 closely resembles the turtle, 
 but notice the difi'erence in the 
 body, and still diff'erent is the 
 cut of the musk-rat (page 
 346). Fishes are figured as 
 a straight embankment of 
 earth tapering to a point. 
 
 The same system that was 
 observed in the location of sig- 
 nal mounds is to be noticed in 
 the arrangements of these 
 groups of effigy mounds. They 
 Hawks and Buffaloes. are not alono. Ouo group an- 
 
 swers to another on a distant liill. ov is in plain view of 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 345 
 
 another group in the 
 A'alley below. Distant 
 groups were so related, 
 each commanding a wide 
 extent of country, and 
 thus group answers to 
 group, and mound to 
 mound, for miles away, 
 making a complete sys- ^ ' 
 tem throughout the re- 
 gion. 
 
 We notice this as to 
 the location of the mounds. 
 When we examine the mounds 
 themselves, we observe no 
 little skill in the way they 
 represent the animals. They 
 often impressed on them some- 
 thing more than mere animal 
 resemblances. " There are 
 groups where the attitudes are expressive of a varied action. 
 Certain animals, like the weasel or mink, being seen with a 
 
 Goose and Duck. 
 
 22 
 
 Turtle. 
 
346 
 
 THK PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 bird so near that, apparently, it might be caught by a single 
 
 spring ; and still others, like the wolf or wild-cat, are arranged 
 
 I head to head, as if prepared for combat ; 
 
 I 
 
 I and still others, like the squirrel or coon, 
 
 I are in the more playful attitudes, some- 
 
 times apparently chasing one 
 another over hill or valley ; and 
 again situated alone, as if they 
 had just leaped from some tree, or 
 drawn themselves out of some 
 den or liole."^ 
 
 Nor is the effigy of the hu- 
 man form wanting. It is found in 
 several localities througliout the 
 State. This cut shows us one 
 such effigy. This was the begin- 
 
 iiii 
 
 1 
 
 Salamander and Husk-rat, 
 
 :^'^' 
 
 ^:-'- 
 
 M' 
 
 
 found near the Blue ^i\ % i- -''^$^^ 
 
 Mounds,Wisconsin.- We i' 'jM^ ' li^ ^' <:^^v.., , 
 
 cannot observe that any sj'^-v. n u-??:^ ^■&r:'f:^..-y^: ''^ 
 
 more importance was as- 
 cribed to the effigy of 
 a human being than to 
 that of an animal. 
 
 In casting about for 
 a suitable explanation 
 for the erection of 
 these animal mounds, 
 we find ourselves lost in conjecture as to the motive which 
 
 . ^i.|.:,.,r,,,., . .1 - ^.; ■*..,(... 
 
 Mar.-shapei Motind 
 
 •'"•..-..tX'V. -s* <- 
 
 
 ' Feet's: " Emblematic Mounds and Totem System of the Indian Tribes." 
 ' " Ancient Monuments," p. 40. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 347 
 
 induced these people to prepare these earthen effigies. 
 We may be sure that it was for some other reason 
 than for amusement, or to give exercise to an artistic 
 feeling. Only in very few instances do we detect any 
 arrangements which would imply that they were in the 
 nature of defenses. In some cases the effigies are so 
 arranged as to form a sort of inclosure, some portion of 
 the figure being prolonged to an unusual extent, and thus 
 inclosing a space that may have been utilized for a vil- 
 
 EmTDlematie Moxina Inolosure. 
 
 lage site. This group on the Wisconsin River illustrates 
 this point. Here the area thus partially inclosed, is about 
 an acre. It is a singular fact that these inclosures are 
 almost alway s triangular in shape. ^ But it is manifest that 
 
 . ' American Antiquarian, January, 1883. 
 
348 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 a simple eavth wall would serve for defense much better 
 than these forms. They probably were not burial mounds, 
 as few contain human remains, and it is not yet certain that 
 these remains were not intrusive burials.^ It seems, there- 
 fore that they must have been in some manner connected 
 with the religious life of the people. 
 
 If we examine the A^arious groups scattered throughout 
 the State, this belief is strengthened. It is found, for in- 
 stance, in nearly every group, that some one Q^^y is the 
 principal one, and is placed in a commanding position, 
 about which the other forms are arranged. It is also 
 thought that the same effigy is the principal or ruling effigy 
 over a wide district. In illustration of this, it can be stated 
 that in the south-eastern part of the State the turtle is 
 always the ruling effigy. In any group of effigies it is the 
 principal one. It seems to watch over and protect the oth- 
 ers. In subordination to it are such forms as the lizard, 
 hawk, and pigeon. Passing to the North, the turtle is no 
 longer the important figure. It is replaced by the w'olf, or 
 wild-cat. This is now the principal form, and if the turtle 
 is sometimes present, it is of less importance. 
 
 So marked is the fact we have just stated that Mr. Peet 
 says, "that sometimes this division assumes almost the char- 
 acter of a river system, and thus we might trace what seems 
 to be the beginning in this country of that Avhich pre- 
 vailed on classic soil and in Oriental regions — namely, river 
 gods and tutelar divinities of certain regions, each tribal di- 
 vinity having its own province, over which it ruled and on 
 which it left its own form or figure as the seal of its power 
 and the emblem of its worship."^ 
 
 Looking for some explanation of this, we may find a 
 
 ' Putnam, in "Proceedings of American Antiquarian Society," 1884. 
 
 ' Pc'ot's "Emblematic Mounds and Totem System of tlic Indian Tribes." 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 349 
 
 key ia the known customs of various Indian tribes, and tiie 
 lower races of men. It is known that a tribe of Indians is 
 divided into smaller bands, which are called gens or clans. 
 A gens may consist of several hundred persons, but it is the 
 unit of organization. It takes the place of a family among 
 civilized people. These various bands are generally named 
 after some animal. In the beginning these names may have 
 been of no special significance, but in course of time each 
 band would come to regard themselves as descendants of 
 the animal whose name they bore. Hence the animal its^elf 
 would be considered sacred in their eyes, and its life would 
 seldom be taken by members of that gens. 
 
 The animal thus honored by the gens was, in the Indian 
 dialect, the totem of the clan. This organization and cus- 
 tom we find running all through the Indian tribes. In many 
 tribes the Indians were wont to carve a figure of their to- 
 tem on a piece of slate, or even to carve a stone in the 
 shape of the totem, which carved or sculptured stone they 
 wore as an ornament, or carried as a charm to ward off evil 
 and bring them good luck.^ We need only suppose that this 
 system was very fully developed among the Mound Build- 
 ers of Wisconsin, to see what important bearing it has on 
 these effigy mounds. 
 
 A tribe located on one of the fertile river valleys of 
 Wisconsin was composed of various gens or clans. On some 
 common point in proximity to their villages, or some spot 
 which commanded a wide view of the surrounding country, 
 each gens would rear an effigy of its totem, the animal sa- 
 cred to them. In every tribe some gens would be the most 
 powerful, or for some cause the most respected, and its to- 
 tem would be given in the largest effigy, and would be 
 placed in the most commanding position. In a different lo- 
 
 ' Abbott's " Primitive Industry," p. 383. 
 
350 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 cality some other tribe would be located, and some other 
 totem would be regarded as of the most importance. 
 
 In this light effigy-mounds are not mere representatives 
 of animal forms. They are picture-writings on a gigantic 
 scale, and are the source of much true history. They tell 
 us of different tribes, the clans which composed them, the 
 religious beliefs, and the ruling gens of the tribe. Contem- 
 plating them, we seem to live again in the far-off past. The 
 white man disappears ; waving forests claim their ancient do- 
 main, and the rivers, with a more powerful current, roll in 
 their olden channels. The animals whose forms are imaged 
 here, go trooping through the forest or over the fertile bot- 
 tom lands. The busy scenes of civilization give place to 
 the placid quiet of primeval times, and we seem to see 
 peaceful tribes of Mound Builders paying a rude veneration 
 to their effigy-gods, where now are churches of a more soul- 
 satisfying religion. 
 
 But there is still another point to be learned from an 
 examination of these ancient mounds. Not only are they 
 totems of the tribes, but they were looked on in some sense 
 as being guardian divinities, with power to protect the 
 homes of the tribe. This is learned by studying the loca- 
 tion in which they are placed. They occupy all points of 
 observation. In other parts of the Mound Builders' coun- 
 try, wherever we find signal-mounds we find corresponding 
 positions in Wisconsin occupied by groups of effigy-mounds, 
 or if one only is present, it is always the one which, from 
 the considerations we have stated, was regarded as the rul- 
 ing effigy of that section. It is as if their builders placed 
 them as sentinels to guard the approaches to their homes, 
 to give warning of the arrival of hostile bands. This is 
 further borne out b}' finding that mounds placed in such po- 
 sitions frequently show evidence of the action of intense fire. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 351 
 
 and so we conclude they were used as signal stations also. 
 So we need not doubt but that the region thus watched 
 over by these effigy-mounds, group answering to group along 
 the river banks, or in the valleys below, was at times lit up 
 by the signal fires at night ; or the warning column of smoke 
 by day betokening the presence of danger.^ 
 
 Before leaving the subject of effigy-mounds, we must re- 
 fer to some instances of their presence in other localities. 
 
 '».„, 
 
 'S>«OS0099 0» = »«»°° 
 
 Bird Hound, Surrounded by a Stons Clrols. 
 
 This cut is an eagle effigy discovered in Georgia. Only one 
 other instance, also occurring in Georgia, is known of effigy- 
 mounds in the South. Measured from tip to tip of the 
 wings, the bird, in this case, is one hundred and thirty-two 
 feet. . This structure is composed of stones, and a singular 
 feature is the surrounding circle of stone.^ 
 
 ^ Peet's " Military Architecture of the Emblematic Moiind Builders." 
 ' "Smithsonian Report," 1877, p. 278, et seq. 
 
352 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Several examples of effigy-mounds are found in Ohio. 
 The most notable one is that known as the Great Serpent 
 Mound, in Adams County. We give an illustration of it. 
 The entire surrounding country is hilly. The effigy itself 
 is situated on a tongue of land formed by the junction of a 
 ravine with the main branch of Brush Creek, and rising to 
 a height of about one hundred feet above the creek. Its 
 form is irregular on its surface, being crescent-shaped, with 
 the point resting to the north-west. We give in a note 
 
 Big Serpent Mound. 
 
 some of the dimensions. The figure we give of this impor- 
 tant effigy is different from any heretofore presented. We 
 are indebted for the plan from which the drawing was made 
 to Rev. J. P. MacLean, of Hamilton, Ohio. Mr. MacLean 
 is a well-known writer on these topics. During the Sum- 
 mer of 1884, Avhile in the employ of the Bureau of Ethnol- 
 ogy, he visited the place, taking with him a thoroughly 
 competent surveyor, and made a very careful plan of the 
 work for the Bureau. All the other figures published rep- 
 resent the oval as the end of the works. Prof. Putnam^ 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 353 
 
 who visited the locality in 1883, noticed, between the oval 
 figure and the edge of the ledge, a slightly raised, circular 
 ridge of earth, from either side of which a curved ridge ex- 
 tended towards the sides of the oval figure. Mr. MacLean's 
 researches and measurements have shown that the ridges 
 last spoken of are but part of what is either a distinct fig- 
 ure or a very important portion of the original figure. As 
 figured, it certainly bears a very close resemblance to a frog, 
 and such Mr. MacLean concludes it to be. 
 
 There is both a similarity and a difference between this 
 work and those of Wisconsin. The fact that it occurs iso- 
 lated, the other effigies in Ohio being many miles away, 
 shows that some special purpose must have been subserved 
 by it. There the great numbers gave us a hint as to their 
 purpose. In this case, however, nearly all observers con- 
 clude that it was a religious work. Mr. MacLean, after de- 
 scribing these three figures, propounds this query : " Does 
 the frog represent the creative, the egg the passive, and the 
 serpent the destructive power of nature ?" Not a few wri- 
 ters, though not acquainted with the presence of the frog- 
 shaped figure, have been struck with the combination of the 
 egg and the serpent, that plays such an important part in 
 the mythology of the Old World. We are told that the 
 serpent, separate or in combination with the circle, egg, or 
 globe, has been a predominant symbol among many primi- 
 tive nations. "It prevailed in Egypt, Greece, and Assyria, 
 and entered widely into the superstitions of the Celts, the 
 Hindoos, and the Chinese." " Wherever native religions have 
 had their scope, this symbol is sure to nppear."^ 
 
 Even the Indians have made use of this symbol. On 
 Big Medicine Butte, in Dakota Territory, near Pierre, is a 
 train of stones arranged in the form of a serpent, which is 
 
 ^ "Ancient Monuments," p. 97 ; American Antiquarian, January, 1883, p. 77. 
 
354 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 probably the work of the Sioux Indians. Around about on 
 the hill is the burying-ground of their chiefs. This was to 
 them sacred ground, and no whites were allowed near. The 
 stones are about the size of a man's head, and are laid in 
 two rows, from one to six feet apart. The length in all is 
 three hundred and fifty feet, and at the tail, stones, to rep- 
 resent rattles, are rudely carved. The eyes are formed by two 
 big red bowlders. No grass was allowed to grow between 
 the two rows of stone.^ 
 
 It seems reasonable to suppose that the few isolated 
 effigy mounds we have outside of Wisconsin were built to 
 subserve a different purpose than those in that State. Mr. 
 Peet has made some remarks on their probable use that 
 seem to us to cover the ground, and to do away with any 
 necessity of supposing on the part of its builders an ac- 
 quaintance with Old World mythologies. Nature worship is 
 one of the earliest forms of worship. The prominent fea- 
 tures of a landscape would be regarded as objects of worship. 
 Thus, for example, the island of Mackinac resembles in its 
 outline the shape of a turtle ; so the island was regarded as 
 sacred to the turtle, and offerings were made to it. A bluif 
 on the same island at a distance resembles a rabbit; accord- 
 ingly, it was called by that name, and offerings were made 
 to it. It is quite natural that the efSgy-mound builders 
 should seek to perpetuate by effigy some of these early 
 traditions. 
 
 In the case of the Big Serpent mound this point is worth 
 considering. The ridge on which it stands is not only in the 
 midst of a wihl, rough region, but is so situated that it com- 
 mands a wide extent of country. In shape this tongue of 
 
 ' This information is communicated by Mr. L. N. Tower, a gentleman in 
 the employ of C. & N. W. R. R., at Tracy, Minn., who, at the request of the writer 
 visited this locality, made measurements, etc. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 355 
 
 land is also peculiar. It is a narrow, projecting headland, 
 and would easily suggest the idea of a serpent or a lizard. 
 " This, with the inaccessibility of the spot, would produce a 
 peculiar feeling of awe, as if it were a great Manitou which 
 resided there; and so a sentiment of wonder and worship 
 would gather around the locality. This would naturally 
 give rise to a tradition, or would lead the people to revive 
 some familiar tradition and localize it." ^ The final step 
 would be to make an effigy. 
 
 It seems to us very hazardous to draw any conclusions as 
 to the religious beliefs of the Mound Builders from this ef- 
 figy or combinations of effigies. It also seems to us reason- 
 able to suppose that but one figure was intended to be 
 represented. A very slight prolongation of the serpent's 
 jaws and the limbs of the frog would connect them,, in 
 which case we would have some amphibious creature with 
 an unduly extended tail, or perhaps a lizard. We must re- 
 member that the whole figure has been plowed over once or 
 twice, so that we are not sure of the original outlines. We 
 can not tell why they should represent a portion of the body 
 as hollow, but neither can we tell why the head of the sup- 
 posed serpent should be represented as hollow. We do not 
 find any important earth-works near here. The hill on 
 which it is placed commands a very extensive view of the 
 surrounding country. Within the oval a pile of stones 
 showed evidence of a long-continued fire, which would in- 
 dicate that this was also a signal-mound. Prof. Putnam 
 thinks it probable that there was a burial place between it 
 and the large conical mound not far away.^ 
 
 ' American Antiquarian, November, 1884, p. 403. 
 
 ^The dimensions of this figure vary. Mr. MacLean's survey makes the 
 entire length of the serpent part eleven hundred and sixteen feet; the dis- 
 tance between the extended jaws, one hundred feet. The oval figure is one 
 hundred and thirteen feet long by fifty feet wide. The frog or head portion 
 
356 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WOULD. 
 
 In the vicinity of Newark, Ohio, are two examples of 
 effigy mounds. This cut represents what is called the alli- 
 gator mound, but it is probably the effigy of a lizard. The 
 position which this mound occupies is significant. It is on 
 the very brow of a hill about two hundred feet high, which 
 projects out into a beautiful valley. The valley is not very 
 
 '••v/i'v,'/iiv////i'uv 
 
 Alligator Hound. 
 
 wide. Directly across was a fortified camp, in the valley 
 below it was a circular Avork, and a short distance below on 
 another projecting headland was a strongly fortified hill. 
 The great works at Newark were six miles down the valley, 
 but were probably in plain view. That it was perhaps a sig- 
 nal station, is shown by the presence of traces of fire. 
 
 The length of this e^^y is two hundred and five feet, 
 
 is fifty-five feet. Mr. Pqnior says, "The entire length, if extended, would he 
 not loss than ono thonsaiid feet." INFr. Putnam's mcasnivnicnis make it four- 
 teen hundred and fifteen feet. The writer wnul<l state that he visited this effiiry 
 in the summer of 1884. Though there but a very short time, and not prepared 
 to mako oarofnl measurements, he did notice some points in which the illustra- 
 tions, previously given, arc certainly wrong. The oval is not at the very ex- 
 tremity of the cliff. The little projections generally called ears of the serpent 
 are not at ritrht angles to the body, but incline b.ackwards. The convolutions of 
 the serpent's body bend hack and forth quite acro.ss the surface of the ridge. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 357 
 
 the breadth of the body at its widest part, twenty feet, 
 average height about four feet.^ The effigy mounds of Wis- 
 consin, and the other few examples mentioned, are among 
 the most interesting objects of aboriginal work. Except in 
 a few favored instances, they are rapidly disappearing. To 
 the leveling influence of time is added the assistance of man, 
 and our knowledge of them will soon be confined to existing 
 descriptions, unless something is at once done to preserve them 
 from destruction. Interesting mementos of a vanished race, 
 we turn from their contemplation with a sigh of regret that, 
 in spite of our efforts, they are still so enwrapped in doubt. 
 
 Mounds and effigies by no means complete the description 
 of Mound Builders' remains. One of the most interesting 
 and mysterious class of works is now to be described. Early 
 travelers in Ohio came here and there upon embankments, 
 which were found to inclose tracts of land of various sizes. 
 It was noticed that the embankments were often of the form 
 of perfect circles, or squares, or sometimes octagons, and very 
 often combinations of these figures. It was further evident 
 that the builders sought level, fertile lands, along the various 
 river courses. They very seldom built them on undulating 
 or broken ground. Often have the very places where civi- 
 lized man has laid the foundation of his towns proved to be 
 " the sites of these ancient works of the Mound Builders, and 
 thus it has happened that many of the most interesting works 
 of antiquity have been ruthlessly removed to make way for 
 the crowded streets and busy marts of our own times. 
 
 The larger number of inclosures are circular, often of a 
 small size. Where they occur separately they either have no 
 gateway, or but one. Sometimes the circles are of very large 
 -size, surrounding many acres. Sometimes, though not very 
 often, a ditch was also dug inside the embankment. This 
 
 Schmuckers. 
 
358 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 last circumstance is by many regarded as a strong proof that 
 the primary object of these circles was not for defense.^ But 
 an inclosure of this kind, even with the ditch on the inside, if 
 surmounted by a row of pickets or palisades, would prove a 
 strong position against Indian foes armed with bow and 
 arrow. The Mandans constructed defenses of this kind 
 around their villages.^ As to the original height of the 
 walls, in the majority of cases it was not very great, generally 
 from three to seven feet. 
 
 It is estimated that in Ohio alone there are fifteen hun- 
 dred inclosures, but a large number of them have nothing 
 especially worthy of mention. Some, however, are on such 
 a large scale that they call from all more than a passing 
 glance. In contemplating them, we feel ourselves confronted 
 by a mystery that we can not explain. The ruins of the 
 old world excite in us the liveliest feeling of interest, but we 
 know their object, their builders, and their probable antiquity. 
 The mazy ruins at Newark, and other places in Ohio, also 
 fill the mind with astonishment, but in this case we are not 
 certain of their antiquity, their builders are unknown, and 
 we can not conjecture with any degree of certainty as to 
 their use. Before so many uncertainties imagination runs 
 riot, and we are inclined to picture to ourselves a scene of 
 barbaric power and magnificence. 
 
 One beautiful specimen of this work is found in this cut. 
 It occurs on the right bank of the Scioto river, five miles 
 below Chillicothe. Here we notice a combination of the 
 octagon and the circle. The areas of each are marked. The 
 octagon is nine hundred and fifty feet in diameter, and nearly 
 regular in shape. In 1846 its walls were eleven or twelve 
 feet high, by about fifty feet base. It will be noticed that 
 
 ' " Ancient !^Innuments," p. 47. 
 
 » Foster's " Prehistoric liiices," p. 175. 
 

 
 
 
 
 '^'^W:^%M^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
360 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 there is a gate at or near each angle of the octagon ex- 
 cept one, and in front of that angle was a pit, from -which 
 some of the earth to form the walls was taken. Facin"-, 
 each gateway a mound was placed, as if to guard the 
 entrance. ; 
 
 The circle connected with the octagon is perfect in shape, 
 and is ten hundred and fifty feet in diameter. Its walls were 
 only about half the height of the octagon. We notice some 
 other small circular works in connection with the main work. 
 In this case the parallels are not very regular, and seem to 
 be connected with one or more circular works. In a work 
 situated but a few miles from the one here portrayed, the 
 parallels extend in one direction nearly half a mile, only one 
 hundred and fifty feet apart. They terminate on the edge 
 of a terrace. The object of such parallels is as yet un- 
 known. In some cases, after extending some distance, they 
 simply inclosed a mound. 
 
 It is easy enough to describe this work and give its di- 
 mensions, but who will tell us the object its builders had in 
 mind? The walls themselves would afford but slight protec- 
 tion, and if they were for defense, must have been surmounted 
 with palisades. Works that were undoubtedly in the nature 
 of fortified camps, are found in this same section, and one of 
 the strongest was located not more than twelve miles away ; 
 but such defensive works differ very greatly in design from 
 regular structures such as we arc now describing. A very 
 eminent scholar, Mr. Morgan, has advanced the theory that 
 the walls were the foundations on which communal houses, 
 like the Pueblos of the West, were erected.' But this is 
 mere theory. All traces of such habitations (if they ever 
 existed) are gone, the usual debris Avhich would be sure to 
 
 ' "Contributions North American Ethnology," Vol. IV, p. 210. A cut of 
 tins "restored" pueblo is there given. 
 
THE MO UND B VILDERS. 361 
 
 accumulate around house-sites, is wanting, and the walls 
 themselves seem unfit for such purpose/ 
 
 They may have been embankments surrounding towns 
 and cultivated fields, but little has yet been found which can 
 be cited as proofs of residence within the area so inclosed. 
 We should not be surprised, however, if such would ulti- 
 mately prove to be the case, since we now know that 
 the Mound Builders of Tennessee did fortify their vil- 
 lages by means of embankments and ditches.^ A num- 
 ber of writers think that these regular inclosures were in 
 some way connected with the superstitions of the people. 
 In other words, that they were religious in character. Mr. 
 Squier remarks, "We have reason to believe that the relig- 
 ious system of the Mound Builders, like that of the Az- 
 tecs, exercised among them a great, if not a controlling, 
 influence. Their government -may have been, for aught we 
 know, a government of the priesthood — one in which the 
 priestly and civil functions Were jointly exercised, and one 
 sufficiently powerful to have secured in the Mississippi Val- 
 ley, as it did in Mexico, the erection of many of those vast 
 monuments, which for ages will continue to challenge the 
 wonder of men. There may have been certain superstitious 
 ceremonies, having no connection with the purpose of the 
 mound, carried on in inclosures especially de'dicated to them."^ 
 Another late writer to whom we have several times referred, 
 tells us there is no doubt but what a " religious view " was 
 the controlling influence in the erection of these works, and 
 that they express a " complicated system of symbolism," 
 that we see in them evidence of a most powerful and won- 
 derful religious system.^ Still such assertions are easier 
 made than proven, and until we know somewhat the purpose 
 
 ^ See discussion of this subject in " Proceedings of Am. Antiq. Societj^" 
 
 Oct., 1883. 2 "Peabody MuseumEeports," Vol. II, p. 205. 
 
 ^ "Ancient Monuments," p. 47. * Peet : "Tlie :Muund Builders." 
 
 23 
 
362 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 for which they were used, how are we to know whether 
 they were sacred or not? 
 
 Casting conjectures, for the moment, aside, let us learn 
 what we can from the works themselves. From their large 
 extent they could only be reared by the expenditure of 
 great labor. This implies some form of government suffi- 
 ciently centralized and powerful to control the labors of 
 large bodies of men. Moreover, they were sufficiently ad- 
 vanced to have some standard of measurement and some 
 way of measuring angles. The circle, it will be remem- 
 bered, is a true circle, and of a dimension requiring consider- 
 able skill to lay out. The sides of the octagon are equal, and 
 the alternate angles coincident. 
 
 Every year the plow sinks deeper into these crumbling em- 
 bankments, and the leveling forces of cultivation are continu- 
 ally at work, and the time is not far distant when the curious 
 traveler will with difficulty trace the ruins of what was 
 once, to the Mound Builders, a place of great importance. 
 The more usual combination was that of a square and 
 a circle. An example is given in this cut, which is a plan 
 
 on a very small scale, 
 of works which for- 
 merly existed in Circle- 
 ville. One peculiar fea- 
 1 ture about this work 
 was that a double wall 
 formed the circle, with 
 a ditch between the 
 
 Square and Circle Embankment. two walls. In the next 
 
 cut we notice a peculiar combination of these two figures. 
 The square is inclosed within the circle. Whatever we 
 may ultimately decide as to the larger works, it would 
 seem as if this could only be explained as in the nature 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 363 
 
 M^^^^^1^?^^®SS 
 
 of a religious work. We can see no reason for construct- 
 ing a defensive work, or inclosing a village, or erecting 
 foundations for houses of such a shape as this. They must 
 have been in some way con- 
 nected with the supersti- 
 tions of the people. 
 
 A peculiar feature is also 
 noticed in reference to some 
 of the smaller circles in this 
 section. The cut below il- 
 lustrates it. The circle has 
 a ditch interior to the em- 
 bankment, and also a broad square inscribed in a Cirole. 
 
 embankment of about the same height with the outer wall, 
 interior to the ditch, running about half-way around the 
 circle. A short distance from the circle was one of those 
 elevated squares, one hundred and twenty feet square at 
 the base, and nine feet high.^ It may be that this square 
 
 was the foundation on 
 
 ^^ which stood a temple, 
 
 I in which case the cir- 
 
 I cle might have been 
 
 I dedicated to religious 
 
 p purposes also. 
 
 The great geomet- 
 rical inclosures are es- 
 pecially numerous in 
 the Scioto Valley. All the Avorks we have described were 
 in the near neighborhood of Chillicothe, and works as 
 important as these are scattered all up and down the valley. 
 We must also recall how well provided this valley was with 
 signal mounds. All indications point to the fact that here 
 
 1 " Ancient Monuments," p. 53. 
 
 Circle and Ditch. 
 
364 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 was the location of a numerous people, ready to defend their 
 homes whenever the warning fires were lit. Although 
 Mound Builders' works are numerous in the valley of the 
 two Miami Rivers, Cincinnati heing the site of an extensive 
 settlement, yet they were not such massive structures as 
 those in the Scioto. This would seem to indicate that these 
 valleys were the seats of separate tribes.^ But this Eastern 
 tribe must have occupied an extensive territory, since works 
 of the most complicated kind are found at Newark. 
 
 All indications point to the fact that near this latter 
 place was a A^ery important settlement of the Mound Build- 
 ers. Several fortified works exist a few miles up the val- 
 ley; signal-mounds are to be seen on all heights, command- 
 ing a wide view, and the famous alligator mound is placed, 
 as if with the design of guarding the entrance to the val- 
 ley. No verbal description will give an idea of the works, 
 so we refer at once to the plan. This will give us a good 
 idea of the works as they were when the first white settlers- 
 gazed upon them. They have nearly all been swept away 
 by modern improvements, excepting the two circular works 
 and the octagon. Here and there fragments of the other 
 Avorks can still be traced. 
 
 Two forks of the Licking River unite near Newark ; the 
 bottom between these rivers comprising several square 
 miles, was occupied by these ancient earth-works. By ref- 
 erence to the plan, we see the works consisted of mounds 
 of various sizes, parallel walls, generally of a low elevation, 
 small and low embankments, in the form of small circles 
 and half-circles. There are also several large works consist- 
 ing of a circle and octagon combined, one large circle, and 
 a parallelogram. "The circular structure at 'E,' is un- 
 doubtedly one of the best preserved and most imposing in 
 
 ' Force: "Some Considerations on the Mound Builders," p. 64. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS.. 
 
 365 
 
 
 ■?i:k 
 
 the State. Thei'e are many inclosing larger areas, but none 
 more clearly defined. As this is now included in the fair- 
 grounds of Licking County, it is preserved from destruction, 
 
366 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 and will remain a monument of aboriginal work long after 
 all traces of the others have disappeared. "At the entrance, 
 which is towards the east, the ends of the walls curve out- 
 
 ,,,,;;l!|ii;|i,,,||&^,;,,, 
 
 Eagle Mound. 
 
 wards for a distance of a hundred feet, 
 leaving a passage way eighty feet wide be- 
 tween the deep ditches on either hand." 
 From this point the work, even now, pre- 
 sents an impressive appearance. The 
 walls are twelve feet in perpendicular 
 height, and about fifty feet base. There 
 is a ditch close around it on the inside, 
 seven feet deep by thirty -five feet wide. The area in- 
 closed is about thirty acres. 
 
 In the center is an effigy-mound, represented by this 
 cut. It represents a bird on the wing, and is called the 
 Eagle Mound. The long mound in the body of the bird 
 has been opened, and it was found to contain an altar, 
 such as has been already described. Was this a place of 
 sacrifice, and did this wall inclose a sacred area ? Our ques- 
 tion remains unanswered. We can dig in the mounds, and 
 wander over the embankments, but the secret of the build- 
 ers eludes us. 
 
 A mile to the north-west of the part of the work just 
 described are the Octagon and works in connection with it. 
 The Octagon is not quite regular, but the sides are very 
 nearly equal. At each angle is a gateway, interior and op- 
 posite to which is a mound, as if to guard the opening. 
 The cut gives a view of the Octagon, looking in through 
 one of these gateways. At present, however, but a small 
 portion is in the forest. Most of it is under cultivation, 
 but the work can still be easily traced, and is one of the 
 best preserved in the State. A portion of it, still in the 
 forest, presents the same appearance to-day as it did to the 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 367 
 
 first explorer. When a stranger for the first time wanders 
 along the embankment and ascends the mounds, he can not 
 fail to experience sensations akin to those of the traveler 
 when he comes upon the ruins of some Old World city. 
 We wish that for a brief space of time the curtain of the 
 past would up-roll, and let us view these works while yet 
 their builders flourished here. 
 
 Connected with the Octagon by parallel walls three hun- 
 dred feet long and placed sixty feet apart, is the smaller 
 
 Gate-uu-ay of Octagon. - 
 
 circle, "F." This is a true circle, and is upwards of half a 
 mile in circumference. A portion of it lying in the woods, 
 still retains its primitive form, but the larger part is now 
 under cultivation. There is no difficulty, however, in trac- 
 ing its entire length. The most interesting feature in con- 
 nection with this part of the "work is immediately opposite 
 the point of entrance from the octagon, and is represented 
 in our next cut. At this point it seems as if the builders 
 had started to make parallel walls, but afterwards changed 
 their design and threw across the opening a large mound. 
 From this mound a view of the entire embankment could be 
 
368 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 obtained. It is called the Observatory Mound. It has 
 been so often dug into that it is now really in ruins, but is 
 still too steep to be plowed over. 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to describe the works further, 
 except to state that three lines of parallel embankments lead 
 away from the octagon. Those extending south have been 
 
 observatory Hound, Hewark Works. 
 
 traced for upwards of two miles, and are gradually lost in 
 the plain. It was the opinion of Mr. Atwater, one of the 
 earliest investigators, that these lines connected with other 
 ■works thirty miles away, in the vicinity of Lancaster.^ 
 Small circles are numerous in connection with those works. 
 It has been suggested by several that they mark the sites 
 of circular dwellings. The larger ones, indicated by the let- 
 ter " G," are more pretentious. They have the ditch and 
 embankment, which we have already described. Many in- 
 teresting coincidents in dimensions will be perceived between 
 ' " Archffiologia Americana," Vol I, p. 129. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. ' 369 
 
 portions of this work and those described in the Scioto 
 Valley.' 
 
 Although we have devoted considerable space to this 
 branch of the Mound Builders' work, we must still find 
 space to describe the works at Marietta, which possessed 
 some singular features. This cut gives us a correct plan of 
 the works as they were when in 1788 the first settlers ar- 
 rived at the mouth of the Muskingum to lay out their town. 
 The growth of the beautiful town of Marietta has com- 
 pletely destroyed these works, except the elevated squares, 
 A and B, the large mound and inclosing circle at K, with, a 
 portion of the adjoining embankments, and a small fragment 
 of the parallel walls forming what has been called the 
 " Graded Way." The elevated squares are the finest ex- 
 amples of " temple " mounds remaining in the Ohio Valley. 
 The circle and ditch with the conical mound inclosed is also 
 a, fine example of that class of works. From the summit 
 of the mound an extensive view is to be had both up and 
 down the Ohio. 
 
 The gateways of the smaller square were guarded by 
 mounds, which were wanting in the larger one. We would 
 call especial attention to the two * embankments which led 
 from the larger square towards the river. They were 
 six hundred and eighty feet long, and one hundred and fifty 
 feet apart." Some have supposed these walls were designed 
 to furnish a covered way to the river. But as Mr. Squier 
 remarks, we would hardly expect the people to go to the 
 trouble of making such a wide avenue for this purpose, nor 
 one with such a regular grade. Besides, the walls did not reach 
 the river. The work seems to be simply a passage way, lead- 
 
 ^ For words at Newark, consult "Ancient Monuments," p. 67, et seq. 
 " American Antiquarian" July, 1882. 
 ' Ancient Monuments, p. 74. 
 
370 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ing from one terrace to the other, but why the builders 
 should have made such a massive work, we cau not ex- 
 
 ■^^^.'^-^ 
 
 
 <=am esBmsm-emmmaam^ 
 
 w^ 
 
 m-> 
 
 OrfiH^J^ //rtV, 
 
 ■^*. 
 
 
 r 
 
 ■"— "--^ 
 
 ^o 
 
 
 « 
 
 ■% 
 
 .# 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 '===*»a==2a.rfsi«r' 
 
 '" ■ -" rj- i^. 
 
 Works at Marietta, Ohio. 
 
 plain. It has been called the " Sacred Way," and this name 
 may possibly be applicable, but it is only conjectural. Some 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 371 
 
 twenty years ago these two massive and beautiful embank- 
 ments were still preserved, thanks to the care of the early 
 settlers, who planned a street to pass between them, which 
 was named the Via Sacra. These words still remain on a 
 corner sign-board; but alas for sentiment!, the banks, so 
 long revered, have been utilized for brick-working. 
 
 Several instances of these graded streets or ways have 
 been found in connection with the Mound Builders' works. 
 Sometimes they lead from one terrace to another, sometimes 
 directly to the water. One of the latter kind formerly ex- 
 
 Graded Way, Piketon, Ohio. 
 
 isted near Piqua, Ohio.^ This cut is a view of a graded 
 way near Piketon, Ohio. In this case, though the differ- 
 ence in level between the second and third terrace is but 
 seventeen feet, these ancient people laid out a graded ascent 
 some ten hundred and eighty feet long, by two hundred and 
 ten feet average width. The earth was thrown out on either 
 side, forming embankments. From the left hand embank- 
 ments, passing up to the third terrace, there could formerly 
 
 ' " Ancient Monuments," p. 88. 
 
372 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 be traced a low embankment running for fifteen hundred 
 feet, and connected with mounds and other walls at its 
 extremity. 
 
 Some have supposed that formerly the river flowed at 
 the extremity of this graded way, and a passage way to the 
 water was thus furnished. Squier says, in this connection : 
 "It is sufficient to observe that the river now flows half a 
 mile to the left, and that two terraces, each twenty feet in 
 height, intervene between the present and the supposed an- 
 cient level of the stream. To assent to this suggestion, 
 ■would be to admit an almost immeasurable antiquity to the 
 structure under consideration." The casual observer would 
 say that it was intended to afford an ascent from one ter- 
 race to the other. But as the height was only seventeen 
 feet, we can not see why it was so necessary to have a long 
 passage way of easy grade from one terrace to the other. 
 It was evidently built in connection with the obliterated 
 works on the third terrace. This interesting remain is now 
 utilized as a turnpike, and the passing traveler but little recks 
 he is going over one of the most ancient causeways in the 
 land. It may be that ceremonious processions, with stately 
 tread, utilized this causeway in years long since elapsed. 
 Speculation, always an unsafe guide to follow, is especially 
 so in this case, and so we leave this memento of a vanished 
 people as much an enigma to us as to its first explorers. 
 
 We have described but a few of the sacred inclosures of 
 Ohio, but enough have been given to give us a fair idea of 
 all. We wish now to call attention to another class of re- 
 mains. We have seen how the works we have been describ- 
 ing are lacking in defensive qualities. This becomes more 
 marked, when we learn there are works, beyond a doubt, 
 defensive in character, in which advantage is taken of all 
 circumstances which would render the chosen retreat more 
 
THE MO UND B UILDERS. 3 7 S 
 
 secure. In the first place, strong natural positions were 
 selected. They chose for their purpose bluffy headlands 
 leading out into the river plain. A people surrounded by 
 enemies, or pressed by invaders, would naturally turn their 
 attention to such heights as places susceptible of defense.. 
 Accordingly, it does not surprise us to find many heights 
 occupied by strong and complicated works. Generally the 
 approaches to them were rugged and steep on all but 
 one or two sides, and there they are guarded by walls of 
 earth or stone. 
 
 A fine example of a fortified hill was discovered in But- 
 ler County, Ohio, a few miles below the town of Hamilton. 
 This hill is the highest one in the immediate vicinity. By 
 reference to the figure, we see that on all sides, except to- 
 wards the north, the approach was steep and precipitous, 
 almost inaccessible. 
 
 The wall is not of regular shape. It runs around on the 
 very brow of the hill, except in one or two places, where it cuts 
 across a ridge. In 1843 this wall was still about five feet high 
 and thirty-five feet base. The earth and stone of which the wall 
 is made were evidently gathered up from the surface of the hill. 
 In some places holes had been excavated, probably for the 
 double purpose of securing materials for the wall, and providing 
 reservoirs for water against a time of need. There are but four 
 openings in the wall, and each is very carefully guarded. The 
 complicated walls guarding the main entrance to the north 
 are especially noticeable. There are no less than four inner 
 walls besides the crescent shaped embankment on the out- 
 side. The signal mound was about five hundred feet to the 
 north of the main opening. The stones on the surface of 
 the mound all show the action of fire. 
 
 If we were uncertain of the uses of the other class of in- 
 closures, which have been named Sacred Inclosures, we have 
 
374 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 no need to hesitate as to the character of this work. Every 
 thing in reference to it betokens that it was a defensive 
 -work. The vallev of the Big Miami, in which it occurs, 
 
 Fortified Hill, Hamilton, Ohio. 
 
 was a favorite resort of the Mound Buiklers. On the oppo- 
 site side of the river, to the south, was a square and an 
 ■ellipse combined, and several other large works were ranged 
 alone the river in the course of a few miles. We need 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 375 
 
 scarcely doubt that this was a citadel in times of need, and 
 that when warning columns of smoke or flaming fires showed 
 the approach of an enemy, the old and the sick, the women 
 and the children, fled hither for protection, while the war- 
 riors went forth to battle for their homes. 
 
 We will call attention to but one more of these fortified 
 hills, but this is on a magnificent scale. It is known as 
 Port Ancient, and is situated on the Little Miami River, 
 about forty miles east of Cincinnati. It was not only a fort, 
 but was also a fortified village site, and has some features about 
 it which are regarded as of a religious nature. The hill on 
 Avhich it stands is in most places very steep towards the 
 river. A ravine starts from near the upper end on the 
 eastern side, gradually deepening towards the south, and 
 finally turns abruptly towards the west to the river. By 
 this means nearly the whole work occupies the summit of a 
 detached hill, having in most places very steep sides. To 
 this naturally strong position fortifications were added, con- 
 sisting of an embankment of earth of unusual height, which 
 follows close around the very brow of the hill. This em- 
 bankment is still in a fine state of preservation, but is now 
 annually exposed to cultivation and the inroads of cattle, so 
 that it will not be long before it will be greatly changed if 
 no effort be made to preserve it. 
 
 This wall is, of course, the highest in just those places 
 where the sides of the hill are less steep than usual. In 
 some places it still has a height of twenty feet. We notice 
 the wall has numerous breaks in it. Some of these are 
 where it crosses the ravines, leading down the sides of the 
 hill. In a few cases the embankment may still be traced 
 to within a few feet of a rivulet. 
 
 Considerable discussion has ensued as to the origin and 
 use of these numerous gateways. Mr. Squier thinks that 
 
376 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 these openings were occupied by timber work in the nature^ 
 of block-houses, -which have long since decayed. Others^ 
 however, think that the wall was originally entire except in 
 
 tlTTLE MIAMI RIVER. 
 
 a few instances, and that the breaks now apparent were 
 formed by natural causes, such as water gathering in pools, 
 and musk-rats burrowing through the walls, and we ate told 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 377 
 
 that such an opening was seen forming in the year 1847.^ 
 No reguhir ditch exists inside the wall, the material appar- 
 ently being obtained from numerous dug holes. 
 
 It will be- seen that the works could be naturally divided 
 into two parts, connected by the isthmus. More than one 
 observer has pointed out the resemblance in general outline 
 of this work to a map of North and South America, but of 
 course the resemblance, if any, is entirely accidental. Mr. 
 Peet has called attention to the resemblance which the walls 
 of the lower inclosure bear to two serpents, their heads 
 being the mounds, which are separated from the body by the 
 opening which resembles a ring around the neck. Their 
 bodies are the walls, which, as they bend in and out, and 
 rise and fall, much resembles, he thinks, two massive green 
 serpents rolling along the summit of this high hill. If any 
 such resemblance occurs, we think it purely accidental. In 
 relation to the wall across the isthmus, it has been thought 
 to have been the means of defending one part of the work 
 should an enemy gain entrance to the other. It has also 
 been supposed that at first the fort was only built to the 
 cross wall on the isthmus, and afterwards the rest of the 
 inclosure was added to the work. 
 
 The total length of the embankment is about five miles, 
 the area enclosed about one hundred acres. For most of this 
 distance the grading of the walls resembles the heavy grad- 
 ing of a railroad track. Only one who has personally exam- 
 ined the walls can realize the amount of labor they represent 
 for a people destitute of metallic tools, beasts of burden, and 
 other facilities to construct it. 
 
 ^ Mr. Putnam visited the work a few years since, and came to the conclu- 
 sion that the larger and old openings were part of the original design, and that 
 they were places where it was easier to put up log structures than earthen walls. 
 Just such openings occur in the massive stone wall ai-ound Fort Hill, in High- 
 laml County. A few of the openings at Fort Ancient he thinks are unquestion- 
 ably of recent origin, in order to drain the holes inside the embankments. 
 
 24 
 
378 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Now, what was the object of this work ? We think it was 
 not simply a fort, but rather a fortified vill.ige. That it must 
 have required the work of a numerous body of people, is 
 undoubted, and if they lived elsewhere, where are the works 
 denoting such a fact ? We would further suggest that, if 
 this was the seat of a tribe, each of the two divisions might 
 have been the location of a phratry of the tribe, by a phra- 
 try, meaning the subdivision of a tribe. We would call es- 
 pecial attention to the two mounds seen just outside of the 
 walls at the upper end. From these mounds two low paral- 
 lel walls extended in a north-easterly direction some thirteen 
 hundred and fifty feet, their distant ends joining around a 
 small mound. As this mound was not well situated for sig- 
 nal purposes, inasmuch as it did not command a very exten- 
 sive view, and as the embankments would afford very little 
 protection, unless provided with palisades, it seems as if the 
 most satisfactory explanation we have is that it was in the 
 nature of a religious work. 
 
 Mr. Hosea thinks he has found satisfactory evidence that 
 between these walls there was a paved street, as he discovered 
 in one place, about two feet below the present surface, a 
 pavement of flat stones.^ From this, as a hint, he eloquently 
 says : " Imagination was not slow to conjure up the scene 
 which was once doubtless familiar to the dwellers at Fort 
 Ancient. A train of worshipers, led by priests clad in their 
 sacred robes, and bearing aloft the holy utensils, pass in the 
 early morning, ere yet the mists have risen in the valley 
 below, along the gently swelling ridge on which the ancient 
 roadway lies. They near the mound, and a solemn stillness 
 succeeds their chanting songs ; the priests ascend the hill of 
 sacrifice and ])rcparc the sacred fire. Now the first beams 
 of the rising sun shoot up athwart the ruddy sky, gilding the 
 
 * Cincinnati Quart. Journal Sciencr, 1874, p. 294. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 379 
 
 topmost boughs of the trees. The holy flame is kindled, 
 a curling wreath of smoke arises to greet the coming god ; the 
 tremulous hush which was upon all nature breaks into vocal 
 joy, and songs of gladness bursts from the throats of the 
 waiting multitude as the glorious luminary arises in majesty 
 and beams upon his adoring people. A promise of renewed 
 life and happiness. Vain promise, since even his rays can 
 not penetrate the utter darkness which for ages has settled 
 over this people." Thus imagination suggests, and enthu- 
 siasm paints a scene, but, from positive knowledge, we can 
 neither affirm nor deny its truth. 
 
 Most of the works of the Mound Builders are noticeable 
 for their solidity and massiveness. We see this illustrated 
 in the great walls of Fort Ancient. Some of our scholars 
 think this is a distinguishing feature of the Mound Builders' 
 work.^ It seems to us that it is difficult to make this a dis- 
 tinguishing feature, as we have no means of knowing how 
 much " massiveness " is required in a work to entitle it to be 
 considered a work of the Mound Builders. Should this dis- 
 tinction be established, however, we have to notice that while 
 in the western part of the State of Ohio the Mound Builders' 
 inclosures are more often of the defensive sort, the type 
 changes to the eastward, where, as in the Scioto Valley, we 
 find the so-called sacred inclosures in larger numbers. In 
 the State of Ohio, then, there w^ere at least two well defined 
 types of works by the Mound Builders. But if we split the 
 Mound Builders up into tribes, where shall we draw the 
 line between them and our later Indians ? 
 
 Scattered through Ohio, but especially abundant in the 
 northern part of the State, is a class of works which has 
 excited considerable comment. This cut illustrates a work 
 of this kind. It was located near where Cleveland now 
 
 • Peet: "The Mound Builders." 
 
380 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 stands. The defense consists mainly in the location. The 
 wall seems to have been rather of a secondary affair. The 
 
 
 
 
 Fortified Heaaiand, Korlhern Ohio. 
 
 hill was too steep to admit approach to it except from 
 the rear, where the double wall Avas placed. With both of 
 
 
 Inolosures. Northfrn Ohio. 
 
 these works a ditch was dug outside the wall. These works 
 did not always consist simply of fortified -headlands. This 
 cut is of a portion of the works formerly existing near Nor- 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 381 
 
 walk, Ohio. The circular work, D, is shaped much like the 
 sacred inclosures, though not on so large a scale. In the 
 larger work, at B, we notice a truncated mound. The ditch 
 is on the outside of the circles. This cut is of a work for- 
 merly on the banks of 
 the Black River. Here 
 we have a square inclo- 
 sure, defended by two em- 
 bankments and a ditch. 
 
 This class of works 
 was formerly common 
 not only in Ohio and 
 Western New York, but 
 they were also to be ob- 
 served in other sections square In=lo3ura, northern Ohio. 
 
 of the country. They existed alike in the valley of the 
 two Miami Rivers, and in that of the Scioto. They were 
 also found throughout the South. Even Wisconsin, the 
 home of the effigy Mound Builders, is not destitute of this 
 class of remains. The peculiar interest attaching to them 
 arises from the fact that in some places, at least, we have 
 good reason to assign their construction to Indian tribes. 
 Those of Western New York were very thoroughly studied 
 by Mr. Squier. When he commenced his investigations, he 
 was under the impression that he was dealing with the re- 
 mains of a people very similar, at least, to those who built 
 the massive Avorks in the Ohio Valley and elsewhere, but he 
 was led to the conviction that they were the works of the 
 Iroquois Indians, and as further proof that such was the 
 case, we nre told that since the palisades that once inclosed 
 places known to be villages of the Iroquois have disap- 
 peared, there is no difference to be observed between the 
 appearance of the ruins of such a village site and any of 
 
382 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the earthworks in Western New York. But we have just 
 stated that the remains last mentioned are identical with 
 those found in Northern Ohio, and indeed over a wide ex- 
 tent of country. The conclusion seems to be, then, that one 
 large class of works, in many points resembling Mound 
 Builders' works, found widely distributed throughout the 
 Mississippi Valley, were really the works of Indians.^ But 
 we are approaching a subject we do not wish to discuss just 
 yet. We simply point out that not all the remains of pre- 
 historic people in the Mississippi Valley are referable to the 
 Mound Buildei's. 
 
 We have tried to point out the more important works 
 that are ascribed to them. It must of necessity occur in a 
 work of this nature that the review should be very brief, 
 yet we have touched on the different classes of their works. 
 But before leaving this part of our field we must mention 
 some anomalous works, and refer to others which, if they 
 can be relied on as works of the same people, certainly im- 
 ply a great advance on their part. 
 
 Our next cut is named by Mr. Pidgeon the " Sacrificial 
 Pentagon." Writing in 1850, he states, "This remarkable 
 group . , . has probably elicited more numerous conjec- 
 tures as to its original use than any other earth-work yet 
 discovered in the valley of the Mississippi. . . . It is sit- 
 uated on the west highlands of the Kickapoo River, in Wis- 
 consin."^ Mr. Pidgeon claims to have discovered two of these 
 pentagons. We are not aware that any one else has veri- 
 fied these discoveries, and it is difficult to decide what value 
 
 ' Pcct's "Mound Builders:" "If the re.ader will compare some of these 
 last cuts with that of the fortified camp at Cissbury, En<r., p. lSr>, he will see 
 how similar this last work is to those just mentioned. Perhaps the real lesson 
 to be learned is that rude people, whether Indians, Mound Builders, or Celts, 
 resorted to about the same method of defense." 
 
 ' "Antiquarian Research," p. 89. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 383 
 
 to give to his writings. He ckims to have made extensive 
 researches avouad the head-waters of the Mississippi as 
 early as 1840, and there to have met an aged Indian — the 
 last of his tribe — who 
 gave him' many traditions 
 as to the mounds in that 
 locality. Most of our 
 scholars think his writings 
 of no account whatever, 
 and yet Mr. Conant says, 
 "He seems to have been 
 a thoroughly conscientious 
 and careful observer, faith- 
 fully noting what he saw 
 and heard ."^ 
 
 We will briefly de- 
 scribe a few of the earth-works he mentions, notice their 
 singular form, and give an outline of the traditions in 
 regard to them, leaving the reader to draw his own 
 conclusions. Of this work the outer circle is said to 
 have been twelve hundred feet in circumference, the 
 walls being from three to five feet in height; width on the 
 ground from twelve to sixteen feet. The walls of the pen- 
 tagon were from four to six feet high. The inner circle was 
 of very slight elevation. The central mound was thirty-six 
 feet in diameter. This singular arrangement of circle, pen- 
 tagon, and mounds, is traditionally represented to haA'^e been 
 a sacred national altar — the most holy one known to tradi- 
 tion — and no foot, save that of a priest, might pass within 
 the sacred walls of the pentagon after its completion. The 
 
 Sacrificial Pentagon. 
 
 ^ Conant's " Footprints of Vanished Eaces," p. 15, et seq. Mr. Conant re- 
 fers to Mr. Pidgpon's work in such a way as to give the impression that he 
 was convinced of the genuineness of his account. 
 
384 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 sacrifice offered on this altar was that of human life. 
 Twice each year the offering was made.^ 
 
 The work represented in the figure below is stated to 
 have been in the near neighborhood of the former, and to 
 have been intimately connected with it. Mr. Pidgeon claims 
 to have found five of these circles and two pentagons. So 
 far as we know, he is the only authority for their occur- 
 rence, no one else having been so fortunate as to have found 
 them. This is surely a singular work, and we can not fail 
 
 to recognize in it a 
 representation of the 
 sun and the moon. In 
 excavating in the cen- 
 tral mound, we are 
 assured that small 
 pieces of mica were 
 found abundantly 
 mixed with the soil. 
 "Had the surface-soil 
 been removed with 
 care, and the stratum 
 beneath been washed 
 by a few heavy show- 
 ers of rain, so thoroughly studded was it with small particles 
 of mica, that under the sun's rays it certainly would have 
 presented no unapt symbolic representation of that lumi- 
 
 "2 
 
 nary. 
 
 Our next figure is another singular arrangement of cres- 
 cent-shaped works and mounds. Lapham says that crescent- 
 shaped works are found in Wisconsin. Pidgeon says that 
 crescent works are found in Illinois, but works arranged as 
 shown in this wood-cut he found in but four j»laces in Wis- 
 
 *" Traditions of Decoilah," p. 89, c< sc^. '" .Antiquarian Kcscardi," p. 190. 
 
 Festival Cirsle. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 385 
 
 '..'siiiiliiuiiiJiiiiirn:!!!^:;;.^ 
 
 consin. Could we verify this author's statements, this illus- 
 tration and the preceding one would be very good evidence 
 of the prevalence of sun- 
 
 worship among the effigy 
 Mound Builders of Wis- 
 consin. This would be 
 nothing singular, since the 
 Indian race almost uni- 
 versally reverenced the 
 sun.^ 
 
 The figure below repre- 
 sents a group of works 
 which, we are told, were 
 of a class formerly abun- 
 dant in Missouri and Iowa. 
 
 "^mEim^ 
 
 Cres3ent Works, 
 
 The embankments are stated 
 to be of varying heights, but all of the same length. They 
 
 do not quite meet, 
 but a mound de- 
 fends the opening. 
 Sometimes a square 
 is so represented, 
 and sometimes but 
 two walls. 
 
 A singular state- 
 ment is made in 
 reference to a nice 
 proportion said to 
 Triangular Works. be obscrved be- 
 
 tween the heights of the embankments and walls. In this case, 
 for instance, the heights of the embankments are, three, four, 
 and five feet; the sum of these, twelve feet, was the exact 
 
 ' "The American Indian, so far as known, without the exception of a 
 sinpjle tribe, worshiped the sun." Carr's "Mounds of tlie Mississippi Val- 
 ley," p. 5G. 
 
386 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 height of the central mound, rurtlieruiore, the square of the 
 sum of the heights of three embankments gives us one hun- 
 dred and forty-four feet, which is the length of the embank- 
 ments. We are gravely assured that this same nice proportion 
 is always observed in works of this kind. The embankments 
 being always of equal length, but of varying heights, still 
 the sum of these heights, whether three or four sides, be- 
 ing always equal to the height of the central mound. ^ 
 AVe do not know of any specimen of this class of works 
 now existing. If this early explorer's account be reliable, 
 then we have in works of this class very good evidence 
 \^ that some of their inclosures were in the nature of sacred 
 inclosures. The trouble is to verify Mr. Pidgeon's account. 
 There is a good deal that is strange and marvelous in refer- 
 ence to the Mound Builders, and we must use judgment as 
 to what is told us, unless we are sure there is no mistake, 
 or unless the reports ai'e vouched for by many observers. 
 
 We wish to call attention to some singular works in 
 Missouri, which would imply that the Mound Builders were 
 possessed of no little engineering skill. We have every in- 
 dication that near New Madrid was a very extensive settle- 
 ment. The works consist of inclosures, large and small 
 mounds in great numbers, and countless residence sites. 
 One of fifty acres was noticed, which had evidently been 
 inclosed by earthen walls. In some places in the forest, 
 where this wall hnd been preserved, its height was found to 
 be from three to five feet, and its base width fifteen feet.^ 
 But the suggestive features about these works are noticed 
 along the edge of the swamp near which they stood. This 
 swamp in 1811 was a lake, with a clear, sandy bottom. It 
 
 ' Conant's "Footprints of Vnnisliod R.icps," p. fiO. 
 
 ' Ibid., 11. 32. If tlie ('X])l()n'rs uro really fatisfu'd this was a walled town, 
 it ought to throw some light on the inclosures in the Ohio Valley. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 387 
 
 is not at all doubted but that it was at one time the bed of 
 the Mississippi E,iver, and probably this town stood on its 
 banks. The river is now some eighteen miles away. It 
 must suddenly have changed its course, leaving behind it a 
 lake, which, in course of time, became a swamp. 
 
 But along the shores of this ancient lake, "in front of 
 the inclosure, small tongues of land have been carried out 
 into the water, from fifteen to thirty feet in length, by ten 
 or fifteen in width, with open spaces between, which, small 
 as they are, forcibly remind one of the wharfs of a seaport 
 town. The cypress trees grew very thickly in all the little 
 bays thus formed, and the irregular, yet methodical, outlines 
 of the forest, winding in and out close to the shore of these 
 tongues of land, is so marked as to remove all doubt as to 
 their artificial origin.^ The suggestion is made in view of 
 these wharfs, that the Mound Builders must have had some 
 sort of boats to navigate the waters of the lake. 
 
 And the singular part is, that right in this neighborhood 
 are many evidences of a system of canals. A glance at the 
 map will show that the portion of Missouri around New 
 Madrid, and to the south of it, is dotted with swampy 
 lakes and sluggish bayous. The evidence is to the effect 
 that the ancient inhabitants connected these bayous and 
 lakes with artificial canals, so as to form quite an extended 
 system of inland water-ways. Right east of the town of 
 Gayoso, we are told that a canal had been dug that now 
 connects the Mississippi with a lake called Big Lake. 
 A bayou running into this lake was joined by a canal with 
 Cushion Lake. 
 
 From this last lake, by means of bayous and lakes, a 
 clear course could be pursued for some miles north, where 
 finally another canal was cut to join with the Mississippi a 
 
 ' Conant's " Footprints of Vanished Races," p. 35. 
 
388 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 few miles below New Madrid. The entire length of this 
 ■water way was some seventy miles, but we are not told how 
 much of it was artificial, neither are the dimensions given. 
 Pfof. Swallow speaks of a canal "fifty feet wide, and twelve 
 feet deep." Whether this was one of this series or not, we 
 do not know.'^ This is indeed a singular piece of work. It 
 would be more satisfactory if we had more definite informa- 
 tion in regard to the same. 
 
 With our present knowledge of the state of society 
 among the Mound Builders, as made evident by the remains 
 of their implements and ornaments, we are not justified in 
 believing this part of a system of internal navigation. We 
 have already seen that further south they sometimes sur- 
 rounded their village sites with a wide and deep moat or 
 ditch, as was observed around the inclosure containing the 
 great mound on the Etowah. We are inclined to believe 
 that a more careful survey would greatly modify the accounts 
 we have of these canals, if it did not, in fact, show that 
 they were the works of nature. According to a writer in 
 the American Antiquarian^ the whole lower part of the Mis- 
 sissippi Valley was abundantly supplied with canals, irriga- 
 ting ditches, and evidences of a high intelligence. He 
 speaks of observing the presence of an extensive canal a 
 little north of the section we have described. He asserts 
 they were dug to convey the surplus waters of the Missis- 
 sippi in times of flood to the White and St. Prancis Rivers, 
 thus preventing disastrous overflows. It is needless to cau- 
 tion the reader against such conclusions. Our information 
 in regard to those canals is far too limited to support the 
 views advanced. 
 
 This finishes our examination of the works of the IMound 
 
 ' C'oiiiint's " Foot]>riiits of Vixnished Races," p. 77. 
 2 Vol. Ill, p. 290, el seq. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 389 
 
 Builders. Except in the case of the more massive works, they 
 have become obliterated, but here and there are left traces 
 of the former presence of these now vanished people. The 
 antiquary muses over the remains of their inclosures, their 
 fortified places, their effigies and mounds. By the combined 
 efforts of scholars in many departments, we may yet hope 
 that the darkness now enshrouding this race may be dissi- 
 pated, but at present our positive knowledge is very limited 
 indeed. It is as if we were asked to reconstruct a picture 
 which had faded in the lapse of time so that only traces 
 here and there are visible. Here, perhaps, a hand is seen; 
 there a piece of foliage; in one place something we think 
 representing water, in another a patch of sky, or a mount- 
 ain peak. Until a key is found which shall show us how to 
 connect these scattered parts, our efforts are useless, since 
 many pictures could be formed, but we have no surety we 
 are right. So we may form mental conceptions of the Mound 
 Builders, but they are almost as varied as the individual 
 explorers. Science may yet discover the key which will 
 enable us to form a clear mental conception of the race which 
 flourished here many years ngo, and left their crumbling 
 memorials to excite the curiosity of a later people. 
 
 We must now turn our attention to another branch of 
 inquiry and learn what we can of the culture of the Mound 
 Builders. This is to be determined by an investigation of 
 the remains of their implements, weapons, and ornaments. 
 When we know the skill with which they manufactured these 
 articles, and gain an insight into some of their probable cus- 
 toms, we shall know where to place them in the scale of 
 civilization. What we have learned of their works has already 
 convinced us that we are dealing with a people considerably 
 above the scale of Savagery. The nice proportion between 
 the parts, the exact circles and coincident angles show con- 
 
390 
 
 Till': PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 slderuble advunee in uiechanical skill. The character of the 
 works indicates that the people had permanent places of 
 abode, and were not subject to the vicissitudes of a hunter's 
 st.ite of life for subsistence. This implies that we are deal- 
 ing with a people living in village communities, practicing 
 agriculture and many other arts, and therefore entitled to 
 rank in the middle status of Barbarism corresponding to the 
 Neolithic inhabitants of Europe.^ We will now see how far 
 
 Arroiv Points. 
 
 this conclusion is sustained by an examination of the remains 
 of the handiwork of the people. 
 
 Implements of stone are of course abundant. But men, 
 when in the culture of the Stone Age, having a common 
 material to work upon, and under the pressure of common 
 needs, have everywhere provided similar forms. For this 
 reason it is hard to find distinctive points of difTerence be- 
 tween implements of stone of ]Mound Builders' work and a 
 series of similar implements the work of Indians. We are 
 
 ' Morgan's ''Ancient Society," p. U. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 391 
 
 assured, however, that when examining a series of each, those 
 of the Mound Builders display a superior finish.^ The pre- 
 ceding wood-cut represents a collection of arrow-points found 
 in the mounds, but they are not particularly so distinguish- 
 able from specimens found on the surface. Great numbers 
 of arrow-points are occasionally 
 found on altars. Here we have a 
 view of one of the stone axes fash- 
 ioned by the hands that heaped the 
 mounds. It is certainly a very fine 
 specimen. 
 
 The Mound Builders must have 
 had all the varieties of stone imple- 
 ments common to people in their 
 stage of culture, such as axes, flesh- 
 ers, and chisels. They also must 
 have possessed mortars and pestles 
 for grinding corn, and some implements did duty as hoes and 
 spades. We represent in a group a collection of weapons 
 and implements from the mounds and stone graves of Ten- 
 nessee. All these articles .are finely finished. One of the 
 axes has a hole bored through it. One of them is further pro- 
 vided with a stone handle, and is characterized as being the 
 " most beautiful and perfect stone implement ever exhumed 
 from the aboriginal remains within the limits of the 
 United States." 
 
 People in the culture of the Stone Age make but very 
 rare use of metal, as metals are to them simply varieties of 
 stone, much less useful for their purpose than the different 
 kinds of flints, except for ornaments. From the altar mounds, 
 near Cincinnati, were taken ornaments of silver 
 
 Ax found in a Hound. 
 
 1" Ancient Monuments," p. 210; also Peet: 
 '' Their relics are marked by a peculiar finish." 
 
 , copper, 
 
 "The Mound Builders." 
 
392 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 iron, and traces of gold, all of which had been worked into 
 their present shape by simply hammering. . The iron, it should be 
 remarked, was meteoric iron, which can be hammered ;is easily 
 
 Weapons of Stone from Tennessee. (Smith Inst,) 
 
 as native copper. We have already remarked that about 
 the only native iron is obtained from such sources. Copper 
 was utilized for a great variety of purposes. 
 
 We give a cut of a copper ax found in one of the Ohio 
 mounds. Copper axes have lately been found quite fre- 
 quently in mounds near Davenport, Iowa, and in most cases 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 393 
 
 before being deposited in the mounds, they had been wrapped 
 in cloth. Copper ornaments are a more common find. 
 Bracelets, beads, and ear ornaments are numerous. Our 
 next cut represents some very fine bracelets found in a 
 mound near Chillicothe, Ohio, Cop- 
 per tools and weapons have been 
 found quite frequently on the sur- 
 face, but we are not sure in this 
 case whether they are not the 
 Avork of recent Indians. The early 
 explorers noticed the presence of 
 copper ornaments among the In- 
 dians. " When Henry Hudson 
 discovered, in 1609, the magnifi- 
 cent river that bears his name, he 
 noticed among the Indians of that 
 region pipes and ornaments of 
 copper." The account says : " They 
 had red copper tobacco pipes, and other things of copper they 
 did wear about their necks. "^ De Soto also noticed among 
 the Southern Indians axes of copper. Other accounts could 
 be quoted showing that the Indians were Avell acquainted 
 with copper.^ The fact is, in this matter also, it is impos- 
 sible to draw a dividing line between relics of the Mound 
 Building tribes and the Indians. However, the Mound Build- 
 ers were certainly acquainted with copper, but to their minds 
 it was only a singular stone, one that they could hammer 
 into a desired shape. 
 
 Where did they obtain their copper? We are all aware 
 that in this country great supplies of pure copper exist 
 near the southern shore of Lake Superior, and there is a pe- 
 
 Copper Ax. 
 
 ^ Rau's " Anthropological Research." 
 * "Proceedings Am. Antiq. Roeietv," April 1877, p 61. 
 
 25 
 
394 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 culiarity about the copper found there, that is, the presence 
 of small pieces of silver with the copper. This is a verj 
 singular mixture, and we are not aware of its occurrence 
 elsewhere It would trouble the best chemists to explain 
 it- From this fact we are enabled to identify articles of 
 copper derived from that source, and to that region we can 
 trace the copper from which are formed most of the copper 
 implements and ornaments found in this country. It is also 
 
 Copper Bracelets. 
 
 noticeable that the nearer we get to this region the more 
 numerous are the finds of articles of copper. More are re- 
 ported from Wisconsin than the rest of the United States 
 put together. 
 
 This leads us to a very interesting subject. In 1848 
 Mr. S. 0. Knapp, agent of the Minnesota Mining Company 
 on the northern peninsula of Michigan, discovered that the 
 modern miners were but following in the footsteps of some 
 ancient people who had mined for copper there some time 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 395 
 
 now far past. The general conclusion is that these old mi- 
 ners were Mound Builders, but here the evidence of their 
 presence is not found in the existence of mounds and earth- 
 works, but of pits and excavations, which, by the slow ac- 
 cumulation of years, had become filled to near the surface 
 with debris of various kinds. Many had noticed these little 
 pits and depressions without suspecting they had aught to do 
 with the presence of man. The hollows made by large trees, 
 overturned by the wind, frequently left as well marked de- 
 pressions as these excavations. 
 
 We have abundant proof that these old miners were 
 practical workmen. They evidently did not neglect the most 
 trifling indication of metals. They made thorough research 
 and discovered the principal lodes. Our present day miners 
 have long since learned to regard the presence of these an- 
 cient pits as excellent guides in this matter.' With modern 
 appliances they penetrate far beyond the power of the old 
 workmen. At the Waterbury mine there is in the face of 
 the vertical bluff an artificial opening, which is twenty-five 
 feet wide, fifteen feet high, and twelve feet deep. The ma- 
 terials thrown out in digging had accumulated in front, and 
 on this forest trees common to that region were growing of 
 full size. Some of the blocks of stone which were removed 
 from this recess would probably weigh two or three tons, 
 and must have required the use of levers to move them. 
 Beneath the surface rubbish was discovered the remains of 
 a cedar trough, by which the water from the mines was con- 
 ducted away. Wooden bowls were found, which were prob- 
 ably used to dip the water from the mine into this trough. 
 
 Near the bottom of the pit, shovels, made of cedar, were 
 found, shaped much like a canoe paddle, but showing by 
 their wear that they were used as shovels. Although they 
 appeared solid while in water, yet, on drying, they shrunk 
 
396 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 up, and were with difficulty preserved. A birch tree, two 
 feet in diameter, was observed growing directly over one of 
 these shovels. No marks of metallic tools were observed 
 anywhere about this large pit. 
 
 In this ease they constructed a sort of a cave, but in 
 many cases they mined open to the air, that is, they simply 
 
 Ancient Mine, Michigan. 
 
 dug trenches or pits. A row of these ancient pits, now 
 slight depressions, indicate a vein. What they seem to 
 have especially sought after was lumps of copper that they 
 could easily manage and fashion by hammering. They had 
 not discovered the art of melting. When they found an 
 unusually large piece, they broke off what they could by 
 vigorous hammering. In one case they found a mass weigh- 
 ing about six tons of pure copper. The}' made an attempt to 
 master this piece. By means of wedges they had got it 
 upon a cob-work of round logs or skids, six or eight inches 
 in diameter, but the mass was finally abandoned for some 
 unknown reason after breaking o(f such pieces as they could 
 until the upper surface was smooth. This mnss rested on 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. ' 397 
 
 the framework of logs while the years came and went, until, 
 after the lapse of unknown time, the white men once more 
 ■opened the old luiiie. 
 
 On the rubbish in front of this mine was standing the 
 stump of a pine tree ten feet in circumference. These an- 
 cient mines are found not only on the main-land, but on the 
 islands off the coast as well. The only helps they seem to 
 have employed was fire, traces of which are found every- 
 where, and stone mauls and axes. The mauls consist of 
 oblong water-worn bowlders of hard tough rock, nature hav- 
 ing done every thing in fashioning them except to form the 
 groove, which was chiseled out around the middle. Some 
 copper implements were also found. 
 
 Col. Whittlesey, from whose writings we have drawn the 
 foregoing, concludes that these mines were worked by the 
 Mound Builders. As he finds no traces of graves or houses, 
 or other evidence of a protracted stay, he thinks they were 
 worked only through the Summer season of the year by 
 bands of workmen from the south. 
 
 As to what caused the abandonment of the works we do 
 not, know. It might have been an impulse of their race 
 hurrying them on to some distant migration ; or, more prob- 
 ably, pressed by foes from without, they were compelled to 
 abandon their ancient homes. Whatever the cause was, na- 
 ture resumed her sway. Forest trees crept up to and grew 
 around the mouths of the deserted mines. Col. Whittlesey 
 ■concludes from the group of trees growing on the top of the 
 rubbish heap that at least five hundred years passed away 
 before the white man came from the south to resume the 
 work of his ancient predecessor.^ 
 
 It is not, however, proven that the Mound Build- 
 ers were the sole workers of these ancient mines. It 
 
 Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge," Vol. XIII. 
 
398 " THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 is known that the Indians mined for flint. Some of the ex- 
 cavations for this purpose, in what is known as Flint Ridge, 
 in Muskingum County, Ohio, are as marked as the traces of 
 ancient mining in Michigan. Similar appearances are re- 
 corded in Missouri. As copper was in demand among the 
 Indians, and as it is probable that they obtained much of it 
 from the North, they may have continued to work the an- 
 cient copper mines until comparatively recent times. ]Mr. 
 Laphani believes that the progenitors of the Indian tiibes 
 found dwelling in the regions near these mines, carried on 
 mining operations there. Dr. Rau thinks it probable that 
 small bands of various Northern tribes made periodical ex- 
 cursions to the locality, returning to their homes when they 
 had supplied themselves with sufficient quantities of the 
 much-desired metal. The fact that many of the modern In- 
 dian tribes kne^v nothing about these mines is not of much 
 weight, when we "reflect how easily a barbarian people for- 
 get events, even those of a striking nature. 
 
 We are apt to judge the culture of a people by the 
 skill they display in works of arts. The article on which 
 the Mound Builder lavished most of his skill was the pipe. 
 This would show that with them, as with the modern In- 
 dians, the use of the pipe was largely interwoven with 
 their civil and religious observances. In making war and 
 in concluding peace, it probably played a very important part. 
 "To know the whole history of tobacco, of the custom of 
 smoking, and of the origin of the pipe, would be to solve 
 many of the most interesting problems of American eth- 
 nology."^ 
 
 The general decoration consisted in carving the bowl of 
 the pipe into the shape of some animal or bird. In some 
 instances we have carved representations of the human 
 
 * AV)bott'8 "I'rimilive Industry," p. 315. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 399 
 
 head. Such as these are of particular interest and value, 
 as they are probably feithful representations of the fea- 
 tures of the Mound Builders. This is a fine specimen 
 found in one of the altar mounds in 
 Ohio. The method of wearing the 
 hair is worthy of notice. The holes 
 placed in a row encircling the fore- 
 head and coming down as low as 
 the ears, were once filled with 
 pearls. In some they still remained 
 when found, though they had been 
 burned in the fire. The lines upon 
 the face obviously imitate the cus- 
 tom of tattooing i^e countenance. 
 
 Scholars have called attention to 
 the fact that Humboldt discovered 
 in Mexico a small statue which he 
 supposed represented an Aztec priestess. This statue had 
 sculptured upon its forehead a row of pearls, worn in the 
 
 same manner as is rep- 
 resented in this pipe. 
 This is another pipe of 
 great interest, and is 
 supposed to represent 
 the head of a woman. 
 The countenance is ex- 
 pressive, the eyes prom- 
 inent, and the lips full 
 and rounded. We must 
 Face of a Female. . notice again the head- 
 
 dress. While the faces are of Indian type, the method of 
 wearing the hair is different from that of the typical In- 
 dian of the North. 
 
 Soulpttired Face. 
 
400 
 
 THE FREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 The animal forms into which the pipe-bowls are carved, 
 are also full of interest. This is not so much on account 
 of animal forms themselves as the insight we gain as to 
 
 Beaver. 
 
 the artistic skill of the people who fashioned the pipes, 
 and in various ways learn of bits of customs and manners 
 peculiar to them. Here we have figured, a pipe, the bowl 
 of which is carved to represent a beaver. No one need 
 hesitate as to the animal which the carver had in mind. It 
 is represented in a characteristic attitude, and has the broad, 
 flat tail of its species. It must have required no little skill 
 and patient labor to work a rough stone into this finished 
 
 pipe, especially 
 when we remem- 
 ber that the maker 
 had no edged tools 
 with which to work. 
 We can not al- 
 ways determine the 
 animal which the 
 otter. artist had in mind. 
 
 In this illustration we have, figured such a jiipe. Consid- 
 erable discussion has arisen as to the animal represented. 
 Some cases of this nature have been thought to show either 
 migration Croni a distant country on the part of the maker 
 or else an extended system of trade. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 401 
 
 Squier and Davis, 
 who first figured it, 
 supposed it to repre- 
 sent a manatee, or 
 sea-cow. This animal 
 is essentially a trop- 
 ical species, the only 
 known place where 
 it was found in the 
 United States be- 
 ing Florida. From 
 the presence of this 
 carved specimen, 
 found a thousand 
 miles to the north 
 some interesting 
 queries, as the ori- 
 gin of the mound- 
 huilding tribes, and 
 the state of life 
 among them, were 
 raised. It is almost 
 certain, however, 
 that the animal in- 
 tended to be rep- 
 resented • was the 
 ■otter.^ The most 
 general form of 
 sculpture was that 
 of birds, and we 
 find specimens of 
 almost all the common varieties 
 
 Birds on Pipes. 
 
 In this group we recognize 
 
 " Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology," 1880-1, p. 123, et seq. 
 
402 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the tufted heron striking a fish ; the eagle, or hawk, tearing a 
 smaller bird; the swallow, apparently just ready to fly; and 
 in the last figure, one that has given rise to a good deal 
 of discussion. Some think from the circumstance of its 
 having a very large bill, toes pointing behind as well as 
 before, that it represents a toucan, which, if true, would 
 make it a most interesting specimen. But cautious scholars 
 conclude that the " figure is not of sufficient distinctness to 
 identify the original that was before the artist's mind." 
 And therefore it is not wise to make this specimen the sub- 
 ject of a far-reaching speculation.-' 
 
 It may be of interest to inquire whether the Indians 
 made pipes as tastefully ornamented as those we have de- 
 scribed. We should notice that all the pipes here described 
 are from one very limited locality in Ohio, and that is the 
 valley of the Scioto, the same section of country where 
 were found the great inclosures of a mathematical shape. 
 We have no reason for supposing that the Mound Builders 
 generally throughout the Mississippi Valley had this artistic 
 skill. We have seen nowhere any thing to show a superi- 
 ority for them in this respect. Whatever conclusion can be 
 drawn from those pipes, iii)plies only to the tribe in the 
 Scioto Valley. It is believed they do constitute a peculiar 
 class by themselves. As works of arts, there are but few 
 aboriginal relics of North American origin their equal.'^ 
 
 .We would also refer to the fact that most of these speci- 
 
 ' In the "Annual Report ot Bureau of Ethnology," for lSSO-1, Mr. Ilen- 
 shaw has very fully diseussed these mound-pipes, and shown that Messrs. 
 Sqiiier and Davis were mistaken in a number of their identifications of the 
 animal furms. Tie conchKles there "are no representations of birds or ani- 
 mals not iudifrenous to tlie ^lississippi Valley." 
 
 "^ The recent discoveries by Putnam and ^letz, in the Altar-mounds in 
 the Little Miami Valley, have brought to light many interesting and imiuirtant 
 sculi)tures in stone and terra-cotta, whic-h, as works of art, are in some re- 
 spects superior to tliose from the Scioto Valley, but as they haveuot yet been 
 figured, we can only refer to them here in this brief note. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 403 
 
 mens were obtained from one altar-mound.^ We do not 
 know what ceremonies were performed around this altar, 
 but if it were a place of burial or cremation, they might 
 have been the obsequies of some distinguished maker, of 
 pipes. That such a person would be the recipient of honor, 
 is not singular, for "the manufacture of stone pipes, neces- 
 sarily a painful and tedious labor, may have formed a branch 
 of aboriginal industry, and the skillful pipe carver probably 
 occupied among the former Indians a rank equal to that of 
 the' experienced sculptor in our times." Among the Ojib- 
 way Indians, we are told, are persons who possess peculiar 
 skill in the carving of pipes, and make it their profession, 
 or at least the means of gaining, in part, their livelihood. 
 One "inlaid his pipes very tastefully with figures of stars, 
 and flowers of black and white stones. But his work pro- 
 ceeded very slowly, and he sold his pipes at high prices."^ 
 So we see how cautious we must be about drawing inferences 
 from this peculiar class of pipes found in one limited locality. 
 The knowledge of how to manufacture pottery is justly 
 regarded as a turning point in the advance of primi- 
 tive man along the weary road that brings him at last to 
 civilization. At this point he ceases to be a savage, and 
 enters the confines of Barbarism.^ The skill shown in using 
 this knowledge is one of the many things we have to take 
 into consideration in determining the rank of a people in the 
 scale of enlightenment. The Mound Builders were evi- 
 dently quite well along in the potter's art; and as they 
 have left behind them many examples of their work, we 
 must try and acquaint ourselves with some of the more im- 
 portant varieties. 
 
 ' "Number Eight," Mound City, near ChilHcothe, Ohio. " Ancient Monu- 
 ments," p. 152. ^ Rau: "Anthropological Subjects," p. 130. 
 ^ Morgan's " Ancient Society," p. 12. 
 
404 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 This illustration is of a group of clay vessels of the 
 howl pattern, found in mounds in different parts of the Mis- 
 sissippi Valley. In one of these we see a good example of 
 
 Group of Clay Vessels. 
 
 the style of ornamentation by means of incised lines. In 
 the duck-headed vessel we have a representation of a class 
 of vessels common in Missouri and Tennessee. Not unfre- 
 quently one or both of the handles of vessels of this class 
 is in the form of a human head instead of that oi" an ani- 
 mal. Our next illustrations represent a group of such speci- 
 mens. Judging from the skill with which thoy imitated 
 animals, it is not unreasonable to believe that in these ftices 
 we have rude likenesses of the people who made them. 
 The two bottle-shaped vessels here figured, are from 
 
TEE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 405 
 
 mounds in Louisiana. As will be noticed, the ornamenta- 
 tion is quite artistic. The ware is of a good quality, and 
 they are good exam- 
 ples of the Mound 
 Builders' art. The 
 form with a long 
 neck is perhaps a 
 water-cooler. When 
 filled with water, and 
 allowed to stand, 
 some of the water 
 passes through the 
 pores, and evaporat- 
 ing, keeps the sur- 
 face of the vessel 
 cool. 
 
 They also made 
 .some vessels of large 
 size to serve for 
 cooking purposes. On some of the larger vessels the 
 imprint of woven weeds and willows of a basket on 
 
 the outer surface 
 leads to the belief 
 that ■ such vessels 
 were formed or 
 moulded within bas- 
 kets. Many large pots 
 and urns, however, 
 were made without 
 this aid. Some large 
 
 Bottle -shaped Vessels. (L _net.) ums Were USed for 
 
 burial purposes. In a Michigan mound an urn about three 
 feet in height hnd been so used. It wns standing upright, 
 
 Bo-wls -with Human Faces. 
 
406 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 and into it the whole skeleton of a man had been com- 
 pressed, and a closely-fitting lid covered the top.' Very 
 large, shallow vessels were used to manufacture salt — that 
 
 is, they were filled from some 
 salt-spring, and then the Avater 
 was evaporated, leaving the salt. 
 In localities near salt-springs, 
 thick fragments of rude earthen- 
 ware have been found that must 
 have come from vessels as large 
 as barrels. 
 
 In the next group we have rep- 
 resentations of a singular class 
 of vessels. In some cases the 
 Water Cooler. mouth and ueck of the vessel 
 
 is shaped in imitation of animals. In the smallest one 
 we recognize the head of a man, with an opening in the 
 back of the head. Many vessels of this form are known, 
 and a great many different animal heads are represented. 
 The fish-shaped vessel is a curious one. The one figured 
 evidently represents a sun-fish. The long vase or jug is in 
 the shape of a child's leg, with an opening in the heel. 
 
 Some very beautiful vessels of the character of those 
 we have figured, have been found in Missouri. One enthu- 
 siastic explorer says, ''Perhaps we have very few modern 
 artists who could equal those ancient potter}^ makers in 
 taste, skill, curious design, and wonderful imitation of na- 
 ture. Birds, beasts, fishes, even the shells on the river 
 shore, have an exact counterpart in their domestic utensils." 
 "While digging in one of these pottery mounds in Missouri, 
 wo unearthed a large tortoise. We thougli( it was alive, 
 and seizing it, to cast it into the woods for its liberty, we 
 
 American Aniiijunrian, 1879, p. 04. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS.. 
 
 407 
 
 were suddenly surprised to find our tortoise was an earthen 
 vessel in that shape. In the same mound we uncovered a 
 huge shell — the single valve of a unio. Closer inspection 
 revealed that it was a perfect earthen vessel. Following 
 these came a perfect fish, exhibiting, to our astonishment, 
 
 Pottery Vessels. (Smith. Inst.) 
 
 the scales, fins, and peculiarities of that species of fish in 
 detail."^ 
 
 We must leave this interesting part of our subject. An 
 entire volume would scarcely do justice to it, but for the sake 
 of comparison, we must inquire as to the state of this art 
 ■among the Indian tribes. It seems that before the arrival 
 •of the whites, the Indian tribes throughout North America, 
 
 ' Mc Adams: American Antiquarian, 1880, p. 140. 
 
408 THE PKEULsrORIC WORLD. 
 
 with few exceptions, were apt potters. The whites, how- 
 ever, soon supplied them with superior, utensils of metal, 
 so that the majority of the Eastern tribes soon lost the 
 knowledge of the art. It lingered longer among the tribes 
 of the South, and of the interior, and even to this day the 
 Pueblo tribes of New Mexico and Arizona make an excel- 
 lent article of pottery. Early travelers wrote in high terms 
 of the skill of the Southern Indians in this matter. Du- 
 Pratz thought so highly of the work of the Natchez Indians 
 that he had them make him an entire dinner set. 
 
 Catlin, speaking of the Mandan Indians, says the women 
 of that tribe made great quantities of dishes and bowls, 
 modeled after many forms. He says they are so strong 
 and serviceable that they cook food in them by hanging 
 them over the fire, as we would an iron pot. " I have seen 
 specimens," he continues, " which have been dug up in In- 
 dian mounds and tombs in the Southern and Middle States, 
 placed in our Eastern museums, and looked upon as a great 
 wonder, when here this novelty is at once done away with, 
 and the whole mystery : where women can be seen handling 
 and using them by hundreds, and they can be seen every day 
 in the summer, also, moulding into many fanciful forms, and 
 passing them through the kilns, where they are hardened." 
 
 Dr. Ran, speaking of the artistic skill of the Indian pot- 
 ters, as shown by numerous remains gathered in Illinois, does 
 not hesitate to assert, after personal examination of Mound 
 Builders' pottery, that the Indian relics were in every respect 
 equal to those specimens exhumed from the mounds of" the 
 Mississippi Valley.^ Lapham, speaking of fragments of Mound 
 Builders' pottery in Wisconsin, says, " They agree in every 
 respect with fragments found about the old Indian villages." 
 
 ' " Sniitli.«onian Koport." 1806. Wi> have gatliored these points for com- 
 parison fiuni Dr. Kairs article in that report. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 409 
 
 The culture of a people is also determined by their 
 knowledge of agriculture. The savage depends entirely upon 
 hunting and fishing for subsistence. A knowledge of horti- 
 culture, of domestic animals, and of agriculture, even though 
 rude, are each and all potent factors in advancing man in 
 culture. So we must inquire as to the traces of agricultural 
 knowledge observable among the remains of the Mound 
 Builders. Some writers speak in quite glowing terms of 
 the enormous crops they must have raised for their populous 
 cities. The fact is, that while it is doubtless true that they prac- 
 ticed agriculture, yet we have 
 no reason to suppose it was any 
 thing more than a rude tillage, 
 such as was practiced among 
 the village Indian tribes. This 
 is evident from the tools with 
 which they worked. 
 
 Agricultural Implements. (Smith. Inst) 
 
 In a few cases copper tools have been recovered which 
 may have served for digging in the ground, but in most 
 cases their art furnish^ them nothing higher than spades, 
 shovels, picks, and hoes made of stone, horn, bone, and 
 probably wood. In this cut are specimens of such agricul- 
 
 26 
 
410 THE PREHISTORIC WOULD. 
 
 tural tools. These were douLtless furuiiihed with handles 
 of wood. The notched one was perhiips provided with a 
 handle at right angles to it, so as to constitute a hoe. That 
 we are right in regarding these implements as agricultural 
 tools, is shown, not only by their large size, but also by the 
 traces of wear discovered on them. We must admit, how- 
 ever, that agriculture carried on with such tools as these, 
 must have been in a comparatively rude state. 
 
 In this connection we must refer to the garden beds no- 
 ticed in some places. We read that in Western Michigan 
 the so-called garden beds are a distinguishing feature of the 
 ancient occupation, often covering many acres in a place, in 
 a great variety of forms, both regular and grotesque.^ 
 These seem from the above account to be very similar to the 
 garden beds of Wisconsin. Dr. Lapham tells us that in tbe 
 latter State they consist of low, broad, parallel ridges, as if 
 corn had been planted in drills. 
 
 They average four feet in width, and the depth of the 
 Walk between' them is six inches. Traces of this kind of 
 cultivation are found in various parts of the State. We are 
 also referred to the presence of garden mounds in Missouri, 
 but in this case the low mounds are of the same m}sterious 
 class that Prof. Forshey says occur by millions in the South- 
 Avest, and may not be the work of man. Just what the 
 connection is between the garden beds and the Mound Build- 
 ers is hard to determine. Mr. Lapham thinks that those in 
 Wisconsin were ccrtninly later in date th;in the mounds. He 
 observed that they were frequently constructed right across 
 the works of the Mound Builders. This would seem to im- 
 ply that the makers were not one and the same people. 
 
 As to the government and rcligien of the Mound Build- 
 ers, all is conjecture. On both of these jtoiuts a great deal has 
 
 ' Bella Hnbbard, Amrricon Aiilii/u(iri(ni, 1S7('), p- '-'lU. 
 
THE MOUND BUILDERS. 
 
 411 
 
 been assumed, but when we try to find out the grounds on 
 which these theories rest we quickly see how little real foun- 
 dation there is for any knowledge on this subject. If we are 
 right in our views as to the effigy mounds of Wisconsin, then 
 a sort of animal worship prevailed. Whether the great in- 
 closures in the Scioto Valley were of a religious nature or 
 not is very doubtful. The great serpent mound was proba- 
 bly an object of worship. The assertion is quite frequently 
 made that the Mound Builders were sun worshipers, which 
 may be correct, but we must observe that we have no proofs 
 of it in the works they have left. We judge it to be true 
 only because sun-worship was probably a part of the relig- 
 ion of a large proportion of the Indian race, and because 
 
 Idols. (Smith. Inst.) 
 
 we find special proofs of its existence among some of the 
 Southern Indians who are supposed to be closely related to 
 the Mound Builders. 
 
 As we approach the South, we meet with what are sup- 
 posed to be rude and uncouth idols, but they have not been 
 found under such circumstances as to make it positive that 
 
412 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 they belonged to the Mound Builders. In this illustration 
 we have two idols, considered to be genuine relics of the 
 stone-grave people of Tennessee. The first one is an Aztec 
 idol found at Cholula, and introduced here simply for com- 
 .parison. What position these idols held in connection with 
 the religion of the race, we are not prepared to say. 
 
 Similar remarks might be made as to the system of gov- 
 ernment. A number of writers, taking into account the im- 
 mense labor involved in constructing some of the Avorks, have 
 insisted that the people must have lived under a despotic 
 form of government, one in which the state had unlimited 
 power over the lives and fortunes of its subjects.^ 
 
 There is no real foundation for such views, and we tliink 
 they are misleading. No one doubts but that the Mound 
 Builders were living in a tribal state of society. If so, they 
 doubtless had the usual subdivisions of a tribe. This point 
 we remember afforded us some insight into the meaning of 
 the effigy mounds of Wisconsin. 
 
 This would imply the government by the council, and 
 while the rulers may have been hereditary, the officers of 
 the tribe were probably elective, and could be deposed for 
 cause. We do not mean to assert that this is an exact picture 
 of the state of government of the Mound Builders, because 
 our knowledge on this point is not sufficient to make such a 
 positive statement, but it is far more likely to be true than 
 the picture of a despotic government, ruling from some capital 
 seat a large extent of country, holding a court with barbaric 
 pomp and circumstances such as some writers would have 
 us believe. 
 
 We hope our readers have not been wearied by this some- 
 what extended investigation of the Mound Builders. Every 
 storm that beats upon their works tends to level them. The 
 
 ' Foster's " Prehistoric Races," p. ;54(). 
 
• THE MOUND BUILDERS. 413 
 
 demands of our modern life are fast obliterating the remain- 
 ing monuments, and, indeed, it is nosv only tiiose which are 
 situated in favorable localities, or are massive in construc- 
 tion, that are left for our inspection. But these nearly ob- 
 literated records of the past are of more than passing interest 
 to us as monuments of the prehistoric times of our own 
 country. We wander over these ruins and find much to 
 interest us, much to excite our curiosity. The purposes of 
 many are utterly unknown. Some, by their great proportions, 
 awaken in us feelings of admiration for the perseverance and 
 energy of their builders. But when we investigate the objects 
 of stone, of clay, and of copper this people left behind them, 
 we notice how hard it is to draw a dividing line between 
 them and the Indians. 
 
 In fact, there is no good reason for separating them from 
 the Indian race as a whole. We do not mean to say that 
 they were not, in many respects, different from the tribes 
 found in the same section of the country by the early ex- 
 plorers, though, we ought, perhaps, to confine this remark to 
 the central portion of the country occupied by these ancient 
 remains. But the American of to-day differs from the Amer- 
 ican of early Colonial times. The miserable natives of 
 Southern California were Indians, but very different indeed 
 from the ambitious, warlike Iroquois, who displayed so much 
 statesmanship in the formation of their celebrated league. 
 In another chapter we shall discuss this part of our subject, 
 as well as the question of the antiquity of the ruins. 
 
414 
 
 THE PREHISTOltlC WORLD. 
 
 THE PUEBLO COUNTRY.^ 
 
 Description of the Pueblo Country — Historical outline — Description of 
 Zuiii — Definition of a Pueblo — Old Zuhi — Inscription Rock — Pueblo 
 of jemez — Historical notice of Pecos — Description of the Moqu 
 tribes — The Estufa — Description of the San Juan countrj- — Aztec 
 Springs — In the Canon of the McElnio — The Ruins of the Rio 
 !Mancos — On Hovenweep Creek — Description of a Cliif-house — Clitf 
 Town — Cave houses — Ruins on the San Juan — Cave Town — Tiie 
 Significance of CliflP-houses — Moqui traditions — Ruins in Northern 
 New Mexico — Ruins in the Chaco Caiion — Pueblo Bonito — Ruius 
 in South-western Arizona — The Rio Verde Valley — Casa Grande — 
 Ruins on the GUa — Culture of the Pueblo Ti'ibes — Their Pottery — 
 Superiority of the Ancient pottery — Conclusion. 
 
 HAVE hitherto been describing people" 
 and tribes that have completely vanished. 
 "We have peered into the mysterious past 
 and sought as best we could to conjure 
 hack the scenes of many years ago. The line between 
 the known and the unknown, between the historic and 
 prehistoric, is not far removed form us in the new 
 world. Not yet four centuries have passed since the veil was 
 lifted, and America, with her savage tribes of the North, and 
 her rude civilization of the South, was revealed to the wonder- 
 ing eyes of Europe. But with a knowlcMlge of this new 
 land came also wondrous stories of wealth, and in conse- 
 
 * The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to ISIr. Ad. F. Bandolier, 
 of Highland, Illinois. As a<;ent for the .\ rrlia»olof;ioal Institute of Ameriai, 
 he spent tliree years in exjilorations in tlie Pueblo country. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 415 
 
 quence an army of adventurers were soon on her shores. 
 Then follows a short period of war and conquest. The In- 
 dian race could not withstand the whites. European civili- 
 zation, transphinted to America, has thriven. But whatever 
 advance the native tribes have made since the discovery, 
 has been by reason of contact with the whites. 
 
 There was no single birthplace of American culture. 
 Advance took place wherever the climate was mild and the 
 soil fertile, and thus an abundant supply of food could be 
 obtained. One such locality was the valley of the San Juan, 
 
 r'sV^-^^/' n^tc^^tn n <i''. T 
 
 Hap Of the Puehlo Country. 
 
 in what is now the south-western part of the United States. 
 It is quite allowable to suppose that here the mild climate 
 and bountiful soil suggested agriculture, and with a knowl- 
 edge of this, rude though it was, a beginning was made in 
 a culture which subsequently excited the admiration of the 
 Spaniards. However that may be, we know this section 
 contains abundant ruins of former inhabitants. And yet 
 again we find in this same country the remnants of thie 
 
416 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 former people, doubtless living much the same sort of life 
 as did their forefathers. American scholars, with the best 
 of reason, think this section aifords the best A^antage ground 
 from which to study the question of native American cul- 
 ture. It presents us not only with ruins of past greatness, 
 but in the inhabited pueblos, gives us a picture of primitive 
 times, and invites us, by a careful study of their institutions, 
 to become acquainted with primitive society. 
 
 Travelers and explorers describe the scenery of the Pueblo 
 country as a very peculiar one. It is bleak without being 
 absolutely barren. The great mountain chains form pictur- 
 esque profiles, which in a measure compensate for the lack 
 of vegetation. No country on the face of the globe bears 
 such testimony to the power of running water to wear away 
 the surface. The rivers commenced by wearing down great 
 canons. They occur here on a grand scale. The canon of 
 the Colorado River, having a length of two hundred miles, 
 and through the whole, nearly vertical walls of rock, three 
 to six thousand feet in height. Nearly nil the tributary 
 streams of the Colorado empty into it by means of gorges 
 nearly as profound. What is true of the Colorado is true, 
 though in a lesser degree of the Rio Grande and of the 
 Pecos, as only portions of these streams are canon-born. 
 But, besides digging out thase canons, the entire surface of 
 the country has in places been removed to the depth of sev- 
 eral hundred feet, leaving large extent of table-lands, called 
 mesas, with generally steep, or even precipitous, sides, 
 standing isolated here and there. 
 
 Though thus bearing evidence of more extended rain- 
 ffill, and of the action of water in the past, it is essentially 
 an arid country now. Most of the minor water-courses laid 
 down on the map are dry half of the year, or have but 
 scattered pools of water; so a doscrij)tion of the surface of 
 
THE P UEBL CO UNTR Y. 417 
 
 the country would tell us of deep river valleys, in many 
 cases narrow and running through rocky beds, in which case 
 we call them canons ; in other cases veiy wide, but having 
 generally precipitous sides; the country often mountain- 
 ous, and great stretches of table-land, but generally dry 
 and desolate, except in the immediate vicinity of rivers. 
 The river valleys themselves are generally very fertile. 
 
 Such is the country where we are to investigate native 
 American culture. "The history of the country since its 
 first occupation by the Spaniards is not devoid of interest. 
 It did not take the Indians of Mexico long to learn that 
 what the Spaniards most prized was gold, and that the 
 surest way to curry favor with them was to relate to them 
 exaggerated stories of wonderful wealth to be gained in dis- 
 tant provinces. About 1530 the viceroy of New Spain (Mex- 
 ico) learned from an Indian slave of seven great cities some- 
 where to the north; and of their wealth it was said thev had 
 streets exclusively occupied by workers in gold and silver. 
 Though expeditions to the northern provinces of Mexico 
 speedily dispelled the illusions in regard to th-em, the won- 
 derful story of the Seven Cities flitted further north. Six 
 years later these stories were invested with new life by the 
 arrival in Mexico of Cabeza De Vaca and three companions. 
 The story of their remarkable wanderings reads like an ex- 
 tract from a work of fiction. They were members of the 
 unfortunate Spanish expeditions to the coast of Florida in 
 1628. After the shipwreck and final overthrow of the expe- 
 dition, these four men had wandered from somewhere on 
 the coast of the Gulf of Mexico, first north, and then west, 
 passing through, probably, portions of Texas and New Mex- 
 ico, until finally they were so fortunate as to meet with 
 their own countrymen near Culiacan, in Mexico. The story 
 they had to tell fell on willing ears. They stated to the 
 
418 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 viceroy that they had carefully observed the country through 
 Avhich they had passed, and had been told of great and pow- 
 erful cities containing houses of lour and live stories, with 
 the usual accompaniments of great wealth. 
 
 The next incident was the journey of three Franciscan 
 friars and a negro (who, by the way, had been with De 
 Vaca in his wanderings), sent out by the Governor Coronado, 
 with orders to return and report to him all they could 
 learn by personal observation of the Seven Cities. This 
 expedition did not accomplish much. Arriving near Cibola 
 (the Spanish name for the country of the Seven Cities), 
 thev sent the negro on ahead to "'ain the uood will of the 
 Indians. Instead of this, he was killed by them. On hear- 
 ing which, the monks contented themselves with gazing on 
 the pueblo (which they describe as "more considerable than 
 Mexico") from a safe distance, and then hurriedly returned 
 to Culiacan. They gave Coronado a most glowing account 
 of all they had discovered. 
 
 Coronado now thought the time had come for decisive 
 action. Accordingly, with the viceroy's permission, he or- 
 ganized his forces, and in 1540 set out on his memorable 
 march in search of the Seven Cities of Cibola. We do not 
 propose to give in detail the series of conquests beginning 
 with this expedition and finally ending with the subjection of 
 New Mexico in 1598. It is needless to say that the Span- 
 ish forces found no cities teeming with wealth. What they 
 did find was a country much the same as at present. The 
 cities were the communal houses, or combination of houses, 
 known as pueblos. The pueblo of Zuhi is the remaining 
 one of the mystical seven. The ruins of at least six other 
 pueblos are known to be in the immediate vicinity.^ 
 
 'See an excellent historical account by Bandeliers : "Papers of the 
 Archseological Institute of America." American series No. 1. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 421 
 
 This historical account, short and imperfect as it is, 
 introduces us to a most interesting people. If we would 
 know more of them we can not do better than to adopt the 
 advice of Hosta, ex governor of Jemez, to Dr. Loew : " If 
 you wish to see what a great people we once were you must 
 go upon the mesas and into the caiions of the vicinity, 
 where ruins of our forefathers are numerous." 
 
 One of the most important pueblos yet remaining inhab- 
 ited, and one of the first that Coronado encountered in his 
 expedition, is Zuili. The present pueblo is considered as the 
 remaining one of the Seven Cities — at least, by the majority of 
 Americanists. Whipple describes Zuiii as follows : "Tread- 
 ing an opening between rocky bluffs, ... we entered 
 the valley, several miles in width, which leads to Zuhi. The 
 soil seemed light, but where cultivated it produced fine crops 
 without the aid of irrigation. . . . Within the valley 
 appeared occasional towers, where herders and laborers 
 watch to prevent a surprise from Apaches. Near the center 
 of this apparent plain stood, upon an eminence, the compact 
 city of Zurii.^ By its side flowed the river which bears the 
 same name. It is now but a rivulet of humble dimensions, 
 though sometimes said to be a large stream. . , . Pass- 
 ing beneath an arch, we entered a court, . . . entirely 
 surrounded by houses of several receding stories, which 
 were attained by means of ladders leading from one to an- 
 other. . . . From the top the pueblo reminds one of 
 an immense ant-hill, from its similar form and dense popu- 
 lation. . . . Going down from its outer side into the 
 street, we encounter five stories of descent." ^ 
 
 In order to prevent confusion, we will state that a pueblo, 
 which is the Spanish name for these old Indian towns, may 
 
 * The t.erm " City of Zuni " is scarcely correct ; it should be Pueblo of ZuSi. 
 2 Pacific Railroad Report ; Whipple, Vol. III., pp. 67 and 68. 
 
422 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 be one of several differeat types. A common form of vil- 
 lage consists of but one or two, seldom three, large build- 
 ings, so arranged as to surround an interior court. Sometimes 
 there is but one large building, which is nearly in the shape 
 of a half circle ; instead of being really circular, it has a 
 number of different sides. In some cases a village consists 
 of a number of these large houses irregularly arranged. 
 But the tendency is always to inclose a square.^ 
 
 In the modern villages the buildings forming the square 
 do not meet, but in some cases are connected by bridges or 
 covered gangways, and in some instances the houses project 
 over the streets below, which, being narrow, are thus given 
 an underground appearance.^ 
 
 The buildings, or communal houses, for one house con- 
 tained sometimes five hundred rooms, are generally from 
 
 three to four hundred 
 feet long and about one 
 hundred and fifty feet 
 Ground Plan. in width at the base. 
 
 The lower story is divided by cross-walls into a mass of 
 cell-like rooms, as shown in the illustration, which rep- 
 resents the ground plan of a pueblo having four 
 ranges of rooms. Each story in height has one 
 less range of rooms, so that, looking directly 
 at the end of this building, it would pre 
 sent the appearance shown by this cut: 
 The only means of getting from one ter- 
 race to the other is by the aid of ladders. End view. 
 In some cases these terraces run from both sides of the build- 
 ing ; in others they face the inclosed space; and in others 
 still they face outside. Most of the inhabited pueblos are 
 
 _L 
 
 ' "Arcliirolojiicnl Institute of America," Filth .An. Kej)., pp. 55 and 5G. 
 2 Bancroft's " Native Kaces," Vol. I., p. 534. 
 
THE P UEBL CO UNTR Y. 
 
 423 
 
 built of adobe — that is, sun-dried bricks. The majority of 
 the ancient ruins were built of stone set in adobe mortar. 
 With this digression, we will now return to Zuhi. 
 
 Ruins testifying to the former greatness of these people 
 are scattered around them. Three miles to the east of the 
 present pueblo of ZuTii, on the bluff seen in the cut, are the 
 ruins of a larger pueblo, which is called Old Zu'ni. Mr. 
 Whipple, who explored this field of ruins, thus describes his 
 visit: "The projecting summit of the cliffs seemed inac- 
 cessible. . . . We followed a trail, which, with great 
 
 Old Zuni. 
 
 labor, had been hammered out from seam to seam of the 
 rocks along the side of the precipice. At various points of 
 the ascent, where a projecting rock permitted, were barri- 
 cades of stone walls, from which the old man ^ told us they 
 had burled rocks upon the invading Spaniards. Having as- 
 cended one thousand feet, we found ourseh^es upon a level sur- 
 face, covered with thick cedars. . . . The top of the mesa 
 was of an irregular figure, a mile in width, bounded upon 
 all sides by perpendicular bluffs. . . . The guide hur- 
 
 ^ His guide. 
 
424 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ried us on half a mile further, where appeared the ruins of 
 a city, indeed. Crumbling walls, from two to twelve feet in 
 height, were crowded together in confused heaps, over sev- 
 eral acres of ground. .' . . Upon examining the pueblo, 
 we found the standing w^alls rested upon ruins of greater 
 antiquity.^ The primitive masonry, as well as we could 
 judge, must have been about six feet thick. The more 
 recent was not more than a foot or a foot and a half, but 
 the small sandstone blocks had been laid in mud mortar with 
 considerable care." ^ 
 
 The descriptions of ruins have so much that is similar 
 that repetitions become tiresome. We will not, therefore, 
 delay much longer with Zuhi. A few miles east of Old 
 Zuhi we come to Pescado Springs, near which are the ruins 
 of several pueblos. " This spring bursts from a broken 
 point of the lava bed, and at once becomes a pretty stream, 
 glittering with great numbers of the finny tribe, which gives 
 name to it. The circular wall which once inclosed the 
 fountain-head is now partly broken down. Upon ench side, 
 and almost tangent, are ruins of pueblos so ancient that the 
 traditions of present races do not reach them. They are 
 nearly circular in form, and of equal dimension. One meas- 
 ured three hundred and fifteen short paces, about eight hun- 
 dred feet, in circumference. They were of stone ; l»ut the 
 walls have crumbled, leaving only a heap of rubbish."^ 
 
 Following up this stream, other ruins were found. It 
 seems, then, that in the pueblo of Zuhi we have left n i)iti- 
 (ul remnant of a numerous people. When the Spaniards 
 
 'Tlie ruins on the top were, however, built after IfiSO. wlien the inhnbit- 
 ants of Flavonn.thn Spanish "Alvona," fled to tho toj) of llic mesa to escape 
 the forays of tlie Navajf>s. Tlie ruins were ahandonod before 1705. Zuni is 
 partly built on the ruins of Flavona, which is still its ahori^'inal name. (Kan- 
 delier.) ' Pacific Railroad Reports, Wliipple, Vol. III., \\ C'>J». 
 
 ^ Pacific Railroad Reports, Whijiple, Vol. III., p. 65. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 425 
 
 first appeared on the scene they were apparently prosperous. 
 The rapid decrease of the Pueblo tribes Avas owing to sev- 
 eral causes. In 1680 they made an attempt to throw off the 
 Spanish yoke. At first this was successful. But inter- 
 tribal warfare at once set in. At this time also the inroads 
 of the Apaches and Navajos became so troublesome that the 
 Pueblo tribes could not successful!}' cultivate their land. At 
 this time also a succession of dry years set in, and famine 
 was the result. Their customs and manners we will describe 
 
 Inscription Rock. 
 
 in another place. Thei^e are many reasons for supposing 
 that the country had been inhabited for a very long period, 
 even before the Spaniards invaded it. Some places must 
 have been even them in ruins, or, if inhabited, it is very 
 strange that the Spanish records do not mention them. 
 Such, for instance, is Inscription Rock, about fifteen miles 
 east of Old Zuni, which the Spaniards must have passed 
 when on their way back and forth to Zuni. 
 
 The small mesa here ends with a bold front of white 
 sandstone rock, rising almost vertically two hundred and 
 
426 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 fifty feet high. This cut gives us a view on the top of the 
 table-rock, We see here the foundations of two old build- 
 ings. A deep ravine nearly divides this little plateau into 
 two portions. As we have said, this rises with a bold, pre- 
 cipitous front from the plain. At one place this front is 
 completely covered with inscriptions. Here the Indians, 
 unknown years ago, made their strange hieroglyphics which, 
 presenting to our eyes only a senseless combination of forms 
 of animals and men and meaningless figures, may have con- 
 veyed to them knowledge of important events. A great 
 many Spanish inscriptions have also been carved on the 
 rock. Whipple calls attention to the fact that though Span- 
 ish inscriptions placed there nearly two hundred years ago, 
 seem but slightly affected by atmospheric action, still some 
 of the Indian hieroglyphics are "almost wiped out by 
 the fingers of time." A number of centuries have probably 
 rolled away since they were inscribed. 
 
 It may be interesting to know the reading of some of 
 these old inscription. A translation of one of the earliest 
 and longest is here given, with the exception of a few 
 words which could not be made out: "Bartolome Narr.'jo, 
 Governor and Captain-general of the province of New Mex- 
 ico, for our lord, the king, passed by this place on his re- 
 turn from the pueblo of Zuhi, on the 29th of July, of the 
 year 1620, and put them in peace, at their petition, asking 
 the favor to become subjects of his majesty, and anew they 
 gave obedience; all of which they did with free consent, 
 knowing it prudent as well as very Christian, . . .to so dis- 
 tinguished and gallant a soldier, indomitable and famed; we 
 love . . ."• 
 
 It is somewhat strange to meet thus in the interior of the 
 United States with the record of a military expedition some 
 
 ' "Simpson's Report," p. 124. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 427 
 
 months before the Puritans landed at Plymouth. There 
 seems to be nothing especial to describe about the ruins. 
 Both Simpson and Whipple notice that the masonry seems 
 to be unusually good. As it must have been very difficult 
 to procure water, the location must have been chosen solely 
 for the protection it afforded. The early Spanish accounts 
 contain the names of one hundred and twenty-six pueblos. 
 Some are, however, mentioned two or three times. Mr. Ban- 
 delier has succeeded in identifying every one. The E-io 
 Puerco Valley was never a very prosperous one, and the 
 river is scarcely a permanent one. At present a few ruins 
 at Poblazon, for instance, are to be seen, and the valley 
 looks poor and barren. 
 
 The valley of the Rio Grande River was occupied by a 
 number of Pueblo tribes, and there are at present eight in- 
 habited pueblos along this river, in New Mexico, and one in 
 Texas. The region around Bernalillo was a prosperous sec- 
 tion. At intervals, up and down the river, and along its 
 tributaries, we can still trace low crumbling ruins, evidence 
 of an old pueblo. If the statements of the Spanish writers 
 are to be believed, the number of inhabited towns, at the 
 time of the conquest, was at least ten times that now ex- 
 isting. The population could never have exceeded forty 
 thousand. At present it contains about nine thousand. 
 Still making all allowance for Spanish exaggeration, we are 
 convinced that it was a thickly populated country at the 
 time of the conquest. 
 
 One of the most interesting pueblos in New Mexico is 
 Jemez, on a river of that name, sixty miles west of Santa 
 Fe. We speak of it here because it is the center of a most 
 interesting group of ruins. Like the pueblo of Zuni, it is a 
 remnant only of a prosperous people. The reports of Cor- 
 onado's expedition frequently mention Jemez, though it may 
 
 27 
 
428 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 be doubtful whether they refer to the pueblo of that name 
 now, or to one of the numerous ruined ones in the im- 
 mediate vicinity. Jemez is a prosperous pueblo, having 
 fine fields, large irrigating ditches, and extensive flocks 
 of sheep. 
 
 Simpson describes it in 1849 as follows : " The pueblo 
 of Jemez is an Indian town of between four and five hun- 
 dred inhabitants, . . . and is built upon two or three par- 
 allel streets, the houses being of adobe construction, and 
 having second stories disposed retreatingly upon the first, 
 to which access is had by means of ladders. . . About 
 the premises are probably a dozen acres covered with apri- 
 cot and peach trees. . . The Rio de Jemez, upon which 
 the pueblo lies, is an affluent of the Rio Grande, varies from 
 thirty to fifty feet in breadth, is of a rapid current. . . 
 Patches of good corn and wheat skirt it here and there 
 along its banks, and the extent of cultivable land bordering 
 it may be estimated at about a mile in breadth." 
 
 We are more interested, however, in ruins testifying to 
 past greatness. " Six miles up the river you come to the 
 union of two canons — the Guadalupe and San Diego. Where 
 the mesa between these canons narrows itself to a point," 
 are the ruins of two pueblos, one upon the lower promi- 
 nence of the mesa, the other upon the mesa proper, and 
 only approachable by two narrow, steep trails, the mesa 
 everywhere else being nearly perpendicular, and seven hun- 
 dred and fifty feet high. The view from the mesa is pic- 
 turesque and imposing in the extreme. Far beneath, to the 
 right and left, a stream makes its way between the colossal 
 walls of the sandstone upon the narrow width of the mesa; 
 near frightful precipices are the ruins of a town of eighty 
 houses, partly in parallel rows, partly in squares, and partly 
 perched between overhanging rocks, the rim and surfaces 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 429 
 
 of which formed the walls of rooms, the gaps and interstices 
 being filled in artificially." 
 
 " Nearly every house had one story and two rooms. 
 The building material was trachytic rock as found upon the 
 mesa. Broken pottery, charred corn, and millstones for 
 grinding corn, were found in some of the rooms. The roofs 
 had all fallen in, and so also had many of the side walls, 
 in the construction of which wood was but little used. 
 Pinon trees have taken root within many of the former 
 rooms. Upon asking my Indian guide whether the former 
 inhabitants of this town were obliged to descend the steep 
 and dangerous pathway every day to the creek to procure 
 water, he replied there were cisterns upon the mesa, in which 
 rain, formerly plentiful, was caught. He then called my at- 
 tention to some conical heaps of stones along the rim of the 
 precipice, which was the material for defense."^ 
 
 This description introduces us to another class of ruins — 
 that is, detached separate houses, different from the great 
 communal structures we have already described. What con- 
 nection exists between these two forms of houses will be 
 studied in another place. As a rule, the rooms in the de- 
 tached houses are larger than in the communal houses. Ex- 
 ceptions occur in some of the inhabited pueblos.^ This is 
 only one of many towns in ruins thereabouts. According 
 to Dr. Loew there are no less than twenty-five or thirty. 
 
 It is not our purpose to describe any more of the pu- 
 eblos of this section of New Mexico than is required to 
 enable us to understand the customs, manners, and habits of 
 the Pueblo tribes. We learn that in New Mexico we are 
 brought face to face with feeble remnants of former tribes, 
 and that these were probably in their most flourishing con- 
 
 ' Dr. Loew, in " U. S. Geographical Survey West of the 100th Meridian," 
 Vol. VII, p. 343. 2 " Fifth An. Eep. Archaeological Inst, of America," p. 61. 
 
430 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 dition when the Spaniards first invaded the country, and 
 though in a few instances the ruins imply a great antiquity, 
 as at Inscription Rock, still we may be reasonably sure 
 that the majority of them date but a few centuries back. 
 The ruins of Catholic churches established by the Francis- 
 can monks in the sixteenth century occur in several places, 
 five being found around Jemez. 
 
 The story of the decline of the Pueblo tribes may be 
 illustrated by the history of Pecos. This pueblo was situ- 
 ated on the Rio Pecos, about twenty-five miles south-east of 
 Santa Fe. With the exception of the present inhabited 
 town of Taos, it was the most eastern point reached by the 
 pueblo building tribes. This, though a A'^ery large pueblo, 
 has nothing especial to attract attention, except that the en- 
 tire mesa was inclosed by a stone wall about six feet and a 
 half high, and twenty inches thick, having a total length of 
 three thousand, two hundred and twenty feet.^ Its history 
 is, however, interesting and instructive. Coronado, with his 
 army, visited Pecos before he abandoned the country in 
 1543. His reports mention it as a prosperous pueblo. Sev- 
 eral raids were made into New Mexico by Spanish parties, 
 but the conquest proper occurred in 1598, when the Pecos 
 pledged fidelity to the crown of Spain. 
 
 The Catholic Church at once set about establishing mis- 
 sions at various pueblos. The Pecos Church was established 
 in 1629, though missionary work had been done here before 
 that time. One of the priests who accompanied Coronado 
 remained behind at Pecos. He was never afterwards heard 
 from. This church became one of the most renowned in 
 New Mexico. The inhabitants became herders as well as agri- 
 culturists. It was prosperous. In 1680 the pueblo of Pecos 
 sheltered two thousand Indians. "But a storm was brew- 
 
 ' Bandelier's " Papers of the Archaeological Inst." p. 46. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 431 
 
 ing from whose effects the Pueblo tribes never recovered." 
 In 1680 the Indians rose against the Spanish and drove them 
 from New Mexico. The priests were murdered, the churches 
 were sacked. From this time doubtless date the ruins of the 
 churches seen around Jemez. At Pecos and many other 
 places intertribal warfare set in. Bloody battles were fought. 
 
 Neither were the Spaniards idle. In 1682 one expedi- 
 tion was made, and at least two pueblo towns were destroyed 
 by them. In 1689 the entire country was reconquered. 
 Some tribes were nearly exterminated, and all more or less 
 weakened, and a great many ruins date from that time. It 
 was the beginning of a decline for the Pueblo tribes, and this 
 decline was hastened by intertribal warfare, by drought, and 
 by ravages from wild Indians. As to the drought, it is suf- 
 ficient to state that some ruins are now fifteen, and even 
 twenty, miles from permanent water. The Comancbes were 
 the scourge of the Pecos. On one occasion they slaughtered 
 all the young men but one. This was a blow from which 
 they never recovered. Finally reduced by sickness to but 
 five adults, tlie Pecos sold their lands and, at the invi- 
 tation of their brethren at Jemez, went to live with them, 
 and the pueblo of Pecos speedily became the ruins we 
 now find it.^* 
 
 No doubt a similar history could be written of many 
 other ruins. "Our people," said ITosta, "were a warlike 
 race, and had many fights, not only with the Spaniards, but 
 also with other Indian tribes the Navajos and Taos, for in- 
 stance nnd were thus reduced to this pueblo of Jemez, 
 which now forms the last remnant." New Mexico is now 
 becoming rapidly "Americanized," and it will soon be brought 
 to a test whether the Pueblo tribes can withstand this new 
 influence and retain their peculiar civilization, or whether, 
 
 ' These facts arc drawn froin Mr. Baiidclier's article already referred to. 
 
432 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 like many other races, their life force is nearly spent, in 
 which case they will live only in. history. 
 
 We must not overlook the Moki Pueblos in Arizona. 
 They are situated one hundred miles northwest of Zuni. The 
 
 Spaniards discovered tlieia. :ind called tlicir pvoviiici' Tusayan. 
 They are much like the Pueblo tribes of New Mexico, only 
 they have been much less disturbed by outside influence. 
 There are a number of ruined towns in this vicinity. We 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 433 
 
 wish to refer to them because of their intimate connection 
 with the ruins to the North. Their houses are built of 
 fitone on precipitous mesas. 
 
 Lieut. Ives, who visited them in 1858, has left quite a 
 full description of them. He states that " each pueblo is 
 built around a rectangular court, in which, we suppose, are 
 the springs that furnished the supply to the reservoirs. The 
 exterior walls, which are of stone, have no openings, and 
 would have to be scaled or battered down before access could 
 be gained to the interior. The successive stories are set 
 back, one behind the other. The lower rooms are reached 
 through trap-doors from the first landing. The houses are 
 three rooms deep, and open upon the interior court."^ He 
 was much pleased with the manner in which they had ter- 
 raced off the bluffs of the mesas into little garden patches, 
 irrigating them from the large reservoirs from the top. 
 
 There is one feature common to all the Pueblo tribes 
 which is necessary to refer to here, from its connection with 
 the ruined structures further north. In all of the inhabited 
 pueblos there is a structure known as an Estafa, some pueblos 
 having several. They are usually circular, but occasionally 
 (as at Jemez) rectangular. They are generally subterranean, 
 or mostly so. They are great institutions among the Pue- 
 blos. " In these subterranean temples the old men met in 
 secret council, or assembled in worship of their gods. Here 
 are held dances, festivities, and social intercourse." 
 
 Another common feature, represented in this cut, is the 
 watch-tower. " It is either round, as in this case, or rectan- 
 gular. It may be interesting to recall in this connection the 
 signal mounds of the Mound Builders. They were not always 
 in the immediate vicinity of other ruins. Neither can we 
 state that there was a system in their arrangement, one an- 
 
 ' " Colorado River of the West," p. 119, et seq. 
 
434 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 swering to another at a distance, and yet it was noticed 
 ■where the ruins were numerous that several were in view 
 from one point.^ In dimensions these towers range from ten 
 
 Watch Tower. 
 
 to fifteen feet in diameter, and from five to fifteen feet in 
 height, while the walls are from one to two feet thick. 
 They are in many cases connected with structures rectan- 
 gular in form. 
 
 We will now leave the inhabited pueblos and the ruins 
 in their immediate vicinity and, going to the north, explore 
 a section of country that shows every evidence of having 
 sustained a considerable population some time in the past. 
 To understand this fact clearly, it will be necessary to fix 
 the location of the places named by means of the map. 
 From time to time confused reports of the wonders to be 
 seen in the San Juan section of Colorado had appeared in 
 the East, but the first clear and satisfactory account is con- 
 tained in the reports of Messrs. Jackson and Holmes, mem- 
 bers of the U. S. Geographical and Geological survey of the 
 territories under Dr. Hayden for 1874 and 1876. 
 
 • U. S. Survey, Hayden, 1876, p. .390. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 435 
 
 In the south-western portion of Colorado is a range of 
 mountains known as the San Juan. Stretching from their base 
 west to the Sierras is a great plateau region, drained by the 
 numerous tributaries of the San Juan River. It would, per- 
 haps, be more in keeping with the facts of the case to say 
 "had been drained some time in the past," for this is now such 
 an arid, semi-desert country that the majority of the streams 
 are dry, or have but scattered pools of. water in them, dur- 
 ing a large portion of the year; and yet, at times, great 
 volumes of water go sweeping through them. This whole 
 plateau is cut up with long, carioned valleys, presenting, in 
 effect, the same surface features that we have already 
 described in New Mexico. Yet this precipitous, canon- 
 marked section of country is literally filled with the crum- 
 bling ruins of a former people. The situation in which they 
 occur is in many cases very singular, and the whole subject 
 is invested with great interest to us, because we see in 
 them the remains of a people evidently the same as the 
 Pueblo people to-day. 
 
 One of the most extensive ruins in this section is situ- 
 ated at Aztec Springs. This, it will be seen, is about mid- 
 way between the Rio Mancos and the McElmo. Mr. Holmes 
 found the site of the spring, but it contained no water. He 
 was told, however, by those familiar with the locality that 
 there had been a living spring there up to within a few 
 years. It was evidently a place of considerable importance 
 once. Mr. Holmes describes the ruins as forming the most 
 imposing pile of masonry found in Colorado. They cover 
 an area of over ten acres. This includes only the ruins 
 around the springs. But all about this central portion are 
 scattered and grouped the remnants of smaller structures. 
 So that nearly a square mile is covered with the ruins 
 of this ancient pueblo. Most of the stone used was brought 
 
436 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 form the Mesa Verde ^Green Plateau), a mile away, and must 
 
 iave been a great work for a people so totally without facilities. 
 
 It will be seen that immediately to the right of the 
 
 Springs is a large rectangular ruin in better preservation 
 
 G^^p^ than the rest. 
 
 HUlfn)! This now "forms 
 
 pan 
 
 
 Id[a]d 
 
 ;iCh_ID 
 
 a 
 
 □n|| a great mound of 
 
 qL crumbling rock 
 
 I I |[__ from twelve to 
 
 LJLJUi twenty feet in 
 
 ®SBik height, over- 
 
 noaaaoHqi temisia, but 
 
 nODDaQQRjj showing clearly, 
 ^•"jDQCZDqQS/ however, its rec- 
 jnnDQp/^ tangular struct- 
 M:3!^^ ure, adjusted ap- 
 proximately to 
 the four points 
 of the compass." 
 This house, from 
 its massive walls, 
 must have had 
 an original 
 height of at 
 least forty feet. 
 " The walls seem 
 to have been 
 
 Btiina at Aztec Springs. doubled, with a 
 
 space of seven feet between ; a number of cross-walls at 
 regular intervals indicate that this space has been divided 
 into apartments, as seen in the plan." Two low lines of 
 ■rubbish cross the square, probably partition walls. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 437 
 
 Surrounding this house is a net-work of fallen walls, so 
 completely reduced that none of the stones seem to remain 
 in place. Mr. Holmes was at a loss to know whether to 
 call them a cluster of irregular apartments, having low, 
 loosely built walls, or whether they are the remains of im- 
 posing pueblos. In the group of ruins to the left of the 
 spring are two well-defined, circular estufas. Below the 
 main mass of ruins, connected by low walls of ruins, is an- 
 other great square, nearly two hundred feet in dimensions. 
 One wall seems to have consisted of a row of apartments j 
 the other walls served to simply inclose the square, near the 
 center of which was another large estufa. 
 
 Several important conclusions can be drawn from a study 
 of this locality. The spring, now dry, was once evidently 
 the source of a considerable stream. Whether the group of 
 low ruins were collections of small houses, or remains of im- 
 posing pueblos, we need not doubt that the walls of the 
 square inclosures were composed of pueblo houses. The es- 
 tufas were probably in all respects similar to those of the 
 present inhabited pueblos. The country around, now so dry 
 and barren, must once have supported considerable popula- 
 tion! As to the period of abandonment, we have nothing to 
 guide us. Being an agricultural settlement, it was probably 
 abandoned at an earlier date than the cave-dwellings and 
 cliff-houses of the canons of the vicinity. The reason for 
 this will appear subsequently. The site of this ruin, as 
 well as for a long distance around, is covered with pieces 
 of broken pottery. We notice that the spring has only 
 lately gone dry. This illustrates the changes now taking 
 place all through the country. It is drying up, and this 
 process has been in operation for a long while. 
 
 Many groups of ruins are now in localities where the 
 people could not hope for subsistence. About six miles to 
 
438 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the north of these ruins, about a mile from the McElmo, is 
 the group of ruins here represented, which may throw some 
 light on the remains at Aztec Springs. The principal fea- 
 ture is the triple walled tower, of which a plan is given. 
 The tower has a diameter of about forty-three feet, and a 
 circumference of about one hundred and thirty-five feet. 
 The walls are traceable nearly all the way around, and the 
 
 Ruins in the HcElmo Canon. 
 
 space between the two outer ones, which is about five feet, 
 contains fourteen apartments or cells. The walls about one 
 of these cells were still standing at the time of Mr. Holmes's 
 visit, but tlic cell was filled with rubhisli from the fallen 
 walls. A door-way, opening into this .ip.irtnuMit, could still 
 be seen. The inner w;ill was pr()bal)ly nt'\cr very high. It 
 simply inclosed the cstufa. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 439 
 
 The ruins surrounding this tower consist of low, fallen 
 walls, scarcely traceable. The apartments number- nearly 
 one hundred, and were generally rectangular. They are not 
 of a uniform size, and were certainly not arranged in regu- 
 lar order. Now, as Mr. Holmes observes,, it would certainly 
 seem that, if they are the ruins of such structures as the 
 pueblos of the south, there would be some regularity of- 
 size, and some systematic arrangement. He says that, in 
 reality, they are more like a cluster of pens, such as are used 
 hy the Moqui tribes for keeping sheep and goats. 
 
 Since these surveys were made, Mr. Bandolier, as agent 
 for the Archseological Institute, has made important re- 
 searches. He finds that the small, detached houses, such 
 as we described in the ruined village near Jemez, are found 
 in Arizona, with a small court-yard or inclosure attached to 
 them. If we understand the description of the ruins just 
 mentioned, and those at Apache Springs, they are villages 
 of these small houses and their inclosures. In such villages 
 the inclosures meet each other, so as to form a checker- 
 board of irregularly alternating houses and courts. The 
 houses are easily discernible from the fact of little rubbish 
 mounds having accumulated where they stood. Around 
 these parts of the wall can still be traced. This combina- 
 tion makes a strong, easily defended position. Each of 
 such villages contains one or more open spaces of large size, 
 hut they are irregularly located. 
 
 We must notice one point more : Each village of this 
 nature, that was of any size, contained a larger ruin in the 
 center. This was noticed in the ruins at Aztec Springs. 
 This larger building was in the nature of a citadel, and 
 there the inhabitants could retire when the approaches were 
 carried by the enemy. This central building ultimately 
 swallowed up all the others, and so developed into the pueblo 
 
440 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 structures we have noticed. The little walled inclosures 
 surrounding the houses were largely in the nature of de- 
 fenses. Trrdition asserts that in many cases they were gar- 
 den plats, and appearances sometimes confirm this. " They 
 ipay also have been the yard proper for each family, in 
 which the latter slept, cooked — in, fact, lived — during the 
 beat of the Summer months."^ 
 
 Referring once more to the ruins near the McElmo, we 
 are told that every isolated rock and bit of mesa within a 
 icircle of miles of this place is strewn with remnants of an- 
 cient dwellings. We presume these were small, separate 
 houses. They may have been outlying settlements of the 
 tribe whose main village was at Aztec Springs. We must 
 also notice the small tower in the corner. This was a watch 
 tower. It was fifteen feet in diameter, walls three and a 
 half feet thick, and in 1876 was still five feet high. It over- 
 looked the surrounding country. The rainfall in the past 
 must have been more abundant, to support the population 
 we are justified in thinking once lived there. The nearest 
 water is now a mile away, and during the dry season some 
 fifteen miles to the north, in the Rio Dolores, and yet we 
 have every reason to believe these old inhabitants were very 
 saving of water. They built cisterns and reservoirs to store 
 it up against the time of need. 
 
 We give a cut of the tower of the ruins of a similar village, 
 or settlement, to the one just described, which occurs twenty 
 miles to the south-east, in the canon of the Rio Mancos. 
 Being so similar, we will mention it here. In this case the 
 tower had only two wnlls. Mr. Holmes says the diameter 
 of the outer wall is forty-three feet, that of the inner twenty- 
 five feet. The space between the two circles is divided by 
 
 •Bandelier, "Fifth Annual Report Arcliseological Inst, of America," pp. 
 82, 63, and 65. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 441 
 
 Tower on the Rio Mancos. 
 
 cross-walls into ten apartments. This tower is placed also 
 
 in the midst of a group of more dimly marked ruins or 
 
 foundations, extending some distance in each direction from 
 
 it. Mr. Holmes, however, 
 
 states that there are no 
 
 ruins of importance in 
 
 connection with this 
 
 tower, but that there are 
 
 a number of ruins in the 
 
 immediate vicinity. In 
 
 this case, then, the citadel 
 
 (if such it was) was not 
 
 directly connected with 
 
 other ruins. 
 
 The Rio Mancos, that 
 we have just mentioned, 
 was afavorite place of resort for these old people. This stream, 
 rising in the La Platte Mountains, flows through beautiful 
 valleys to a great table-land known as the Mesa Verde. Mr. 
 Jackson explored this valley in 1874, and he reports as fol- 
 lows : " Commencing our observation in the park-like valley 
 of the Mancos, between the mesa and the mountains, we find 
 that the low benches which border the stream upon either 
 side bear faint vestiges of having at some far away time, 
 been covered with dwellings, grouped in communities appar- 
 ently, but so indistinct as to present to the eye little more 
 than unintelligible mounds. By a little careful investigation, 
 however, the foundation of great square blocks of single 
 buildings and of circular inclosures can be made out, the lat- 
 ter generally of a depressed center, showing an excavation 
 for some purpose." 
 
 From this description we can not quite make out whether 
 these ruins are great communal buildings, like the modern 
 
442 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 pueblo, or clusters of separate houses. We incline to the 
 latter opinion, however. The circular depressed area was 
 doubtless used as an Estufa, the place of religious meetings 
 for men alone. " The greater portion of these mounds are now 
 overgrown with artemisia, pinion-pine, and cedar, concealing 
 them almost entirely from casual observation." " We found 
 the surest indication of their proximity in the great quan- 
 tity of broken pottery which covered the ground in their 
 neighborhood. The same curiously indented, painted, and 
 glazed ware, was found throughout New Mexico and Ari- 
 zona. It was all broken into very small pieces, none that 
 we could find being larger than a silver dollar." Specimens 
 of this pottery will be figured in its appropriate place. 
 
 " Nowhere among these open plane habitations could we 
 discover any vestige of stoiie-work, either in building mate- 
 rial or implements. It is very evident that the houses were 
 all of adobe, the mound-like character of the remains justi- 
 fying that belief." In this last respect we note a differ- 
 ence between these remains and those already described. 
 The mesa verde is one of those elevated plateaus we have 
 so often described. Through this the Mancos has cut a canon 
 nearly thirty miles in length, and from one to two thousand 
 feet deep. The description we have already given is of the 
 valley of the river before coming to the canon. 
 
 Entering the caiion, Mr. Jackson continues : " Grouped 
 along in clusters, and singly, "were indications of former 
 habitations, very nearly obliterated, and consisting mostly, 
 in the first four or five miles, of the same mound-like forms 
 noticed above, and accompanied always by the scattered, 
 broken pottery. Among them we find one building of 
 squared and carefully laid sandstone, one face only exposed 
 of three or four courses, above the mass of debris which 
 covered every thing. This building lay within a few yards 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 443 
 
 ■of the banks of the stream, was apparently about ten feet by 
 eight, the usual size, as near as we could determine, of nearly 
 all the separate rooms or houses in the larger blocks, none 
 larger, and many not more than five feet square. The stones 
 exposed are each about seven by twelve inches square, and 
 four inches thick, those in their original position retaining 
 correct angles, but, when thrown down, worn away by at- 
 trition to shapeless bowlders." 
 
 "As we progressed down the canon the same general 
 characteristics held good. The great majority of the ruins 
 consisting of heaps of debris a central mass considerably 
 higher and more massive than the surrounding lines of sub- 
 divided squares. Small buildings, not more than eight feet 
 square, were often found standing alone apparently, no trace 
 of any other being detected in their immediate neighbor- 
 hood." We would call especial attention in this description 
 to the character of the ruins, the central, higher mass sur- 
 rounded by other ruins ; also to the houses found occasionally 
 standing alone. We notice they are of the same general 
 character as the ruins at Aztec Springs. 
 
 We are finding abundant evidence that this section was 
 ■once thickly settled. Going back to the triple-walled tower 
 ■on the McElmo, Mr. Jackson says of the immediate vicinity : 
 " On the mesa is group after group upon the same general 
 plan, a great central tower and smaller surrounding build- 
 ings. They cover the whole breadth and length of the land, 
 and, turn which way we would, we stumbled over the old 
 mound and into the cellars, as we might call them, of these 
 truly aborigines." We believe, however, that no excavation 
 for cellar purposes are found in the entire region covered by 
 these ancient ruins. 
 
 "Starting down the carion (the McElmo), which gradu- 
 ally deepened as the table-land rose above us, we found 
 
 28 
 
444 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 upon either hand very old and faint vestiges of the homes of 
 a forgotten people, but could give them no more attentioa 
 than merely noting their existence." 
 
 Mr. Morgan has shown the existence of regular large 
 houses in the valley of Aminas River, east of the Man- 
 cos -^ and he also speaks of the ruins at the commencement 
 of McElmo Canon as being large communal buildings. We 
 should judge from Mr. Jackson's report just given that 
 these ruins were rather small clusters of houses of the same 
 design as the ruins at Apache Springs. 
 
 Near the Utah boundary line we notice the Havenweep 
 Creek joining the McElmo from the north. The mesa, nar- 
 rowing to a point where the two caiions meet, is covered 
 with ruins much like what we have described already. 
 The Hovenweep is appropriately named, meaning " deserted 
 valley." 
 
 Further west still is the Montezuma VaUey. Mr. Jack- 
 son's party found the ruins so numerous as to excite sur- 
 prise at the numbers this narrow valley must have sup- 
 ported. He says, " We camped at the intersection of a 
 large canon coming in from the west. . . „At this point 
 the bottoms widen out to from two to three hundred yards 
 in width, and are literally covered with ruins, evidently 
 those of an extensive settlement or community, although at 
 the present time water was so scarce (there not being a drop 
 within a radius of six miles) that we were compelled to 
 make a dry camp. The ruins consist evidently of great 
 solid mounds of rock debris, piled up in rectangular masses,, 
 covered with earth and a brush growth, bearing every 
 indication of extreme age — just how old is about as impos- 
 sible to tell as to say how old the rocks of this caiion are. 
 This group is a mile in length, in the middle of the valley 
 
 ' "Contributions to North American Ethnology," Vol. IV, p. \12,cl8eq. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 445 
 
 space, and upon both sides of the wash. Each separate 
 building would cover a space, generally, of one hundred 
 feet square ; they are seldom subdivided into more than two 
 or four apartments. Helics were abundant, broken pottery 
 
 Ruins in the Hoven-weep Canon. 
 
 and arrow-points being especially plenty. At one place, 
 where the wash had partially undermined the foundation of 
 one of the large buildings, it exposed a wall of regularly 
 laid masonry, extending down six feet beneath the superin- 
 cumbent rubbish to the old floor-level, covered with ashes 
 and the remains of half-charred sticks of juniper " 
 
446 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Lower down, the valley was noted for little projecting 
 tongues of rock extending out into the canon, sometimes 
 connected with the main walls of the canon by narrow 
 ledges of rock, and in cases even this had disappeared, leav- 
 ing detached masses of rock standing quite alone. " Within 
 a distance of fifteen miles there are some sixteen or eighteen 
 of these promontories and isolated mesas of different height, 
 every one of them covered with ruins of old and massive 
 stone-built structures." 
 
 We have been somewhat full in our description of these 
 Tuins, yet their importance justifies this course. So far- we 
 see but very little to remind us of the pueblo towns. On 
 the other hand, the buildings seem to be often single houses, 
 or a few houses grouped together. In some locations they 
 were built of stone, in others of adobe. It is to be ob- 
 served, however, that the houses are very small — not larger 
 than the rooms in the modern pueblos. We evidently have 
 here quiet scenes of agricultural life. They of course had 
 enemies, and guarded against their attacks by the watch- 
 towers, of which an example is given in the McElmo ruins. 
 The country must have been better watered that now, the 
 soil productive, the seasons kind; and who can tell how long 
 these agricultural tribes held the land? Under these con- 
 ditions, time must have been rapidly bringing them civiliza- 
 tion. But we must now turn to a sorrowful chapter in 
 their history, and trace the dispersion of these tribes, their 
 unavailing attempts to hold their own against a savage foe, 
 and the desperate chances they took before leaving the land 
 of their fathers. 
 
 This brings us to a consideration of cliff-houses — that 
 is, houses so placed that manifestly the onl}"" reason the 
 people would have for putting them where found would be 
 of a defensive nature ; and, for a similar reason, we may be 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 447 
 
 very sure they are of a later date than the majority of the 
 ruins in the valley or in the canons. People would never 
 have settled in the valley in the first place if they had felt 
 the necessity of seeking inaccessible places in which to 
 build shelters as a resort in time of need. We can not do 
 better than to refer once more to Mr. Jackson's exploration 
 in the valley of the Rio Mancos. We have already referred 
 to it in reference to the larger ruins. 
 
 Two-storied House in the Manoos Canon. 
 
 This cut gives us a general view of the first cliff-house 
 discovered in this valley. This was far up on the cliff. Mr, 
 Jackson says, "We had no field-glass with the party, and 
 to this fact is probably due the reason we had not seen 
 others during the day in this same line, for there is no 
 doubt that ruins exist throughout the entire length of the 
 caiion, far above and out of the way of ordinary observa- 
 tion." Subsequently Mr. Holmes proved this supposition to 
 be true. The sides of this canon have nearly all their 
 ledges occupied by these houses. 
 
 Every advantage was taken, both natural and artificial, 
 
448 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 to conceal them from view. 
 " Cedars and pines grew thickly 
 along the ledges upon which 
 they are built, hiding com- 
 pletely any thing behind them. 
 All that we did find were built 
 of the same materials as the 
 cliffs themselves, with but few, 
 h and then ouly the smallest, ap- 
 ertures toward the caiion, the 
 11 surface being dressed very 
 smooth, and showing no lines of 
 I masonry. It was only on the 
 very closest inspection that the 
 houses could be separated from 
 the cliff." 
 
 To illustrate the singular po- 
 sition in which this house was 
 located, we introduce this cut. 
 .1 > :, , ijf ,', iff'-l 'I ^^ ^^ seven hundred feet above 
 MJ^'W^'^^'^k^W' the valley. "Whether viewed 
 
 from below or from the heights 
 above, the effect is almost start- 
 ling, and one can not but feel 
 that no ordinary circumstances 
 could have driven a people to 
 such ])laces of resort." As 
 sliowing the difficulty an enemy 
 wouhl have to approach such a 
 house, we give Mr. Jackson's ac- 
 count of his climb to it: 
 
 "The first five hundred feet 
 
 a Ion 
 
 view of Cliff in whioh the H=u3e^f. ^. ^^.^^.^ ^^.^,^ 
 
 13 £>ltUat6Cl. 
 
 o> 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 449 
 
 steep slope of debris, overgrown with cedar, then came al- 
 ternately perpendiculars and slopes Immediately below 
 the house was a nearly perpendicular ascent of one hun- 
 dred feet, that puzzled us for a while, and which we were 
 only able to surmount by finding cracks and crevices into 
 which fingers and toes could be inserted. From the little 
 ledges occasionally found, and by stepping upon each other's 
 shoulders, and grasping tufts of yucca, one would draw him- 
 self up to another shelf, and then, by letting down a stick 
 of cedar or a hand, would assist the others." 
 
 " Soon we reached a slope, smooth and steep, in which 
 there had been cut a series of steps, now weathered away 
 into a series of undulating hummocks, by which it was easy 
 to ascend, and without them almost an impossibility. An- 
 other short, steep slope, and we were under the ledge on 
 which stood our house." By referring to the first cut, we 
 see that the house stands on a very narrow ledge, and that 
 the rocks overhang it so as to furnish a roof. It will also 
 be noticed that the ledge is rounding, so that the outer 
 
 Plan of the House. 
 
 walls of the house rise from an incline. Piers, or abut- 
 ments, had also been built along the ledge so as to form an 
 esplanade. 
 
 The house itself was only about twelve feet high, but 
 this had been divided into two stories. Whether it ever 
 
450 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 had any other roof than the overhanging walls of rock is 
 doubtful. The plan is shown in the preceding cut. The 
 curved apartment at the right is a reservoir, capable of hold- 
 ing about five barrels. A series of pegs were inserted in 
 
 the wall, so as to form a means of 
 descent from a window to the bot- 
 tom. A number of doorways are seen 
 ^^ in the plan ; a cut af one is presented 
 in this figure. 
 
 We are, however, warned that the 
 artist has represented the stone-work 
 Doorway of the House. ^ little too regularly. The support for 
 the top of the doorway is not clearly shown; a number of 
 small beams of wood were laid across, on these the stones. 
 This cut gives us a view of the front room. Looking in 
 from the end window, we can 
 see where the second story 
 commenced. The doorway 
 we have been describing 
 was not a very handy mode 
 of entrance. Its builders, 
 however, did the best they 
 could in their limited space. 
 The house displays perse- 
 verance, ingenuity, and taste. 
 It was plastered, both within and without, so as to resemble 
 the walls of the canon, but an ornamental border was added 
 to the plastering of the interior rooms. 
 
 This cliff house could only have been used as a place of 
 refuge in a time of need. We must observe the care with 
 which it was hidden away. The walls were plastered on the 
 outside, so as to resemble the caiion-walls. Then we must 
 notice what a secure place of retreat it afforded the people. 
 
 EG:r.i c; ir.^ K;use. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 451 
 
 No invading party could hope to storm this castle as long-, 
 as there was any one to defend it. This house, with its 
 four small rooms, could give shelter to quite a band of In- 
 dians. Then, besides, it was not alone. Ruins of half 
 a dozen smaller houses were found near by. Some had 
 been crushed by the overhanging walls falling upon them, 
 and others had lost their foothold and tumbled down the 
 precipice. 
 
 It needs but a glance to satisfy any one that only dire 
 necessity would have driven a people to such resorts. When 
 we consider how much labor it must have required to con- 
 vey the materials to the almost inaccessible place, the many 
 inconveniences the people must have been put to when they 
 were occupied, we may imagine how the people clung to 
 their old home. It is altogether likely that such resorts 
 would be only used now and then. During seasons of war 
 and invasion probably the women and old the men, with the 
 little ones, went thither for protection. 
 
 Mr. Holmes calls attention to one point bearing on the 
 antiquity of this ruin. The buttresses, which probably sup- 
 port a balustrade, noticed in the figure on- the house, were 
 built on the sloping surface of the rock. It would take but 
 very little weathering of the rocks to throw them to the 
 bottom of the canon ; and, furthermore, the rock is a rough 
 sandstone, and hence easily crumbles ; and it is not well 
 protected by the overhanging cliff; but no perceptible change 
 has taken place since the buttresses were first built. The 
 thickness of a sheet of paper has hardly been washed from 
 the surface, and the mortar, almost as hard as the rock 
 itself, lies upon it as if placed there within a dozen 
 years. This structure is, evidently, not as old as the low 
 mounds of crumbling ruins we have heretofore described. 
 It is more than probable that such retreats as this were- 
 
452 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 not provided until near the close of their stay in the 
 country, 
 
 A ruin further down the canon, described by Mr. Holmes, 
 is of great interest, as it shows how necessary the people 
 considered it to be to construct an estufa. It will be 
 observed that there are two houses. So nicely are these 
 hidden away that Mr. Holmes had almost completed a 
 sketch of the upper house before he noticed the lower one. 
 They are both overhung by the rocks above so as to be pro- 
 tected from the weather. The upper house can only be ap- 
 proached by means of steps cut in the rock. It appears to 
 be in an unfinished state, and, when we consider the great 
 labor required for its construction, we can not wonder that 
 they grew tired- before its completion. 
 
 The lower house is some eight hundred feet above 
 the bottom of the carton, but is comparatively easy of ap- 
 proach. The interesting feature about it is the estufa. It 
 was situated near the center of the main portion of the 
 house. The entrance to this chamber shows the peculiar 
 importance attached to it by the builders. Mr. Holmes 
 says : ''A walled and covered passage-way of solid masonry, 
 ten feet of which is still intact, leads from an outer chamber 
 through the small intervening apartments into the circular 
 one. It is possible that this originally extended to the 
 outer wall, and was entered from the outside. If so, the 
 person desiring to visit the estufa would have to enter 
 the aperture about twenty-two inches high by thirty wide, 
 and crawl, in the the most abject manner possible, through 
 a tube-like passage-way nearly twenty feet in length." 
 
 '* My first impression was that this peculiarly constructed 
 way was a precaution against enemies, and that it was prob- 
 ably the only means of entranco to the interior of the house, 
 but 1 am now inclined to think this is hardly probable, and 
 
CLIFF-TCWN, HIO MANGOS. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 455 
 
 conclude that this was rather designed to render a sacred 
 chamber as free as possible from profane intrusion." This 
 illustrates the peculiar regard in which it was held. Even 
 when sore pressed by their enemies, and obliged to flee to 
 inaccessible heights, they still constructed their sacred Dlace. 
 
 These cliff-houses, of which we give illustrations, are 
 quite common in the Mancos. Our frontispiece shows an in- 
 teresting group, about ten miles from the foot of the caiion. 
 These are situated only about forty feet above the bed of 
 the creek, but still in a secure position. Here a bed of shale 
 had been weathered out of the sandstone, leaving a sort of 
 horizontal groove four feet high and from four to six feet 
 deep. In this a row of minute houses had been built. They 
 had been made to occupy the full height and depth of the 
 crevice, so that when one reaches it at the only accessible 
 point he is between two houses, and must pass through 
 these to get at the others. 
 
 Besides the cliff-houses, the explorers found that these 
 people had made use of little cave-like openings in the 
 cliffs, and, by walling up the openings, had converted them 
 into houses. These were very common in the Mancos, and 
 of all sizes. Some were evidently merely little hiding • 
 places, in which to store away provisions or other articles. 
 In some places the cliffs were literally honey-combed with 
 these little habitations. Sometimes the walls were quite 
 well preserved and new-looking, while all about were others 
 in all stages of decay. 
 
 " In one place in particular a picturesque outstanding 
 promontory has been full of dwellings. ... As one 
 from below views the ragged, window-pierced crags, he is 
 unconsciously led to wonder if they are not the ruins of 
 -some ancient castle, behind whose mouldering walls are hid- 
 den the dread secrets of a long-forgotten people ; but a 
 
456 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 nearer approach quickly dispels such fancies, for the win 
 dows prove to be only the doorways to shallow and irregular 
 apartments hardly sufficiently commodious for a race of pig- 
 mies. Neither the outer openings nor the apertures that 
 communicate between the caves are large enough to allow a 
 person of large stature to pass, and one is led to suspect 
 that these nests were not the dwellings proper of these peo- 
 ple, but occasional resorts for women and children, and that 
 the somewhat extensive ruins of the valley below were their 
 ordinary dwelling places."^ 
 
 On the San Juan, about ten miles above the mouth of 
 the Mancos, is a significant combination of cave-dwellings and 
 
 Caves Used as Houses, Rio Hancos. 
 
 towers. In this case, about half-way up the cliff, which is 
 not more than forty feet high, excavations had been made 
 in a soft bed of shale. They are now quite shallow, but 
 were probably once deeper and walled up in front. Directly 
 above these cave-openings, on the very brink of the chfTs, 
 were the remains of two circular towers, in each case double- 
 walled, :iii(l probably divided by cross-walls into jjartitions. 
 The towers were probably their council chambers and places 
 of worship. The caves, directly below, down a steep bank, 
 were their fortresses, whither in times of danger they could 
 
 ' Holmes. 
 
THE FVEBLO COUJSTRY. 
 
 457 
 
 flee. The little community, by means of ladders, could 
 freely pass from their cave resorts to the towers and back. 
 The San Juan River does not seem to be as rich in ruins 
 as some of its tributaries. Yet near the mouth of the 
 Montezuma we came upon a ruin which shows considerable 
 analogy to the pueblos. Mr. Jackson says upon the top of 
 the bench (fifty feet high) overlooking the river are the 
 ruins of a quadrangular structure of a pecuhar design. It 
 is arranged very nearly at right angles to the river. We 
 see from the plan that we have the ruins of a larger build- 
 
 ^AUBUIIlUunUUiUB 
 
 .^CS^OBOIB 
 
 'ena.iQ-iieigiiu 
 
 ■omsmag a row ol 
 amaXI iiiuldings 
 
 H\iins in the San Juan Carlon. 
 
 ing, arranged around an open court — at least, Mr. Jackson 
 could detect no trace of a wall in front. We must notice 
 the seven apartments, arranged in the form of a semicir- 
 cle, back of the court. Extreme massiveness is indicated 
 throughout the whole structure. 
 
 In the immediate vicinity of this ruin were found a num- 
 ber of little, cave-like dwellings. They were so small that 
 doubts were raised as to whether they were suitable for 
 human habitations, but the majority of them bore ample ev- 
 idence in smoke-begrimed walls that such was their use. 
 "Twelve miles below the mouth of the Montezuma this group 
 
458 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 of ruins was discovered. These were situated in a cave that 
 was almost exactly a hemisphere in shape. Where the 
 curve of the roof met the curve from the bottom a little 
 projecting bench had been utilized as a foundation for a row 
 of houses. 
 
 The little community that built their houses here seem 
 to have practiced all the industries of a savage life. In 
 
 Cavs-Town. 
 
 one place there was evidence that on that spot had been car- 
 ried on the manufacture of stone implements. At another 
 place holes had been drilled, as if for a loom. In the main 
 building there were fourteen rooms or apartments, ranging 
 from sixteen to nine feet in width. '• In the central room 
 of the main building we found a circular, basin-like depres- 
 sion, that had served as a fire-place, being still filled with 
 the ashes and cinders of aboriginal fires, the surrounding 
 
THE P UEBL CO UNTR Y. 4 5 & 
 
 walls being blackened with smoke and soot. This room was 
 undoubtedly the kitchen of the house. Some of the smaller 
 rooms appear to have been used for the same purpose, the fire& 
 having been made in the corner against the back wall, the 
 smoke escaping overhead. The masonry displayed in the con- 
 struction of the walls is very creditable. A symmetrical curve 
 is preserved throughout the whole line, and every portion 
 perfectly plumb. The subdivisions are at right angles to the 
 front. The whole appearance of the place and its surround- 
 ings indicate that the family or little community who inhab- 
 ited it were in good circumstances, and the lords of the 
 surrounding country. Looking out from one of their houses, 
 with a great dome of solid rock overhead that echoed and 
 re-echoed everv word uttered with marvelous distinctness, 
 and below th^m a steep descent of one hundred feet to the 
 broad, fertile valley of the Rio San Juan, covered with wav- 
 ing fields of maize and scattered groves of majestic cotton- 
 woods, these old people, whom even the imagination can 
 hardly clothe with reality, must have felt a sense of security 
 that even the incursions of their barbarian foes could hardly 
 have disturbed." ^ 
 
 To describe the defensive ruins on Epsom Creek, Monte- 
 zuma Creek, and the McElmo is simply to repeat descrip- 
 tions already given. We meet with cave-houses, clifF- 
 houses, and sentinel-towers in abundance. The whole section 
 appears to have been thickly settled. Further explorations 
 will doubtless make known many more ruins, but probably 
 nothing differing in kind from what is already known. We 
 think the defensive ruins belong to a later period of their 
 existence than do the old and time-worn structures we have 
 hitherto described along the river valleys and open plains,, 
 as at Aztec Springs. These structures plainly show that at 
 
 ' U. S. Survey, Hayden, 1876, p. 419. 
 
460 " THE PREHISTOEIC WORLD. 
 
 the time they were built the people were subject to an in- 
 vasion from a stronger foe, one before whose approach they 
 ^had to fly for protection to the almost inaccessible cliffs. 
 
 They would obviously never have settled there had they 
 •always had to contend with these savage tribes. It needs 
 no great skill to read the story of the dispersion of these 
 old people from the ruins we have described ; the many 
 watch-towers, which were also used as fortresses or citadels 
 in which to find protection, testifying to the need of in- 
 creased watchfulness. The cave-houses and cliff-fortresses, 
 cunningly hidden away to escape detection, or so placed as to 
 defy the assault of their enemies, show to what desperate 
 straits they were driven; and imagination only can picture 
 the despair that must have filled their hearts when the hour 
 of final defeat came, and they must have realized that even 
 these shifts would not allow them to stay in the lands of 
 their fathers. 
 
 That this is the explanation of these ruins, we will cite 
 the legendary stories given by an old man among the Moquis 
 concerning some ruins in the canon of the McElmo, just 
 over the line in Utah. At this point the canon widens out 
 considerably, and in the center of the valley is still stand- 
 ing a portion of the old mesa, once filling the entire valley. 
 It is now a mass of dark red sandstone, about one hundred 
 feet high, and three hundred feet around, seamed and cracked, 
 and gradually disappearing, as the rock has gone all around 
 it. The top of this rock is covered with the ruins of some 
 building; there are also ruins at the base and all around the 
 immediate vicinity. There were watch towers and estufas, 
 showing that this was a place of great interest. 
 
 The story is as follows : " Formerly the aborigines in- 
 habited all this country as far east as the head-waters of the 
 8an Jnnn, as far north as the Rio Dolores, west some dis- 
 
TEE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 461 
 
 tance into Utah, and south and south-west throughout Ari- 
 zona, and on down into Mexico. They had lived there from 
 time immemorial, since the earth was a small island, which 
 augmented as its inhabitants multiplied. They cultivated 
 the valley, fashioned whatever utensils and tools they needed 
 very neatly and handsomely out of clay, and wood, and 
 stone, not knowing any of the useful metals; built their 
 
 Battle Rock, MeEimo Canon. 
 
 homes and kept their flocks and herds in the fertile river 
 bottoms, and worshiped the sun. They were an eminently 
 peaceful and prosperous people, living by agriculture rather 
 than by the chase. About a thousand years ago, however, 
 they were visited by savage strangers from the north, whom 
 they treated hospitably. Soon these visits became more 
 frequent and annoying. Then their troublesome neighbors, 
 
462 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ancestors of the present Utes, began to forage upon them, 
 and at last to massacre them and devastate their farms. So, 
 to save their lives at least, they built houses high up on the 
 cliffs, where they could store food and hide away until the 
 raiders left. 
 
 "But one Summer the invaders did not go back to their 
 mountains, as the people expected, but brought their ftimi- 
 lies with them and settled doAvn. So, driven from their 
 homes and lands, starving in their little niches on the high 
 cliffs, they could only steal away during the night and wan- 
 der across the cheerless uplands. To one who has traveled 
 these steppes such a flight seems terrible, and the mind 
 hesitates to picture the sufferings of the sad fugitives. At 
 the ' Creston ' (name of the ruin) they halted, and probably 
 found friends, for the rocks and caves are full of the nests 
 of these human wrens and swallows. Here they collected, 
 erected stone fortifications and watch-towers, dug reservoirs 
 in the rocks to hold a supply of water, which in all cases is 
 precarious in this latitude, and once more stood at bay. 
 Their foes came, and for one long month fought, and were 
 beaten back, and returned day after day to the attack as 
 merciless and inevitable as the tide. Meanwhile the families 
 of the defenders were evacuating and moving south, and 
 bravely did their defenders shield them till they were all 
 safely a hundred miles away. 
 
 " The besiegers were beaten back and went away. But 
 the narrative tells us that the hollows of the rocks were 
 filled to the brim with the mingled blood of conquerors and 
 conquered, and red veins of it ran down the canon. It was 
 such a victory as they could not afford to gain again, and 
 they were glad, when the long flight was over, to follow 
 their wives and little ones to the south. There, in the 
 deserts of Arizona, on well-nigh unapproachable, isolated 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 463 
 
 bluffs, they built new towns, and their few descendants, the 
 Moquis, live in them to this day, preserving more carefully 
 and purely the history and veneration of their forefathers 
 than their skill or wisdom."^ 
 
 Mr. Jackson thinks this legend arises from the appear- 
 ance of the rocks. The bare floor of nearly white sandstone, 
 upon which the butte stands, is stained in gory streaks and 
 blotches by the action of an iron constituent in the rocks 
 of another portion of the adjoining bluffs. That may well 
 be true, but we believe that there are germs of truth in 
 the story. 
 
 Driven from their homes, where did the fugitives go ? 
 Some of them may have gone east, but probably the body 
 of the migration was to the south. It has been the ten- 
 dency of all tribes, but especially of the sedentary tribes, 
 to pass to the south and east, and this is also the traditions 
 ■among the inhabitants of still existing pueblos.^ We find 
 that every available portion of New Mexico and Arizona 
 bears evidence of having been once populated by tribes pf 
 Indians, who built houses in all respects like those already 
 described. In northern New Mexico, Prof. Cope has de- 
 scribed a whole section of country as being at one time more 
 densely populated than the thickly inhabited portions of the 
 Eastern States. He says : " The number of buildings in a 
 square mile of that region is equal to, if not greater than 
 the number now existing in the more densely populated rural 
 districts of Pennsylvania and New Jersey."^ 
 
 In one location he found a village of thirty houses, built 
 •of stone, and all in ruins. He found, over a large extent 
 of country, that every little conical hill and eminence was 
 
 ^ Eendered by Ingersoll, in N. Y. Tribune, Nov. 3, 1874. 
 ^ Bandelier, in Fifth Ann. Eep., Arch. Inst., p 79. 
 " U. S. Survey West of 100th M., Vol. VII, p. 358. 
 
464 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 crowned with ruins of old houses. We, of course, can not 
 say that these ruins are necessarily younger than those to 
 the north of the San Juan, and yet we think from Prof. 
 Cope's description that they do not present such evidence 
 of antiquity as do the crumbling ruins previously described. 
 And then, besides, they were always located in easily de- 
 fended positions. 
 
 The village spoken of was really a Cliff Village, being 
 arranged along the very edge of a precipitous mesa, the only 
 access to it being along a narrow causeway. Then again, 
 although we have described many ruins near which no water 
 is to be had, at least, in dry seasons, yet we have every 
 reason to suppose water was formerly more plentiful and 
 easily attained. But in this section it must always have 
 been a serious question with them to obtain enough water 
 for necessary purposes. They mHst have had to store away 
 water in vessels of pottery, whose ruins are now so abun- 
 dant. It is not such a country as we would suppose a people 
 to choose for a place to settle in, only that they knew not 
 where else to go. 
 
 It is also considered settled that all the inhabited pue- 
 blos, as well as those in ruins near the inhabited ones, were 
 built by the descendants of these people whose houses we 
 have described. This is proven by the similarity of pottery. 
 Though some styles of ancient corrugated ware are found in 
 the San Juan section not found near the inhabited pueblos, 
 yet vast quantities of ware, similar to that now found in 
 the inhabited pueblos, can be picked up all over the ruins 
 to the north. Again, their religion must have been the 
 same, as ruined estufas are common, in all respects similar 
 to those now in use. In the modern pueblos we are struck 
 with the small cell-like rooms, yet they are but little smaller 
 than the ordinary single houses plentifully found over the 
 
THE PUEBLO COVNTRY. 465 
 
 entire field of ruins. All the Pueblo tribes are agricultural, 
 so were these old people. In fact, all evidence confirms the 
 conclusion that the remnants of the Pueblo people that we 
 have already described, are also the descendants of the peo- 
 ple driven by hostile bands from north of the San Juan. 
 
 This statement may give false impressions, however. 
 The traditions of the Pueblo Indians, of New Mexico, are 
 to the effect that they came from the north, and also that 
 their ancestors formerly lived in the small houses we have 
 described. But we do not mean to say that all the small 
 houses and pueblos in Arizona and New Mexico are later in 
 date than the cliff-houses. The pressure has always been 
 from the north to the south,. Neither would we be under- 
 stood as saying that all the sedentary tribes, both ancient 
 and modern, belong to the same stock of people. There are 
 several different stocks of people even among the present 
 Pueblos.^ 
 
 In the valley of the Rio Chaco, about midway between 
 the Rio Grande and the San Juan, we meet a group of 
 ruined pueblos whose style of masonry is thought to indi- 
 cate a greater antiquity than the inhabited pueblo towns ; 
 these probably indicate another settlement of these people. 
 As these are really remarkable ruins, we must briefly de- 
 scribe them. In the Chaco caiion, as indicated on the map, 
 within the space of ten miles are the ruins of eight larger 
 pueblos. Another is located at the very beginning of the 
 canon, and two more on the edge of the mesas just outside 
 of the canon. These are large communal houses of regular 
 pueblo type, and, theoretically at least, they should be later 
 in date than the majority of ruins throughout the area 
 represented on the map. We think the development has 
 been from small, separate houses, to a closely connected 
 
 ' " First Annual Report of Bureau of Ethnology," p. 74. 
 
466 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 cluster, with a central citadel, which finally drew to itself 
 all the other buildings, and became the communal building 
 we call a pueblo.-^ 
 
 We give a restoration of one — the Pueblo Bonito — one 
 of the largest and most important of the ruias. We can 
 not doubt but what the restoration is substantially correct. 
 It shows the open court, the terraced structure, and tha 
 system of defense. The cii'cle itself is not as near a half- 
 circle as we would imagine. The ground plan shows that 
 it was really a many-sided building. This pueblo must have 
 presented a striking appearance when it was in a com- 
 plete state. 
 
 By comparing this structure with the views of some of 
 the present pueblo towns, we will understand the remarks 
 made on page 422, as to the different styles of pueblo struc- 
 tures. This building must have had not far from six hun- 
 dred and fifty rooms. "No single edifice of equal accom- 
 modations has ever been found in any part of North 
 America. It would shelter three thousand Indians."^ This 
 pueblo will compare favorably with some of the structures 
 of Yucatan; though not so ornamental, yet for practical 
 convenience, it must have met the wants of the builders 
 fully as well. This may be given as a fair example of the 
 entire class. 
 
 The evident plan on which they started to build their 
 structures is shown in the following plan of the pueblo. 
 But some of them were not fully completed. Two of 
 them had but one wing. In the restoration the court is 
 seen to be closed by a straight row of small buildings, but 
 in most cases the wall inclosing the court was more or less 
 circular. In one case the court was left open. We wiU 
 
 » "Fifth Annual Report Arch. Inst," pp. 42,78. 
 
 » Morgan: " Contribution to N. A. Ethnology," Vol. IV, p. 163. 
 
THE P UEBLO CO UN TR Y. 
 
 469 
 
 only give general descriptions. It is now believed that 
 these great structures were built only a part at a time; 
 perhaps the main body, or a part of it, first. Afterwards, 
 
 as the number (gQgannpq-gg;^, 
 of inhabitants ^" r— .r—,, ii ,,-^. 
 
 increased, a wing 
 would be added, 
 and then the 
 other ; and so> 
 many years 
 would elapse be- 
 fore the pueblo 
 would assume its 
 completed form. 
 These struc- 
 
 tures ranged in 
 extent from 
 about four hun- 
 dred to twelve 
 hundred feet 
 in external meas- 
 urement, and 
 could furnish a 
 home to from 
 two hundred to 
 eight hundred or 
 a thousand Indians, and, in one case at least, many more. 
 In the next cut we have represented the different styles 
 of masonry employed in the puoblos of this valley. It varied 
 all the way from careful piling of big and little stones, and 
 of alternate layers of such materials, to very good masonry 
 indeed. Speaking of it. Mr. Jackson says, "It is the most 
 wonderful feature in these ancient habitations, and is in 
 
470 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 striking contrast to the careless and rude methods shown in 
 the dwellings of the present pueblos. The material, a 
 grayish-yellow sandstone, breaking readily into thin laminse, 
 and was quarried from the adjacent exposures of that rock. 
 The stones employed average about the size of an ordinary 
 brick, but as the larger pieces were irregular in size, the 
 interstices were filled in with very thin plates of sandstone, 
 or rather built in during its construction; for by no other 
 means could they be placed with such regularity and com- 
 pactness. So closely are the individual pieces fitted to each 
 
 
 LZCE 
 
 rziz: 
 
 s 
 
 T-^ 
 
 ■^^^-^•^i^= 
 
 T 
 
 L 
 
 IL 
 
 rra 
 
 j-„^. 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 rrE 
 
 Different Styles of Masonry. 
 
 other that at a little distance no jointage appears, and the 
 wall hears every indication of being a plain, solid surface." 
 
 Besides these important ruins, there are a grcnt mnny 
 others not especially different from those previously de- 
 scribed. We can not state positively that these ruins are 
 of a later date than those of the North ; we think they are. 
 From the character of the structures, we are more inclined 
 to class them with the great pueblos of the Rio Grande, 
 Puerco, and Zuni. By examining the map we sec that the 
 Rio Chaco would atford a convenient route for them in their 
 migration from the San Juan Valley. 
 
 It may be of some interest to notice one of the rooms 
 in this pueblo. Simpson says it is walled \\\> with alternate 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 
 
 471 
 
 layers of large and small stones, the regularity of the com- 
 bination producing a very pleasant effect. Mr. Morgan 
 thinks this room will compare not unfavorably with any of 
 equal size to be found in the more imposing ruins of the 
 South. We must notice the ceiling. The probabilities are 
 that the Rio Chelly, further to the west, afforded another 
 
 Room in Pueblo Bonito. (Bureau of Ethnology.) 
 
 line of retreat. Some ruins are found scattered up and 
 down the river or caiion, which we will not stop to describe. 
 Off to the south-west are the inhabited towns or pueblos 
 of the Moquis, who, as we have seen, have a tradition that 
 they came from the north. 
 
472 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 There are some ruins found in the south-western part of 
 Arizona which must be described in a general survey of th3 
 ruins of the Pueblo country. The river Gila, with numer- 
 ous tributaries, is the most important stream in that portion 
 of the State. It is in just such a section as we would ex- 
 pect to find ruins, if anywhere. Coronado, as we have seen, 
 invaded the country about three hundred and fifty years 
 ago. At the time of his visit this was then a ruin, for his 
 historian describes one ruin as " a single ruined and roofless 
 house . . . the work of civilized people who had come from 
 afar."^ This gives us a point as to the antiquity of some 
 of the ruins in the Gila Valley. As we shall see, there is 
 every reason to suppose that this section was at one time a 
 thickly inhabited one. 
 
 From the similar character of the remains, we conclude 
 the original inhabitants to be of the same race of people as 
 those we have already described, but what was the exact 
 relation between them we can not tell, but we think a study 
 of the ruins will only confirm the general truth of the tra- 
 ditions of the Pueblo tribes. In any one tradition there is 
 doubtless much that is distorted. One form in which the 
 traditions find expression is : " That they proceeded from 
 the north-west to the upper waters of the Rio Colorado. 
 There thoy divided, portions ascended by the San Jnan, 
 canon De Chelly, or the more easterly branches of that 
 stream towards the center of New Mexico. Others, passing 
 over the waters of the Rio Verde (see map), descended its 
 valley to the Rio Gila."^ 
 
 One hiindrcMl and fifty miles southwest of Zuni we notice 
 the Vorde River flowing into the Rio Salado, and the latter 
 into the Gila. Besides these streams, there are other smaller 
 
 ' " Smithsonijin Kopnit," lS(i:'., i>. "\?,. 
 ' Wliipjihs Piicinc !{■ li l;i'|'"H. V..1. III. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 473 
 
 ones, not marked on the map.^ Mr. Bandelier found near 
 the Cafion del Tule an improvement on the irrigating ditches, 
 that was a lining of concrete ; and in this section also was 
 noticed the ruins of both pueblos and the small houses. 
 Near Ft. Apache he found the ruins of the largest villages 
 discovered in Arizona, but we have no details of it. The 
 valley of the Rio Verde and Salado seems to have been a 
 favorite resort. 
 
 As early as 1854 attention was called to ruins in the Rio 
 Verde. Mr. Leroux reported to Mr. Whipple that the "river 
 banks were covered with ruins of stone houses and regular 
 fortifications, which appeared to have been the work of civ- 
 ilized men, but had not been occupied for centuries. They 
 were built upon the most fertile tracts of the valley, w^here 
 were signs of acequias (irrigating ditches) and of cultivation. 
 The walls were of solid masonry, of rectangular form, some 
 twenty or thirty paces in length, were of solid masonry, and 
 yet remaining ten or fifteen feet in height. The buildings 
 were of two stories, with small apertures or loop-holes for 
 defence, when besieged."^ 
 
 Mr. Bandelier confirms this account as to the number of 
 ruins. The entire valley of the Verde is filled with ruins 
 of every description. From the account of the valley itself, 
 we can see how well suited it was to the needs of village 
 Indians. Mr. Leroux speaks in high praise of its fertility. 
 Wood, water, and grass were abundant. In the neighbor- 
 hood of Fort Reno Mr. Bandelier discovered a new architec- 
 tural feature of great interest to us. This is a raised plat- 
 form, on which the buildings were supported. This raised 
 platform is a very important feature, as we shall learn in the 
 
 ' Wherever reference is made to Mr. Bandelier's discoveries, it is taken 
 from the oft-quoted Fifth Annual Report, Archaeological Institute. 
 
 ' Whipple, Pacific R. R. Reports, Vol. III., p. 14 . . 
 
474 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ruins of Mexico and Central America. We have already 
 seen how it was employed by the Mound Builders. 
 
 In other words, the detached houses are seen to form 
 villages, with a central stronghold, and the tendency is ob- 
 •served to raise an artificial foundation for this central house, 
 which draws into itself the surrounding houses. This is but 
 another modification of the same idea which, in other sec- 
 tions of this area developed into the communal pueblo. Near 
 Tempe a still more significant arrangement was noticed. 
 Here was a four-sided platform, three hundred and forty 
 feet long by two hundred and eighty feet wide, and five 
 feet high, supported a second platform measuring two hun- 
 dred and forty by two hundred feet, and six feet high. 
 Elevated platforms, as a general rule, were not very distinct. 
 Mr. Bandolier thinks that, owing to the peculiar drainage of 
 the country, these artificial foundations were required to 
 preserve the buildings from being swept away by a sudden 
 torrent. The settlement of the sedentary tribes in this re- 
 gion cluster on the triangle formed by the Rio Verde, Salado, 
 and Gila Rivers. " This is a warm region, with a scanty 
 rainfall, and but little timber, and the soil is very fertile 
 when irrigated, and two crops a year can be readily raised. 
 Mr. Bandolier regards it as exceedingly well adapted tb the 
 wants of a horticultural people, and even traces in it some 
 resemblance to Lower Egypt." 
 
 A very celebrated ruin on the Gila River gives us a fair 
 idea of what this central strong-hold of the village cluster, 
 sometimes supported on a raised foundation, was like. This 
 cut is a view of the principal ruin in this section, which, 
 however, is only a portion of an extensive settlement, cov- 
 ering some five acres in all. The building is not very large, 
 only fifty by forty feet, and four stories, of ten feet each, 
 in height, with a jtossibility Ihat the central portion of the 
 
THE P UEBL COUNTRY. 
 
 475 
 
 building rose ten feet higher. The walls are built of adobe^ 
 five feet thick at the base, but tapering slightly at the top. 
 This house was surrounded by a court-yard which inclosed 
 about two acres. Shapeless mounds, presumably the ruins 
 of houses, are to be seen in various parts of this inclosure. 
 "If the ground plan of this great house," says Mr. Bando- 
 lier, " with its surroundings of minor edifices, courts and in- 
 closures, is placed by the side of the ground plan of other 
 typical ruins, the resemblance is almost perfect except in 
 materials used." This settlement was separated into two 
 
 Casa Grandes, on the Gila. 
 
 divisions. In one place was noticed a large elliptical tank 
 with heavy embankments, nearly eight feet deep. 
 
 As to other ruins on the Gila, Mr. Bartlett tells us: "One 
 thing is evident, that at some former period the valley of 
 the Gila was densely populated. The ruined buildings, the 
 irrigating canals, and the vast quantities of pottery of a 
 superior quality, show, that while they were an agricultural 
 people, they were much in advance of the present semi-civ- 
 ilized tribes of the Gila." Speaking of the ruins of the Gila 
 east of the San Pedro River, Emory says : " Whenever the 
 
476 THE FREHISTOmC WORLD. 
 
 jnountains did not infringe too closely on the river and shut 
 out the valley, they were seen in great abundance, enough, 
 I should think, to indicate a former population of at least 
 one hundred thousand; and in one place there is a long wide 
 valley, twenty miles in length, much of which is covered 
 with the ruins of buildings and broken pottery. Most of 
 these outlines are rectangular, and vary from forty to fifty 
 feet to two hundred by four hundred feet."^ 
 
 It is, however, necessary to be very cautious in judging 
 population by the number of ancient ruins. Prehistoric peo- 
 ple were naturally of a roving disposition. The multitude 
 of ruins in Western New York is not regarded as evidence 
 of dense population, but they were occasioned by the known 
 customs of the Indians in changing the sites of their villages 
 " every ten, fifteen, or thirty years ; or, in fiict, whenever 
 the scarcity of firewood, the exhaustion of their fields, or 
 the prevalence of an epidemic made such a step desirable."'^ 
 Doubtless a similar remark may explain the difference of 
 opinion as to the numbers of the Mound Builders.^ And, 
 finally, Mr. Bandolier concludes that the great number of 
 ruins scattered through New Mexico and its neighboring 
 territories is by no means evidence of a large population. 
 The evidence of tradition is to the effect that a large num- 
 ber of villages were successively, and not simultaneously, 
 occupied by the same people. ^ 
 
 "We have about completed our survey of the Pueblo 
 country. We might state that the large communal houses, 
 known as pueblos, are found as far south on the Rio Grande 
 as Valverde. Clusters of separate houses occur as far south 
 as Dona Ana. A range of low mountains lies to the west 
 
 ' Bartlctt's " Per.'^onal Narrative." 
 
 *Carr'H "Mounds of tlie Mississippi Valley." 
 
 • Morgan's " House and House Life," p. 218. 
 
 * Fifth Annual Report, p. 84. 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 477 
 
 of the Rio Grande; between it nnd the headwaters of the 
 Gila evidences of ancient habitations were observed on the 
 small streams. Though these occur sometimes in little 
 groups, the court-yards are not connected so as to form a 
 ■defensive village. Small inclosed surfaces, with no evidence 
 that a house ever was connected with them, were also ob- 
 served. Mr. Bandolier could only surmise that these were 
 garden-plots, something like the ancient terrace garden-plots 
 in Peru. 
 
 Take it all in all, this is, indeed, a singular region, and 
 the Pueblo tribes were a singular people. Their architec- 
 ture shows us a people in the Middle Status of Barbarism. 
 That they practiced agriculture is shown by the presence of 
 old irrigating ditches. Corn and corn-cobs are found in the 
 rubbish-heaps of old settlements. Mr. Morgan thinks that 
 the valley of the San Juan and its numerous tributaries 
 was the place where the Indian race first rose to the dignity 
 of cultivators of the soil.^ Cotton cloth has been found in 
 the ruins on the Salado River. "At the time of the Span- 
 ish conquests the Pueblo Indians along the Rio Grande used 
 •cotton mantles." ^ 
 
 As we have devoted considerable time to the pottery of 
 the Mound Builders, we must see how it compares with the 
 pottery of this region. Fragments of pottery are very nu- 
 merous all over the field of ruins. All explorers mention 
 their abundance. Mr. Holmes on one occasion counted the 
 pieces of pottery that by their shape evidently belonged to 
 diiferent vessels that he found in an area ten feet square. 
 They numbered fifty-five, and we are led to believe they 
 were not more numerous here than in other localities. 
 
 We recall that the ornamentations on the vessels of clay 
 
 > " Contributions to N. A. Ethnology,"' Vol. IV., p. 192. 
 ' Bandelier's " Fifth Annual Report Arch. Inst.," p. 76. 
 
478 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 made by Mound Builders were either incised lines or inden- 
 tations on the surfiice of the vessels. And, still further, the 
 clay vessels themselves were frequently molded in the shape 
 of animals or heads of animals. In this plate we have frag- 
 ments of indented and corrugated w'are, from the San Juan 
 valley. This ware is only found under such circumstances 
 
 Indented and Cormgated Ware. 
 
 that we are justified in considering it very ancient. The 
 ware made at the time of the conquest was always 
 painted. 
 
 At Zufii and some of the other pueblos, at the present 
 day, thoy make vessels in the form of various animals and 
 
PAINTED FUKBLO POTTERY. 
 
 4«0 
 
THE PUEBLO COUNTRY. 481 
 
 other natural objects. This is, however, a recent thing. 
 Only one vessel is known that was found under such circum- 
 stances that we are justified in thinking it very old. That 
 was molded into a shape resembling some kind of an animal. 
 This was found on the Rio Gila, in New Mexico ; and even 
 that has some peculiarities about it that renders its age un- 
 certain. Mr. Bandelier says: "No vessel of ancient date, 
 of human or animal shape, has ever been found." This is a 
 most important point for us to consider, when we recall how 
 numerous were animal-shaped vessels among the Mound 
 Builders. 
 
 In this plate we have specimens of the ordinary painted 
 ware from the ancient ruins. The most of these are restora- 
 tions, but so many fragments have been obtained of each 
 vessel that we have no doubt of the accuracy of the draw- 
 ings. They decorated their pottery by painting. Even in 
 many cases where they were further ornamented by indenta- 
 tions they still painted it, showing that painting was re- 
 garded as of the most importance. We notice that the 
 ornamentation consists almost entirely of geometrical figures, 
 parallel lines, and scrolls. Over the entire field of ruins the 
 body of the vessels is of one of two colors ; it is either white 
 or red. The color employed to produce the ornamentation 
 is black. There is almost no exception to this rule, though 
 sometimes the ornamentation is of a brownish color with a 
 metallic luster. Along the Rio Grande and the Gila some 
 changes are noticed. The ornamentation is not strictly con- 
 fined to two colors. Symbolical representations of clouds, 
 whirlwind, and lightning are noticed. The red ware has 
 disappeared, and a chocolate-colored ground takes its place. 
 
 All have noticed the superiority of the ancient pottery 
 over that of the present tribes. Says Prof. Putnam : "A 
 comparison of this ancient pottery with that made by the 
 
 30 
 
482 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 present inhabitants of the pueblos shows that a great dete- 
 rioration has taken place in native American art, a rule 
 which I think can be applied to all the more advanced 
 tribes of America. The remarkable hardness of all the fnif- 
 ments of colored pottery which have been obtained from the 
 vicinity of the old ruins in New Mexico, Colorado, Arizona, 
 and Utah, and also of the pottery of the same character 
 found in the ruins of adobe houses, and in caves in Utah, 
 shows that the ancient people understood the art of baking 
 earthenware far better than their probable descendants now 
 living in the pueblos of New Mexico and Arizona." ^ 
 
 We have learned that the remnant of an aboriginal peo- 
 ple, now living in the inhabited pueblos of the West, present 
 us, in their primitive usage, with the fading outlines of a 
 culture once widespread in the section of country we have 
 examined. Many of the early sedentary tribes have van- 
 ished completely. Traditions state that other tribes have 
 moved southward into regions unknown. " The picture 
 which can be dimly traced to-day of this past is a very 
 modest and unpretending one. No great cataclysms of na- 
 ture, no waA^e of destruction on a large scale, either natural 
 or human, appear to have interrupted tlie slow and tedious 
 development of tlie people before the Spaniards came. One 
 portion rose while another fell, sedentary tribes disappeared 
 or moved off, and wild tribes roamed over the ruins of their 
 former abode." At present but a few pueblos are left to show 
 us Avhat the people once were. But the fate of the Pueblo 
 of Pecos hangs over (hem all. The rising tide of American 
 civilization is rapidl}'^ surrounding them. Before many dec- 
 jades, possibly centuries, the present Puoblo tribes will 
 yield to their fitc. They, too, will be numbered among the 
 vanished races of men. 
 
 ^ v.. S. Survey West of lOOlh McrWian, Vol. VII., p. 381. 
 
TifjE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 483 
 
 GH?^P7EI^ m> 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS.^ 
 
 Different views ou this subject — Modern system of government — An- 
 cient system of government — Tribal government universal in North 
 America — The Indians not wandering Nomads — Indian houses com- 
 munal in character — Indian methods of defense — Mandan villages — 
 Indians sometimes erected mounds — Probable government of the 
 Mound Builders — Traditions of the Mound Builders among the 
 Iroquois — AnKjng the Delavvares — Probable fate of the Mound 
 Builders — ^The Natchez Indians possibly a remnant of the Mound 
 Builders — Their early traditions — Lines of resemblance between the 
 Pueblo tiibe and the Mound Builders — The origin of the Indians — 
 America inhabited by Indians from a very early time — Classifica- 
 tion of the Indian tribes — Antiquity of the Mound 
 Builders' works. 
 
 ATTEMPTS to explain the origin of the 
 numerous tribes found in possession of 
 America at the time of its discovery bj 
 Europeans have been many and various. 
 There are so many difficulties attending the 
 solution of this problem that even at this day 
 no theory has received that full assent from the 
 scientific world deemed necessary for its establish- 
 ment as an ascertained fact. New interest has been thrown 
 around this question by the discoveries of late years. In 
 our south-western territories we have clearly established 
 the former wide extension of the village Indians, rem- 
 nants of which are still to be found in the inhabited 
 pueblos ; and, as we have seen, the wide expanse of fertile 
 
 ' The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to Cyrus Thomas, Ph. D., 
 of the Bureau of Ethnology, for criticism. 
 
484 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 soil, known as the Mississippi Valley, has undoubtedly been 
 the home of tribes who are generally supposed to have at- 
 tained a much higher stage of culture than that of the In- 
 dians — at least, of such culture as we are accustomed to 
 ascribe, whether justly or not, to Indian tribes. It becomes 
 an interesting question, therefore, to determine what connec- 
 tion, if any, existed between the Mound Builders and the 
 Indian tribes on the one hand, and the Pueblo tribes on 
 the other. 
 
 As to the works of the Mound Builders, one class of 
 critical scholars think they see in them the memorials of a 
 vanished race, and point out many details of construction, 
 such as peculiarities in form, in size, and position, which 
 they think conclusively prove that the works in question 
 could only have been produced by races or tribes far more 
 advanced in culture than any Indians. This belief finds ex- 
 pression by a well-known writer in the following words : "A 
 broad chasm is to be spanned before we can link the Mound 
 Builders to the North American Indians. They were essen- 
 tially different in their form of government, their habits, and 
 their daily pursuits." This is substantially the opinion of a, 
 great many writers on this subject.^ 
 
 But this conclusion has not been allowed to pass unchal- 
 lenged. We have on record the convictions of a few care- 
 ful investigators that there is no necessity for supposing 
 that only an extinct or vanished race could have built the 
 mounds and thrown up the embankments which we observe 
 in the valley of the Ohio and elsewhere; that there is noth- 
 inq;, in fact, either in the construction of the mounds them- 
 selves or in the remains of art found in them, which we may 
 
 ' Baldwin's "Ancient America," p. '■)%. Gnliatin, Trans. Am. Ellinol 8oc., I., 
 p. 207. Siiort's " Nortli Americans of Antiquity," p. 65. Conant's " Footprints 
 of Vanished Races," p. 120. .Tone's "Antiquities of Tennessee," p. 14(i. 
 MacLean's "The Mound Builders," Chap. xii. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS-. 485 
 
 not with safety ascribe to the ancestors of our present In- 
 dians.^ It will be seen that we may, indeed, be at a loss 
 to know what conclusion to adopt; hence, as an aid to us 
 in this direction, it may be well to inquire into the organi- 
 zation of Indian tribes and their customs and manners at 
 the time of their discovery. 
 
 It is not necessary to sketch their history, as this has 
 been done many times. Moreover, it is but a dreary recital 
 of the gradual encroachment of the Whites on the lands of 
 the Indians, the vain eadeavors of the latter to repress 
 them, and a record of many cruel acts of savage warfare, 
 burning villages, midnight massacre, and scenes of terrible 
 sufferings. The uniform result was that the Indian tribes 
 were steadily driven away from their ancient homes, until 
 we now find them but a sorry remnant on scattered reserva- 
 tions or grouped together in the Indian Territory. Their 
 ancient institutions are nearly broken down, and it is with 
 difficulty that we can gain an understanding of their early 
 condition ; and yet this seems to be necessary before we 
 are prepared to decide on the origin of the mound-building 
 people. 
 
 It seems necessary here to briefly describe the two great 
 plans or systems of government, under one or the other of 
 which mankind, as far as we know them, have always been 
 organized, though, theoretically, there must have been a 
 time, in the very inftmcy of the race, when there was either 
 no government or something different from either of them. 
 At the present day, in all civilized countries, government is 
 
 ' Carr's " Mounds of the Mississippi Valley." Schoolcraft's "Archives of 
 Aboriginal Knowledge," Vol. I., p. 66; Vol. II., p. 30. Morgan's^' House and 
 House Life American Aborigines," Vol. IV. ; " Contributions to N. A. Ethnol- 
 ogy," p. 199. Brinton : American Antiqriarian, October, \&S,l. Thomas: Amer- 
 ican Antiquarian, March, 1884. Powell: Transactions of Anthropological 
 Society, 1881, p. 116. 
 
48G 
 
 THE PREHItiTOllIC WORLD. 
 
 founded upon territory and upon property. A person is de- 
 scribed as living in such a townsliip, county, and state.^ 
 This seems to be a very simple and natural division, but, 
 like every thing else, it is the result of growth — of a de- 
 velopment. It took nearly three centuries of civilization 
 and a succession of able men, each improving on what the 
 other had done, to fully develop this system among the 
 Greeks.^ This is the basis of the modern form of govern- 
 ment. Whenever it was organized, it marked the termina- 
 tion of ancient government. The other plan of government 
 is founded on personal relations. 
 
 A person would be described as of such a gens, phratry, 
 and tribe. It is sufficient to state the words gens, and 
 phratry simply denote subdivisions of a tribe.^ This is the 
 ancient system of government, and goes very far back in 
 the history of the race. It is that state of society which 
 everywhere preceded history and civilization. When we go 
 
 ' Of course these words vary in different nations, but the meaning is the 
 same in all. ^ Morgan's " Ancient Society," p. 269. 
 
 ^ The gens, phratry, and tribe wore subdivisions of the Ancient Greeks. 
 Of a similar import were the gens, curiaj, and tribe of the Roman tribes. 
 The Irish sept and the Scottish clan are the same in meaning as the gens of other 
 tribes. American authors, in treating of the Indians, have genei'ally used the 
 words tribe and clan as equivalent of gens. This is not correct. Almost all 
 the tribes had a complete organization in gens and phfatries, though of course 
 they did not so name them. These terms are adopted by IMr. Jlorgan because 
 they have a precise and historical meaning. As an example of Indian tiibal- 
 organization, we give an outline of the Seneca-Iroquois tribe: 
 
 
 r First Phratrv, 
 
 r Bear 1 
 
 
 
 or 
 
 Wolf 
 Beaver 
 
 Gons. 
 
 
 Brotherhood. 
 
 Turtle 
 
 
 Tribe. ■ 
 
 Second Phratry, f Door 
 Snipe 
 ■> IToron 
 
 
 
 • Gons. 
 
 • 
 
 Brotliorhood. 1 Hawk 
 
 
 It is proper to remark that the phratries are not a necessary member of 
 the series. Several of the Indian tribes had only gens and tribo. Jlr. School- 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS, 487 
 
 back to the first begituiing of history iti Europe, we fiud 
 the Grecian, Roman, and Germanic tribes in the act of sub- 
 stituting the modern system of government for the tribal 
 state, under which they had passed from savagism into and 
 through the various stages of barbarism, and entered the 
 confines of civilization. The Bible reveals to us the tribal 
 state of the Hebrews and the Canaanites. 
 
 Under the light of modern research, we can not doubt 
 but what this form of government was very ancient, and 
 substantially universal. It originated in the morning of 
 time, and so completely answered all the demands of prim- 
 itive society that it advanced man from savagism, through 
 barbarism, and sufficed to enable him to make a beginning 
 in civilization. It was so firmly established as one of the 
 primitive institutions, that when it was found insufficient to 
 meet the demands of advancing society, it taxed to the ut- 
 most the skill of the Aryan tribes to devise a system to 
 take its place. 
 
 This was the system of government throughout North 
 America when the Spaniards landed on its shores. This is 
 true, at least as far as our investigations have gonc.^ In 
 several cases tribes speaking dialects of the same stock- 
 language had united in a confederacy ; as, for instance, the 
 celebrated league of the Iroquois, and in Mexico, the union 
 of the three Aztec tribes. But confederacies did not change 
 
 craft uses the words totemic system to express the same organization. Totem, 
 in the Ojibway dialect, signifies the symbol or devise which they use to desig- 
 nate the gens. Thus the figure of a bear would be the totem of the bear 
 gens. We must remember that the tribes of to-day have, in many cases, lost 
 their ancient organization. See Morgan's " Ancient Society," where this 
 subject is fully treated. Also Powell, in " First Annual Report of Bureau 
 of Ethnology;" Grote's "History of Greece," Vol. Ill, p. 55, et s/'q.; Smith's 
 "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities," articles, gens, civitas, tribus, 
 etc.; also Dorsey, in Amn-iran Antiquarian, Oct., 1883, p. 312, et seq. 
 
 ' The Mexican tribes form no exception to this statement. See this vol- 
 ume, Chapter XV. 
 
488 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the nature of tribal government. As there was but one 
 general form or plan of government in vogue amongst the 
 Aborigines of North America at the time of discovery, we 
 ought certainly to find common features in the culture of 
 the Pueblo Indians of the South-west, the Mound Builders 
 of the Mississippi Valley, and the various Indian tribes; 
 and if the lines of resemblance are sufficient to show a grad- 
 ual progress from the rude remains of savage tribes to the 
 more finished works of the Pueblos, and between these and 
 the Mound Builders, then we may consider this fact as one 
 more reason for believing that they constitute but one peo- 
 ple in different stages of development. 
 
 The tribal state of society is always associated with vil- 
 lage life. It makes no difference where Ave commence our 
 investigations, we will soon be convinced that village life is 
 the form in which people organized in tribes lived. This is 
 true of the wild tribes in Africa, and of the hill tribes of 
 India to-day.^ The same was true of the early Greeks.^ 
 There must be a reason for this. It is found in their pecul- 
 iar system of government. People divided into groups and 
 clusters would naturally be drawn together into villages. 
 We would expect, then, to find that the Indian tribes lived 
 in villages. AVe are accustomed to speak of them as wan- 
 dering nomads. This is scarcely correct; or rather, it is 
 certainly wrong, if applied to the tribes east of the Missis- 
 sippi, when first encountered by the whites. Some of them 
 may have been in a state of migration, in search of better 
 homes, or homes more secure from the attacks of too pow- 
 erful enemies, as was the case with the Shawnees, and wan- 
 dering bands on hunting or warlike expeditions were 
 common enough. The Germanic tribes that overthrew the 
 
 .' Lewis's "WiUl Races of Sotitli-oastorn India." 
 ' Grote's "History of Greece," Vol. II. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 489 
 
 Roman Empire, for a similar reason, were in a migrating 
 state. But it is none the less certain that they established 
 permanent villages wherever they found suitable places. 
 
 Nearly all the tribes claimed separate districts, in which 
 they had permanent villages, often stockaded.^ The site of 
 Montreal was a famous Indian village,^ and other villages 
 were found in Canada. The Iroquois tribes had permanent 
 villages, and resided in them the greater part of the year.^ 
 One visited in 1677 is described as having one hundred and 
 twenty houses, the ordinary one being from fifty to sixty 
 feet long, and furnishing shelter to about twelve families. 
 In one case, at least, the town was surrounded by palisades. 
 
 In 1539 De Soto made his appearance on the coast of Flor- 
 ida. Four years later a feeble remnant of this expedition 
 landed at Panuco, Mexico. His route has not been accu- 
 rately tracedj but it is certain he traversed the Gulf States 
 and crossed the Mississippi. De Soto himself found a grave 
 in the waters of this river, but under new^ leaders the expe- 
 dition pushed on through Arkansas, and probably found its 
 most western point on the prairies of the West, where, dis- 
 heartened, it turned back to near where De Soto died, con- 
 structed some rude boats, and floated down the Mississippi, 
 and so to Mexico. We have two accounts written by mem- 
 bers of this expedition,^ and a third, written by Garcilasso 
 de La Vega from the statements of eye-witnesses and memo- 
 randa which had fallen into his hands. 
 
 From these considerable can be learned of the Southern 
 Indians before they had been subjected to European influ- 
 ences. One of the first things that arrests attention is the 
 description of the villnges. They found, to be sure, some 
 
 ' Mallery: "American Association Reports," 1877. " Hochelaga. 
 
 5 Mor<jan: "Contribution to N. A. Ethnology," Vol. IV, p. 119. 
 l"Luis Hernando De Biedman," and "A Gentleman of Elvas," both 
 translated in "Historic Collections of Louisiana," Vol. II. 
 
490 THE PREHISTORIC WOULD. 
 
 desert tracts, but every few miles, as a rule, they found 
 villages containing from fifty to three hundred spacious and 
 commodious dwellings, well protected from enemies — some- 
 times surrounded by a wall, sometimes also by a ditch filled 
 with water. When west of the Mississippi the}' found a 
 tribe living in movable tents, they deemed that fact worthy 
 of special mention. But in the same section they also 
 found many villages. 
 
 One hundred and forty years afterward the French explo- 
 rer, La Salle, made several voyages up and down the Missis- 
 sippi. He describes much the same state of things as do 
 the earlier writers. The tribes still dwelt in comfortable 
 cabins, sometimes constructed of bark, sometimes of mud,^ 
 often of large size, in one case forty feet square, and having 
 a dome-shaped roof. Nor was this villnge life confined to 
 the more advanced tribes. The Dakota tribes, which include 
 the Sioux and others, have been forced on the plains b}' the 
 advancing white population, but when first discovered they 
 were living in villages around the bead-waters of the Missis- 
 sippi. Their houses were framed of poles and covered 
 with bark.^ 
 
 Lewis and Clark, in 1805, found the valley of the Colum- 
 bia River inhabited by tribes destitute of pottery, and living 
 mainly on fish, which were found in immense quantities in 
 the river. They describe them as living in large houses, one 
 sometimes forming a village by itself. They describe one 
 house capable of furnishing habitations for five hundred peo- 
 ple. Other authorities could 1)0 quoted, sliowing that the 
 Algonquin Indians, living in Eastern and Atlantic States, 
 had permanent villages.'^ The idea, then, that the Indians are 
 
 ' " Historical Oollpctions of Louisiana," Vol. I, p. 01. 
 2 Morfraii's "Contrilxition to N. A. Etlinolnfry," Vol. IV, p. 114. 
 'Read Cai)t. John Smith, "Hist, of Virginia;" also "Mixss. Hist. Col.," 
 Vol. VIII, of the thini series. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 491 
 
 nothing but wandering savisges, is seen to be wrong. It is 
 well to bear this in mind, because it is often asserted that 
 the Mound Builders must have been a people possessing fixed 
 habitations. While this is doubtless correct, we see that it is 
 also true of the Indians.^ 
 
 There is another feature of Indian life which we will 
 mention here, because it shows us a common element in the 
 building of houses, seen alike in the pueblo structures of the 
 West and the long houses of the Iroquois. That is, the In- 
 dian houses were always built to be inhabited by a number 
 of families in common. All nations in a tribal state possess 
 property in common. It is not allowed to pass out of the 
 gens of the person who possesses it, but at his death is sup- 
 posed to be divided among the members of his gens ; in most 
 cases, however, to those nearest of kin within the gens.^ 
 This communism showed itself in the method of erecting 
 houses. 
 
 The long house of the Iroquois was divided into apart- 
 ments so as to shelter from one hundred to two hundred In- 
 dians. A number of these houses gathered together composed 
 a village. These were quite creditable structures of Indian 
 art, being warm and comfortable, as well as roomy. Should 
 we examine the whole list of writers who have mentioned 
 Indian villages, we would find them all admitting that the 
 houses were usually occupied by a number of families, one 
 in the Columbia Valley, as we see, sheltering five hun- 
 dred persons. 
 
 There is no question but the pueblos were built by people 
 holding property in common. They were, of course, erected 
 by a more advanced people, who employed better materials 
 
 ' Consult " The Mounds of the Mississippi Valley," by Lucian Carr, of the 
 Kentucky Geographical Survey, where this subject is fully treated, and copious 
 quotations given. 
 
 ^ Morgan's " Ancient Society," p. 526. 
 
492 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 in construction, but it is quite plain that they were actuated 
 by the same instincts, and built their houses with the same 
 design in view as the less advanced Indian tribes in other 
 
 sections of the country. 
 What we have described 
 as the small houses in 
 Arizona in the preceding 
 chapter, in most cases in- 
 cludes several rooms, and 
 S we are told that in one 
 I section the}' "appear to 
 g have been the abode of 
 
 1 several families."^ 
 £ One of the main points 
 ^ the Indians Avould have 
 o to attend to in the con- 
 if struction of their villages 
 r. was how to defend them, 
 o and we can not do better 
 
 than to examine this 
 point. A French writer 
 
 2 represents the villages of 
 Canada as defended by 
 double, and frequently 
 triple, rows of palisades, 
 interwoven with branches 
 of trees. ^ Cartier, in 
 1535, found the village 
 
 of Ilochelaga (now Montreal) thus defended. In 1637 
 the Pequot Indians were the terror of the New England 
 colonies, and Capt. Mason, who was sent to subject them, 
 
 > Bandelior's " Fifth Annual Report, Arch. Inst, p. GO. 
 " " Charlevoix's Travels in North America," p. 241. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 493 
 
 found their principal villages, covering six acres, strongly 
 defended by palisades. 
 
 The Iroquois tribes also adopted this method of defense. 
 In 1615 Chaniplain, with Indian allies, invaded the territory 
 of the Iroquois. He left a sketch of his attack on one of 
 their villages. This sketch we reproduce in this illustration, 
 
 ^=iui»2I in, '!W«!^ 
 
 Stockaded Onondaga Village. 
 
 which is a very important one, because it shows us a regu- 
 larly palisaded village among a tribe of Indians where the 
 common impression in reference to them is that they were 
 a wandering people with no fixed habitations. The sketch 
 is worthy of careful study. The buildings Avithin are the 
 long houses which we have just described. They are lo- 
 cated near together, three or four in a group. The arrange- 
 
494 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ment of the groups is in the form of a square, inclosing a 
 cuui't in the center. This tendency to inclose a court is a 
 very common feature of Indian architecture. Such, as we 
 have seen, is the ar- 
 rangement of the 
 pueblos. Such was 
 also the arrangement 
 of the communal 
 buildings in Mexico, 
 Central America, and 
 Peru. In this case 
 the village covered 
 about six acres also. 
 The defense was by ^^,i 
 means of palisades. 
 There seem to be two 
 rows of them. The}' 
 seem to have been 
 
 well made since Pomeioolt. (IJureau of Etlmology.) 
 
 Champlain was unsuccessful in his attack. In earlier times 
 these fortified villages were numerous. 
 
 Further sonth, tliis method of inclosing a village was 
 also in use. In 1585 the English sent an expedition to 
 the coast of North Carolina. An artist attached to this 
 expedition left some cuts, one of which represents a vil- 
 lage near Roanoke. It is surrounded, as we see, by a 
 row of palisades, and contains seventeen joint tenement 
 houses, besides the council house. The historians of l)e 
 Soto's expedition make frequent mention of walled and 
 fortified towns. "The village of Mav ilia," from which comes 
 our name Mobile, says Biedman, "stood on a plain sur- 
 rounded by strong walls." Ilerrera, in his General History, 
 states -that the walls were formed by i>iles, interwoven with 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 
 
 495 
 
 other timber, and the spaces packed with straw and earth so 
 that it looked like a wall smoothed with a trowel. 
 
 Speaking of the region west of the Mississippi, Biedman 
 says: "We journeyed two days, and reached a Adllage in 
 the midst of a plain, surrounded by walls and a ditch filled 
 by water, which had been made by Indians." This town 
 is supposed to have been situated in the north-eastern part 
 of Arkansas, and it is interesting to note that recent inves- 
 tigators find what are probably the remains of these Availed 
 towns, in the shape of inclosures with ditches and mounds, 
 in North-eastern Arkansas and South-eastern Missouri.-^ 
 The tribes throughout the entire extent of the Mississippi 
 Valley were accustomed to palisade their villages — at least, 
 occasionally.^ 
 
 On the Missouri River we find some Indian tribes that 
 have excited a great deal of interest among archaeologists. 
 
 It has been sur- 
 mised that, if their 
 history could be re- 
 covered, it would 
 clear up a great 
 many difficult ques- 
 tions. The}^ Avere 
 accustomed to for- 
 tify their villages 
 with ditches, em- 
 bankments, and pal" 
 This giA^es us a cut of one of their villages. It is 
 
 FACES 
 
 Mandan Village. (Bureau of Ethnology.) 
 
 isades. 
 
 to be observed that it has a great likeness to some of the 
 
 inclosures ascribed to the Mound Builders. 
 
 ' Fourth Annual Report of Peabody Museum, and from information fur- 
 nished me by the U. S. Bureau of Ethnology. 
 
 ''' The custom of palisading appears to have been general among the north- 
 ern tribes." — Brackenridge's " Views of Louisiana," p. 182. 
 
496 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 This has been noted by many writers. Says Bracli;en- 
 ridge : " In my voyage up the Missouri I observed the 
 ruins of several villages which had been abandoned twenty 
 or thirty years, which in every respect resembled the ves- 
 tiges on the Ohio and Mississippi." ^ Lewis and Clark, in 
 their travels, describe the sites of several of these aban- 
 doned villages, the only remains of which were the walls 
 which had formerly inclosed the villages, then three or four 
 feet high. The opinion has been advanced that the inclos- 
 ures of the Mound Builders were formerly surmounted by 
 palisades. Mr. Atwater asserts that the round fort which 
 was joined to a square inclosure at Circleville showed dis- 
 tinctly evidence of having supported a line of pickets or 
 palisades.' 
 
 Should it be accepted that the inclosures of the Mound 
 Builders represent village sites, and that they were probably 
 further protected by palisades, it would seem, after what we 
 have just observed of the customs of the Indians in fortify- 
 ing their villages, to be a simple and natural explanation of 
 these remains. 
 
 We have already referred to the fact that scholars draw 
 a distinction between the more massive works found in the 
 Ohio Vnlley and the low, crumbling ruins occupying defen- 
 sive positions found in such abundance along Lake Erie 
 and in Western New York, asserting the former to be the 
 works of the Mound Builders proper, and the latter the re- 
 mains of fortified Indian villages. This may be true, but it 
 seems to us that there is such a common design running 
 throuGfh all these remains that it is more reasonable to infer 
 that the more massive works were constructed by people 
 more advanced than those who built the less pretentious 
 
 '"Views of Louisiana," p. 183. 
 
 ' " Archseology Americanse," Vol. I., p. 145. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. , 497 
 
 works, but not necessarily of a different race. We can not 
 do better than to quote the remarks of Mr. Brackenridge in 
 this connection: "We are often tempted by a fondness for 
 the marvelous to seek out remote and impossible causes for 
 that which may be explained by the most obvious." ^ 
 
 But inclosures and defensive works are only a small part 
 of the Mound Builders' remains. We know that large num- 
 bers of mounds are scattered over the countiy, and we recall 
 in this connection what was said as to the erection of mounds 
 by Indian tribes in a preceding essay. Somewhat at the 
 risk of repetition we will once more examine this question. 
 It is generally admitted that it was the custom of Indian 
 tribes to erect piles of stones to commemorate several 
 events, such as a treaty, or the settlement of a village, but 
 more generally to mark the grave of a chief, or some noted 
 person, or of a person whose death occurred under unusual 
 circumstances.^ These cairns are not confined to any particu- 
 lar section of the country, being found in New England, 
 throughout the South, and generally in the Mississippi Val- 
 ley. From their wide dispersion, and from the fact that 
 they do not differ from the structures built by Indian tribes 
 within a few years past, it is not doubted but what they are 
 the works of Indians. 
 
 Now, if we could draw a dividing line, and say that, 
 while the Indians erected mounds of stone, the Mound 
 Builders built theirs of earth, it would be a strong argu- 
 ment in favor of a difference of race. But this can not be 
 done. When De Soto landed in Florida, nearly three hun- 
 dred and fifty years ago, he had an opportunity of observ- 
 ing the customs of the Indians as they were before the 
 introduction of fire-arms, and before contact with the Whites 
 
 ' " Views of Louisiana," p. 182. 
 
 'Carr: "Mounds of the Mississippi Valley," p. 78. 
 
 31 
 
498 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 had wrought the great change in them it was destined to. 
 Therefore, what few notes his historians have given us of 
 the ways of life they observed amongst the southern tribes 
 are of great importance in this connection. At the very 
 spot where he landed (supposed to be Tampa Bay) they 
 observed that the house of the chief " stood near the shore, 
 upon a very high mound, made by hand for strength." 
 
 Garcilasso tells us " the town and the house of the 
 Cacique (chief) Ossachile are like those of the other ca- 
 ciques in Florida. . . . The Indians try to place their 
 villages on elevated sites, but, inasmuch as in Florida there 
 are not many sites of this kind where they can conveniently 
 build, they erect elevations themselves, in the following 
 manner : They select the spot, and carry there a quantity 
 of earth, which they form into a kind of platform, two 
 or three pikes in height, the summit of which is large 
 enough to give room for twelve, fifteen, or twenty houses, to 
 lodge the cacique and his attendants. At the foot of this 
 elevation they mark out a square place, according to the 
 size of the village, around which the leading men have their 
 houses. To ascend the elevation they have a straight pas- 
 sage-way from bottom to top, fifteen or twenty feet wide. 
 Here steps are made by massive beams, and others are 
 planted firmly in the ground to serve as walls. On all 
 other sides of the platform the sides are cut steep." ^ 
 
 Biedman, the remaining historian, says of the country in 
 what is now (probably) Arkansas : " The caciques of this 
 country make a custom of raising, near their dwellings, verv 
 high hills, on Avhich they sometimes build their huts."^ 
 Twenty-five years later the French sent an expedition to 
 the east coast of Florida. The accounts of this expedition 
 
 ^ Quoted from 15iiiiton, Am. Aniirj., Oct., 1881. 
 ^ Hist. Col. of Louisiana, Vol. II., p. 105, 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICAM. 499 
 
 are very meager, but they confirm what the other writers 
 have stated as to the erection of platform mounds with graded 
 ways.^ Le Moyne, the artist of this expedition, has left us 
 a cut of a mouud erected over a deceased chief. It was, 
 however, but a small one.^ 
 
 La Harpe, writing in 1720, says of tribes on the lower 
 Mississippi : " Their cabins . . . are dispersed over 
 the country upon mounds of earth made with their own 
 hands." As to the construction of these houses, we learn 
 that their cabins were "round and vaulted," being lathed 
 with cane and plastered with mud from bottom to top, 
 within and without. In other cases they were square, with 
 the roof dome-shaped, the walls plastered with mud to the 
 height of twelve feet." ^ It is interesting to observe how 
 closely what little we do know about Mound Builders' 
 houses coincides with the above. 
 
 Recent investigations by the Bureau of Ethnology have 
 brought to light vestiges of great numbers of their build- 
 ings. These were mostly circular, but those of a square or 
 rectangular form were also observed. In Arkansas their lo- 
 cation was generally on low, flat mounds, but vestiges of 
 some were also noticed near the surface of large mounds. 
 In Southern Illinois, South-eastern Missouri, and Middle and 
 Western Tennessee the sites of thousands were observed, 
 not in or on mounds, but marked by little circular, saucer- 
 shaped depressions, from twenty to fifty feet in diameter, 
 surrounded by a slight earthen ring. We know the frame- 
 work of these houses was poles, for in several cases the 
 charred remains of these poles were found. We know they 
 
 1" Mounds of the Mississippi Valley," p. 90. 
 
 * " Expedition to Florida," p. 15. 
 
 'Shea's "Early Voyages on the Mississippi," p. 135. "Historical Collec- 
 tions of Louisiana," Vol. 1., p. 61. Quoted from Cyrus Thomas in American 
 Antiquarian, March, 1884. 
 
500 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 were plastered with a thick coating of mud, for regular lay- 
 ers of lumps of this burnt plastering are found. These 
 lumps liave often been mistaken for bricks, as in the Selzer- 
 towu mound. In several cases the plastering had been 
 stamped with an implement, probably made of split cane of 
 large size.^ 
 
 On the lower Mississippi we meet with the Natchez, a 
 tribe that has excited a great deal of interest ; but at present 
 we only want to note that they also constructed mounds. 
 They were nearly exterminated by the French in 1729. 
 But before this Du Pratz had li\ ed among them, and left a 
 description of their customs. Their temple was about thirty 
 feet square, and was situated on a mound about eight feet 
 high, which sloped insensibly from its main front on the 
 north, but was somewhat steeper on the other sides. He 
 also states that the cabin of the chief, or great sun, as he 
 was called, was placed upon a mound of about the same 
 height, though somewhat larger, being sixty feet over the 
 surface.^ A missionary who labored among them, stated 
 that when the chief died his mound was deserted, and a new 
 one built for the next chief.' 
 
 Neither was this custom of erecting mounds confined to 
 the Southern Indians. Golden states of the Iroquois : " They 
 make a round hole in which the body is placed, then they 
 raise the earth in a round hill over it."^ It was the custom 
 among a large number of tribes to gather together the re- 
 mains of all who had died during several years and bury them 
 all together, erecting a mound over them.'^ Mr. Jefferson, in 
 
 ' See article by CyruH Thomas, of the Bureau of Ethnology, in American 
 Antiquarian, Marcli, 1884. 
 
 2" History of Louisiana," Ix)ncl., 17fi3, Vol. II., pp. 188 and 211. 
 
 'Fatiior fx! Polit: Note, p. 142. " flist. Col. l^ouisiana," Vol. III. 
 
 * "Hist, of the Five Nations," Introduction, p. 16. 
 
 "Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge, No. 259, p. 15; " Mounds of the 
 Mississippi Valley," p. 87. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 501 
 
 his notes on Virginia, describes one of these mounds, and 
 relates this interesting fact in reference to it: "A party of 
 Indians passing about thirty years ago through the part of 
 the country where this barrow is, went through the woods 
 directly to it, without any instructions or inquiry; and hav- 
 ing staid about it some time, with expressions which were 
 construed to be those of sorrow, they returned to the high 
 road, which they had left about a half dozen miles to pay 
 this visit, and pursued their journey."^ 
 
 Coming down to our own times, the Indians had lost a 
 great many of their ancient customs, yet, at times, this old 
 instinct of mound burial asserts itself. About the first of 
 the century Blackbird, a celebrated chief of the Omahas, re- 
 turning to his native home after a visit to Washington, died of 
 the small-pox. It was his dying request that his body be placed 
 on horseback, and the horse buried alive with him. Ac- 
 cordingly, in the presence of all his nation, his body Avas 
 placed on the back of his favorite white horse, fully equipped 
 as if for a long journey, with all that was necessary for 
 an Indian's happiness, including the scalps of his enemies. 
 Turfs were brought and placed around the feet and legs, and 
 up the sides of the unsuspecting animal, and so gradually 
 the horse and its rider were buried from sight, thus form- 
 ing a good-sized burial mound.^ Another instance came 
 under Mr. Catlin's observation at the pipe stone quarry in 
 Dakota. He visited there about 1832 and saw a conical 
 mound, ten feet high, that had been erected over the body of 
 a young man accidentally killed there two years before. 
 
 Enough references have now been given to show that 
 the Indian tribes certainly did erect mounds, and that there 
 is every reason to suppose they were the authors of the 
 
 ' "Notes on Virsrinia," p. 191. 
 
 ^ Catlin's "North American Indians," p. 95. 
 
502 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 temple mounds of the South, or of some of them, at any 
 rate. We have now shown that, according to early writers, 
 the Indians did live in permanent villages, often stockaded, 
 and knew very well how to raise embankments and mounds. 
 It would seem as if this removed all necessity for supposing 
 the existence of an extinct race to explain the numerous re- 
 mains, collectively known as Mound Builders' works. Yet, 
 as this is surely an important point, it may be well to carry 
 the investigations a little further. 
 
 Taking in account the great amount of labor necessary 
 to raise such structures as the mounds at Cahokia and Grave 
 Creek, and the complicated works at Newark, some writers 
 have asserted that the government of the Mound Builders 
 was one in which the central authority must have had abso- 
 lute power over the persons of the subjects, that they were 
 in effect slaves;^ and as this was altogether contrary to what 
 is known amongst Indian tribes, they must have been of a 
 different race. 
 
 If the Indians in a tribal state are known to have erected 
 some mounds, and to have built temple-platforms and walled 
 towns in the south, then all they needed was sufficient mo- 
 tive, religious or otherwise, to have built the most stupen- 
 dous works known. We think the ruined pueblos in the 
 Chaco Canon represent as great an amount of work as many 
 of those of the Mound Builders. A calculation has been 
 made, showing that over thirty million i)ieccs of stone were 
 required in the construction of one pueblo,- besides an abun- 
 dance of timber. Each piece of stone hiid to be dressed 
 roughly to fit its place; the timbers had to be brought from 
 a considerable distance, cut and fitted to their places in the 
 wall, and then covered with other courses, besides other de- 
 
 ■ Foster's " Prehistoric Rjices of the U. S.," p. 346. 
 ^ Pueblo Chettro-keltio, C'hiico Canon. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 503 
 
 tails of construction, such as roof-making, plasteiing, and so 
 forth, and this is not the calculation of the largest pueblo 
 either.^ Yet no one supposes that the Indian tribes who 
 erected these structures were under a despotic form of 
 government. 
 
 We think, however, that it might be freely admitted that 
 in all probability the government of the Mound Builders was 
 arbitrary, but so was the government of a great many Indian 
 tribes. Amongst the Natchez the chief was considered as 
 descended from the sun. Nor was this belief confined to 
 the Natchez, as the tribes of the Floridian Peninsula asserted 
 the same thing of their chiefs. Among all these latter tribes 
 the chief held absolute and unquestioned power over the 
 persons, property, and time of their subjects.^ 
 
 Amongst the Natchez the power of the Great Sun (their 
 title for chief) seems to have been very great. This nation 
 had a regularly organized system of priesthood, of which 
 the chief was also the head. On the death of the chief a 
 number of his subjects were put to death to keep him com- 
 pany. But we must notice that the subjects considered it 
 an honor to die with the chief, and made application before- 
 hand for the privilege. Bearing these facts in mind, it does 
 
 " Geographical and Geological Survey of the Territories," Hnyden, 1876, 
 p. 440- Calculations made by Mr. Holmes. 
 
 ^ Brinton's "Floridian Peninsula," p. 21. ^Xe think, however, this state- 
 ment requires to be taken with some allowance. Personal liberty seems to 
 have been the birthright of every Indian. (" Mounds of the Mississippi Val- 
 ley," Carr, p. 24.) The council of the tribeisthe real governing body of all people 
 in a tribal state of society. ("Ancient Society," Morgan.) When the war- 
 chief united in his person priestly powers also, he at once became an object of 
 greater interest. This explains why the government of the chiefs among all 
 the Southern Indian tribes appears so much more arbitrary than among the 
 northern tribes. His real power was probably much the same in both cases, 
 but superstition liad surrounded his person with a great many formalities. 
 The early ex]>lorers, acquainted only with the arbitrary governments of Eu- 
 rope, saw in all this despotic powers whereas there might not have been much 
 foundation for this belief. 
 
504 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 not seem improbable that in more distant days, when the 
 Natchez or some kindred tribe were in the height of their 
 power, the death of some great chief might well be memo- 
 rialized by the erection of a mound as grand in proportion as 
 that of Grave Creek. 
 
 In fact, the more we study the subject, the more firmly" 
 we become convinced that there is no hard and fast line 
 separating the works of the Mound Builders from those of 
 the later Indians. We therefore think that we may safely 
 assert that the best authorities in the United States now 
 consider that the mound building tribes were Indians, in 
 much the same state of culture as the Indian tribes in the 
 Gulf States at the time of the discovery of America, and we 
 shall not probably be far out of the way if we assert, that 
 when driven from the valley of the Ohio by more warlike 
 people they became absorbed by the southern tribes, and, 
 indeed the opinion is quite freely advanced that the Natchez 
 themselves were a remnant of the " Mysterious Mound 
 Builders." 
 
 If the Mound Building tribes were here at a compara- 
 tively late date, we ought to expect to find some traditions 
 of their former existence. The statement is quite often 
 made that the Indians had no traditipn as to the origin or 
 purpose of the mounds, and from this it is argued that the 
 mounds are of great antiquity. But, instead of finding no 
 traditions, we find nearly every tribe possessed of some, and 
 often very full and distinct.^ It makes no difference that a' 
 number of those traditions are childish, and that traditions 
 are a very unsatisfactory sort of proof at best. Still, if we 
 observe that the traditions, such as they are, are corroborative 
 of other proofs, it is well to examine info thcin anyway. 
 
 '"Traditions of Decodah," Pidgeon. Carr, "Mounds of tlie Mississijipi 
 Valley." p. 70. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 505 
 
 The Iroquois tribes have a tradition, that is given in the 
 writing of Cusick, a Tuscaroa Indian. It is generally con- 
 sidered as a nonsensical production, but Mr. Hale points out 
 that, " whenever his statements can be submitted to the tests 
 of language, they are invariably confirmed."^ Such, for in- 
 stance, are the assertions that they formerly inhabited the 
 country around the St. Lawrence Hiver in Canada, and 
 further, that the Mohawk was the oldest tribe, from whence 
 the others separated in time. 
 
 The substance of the tradition supposed to refer to the 
 Mound Builders, is as follows : South of the great lakes was 
 the seat of a great empire. The emperor resided in a golden 
 city. The nations to the north of the great lakes formed a 
 confederacy, and seated a great council fire on the river St. 
 Lawrence. This confederacy appointed a high chief as em- 
 bassador, who immediately departed to the south to visit 
 the emperor at the golden city. Afterwards, the emperor 
 built many forts throughout his dominions, and almost pen- 
 etrated to Lake Erie. The people to the north considered 
 this an infringement on their territory, and it resulted in a 
 long war. 
 
 The people of the north were too skillful in the use of 
 bows and arrows, and could endure hardships which proved 
 fatal to a foreign people. At last, the northern people gained 
 the victory, and all the towns and forts were totally de- 
 stroyed and left in ruins.^ If this tradition stood alone, it 
 would not be deserving of much attention, but we know the 
 Iroquois tribes did originally live in the valley of the St. 
 Lawrence. We also feel sure the Mound Builders were a 
 
 ' "Indian Migrations," American Antiquarinn, April, 1883. 
 
 ^ Mr. Hale su<rgests that copper was the gold of the North American In- 
 dians, and that the "golden city" simply means a city or town where they 
 knew how to work copper. It is well known that the mound building tribes 
 had such knowledge, at least they knew how to work native copper. 
 
506 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 u powerful people, and lived in the Ohio Valley. What is 
 there unreasonable, "therefore, in supposing that the Iroquois 
 came in contact with them, and that this tradition rests 
 on facts? 
 
 But this tradition is very similar to one among the Del- 
 awares. This tribe spoke a different stock language than 
 the Iroquois, and belonged to the Algonquin division of the 
 Indian tribes. There were many wars between the Dela- 
 wares and the Ii-oquois, but finally the latter were acknowl- 
 edged masters. It is well to keep this in mind, because 
 with this feeling between the two tribes, they would not be 
 apt to have similar traditions unless there was a basis 
 of fact.' 
 
 Mr. Gallatin informs us that the original home of the 
 Algonquins was to the north of Lake Superior. The tradition 
 states that the Delawares (they called themselves the Leni- 
 lenape) were living in a cold, fir-tree country — evidently 
 the wooded regions north of Lake Superior. Getting tired 
 of this country, they set out towards the Ejist in search of 
 a better place, and probably followed the lake shore around 
 until they finally came to a great river — that is, the Detroit. 
 The country beyond was inhabited by a numerous and 
 powerful people, called the Allegewi," Avho dwelt in great 
 fortified towns. Here they found the Iluron-Iroquois tribes. 
 This was before the Iroquois had separated from the 
 Hurons. 
 
 ' This tradition was first made known by Ilcckweldcr, a missionary among 
 the Delawares, in his "History of the Indian Nations." It is repeated at 
 mncli {rreater lenprtli, and with additional jjarticulars, in a paper read hy Mr. 
 E. G. Squier, before the Hislorieal Soeiety of New York. IMr. Squier has 
 simply translated a {lennine Indian reeord known as the Bark Record. The 
 two aiitliorities here mentioned consider the Delawares as cominp from west 
 of the Mississippi. Mr. Hale points out that it was more likely the Upper 
 St- Lawrence— tiiat i>ortion known nf, tlie Detroit River — that was tlie " (ireat 
 River " of the traditions. 
 
 ' From this word conies Alleghany Mountains and River. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 507 
 
 Some treachery on the part of the Allegewi was made 
 the occasion of war. The Leni-lenape and the Hurons 
 united their forces. This is perhaps the Confederacy of 
 Cusic. A long war resulted, but in the end the Allegewi 
 were defeated, and, as the tradition states, '" all went south- 
 ward."^ We see no reason to doubt but what we have here 
 a traditional account of the overthrow of the Mound Build- 
 ers. The remnant that fled south found the country inhab- 
 ited by mound-building tribes, and doubtless became absorbed 
 among them. In confirmation of this view it may be said 
 that the languages of the tribes of the Gulf States, which 
 belong to one stock language,^ have all been greatly influ- 
 enced by words derived from a foreign source.^ 
 
 Perhaps a large body of them may have lived on as a 
 fully organized tribe. As we have already stated, the opin- 
 ion is quite freely advanced that this is the origin of the 
 Natchez.* It seems advisable to inquire more particularly 
 into the customs and traditions of this tribe. DuPralz, who 
 lived among them in 1718, and claims to have enjoyed the 
 confidence of their chiefs and principal men, has left the 
 most complete account of them; though Father Charlevoix, 
 a Jesuit priest, in his letters, also describes them fully. 
 
 A number of interesting statements in regard to them, 
 at once arrest attention. Most of the tribes in the south- 
 ern region of the United States spoke dialects of a common 
 stock language (Chata-muskoki), showing a derivation from 
 a common source. The Natchez spoke a different language. 
 
 ^ In this connection it is at least interesting to note that several authors — 
 Squier, MacLean, and others— have contended, judp:ing from the fortified hillj 
 and canips, that the pressure of hostilities on the Mound Builders of the Oliio 
 Valley was from the north-east. ^ The Chata-muskoki family. (Brinton.) 
 
 ^Hale: American Antiquariav, April, 1883. 
 
 * We are not at all certain but our scholars will shortly come to the conclu- 
 sion that the Cherokees or Shawnees are quite as likely to be the descend- 
 ants of the Allegewi as the Natchez. 
 
508 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Sun-worship seems to have been carried to a greater extent 
 than among any other tribes we are acquainted with. As 
 late as 1730 they still had their temples, where the eternal 
 fire was kept burning, carefully watched ; for they believed 
 that should it become extinguished, it would surely bring 
 great trouble on the tribe. Among the Natchez, if any- 
 where among Indian tribes, the power of the chief was ab- 
 solute, and there seems to have been something like priv- 
 ileged classes amongst them. We have already referred to 
 them as Mound Builders. 
 
 But most interesting is it to learn of their former wide 
 extension and ancient power. Du Pratz says, "According 
 to their traditions, they were the most powerful nation of 
 all North America, and were looked upon by other nations 
 as their superiors, and on that account were respected by 
 them. To give an idea of their power, I shall only men- 
 tion that formerly they extended from the River Manchas, 
 or Iberville, which is about fifty leagues from the sea, to 
 the River Wabash, which is distant from the sea about four 
 hundred and sixty leagues ; and that they had about eight 
 hundred suns, or princes."^ It is at least a reasonable suppo- 
 sition that that the Natchez were a remnant of the Mound 
 Builders. 
 
 So far we have dwelt chiefl}^ on the relations between 
 the Indians and the Mound Builders. Let us now see if 
 we can not detect some connection between the Pueblo 
 tribes of the south-west and the Mound Builders. All the 
 tribes in the Gulf States had traditions of a western and 
 south-western origin. In regard to the Creek Indians, this 
 tradition is very distinct. They relate, with many details, 
 
 ' It iR srarcely norossnry to caution the rcaripr ns to tlio valiio of tliis stato- 
 mont of ancioTit greatness. The chroniclers of De Soto's expedition hail noth- 
 ing to say about it. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 509 
 
 their journey from the west, their fight with the Alabamas, 
 etc.^ In the Natchez tradition, as given by Du Pratz, they 
 are seen, not only to come from the same western source, 
 but distinctly preserve recollections of pueblo houses. 
 
 The substance of their traditions is that they came from 
 a pleasant country and mild climate, " under the sun," and in 
 the south-west, where the nation had lived for many ages, 
 and had spread over an extensive country of mountains, 
 hills, and plains, in which the houses vveie built of stone, 
 and were several stories high. They further relate how, 
 owing to increase of enemies, the great sun sent some one 
 over to examine and report on the country to be found to 
 the east. The country being found extremely pleasant, a 
 large part of their nation removed thither ; and, after many 
 generations, the great sun himself came also. Speaking of 
 the ancient inhabitants of the country they came from, the 
 tradition states that " they had a great number of large and 
 small villages, which were all built of stone, and in which 
 were houses large enougli to lodge a whole tribe." ^ We 
 would offer the same suggestion on these traditions as on 
 the others. They are of value only so far as supported by 
 other testimony. The great objection to them is that the 
 pueblo structures of the west are evidently of recent origin. 
 So these traditions would prove that the Natchez Indians 
 were quite recently connected with the Pueblo tribes, which 
 is not at all probable. We have some slight evidence that 
 does not rest on traditions. Mr. Holmes has given us a plan 
 of an ancient village he discovered on the La Platte River, 
 San Juan Valley. It will be seen by reference to the plate 
 that the buildings were separated from each other. The forms 
 are chiefly rectangles and circles, and one or two seem to 
 
 'Pickett's "History of Alabama," Vol. II. 
 2 Du Pratz : " History of Louisiana," Vol. II. 
 
610 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 have been elliptical. This description certainly reminds us 
 of the circles and squares so common among the Mound 
 
 Builders. But 
 there is also 
 a truncated 
 mound, fifty 
 by eighty feet, 
 and nine feet 
 high. " Its 
 flat top and 
 height give it 
 more the ap- 
 pearance of 
 one of the sac- 
 rificial mounds 
 of the Ohio 
 Valley than 
 any others 
 observed in 
 this part of 
 the West." 
 Mounds are 
 known to ex- 
 ist in Utah.^ 
 We need 
 not expect to 
 trace a contin- 
 uous line of 
 
 R-ulns near the La Platte Valley of the San Jnan. ruins from tllO 
 
 San Juan Valley to that of the Ohio, granting the migration 
 to h.'ive taken ])lace, because a migrating race would not be 
 
 ' Stone mrtMex, or mills, have so far been foniid only in Missouri, not far 
 from tlio I\rissonri River. As this is snch an important im)>l<M)icnt among 
 the Pueblo tribes, its presence in this locality is sigiiiticant. i.Tlionias.) 
 
 
 -^-? 
 C^' 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 511 
 
 apt to erect monuments until they reached the end of 
 their line of migration. Those who take this view of 
 it say that it is not at all strange that when these mi- 
 grating tribes reached their new homes in the Mississippi 
 Valley they erected structures differing from those they had 
 formerly built, because all their surroundings would be dif- 
 ferent, and in the prairie sections they would find neither 
 stone for building their pueblos nor clay suitable for adobe 
 construction. So they would do the next best thing, and 
 build a fortified village. This is the view of that eminent 
 scholar, Mr. Morgan. It must be borne in mind, however, 
 that the fortified villages of the southern Indians, including 
 those of the Mississippi Valley, corresponded more nearly 
 with those of the Atlantic shore, and more northern tribes, 
 than with the pueblo structures. 
 
 There is another line of proof which we think has been 
 read the wrong way, or, at least, applied too strongly, and 
 made to do service in proving that the Mound Builders mi- 
 grated from the valley of the Ohio to Mexico, and there laid 
 the foundation of that wonderful civilization which is yet a 
 riddle to the antiquarian.^ This is derived from a study 
 of the skulls procured from various sections of this country, 
 Peru, and Mexico. It is sufficient to state that anatomists 
 have made a careful study of the skulls of individuals of 
 various nations, and instituted certain comparisons between 
 them, and discoveries of great importance have been made 
 by this means. Now, some of our best American scholars 
 have insisted that the skulls of the Mound Builders and the 
 ancient inhabitants of Mexico and the Inca Peruvians are so 
 similar that they must have belonged to the same race. 
 
 ' As the proof seems to be conclusive that the Indians of the south who 
 were encountered by the Europeans first visiting that section were the build- 
 ers of the mounds of that region, it brings these works down to a date subse- 
 quent to the entry of the civilized tribes into Mexico. (Thomas.) 
 
512 TEE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 This type of skull, however, is characteristic, not only 
 of the Mound Builders, the ancient Mexicans, and the Peru- 
 vians, but of the Pueblos, and of such tribes as the Natchez, 
 Creeks, and Seminoles. We think, with all due regard to 
 the opinions of others, that in the present state .of our 
 knowledge of craniology we are not authorized in drawing 
 very important conclusions therefrom. About all we are 
 justified in stating is that the sedentary or village Indians, 
 whether found in North or South America, have certain 
 common features. 
 
 It is also hard to see any great resemblance between the 
 works of the Mound Builders and the Pueblo tribes. The 
 truncated mounds discovered by Mr. Holmes, we remember, 
 were also used as foundations for house structures along the 
 Gila. In this feature we, of course, see a resemblance to 
 the platform mounds of the Mississippi Valley. But we 
 must be careful in tracing connections on such a slim basis 
 as this. We must remember also what a difference there is 
 in the pottery of the two sections.^ If we were to give an 
 opinion, based on the present known facts, we should say 
 the separation between the people who afterwards developed 
 as the pueblo builders of the west and the Mound Builders 
 of the Mississippi Valley took place at an early date. 
 
 But let us not suppose that this conclusion clears up all 
 mysteries. A problem which has thus far defied the efforts 
 of some of our best thinkers is still before us, and that is: 
 " From whence came the Indians ?" As we remarked at 
 the beginning of this chapter, no one theory has yet re- 
 ceived universal acceptance. In view of these facts, it is 
 not best to present any theories, but content ourselves with 
 such statements as seem reasonably well settled. On all 
 
 ' Some of the pottery from South-eastern IMissouri and Arkansas shows a 
 strong resemblance to that of some Pueblo tribes. ^Thomas-) 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 513 
 
 hands it is agreed that the Indians have been in America a 
 long while, and whatever advance they were able to make 
 in the scale of civilization has been achieved in this country.^ 
 This statement implies that they were in undisturbed 
 possession of this country long enough for some tribes of 
 them to reach the middle status of barbarism, which means 
 advancement sufficient to enable them to cultivate the 
 ground by irrigation, and to acquire a knowledge of the use 
 of stone and adobe brick in building? More than half the 
 battle of civilization had then been won. Look at it as we 
 will, this demands an immense period of time for its accom- 
 plishment. In the arts of subsistence, government, language, 
 and development of religious ideas the advancement they 
 had been able to make from a condition of savagism to 
 that in which the Mound Builders evidently lived, or the 
 Aztecs in Mexico, represents a progression far greater than 
 from thence to civilization. 
 
 We are, therefore, sure that the Indians have inhabited this 
 country for an extended period. We can prolong the mental 
 vision backwards until we discover them, a savage race, 
 gaining a precarious livelihood by fishing and the chase. In. 
 America there was but one cereal, or grain, growing wild. 
 That was maize, or Indian corn. We can not tell in what 
 portion of the continent it was native, but, in whatever sec- 
 tion it was, there, probably, first commenced permanent vil- 
 lage life. 
 
 A settled residence, and being no longer dependent on 
 hunting for a livelihood, would advance the Indians greatly 
 in the scale of culture. So we can understand how in one 
 section would arise Indian tribes possessed of quite compli- 
 cated systems of government and religion and a knowledge 
 
 1 Short's "North Americans of Antiquity," p. 202. 
 'Morgan: "Ancient Society," p. 12. 
 
 ^ 32 
 
514 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 of agriculture. And from this as a center they would nat- 
 urally spread out to other sections. The conclusion to 
 which we seem driven is, that there is no necessity for sup- 
 posing the Mound Builders to be any thing more than village 
 Indians, in much the same state of development as the 
 southern Indians at the time of the discovery. The Indian, 
 race shows us tribes in various stages of development, from 
 the highly developed Pueblo Indians on the one hand to the 
 miserable Aborigines of California on the other. 
 
 These various tribes may be classified as the wild hunt- 
 ing tribes and the sedentary, partially civilized tribes. To 
 this last division belong the Mound Builders. We have 
 seen how the partially civilized tribes in the valley of the 
 San Juan were gradually driven south by the pressure of 
 wild tribes. We need not doubt but such was the case in 
 the Mississippi Valley. But we need not picture to our- 
 selves any imposing movement of tribes. In one location a 
 mound-building tribe may have been forced to abandon its 
 territory, which would be occupied by bands of hunting 
 tribes. In other cases they would cling more tenaciously 
 to their territory. The bulk of them may have been forced 
 south ; some in other directions, and, like the Pimas on the 
 River Gila, or the Junanos east of the Rio Grande, have 
 retrograded in culture.^ Some bands may even have reached 
 Mexico, and exerted an influence on the culture of the 
 tribes found there.^ 
 
 It is only necessary to add a brief word as to the an- 
 tiquity of the Mound Builders' works, or rather as to the 
 time of abandonment. On this point there is a great di- 
 versity of opinion, and it seems to us almost impossible to 
 come to any definite conclusion. The time of abandonment 
 
 '"Fifth Annn.il Koport. Arehaeolofrical Institute," p. 85. 
 ""Short's "^ioith Americans of Antiquity," p. 458. 
 
THE PREHISTORIC AMERICANS. 515 
 
 may vary greatly in different sections of the country, and 
 -we have seen how apt Indian tribes, even in the same sec- 
 tion, are to abandon one village site in order to form another 
 a few miles away/ Fort Hill, in Ohio, that so strongly im- 
 pressed its first explorers with a sense of antiquity,^ may 
 have been abandoned long before the Circleville works, 
 where Mr. Atwater could still distinguish vestiges of the 
 palisades that once helped to defend it. 
 
 We have said about all that can be said in a brief re- 
 view of the prehistoric life in America north of Mexico. 
 We have seen how much there is still for our scholars to 
 work up before we can profess to as full and complete a 
 knowledge as we have of the prehistoric life in Europe. 
 We are just on the threshold of discoveries in regard to the 
 Paleolithic Age in this country. The southern boundary 
 of the great ice sheet is now known to us. Many scholars 
 have pointed out to us the scattering bits of evidence going 
 to show that the ancestors of the present Eskimos once in- 
 habited the interior of this continent. Dr. Abbott has 
 found unmistakable evidence of the presence of such a peo- 
 ple in New Jersey. Our Indian tribes who came next, are 
 not properly prehistoric, though many questions relating to 
 them belong to that field. 
 
 We have examined the works of the people known as 
 Mound Builders. They are indeed varied and full of in- 
 terest, but our conclusion leaves their origin involved in the 
 stni deeper question of the origin of the Indian race. We 
 are satisfied that they were village Indians and not tribes 
 of a vanished people. We have also examined that section of 
 country wherein the greatest development of village Indian 
 life north of Mexico took place. It would be very satisfactory 
 
 ' Carr: "Mounds of the Mississippi Valley," p. 97. 
 ' "Ancient Monuments," p. 14. 
 
516 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 could we show lines of migration from the valley of the 
 San Juan, as a center, to the Mississippi Valley on the one 
 hand, and to Mexico and the South on the other. We can 
 find some lines of evidence, but not enough to positively 
 state such an important truth. 
 
 We must now leave this field of inquiry. We trust 
 such of our readers as have followed us in these pages will 
 have clearer ideas of the prehistoric life in North America. 
 They must however regard this knowledge as simply a 
 foundation, a starting-point, or as the shallows along the 
 shore, while the massive building, the long journey, or the 
 great ocean, is still before them. Our scholars are giving 
 their time and attention to these problems. They are learn- 
 ing what they can of the traditions and myths of the tribes 
 still existing. They are studying their languages and plan 
 of government. They are also making great collections of 
 the works of their hands. We will hope some day for clear 
 light on all these topics, which will either confirm our pres- 
 ent conclusions or show us wherein we must change them, 
 or, perhaps, reject them altogether. 
 
 stone Mask found in Tennessee. 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 
 
 517 
 
 CHAPTER mi 
 
 THE NAHUA TRIBES. 
 
 Early Spanish discoveries in Mexico — Tlie Nahua tribes defined — Cli- 
 mate of Mexico — Tlie Valley of Auahuac — Ruins at Tezcuco — The 
 hill of Tezcocingo — Ruins at Teotihuacan — Ancient TuUa — Ruins 
 in the province of Querataro — Casa Grandes in Chihuahua — An- 
 cient remains in Sinaloa — ^Fortified hill of Quemada — The Pyramid 
 of Cholula — Mr. Bandelier's investigations at Cholula — Fortified hill 
 at Xochicalco — Its probable use — Ruins at Monte Alban — Ancient 
 remains at Mitla — Mr. Bandelier's investigations — Traditions in re- 
 gard to Mitla — Ruins along the Panuco River — Ruins in Vera 
 
 Cruz — Pyramid of Papantla — Tusapan — Character of 
 
 Nahua Ruins. 
 
 THE ships of the Spanish admiral 
 1*^ ^y came to anchor before the Island of 
 !^^San Salvador, he had indeed discov- 
 ered a " New World." It V7as in- 
 habited by a race of people living 
 in a state of society from which the 
 inhabitants of Europe had emerged long 
 before the dawn of authentic history. The animal and plant 
 life were also greatly different from any thing with which they 
 were acquainted. The Spaniards little suspected the import- 
 ance of their discovery. Columbus himself died in the belief 
 that he had simply explored a new route to Asia. A quarter 
 of a century elapsed after the first voyage of Columbus before 
 an expedition coasted along the shores of Mexico. This 
 was the expedition of Juan De Grijalva, in 1518. He gave 
 a glowing description of the country he had seen, which 
 "from the beauty and verdure of its indented shores, and 
 
518 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the lovely appearances of its villages, he called 'New 
 Spain.' "^ 
 
 This was followed, in the year 1519, by the history- 
 making expedition of Cortez. The scene of his first landing 
 was about forty miles south of the present town of Vera 
 Cruz, but to this place they soon removed. At his very 
 first landing-point he learned of the existence of what he 
 
 Map of Mexico. 
 
 was pleased to call a powerful empire, ruled by a most val- 
 iant prince. The accounts the Indian allies gave him of 
 the power and wealth of this empire inflamed the imagina- 
 tion of Cortez and his followers. This was an age, we must 
 
 * Gregory's "History of Mexico, " p. 19. 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 519 
 
 remember, that delighted in tales of the marvelous ; add to 
 this the further fact that Cortez was not, at the beginning 
 of his expedition, acting with the sanction of his royal 
 master; indeed, his sailing from the island of Cuba was in 
 direct violation of the commands of the governor. It was 
 very necessary for him to impress upon the court of Spain 
 a sense of the importance of his undertaking. 
 
 Certain it is that the accounts that have been handed 
 down to us, though read with wonder and admiration, though 
 made the basis on which many writers have constructed 
 most glowing descriptions of the wonders of the barbaric 
 civilization, which they would fain have us believe, rivaled 
 that of "Ormus and of Ind," are to-day seriously questioned 
 by a large and influential portion of the scientific world. 
 We have another point to be considered that is of no little 
 weight, as all candid men must admit that it would influ- 
 ence the opinions the Spaniards would form of the cul- 
 ture of the Indians. As the man of mature years has lost 
 the memory of his childhood, so have the civilized races of 
 men lost, even beyond the reach of tradition, the memory 
 of their barbaric state. The Spaniards were brought face 
 to face with a state of society from which the Indo-European 
 folks had emerged many centuries before. They could not 
 be expected to understand it, and hence it is that we find 
 so many contradictory statements in the accounts of the 
 early explorers ; so much that modern scholars have no 
 hesitation in rejecting. 
 
 The main tribe of the empire which Cortez is said have 
 overthrown is known to us by the name of the Aztecs ; but 
 as this name properly denotes but one of many tribes in 
 the same state of development, it is better to use a word 
 which includes all, or nearly all, of the tribes that in olden 
 times had their home in the territory now known as Mexico. 
 
620 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Careful comparisons of the various dialects of ancient Mex- 
 ico have shown that, with the exceptions of some tribes in 
 Vera Cruz, they all belonged to one stock-language; and 
 so they are collectively known as the Nahua tribes.^ 
 
 We wish now to inquire into the culture of this people, 
 to see how much of the strange story that the Spaniards have 
 to tell us has a reasonable foundation. We will state frankly 
 that, though the literature on this subject is of vast propor- 
 tions, yet it is very far from being a settled field. All ac- 
 counts of the early explorers of the strange scenes, customs, 
 and manners of the inhabitants, when they were first dis- 
 covered, are so intermixed with self-evident fables, and 
 statements that are undoubtedly exaggerations, that we have 
 a most difficult task before us. We will first examine the 
 antiquities of this section, compare them with those found 
 in more northern regions, and then examine the statements 
 of the early writers as to the customs of the people. We 
 do not propose to do more than to follow after our leaders 
 in thought, and try to make plain the conclusions to which 
 they have arrived. We are not to deal wholly with a pre- 
 historic people, though their origin is unknown. What we 
 desire to do is to clear away the mists of three and a half 
 centuries, and to catch, if possible, a glimpse of what was 
 probably the highest development of prehistoric culture in 
 North America just before the arrival of the Spaniards. 
 
 Mexico was surely a land well adapted to the needs of 
 a prehistoric people. Along the coasts the ground is low. 
 This constitutes what is known as the " Hot Country."^ The 
 greater part of Mexico consists of an elevated table-land, 
 which rises in a succession of plateaus. As we leave the 
 coast region and climb the plateau, we experience changes 
 of climate. If ii wore level, it would have mainly a trop- 
 
 »^ancroft's "Native Racep," Vol. TI, p. 02. - Tl.c Tin-m CuH.-nte 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES- 521 
 
 ical climate, but owing to the elevation we have just men- 
 tioned, it has mainly a temperate climate. The whole 
 plateau region is cut up with mountains. The Sierra Madre, 
 on the west, is the main chain, but numerous cross-ranges 
 occur. The result is, a greater part of Mexico abounds in 
 fertile, easily defended valleys — -just such localities as are 
 much sought after by a people in barbaric culture, con- 
 stantly exposed to the assaults of invading foes.^ 
 
 We may as well pass at once to the valley of Ana- 
 huac, the most noted in all the region, and learn of the an- 
 tiquities of this central section. It is in this valley that 
 the capital of the Mexican Republic is situated. All trav- 
 elers who have had occasion to describe its scenery have 
 heen enthusiastic in its praise. The valley is mountain-girt 
 and lake-dotted, and in area not far different from the State 
 of Rhode Island. On one of the principal lakes was located 
 the Pueblo of Tenochtitlan, the head-quarters of the Aztecs, 
 commonly known as the City of Mexico. When Cortez 
 first stood upon the encircling mountains, and gazed down 
 upon the valley, he saw at his feet one of the most pros- 
 perous and powerful pueblos of the New World. 
 
 This is not the place to recount the story of its fall. 
 Our present inquiry is concerned solely with the remains of 
 its prehistoric age. The enthusiastic Spaniards would have 
 us believe in a city of Orie'ntal magnificence. We have no 
 illustrations of this pueblo. It was almost completely de- 
 stroyed by Cortez before its final surrender in August, 1521, 
 It was then rebuilt as the capital city of New Spain. Of 
 course, all traces of its original buildings soon disappeared. 
 What we can learn of its appearance is derived from the 
 accounts of the early writers, which we will examine in their 
 proper place. After having surveyed the entire field of 
 
 ' Ober's " Mexican Resources," p. 2. 
 
522 THE PREHlSTOUrc WORLD. 
 
 ruins, we will be much better qualified to judge of the vague 
 statements of its former grandeur. A few relics have, in- 
 deed, been found buried beneath the surface of the old city. 
 They illustrate the culture of the people, as will be noticed 
 further on. 
 
 Directly across the lake from the Pueblo of Mexico was 
 that of Tezcuco, the head-quarters of the second powerful 
 tribe of the Aztec Confederacy. Traces onl}' are recovera- 
 ble of its former buildings. At the southern end of the 
 modern town were found the foundations of three great pyra- 
 mids. They were arranged in a line from north to south. 
 Mr. Mayer says of these ruins : " They are about four 
 hundred feet in extent on each side of their base, and are 
 built partly of adobe and partly of large, bui'ned bricks and 
 fragments of pottery." ^ Pie tells us further that the sides 
 of the pyramids " were covered with fragments of idols, clay 
 vessels, and obsidian knives." From other discoveries, it 
 would seem these pyramids were coated with cement. The 
 suggestion is made that on one of these pyramids stood the 
 great temple of Tezcuco, which, an early writer tells us, was 
 ascended by one hundred and seventeen steps. 
 
 In another part of the town a sculptured block of stone 
 was found, of which this cut is given. "It appears to be 
 the remains of a trough or basin, and the sculj)ture is neatly 
 executed in relief. I imagine tKat it was designed to repre- 
 sent a conflict between a serpent and a bird, and you can 
 not fail to remark the cross distinctly carved near the lower 
 right-hand corner of the vessel." Bullock, who traveled in 
 Mexico in IS'24. has left a brief description of the ruins of 
 what he calls a palace: "It must have been a noble build- 
 ing. ... It extended for three hundnMl foot, forming 
 one side of the great square, and was placed on sloping ter- 
 
 "^Mexico As It Was," p. •_'21. 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 
 
 523 
 
 races raised one above the other by small steps. Some of 
 these terraces are still eatire and covered with cement. . . . 
 From vsrhat is known of the extensive foundations of thisr 
 palace, it must have covered some acres of ground." ^ This 
 last statement is doubtless exaggerated. From what we 
 
 Bas-ReUef, Tezcuco. 
 
 know of Indian architecture, these ruins were doubtless 
 long, low, and narrow, and placed on one or more sides of a 
 square, perhaps inclosing a court. 
 
 About three miles from the town of Tezcuco is a very 
 singular group of ruins. This is the Hill of Tezcocingo 
 This is very regular in outline, and rises to the height of 
 about six hundred feet. A great amount of work has evi- 
 dently been bestowed on this hill, and some very far-fetched 
 conclusions have been drawn from it. Probably as notable 
 a piece of work as any was the aqueduct which supplied 
 the hill with water, and this is really one of the most won- 
 derful pieces of aboriginal work with which we are ac- 
 quainted. 
 
 The termination of the aqueduct is represented in our 
 next cut. This is about half-way up the hill, right on the 
 edge of a precipitous descent of some two hundred feet. " It 
 
 ^"Six Months in Mexico," p. 386. 
 
524 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 will be observed in the drawing that the rock is smoothed 
 to a perfect level for several yards, around which seats and 
 grooves are carved from the adjacent masses. In the center 
 there is a circular sink, about a yard and a half in diam- 
 eter and a yard in depth, and a square pipe, with a small 
 aperture, led the water from an aqueduct which appears to 
 terminate in this basin. None of the stones have been 
 joined with cement, but the whole was chiseled from the 
 mountain rock." ^ This has been called "Montezuma's 
 Bath," simply from the custom of naming every wonderful 
 ruin for which no other name was known after that person- 
 age ; but this was not a bath, but a reservoir of water. 
 
 From this circular reservoir the side of the mountain is 
 cut down so as to form a level grade, just as if a railroad 
 
 Honteznma's Bath. 
 
 had been made. This grade Avinds around the surface of the 
 hill for about half a mile, when it stretches out across a val- 
 ley three-quarters of a mile wide, an elevated embankment 
 from sixty to two hundred feet in height. Reaching the 
 second mountain, the graded way commences again, and is 
 extended about half-way around the mountain, where it ex- 
 tends on another embankment across the plains to a range 
 of mountains, from which the water was obtained. 
 
 ' Mayer: " Moxicn .\s It "Was." )>. 2:!4. 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 
 
 525 
 
 This cut represents the embankment crossing the valley. 
 Along the top of this way was laid the canals to transport the 
 water, made of an exceedingly hard cement of mortar and frag- 
 ments of pounded brick. It is estimated that nearly, if not 
 quite, as much labor was expended on this aqueduct as on the 
 Croton aqueduct that supplies New York City.^ This last 
 
 Aqueduct, Tezcooingo. 
 
 statement is probably too strong, but, considering that this 
 work was accomplished by a people destitute of iron tools, it 
 is seen to be a most extraordinary work. From what we 
 have already learned, this hill was evidently a very important 
 place. On all sides we meet with evidences that the whole 
 of the hill was covered with artificial works of one kind or 
 another. On the side of the hill opposite this reservoir was 
 
 ' Thompson's "Mexico," p. 144. 
 
526 THE PREHIlSTORie WORLD. 
 
 another recess bordered by seats cut in living rock, and lead- 
 ing to a perpendicular cliff, on which a calendar *is said to 
 Jiave been carved, but was destroyed by the natives in 
 later days.^ 
 
 Traces of a spiral road leading up the summit have been 
 observed. In 1824 Bullock (who, however, is not regarded 
 as a very accurate observer) " found the whole mountain had 
 been covered with palaces, temples, baths, hanging-gardens, 
 and so forth." Latrobe, somewhat later, found "fragments 
 of pottery and broken pieces of obsidian knives and arrows; 
 pieces of stucco, shattered terraces, and old walls were 
 thickly dispersed over its whole surface."^ Mr. Maj'er, after 
 .speaking of the abundance of broken pottery and Indian ar- 
 rows, says : " The eminence seems to have been converted 
 from its base to its summit into a pile of terraced gardens." 
 
 By one class of writers this hill is regarded as the "sub- 
 urban residence of the luxurious monarchs of Tezcuco, . . . 
 «, pleasure garden upon which were expended the revenues 
 of the state and the ingenuity of its artists." ^ Mr. Bancroft 
 "has gathered together the details of this charming story,* 
 .and tells us that the kings of Mexico had a similar pleasure 
 resort on the Hill of Chapultepec, a few miles west of the 
 city.' It is sufficient at present to state that an explanation 
 much simpler and more in accord with our latest scientific 
 information can be given. It is more likely that this hill 
 was the seat of a village Indian community. Its location 
 
 ' Bancroft : " Native Races," Vol. IV, p. 526. 
 
 '"Rambles in Mexico," p. 140. 
 
 'Gratacap, in American Anligvarinrt, October, 1883, p. 310. 
 
 ♦" Native Races," Vol. IT, p)i. 108-173. 
 
 ^ As to this hill, Mr. Hiindelier reniark.s: "As a salient and striking object, 
 and on account of the fresh-water springs, Chapultepec was worshiped, but T find 
 no trace among older authors of any settlement there still less of a Summer 
 palace — at the time of the conquest." "Report of an Arclueological Tour in 
 Mexico," p. 73. 
 
THE NAIIUA TRIBES. 
 
 527 
 
 was naturally strong. The water, brought with so much 
 labor from a distance, furnished a supply for the purpose of 
 irrigation, as well as bodily needs. The terraced sides show 
 that every foot of ground was utilized, and the ruins of the 
 palaces that Mr. Bullock mentions were the fast-disappear- 
 ing ruins of their communal buildings. Owing to the cruel 
 raids of the Aztec tribes, this place may have been deserted 
 
 Teotihuacan. 
 
 l)efore the coming of the Spaniards, and thus no mention 
 was made of it. 
 
 Still further to the north, about thirty miles from Mex- 
 ico, is found another extensive field of ruins, which is called 
 Teotihuacan, meaning " City of the Gods." The principal 
 ruins now standing are the two immense pyramids (which 
 are represented in this cut), which the natives call the 
 " House of the Moon " and the " House of the Sun." We 
 will describe the surroundings first. It is unquestioned but 
 that here was a very extensive settlement in early times. 
 
528 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 When the Nahua tribes entered Mexico they probably found 
 it inhabited. One very recent writer thinks that " nowhere 
 else in America can you find a more imposing mass of 
 ruins." ^ He estimates that it was " a city upwards of 
 twenty miles in circumference." 
 
 Other writers have also noticed its great extent. Ac- 
 cording to Thompson, " the ruins cover an area very nearly 
 as large as that of the present City of Mexico, and the 
 streets are as distinctly marked by the ruins of houses." ^ 
 And in another place Mr. Charney tells us "the city was of 
 vast extent; and, without indulging in any stereotyped re- 
 flections on the vanity of human greatness, I will say that 
 a more complete eflfacement is nowhere else to be seen. The 
 whole ground, over a space five or six miles in diameter, is 
 covered with heaps of ruins, which, at first view, make no 
 impression, so complete is their dilapidation." ^ 
 
 Of this mass of ruins we are told but little, beyond the 
 general assertion that it consists of the ruins of buildings, 
 temples, etc. But very recently M. Charney has uncov- 
 ered the foundation of one of these houses. He calls it a 
 palace. It was, in all probability, a communal building. It 
 had two wings inclosing a court, and was located on a ter- 
 raced pyramid. He found, on digging into the terrace in 
 front of the ruins, a great number of sloping walls, covered 
 with cement, containing small compartments, etc. M. Char- 
 ney can not account for their presence. 
 
 In view of the discoveries further north, we would re- 
 spectfully suggest that this was, in reality, the lower story 
 of the building, whose flat roof formed the terrace in front 
 
 ■Charney in North American Review, September, 1880, p. 190. 
 
 ^"Recollections of Mexico," p. 140. 
 
 'We have several times remarked that it i.s not safe to j^kIw prehistoric 
 population by the amount of ruins. " Indians never rebuild on ruins or repair 
 them." 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 629 
 
 of the second story, whose foundation M. Charney so hap- 
 pily discovered. But such suggestions as this are very 
 unsafe to make, and must be supported by further discover- 
 ies before they are of any real value. 
 
 He found a large number of good-sized rooms, and 
 speaks especially of one hall fifty feet square, in the center 
 of which was six pillars, sloping from the base upwards. 
 They, doubtless, served to support the roof. We regret 
 that we have not been able to see M. Charney's ground 
 plan of this ruin. Of the pyramids themselves we have 
 quite full information. The larger one, that of the sun, 
 is seven hundred and sixty feet square and two hundred 
 and sixteen feet high. It will be seen that these dimen- 
 sions throw the great mound at Cahokia into the shade. 
 Though the base may not be quite as great, the height of 
 the pyramid is over twice that of the mound. Three ter- 
 races are plainly visible. The surface was covered with 
 cement, large slabs of which remain in their place. The 
 moon pyramid is further north. 
 
 It is in all respects like that of the sun, but of smaller 
 dimensions, being one hundred and fifty feet high. In early 
 times these pyramids are said to have supported statues, 
 but, if so, they have long since been thrown down. Their 
 surface and the ground around is thickly strewn with frag- 
 ments of pottery, obsidian knives, and other small relics. 
 Running south from the House of the Moon, and passing a 
 little to one side of the House of the Sun, are the remains 
 of a wide, paved road. Its width is stated to be one hun- 
 dred and thirty feet, and its length about two hundred and 
 fifty rods.^ 
 
 This road suddenly expands in front of the Moon, so as 
 to suggest the idea of a Greek cross. Pieces of cement 
 
 I Bancroft: " Native Races," Vol. IV., p. 537. 
 
 33 
 
630 THE rUEHHSTOniC WORLD. 
 
 (with which this road was covered) are still visible in places. 
 It is lined with mounds on either side, and they stand so 
 close together as to resemble continuous embankments in 
 some places. Speculatiuus are abundant as to the object of 
 this graded way. Tradition calls it the ''Path of the 
 Dead." Small mounds are very numerous over the surface. 
 They may have been for burial purposes, but sculptured 
 stones are found in them, and specimens of hard cement. 
 This group of ruins is regarded as of very great antiquity. 
 
 We can easily see that the growth of the soil formed by 
 the decay and detrition of the stone slabs of the pyramids, 
 temples, and other buildings Avould be slow, especially as the 
 rainfall is light. But in some localities it is more than three 
 feet thick. In places three separate floors are observed, one 
 over the other, pointing to as many successive occupations 
 of the same sections by men. 
 
 About sixty-five miles to the north of Mexico was 
 located Tollan, or Tulla. According to tradition, this was 
 the capital city of the Toltecs, a mysterious people who 
 long preceded the Aztecs. We are told that " extensive 
 ruins remained at the time of the conquest, but very few 
 relics have survived to the present time." ^ M. Charney, 
 whose labors we have referred to at Teotihuacan, succeeded 
 also in making important discoveries here. He tells us that 
 on the site of this ancient capital there is a hill, " about 
 one mile long by half a mile broad, covered with mounds, 
 plateaus, and ruins of all kinds." 
 
 He gives us the dimensions of two pyramids, as follows : 
 The first is one hundred and ninety-six feet on each front, 
 and forty-six feet high. The second is one hundred and 
 thirty-one feet square, and thirty-one feet high. Both of 
 these pyramids stood on raised foundations, which M. Char- 
 
 > Bancroft : " Native Races," Vol. IV, p. 547. 
 
THE NAHVA TRIBES. 631 
 
 ney calls esplanades/ As no other pyramids are mentioned, 
 we are to suppose these are the two principal ones. Per- 
 haps they are also pyramids of the sun and moon. Our 
 chief interest is concerned with the remains of the habita- 
 tions he discovered here. He says : " I set the men to 
 work at one of the many mounds upon the ridge, and soon 
 found that I had hit upon a group of habitations." A gen- 
 eral idea of this group of buildings is given in this passage : 
 " The dwellings were united together in groups, and 
 erected on isolated mounds, one in the middle, the others 
 around about, the whole forming a sort of honey-comb, with 
 its cells placed at different elevations." 
 
 We can not help being struck with the general resem- 
 blance of the descriptions here given and that of the ruins in 
 the vicinity of the River Gila. The general tendency is 
 seen to gather together in clusters, with, probably, the most 
 important house in the center. As to the materials used in 
 this building, we are told " they used clay and mud for the 
 inside of the walls, cement to coat them, dressed stone and 
 brick for casings, bricks and stone for stairways, bricks for 
 pilasters, and wood for roofing the edifice. The houses had 
 flat roofs, consisting of timbers coated with cement. Of 
 such timbers we find vast quantities." ^ 
 
 Of the arrangements of the rooms, he tells us, "The 
 apartments that have been brought to light comprise a num- 
 ber of chambers, big and little, placed at different heights. 
 We shall have no clear idea of the relation of these differ- 
 ent chambers to one another, or of the mode of access to 
 them through the labyrinthine passages and the numerous 
 stairways, until the whole edifice has been unearthed." 
 
 This was not the only building he discovered. On dig- 
 
 ' The ceilings in the pueblos of Arizona were often made of poles covered 
 with cement. .See pnge 471. 
 
532 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ging into a mound, supposed to be the support of a temple, 
 he discovered it was the ruined foundation of a still grander 
 house. • He says, " It is much larger than the other one, 
 stands on a pyramid, and has two wings inclosing a courf> 
 yard. The walls are thicker than those of the first habita- 
 tion, and more strongly built. The apartments, too, are 
 larger, though arranged in a similar fashion.'" Elsewhere 
 he tells us that this building contained at least forty-three 
 apartments, large and small. We presume very few will 
 now question but what the buildings he here describes are 
 ruined communal buildings, much like the structures in 
 Arizona. 
 
 But perhaps the most interesting result of his labors 
 was the proof that these ruins were certainly inhabited after 
 the conquest — for how long a time we can not tell. This is 
 shown by fragments of bones and other articles found in 
 the refuse heaps. The bones were of such animals as the 
 horse, swine, sheep, oxen, etc. — animals introduced into this 
 country by the Spaniards. The fragments of pottery include 
 specimens plainly not of Indian manufacture, such as frag- 
 ments of porcelain, and that variety of glazed Avare known 
 as delf, and lastly, the neck of a glass bottle. It may be 
 said that these fragments might have been left by a band 
 of Spaniards who occupied the ruins in the early days of 
 the conquest, perhaps long after the Indian owners had left. 
 This is of course possible, but it is just as reasonable to 
 suppose the fragments were left by descendants of the orig- 
 inal builders. 
 
 Northward from Tulla is a small province, marked on 
 the map Querataro. From the accounts at our disposal, 
 which are very brief, we gather that this whole section is a 
 table-land, split up by ravines of great depths and precipi- 
 tous sides J consequently one abounding in easily defended 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 533 
 
 positions. It was found that all the projecting points, 
 naturally strong, were rendered still stronger by the pres- 
 ence of ditches, walls, and embankments. Three groups of 
 ruins are mentioned especially, and their location is marked 
 on the map. At Pueblito there was, at an early day, plainly 
 to be seen, the foundation of a large, rectangular building. 
 The walls were built of stone laid in clay. 
 
 At Canoas, in the northern part of the State, there is a 
 steep and strongly fortified hill, but particulars in regard to 
 it are very meager. " There are, in all, forty-five defensive 
 works on the hill, including a wall about forty feet in 
 height, and a rectangular platform with an area of five thou- 
 sand square feet."^ Ranas, the most northern one of the 
 three sites mentioned, is regarded as the center of popula- 
 tion in early times. "A small lake and a perennial spring 
 are supposed to have been the attractions of this locality 
 in the eyes of the people. On all the hills about are still 
 seen vestiges of their monuments." 
 
 If we look at the map we will notice that we have gone 
 but a little ways north of the valley of Anahuac. Yet, 
 with the exception of the Gulf-coast, there are but few 
 striking aboriginal ruins in Northern Mexico. At the time 
 of the conquest the whole northern section was the home 
 of tribes not generally considered to be as far advanced as 
 those who lived in the section we have already described, 
 and in regions further south. Yet it is certainly hard to 
 draw the line betweeen the culture of the two people. We 
 are told that, these Northern tribes though styled "dogs," 
 and " barbarians," by the Southern tribes, were yet " til- 
 lers of the soil, and lived under systematic forms of 
 government, although not apparently much given to the arts 
 of agriculture and sculpture." 
 
 ' Bancroft's " Native Races," Vol. IV, p. 550. 
 
534 THE PllEHlSTORIC WORLD. 
 
 This point is of considerable interest to us, theoretically; 
 for it is a question from whence came the various Nahua 
 tribes. We would naturally think, if they came from the 
 North, we ought to find evidence of their former presence 
 in the various Northern States of Mexico. We must re- 
 member, however, that a migrating people are not apt to 
 leave monuments until thfey reach the end of their migra- 
 tion. Neither has the territory been as carefully explored 
 as it should be. What accounts we can obtain of the re- 
 mains in this section are certainly very meager. But one 
 place in Sonora do ruins occur, and they have never been 
 examined by competent personages.^ In Chihuahua occur 
 ruins, evidently the works of the same people as built the 
 separate houses to the west of the Rio Grande, in New 
 Mexico. 
 
 These ruins have received the same name as those on 
 the Rio Gila — that is, " Casas Grandes," meaning '* Great 
 House." This cut represents a view of these ruins. The 
 river valley is here about two miles wide, and is said to be 
 very fertile. Mr. Bartlett thinks there is no richer valley 
 to be found from Texas to California. This valley was once 
 the seat of a considerable population. Mounds are here 
 found in considerable numbers. Over two thousand are 
 estimated as occurring in a section of country sixty miles 
 long by thirty in width.^ We wish we knew more about 
 the mounds. They are said to contain pottery, stone axes, 
 and other implements. It is possible, then, that these 
 mounds are ruins of separate houses. At any rate, such 
 are the only kind of ruins noticed in the upper part of this 
 same valley by Mr. Bandolier. 
 
 The ruins in question are undoubtedly those of a rich 
 
 ' Bandplior: "Fifth Annual Report Arch. Inst," p. 86. 
 'Bancroft's "Native liace.s," Vol. IV, p. GIG. 
 
THE NAHVA TRIBES. 
 
 535 
 
 and prosperous 
 pueblo. They 
 are so placed as 
 to command a 
 very extensive 
 view. The river 
 valley is cut 
 through a plain, 
 and has precip- 
 itous sides about 
 twenty-five feet 
 in height. The 
 ruins in question 
 are found partly 
 in the bottoms 
 and partly on S 
 the upper and Z 
 more sterile | 
 
 CD 
 
 plateau. The ^ 
 walls were made 
 of adobe, and in 
 consequence of 
 their long ex- 
 posure to the 
 elements are 
 very far gone 
 in ruins ; so 
 much so that 
 Mr. Bartlett 
 was unable to 
 make out the 
 plan. But 
 
 enough was seen 
 
536 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 to show that this was a pueblo much like the structure 
 already described. They properly belong to the Arizona 
 group of ruins. 
 
 We are told they face the cardinal points, and consist of 
 fallen and erect walls. The portions still standing are from 
 fifty to sixty feet high, or rather were that height in 1851. 
 It is doubtful whether any thing more than a mound of 
 adobe mud now marks the spot. The walls were highest in 
 the center of the mass. At the distance of a few miles 
 was a hill ^aid to be fortified. But the descriptions of it 
 are conflicting. Some represent it as crowned Avith a stone- 
 built fortress two or three stories high. Others more rea- 
 sonable, represent it as the site of a watch-tower, or sentry 
 station, and that at regular intervals on the slope of the hill 
 are lines of stone, with heaps of loose stones at their ex- 
 tremities.^ Probably the same frite overtook the tribes of 
 this valley as did the sedentary tribes of the North. They 
 would not willingly abandon a place so well suited to their 
 needs. The presence of an iuA'ading foe, cruel and vindic- 
 tive, alone accounts for this group of ruins. 
 
 In Sinaloa we have no very definite account of ruins. 
 However, Mr. Bandelier says, the existence of ancient vil- 
 lages in that section is certain, and that from " Sinaloa there 
 are ample evidences of a continuous flow Southward."^ 
 There are no ruins worth mentioning in any of the other 
 States, excepting Zacatecas, where we find a ruin of great 
 interest. This is at Qucmadn, in the southern part of the 
 State. The name is taken from that of a farm in the near 
 neighborhood. The ruins are situated on the top of a hill, 
 which is not only naturally strong, but the approaches to it 
 are fortified. The hill ascends from the plain in a gentle 
 
 ' Bancroft's " Native Riicos," Vol. IV, p. G13. 
 »" Fifth Annual Report," p. 86. 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 537 
 
 elope for seA^eral hundred yards, it then rises quite precip- 
 itously for about a hundred and fifty feet. The total height 
 of the hill above the plain is probably not far from eight 
 hundred feet.^ 
 
 At all points where the approach to the top of the hill 
 is not steep enough to form a protection of itself, the brow 
 is guarded by walls of stone. This is especially true of the 
 northern end of the hill. One peculiar feature of this place 
 is the traces of ancient roads, which can still be clearly dis- 
 tinguished crossing each other at various angles on the slope 
 we have mentioned. They can be followed for miles, and 
 are described as being slightly raised and paved with rough 
 stones. In places on the slope, their sides are protected by 
 embankments. 
 
 Considerable speculations have been indulged in as to 
 the purposes for which these roads were used. It has been 
 suggested that they were the streets of an ancient city 
 which must once have existed on the plains; and that the 
 fortified hill, with the ruins on its summit, was the citadel, 
 the residence of their rulers, and the location, of their tem- 
 ples. But we think a more reasonable view is that all of 
 the city that ever stood in that neighborhood was on the 
 hill summit, and that these streets were for religious pur- 
 poses, reminding us in this respect of the -graded ways and 
 traces of paved streets sometimes met with in the Missis- 
 sippi Valley. In proof of this view, it is said that many 
 of them, after being followed for a long distance, are found 
 to terminate in a heap of stones, which are evidently the 
 ruins of a regular pyramid. In opposition to both of these 
 views, it has been suggested that the surrounding plain was 
 low and marshy, and that the object of these causeways 
 
 ' Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. IV, p. 581. These dimensions are dif- 
 ferent in different accounts, ;is in.iy he seen by consulting Mr. Bancroft's work. 
 
538 
 
 rilE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 was to secure a dry passage, which explanation is certainly 
 very reasonable. 
 
 Of the top of the hill, it may be sufficient to state that 
 
 it is of irregular 
 shape, half a mile 
 in length from 
 north to south, 
 and of varying 
 width, but on an 
 average one thou- 
 sand feet wide. 
 The approach to 
 the top of the 
 hill was strongly 
 guarded. Al- 
 
 g though buildings 
 S were observed 
 ^covering the 
 whole top of the 
 hill, yet they 
 were in two prin- 
 cipal groups. This 
 cut, though but 
 one of many, will 
 give us very good 
 ideas of all the 
 ruins. It is seen 
 to be an inclos- 
 ure. It is on a 
 .-^niall scale. It 
 was one hundred and fiCly (cct .^(iuarc. Wo notice terraces 
 on three sides. Those Icir.-iccs me throe feet high by 
 twelve wide, and in the (•cntci- of cicli sido are steps by 
 
THKNAHUA TRIBES. 539- 
 
 which to descend to the square.^ Each terrace is backed 
 by a wall, portions of which are seen in the engraving. 
 These walls are twenty feet high by eight or nine in 
 thickness. The openings seen in the wall are not properly 
 doors, as they extend to the top of the wall. 
 
 This court, encompassed by terraces, is a peculiar fea- 
 ture. It is different from any thing we know of, either north 
 or south .^ Courts, surrounded by buildings located on ter- 
 races, are common enough, but all accounts of these ruins 
 say nothing of buildings. We remember the inclosures 
 that surrounded the houses clustered in groups on the Rio 
 Gila. We think this comes near to being a development 
 of the same idea. The low walls of the former inclosure 
 are here quite pretentious pieces of masonry. In some 
 cases two or more of these inclosed courts are joined by 
 openings. 
 
 The opening in the wall on the right of the engraving 
 leads into a perfect inclosed square of two hundred feet. 
 In one case a range of pillars was noticed parallel with the 
 walls, and distant twenty-three feet. These are supposed 
 to have supported the roof of the portico, and houses of a 
 rude description might have been ranged along under this 
 roof, which has since completely vanished. Back of this 
 square, but not A^ery well shown in the drawing, rises a pre- 
 cipitous hill. A pyramid is placed in the center of the side 
 towards the hill. It is only nineteen feet high,^ but is di- 
 vided into five stages or stories.^ 
 
 This pyramid will serve as an example of numerous 
 
 ' Lyons's Journal. From Mayer's " Mexico As It Was," p. 243. 
 
 ^ There is something of a similarity between these ruins and those of the 
 coast tribes of Peru. 
 
 ' Another authority states that it is thirty feet square and thirty feet high^. 
 Bancroft: "Native Races," Vol. lY, p. 587, note. 
 
 * As seen in the Drawing. Mr. Lyons states there are seven stories. 
 
640 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 other pyramids scattered over the summit of the hill. 
 They are made of stone. The largest one, whose dimen- 
 sions are given, is fifty feet square, and the same in height. 
 In front of the pyramid, and in the center of the square, are 
 the remains of an altar. In view of the altar and pyramid, 
 within the inclosed square, we may suppose this to have 
 been dedicated to their religion. As if to confirm this 
 behef, is the statement that on the hill to the back of the 
 pyramid are numerous tiers of seats, either brolcen in the 
 jock or built of rough stone. The people seated on them 
 would be conveniently located as regards both sight and 
 hearing of what transpired there. 
 
 From an Indian's point of view, this hill was very 
 strongly fortified. It would be almost impossible for an 
 enemy to capture the settlement on its summit. The sur- 
 rounding country was probably fertile, and a large body of 
 Indians could have lodged within the fortified inclosures. 
 It has some peculiar features, which have been pointed out. 
 There is now no water on the hill, but traces of what is 
 psuppose to be an aqueduct are observed, as well as several 
 tanks, and at one place a well. There is not an appear- 
 ance of great antiquity about these ruins, and yet native 
 traditions are silent in regard to them, and but one of the 
 early writers refers to them, and he had not seen them.^ 
 
 West of the central basin the remains are more numer- 
 ous than to the north, but they are not very striking, and it 
 is scarcely worth our while to stop and examine them. 
 About sixty miles in a south-easterly direction from Mexico 
 is the modern town of Cholula. This has grown at the ex- 
 pense of the ancient city of Cholula, grouped around the 
 famous pyramid of that name. This was the Mexican 
 "Tower of Babel." The traditions in regard to it smack 
 
 Thie was Clavifjaro. Mayer's " Mexico As It Was," p. 245. 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 541 
 
 60 strongly of outside influence that bub little reliance caii' 
 be placed on them. They are evidently a mixture of native 
 traditions and Biblical stories. Like Teotihuacan and Tulla, 
 this is regarded as a relic of Toltec times. This is but an- 
 other way of saying that it is older in time than the major-' 
 ity of ruins. 
 
 At the time of Cortez's march to Mexico Cholula was a 
 very important place. In his dispatches he says: "The 
 great city of Cholula is situated in a plain, and h.-is twenty 
 thousand householders in the body of the city, besides as 
 many more in the suburbs." He further states that he 
 himself counted the towers of more than four hundred 
 "idol temples." ^ 
 
 We must remember that this is a Spanish account, and 
 therefore exaggerated. Still, after making due allowance 
 for the same, it would remain an important aboriginal settle- 
 ment. We have no reliable data of the population at the 
 time of the conquest. From documentary evidence Mr. 
 Bandelier has shown that while Cholula was certainly a 
 populous Indian pueblo, it is a misnomer to call it a city. 
 It was a group of six distinct clusters, gathered around a 
 common market. He estimates that its population may pos- 
 sibly have been thirty thousand.^ AH explorers have men- 
 tioned the fertility of the plain in the midst of which this 
 monument is found. 
 
 But this plain is almost destitute of easily defended po- 
 sitions; which fact has an important bearing on the purpose 
 for which the great mound was erected. At a distance it 
 presents nil the appearance of a natural hill. The casual 
 observer would not believe it was entirely the work of men. 
 "In close proximity," says Mr. Bandelier, "the mound pre- 
 
 * Thompson's " Recollections of Mexico," p. 29. 
 ^ "An Archaeological Tour in Mexico," p. Ifi^. 
 
^42 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 sents the appearance of an oblong conical hill, resting on 
 projecting platforms of unequal length. Overgrown as it is 
 with verdure and partly by trees, and with a fine paved 
 road leading to the summit, it looks strikingly like a natural 
 hill, along whose slopes the washing of the rains and slides 
 have laid bare bold bluffs, and into whose bulk clefts and 
 rents have occasionally penetrated." 
 
 This celebrated mound or pyramid has lately been the 
 subject of a very careful study by Mr. Bandelier. The il- 
 lustration we present gives us a very good idea of the pres- 
 ent appearance of the mound. The mass is probably solid 
 throughout, and if there is a natural hill in its center, it 
 must be a very small one. The height of the central higher 
 mass is very nearly two hundred feet.^ The present appear- 
 ance of the summit is entirely due to the Spaniards. At 
 the time of the conquest the summit was convex; the friars 
 had it leveled in order to plant a cross. The area of this 
 upper platform is not far from two-thirds of an acre. It is 
 now paved and surrounded by a wall. 
 
 In the illustration \vq detect the appearance of terraces. 
 These are level areas, not all of the same height; neither do 
 they extend entirely around the mound. In fact, the pres- 
 ent appearance indicates three projections, or aprons, sur- 
 rounding and supporting a conical hill, and separated from 
 ■each other by wide depressions. This central mound, with 
 its three projections, rests upon a very extensive platform, 
 which was probably cross-shaped. This platform seems to 
 have been about twelve feet high, and covered an area of 
 at least sixty acres. 
 
 The object for which this great pile was erected is a 
 topic that hat> exercised the thouglits of many scholars. 
 
 ' Tho altitude varies accoidiiif:: lo the side where the measurement ifl 
 taken. The average height is about one hundred and seventy feet. 
 
-a 
 >< 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 X 
 
 o 
 
 r 
 a 
 r 
 
THE N.lIlUA TlilBEs. 545 
 
 Some have supposed it was a burial mouud. Some years 
 ago, while in constructing a road from Pueblo to Mexico, the 
 first terrace or story was slightly dug into, and disclosed a 
 ■chamber, which contained two skeletons, two idols, and a 
 collection of pottery." Yet, before deciding it to be a burial 
 mound, it will be necessary to show the presence of tombs 
 near the center. 
 
 We have referred to the results of Mr. Bandolier's ex- 
 plorations. He made a very thorough study of this great 
 pyramid — more complete than any that had hitherto been 
 made — and his results should have corresponding weight. 
 He finds that the materials of which the adobe brick is 
 composed are exactly the same as that of the surrounding 
 plain. This does away with one old tradition, that the 
 bricks were manufactured at a distance, and brought several 
 leagues to their destination by a long line of men, who 
 handed them along singly from one to another. 
 
 From the manner in which the bricks are laid, and from 
 their variation in size, he concludes that the structure was 
 not all erected at one time, but that the mound is the ac- 
 cumulation of successive periods of labor. From this it fol- 
 lows that it was built to serve some purpose of public 
 utility, and not as a token of respect for some individual. 
 Wherever found, these great works show the same evidence 
 ■of not being all completed at once. This was true of the 
 North ; we shall also find it true of the South. Charney 
 .noticed the same thing in the house at Tulla. Nothing is 
 more natural than that an Indian community would increase 
 their buildings as the tribe increased. 
 
 Mr, Bandolier's final conclusion in regard to the purpose of 
 its erection is one of great interest, but not at all surpris- 
 ing. "If we imagine the plateaus and aprons around it cov- 
 ■ered with houses, possibly of large size, like those of Uxmal 
 
546 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 and Palenque/ or on a scale intermediate between them and 
 the communal dwellings of Pecos and many other places in 
 New Mexico/ we have then, on the mound of Cholula, as 
 it originally was, room for a large aboriginal population. 
 The structure, accordingly, presents itself as the base of an 
 artificially elevated, and therefore, according to Indian mili- 
 tary art, a fortified, pueblo." 
 
 But this does not remove from it the air of mystery. 
 Long-fallen indeed are the communal walls. It was not 
 simply a few years ago that these pueblo-crowned terraces 
 were reared. The date of its erection is hid in the dim 
 traditions of the past. The traditions of the Nahua tribes, 
 who came at a far later date, speak of it as even then standing 
 on the plain. Scattered over the plain are other ruins of a 
 somewhat different nature from the general ruins in the val- 
 ley. These may be the ruins of works erected by the same 
 class of people as built the mounds. Especially is this 
 thought to be true of ruins found on the slopes of neighbor- 
 ing volcanoes. 
 
 To the south-west of Cholula are the ruins of Xochi- 
 calco, which, by some, are pronounced to be the finest in 
 Mexico. There are many points of resemblance between 
 this ruin and Tezcocingo. The meaning of the word is "Hill 
 of Flowers." The hill is a very regular, conical one, with 
 a base nearly three miles in circumference, and rises to a 
 height above the plain of nearly four hundred feet."' The 
 hill is considered to be entirely a. natural formation; but it 
 probably owes some of its regular appearance to the work 
 of man. Around the base of the hill had been dug a wide 
 and deep ditch. When Mr. Taylor visited the place, 
 the side of this moat had fallen in, in many places, and 
 
 ' To he described liereafter. = See chapter xi, 
 
 ' Different explorers give different figures. 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. ^ 547 
 
 in some quite filled up — but it was still distinctly visi- 
 ble.^ The whole surface of this hill was laid off into ter- 
 races. 
 
 Five of these terraces, paved with blocks of stone laid in 
 mortar, and supported by perpendicular walls of the same 
 material, extend, in oval form, entirely around the whole 
 circumference of the hill, one above the other. From the 
 accumulation of rubbish, these terraces are not easy to de- 
 tect in all places. Probably, at one time, there was some 
 easy means of access from one terrace to the other, but they 
 have disappeared — so that now the explorer has to scramble 
 up intervening slopes of the terraces as best he can. It 
 is probable that defensive works once protected these 
 slopes. 
 
 Mr. Mayer says : " At regular intervals, as if to buttress 
 these terraces, there are remains of bulwarks shaped like 
 the bastions of a fortification."^ "Defense seems to have 
 been the one object aimed at by the builders." - The top of 
 the hill is leveled off. Some writers represent that a wall 
 of stone was run along the edge of the summit; but others 
 think that the whole top of the hill had been excavated, so 
 as to form a sunken area, leaving a parapet along the edge. 
 This summit-platform measured two hundred and eighty- 
 five feet by three hundred and twenty-eight feet. Within 
 this area were found several mounds and heaps of stones. 
 The probabilities are that it was once thickly covered 
 with ruins. In the center of this sunken area are the 
 remains of the lower story of a pyramid, which the inhab- 
 itants in the viciniity affirm to have been once five stories 
 high. 
 
 To judge from the ruins still standing, this must have 
 formed one of the most magnificent works of aboriginal 
 
 1 Taylor's "Anahuac," p. 184. ^ « jy/fg^ico as It Was," p. 180. 
 
548 
 
 THE FREHI8T0RIC WORLD. 
 
 skill with which we are acquainted. This cut gives a gen- 
 eral idea of the ruins from the west. We presume the 
 broken appearance presented by this side is in consequence 
 of the removal of stones by planters in the \ icinity for their 
 own use. It seems they have used this monument as a 
 
 Xochicaloo. 
 
 stone-quarry. This pyramid, or the first story of it, was 
 nearly square — its dimensions being sixty-four feet by fifty- 
 eight. 
 
 The next cut is an enlarged drawing of the north-west cor- 
 ner seen in the first drawing. Notice the grotesque ornamenta- 
 tions on it. The ornaments are not stucco-work, but are 
 sculptured in bas-relief. As one figure sometimes covers 
 parts of two stones, it is plain they must have been sculp- 
 tured after being put in position. The height of this front 
 is nearly fifteen feet. In the left-hand corner of this sculp- 
 ture will be perceived the head of a monstrous beast with 
 open jaws and protruding tongue. This figure is constantly 
 repeated in various parts of the facade. Some have sup- 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 
 
 549 
 
 posed it to be a crocodile. The rabbit is another figure 
 that constantly reappears in portions of the wall. 
 
 We can scarcely realize the labor involved in the con- 
 struction of this pyramid and the terraced slope. Some 
 idea may be formed of the immense labor with which this 
 building was constructed from measurements made of several 
 ■of the masses of porphyry that compose it. One stone was 
 
 Enlarged View Q,f Ruins at XocJiiealeo. 
 
 nearly eight feet long by three broad. The one with the 
 rabbit on is five feet by two and a half. When it is recol- 
 lected that these materials were not found in the neighbor- 
 hood, but were brought from a great distance, and borne up a 
 hill more than three hundred feet high, we can not fail to be 
 struck with the industry, toil, and ingenuity of the builders, 
 especially as the use of beasts of burden was, at the time, 
 unknown in Mexico. Nor was this edifice, on the summit, 
 the only portion of the architect's labor. Huge rocks were 
 brought to form the walls supporting the terraces that sur- 
 
650 : THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 rounded the hill, a league in circumference, and the whole of 
 that immense mass was cased in stone. Beyond these 
 terraces, again, there was still another immense task in the 
 ditch, of even greater extent, which had to be dug and reg- 
 ularly embanked.^ 
 
 Now, what was the object of all this labor ? This must 
 have been the center of a large settlement. It seems that 
 the surrounding hills — or, at least, some of them — were 
 also terraced. Mr. Taylor says : " On the neighboring^ 
 hills we could discern traces of more terraced roads of the 
 same kind. There must be many miles of them still remain- 
 ing." In a Mexican book we are told " adjoining this- 
 hill is another higher one, also covered with terraces of 
 stone-work in the form of steps. A causeway of large mar- 
 ble flags led to the top, where there are still some excava- 
 tions, and among them a mound of large size." Mr. Latrobe^ 
 from the top of the " Hill of Flowers," saw that it was the 
 center towards which converged several roads, which could 
 be traced over the plain. The road he examined was 
 " about eight feet in breadth, composed of large stones 
 tightly wedged together." It is extremely probable that in 
 Xochicalco we have another instance of a strongly fortified 
 hill, on the top of which was their pueblo, arranged around 
 their teocalli, or temple.^ 
 
 In our description of this ruin we must not forget to 
 mention some curious underground chambers, excavated in 
 the hill itself. On the northern slope, near the foot, is the 
 entrance to two galleries, one of which terminated at the dis- 
 tance of eighty feet. The second gallery is cut in 8olid 
 
 •Mayor: "Mexico as It Was," p. 184. 
 
 'Tliis is in strict keeping with what we have seen to be true of their 
 pueblo sites. Tliis is the conclusion of 'Mr. Bandolier, who discusses this sub- 
 ject in his essay on "Art of AVar Among the Mexicans." Teabody Museum 
 Keports, Vol. II, p. 146, note 186. 
 
THE NAHVA TRIBES. 551 
 
 limestone, about nine feet square, and has several branches. 
 The floors are paved with brick-shaped blocks of stone. 
 The walls are also, in many places, supported by masonry, 
 a,nd both pavement, walls, and ceilings are covered with 
 lime-cement, which retains its polish, and shows traces, in 
 some parts, of having had originally a coating of red ocher. 
 The principal gallery, after a few turns, finally terminated, 
 or appeared to, in a large room eighty feet long, in which 
 two pillars were left to support the roof. In one corner of 
 this room there was a dome-shaped excavation in the roof, 
 from the apex of which a round hole about ten inches in di- 
 ameter extended vertically upwards. 
 
 The natives say there are still other excavations. We 
 have seen no good explanation of the uses of these excava- 
 tions. The labor in constructing them must have been very 
 great. In the province of Oaxaca we shall find several 
 groups of ruins. In all probability those known and de- 
 scribed are not more numerous than those unknown. The 
 •class of ruins represented by Quemada, Tezcocingo, and 
 Xochicalco (that is, a hill strongly fortified, with traces of a 
 settlement on the summit, mounds, foundations of communal 
 houses, and pyramidal structures) are also to be found here. 
 At Quiotepec we have very meager accounts of such a ruin. 
 The hill is over two miles in circumference and a thousand 
 feet high. A running stream has rendered one side of the 
 hill very steep and precipitous, but the other sides are ter- 
 raced. 
 
 One of the terrace-walls at the summit is about three 
 hundred and twenty feet long, sixty feet high, and five and 
 a half feet thick.-^ On the summit of the hill are found 
 great numbers of mounds, foundations of small buildings, as 
 well as ruins of statelier buildings, called by some palaces, 
 
 1 Bancroft : " Native Eaces," Vol. IV, p. 419. 
 
552 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 but which were probably regular communal structures; alsO' 
 the pyramid base of a temple. At different points near the 
 summit of the hill are three tanks or reservoirs, one of 
 which is sixty feet long, twenty-four feet wide, and six feet 
 deep, with traces of steps leading down into it. 
 
 Still further south, near the center of the state at Monte 
 Alban, is a more extensive group of ruins on the same gen- 
 eral plan as the one just described. In this case, from the 
 banks of a stream, there rises a range of high hills with 
 precipitous sides. At their summit is an irregular plateau 
 half a mile long by nearly a quarter of a mile wide. M. 
 Charney states that a portion of this plateau is artificial. 
 He represents the whole surface as literally covered with 
 blocks of stone — some sculptured — the ruined foundations 
 of buildings, terraces, and so forth. He regards it as one 
 of the most precious remains of aboriginal work, and this is 
 the view of Mr. Bandelier also. It is to be regretted that 
 we have not more details of such interesting ruins. We, 
 however, would learn but little new from them. One ruin 
 is spoken of as an immense square court, inclosed by four 
 long mounds, having a slight space between them at the 
 ends. It is extremely probable that these mounds once 
 supported buildings. 
 
 The most celebrated ruin in Oaxaca is Mitla. These are 
 the first ruins we have met that, by their strange archi- 
 tecture and peculiar ornamentation, suggest some dillerent 
 race as their builders. The present surroundings are of the 
 gloomiest character. The country is barren and desert. 
 The valley in which the ruins are located is high and narrow, 
 but surrounded by bleak hills. The soil is dry and sandy, 
 and almost devoid of vegetation. The cold winds, blowing 
 almost constantly, sweep before thoni groat clouds of sand. 
 A small stream flows through this dreary waste, which, 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 
 
 553 
 
 during the rainy season, is a raging torrent. " No birds 
 sing, or flowers bloom," around these old ruins. Ap- 
 propriately enough, tradition speaks of this as the " Place 
 of Sadness," or " Dwelling of the Dead." As to the extent 
 of territory covered by the ruins, we have not been able to 
 learn further than the general statement that at the time 
 of the conquest they covered an immense area.^ 
 
 Mr. Bandelier found, besides two artificial hills, traces 
 of thirty-nine distinct edifices, and, as he thinks these are 
 all the buildings that ever stood there, it is manifest that 
 this was not -a city in our sense of the word. Two or 
 three of the buildings were constructed of adobe, plastered, 
 and painted red. The others were built of stone. Of 
 these latter the greater part stands upon the ground, but a 
 few are built upon elevated terraces, composed of stone and 
 earth heaped together and faced with stone. In one group 
 of four buildings the terraced foundation contained a base- 
 ment — in one case, at 
 
 least — in the form of a 
 cross. The purpose of 
 this cellar or basement 
 left in the artificial foun- 
 dation is unknown. Some 
 think they were used for 
 burial purposes, but it is 
 more likely they were 
 general store-rooms. The 
 arransrement of these 
 
 Wan at Hitla. 
 
 buildings was the same as elsewhere. That is, so placed 
 as to inclose a court. This illustration shows us the method 
 of constructing the walls of the building. We notice 
 two distinct parts. The inner part is built of broken 
 
 ^Bancroft's "Native Eaces," p. 393, note. 
 
554 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 stones laid in tolerably regular courses in clay. There was 
 no mortar used. This inner core is much the same sort of 
 work as the masonry in the pueblos of Arizona. A facing was 
 put on over this inner core, which served both for ornament 
 
 £?-^--~ 
 
 
 Ornamentation at Mitla. 
 
 and for strength. This ilhistration is a corner of one of these 
 buildings, and gives us ;in excellent idea of the peculiar orna- 
 mentation employed at Mitla. Mr. Bancroft gives us a clear 
 idea of how this facing was put on : " First, a double tier of 
 very large blocks are placed as a base along the surface 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 
 
 555 
 
 «f the supporting mound, projecting two or three feet from 
 the line of the wall, the stones of the upper tier sloping 
 
 inward. On this base is erected a kind of frame-work of 
 large, hewn blocks with perfectly plain, unsculptured fronts, 
 
566 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 which divide the surface of the wall into oblong panels of 
 different dimensions."^ 
 
 It would, then, seem as if the panels were thickly 
 coated with clay. Into this clay was then dri\en snuilly 
 smoothed blocks of wedge-shaped stones, in such a wn}' as 
 to cover them with geometrical ornamentations, which, 
 though not absolutely symmetrical, present a striking and 
 agreeable appearance. Each section of the wall presents a 
 different pattern, but this difference is so slight that the 
 general effect is harmonious.^ This mosaic ornamentation is 
 found in some of the inner facings of the walls as well. In 
 general, however, the walls on the inside were covered with 
 mortar and painted. 
 
 Some of the blocks of stone forming the basement, the 
 frame-work of the panels, and the lintels of the door are of 
 great size, and the lintels were in some cases sculptured. 
 One of the largest rooms at Mitla is represented in the pre- 
 cediiig cut. The peculiar feature about it is the range of col- 
 umns seen in the drawing. The inner plastering has fallen, 
 exposing the rough wall. The columns arc simple stone 
 pillars, having neither chapter nor base. It is generally 
 supposed that these pillars supported the roof. As in the 
 pueblo buildings to the north, as well as the Toltcc house at 
 Tulla, the roof was probably formed of the trunks of small- 
 sized trees laid close together and covered with clay and 
 cement. 
 
 We have as yet not seen any thing in these ruins suf- 
 ficiently striking to justify the somcwhjit extravagant asser- 
 tion made about them. The orn.inicutatioii is indeed peculiar 
 and tasteful. l)ut aside from that, we see no rc^ason to speak 
 of them as m;tgnificent structures. The buildings are low 
 
 ' RMiicroft's ■• N'Mtivc l!;iccs," Vol. IV, p. P.O.'i. 
 
 ' Hiindclicr : "An .VnliiiMilo^'ical Tmir in Mexico,"' p. '->95. 
 
THE NAHUA TRIBES. 557 
 
 and narrow; the rooms are small, dark, and illy ventillated.. 
 " Light could only have been admitted from one side, and 
 the apertures for this purpose were neither lofty nor broad." 
 Mr. Bandolier fittingly characterizes the ruins as the "bar- 
 baric effort of a barbarous people." Those scholars who 
 think we have in Mexico the ruins of a highly civilized, 
 powerful empire, regard these ruins as in some way set 
 aside for mourning purposes of the royal family. " Accord- 
 ing to tradition," says Mayer, " They were . . . intended 
 as the places of sepulture for their princes. At the death 
 of members of the royal family, their bodies were entombed 
 in the vaults beneath; and the sovereign and his relatives 
 retired to mourn over the departed scion in the chambers 
 above these solemn abodes, screened by dark and silent 
 groves from the public eye." Another tradition devotes the 
 edifices to a sect of priests, whose duty it was to live in 
 perfect seclusion, and offer expiatory sacrifices for the royal 
 dead who reposed in the vaults beneath.^ 
 
 With all due respect to traditions, we think a much' 
 more reasonable explanation can be given. One reason why 
 Mitla has been regarded as such an important place, is be- 
 cause it has been assumed that there were no other ruins 
 like it, especially in Mexico. This, according to Mr. 
 Bandelier, is a mistake. He examined one or two quite sim- 
 ilar ruins in the near vicinity, and at another place he found 
 a group of ruins in every way worthy of being compared 
 to Mitla, but he was not able to examine them. So we 
 must either decide there were a number of these '' Sepul- 
 chral Palaces," or else adopt some simpler explanation. But 
 still stronger is the fact, that at- the time of the conquest, 
 Mitla was an inhabited pueblo. We have the account of a 
 monk who visited it in 1533. He mentions in particular 
 
 >Ma3'er: "Mexico As It Was," pp. 251-2. 
 
558 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the ornamentation of the walls, the huge doorways, and the 
 hall with the pillars. It is extremely probable that if it 
 was devoted to any such purpose, some mention would have 
 been made of it. We think Mr. Bandelier is right when he 
 concludes that these structures are communal buildings, but 
 little different from others. 
 
 As for the other ruins in Oaxaca, we will not stop longer 
 to examine them. At Guingola, in the southern part of the 
 State, was found a ruined settlement. The principal ruins 
 were located on the summit of a fortified hill, which, from 
 a brief description, must have been much like those we have 
 already deseribed. 
 
 We will now turn our attention to the Gulf-coast. The 
 whole coast region abounds in great numbers of ruins. It 
 is in this section, however, that tribes of people belonging 
 to a different family than the Nahua tribes, were living at 
 no very distant time in the past. So it is not doubted but 
 that many of these ruined structures, perhaps the majority 
 of them, were the works of their hand. When Cortez 
 landed on the coast, in the neighborhood of Vera Cruz, he 
 was received by the Totonacas. These were a Nahua tribe, 
 but both to the north and south of them were Maya tribes.^ 
 We will, however, describe the ruins in the present State 
 of Vera Cruz under one head. 
 
 We notice, on the coast, the Gulf of Tampico, into which 
 pours the river Panuco. From an antiquarian point of 
 view, this is a most interesting locality. It was here that 
 a feeble remnant of De Soto's disastrous expedition found a 
 refuge in 1543. And it was here that, at a far earlier })e- 
 riod, according to the dim, uncertain light of tradition, the 
 ancestors of some of the civilized nations of Mexico made 
 their first appearance; of this, more hereafter. Certain it 
 
 ' Valentine, in " Procp«'(lin<rs .\iii. Antitj. Soc," Oct., 1882. 
 
I 
 
 THE NAHUA TRIBES. 559 
 
 is that, commencing at this river, we find ourselves in a 
 land of ruins. 
 
 It is to be regretted, however, that our information is 
 not definite in regard to them. We are told, in general 
 terms, of a great field of ruins, but in the absence of cuts, 
 can scarcely give a clear description of them. On the 
 northern bank of the Panuco, Mr. Norman found at one 
 place the ground "strewn with hewn blocks of stone and 
 fragments of pottery and obsidian."^ They were found over 
 an area of several square miles. Many of the blocks of 
 stone were ornamented with sculpture. They imply the 
 presence, in former times, of some kind of buildings. We 
 can not form an opinion as to the number, style, etc. Mr. 
 Norman regards them. as the ruins of a great city, the site 
 of which is now covered with a heavy forest. 
 
 Amongst these ruins are about twenty mounds, both cir- 
 cular and square, from six to twenty-five feet in height. 
 Some authorities think that the Mound Builders went by 
 water from near the mouth of the Mississippi to this region. 
 To such as place any real reliance on this theory, these 
 mounds are full of interest. But some details of construc- 
 tion would seem to indicate a different people as their build- 
 ers than those who reared mounds in the Gulf States of the 
 Mississippi Valley. The main body of the mound is earth, 
 but they are faced with hewn blocks of sandstone, eighteen 
 inches square and six inches thick. Although one of the 
 mounds is quite large, covering two acres, yet in but one 
 instance was a terraced arrangement noticed. As a general 
 thing, the facing of stone had fallen to the ground, and some 
 of the smaller mounds had caved in; showing, perhaps, that 
 they were used as burial mounds. In other cases the 
 mounds had entirely disappeared, leaving the stone facing 
 
 1 Bancroft's " Native Eaces," Vol. IV, p. 595. 
 
-560 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 on the surface. This may account for some of the stones 
 scattered over the surface. A few miles away there is an- 
 other group of circular mounds. 
 
 Across the river in Vera Cruz, from very slight mention, 
 we gather that, substantially, the same kind of ruins occur. 
 At Chacuaco the ruins are said to cover three square 
 leagues — but we have no further account of them than that. 
 Small relics of aboriginal art are said to be common, and 
 mention is made of mounds. The antiquities of Vera Cruz 
 are a topic about which it is very difiicult to form correct 
 ideas. It will be noticed that it presents a long stretch of 
 country to the Gulf. The land near the coast is low, and 
 very unhealthy. About thirty miles from the coast we 
 strike the slope of the mountains bounding the great inte- 
 rior plateau. This section is fertile and healthy, and was, 
 evidently, thickly settled in early times. We must remem- 
 ber that it is always in a mountainous section of country 
 that a people make their last stand against an invading foe. 
 It was in these mountain chains where the Maya tribes 
 made their last stand against the invading Nahua tribes, and 
 ■even this line was pierced through by the Tonacas. 
 
 It is not strange, then, to find abundant evidence of 
 former occupation in all this section of country. One thing 
 in its favor was the number of easily defended positions. 
 The country is cut up by deep ravines. The early inhabi 
 tants used all the land that was at all available for agricul- 
 tural purposes. On steep slopes they ran terraces to pre- 
 vent the soil from washing. In the smaller ravines they 
 located great numbers of water- tanks, from which, in the dry 
 season, they procured water to irrigate their land. Of this 
 section, we are told, "there is hardly a foot of ground in 
 the whole State of Vera Cruz in which, by excavation, 
 either a broken obsidian knife, or a broken piece of pottery, 
 
THE NAHUA TllIBES. 
 
 561 
 
 is not found. The whole country is intersected with parallel 
 lines of stones, which were intended, during the heavy 
 showers of the rainy season, to keep the earth from washing 
 away. The number of these lines of stones shows clearly 
 that even the poorest land, which nobody in our day would 
 cultivate, was put under requisition by them."' 
 
 Papantla. 
 
 They no less conclusively show that a considerable body 
 of people had here been pressed by foreign invasion into a 
 small, contracted space. It is useless to attempt a more 
 particular description of these ruins. In the absence of cuts, 
 the description would only prove tiresome. Pyramids, both 
 with and without buildings on their summits, are compara- 
 tively frequent. As they would be noticed where other 
 
 1 " Smithsonian Eeport," 187.3, p. 37.S. 
 
562 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ruins would be overlooked, we have some cuts of the more 
 remarkable ones. The preceding cut is the pyramid at 
 Papantla. 
 
 The base is ninety feet square, and the pyramid has 
 seven stories, as seen in the engraving. Only the last one 
 contains apartments; with this exception, the pyramid is 
 solid. Stairways in front lead up to the top. Mr. Mayer 
 says " there is no doubt, from the mass of ruins spread over 
 the plain, that the city was more than a mile and a half in 
 circuit." But we have no further description of them. Other 
 
 Tusapan. 
 
 localities with pyramids and ruins are known. At Tusapan 
 occurs this rnin. which may be taken ns a type of all the 
 pyramids in this region. This was the only l)uilding re- 
 maining standing at Tusapan ; but, from the ruins lying 
 about, this is not supposed to have been the grandest struc- 
 ture there. 
 
 This will complete what we have to say of the ruins in 
 
THE NAHUA TRIE EH. • 568 
 
 territory occupied by the Nahua tribes. Other remains of 
 their handiwork we will examine when we treat of their 
 customs and manners. We will now turn our attention to 
 the ruins in the territory of the Mayas. As the culture of 
 these two people is so similar, we will devote but one chapter 
 to the two. Comparison is the great means we have of fix- 
 ing in the mind points we wish to keep. We have to admit 
 that the treatment of the Nahua ruins is not very satisfac- 
 tory; but it is difficut to obtain accurate information in re- 
 gard to them. We think what resemblance can be traced, 
 is more in the direction of the Pueblo tribes than of the 
 Mound Builders. The first ruin found in Mexico, Casa 
 Grandes, in Chihuahua, is evidently but another station of 
 Pueblo tribes. 
 
 The fortified hill at Quemada is apparently but a further 
 development of the clustering houses with the little inclos- 
 ures noticed on the Gila. Mounds are, indeed, mentioned 
 in a number of localities, but they seem to, be more nearly 
 related to the terraced foundation of buildings observed in Ari- 
 zona than to the mounds of the Mississippi Valley. Surely 
 as striking a ruin as any is at Mitla, but Mr. Bandelier does 
 not hesitate to compare it with some in the Pueblo country. 
 Now, it is very unsafe and very unsatisfactory to trace re- 
 semblances of this kind, and we do not assign any especial 
 value to them. But it only shows that, so far as this method 
 is of use, it points to a closer connection with the Pueblo 
 tribes than with the Mound Builders. 
 
 35 
 
664 THE FREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 The geographical location of the Maya tribes — Description of Copan — 
 Statue at Copan — Altars at Copan — Ruins at Quiriga Patinamit — 
 Utatlan — Description of Palenque — The Palace at Palenque — The 
 Temple of the Three Inscriptions — Temple of the Beau-relief — Temple 
 of the Cross — Temple of the Sun — Maler's Temple of the Cross — Sig- 
 nificance of the Palenque crosses — Statue at Palenque — Other ruins in 
 Tobasco and Chiapas — Ruins in Yucatan — Uxmal — The Governor's 
 House — The Nunnery — Room in Nunnery — The sculptured fa- 
 cades — Temple at Uxmal — Kabah — Zayi — Labna — Labphak — 
 Chichen Itza — The Nunnery — ^The Castillo — The Gymnasium — M. 
 Le Plongon's researches — ^The tradition of the Three Brothers — 
 Chaac-Mal — Antiquity of Chichen. 
 
 THE Central American region of the Western. 
 Continent are found the ruins of what are pro- 
 nounced by all scholars to be the highest civil- 
 ization, and the most ancient in time, of any in 
 the New World. There it arose, flourished, 
 and tottered to its fall. Its glory had de- 
 its cities were a desolation, before the coming 
 of the Spaniards. The explorer who would visit them finds 
 himself confronted with very great difficulties. Their location 
 is in a section of the country away from the beaten track 
 of travel. Their sites are overspread with the luxuriant 
 vegetation of tropical lands, through which the Indian's 
 machete must carve a passage. The states in which they 
 are situated are notorious for anarchy and misrule, and the 
 climate is such that it is dansjerous for those not acclimated 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 565 
 
 to venture thither during a large part of the year. So it is 
 not strange that but few have wandered among these ruins, 
 and described them to the world at larae. 
 ^ But the accounts thus presented are interesting in the 
 
 — 5« 
 
 Hap of Central America. 
 
 extreme, though they have raised many questions that have 
 thus far defied solution. There is no doubt but what there 
 
566 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 exist large groups of ruins not yet described, structures and 
 monuments which might, perhaps, throw some light on a 
 past that now seems hopelessly lost. But the ruins thus 
 far described are so numerous, their similarity is so evident, 
 that we feel we have but little to hope from such undiscov- 
 ered ruins. There are, doubtless, richly ornamented facades, 
 grotesquely sculptured statues, and hieroglyphic-covered al- 
 tars, but they would prove as much of an enigma as those 
 already known. Our only hope is that some fortunate 
 scholar will yet discover a key by whose aid the hiero- 
 glyphics now known may be read. Then, but not until 
 then, will the darkness that now enshrouds ancient Maya 
 civilization be dissipated. 
 
 As will be seen from a glance at the map, the most 
 ^important ruins are in the modern states of Honduras, 
 Guatemala, Chiapas, and especially Yucatan, the northern 
 portion of this peninsula being literally studded with them. 
 The river Usumacinta and its numerous tributaries flowing 
 in a northern direction through Chiapas is regarded as the 
 original home of the civilization whose ruins we are now to 
 describe. From whence the tribes came that first settled 
 in this valley is as yet an unsettled point. We notice that 
 we have here another instance of the influence that fertile 
 river valleys exert upon tribes settling therein. The stories 
 told us of the civilization that flourished in primitive times 
 in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile are not more 
 wonderful — the ruins perhaps not more impressive — than 
 are the traditions still extant, or the material remains fallen 
 in picturesque ruins, of the civilization that once on a time 
 held sway in the Usumacinta Valley. 
 
 One of the most famous groups of ruins in this section 
 of the country is that of Copan, situated in Honduras, but 
 very near the Guatemala line. This is commonly spoken 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. . 567 
 
 of as "the oldest city in America," ^ and has some evidence 
 to substantiate this claim. Whatever be its relative an- 
 tiquity, it is doubtless very old, as it was probably in ruins 
 at the time of the conquest. There are several facts going 
 to prove this assertion. When Cortez, in 1524, made his 
 march to Honduras, he passed within a few leagues of this 
 place. He makes no mention of it, which he would have 
 been very apt to do had it been inhabited. Fifty years later 
 Garcia De Palacio made a report on these ruins to the king 
 of Spain. According to this report, it was then in much 
 the same state as described by modern travelers, and the 
 same mystery surrounded it, showing that it must have 
 been in ruin much longer than the short space of time 
 from the conquest to the date of his report. But few trav- 
 elers have visited Copan, and fewer still have left a good 
 description of it. Mr. Stephens, accompanied by Mr. Cath- 
 erwood, explored it in 1839, and this constitutes our main 
 source of information.^ 
 
 We feel that here is the place to speak a word of* cau- 
 tion. In common with other writers, we have used the 
 word cities, in speaking of the ruins of Maya civilization. 
 In view of the criticisms that have been freely expressed 
 by some of the best scholars of American ethnology, as to 
 the generally accepted view of the civilization of the Mex- 
 ican and Central American races, it is necessary to be on 
 our guard as to the language employed. In the case of 
 Copan, for instance, all the remains known, occur in an 
 irregularly inclosed space of about nine hundred by sixteen 
 hundred feet, while but a portion of such inclosed space is 
 covered by the ruins themselves. Now it can, of course, be 
 said that this space contains simply the remains of public 
 
 " Bancroft : " Native Races," Vol. V, p. 78. 
 
 ' Stephens's " Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yuca- 
 tan," Vol. I, p. 113, et seq. 
 
568 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 buildings, so to speak — such as temples, palaces, and oth- 
 ers — while the habitations of the great body of the com- 
 mon people, poorly built, and located outside of this area^ 
 may have vanished away. But, on the other hand, it 
 may also be that in this small area we have the ruins 
 of all the buildings that ever stood at Copan. In which 
 case the word city is a misnomer ; pueblo would be more 
 appropriate. But looking at theni in the simplest light, 
 we shall find thei;e is still a great deal to excite aston- 
 ishment. Fragments of the wall originally inclosing the 
 
 Ruins of Copan. 
 
 area in which are located the temple pyramids and statues, 
 are still to be found. Very few particulars have been given 
 of this wall, it was made of blocks of stone, and seems to 
 have been twenty-five feet thick at the base, but the height 
 is not given. The northern half of this area is occupied by 
 a large terrace, somewhat irregular in outline, and impressed 
 Mr. Stephens with the idea that it had not all been erected 
 at the same time, but additions had been made from time to 
 time. Instead of describing the ruins in full, we will let 
 the illustration speak for itself The dimensions of this ter- 
 race are, six hundred and twenty-four feet by eight hun- 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 569 
 
 dred and nine feet. The side fronting on the rivei- was 
 perpendicular. The other three sides consist of ranges of 
 steps and pyramidal structures. All these steps and pyra- 
 midal side3 were once painted. The general height of the ter- 
 race was about seventy feet above the surface of the ground. 
 
 Though Mr. Stephens warns us that this terrace was 
 not as large as the base of the Pyramid of Ghizeh, still it 
 must have required an immense amount of Work, since care- 
 ful computations show that over twenty-six million cubic 
 feet of stone were used in its construction. This stone was 
 brought from the quarries two miles away. We must not 
 foi'gct that this work was performed by a people destitute 
 of metallic tools. 
 
 On the terrace were the ruins of four pyramids, one ris- 
 ing to the height of one hundred and twenty-two feet. The 
 surface of the terrace was not continuous. In two places 
 there were court-yards, or sunken areas. The larger is ninety 
 by one hundred and forty-four feet, and has a narrow pass- 
 age- w^ay leading into it from the north. Whatever build- 
 ings that once stood on this terrace, have vanished aw^ay. 
 At one place only, on the terrace, fronting the river, are the 
 remains of small, circular towers, thought to have been 
 watch towers. The whole terrace was thickly overgrown 
 by trees of a tropical growth. Mr Stephens noticed two 
 immense Ceiba trees growing from the very summit of one 
 of the pyramids. This structure has been called the Tem- 
 ple, and a great many surmises have been made as to the 
 scenes once enacted there. If analogous to other structures 
 in Central America, this terrace was surmounted with build- 
 ings. They may have been temples or palaces, or they may 
 have been communal houses, not unlike those of New Mex- 
 ico, to the north. 
 
 But of more importance than the ruins of this temple, 
 
670 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 are the statues and altars peculiar to this region. Mr. 
 Stephens found fourteen of them. It seems very singular, 
 indeed, to come upon these statues in the depth of a Cen- 
 tral American forest, and they give us an idea of the state 
 of advancement of these old tribes that nothing else does. 
 They raise many queries. Why is it that so many are 
 found here — so few elsewhere? Are they statues of noted 
 personages, or idols? We are powerless to answer these 
 questions. These secrets will only be yielded up when the 
 hieroglyphics with which they are covered shall be read. 
 
 The places where these statues are found is seen to the 
 right of the main body of ruins. It will be seen that only 
 one is within the terrace area of the temple. Three others 
 are situated near it, but the majority are near the southern 
 end of the inclosure. We are not given the dimensions of 
 all, but the smallest one given is eleven feet, eight inches 
 high, by three feet, four inches width and depth; the larg- 
 est, thirteen feet high, four feet wide, and three feet deep. 
 No inconsiderable part of the labor on the statues must 
 have been that of quarrying the large blocks of stone out 
 of which they were carved, and transporting them to the 
 place where found. They came from the same quarry as 
 the other stones used in building; and so were transported 
 a distance of about two miles. Mr. Stephens found, about 
 midway to the quarry, a gigantic block, " which was 
 probably on its way thither, to be carved and set up 
 as an ornament, when the labors of the workmen were 
 arrested." 
 
 There is such a similarity in all these statues that a 
 representation of one will suffice. This is the representa- 
 tion of one of the largest statues. It is seen to be stand- 
 ing on a sort of pedestal. A face occupies a central position 
 on the front. Some of the faces have what may be a rep- 
 
30PAK STATUE. 
 (Uureauof Ethnology.) 
 
 57X 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 573 
 
 resentation of a beard. In all but one, the expression is 
 calm and peaceful. They were ouce painted red. Traces 
 of color were still visible at the time of Mr. Stephens's 
 visit. In all but one the hands are represented as placed 
 back to back on the breast. 
 
 The complicated head-dress and the ornaments on the 
 robes utterly defy description. The sides and back of the 
 statues are covered with hieroglyphics, though now and 
 then a face is introduced. A side view of another statue 
 shows this feature. All are convinced that we have in 
 these hieroglyphics an explanation of each statue, but what 
 it is, is yet unknown. Mr. Stephens says: "Of the moral 
 effect of the monuments themselves, standing as they do, in 
 the depths of a tropical forest, silent and solemn, strange in 
 design, excellent in sculpture, rich in ornament, different 
 from the works of any other people; their uses and pur- 
 poses — their whole history — so entirely unknown, with 
 hieroglyphics explaining all, but perfectly unintelligible, I 
 shall not pretend to convey any idcfi. Often the imagina- 
 tion was pained in gazing at them. The tone which per- 
 vades the ruins is that of deep solemnity." 
 
 In front of most of the statues is what is called an 
 altar, which would seem to imply that these monuments are 
 really idols. " The altars, like the idols, are all of a single 
 block of stone. In general, they are not so richly orna- 
 mented, and are more faded and worn, or coA^ered with moss. 
 Some were completely buried, and of others it was difficult 
 to make out more than the form. All differed in position, 
 and doubtless had some distinct and peculiar reference to 
 the idols before which they stood." 
 
 These altars are strongly suggestive of sacrificial scenes. 
 The altar before the idol found in the court-yard on the ter- 
 race of the temple, is one of the most interesting objects 
 
574 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ■ . c -^^i-^ 
 
 STATUE, COPAN. 
 
 found at Copan. It is six fcot square and four feet high. 
 The top is divi(]<!(l into thirty-six tablets of hieroglyphics, 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 576 
 
 which we may well Imagine records some events in the 
 history of this mysterious people. Each side has carved 
 on it four human figures. They are generally all repre- 
 sented as facing the same way. We give an illustration of 
 the east side. Each individual is sitting cross-legged on a 
 hierglyphic, and has a ponderous head-dress. 
 
 
 [^j ^^ /^^ O 
 iJ <WW^% DT^^siD ^iSM &B 
 
 Hieroglyphics, top of Altar. 
 
 Mr. Stephens found the quadrangle at the south-east 
 corner of the plan to be thickly strewn with fragments of 
 fine sculpture. Amongst the rest was a "remarkable por- 
 trait." (Page 577) "It is probably the portrait of some king, 
 chieftain, or sage. The mouth is injured, and part of the 
 ornament over the wreath that crowns the head. The ex- 
 pression is noble and severe, and the wholo character shows 
 
576 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 a close imitation of nature." Colonel Gallindo, who vis- 
 ited Copan in 1835, discovered a vault very neai' where 
 the circular towers are located, on the terrace fronting 
 the river. This vault was five feet wide, ten feet long, 
 and four feet high. It was used for burial purposes. Over 
 fifty vessels of red pottery, containing human bones, were 
 found in it.^ 
 
 In this hasty sketch we do not feel that we have done 
 justice to Copan. It is, however, all the space we can de- 
 
 Bas-relief. East Side ol Altar. 
 
 vote to this interesting ruin. We call special attention to 
 the hieroglyphics on the altar and the statues. We will 
 find other hieroglyphics at Palenque, and in Yucatan, evi- 
 dently derived from these.- They have been made the 
 subject of very interesting study, and we will refer to them 
 again at another page. We also notice especially the fact 
 that we have no ruined buildings at Copan. In this respect 
 it stands almost alone among the Central American ruins. 
 The distinguishing features, however, are the carved obe- 
 
 ' ■Ranrroft's " S'^livo Races," Vol. IV, p. 95. 
 
 ' " Hojjort of I'.iircan of Ellinokv.'y," Vol. I. Mr. Holden's article. 
 
THE MA YA TRIBES. 
 
 577 
 
 lisks. They are evidently not the work of rude people. 
 Mr. Stephens, who was every way qualified to judge, de- 
 clares that some of them "are in every way equal to the 
 finest Egyptian Avorkman- 
 ship, and that with the best 
 instruments of modern times, 
 it would be impossible to 
 cut stone more perfectly." 
 
 A dark mystery hangs over 
 these ruins. Their builders 
 are unknown. Whether wc 
 have here some temple sacred 
 to the gods of the Maya pan 
 theon, or some palace made 
 resplendent for royal ownen 
 who can tell ? Whether thes( 
 are the ruins of the more sub- 
 stantial public buildings of a 
 great city, of which all other 
 buildings have vanished — or Portrait, copan. 
 
 whether this is the remains of a prosperous pueblo, whose 
 communal houses crowded the terraces, with sacrificial altars 
 on the lofty pyramids — who knows ? At long intervals a pass- 
 ing traveler visits them, ponders over their fast disappearing 
 ruins, and goes his way. The veil drops, the tropical forest 
 more securely environs them — and thus the years come and 
 go over the ruins of Copan. 
 
 Nearly north from Copan (see map), about half-way to 
 the coast, on the bank of the river Montagua, is found a 
 small hamlet, by the name of Quiriga. Mr. Stephens, when 
 traveling in the country in 1840, after many careful inqui- 
 ries, heard of ruins near that place. Though not able to 
 explore them himself, his companion, Mr. Catherwood, did. 
 
578 THE FUEHISTORIV WORLD. 
 
 The result of this gentleman's exertion makes us acquainted 
 with another group of ruins, in many respects similar to 
 those of Copan, though apparently much farther gone in de- 
 cay. His visit was a very hurried one ; and he was not 
 able to clear the moss away from the statues so as to draw 
 them as it should be done.^ 
 
 We must notice that, though called a city, all the mon- 
 uments and fragments thus far brought to light are scat- 
 tered over a space of some three thousand square feet. No 
 plan has been given. We gather, however, from Stephens's 
 work, that a pyramidal wall inclosed the ruins, as at Copan.^ 
 No dimensions of this wall are given. Within the inclosure 
 (if such it was) was a terrace. Here, again, dimensions are 
 not given; but we are told it Avas about twenty -five feet to 
 the top, and that the steps were, in some places, still per- 
 fect. It was constructed of neatly cut sandstone blocks. 
 No monuments or altars were observed on the terrace, but 
 in close proximity to it were fragments of sculpture. At 
 another place near the wall, Mr. Catherwood mentions eight 
 standing statues, one fallen one, and saw fragments of at 
 least thirteen others. They are represented as being very 
 similar to those of Copan, but two or three times as high. 
 The hieroglyphics are pronounced identical with those already 
 described. 
 
 There are no traditions extant of these ruins. No 
 thorough exploiation has been made. A city may have 
 stood there; but, if so, its name is lost, its history unknown. 
 
 ' Fourteen years later, tliose ruins v.-ere visited and described bj' an 
 Austrian traveler, Dr. Scherzer. His account, tliougli much more complete 
 than Mr. Stepliens's, has not yet appeared in Eufilish. Mr. Bancroft, in " Na- 
 tive Races," Vol. IV, p. 118, cl sfcj., gives a resume of all information known 
 as to these ruins. 
 
 ' " Ccnlral America," Vol. 11, p. 122. We are not sure about this inclosure. 
 But Mr. Catherwood mentions a wall; and we are told the ruins are, in all re- 
 spects, similar to those of Copan. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 579 
 
 *'For centuries it has lain as completely buried as if covered 
 with the lava of Vesuvius. Every traveler from Yzabel to 
 Gautemala has passed within three hours of it. We ourselves 
 have done the same ; and yet there it lay, like the rock-built 
 oity of Edom, unvisited, unsought, and utterly unknown." 
 
 A large extent of territory in Gautemala and Yucatan 
 is as yet an unknown country, or at least has never been 
 thoroughly explored. Strange stories have flitted here and 
 there of wonders yet to be seen. The country swarms with 
 savages, living in much the same state as they were when 
 the Spaniards invaded the country. They have never been 
 conquered, and, in the rugged fastnesses of their land, bid 
 defiance to all attempts to civilize them. From all we can 
 learn, there are numerous groups of ruins scattered here and 
 there — but of their nature we are, as yet, mostly in the dark. 
 
 We have, indeed, historical notices of a few places ; but, 
 as the color of an object is the same as that of the medium 
 through which it is viewed, we can not help thinking that 
 the glamour of romance, which the early Spanish writers 
 threw around all their transactions in the New World, has 
 woefully distorted these sketches. This same effect is to be 
 noticed in all the descriptions of the ruins. Where one party 
 sees the ruins of imperial cities, another can detect but the 
 ruins of imposing pueblos, with their temples and pyramids. 
 It can be truthfully stated, that this is a land of ruins. 
 Every few leagues, as far as it has been explored, are the 
 remains of structures that excite astonishment. 
 
 The meager reports given us raise our curiosity, but fail 
 to satisfy it. Almost all explorers relate stories of the ex- 
 istence of an aboriginal city. The location of this city 
 shifts from place to place ; always, however, in a section of 
 country where no white men are allowed to intrude. The 
 Cure of Santa Cruz, in whom Mr. Stephens expressed con- 
 
580 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 fidence, declared that he had, years before, climbed to the 
 summit of a lofty sierra, and then " he looked over an im- 
 mense plain, extending to Yucatan and the Gulf of Mexico, 
 and saw, at a great distance, a large city, spread over a 
 great space, with turrets white and glittering in the sun." 
 We are afraid a search for this mythical city would be at- 
 tended with much the same results as rewards the child's 
 pursuit of a golden treasure at the end of the rainbow. 
 
 As a sample of known ruins, we might cite two in the 
 immediate neighborhood of Quirigua. At the distance of a 
 few leagues, both above and below this latter place, are the 
 remains of former settlements. The accounts are very brief. 
 Of the ruins below, we are informed that they consist of 
 the remains of a quadrilateral pyramid, with traced sides, up ■ 
 which steps lead to the summit platform, where debris of 
 hewn stone are enveloped in dense vegetation." Of the 
 ruins located above Quirigua, we are simply told "of a large 
 area covered with aboriginal relics — in the form of ruined 
 stone structures, vases and idols of burned clay, and mono- 
 liths, buried for the most part in the earth." 
 
 These descriptions will serve as samples of many others, 
 and, though they are interesting in their way, we are afraid 
 they would grow tiresome by repetition. We will, therefore, 
 only make mention of one or two important points; premis- 
 ing, however, that, beyond a doubt, similar ruins are scat- 
 tered up and down the river valleys of the entire country.^ 
 
 Two cities of ancient Guatemala especially mentioned by 
 Spanish writers are Utatlan and Patinamit. Here, if we 
 may believe their recitals, were the capitals of two power- 
 ful monarchies. The pictures they draw for us are those 
 of cities of Oriental magnificence. The system of govern- 
 
 ' For full information consult Bancroft's " Native Eaces," Vol. IV, pp. 115 
 to 139. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 581 
 
 ment they describe is that of absolute monarchy, founded 
 on feudahsm. We will briefly glance at the remains of 
 these " imperial cities." Their location is seen on the map. 
 The approach to Patinamit is very difficult, indeed. Sit- 
 uated on a high table-land, it commands an almost bound- 
 less view. On every side are immense ravines, and the 
 only way of entering it was by a narrow passage cut in the 
 side of the ravine, twenty or thirty feet deep, and not wide 
 enough for two horsemen to ride abreast. 
 
 Mr. Stephens mentions coming to a wall of stone, but 
 broken and confused. The ground beyond was covered 
 with mounds of ruins, and in one place he saw the founda- 
 tions of two buildings, one of them being one hundred and 
 fifty by fifty feet. He does not give us the area covered 
 by the ruins, but there is nothing in his description to 
 make us think it very large in extent. He also quotes for 
 us Fuentes's description of this same place, written, how- 
 ever, one hundred and forty years earlier. In this he 
 speaks of the remains of a magnificent building, perfectly 
 square, each side measuring one hundred paces, constructed 
 of hewn stones, extremely well put together. In front of 
 the building is a large square, on one side of which stand 
 the ruins of a sumptuous palace; and near to it are the 
 foundations of several houses.^ He also asserts that traces 
 of streets could still be seen, and that they were straight 
 and spacious, crossing each other at right angles. Fuentes 
 certainly had remarkable eyes. He wrote a description of 
 Copan which not only differs from all accounts of modern 
 travelers, but also from the still earlier description by Gar- 
 cia De Palacio.^ 
 
 1" Central America," Vol. II, pp. 152-3. 
 
 ' Brasseur De Bourbourg styles Fuentes's description of Copan " La descrip- 
 tion menteuse de Fuentes." Bancroft: " Native Races," Vol. IV, p. 80, note. 
 
 36 
 
682 THE' PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Patinamit means " The City," and is represented as the 
 capital city of the Cakchiquel " monarchy." The site of 
 the city was certainly admirably chosen for defense, and 
 we have no doubt but what here was the head-quarters of 
 a powerful tribe of Indians; but, until scholars have settled 
 some very disputed points about the civilization of the 
 Central American nations, we must be cautious in the use 
 of the words monarchy and palaces as applied to these old 
 people or these ruins. 
 
 Thirty-five or forty miles north-eastward from Patinamit 
 we come to the ruins of the most renowned city in Guate- 
 mala at the time of the conquest. This was Utatlan, the 
 Quiche capital, a city which the Spaniards compared to 
 Mexico in magnificence, and which, at the time of its de- 
 struction, was at its zenith of prosperity. The location 
 was very similar to that of Patinamit. It also stood on an 
 elevated plateau, with immense ravin-es on every side. It 
 was approached only at one point, and guarding this one 
 point of approach was a line of fortifications. They con- 
 sisted of the remains of stone buildings, probably towers. 
 The stones were well cut and laid together. These fortifi- 
 cations were united by a ditch. 
 
 Within this line of towers stood a structure, generally 
 regarded as a fort, directly guarding the line of approach. 
 Steps led up a pyramidal structure having three terraces, 
 one over the other. The top was protected by a wall 
 of stone, and from the center rose a tower. Beyond this 
 fort was the ruins of the city. Mr. Stephens describes a 
 large ruin which is called The Palace. It is said, in round 
 numbers, to have been eleven hundred by twenty-two hun- 
 dred feet. As this area is more than fifty-five acres in ex- 
 tent, we can see it was not a palace in our sense of the 
 word. The stones of which it was composed have been 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 583 
 
 largely removed to build the modern town of Santa Cruz. 
 But the floor could still be traced, and some remains of 
 partition walls. The floor was still covered with hard 
 cement. 
 
 Adjoining the palace was a large plaza or court-yard, 
 also cemented, in the center of which was the ruins of a 
 fountain. Another structure still remaining was a small 
 pyramid, at the top of which was probably a temple, or, at 
 least, a place of sacrifice. No hieroglyphics or statues have 
 been found here. A few terra-cotta figures have been found, 
 and one small gold image. It would seem from this de- 
 scription that the ruins simply consist of a few large struc- 
 tures. For aught we know, they may have been communal 
 houses. 
 
 Mr. Stephens, however, condenses Fuentes's account, 
 which is truly wonderful. According to him, the center 
 of the city was occupied by the royal palaces, around which 
 were grouped the houses of the nobles. The extremities 
 were inhabited by the plebeians. He tells us there were 
 many sumptuous buildings, the most superb of which was a 
 seminary, where between five and six thousand children 
 were educated at royal expense. The palace was formed of 
 hewn stones of various colors. There were six principal 
 divisions. In one was lodged the king's body-guard, in 
 the second the princes and the relatives of the king, and 
 so forth. 
 
 It is not necessary to remind the reader that it is very 
 doubtful whether such a state of things ever existed. It is 
 related, for instance, that the king marched from Utatlan 
 with seventy-two thousand warriors to repel the attack of 
 Alvarade. This would indicate a total population of between 
 two and three hundred thousand souls. It seems to us 
 that a city of that size would not so completely disappear 
 
684 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 in a little over three centuries that a careful explorer could 
 find only the ruins of a few large buildings. 
 
 We do not feel that we have done near justice to the 
 ruins of Guatemala. As we have before remarked, there 
 are, doubtless, many ruins not yet brought to light. They 
 are rapidly disappearing, and we do not know that we will 
 ever possess a description of them, or understand their real 
 import. The light of history, indeed, fell on the two 
 groups of ruins last described. But the Spanish writers 
 were totally unacquainted with Indian society, and may,, 
 therefore, have widely erred in applying to their govern- 
 ment terms suited only to European ideas of the sixteenth 
 century. And it is not doubted but that their estimate of 
 the population of the towns, and of the enemies with which 
 they had to contend, were often greatly overdrawn. In 
 short, the remains themselves are remarkable, but every 
 ruined pyramid is not necessarily the remains of a great 
 city, nor every large building in ruins necessarily a palace. 
 
 Going northward out of Guatemala, we pass into the 
 modern state of Chiapas. This is described a country of 
 great natural beauty and fertility. And here it is that we 
 meet with a group of ruins which have been an object of 
 great interest to the scientific world. They have been care- 
 fully studied and described, and many theories have been 
 enunciated as to their builders, their history, and civil- 
 ization. The place is supposed to have been deserted and in 
 ruins when Cortez landed in the country. At any rate, he 
 marched within a few leagues of it, but, as in the case of 
 Copan, he is silent in regard to it. 
 
 They take their name from the modern town of Palenque, 
 near which they are located. This town was founded in 
 1564. It was once a place of considerable importance, but. 
 its trade has died away, and now it would not l)o known 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 585 
 
 "were it not for the ruins of a former people located near it. 
 Though distant from the village only some eight miles, 
 nearly two centuries went by before their existence was 
 known. Had they been visited and described at the time of 
 the founding of the village, no doubt much that is now mys- 
 terious in regard to them would have been cleared away. 
 But for two centuries they were allowed to sleep undisturbed 
 in the depths of the forest, and in that time the elements 
 played sad havoc with the buildings, inscriptions, and orna- 
 ments. What are left are not sufficient to impart full in- 
 formation. Imagination is too apt to supply the details, and 
 these ruins, grand in proportion, wonderful in location, en- 
 wrapt by dense forests, visited by the storms of tropical 
 lands, are made to do service in setting forth a picture of 
 society and times which we are afraid has but little real foun- 
 dation to rest upon. 
 
 The ruins of Palenque are the first which awakened at- 
 tention to the existence of ancient ruins in America, and, 
 therefore, it may not come amiss to state more particularly 
 the circumstances of their first discovery. The existence 
 of an aboriginal city in this locality was entirely unknown; 
 there were no traditions even that it had ever existed. Of 
 course the natives of the modern town of Palenque must 
 have known of their existence, but no account of them was 
 published. They are said to have been discovered in 1750 
 by a party of traveling Spaniards. This statement Mr. 
 Stephens doubts. The first account was published in 1784. 
 The Spanish authorities finally ordered an exploration. 
 This was made under the auspices of Captain Del Rio, who 
 arrived on the ground in 1787. His report was locked up in 
 the government archives, and was not made public until 1822. 
 
 The reception of this report illustrates how little interest 
 is taken in American antiquities. It was scarcely noticed 
 
586 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 by the Scientific World. As Mr. Stephens remarks, "If a 
 like discovery had been made in Italy, Greece, Egypt, or 
 Asia, within the reach of European travel, it would have 
 created an interest not inferior to the discovery of Hercu- 
 laneum, or Pompeii, or the ruins of Paestum." But, from 
 some cause, so little notice was taken of this report that in 
 1831 the explorations of Colonel Galindo, whose works we 
 have referred to at Copan, was spoken of as a new discovery. 
 In the meantime another government expedition under the 
 direction of Captain Dupaix explored these ruins in 1807. 
 Owing to the wars in Europe and the revolution in Mexico, 
 his report was not published until 1835. Mr. Stephens vis- 
 ited the ruins in 1840. His account, profusely illustrated, 
 was the means of making known to a large class of readers 
 the wonderful nature of the ruins, not only at Palenque, but 
 in Yucatan as well. 
 
 In this outline we have given an account of the early 
 explorations at Palenque. Private individuals have visited 
 them, and governments have organized exploring expedi- 
 tions, and by both pencil and pen made us familiar with 
 them. As to the remains actually in existence, these ac- 
 counts agree fairly well, but we have some perplexing differ- 
 ences as to the area covered by the ruins. Where the early 
 explorers could trace the ruins of a large city modern trav- 
 elers can find but a few ruined structures, which, however, 
 excite our liveliest interest. One of the earliest accounts 
 speaks of the ruins of over two hundred buildings. Another 
 . speaks of them as covering an area of many square miles. 
 Mr. Stephens thinks a few acres would suffice. 
 
 From the researches of M. Charney, it would seem that 
 the ruins are really scattered over quite an area. Ilis explo- 
 ration made in 1881, seems to confirm the older writers. 
 With abundant means at his comniniHl. ho was enabled to 
 
■ >.';Uivc Uact 
 
 V.il. IV. 
 
 587 
 
588 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 explore the forest, and he found many ruins which escaped the 
 other observers. According to him, the ruins are scattered 
 over an area extending about one mile and a quarter from 
 north to south, and about one and three-fourths from east to 
 west. Throughout this space, the ruined structures were in 
 all respects similar to those previously described, consisting 
 altogether of what he calls palaces and temples.^ 
 
 There seems to be no especial order in the arrange- 
 ment of the buildings. They are separated by quite an 
 interval, excepting to the south of the palace, where 
 there are groups of buildings near together. The fact that 
 such careful explorers as Stephens and Waldeck failed to 
 notice these additional ruins, gives us a faint idea of the 
 density of the forest. 
 
 The plan represents the distribution and relative size of 
 the ruins of which we have definite descriptions. Those 
 having no numbers are some of the groups that were passed 
 by as of no account. We must understand that so dense is 
 the forest that not one of these structures is visible from 
 its neighbors. Where the trees are cut down, as they have 
 been several times, only a few years are necessary for 
 it to regain its former density, and each explorer must be- 
 gin anew. 
 
 The largest structure, marked one on the plan, is known 
 as the palace. This is only a conjectural name. We have 
 no reason, except its size, to suppose it the residence of a 
 royal owner. Its base is a pyramid which, Mr. Stephens 
 tells us, is of oblong form, forty feet high, tliree hundred 
 and ten feet in front and rear, and two hundred and sixty 
 feet on each side. The pyramid was formerly faced witli 
 stone, which has been thrown down by the growth of trees, 
 so tliat its form is hardly distinguishabh\ The sides may 
 
 ' Cluirney, in Norlli Anurican Review, 1881. 
 
THE AI A YA TRIBES. 589 
 
 once have been covered with cement, and perhaps painted. 
 Dupaix, v\fho examined these ruins in 1808, so represents 
 them. Mr. Stephens expressly states that the eastern front 
 was the principal entrance. Mr. Waldeck, however, detected 
 traces of stairways on the northern side. M. Charney has 
 settled the point, that the principal entrance was on the 
 northern side. 
 
 The principal bulk of this pyramid seems to have beea 
 earth; the facing only being composed of stone. Mr. Ban- 
 croft thinks he has discovered evidence that there were four 
 or more thick foundation- walls built from the surface of the 
 ground to support the buildings on top of the pyramid; 
 that the space between these walls was subsequently filled 
 with earth, and that sloping embankments, faced with 
 stones, were built upon the outside.^ The summit platform 
 of this pyramid supports the building, or collection of build- 
 ings, known as the palace. Though generally spoken of as 
 one building, we think we have here the ruins of a number 
 of buildings. 
 
 Probably the original inhabitants built a continuous 
 structure close to the edge of the platform, leaving the in- 
 terior for an open court. Subsequently, as population 
 increased, rather than resort to the labor necessary to raise 
 a new pyramidal structure, they erected other buildings on 
 this court. From the plan, as given by Mr. Stephens, there 
 seems to have been no less than five such put up, besides 
 the tower. Thus covering the platform with a somewhat 
 confused mass of buildings, and, instead of the large open 
 court, there were left only three narrow courts, and one 
 somewhat larger — seventy by eighty feet.^ The building 
 erected near the edge of the platform, inclosing the court, 
 
 1 " Native Eaces," Vol. IV, p. 300, et seq. 
 
 ' Morgan's "Contribution to N. A. Ethnology," Vol. IV, p. 268. 
 
590 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 was some two hundred" and twenty-eight feet on its east 
 and west sides, by one hundred and eighty feet on its north, 
 and south sides, and about thirty feet high. 
 
 Our general view, taken from Mr. Stephens's works, rep- 
 resents the ruined eastern front of this buildins:, surmount- 
 ing the pyramid. Trees are seen growing all over the ruins. 
 The outer wall is pierced by numerous door-ways which, 
 being somewhat wider than the space that separates them, 
 gives to the whole the appearance of a portico with wide 
 piers : no remains of the doors themselves have been dis- 
 covered. Drilled holes in the projecting cornice, immedi- 
 ately above the doorway, 
 gave Mr. Stephens the 
 impression that an im- 
 mense cotton curtain, per- 
 haps painted in a style 
 corresponding with the 
 ornaments, had been ex- 
 tended the whole front, 
 which was raised or low- 
 ered, according to the 
 weather. The lintels of 
 the doors were of wood. 
 They had kuig since van- 
 ished, and the stones over 
 the doorway fillen down. 
 Of the ])iers sei);irating 
 tho (loovwM vs. only fifteen 
 were f(iiin(l st;inding, but 
 Po3r=;ief. pai-.-.rjuv. th(^ cniinhliiii:' remains of 
 
 the others were readily tvnrcd on llio ruins. 
 
 Each of the standinti' iticrs. iind ]ir(>simi;ilil y all the oth- 
 ers, was ornamented with a has-relicf in .<tucco. This cut 
 
3 
 
 > 
 
 r 
 
 < 
 
 PI 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 r 
 > 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 593 
 
 gives us a good example of this style of ornamentation. 
 We notice portions of a richly ornamented border. This 
 stucco work consists of human figures in various attitudes, 
 having a variety of dress, ornaments, and' insignia. The 
 stucco is said to be nearly as hard as the stone itself. 
 Traces of paint, Avith which the figures were once orna- 
 mented, were still to be seen. The conjectures in regard 
 to these figures, have been innumerable. Vividly painted, 
 and placed in a conspicuous place on the wall, we may be 
 very sure they were full of significance to the builders. 
 Three hieroglyphics are placed over the head of each group, 
 but so far, they are as little understood as the figures them- 
 selves. We can imagine the effect, when the building was 
 still perfect and entire, and all the piers were thus orna- 
 mented. 
 
 Passing to the top of the pyramid, we find the construc- 
 tion of the building whose outer wall we have been describ- 
 ing, to be substantially as follows : Three parallel walls, 
 from two to three feet in thickness, composed of hewn 
 stones, were erected about nine feet apart. At the height 
 of ten feet, the walls com- 
 menced approaching each 
 other; not, however, in an 
 arch, for this was unknown, 
 but in a triangular manner, 
 the stones in each course pro- 
 jecting a little farther out. 
 This cut represents a cross- 
 section of the buildings, and Cross-seotlon Palace, Palenque. 
 
 shows also the slight cornice. All inequalities in the sur- 
 face, as here represented, were then filled with cement, thus 
 furnishing a smooth surface, which was then painted. Tha 
 two outer walls were plentifully supplied with doorways j 
 
594 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the central wall had but few. We are only given the 
 description of one, which may not apply to all. This one, 
 opposite the entrance on the east side, has a trefoil-shaped 
 arch over the door, thus giving it this shape. Besides the 
 few doorways, the central wall had numerous 
 depressions, or niches, some of which served 
 for ventilation, others for the support of 
 beams, and perhaps others as receptacles for 
 torches or idols. This principle of construc- 
 '^Tre&ii Arch, tioii is Substantially the same for all the 
 buildings in the interior of the court, and indeed for all the 
 buildings at Palenque. 
 
 Passing through the doorway just described, we come 
 into the second corridor, and continuing through that, we 
 come to what was once a large court ; but, as we stated, it 
 was subsequently built over so as to leave only a few 
 courts. The largest one, eiahty by seventy feet, is imme- 
 diately before us, with a range of steps leading down into 
 it. On each side of the stairway is sculptured, on stucco, a 
 row of grim and gigantic figures. The engraving opposite 
 represents the same. " They are adorned with rich head- 
 dresses and necklaces, but their attitude is that of pain and 
 trouble. The design and anatomical proportions of the fig- 
 ures are faulty, but there is a force of expression about 
 them which shows the skill and conceptive force of the 
 artist." From this small court stairways lead to the other 
 buildings situated around it. 
 
 Stucco ornaments were plentiful. In one room, rather 
 more richly ornamented than the others, was found a stone 
 tablet, which is the only important piece of stone sculp- 
 ture about the palace. We are told it is of hard stone, 
 four feet long by three feet wide, and the sculptnro is in 
 bas-relief. It is set in the \v;il], inul aronn<l it Mr<> Iho re- 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 59& 
 
 mains of a rich stucco border. Its significance is unknown. 
 (Page 596.) We must notice the small medallion, containing 
 a face, suspended by a necklace of pearls from the neck of the 
 principal figure. Mr. Stephens conjectures that it may rep- 
 resent the sun, Mr. Waldeck gives a drawing of this same 
 subject; but instead of a face, he represents a cross.^ 
 
 Entrance to Principal COTirt. 
 
 In the general view we see a tower rising up from the 
 mass of ruins. Mr. Stephens speaks of this tower as fol- 
 lows : " This tower is conspicuous by its height and pro- 
 portions, but an examination in detail is found unsatisfac- 
 tory and uninteresting, The base is thirty feet square, 
 and it has three stories. Entering over a heap of rubbish 
 at the base, we found within another tower distinct from 
 
 • Bancroft's '' Native Races," Vol. IV, p. 319. 
 
596 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the outer one, and a stone staircase, so narrow that a large 
 man could not ascend it. The staircase terminated against 
 a dead stone ceiling, closing all further passages, the last 
 step being only six or eight inches from it. For what 
 purpose a staircase was carried up to such a bootless termi- 
 nation we could not conjecture. The whole tower was a 
 
 stone Tablet. 
 
 substantial stone structure, and in its arrangements and pur- 
 poses about as incomprehensible as the sculptured tablets." 
 At the best we can do, it is hard to give such a descrip- 
 tion of this ruin that it can be readily understood, so we 
 will present a restoration of it by a German artist/ taken, 
 
 > Armin.: " Das Heute Mexico." 
 
TH£ MA YA TMIBES. 
 
 597 
 
 however, from Mr. Bancroft's work.^ This is very useful 
 to us since it conveys an idea of how the palace looked 
 when it was complete. This view also includes a second 
 structure which we will examine soon. We notice the nu- 
 merous doorways leading into the first corridor, the orna- 
 mental pier-like portions of the wall separating the doors, 
 
 Palace, Palenque. 
 
 and the several buildings on the court ; rising over all, the 
 tower, which would have been better if the spire had been 
 omitted. 
 
 This may have been a real palace. Its rooms may have 
 ^een the habitations of royalty, and its corridors may have 
 resounded with the tread of noble personages. M. Charney 
 thinks the palace must have been the home of priests, and 
 not kings — in fact, that it was a monastery, where the 
 priests lived who ministered in the neighboring temples. 
 He thinks Palenque was a holy place, a prehistoric Mecca. 
 We must be cautious about accepting any theory until 
 
 1 Native Races, Vol. IV. 
 
598 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 scholars are more agreed about the plan of goveriiincnt and 
 society among the Central American tribes. But, whatever 
 it was, many years have passed by since it was deserted. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 599 
 
 For centuries tropical storms have beat against the stuccoed 
 figures. The court-yards and corridors are overrun with 
 vegetation, and great trees are growing on the very top of 
 the tower. So complete is the ruin that it is with difficulty 
 the plan can be made out. The traveler, as he gazes upon 
 it, can scarcely resist letting fancy restore the scene as it 
 was before the hand of ruin had swept over it. In imag- 
 ination he beholds it perfect in its amplitude and rich dec- 
 oration, and occupied by the strange people whose portraits 
 and figures may perhaps adorn its walls. 
 
 We must now describe the more important of the re- 
 maining structures of Palenque. Glancing at the plan for a 
 moment, we see to the south-west of the palace a ruin 
 marked 2. This is the site of a pyramidal structure known 
 as the " Temple of the Three Tablets," or " Temple of In- 
 scriptions." The pyramid is not as large in area as 
 the palace, though of a greater height. It measures in 
 height one hundred and ten feet on the slope, but we are 
 not given the other dimensions. All the sides, which were 
 very steep, seem to have had steps. Trees have grown up 
 all over the pyramid and on the top of the building. This 
 illustration, taken from Mr. Stephens's work, can not fail to 
 impress on us the luxuriant growth of tropical vegetation, 
 and we can also see how such a growth must accelerate the 
 ruin. The stone steps leading up the sides of the pyramid 
 have been thrown down, and such must be in time the fate 
 of the building itself. The building on the summit plat- 
 form does not cover all the area. It is seventy-six feet 
 front by twenty-five feet deep and about thirty-five feet 
 high. 
 
 This small cut is a representation of the same building 
 on a small scale, but cleared of trees and vines. The roof 
 is seen to consist of -two parts, sloping at different angles. 
 
 37 
 
600 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 The lower part was covered with stucco ornaments, which, 
 though too much injured to be drawn, gave the impression 
 that, when perfect and painted, they must have been rich 
 and imposing. The upper slope is of solid masonry. ""Along 
 the top was a range of pillars, eighteen inches high and 
 twelve apart, made of small pieces of stone laid in mortar 
 and covered with stucco, having somewhat the appearance 
 of a low, open balustrade." 
 
 In this wood-cut the front wall, as in the palace, presents 
 more the appearance of a row of piers than any thing else. 
 Each of the corner piers contains on its surface hiero- 
 
 
 Elevation Temple of the Three Tablets. 
 
 glyphics, each of which contains ninety-six squares. The 
 other piers have ornaments of stucco similar to those we 
 have already examined on the palace. In the building 
 itself we have the usual three parallel walls. In this case, 
 however, the second corridor is divided into three rooms, 
 and there is no opening in the third wall, unless it be three 
 small openings for air. The central wall is four or five feet 
 thick.^ The interior is very plain. 
 
 The principal point of interest about the building, from 
 whence the name is derived, is three tablets of hieroglyphics. 
 One on either side of the principal doorway of the middle 
 wall, and the third in the rear wall of the middle room. 
 
 1 Bancroft's " Native Races," p. 326. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 601 
 
 Being so similar to other tablets, it is not necessary to give 
 separate cuts of them. The similarity to those of Copan is 
 very great, the differences being in minute points, which only 
 critical ex;imination would detect. Mr. Stephens tells us 
 that the Indians call this building a school. The priests 
 
 mil 
 
 ■Ml «iM M liiiiMiiiii I iiiiHi liillliaiB 
 
 The Beau-Reliel. 
 
 who came to visit him at tlie niins called it ;i. temple of jus- 
 tice, and said the tablets contained the law. We do not 
 think either are very safe guides to follow. 
 
 At number three on the plnn are the ruins of an edifice 
 which is fast disappearing. The outer wall had already 
 
602 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 fallen at the time of Mr. Stephens's visit. It stands on 
 the bank of the stream. The pyramid base is one hundred 
 feet high on the slope. The building on the top is twenty- 
 five feet front by eighteen feet deep. In the inner corridor 
 could be dimly traced the outlines of a beautiful piece of 
 stucco work. At the time of Waldeck's visit it was still 
 complete, so we are enabled to give a cut of it. 
 
 We are sure the readers will not fail to notice the many 
 points which make this such an exceptionally fine piece of 
 
 i 
 
 Temp.e of the Cross. (SiiiUhsouiau Instiuitc.) 
 
 work. " In the original drawing the grace of the arms and 
 wrists is truly matchless, and the chest muscles are dis- 
 played in the most perfect manner. The embroidered girdle 
 and folded drapery of the figure, as well as the drapery 
 around the leopard's neck, are arranged with taste. The 
 head-dress is not unlike a Roman helmet in front, with the 
 addition of numerous plumes. The sandals of the feet are 
 secured by a cord and rosette, while the ornaments on the 
 animal's ankles seem secured by leather straps." ^ Mr. 
 
 'Short's "Nortli Americans of Antiquity," p. 389. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 603 
 
 Waldeck, however, who drew this sketch, is supposed to 
 have drawn at times better than his model.^ This is gen- 
 erally called the " Temple of the Beau-relief." Mr. Ilolden, 
 in his able article already referred to, comes to" the conclu- 
 sion that this figure represents the god Quetzalcohuatl, the 
 nature god of the Mayas. 
 
 Eastward from the palace, and across the creek, are seen 
 on the plan the location of two other structures. The one 
 marked 4 is a somewhat famous structure, which, for rea- 
 sons that will soon appear, is called the " Temple of the 
 
 Cross." The pyra- 
 mid in this case 
 is one hundred 
 and thirty-four 
 £■ feet on the slope. 
 It, however, 
 stands on a ter- 
 race about sixty 
 feet on the slope. 
 
 Plan ol Temple. (Smithsouiau Institute:) The forost is SO. 
 
 dense that, though other structures are but a short distance 
 from it, yet they can not be seen. The last two engravings 
 represent the building and the ground plan. This is not 
 a fanciful sketch, but is a restoration, " from such remains 
 and indications that it is impossible to make any thing else 
 out of it." 
 
 " The building is fifty feet front, thirty-one feet deep, and 
 has three door-ways. The whole front was covered with 
 stucco ornaments. The two outer piers contain hiero- 
 glyphics." We notice a new feature about the roof. It is 
 similar to the roof of the temple of the " Three Tablets," iu 
 having two different slopes — the lower one covered with 
 
 ' Holden, in " First Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology." 
 
604 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 stucco ornaments, but the range of pillars along the roof is- 
 here replaced by a peculiar two-storied arrangement nearly 
 sixteen feet high. Mr. Stephens says : " The long sides of this 
 
 o 
 
 el 
 
 3 
 
 cj 
 
 T 
 
 w 
 
 W 
 H 
 
 o 
 
 M 
 
 M 
 H 
 
 narrow structure are of open stucco-work, formed into curious 
 and indescribable dovicos, human fiiruros with h>gs and arms 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 605 
 
 spreading and apertures between, and the whole was once 
 loaded with rich and elegant ornaments in stucco relief. Its 
 appearance at a distance must have been that of a liigb, fan- 
 ciful lattice. It was perfectly unique — dilierent from the 
 works of any other people with which we are familiar, and 
 its uses and purposes entirely incomprehensible." 
 
 It was evidently added to the temple solely for the sake 
 of appearance. One writer^ believes the roof structures 
 were erected by some people that succeeded the original 
 builders of the temple. The plan of the temple gives us a 
 clear idea of the arrangement of the inner rooms. Our prin- 
 cipal interest centers in the altar, which we notice placed in 
 the center of the back room. We give an illustration of a 
 similar altar-form in the temple, at number 5 of the plan. 
 In form it is that of an inclosed chamber, having a roof of 
 its own. The altar in the Temple of the Cross was very 
 similar to this. Mr. Stephens's description is as follows : 
 " The top of the doorway was gorgeous with stuccoed orna- 
 ments, and on the piers at each side were stone tablets in 
 bas-relief. Within, the chamber is thirteen feet wide and 
 seven feet deep." 
 
 The room was plain within, and right against the back 
 was the famous "Tablet of the Cross." This tablet was six 
 feet four inches high, ten feet eight inches wide, and formed 
 of three stones. The right-hand one is now in the National 
 Museum in Washington. The central one, though torn from 
 its original place, is still at the ruins. The next cut gives us 
 only the sculptured part of the tablet. On both the right 
 and left-hand were tablets of hierogl3'^phics. A long chain 
 of ornaments hung suspended from the cap of the right-hand 
 figure. The two figures are regarded as priests. The cross 
 is very plainly outlinod, and is the regular Latin one. Con- 
 
 ' Brasseur De l>ourl)onro:. 
 
606 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Biderable discussion has arisen as to what supi)orts the 
 cross. Dr. Brinton thinks it a serpent.^ Others think it a 
 human skull.- We must also notice the bird on top of the 
 cross. It is almost impossible to make out the species. The 
 right-hand figure is offering it something. 
 
 Tablet of the Cross. 
 
 We must refer to some more tablets found at Palcnque 
 before proceeding further. At number five of the plan was 
 a temple but little smaller than the one just described. 
 
 '"Mytlis of the New World." 
 
 "liolden, in "First Animal T'oporl Bureau of Etlmology." 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 607 
 
 There is, however, such a similarity between the buildings, 
 that it is not necessary to give illustrations. The temple, 
 also, had an inclosed altar; and against the back of that 
 was placed the tablet which was very similar to the one 
 just described. This illustration represents the sculptured 
 portions. On each side were tablets of hieroglyphics. It 
 
 The S-Qn. 
 
 needs but a glance to show that the priests are, evidently, 
 the same personages as in the other tablet. 
 
 The one on the left is standing on the back of a human 
 being. The one on the right is, perhaps, standing on a 
 beast; or, if a human being, he is crushed beneath the 
 
GO'S THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 weight of the priest. Two other human figures support a 
 platform, from which rise two batons crossed like a St. An- 
 drew's cross. Tliese support a mask, from the center of 
 which a hideous human face looks out. The Aztecs some- 
 times represented the sun by such a mask, and hence the 
 name " Temple of the Sun." 
 
 In still another temple, situated but a short distance 
 from the others, was discovered a third tablet, which is 
 shown in the cut opposite. We give all the tablet, showing 
 the hieroglyphics as well. We must compare this with the 
 first tablet given. The priests are, evidently, the same — 
 but, notice, they stand on different sides of the cross. The 
 same priest is making the offering as in the first, and ■ the 
 same bird is seen on the top of the cross. The priests stand 
 on flowered ornaments. The support of the cross resembles 
 the same thing as in the first; but whether it is a human 
 skull, or a serpent, is hard to tell. The cross itself is not 
 as well outlined. The two arms are floral ornaments. We 
 must also notice the two faces seen on the upright part.* 
 
 These tablets are all of great interest That of the cross, 
 the first one given, has attracted more attention than almost 
 any other in the field of American antiquities. This is 
 largely owing to the cross. As far as the sacred emblem 
 itself is concerned, we do not think this tablet of more sig- 
 nificance than that of the sun. It is well known that the 
 cross, as a sacred emblem, had peculiar significance in the 
 ancient religions of the world. Its use ns such has come 
 down to us fioni time immemorinl. On I lie first expedition 
 of the Spaninrds, in 1518. to the coast nnd islnn.ls of Yu- 
 catan, they discovered thnt the cross w;is of some signifi- 
 
 " ' This t;il)lct is iiimiod jiftor its discoverpr. Tlio linildiiif; in whicli it is sit- 
 uated was but M sliort distniico from llic otliors; yot, owinp: to the density of 
 the forest, neither Wnldoek nor Stepliens discovered it. A ea.st of it is now in 
 the National Mu.seum at AVashington. 
 
THE MA YA TRIBES.. 
 
 609 
 
 cance to the natives. In the island of Cozumel they found 
 a large cross, to which the natives prayed for rain'^ 
 
 jNIr. Brinton thinks that the source of this veneration of 
 the cross, like the sacredness of the number four, of which 
 he gives numerous illustrations, is the four cardinal points.^ 
 From these points blow the four winds which bring the fer- 
 tilizing rains, and thus render the earth fruitful; and hence 
 the cross, in so many and widely separated portions of the 
 earth, is used as the symbol of the life-giving, creative, and 
 
 Haler's Cross. 
 
 fertilizing principle in na.ture.^ He thinks this is, perhaps, 
 the significance of these Palenque crosses. It is true we 
 have different forms of the cross; but in ancient sculpture 
 they seem to have been of equal importance.^ 
 
 The results of these inquiries into the hidden meaning 
 of these tablets are not devoid of interest; but, thus far, 
 but few conclusions of value have been obtained. They 
 
 ^Rau, in "Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge," Vol. XXII, p. 40. 
 
 2 "Myths of the New World," p. 95. 
 
 'Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. V, p. 506. 
 
 *See, also, "American Encyclopedia," Art. "Cross." 
 
610 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 have been made to do service in support of some far-fetched 
 theories. The early Spanish writers on these subjects con- 
 cluded that the crosses found in Central America were pos- 
 itive proof that St. Thomas had traveled through the country 
 preaching the doctrines of Christianity. The padres, who 
 came to visit Mr. Stephens at the ruins, " at the sight of it, 
 immediately decided that the old inhabitants of Palenque were 
 Christians, and fixed the age of the buildings in the third 
 century." 
 
 Wilson finds in the tablets of the cross a strong ar- 
 gument for the existence of a great Phoenician empire in 
 Central America. This tablet represents, he thinks, the 
 sacrifice of a child to Astarte,^ also called Ashtoreth, the 
 great female deity of the ancient Semitic nations on both 
 sides of the Euphrates, but chiefly of Phoenicia. The orig- 
 inal meaning of this word was " Queen of Heaven." Mod- 
 ern scholars do not think these early speculations of the 
 slightest worth. Dr. Charles Ran ^concludes that as reason- 
 able a conjecture as any is the supposition that it represents 
 a sacrifice to the god of rain, made, perhaps, at a time of 
 drought, apparently influenced to that conclusion by the fact 
 that the natives of Cozumel regarded a cross in such a 
 light,^ and further that a cross represents the moisture-bear- 
 ing winds. 
 
 E. S. Holden* has made a critical study of the hiero- 
 glyphics of Copan and Palenque. Though far from com- 
 plete, most interesting results have been obtained. We 
 can not do more than set forth the results of his investiga- 
 tions.^ He concludes, from a careful study of the tablets 
 
 > " Conqiiost of Mexico," p. 1«0. 
 
 '"' Smithsonian Contribution to Knowledge," Vol. XXII. 
 3 Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. Ill, p. 470. 
 ■"'Annual Re])ort of the Bnroan of I'^thnolofry," Vol. I. 
 'Mr. Holdcn uses, as an iiiii)ort;int link in liis ar}»nni(>nts, a fijinre enprnved 
 on a chal(;liinl(! (a s;i<T('<1 slimc). He conchidcs it to he a rcim'scntiitivo of 
 
TEE MAYA TRIBES. ' 611 
 
 of the cross and of the sun, that in both the left-hand 
 priests are representatives of the god of war/ the right-hand 
 priests being in both representatives of the god of rain and 
 water.^ In Mexico these deities frequently occupied the 
 same temple.^ He does not state his conclusions in regard 
 to the central figures in the tablets. Mr. Brinton thinks the 
 central figure in the tablet of the cross is a rebus for the na- 
 ture god Quetzalcohuatl. The cross was one of the symbols 
 of Quetzalcohuatl, as such signifying the four winds of which 
 he was lord. Another of his symbols was a bird. We 
 notice the two symbols present in the tablet. Mr. Holden 
 also finds that the glyph standing for this god occurs sev- 
 eral times in the tables of hieroglyphics belonging to this 
 figure. 
 
 According to these last views, then,' the old Palenquians 
 seem to have been a very religious people, and Quetzalcohuatl, 
 the god of peace, seems to have been their principal deity, 
 differing in this regard from Mexico, where all honor was 
 paid to the god of war. We are not given any explanation 
 of the Temple of the Three Tablets, but the other temples 
 have to do with the worship of this benign deity. The 
 beautiful stucco-work in the Temple of the Beau-relief, Mr. 
 Holden thinks, also represents him. At the Temples of the 
 Cross, if we be right as to the meaning of the central fig- 
 ure, the priests of the god of war and the god of rain do 
 honor to him.* 
 
 Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, or rather the Maya representative of the Mex- 
 ican god of that name. It is unfortunate that Prof. Valentine gives to this 
 same figure a different significance. In the " Proceedings of the American An- 
 tiquarian Society," for April, 1884, in a paper on that subject, he concludes it 
 to be a representation of a victorious warrior giving sacrifice to his god. The 
 only persons entitled to speak on such subjects are those thoroughly acquainted 
 with Maya Archeology. i Huitzilopochtli. '■' Tlaloc. 
 
 * Bancroft's " Native Eaces," Vol. Ill, p. 324. 
 
 * While such seem to us to be the results of Mr. Holden's labors, it must 
 not be understood that he vouches for them. They must be regarded as per- 
 
612 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Mr. Bandelier makes a state- 
 ment in regard to the cross 
 which, if it be accepted, clears 
 away a number of theories. He 
 remarks : " The cross, though 
 frequently used prcAdously to 
 the conquest by the Aborigines 
 of Mexico and Central America 
 as an ornament, was not at all 
 an object of worship among 
 them. Besides, there is a vast 
 difference between the cross and 
 the crucifix. What has been 
 taken for the latter on sculptures, 
 like the ' Palenque tablet,' is 
 merely the symbol of the ' New- 
 fire,' or close of a period of 
 fifty-two years. It is the fire 
 drill more or less ornamented." 
 According to this view, these 
 interesting tablets have refer- 
 ence to the ceremonies observed 
 by the Mayas at the expiration 
 of a cycle. ^ 
 
 It now only remains to de- 
 scribe some miscellaneous relics 
 obtained from Palenque. But 
 — few specimens of pottery have 
 statue, paiencme. (Smith. Tnst.) -^^^^ found. One of the early 
 
 explorers speaks of finding an earthen vessel about a foot 
 in diameter. Waldcck made an exploration in a portion of 
 
 sonal views which we express with soiiio mental forebodings. In this matter 
 we miisl ahide by furtiicr in vest ifrat ions. 
 
 'Bandelier: "An Archaeological Tour in Mexico," ]). 184. 
 
BAS-RELIEF ON THE LKFT-HAKD OF THK ALTAR OF THF CROSS. 
 
 (Buivnu of KthnoloRy.) l"'* 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 615 
 
 the palace area, and found a gallery containing hewn blocks 
 of stone and earthen cups and vases, with many little 
 earthen balls of different colors. He also speaks of a fine 
 specimen of terra-cotta.^ 
 
 The only statues known were found near the Temple of 
 the Cross. There were two of them, and they supported a 
 platform before the central doorway. One was broken to 
 pieces; the other is here represented. (Page 612.) Many 
 writer.s point out resemblances between this figure and some 
 Egyptian statues. 
 
 In the village of Palenque, built in the wall of a church,^ 
 are two stone tablets which once stood on each side of the 
 doorway of the altar containing the tablet of the cross. ^ 
 Mr. Stephens was under the impression that they were 
 originally placed on the altar of the tablet of the sun, and 
 they are so represented in the cut on page 604. This plate 
 represents the left-hand figure. The only explanation which 
 we have met is contained in that oft-quoted article by Mr. 
 Holden. He regards it as the representation of the Maya god 
 of war. We are warned that the weak part of Mr. Holden's 
 method is his assumption that the mythology of the Mayas 
 was the same as that of the Aztecs, when the evidence is 
 not strong enough to assert such a fact.^ 
 
 We feel that we have been somewhat lengthy in describ- 
 ing the ruins of Palenque. But it is one of the most impor- 
 tant groups of ruins that this continent possesses. The 
 most faithful work on the part of the scholars of all lands 
 has not as yet succeeded in clearing up the mystery con- 
 nected Avith it. We can tread the courts of their ancient 
 
 1 Bancroft's " Native Kaces," Vol. IV, p. 345. 
 
 ^ See Charney, in North American Review, 1881. They were formerly in a 
 Tiouse. 'Bancroft's " Native Eaces," Vol. IV, p. 332. 
 
 * Brinton's "Contribution to North American Ethnology," Vol. V, p. 36. 
 •" Introduction to Study of Manuscript Troano," by Prof. Thomas. 
 
616 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 citadel, clamber up to the ruined temples and altars, and 
 gaze on the unread hieroglyphics, but, with all our efforts, 
 we know but little of its history. There was a time when 
 the forest did not entwine these ruins. Once unknown 
 priests ministered at these altars. But cacique, or king, and 
 priest have alike passed away. The nation, if such it was, 
 has vanished, and their descendants are probably to be 
 found in the savage tribes of Yucatan to-day. " In the 
 romance of the world's history," says Mr. Stephens, " noth- 
 ing ever impressed me more forcibly than the spectacle of 
 this once great and lovely city, overturned, desolate, and 
 lost, discovered by accident, overgrown with trees for miles 
 around, without even a name to distinguish it. Apart from 
 every thing else, it was a mournful witness to the world's 
 
 mutation. 
 
 " ' Nations melt 
 From power's high pinuacle, when they have felt 
 The sunshine for awhile, and downward go.' " 
 
 The ruins at Palenque have been so well known, that but 
 little attention has been given to other ruins in the States 
 of Tobasco and Chiapas; and yet, according to M. Charney, 
 imposing ruins of great extent exist in the western part of 
 Tobasco. At a place about thirty-five miles from San Juan, 
 in a north-westerly direction, he found veritable mountains 
 of ruins " overgrown wnth a luxuriant vegetation."^ In the 
 absence of cuts, we can not do more than give a general 
 idea of these ruins. 
 
 He asserts that the whole State of Tobasco, and part of 
 Chiapas, is covered with ruins. One landed proprietor in- 
 formed him that, on his estate, he had counted over three 
 hundred pyramids, all of them covered with ruins. In this 
 connection he refers to the assertions of sonic of the early 
 
 ^ North American Review, February, ISSl, p. 1S7. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 617 
 
 Spanish voyagers, that, when skirting the shores of To- 
 'basco, they "saw on the shore, and far in the interior, a 
 multitude of structures, whose white and polished walls glit- 
 tered in the sun." On one large pyramid, one hundred and 
 fifteen feet high, he found the remains of a building two 
 hundred and thirty-five feet long. 
 
 This building is named the palace. In this building we 
 met with the type that we have learned is the prevailing 
 one further south — that is, three parallel walls, forming two 
 rows of rooms. In general, the rooms are not well arranged 
 for comfort, according to our opinion ; but they v>^ere, doubt- 
 less, well adapted to the communal mode of life prevalent 
 among the Indians. M. Charney seems to have been 
 strongly impressed with the number and importance of the 
 ruins in this State; but, strangely enough, others have not 
 mentioned them.^ He says : " I am daily receiving infor- 
 mation about the ruins scattered all over the State of To- 
 basco, hidden in the forests. . . . The imagination fails to 
 realize the vast amount of labor it would involve to explore 
 even a tithe of these ancient sites. These mountains of ruins 
 extend over twelve miles. We still see the hollows in the 
 ground whence the soil was taken for the construction of 
 these pyramids. But they did not consist merely of clay; 
 bricks, too, entered into their construction, and there were 
 strengthening walls to make them firmer. These structures 
 are more wonderful than the pyramids and the other works 
 at Teotihuacan, and they far surpass the pyramids of 
 Egypt." 
 
 In the neighboring State of Chiapas, we find the location 
 of several groups of ruins. At Ocosingo, we have the evi- 
 dent traces of a large settlement. Mr. Stephens mentions 
 four or five pyramids crowned with buildings. Immediately 
 
 1 Bancroft's " Native Races," p. 287. 
 
 38 
 
618 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 beyond these pyramids lie came upon an open plateau, 
 which he considered to have been the site of the city proper. ' 
 It was protected on all sides by the same high terraces, 
 overlooking for a great distance the whole country around, 
 and rendering it impossible for an enemy to approach from 
 any quarter without being discovered. "Across this table 
 was a high and narrow causeway, which seemed partly nat- 
 ural and partly artificial, and at some distance on which was 
 a mound, with the foundation of a building that had proba- 
 bly been a tower. Beyond this the causeway extended till 
 it joined a range of mountains. . . . There was no place we 
 had seen which gave us such an idea of the vastness of the 
 works erected by the aboriginal inhabitants."^ 
 
 The ruins at Palenque are considered by some to belong 
 to the ancient period of Maya architecture; those we are 
 now to examine are regarded as of more modern date. This 
 is at least true with respect to the time of their abandon- 
 ment. Though the efforts of explorers in Yucatan have been 
 attended with rich results, stiU few places have been fully 
 described. The country is fairly dotted with sites of abo- 
 riginal settlements. In all probability there are many that 
 are yet unknown. Hidden in tropical jungles, they are fast 
 falling into meaningless mounds of debris. The early Span- 
 ish explorers, skirting the coasts of Yucatan, gazed in aston- 
 ishment at the views they occasionally obtained of pyramids 
 crowned with temples and imposing buildings. But this 
 gleam of historic light was but momentary in duration. It 
 served but to throw a sunset glow over the doomed tribes 
 and civilization of the Mayas. By the aid of that dim, un- 
 certain light, we are asked to recognize a form of govern- 
 ment and society which, under the clearer light of modern 
 
 * "Central America," Vol. II, p. 261. At this time Mr. Stephens had not 
 Been the ruins at Palenque, and those in Yucatan. 
 

 
THE MAYA TRIBEli. 621 
 
 researches, is seen to bear an equally strong resemblance to 
 institutions more in keeping with the genius of the New 
 World. 
 
 The few travelers who visit the country are generally 
 content to revisit and describe places already known. This 
 is not strange, considering the difficulties that have to be 
 overcome. The country swarms with savage Indians, who 
 are jealous of the intrusions of strangers. We have, how- 
 ever, this consolation : those ruins already brought to light 
 show such a uniformity of detail, that it is not probable that 
 any new developments are to be expected. The ruins that 
 are already known are sufficient to illustrate all the points 
 of their architecture; and we can draw from them, doubt- 
 less, all that can be drawn from ruins, throwing light on the 
 civil organization of the Mayas of Yucatan. 
 
 We can not do better than to describe some of the more 
 important ruins, and then notice wherein others differ. Ex- 
 amining the map, we see that TJxmaP is one of the first ruins 
 that would meet us on arriving in the country. It is more 
 fully described than any other, though perhaps not of greater 
 importance than those of some other localities. As at Pa- 
 lenque, while the principal ruins are said to be situated in a 
 small area, the whole section abounds in mounds and heaps 
 of debris, and it may well be said that buildings as imposing 
 as those already described are concealed in the forest not 
 far removed from the present ruins. A plat of ground sev- 
 enteen hundred feet long by twelve hundred feet wide 
 would include the principal structures now known. 
 
 The most imposing single edifice here is that called the 
 Governor's House. The only reason for giving it this name is 
 its size. Being of large size, and located on a terraced pyr- 
 amid, it has received a name which may be very inappro- 
 
 ' Pronounced " oosli-mal." 
 
622 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 priate. We will first notice the pyramid oa which the build- 
 ing stands. At Palenque the pyramid rises regularly from 
 the ground. Here the pyramid is terraced. In order to 
 understand clearly the arrangement of these A'arious ter- 
 races, we introduce this drawing. The base is a somewhat 
 irregular figure, though nearly a square. Another pyramid 
 cuts into one corner of the terrace. The first terrace is 
 about three feet high, fifteen feet broad, and five hundred 
 and seventy-five feet long. The second terrace is twenty 
 feet high, two hundred and fifty feet wide, and five hundred 
 and forty -five feet in length. The third terrace, on which 
 the building stands, is nineteen feet high, and its summit 
 platform is one hundred by three hundred and sixty feet. 
 The height of this platform above the general surface is a 
 little over forty feet.^ 
 
 The material of which the pyramid is composed, is 
 rough fragments of limestone, thrown together without or- 
 der; but the terraces were all faced with substantial stone 
 work. At the time of Mr. Stephens's visit the fiicing of 
 the second terrace was still in a good state of preservation. 
 Charney believes the platform was paved with square blocks. 
 This pyramid was not entirely artificial — they took advan- 
 tage of a natural hill, as far as it went. No stairway or 
 other means of ascent to the first terrace is mentioned. 
 From its low height, probably none was needed. The sec- 
 ond terrace being twenty feet high, some means of ascent 
 was required. This was afforded, as seen in the drawing, 
 by an inclined plane, at the south side one hundred feet 
 broad. From the second terrace a grand staircase, one hun- 
 
 ' Our ijrincipal authority on the ruhis of Yucatiui is ^Ir. StophcMis, whose- 
 work, " Incidents of Travel in Yucatan," in two vohimes, is all that can be de- 
 sired. ISIr. Bancroft, in " Native Races," Vol. IV, has pithered together what- 
 ever of worth there is in the writinjjs of various explorers. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 625 
 
 •dred and thirty feet wide, containing thirty-five steps, led 
 up to the summit of the third terrace. 
 
 No buildings or other ornaments are mentioned as hav- 
 ing been found on the lower terrace. The wide promenade 
 of the second one supported some structures of its own, but 
 they were in too dilapidated a condition to furnish a clear 
 idea of their original nature, except in one instance — that 
 is of the building at A of the drawing. This building was 
 ninety-four feet long, thirty-four feet wide, and about 
 twenty feet high. 
 
 The roof had fallen in, so that we do not know the ar- 
 rangement of the rooms in the interior. The simplicity of 
 •ornaments on the outer wall is commented on. Instead of 
 the complicated ornaments, so apparent on the buildings of 
 Yucatan, the only ornament in this case was a simple and 
 •elegant line of round columns, standing close together, and 
 encircling the whole edifice. At regular intervals on the 
 Tipper cornice appeared a sculptured turtle. From this cir- 
 cumstance, the building was named " The House of Turtles." 
 1^0 steps lead to the terrace below or to the one above. "It 
 stands isolated and alone, seeming to mourn over its own 
 desolate and ruinous condition." 
 
 At B, along the south end of the terrace, there was a 
 long, low mound of ruins, and arranged along its base was 
 a row of broken columns about five feet high and nearly 
 five feet in circumference. Some have supposed, from this, 
 that columns extended along the entire promenade of the 
 second terrace. This would indeed give it a very grand ap- 
 pearance; but there is no foundation for such a view. East 
 of the central stairway at C, was a low, square inclosure. This 
 -contained a standing pillar, now in a slanting position, as if 
 «,n effort had been made to throw it over. It was about 
 «ight feet above the surface of the ground, and five below. 
 
626 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 The Indians called it a whipping-post. Mr. Stephens thinks 
 it was connected with the ceremonial rites of an ancient 
 worship. He found a similarly shaped stone in connection 
 with other buildings at Uxmal, and at other places in 
 Yucatan. 
 
 Still further east, at D, he found a rude, circular mound 
 of rough stones. On excavating this, he was rewarded by 
 the discovery of a double-headed monument. It was carved 
 
 Two-headed Momiment, Uxmal. 
 
 out ot a single block of stone. The probabilities are that 
 it was purposely buried when the natives abandoned Uxmal, 
 to prevent the Spaniards from destroying it. Scattered 
 about over this platform were found excavations much like- 
 well-made cisterns in shape. As it is something of a mys- 
 tery where the inhabit.-ints obtained water, it is a reason- 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 627 
 
 able supposition that these were really cisterns. Similar 
 excavations were discovered all over the area of the ruins. 
 Leaving the second terrace, and passing up the ruined 
 stairway, we find ourselves on the summit platform of the 
 third terrace, and see before us one of the long, low, richly 
 ornamented buildings of Yucatan. This cut presents us an 
 
 End View. 
 
 end view, but gives us a good idea of the building as a 
 whole. It does not occupy the entire summit; there is a 
 wide promenade all around it. Its length is three hundred 
 and twenty-two feet; its width, thirty-nine feet, and its 
 height twenty-six feet. 
 
 In order to understand clearly the arrangement of the 
 rooms, we will here give the ground-plan. The two end 
 portions may have been additions to the original structure. 
 
628 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 There are, at any rate, reasons for supposing the small 
 rooms in the two recesses of later construction. We must 
 notice that we have here the usual three parallel walls and 
 
 ±±=:± 
 
 Grouna Plan. 
 
 two rows of rooms. All the walls are massive, the rear wall 
 especially so. It is nine feet thick throughout, and so are 
 the transverse walls of the two recesses. Supposing the 
 rear wall might contain rooms, Mr. Stephens made an open- 
 ing through it. He found it to be solid. 
 
 The stones facing the walls and rooms are smooth and 
 square, and the mass of the masonry consists of rough, 
 irregular fragments of stone and mortar. This cross-section 
 
 makes this meaning 
 plain. We can but 
 notice what an im- 
 mense amount of use- 
 less labor was be- 
 stowed on the walls 
 and ceilings of this 
 building. We gather 
 ^ more the idea of gal- 
 leries excavated in a 
 rocky mass, than of rooms inclosed by walls. The rooms 
 are very plain ; no attempt at decoration was observed. In 
 one or two instances the remains of a fine coat of i)las- 
 tering was noticed. "The floors were of cement, in some 
 places hard, but by long exposure broken, and now crum- 
 bling under foot." The arches supi)orting the roof are of 
 the same style as those at Palenque — that i.^, triangular, — 
 though, in this case, the end.< of Ili(> projecting stones were 
 
 Cross-section of Uxmal. 
 
THE MA YA TRIBES. 629 
 
 beveled off so as to form a smooth surface. At Palenque, 
 we remember, the inequalities were filled with cement. 
 Across the arches were still to be observed beams of wood, 
 the ends buried in the wall at both sides. The supposition 
 is that they served to support the arches while building, and 
 afterwards for the suspension of hammocks.^ 
 
 There are no openings for light and ventilation, conse- 
 quently some of the rear rooms are both damp and dark. 
 The lintels over each doorway were of wood. This was 
 the common and ordinary material employed for lintels in 
 Yucatan, though in one or two instances stone was used. 
 They used for this purpose beams of zapote, a wood 
 noted for its strength and durability. Some inner lintels 
 still remain in place. The one over the central doorway of 
 the outer wall was elaborately carved, the others were plain. 
 
 The outside of the building is also of interest to us. 
 By a careful examination, we notice a cornice just above the 
 doorway. The wall below the cornice presents a smooth 
 surface of limestone, no traces of plaster or paint appear- 
 ing; above the cornice the facade is one solid mass of rich, 
 complicated, and elaborately sculptured ornaments. This is 
 not stucco work, as at Palenque, but the ornaments are 
 carved on stone. Mr Stephens tells us, "Every ornament 
 or combination is made up of separate stones, each of which 
 had carved on it part of the subject, and was then set in its 
 place in the wall. Each stone, by itself, is an unmeaning 
 fractional portion, but placed by the side of others, makes 
 part of a whole which, without it, would be incomplete." 
 
 It is not possible to give a verbal description of all of 
 
 ' Mr. Stephens thinks they were for tlie support of the arches, while 
 building. As, however, it is almost certain they constructed this arch over a 
 solid core of masonry, which they afterwards removed (see " Contributions to 
 N. A. Ethnology," Vol. IV, p. 262), they could not have been intended for 
 such use. 
 
630 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the ornaments; we can notice but few. Over each doorway 
 was represented a person apparently seated on a sort of 
 throne, having a lofty head-dress, with enormous plumes of 
 feathers falling symmetrically on each side. Though the 
 figures varied in each case, in general characteristics they 
 
 Figure over the Dcoi-w.'ay. 
 
 were the same as Ihe one here reprosciited. which was the 
 figure over the central duorway of tli(> building. 
 
 Among the most coiniiKiiily iciiipcnring oi-naments at 
 Uxmal, and at other places, is one tlmt li.is received the 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 631 
 
 name of the " Elephant's Trunk," and has given rise to no- 
 little discussion. One occurs immediately above the figure. 
 Part of this ornament is represented in this plate. The 
 
 Ornament over tne Doorway. 
 
 central part of this figure, which appears as a plain band, is 
 in reality a curved projecting stone, which, when looked at 
 sideways, has the appearance given in this cut. Though 
 requiring a little imagina- 
 tion, the majority of 
 travelers see in this 
 some monster's face. 
 The eyes and teeth are 
 seen in the first engrav- 
 ing. This projecting 
 stone is the nose. 
 
 We stand in amaze- 
 ment before this sculp- 
 tured facade. We must Elephant-s Trunk. 
 
 reflect that its builders were not possessed of metallic 
 tools. It extends entirely around the building, though 
 the end and rear walls are not as elaborately decorated 
 as the front. A little calculation shows that it contains 
 over ten thousand square feet of carved stone. The roof of 
 
'632 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the building was flat. It had been covered with cement. 
 But vegetation had somehow acquired a foothold, and the 
 whole is now overgrown with grass and bushes. Such is a 
 brief description of this "casa." Hastening to ruins, it ap- 
 peals powerfully to the imagination. It is a memorial of 
 vanished times. We wonder what of the strange people 
 that pressed up these stairs and entered these rooms ? For 
 many years it has been abandoned to the elements. Year 
 by year portions of the ornamented facade fall. Though 
 the walls are massive and the roof is strong, it is but a 
 question of time when a low mound of ruins will alone mark 
 its site. 
 
 Like the palace at Palenque, this structure has given 
 rise to conflicting theories as to its use. While many of 
 the writers on this subject claim that it was the residence 
 of royalty, there are, on the other hand, those who think it 
 is simply a communal house of village Indians, or the offi- 
 cial house of the tribe. In whatever light we shall ulti- 
 mately view it, it is surely an interesting monument of 
 native American culture. The labor necessary to rear the 
 terraced pyramid, even though advantage was taken of a 
 natural eminence, must have been great. The building 
 itself, though not of great dimensions, except in length, 
 must have required the labor of a large number of Indians 
 for a long time. For purposes of defense, the location, from 
 an Indian point of view, was an excellent one, since with 
 them elevation constitutes the principal means of defense. 
 The terraces could be easily ascended from but one point, 
 where an enemy could be easily resisted. In a general 
 way, it may be regarded as a representative of Yucatan 
 buildings, and so we will be able to more rapidly describe 
 the remaining structures. 
 
 On the general plan we see, to the north of (ho stnu'ture 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 633: 
 
 we have just described, a group of ruins marked "C." This 
 is regarded as the most wonderful collection of edifices in 
 Yucatan, and as exhibiting the highest state of ancient 
 architecture and sculpture in North America. They are 
 known as the " Nunnery," which we think is a very absurd 
 
 d:iii] ciiiiy 
 
 279 FT 
 
 Plan of Hnnnery. 
 
 name. The pyramid on which they stood is also terraced^ 
 though on one side only. We give a drawing showing the 
 position on the summit platform of the four buildings form- 
 ing this group. Since we have so many ruined structures ta 
 describe, we must avoid such details as will prove tiresome. 
 We will give in a note the dimensions of these buildings. 
 
634 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 .and of the pyramid, and pass at once to some points of spe- 
 cial interest.-^ 
 
 Traces of stairways are mentioned as leading up to the 
 terrace, hut none of the steps remained in place. The 
 ■southern building is seen to have doors in both the court and 
 terrace walls, but in this case the middle wall is unbroken. 
 All the rooms of this building are single. In the plan it 
 appears divided into two buildings; the opening is, how- 
 ever, but a triangular arched doorway, through which access 
 was had to the court. 
 
 There is no one to dispute our right of way, and so, 
 climbing up the ruined stairs, and passing through the 
 deserted gateway, we emerge into a court-yard, now silent 
 and deserted and overgrown with bushes and grass. It was 
 ■once paved and covered with cement, and in the center are 
 the remains of a stone pillar, similar to that in front of the 
 governor's house. When the houses were all occupied this 
 court must have presented an animated scene. But, now 
 that the buildings are tenantless and going to ruin, it must 
 impress all beholders with a sense of the changes wrought 
 T)v time. 
 
 It will be noticed that the northern building does not 
 
 ' The pyramid is three hundred and fifty feet square at the base and 
 nineteen feet high. The terraces are along the south side. The lowest ter- 
 race is three feet high and twenty feet wide. The second is twelve feet high 
 :and forty-five feet wide. The third is four feet high and five feet wide. The 
 building on the south side is two hundred and seventy -nine feet long, twenty- 
 eight feet wide, and eighteen feet high. The north one is two hundred and 
 sixty-four feet long, twenty-eight feet wide, and twenty-five feet high. The east- 
 ern one, one hundred and fifty-eight feet long, thirty-five feet wide, and twenty- 
 two feet high. The western one, one hundred and seventy-three feet long, 
 thirty-five feet wide, and twenty feet high. (Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. 
 IV, p. 174.) The area of the court is two hundred and fourteen feet by two 
 hundred and fiftj'-eight feet. It is about two and a half feet lower than the 
 l)nil(Iings on tlie eastern, western, and southern sides. Tliere are seventy-six 
 rooms in the four ranges of buildings, and twelve more in the facings of the 
 terrace of the north building, to be described. In .size the rooms vary from 
 twenty to thirty feet long by from ten to twelve feet wide. 
 
Rcc:.: m nunnery. 
 
 (KM) 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 637 
 
 stand in quite the same direction as the southern one, which 
 detracts from the symmetry of the whole. It stands on a 
 fourth terrace, twenty feet higher than the others. A grand, 
 but ruined, staircase leads up the cetner of the terrace. ' At 
 each end of this staircase, built against the terrace, could 
 be distinguished the ruins of a small building. There is 
 one unusual feature about the ruins in the eastern building. 
 In general, only two rooms open into each other. In this 
 
 Facade, Southern BTiilding. 
 
 building, however, six rooms form one suite, and, further- 
 more, all the doorways of this suite are decorated with 
 sculpture. As this suite of rooms was evidently a place of 
 interest, we will introduce this illustration, which gives us 
 a good idea of the appearance of the rooms on the inside. We 
 would do well to compare this cut with that of the room in Pu- 
 eblo Bonito (page 471). The arched roof is not a true arch, 
 but simply the triangular arch we have already spoken of. 
 
638 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 The principal attraction about these buildings is the 
 beautiful facades which overlook the court-yard. They are 
 pronounced by all to be the finest examples of native Amer- 
 ican art. With one exception, they are neither complicated 
 nor grotesque, but chaste and artistic. As in the Governor's 
 House, the part below the cornice is plain, but the remain- 
 ing part, both front and rear, is covered with sculpture. 
 On entering the court-yard from the arched gateway of the 
 southern building, we notice that its facade is composed of 
 diamond lattice-work and vertical columns, while over each 
 doorway is something that resembles a house, with a human 
 figure seated in a doorway. This cut represents but a 
 small portion of this facade, but it gives us an idea of the 
 whole. 
 
 The facade of the eastern building was in the best state 
 of preservation of any. We give a section of this also. It 
 
 Fagade, Eastern Building. 
 
 is the most simple in design also. The ornaments over the 
 doorway, shown in the cut, consist of three of those mys- 
 terious masks, with the projecting curved stone, already 
 described. "The ornaments over the other doorways are 
 less striking, more simple, and iiioro ]tloasing. In all of 
 
THE MA YA TRIBES. 
 
 639 
 
 them there is, in the center, a masked face, with the tongue 
 hanging out, surmounted by an elaborate head-dress. Be- 
 tween the horizontal bars is a range of diamond-shaped or- 
 naments, in which the remains of red paint are i;<ill 
 distinctly visible, and at each end of these bars is a ser- 
 pent's head, with the mouth wide open." It is necessary to 
 examine the drawing attentively, to distinguish these fea- 
 tures. Some think the masked face repieseuts the sun. 
 The western facade is known as the Serpent Facade. 
 
 , iuMWni»n»»i(iiiiftiiMniiiii»iiB3n»mitif'i i{im»r,miMmfli»iiir[[tiii iiuiiiininiin mm\lii\. 
 
 Serpent Facade, Western E-ailding. 
 
 It was very much in ruins at the time of Mr. Stephens's 
 visit. When entire, it must have been of great beauty. 
 Two serpents are trailed along the whole front, and by the 
 interlacing of their bodies divide the surface into square 
 panels. In the open mouth of these serpents is sculptured 
 a human head. The panels are filled with ornaments sim- 
 ilar in design to those of the " Governor's House," and 
 among the ornaments of each panel are found one or more 
 human faces, while full-sized figures are not entirely absent. 
 
 This cut represents but a small portion of the facade. It 
 
 39 ' 
 
640 TUE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 gives us, however, an idea of the whole. We notice, over 
 the doorway again, the elephant's trunk ornament. 
 
 The northern building, standing high above the rest, on 
 its own terrace, was doubtless intended to have the grand- 
 est front of all. It was, however, in such a ruined state, 
 and the few remaining fragments so complicated, that no 
 drawings have been given us. Human figures are repre- 
 sented in several places ; two are apparently playing on 
 musical instruments. We recall that at Palenque, the roof 
 of some of the temples bears a cui'ious two-storied work, 
 erected apparently for ornamental purposes. The same in- 
 stinct reappears in this building. At regular intervals along 
 the front they carried the wall above the cornice, forming 
 thirteen turret-like elevations ten feet wide, and seventeen 
 feet high. These turrets Avere also loaded with ornaments. 
 Another curious feature about this building is, that it was 
 erected over, and completely inclosed, a smaller buihling of 
 an older date. Wherever the outer walls have fallen, the 
 ornamented cornice of the inner building is visible. 
 
 When we reflect on tlie patient labor that must have 
 been expended on this pyramid and these buildings, we 
 are filled with admiration for their perseverance and inge- 
 nuity. They had neither domestic animals or metallic tools. 
 The buildings were massively built and richly ornamented. 
 The sculptured portion covers over twenty-four thousand 
 square feet.^ The terraced mound supporting the house 
 ■contained over sixty thousand cubic yards of materials, 
 though this may not bo wholly artificial. To our eyes, as 
 these rooms had neither Avindows nor fire-places, they are 
 not very desirable. But we may be sure that the builders 
 considered them as models of their kind. 
 
 Leaving this interesting ruin, we will now visit one of 
 
 • Bancroft : " Native Races," Vol. IV, p. 179. 
 
THE 31 AY A TRIBES. 
 
 641 
 
 the temples. This is east of the Nunnery, and is marked 
 " D " on the plan. The mound on which this building 
 stands is high enough to overlook the entire field of ruins. 
 This cut represents the eastern side of the mound, up which 
 a flight of stone steps lead to the building on the summit. 
 There are some grounds for supposing a grander staircase, 
 supported on triangular arches, led up the western side. 
 
 The buihling on the top is not large — only seventy-two 
 feet long, and twelve feet wide — and consists of but three 
 rooms, none opening into each other. The front of the 
 
 Temple. Uxmal. 
 
 building, though much ruined, presented an elegant and 
 tasteful appearance. There seems to be no doubt that this 
 temple was the scene of idolatrous worship; perhaps of hu- 
 man sacrifices. In a legal paper which Mr. Stephens saw at 
 Meridia, containing a grant of the lands on which these 
 ruins stand, bearing date 1673, it is expressly stated that 
 the Indians at that time had idols in these ancient buildings, 
 to which, every day, openly and publicly, they burned co- 
 pal. Nor is there any doubt that this was the continuation 
 of an old custom. In the end room of this temple are 
 
642 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 engraved two circular figures which, by some, are considered 
 as proofs of the presence of Phallic worship/ 
 
 The buildings we have described will give us a very 
 good idea of the structures of this ancient city. We have 
 described but a few of them, but we have now only space 
 to make some general observations. We wish to point out 
 some resemblances to the ruins at Palenque. In both, 
 buildings that served as temples were not large, but of 
 small dimensions, and contained but few rooms. They oc- 
 cupy the summits of high pj^ramids. Such was probably 
 the building on the summit of the pyramid at "F" (see 
 plan). The buildings on the top of this pyramid, like that 
 just described, had but three rooms. A very large pyramid 
 is seen at " E." Our information in regard to it is very 
 meager. A square platform was found on the summit. It 
 is not unreasonable to suppose that this platform was in- 
 tended to support a temple. But, before it was erected, 
 the presence of the Spaniards put an end to all native 
 building. There are, howeA^er, no proofs to be advanced in 
 support of this statement; it is a mere suggestion. 
 
 We think the House of the Nuns illustrates the general 
 plan of building employed at both places. That is as fol- 
 lows : They first erected a rectangular pyramid or mound, 
 often terraced. Buildings were then put up parallel to the 
 four sides, thus inclosing a court. At Palenque this court, 
 as we have seen, was built over. Besides the House of 
 Nuns, there are several other instances at Fxmal of courts 
 with buildings on their sides. Looking at the plan, we see 
 one at " G," and a still more ruined one bctw^ecn that and 
 
 ' The dimonsions of this mound are as follows: Lon<rtli of base, two hnn- 
 (Irod and Ihirty-Cve foot; width of b:isp, one hundred and five feet; heiu'lit, 
 ei}j;lity-ei<rht feet. Thou^di diminishing as it rises, it is not exactly pyramidal, 
 but its corners are rounded. It is incased with stone, and is apparently solid 
 from the plain.— Stephens's "Yucatan," Vol. I, p. ;?1(). 
 
THE MA YA TRIBES. 643 
 
 " F." Such a court, with traces of ruined buildings, also 
 exists between the nunnery and the temple, at "D." It is 
 not improbable that groups of low ruins existing to the 
 the westward of the structures described would be found, 
 on examination, to reveal the same arrangements. 
 
 As for the grand terraced pyramid supporting the Gov- 
 ernor's House, it may well be that other buildings would 
 have been added in process of time, as population increased. 
 It is not necessary to suppose they erected all the buildings 
 around a court at once. It seems very reasonable to sup- 
 pose the northern building of the House of Nuns the oldest. 
 The direction is not quite the same as the others; it stands 
 on a higher terrace; and, furthermore, the present exterior 
 walls are simply built around the older building. It may 
 be, however, that the great terraced mound of the Governor's 
 House was intended to support but one building. As there 
 is the. best of reason for supposing that Uxmal was inhab- 
 ited at the time of the conquest, there is nothing to forbid 
 the conclusion that the erection of pyramids, temples, and 
 buildings was still going on. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, which formed such an interesting feature 
 at Palenque, are here almost entirely wanting. A few rows 
 occur around the head of the figure over the principal door- 
 way of the Governor's House. They are of the same gen- 
 eral character as those already described, but are " more 
 rich, elaborate, and complicated." As to the probable an- 
 tiquity of these ruins, we must defer consideration until we 
 become more acquainted with the ruinsv of Yucatan. 
 
 The places we have now described will make us ac- 
 quainted with the general character of the ruins scattered 
 all over Yucatan. We do not feel as if we would be justi- 
 fied in dwelling at any great length over the remainder, 
 though one or two important places must be mentioned. A 
 
644 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 word as to the frequency with which the ruins occur. We 
 want to repeat that Yucatan, even to this day, is far from 
 being thoroughly explored. Almost our only source of in- 
 formation is the writings of Mr. Stephens. But he only 
 described a few places. In a trip of thirty-nine miles he 
 took in a westerly direction from Uxmal he saw no less 
 than seven different groups of ruins. Some of these, though 
 in a very dilapidated state, presented points of great inter- 
 est. When he started he knew of but few of those ruins. 
 Some he heard of quite by accident while on his way, and 
 some he first saw as he journeyed along the road. We 
 must suppose the whole country equally well supplied. 
 
 After he had left Uxmal for good, at the village of 
 Nochahab (see map), a little inquiry brought him information 
 of so many ruins that he did not have time to visit them all. 
 As to the question of use to which these buildings were 
 applied, we must either suppose they had an immense num- 
 ber of temples and palaces — one or the other every feu- 
 miles — or else they were the residences of the people them- 
 selves. And, though it may seem very strange that an 
 imperfectly developed people should ornament so profusely 
 and delicately their ordinary places of abode,^ yet it is diffi- 
 cult to understand why they should rear such an abundance 
 of temples and palaces. 
 
 At Kabah (see map) Mr. Stephens found a most interest- 
 ing field of ruins, rivaling Uxmal in extent, if not surpassing 
 it. One group of buildings, arranged much like the House 
 of Nuns, has some interesting features about it. The iiigh- 
 est terrace in this case is nearly square, and the building on 
 its summit is nearly the same shape. We have here two 
 rows of double rooms, separated by a middle wall, very mas- 
 sive, as if two of the typical Maya buildings had been 
 
 'See "Proceedings Am. Antiq. Society," April, 1880, p. 57. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 645 
 
 placed back to back. The front of this building was elab- 
 orately ornamented. In all the buildings at Uxmal the part 
 above the cornice only was ornamented. Here the entire 
 front was covered with carved stone. To make room for 
 further ornaments the roof bore an additional appendage, 
 like the second story of the Palenque temples. This 
 building must have presented a wonderful appearance when 
 entire. 
 
 Another feature at this place has reference to the pyra- 
 mid. We are familiar with the idea of a terraced mound 
 supporting buildings. In one of these Kabah structures the 
 buildings are arranged iu a different and suggestive way. 
 That is, the pyramid was terraced off. There were three 
 ranges of buildings, the roof of one range forming a prom- 
 enade in front of the other. In another of the Kabah struc- 
 tures was found a wooden lintel, elegantly carved. Mr. 
 Stephens tells us the lines were clear and distinct, and liie 
 cutting, under any test, and without any reference to the 
 people by whom it was executed, would be considered as in- 
 dicating great skill and proficiency in the art of carving on 
 wood. At the expense of a great deal of hard work, he 
 succeeded in getting this lintel out and removed to New 
 York, where it was unfortunately destroyed by fire. 
 
 They worked stone to better advantage at Kabah than at 
 Uxmal. For the first time we meet with lintels of stone 
 and a doorway with carved jambs. The lintels were sup- 
 ported in the center by a pillar. The pillars were rude and 
 unpolished, but they were not out of proportion, and, in 
 fact, were adapted to the lowness of the building. We will 
 only mention one more structure. This is a lonely arch, of 
 the same form as all the rest, having a span of fourteen feet. 
 It stands on a ruined mound, disconnected from every other 
 structure, in solitary grandeur. "Darkness rests upon its 
 
646 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 history, but in that desolation and solitude, among the ruins 
 around, it stood like the proud memorial of a Roman tri- 
 umph." There was the usual pyramid with a temple. In a 
 plan given of the field of ruins seventeen groups are seen, 
 and, without a doubt, many more exist in the immediate 
 forest. 
 
 M. Charney has of late years made a discovery which 
 conclusively shows that this was an inhabited place at the 
 
 Aroh, Kabah. 
 
 time of the conquest. In a room as ruined as the rest he 
 discovered the stucco figure of a horse and its rider. They 
 are formed after the Indian manner by an inexperienced 
 hand guided by an over-excited imagination. Both figures 
 are easily recognized. The horse has on its trappings. 
 We can see the stirrups. The man wears his cuirass. We 
 all know what astonishment the appearance of men on horse- 
 

 
 "S^-^^^ 
 
 
 ^x,^^ 
 
 
 
 
 K X 
 
 
 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 649 
 
 back produced among the Iiidiuus, and so we are not at 
 a loss to divine the cause which led to the construction of 
 this figure. We must remember Mr. Stephens was hurried 
 for time. Portions of this figure were mutilated, and other 
 portions had been covered over by a layer of stucco, which 
 Charney had to remove before the figure could be distinctly 
 made out.^ 
 
 Within, a radius of ten miles from Kabah are located no 
 less than six so-called cities. The general appearance of all 
 is the same — low ranges of buildings on terraced mounds, 
 and ornamented facades. One of these places, by the name 
 of Zayi, is of interest to us, because it gives us a hint as 
 
 Scale of Feet. 
 
 50 40 so 20 10 "o 
 
 u_: \ ; L_j 
 
 50 
 
 ! 
 
 Plan of Zayi. (Bureuu of Ethnologj-.) 
 
 to how these people constructed their buildings. Amongst 
 other buildings they found one large terraced mound, with 
 buildings arranged on it in a very significant manner. There 
 were three ranges of buildings, one over the other — the roof 
 of one range on a level with the foundation of the range 
 above. A grand stair-way led up the mound. This fea- 
 ture is illustrated in the plate opposite. We cnn imagine 
 whnt a grand appearance must have been presented by 
 
 ^ NortJi American HevievK IS82. 
 
650 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. , 
 
 this great terraced mound, when its buildings were all per- 
 fect. 
 
 The plan of this mound and buildings is shown in the 
 last cut. Ten rooms on the north side of the second rancc 
 presented a curious feature. They were all filled up with 
 a solid muss of stone and mortar, and this filling up must 
 have gone on as fost as the walls rose, and the arche(] 
 ceiling must have closed over a solid mass. A very reason- 
 able explanation is given of this state of things by Mr. 
 Morgan.^ He considers that such was the rudeness of mechan- 
 ical knowledge among these people that the only way they 
 could construct their peculiar arched roof was to build it over 
 an internal core of masonry. Once put together over such 
 a core, and carried up several feet, the down weight of the 
 arch would articulate and hold the mass together. Then the 
 core of masonry would be cleaned out, and the room was 
 ready for use. If this be true, it follows that these rooms 
 were the last erected. They were not yet cleared out when 
 the operations of the Spaniards put an end to all native 
 building. We must notice the structures at Zayi are in as 
 ruined a condition as the others — thus strengthening the 
 conviction that their abandonment was at about tbe time of 
 the conquest of the peninsula. 
 
 We have not space to follow Mr. Stephens in all his 
 journey. Every few miles he came across one of these pe- 
 culiar structures. A common design is apparent in all; but 
 all are alike enveloped in mystery. At Labna he found an 
 extensive field of ruins, equal in importance to any in Yu- 
 catiin. The next illustration represents an arched gate-way, 
 which reminds us of that in llu^ "House of Nuns." Pass- 
 ing through this he found hiinscdf in a ruined court y;inl, 
 fronting which were the remains of buildings; but tins was 
 
 '"Contrilxitibns to North American Kthnology," Vol. IV, n 2(17. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 651 
 
 only one of many groups of ruins, and Labna was but one 
 of many places visited. At Labphak Mr. Stephens found 
 " the tottering remains of the grandest structure that now 
 rears its ruined head in the forests of Yucatan." This was 
 a terraced mound, faced by buildings on three sides, leaving 
 an immense stair-way occupying the fourth side. 
 
 Small interior stair-ways are mentioned in this building, 
 but no particular description is given of them. At two 
 
 ■^t'sc"^^ 
 
 Gateway at Labna. 
 
 places sculptured tablets were found. These tablets are 
 worthy of notice. They were the only ones Mr. Stephens 
 found, except at Palenque. It will be seen, on the map, 
 that this ruin is nearer Palenque than any of the places in 
 Yucatan yet described. Stucco ornaments, so apparent at the 
 latter place, were now becoming numerous again. At Uxmal 
 stone for building could be had in the greatest abundance — it 
 was not as plenty here. The builders, apparently, adapted 
 their ornamentation to the material at hand ; and, while at 
 
652 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Palenque they employed stucco in ornament, at Uxmal they 
 carved stone.^ 
 
 We must now leave this interesting section of Yucatan, 
 though only a few places have been mentioned. The reader 
 is well aware of the difference of opinion with which these 
 ruins are viewed. Some of them are unquestionably tem- 
 ples. If we regard the others as palaces and the public 
 buildings of great cities, we are at once puzzled to account 
 for their great numbers. If we look on the majority of 
 them as communal residences of the inhabitants, we are 
 amazed at the mass of decorations with which they are 
 adorned. But our admiration stops there — we are accus- 
 tomed to speak of them as stately edifices. This is owing 
 to their exterior ornaments, and their position on terraced 
 mounds. The houses are often of great length, but not 
 striking in other regards. The rooms, in the majority of cases, 
 are small, low, dark, and ill ventilated. A great amount 
 of useless labor was bestowed upon the walls, which were 
 unnecessarily massive. 
 
 Near the center of the northern part of the peninsula 
 is seen a place marked Chichen, to which is generally 
 added the word Itza, making the entire name of the phice 
 Chichen-itza. In this case the ancient Maya name has come 
 down to us with the ruins — Chichen meaning the "mouth 
 of wells," having reference to two springs which supplied 
 the place with water. Itza is the name of a branch of the 
 Maya people. This place is of interest to us in several 
 ways. It was, unquestionably, a renowned city in aborig- 
 inal times. Here the Spaniards met with a very severe re- 
 pulse. As a ruin it attracted the attention of early writers, 
 and it has been the subject of antiquarian research in re- 
 cent times. The description of the buildings will not do- 
 1 Stephens's " Yiioafan," Vol. II, p. 164. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 653 
 
 tain us long. They are, evidently, the work of the same 
 people as those whose structures we have already de- 
 scribed. 
 
 One of the most important buildings is known as the 
 Nunnery, reminding us at once of the collection of buildings 
 of that name at Uxmal. In this case, however, the pyramid 
 is represented by a solid mass of masonry one hundred and 
 twelve by one hundred and sixtj^ feet, rising with perpen- 
 dicular sides to the height of thirty-two feet. This is seen 
 to be a departure from the method of constructing pyramids 
 hitherto described. The proprietor of the estate on whose 
 grounds these ruins are located used this mound as a stone- 
 quarry. An excavation of thirty feet revealed no secret 
 chambers. 
 
 The probabilities are that it is solid throughout. A 
 grand staircase, fifty-six feet wide, leads up to the top of 
 this mound. Mr. Stephens tells us that three ranges of 
 buildings occupied the summit, and his drawings represent 
 the same. The roof of the one forms a promenade in front 
 of the one above. So each range of buildings rests on a 
 foundation solid from the ground. Mr. Bancroft describes 
 this mound as having but two ranges of buildings on the 
 summit. Of these buildings the second range was, seem- 
 ingly, the most important. Several of its rooms contained 
 niches in the back wall, extending from floor to ceiling. 
 From traces still visible, they were once covered with 
 painted ornaments. One of the rooms was fifty-seven feet 
 long and nine wide. 
 
 In the rear wall of this room were nine of these niches. 
 "All of the walls of this room, from the floor to the peak 
 of the arch, had been covered with painted designs, now 
 wantonly defaced, but the remains of which present colors, 
 in some places, still bright and vivid; and among these re- 
 
654 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 mains detached portions of human figures continually reap- 
 pear, well drawn, the heads adorned with plumes of feathers, 
 and the hands bearing shields and spears." To this pile of 
 masonry, at one end, a wing had been attached. This buihl- 
 ing was similar in design to other buildings in Yucat.-in. 
 Theoretically we would expect this wing to be much later 
 iu time than the buildings on the mound. That it is so, is 
 prroven by the fact that in two rooms the internal core of ma- 
 sonry, as described at Zayi, had not been wholly I'emoved. 
 
 We have noticed in all these structures, the builders 
 first threw up a mound or pyramid to support the building. 
 In one of the Chichen edifices the earth had been excavated 
 from all around it, so as to still present the appearance of a 
 mound. Perhaps the most prominent object at this place is 
 a stately pyramid, with an imposing building, represented 
 in the plate opposite. The mound itself is nearly two hun- 
 dred feet square, and rises to the height of seventy-five 
 feet. On the west and north sides are ruined staircases. 
 
 On the ground, at the foot of the stairway on the north 
 side, "forming a bold, striking, and well conceived com- 
 mencement to this lofty range, are two colossal serpents' 
 heads, ten feet in length, with mouths wide open, and 
 tongues protruding. No doubt they were emblematic of 
 some religious belief, and, in the mind of an imaginative 
 people passing between them, to ascend the steps, must 
 have excited feelings of solemn awe." The temple on the 
 summit of this pyramid has some peculiar features about it. 
 It is nearly square — forty-three by forty-nine feet — only 
 one door in each side. In the room within, instead of par- 
 tition walls supporting arches, were two immense beams, 
 resting on square pillars, and supporting two arches — the 
 only instance in the ruins of Yucatan of such use of l)oanis. 
 
 We now wish to speak of one class of ruins which are 
 
?y^'^ 
 
 ■ n 
 
 ^ \\\\V\\«««,\A 
 
 •C <.-%'?a'Tr^- 
 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 657 
 
 present at Uxmal, but which we did not describe. They 
 are two parallel walls. On the plan of Uxmal they are 
 noticed between the Governor's House and the House of 
 Nuns. This illustration represents this feature. These 
 walls are each two hundred and seventy-four feet long, 
 thirty feet thick, and twenty-six feet high. The distance 
 separating them is one hundred and twenty feet. About 
 one hundred feet from the north end, is seen a building 
 fronting the open space between the walls. A building 
 
 Gymnasmm, at Chiohen-Itza 
 
 stood in a like position at the south end. In the cut a 
 stone ring is seen projecting from ench side. On the rim 
 and border of these rings were sculptured two serpents, rep- 
 resented on page 658. The general supposition is that this 
 structure was used in the celebration of public games. Mr. 
 Stephens refers us to the writings of Herrera, an early his- 
 torian, for a description of a game of ball played at Mex- 
 ico, where the surroundings must have been much the same 
 as is here represented. 
 
 Most of the structures in Yucatan have been left in un- 
 disturbed quiet since the visit of Mr. Stephens. Five 
 years after his visit, the Indians rose in revolt, and a large 
 portion of country through which he traveled in perfect 
 
658 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 safety has, since then, been shvmned by cautious travelers. 
 As he says, " For a brief space the stilhiess that reigned 
 around them was broken, and they were again left to soli- 
 tude and silence." At Uxnial, and some places near the 
 coast, more recent travelers have investigated the ruins, 
 wondered over them, and passed on, without materially add- 
 ing to our knowledge respecting them. In 1873 a French 
 scientist, Dr. A. Le Plongon, accompanied b}^ his wife, visited 
 
 Yucatan for the 
 purpose of ex- 
 jdoring the ruins. 
 They spent a 
 year in Meridia, 
 thoroughly 
 studying the cus- 
 toms of the coun- 
 tiy, and prepar- 
 ing for work 
 
 Their first field 
 of work was (his 
 ancient citv, Chi- 
 chen-Itza. As 
 a result, he lays 
 before us a jiic- 
 ture of life and times not only vastly remote from us, but 
 surpassing in wonder any thing hitherto presented. In (he 
 field of American antiquities we need scarcely be surjuised 
 at whatever conclusions are presented to us. We believe, 
 however, we are not too harsh in saying that scholars, as a 
 rule, consider Le Plongon as too much carried away by en- 
 thusiasm to judge coolly of his discoveries.^ The most im- 
 
 Ring. 
 
 ' Short'."? "North Americans of Antiquity," p. 306; Charney: North Amer- 
 ican Review, October, 1880. 
 
THE MAYA TBIBES. 659 
 
 portant part of his discoveries seem to have been in the 
 buildings in connection with the Gymnasium last described. 
 
 At the time of the Spanish conquest, a very common 
 tradition among the natives was that, in ancient times, 
 three brothers governed the country. This legend of three 
 rulers in olden times, was not peculiar to the Mayas, but 
 was found among all the Indian nations of Central America/ 
 In our opinion this last statement at once shows we have 
 here to deal with a question belonging to mythology and 
 not to history. But M. Le Plongon considers the buildings 
 at Chichen, especially those of the Gymnasium, illustrative 
 of the lives of the three brothers, and of the queen of one 
 of them. In brief, he tells us the names of these three 
 brothers were, Chaac-Mol, Huuncay, and Aac. The first of 
 these, Chaac-Mol, means Tiger King. It was he who raised 
 Chichen-Itza to the height of its glory. M. Le Plongon 
 would have us believe that the merchants of Asia and Af- 
 rica traded in its marts, and that the wise men of the world 
 came hither to consult with the H-men,^ whose convent, to- 
 gether with their astronomical laboratory, is still to be seen. 
 Aac was the younger brother of the three. He conspired 
 against the life of Chaac-Mol, and finally killed him. The 
 queen of Chaac-Mol then erected the buildings around the 
 Gymnasium as his memorial. 
 
 At the south end of the eastern wall Mr. Stephens no- 
 ticed two ruined buildings, an upper and a lower one, of 
 ■ which our next cut is a representation. He was struck with 
 the remains of painting, which entirely covered the walls. He 
 tells us the walls were everywhere covered with designs in 
 painting;, representing, in bright and vivid colors, human fig- 
 ures, battles, houses, trees, and scenes of domestic life. We 
 
 > " Proceedings Am. Antiq. Society," Oct., 1878, p. 73. 
 
 ^ Learned men of the Mayas. 
 
 40 
 
660 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 give, in a plate, detached portions of these figures. We 
 must understand that, in the original, these were beautifully 
 colored. The colors used were "green, yellow, red, blue, 
 and reddish brown, the last being invariably the color given 
 to human flesh." (Page 661.) 
 
 Building at end of Gymnar-lum. 
 
 M, Le Plon,s:on contends that these paintings represent 
 rpcenes in the lives of the three brothers and the Queen of 
 Chanc-Mol, "in the fnnernl chaniber." Snys he: "The ter- 
 rible altercation between Anc nnd Chnnc-I\Iol. which hnd its 
 termination in the murder of the latter by his brother, is 
 
THE MA YA TRIBES. 
 
 661 
 
 represented by large figures three-fourths life size."^ And 
 ill another place he tells us: "The scenes of his death i^ 
 impressively portrayed on the walls, which the queen caused 
 to be raised to the memory of her husband, in the two ex- 
 quisite rooms, the ruins of which are yet to be seen upon 
 the south end of the east wall of the Gymnasium. The 
 rooms were a shrine where the conjugal love of the queen 
 worshiped the memory of her departed lover. She adorned 
 
 Painted Stxieeo-work. 
 
 the outer walls with his effigies, his totem-tiger, and his 
 shield and coat-of-arms between tiger and tiger ;^ whilst on 
 the admirably polished stucco, that covers the stones in t^e 
 interior of the rooms, she had his deeds — his and her own 
 life, in fact — painted in beautiful, life-like designs, superbly 
 drawn, and sweetly colored."^ ; 
 
 He tells us, further, that Aac, after the commission of 
 
 ' American Antiquarian Society, October 1878. ■ 
 
 ' The tigers can be seen on the engraving of the gymnasium. (Page 660.) 
 ' Proceedings American Antiquarian Society, April, 1877, p. 97. 
 
iGG2 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Shis- crime, fled to Uxmal for protection, where he built the 
 •edifice described as the "Governor's House." The seated 
 figures over the central door-way (see page 630), he says, 
 represents Aac. In the hieroglyphics around the head he 
 ■ finds the name. Although neither Mr. Stephens nor the 
 other travelers mention any thing of the kind, he says that, 
 sunder the feet of this ficrure, "are to be seen the bodies of 
 ■three figures, two men and one woman, flayed."^ Though 
 
 Qneen Consulting the H-men. 
 
 the figures are headless, he has no doubt but that they rep- 
 resent Hiuincay, Chanc-mol, and the queen, his wife. We 
 are further told that the ruined strncture on the second ter- 
 race, called the " House of Turtles," was Aac's private res- 
 idence. 
 
 This wonderful story of the lives and adventures of the 
 three brotliers was revealed to the doctor by a careful study 
 
 'Proceedings American Antiquarian Society, .\])ril, 1S77, p. 101. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 663 
 
 of the detached painting mentioned by Mr. Stephens. Ono 
 of the paintings which served hiui so good a turn is shown 
 in the cut opposite, which he considers represents the queen, 
 when a child, consulting one of the wise men as to her 
 future destiny.^ 
 
 Perhaps as interesting a portion of his discoveries as 
 any, is finding sculptured figures of bearded white men on 
 the pillars of the temple, and painted on the walls of Chaao- 
 mol's chambers. He thinks they have Assyrian features. 
 He also claims to have discovered figures having true Negro 
 features. 
 
 As to the antiquity of this city he readily figures up 
 nineteen thousand years; but this did not take him to the 
 beginning. He arrives at this estimate in this way: To (lie 
 north-east of the pyramid, we have described, are to bo 
 seen rows of small columns, which have excited the curios- 
 ity of all who have seen them. Mr. Stephens represents 
 them in four rows, inclosing a rectangular area. M. Le 
 Plongon says they surrounded three sides of a terraced 
 pyramid, which once supported the main temple of the city. 
 Mr. Stephens has no suggestions to offer as to their use. 
 
 Le Plongon claims they were used to measure time, and 
 quotes from old authors to the effect, that each stone in 
 them stands for twenty years; and, as there is always just 
 eight stones in a column, each column means one hundred 
 and sixty years. He counted one hundred and twenty of 
 these columns — and then, as he says: "Got tired of pushing 
 my way through the nearly impenetrable thicket, where I 
 could see many more among the shrubs." From this num- 
 ber he computes nineteen thousand two hundred years. 
 
 ' M. Le Plongon interprets the curved figures issuing from the throat of the 
 wise-mnn. In the original, different parts of this figure were of different 
 colors. The doctor frankly tells us, that "imagination does the greater part 
 of the work" in his interpretation. 
 
664 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 What shall we say to this story that M. Le Plongon 
 l^rings us of ancient Maya civilization ? It is unquestioned 
 that he has expended a great amount of patient labor in his 
 work, has braved many dangers, and is thoroughly in ear- 
 nest. He has also spent years in the field, and ought to be 
 well qualified to judge of the ruins. We believe, however, 
 ^e is altogether wrong in his conclusions. The keystone of 
 his discoveries — the one on which he relies to prove the ac- 
 curacy of his methods — fails him. This was the discovery 
 
 of the statue of 
 Chaac-mol himself, 
 which is here rep- 
 resented. He claims 
 to have found it as 
 the result of suc- 
 cessfully rendering 
 certain mural tab- 
 »S2S- lets in the funeral 
 chamber, but a care- 
 "^^^==-"^^^ "^ ful reading of his own 
 
 °^^^=-'^°^ account of the affair 
 
 leaves us under the impression that the " instincts of the 
 archaeologist" had as much to do with it as any thing else.^ 
 Be that as it may, he certainly did find this stjitue 
 buried in the ground. He is very positive it is Chaac-mol, 
 claiming to have read the name readily in hieroglyphics on 
 the ear-tablets. He says: "It is not an idol, but a true 
 portrait of a man who has lived an earthly life. I have 
 seen him represented in battle, in council, and in court re- 
 ceptions. I am well acquainted with his life, and the man. 
 
 ' " Guided, as I have said, by my interpretations of the mural paintings, 
 bas-reliefs, and other .sijrns, ... I directed my steps, perliaps inspired by 
 the instincts of tlic archaeolopist, to a dense part of the thicket." Proceed- 
 ings Am. Antiq. Society, April, 1877, p. 85. 
 
THE MAYA TRIBES. 
 
 665 
 
 ner of his death." This statue was seized by the Mexican 
 Government, and taken to Mexico. Here a curious discov- 
 ery was made. Another statue similar to this was already 
 in the museum. This latter had been found not far from 
 Mexico. Since then, still a third, smaller than the others, 
 but evidently representing the same personage, has been 
 discovered. In short, it has been shown that this is an 
 idol, worshiped as well by the Astecs as by the Mayas, and, 
 
 Bearded Itza. 
 
 instead of being buried, as Le Plongon asserts, five thou- 
 sand years ago, we have not much doubt it was buried to 
 prevent its falling into the hands of the Spaniards.^ 
 
 As to the antiquity with which Le Plongon would 
 clothe Chichen, if his method be riiiht, he has not more 
 than made a beginning. Mr. Stej)hens counted three hun- 
 dred and eighty of these same columns, and tells us there 
 were many more.^ We know no good reason for supposing 
 Chichen was not inhabited at the time of the conquest. 
 
 ^ Korth Anirriran Rerirw, October, 1880. And yet there are indioations 
 that this is a statue. See Banrielier's "Archaeological Tour in Mexico," p. 74. 
 2 Stephens's " Yuen tan," Vol. IT, p. 318. 
 
666 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 The wooden beams and lintels in the temples have not yet 
 decayed, and the masonry had not been cleaned out of some 
 of the rooms. On this point we wish to make a suggestion, 
 a mere hint. The pillars that supported the arches in the 
 temple mentioned some pages back were covered with sculp- 
 ture. Amongst some others, but very faintly represented, 
 was the preceding figure of a bearded man. May it not be 
 that it represents a Spaniard? We must recall the stucco 
 figure of the horse and its rider at Kabah. It seems to us 
 a reasonable suggestion that they should carve on the pil- 
 lars of their temples representations of the Spaniards, for 
 the Spaniards were twenty-five years in gaining a perma- 
 nent foothold in Yucatan, and during that time the Indians 
 would continue to build and ornament as before. 
 
 ARIZONA RUIN 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 
 
 667 
 
 THE CULTURE OF THE CIYILIZED TRIBES.^ 
 
 Different views ou this question — Reason for the same — Their archi- 
 tecture — Different styles of houses — The communal house — The 
 tecpan — The teocalli — State of society indicated by this architec- 
 ture — The gens among the Mexicans — The phratry among the Mex- 
 icans — The tribe — The j^owers and duties of the council — The head 
 chiefs of the tribe — The duties of the " Chief-of-men " — The mistake 
 of the Spaniards — The Confederacy — The idea of property among 
 the Mexicans — The ownership of land — Their laws — Enforcement 
 of the laws — Outline of the growth of the Mexicans in power — 
 Their tribute system — How collected — Their system of trade — 
 Slight knowledge of metallurgy — Religion— Quietzalcohuatl — Huitz- 
 ilopochtli — Mexican priestliood — Human sacrifices — The system of 
 Numeration — The calendar system — The calendar stone — Picture 
 writing — Landa alphabet — Historical outline. 
 
 LANDSCAPE presents varied aspects ac- 
 cording to the standpoint from which 
 it is viewed. Here we have a glimpse 
 of hill and dale; there a stretch of 
 running water. But two persons, stand- 
 ing in the same position, owing to 
 their different mental temperaments, 
 will view things in a different light. 
 Where one, an artist born, is carried away with the beauti- 
 ful scenery, another, with a more practical turn of mind, 
 perceives only its ndaptability for investments. Education- 
 
 ' The manuscript of this chapter was submitted to A. F. Bandelier for 
 criticism. The part bearins nn religion was subsequently rewritten. Absence 
 from the country prevented his examining it. 
 
668 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 and habits of life are also very potent factors in determin- 
 ing oui- views on various questions. Scholars of wide and 
 extended learning differ very greatly in their views of 
 questions deeply affecting human interests. We know how 
 true that is of abstruse topics, such as religion and ques- 
 tions of state polity. It is also true of the entire field of 
 scientific research. The unknown is a vastly greater do- 
 main than the known, and men, after deep and patient re- 
 search, adopt widely different theories to explain the same 
 facts. 
 
 It need, therefore, occasion no surprise to learn that 
 there is a great difference of opinion as to the real state of 
 culture among the so-called civilized tribes of Mexico and 
 Central America. We have incidentally mentioned this dif- 
 ference in describing the ruins and their probable purpose. 
 As one of the objects we have in view, and perhaps the 
 most important one, is to learn what we can of the real 
 state of society amongst the prehistoric people we treat of, 
 it becomes necessary to examine these different views, and, 
 if we can not decide in our own minds what to accept as 
 true, we will be prepared to receive additional evidence 
 that scholars are now bringing forward, and know to how 
 weigh them and compare them with others. 
 
 It has only been within the last few years that we have 
 gained an insight into the peculiar organization of Indian 
 society. After some centuries of contact between the va- 
 rious tribes of Indians and whites, their social organization 
 was still unknown. But we are now beginning to under- 
 stand this, and the important discovery has also been made 
 that this same system of government was very widely 
 spread, indeed. This subject has, however, been as exten- 
 sively treated as is necessary in chapter xii, so wo need 
 not stop longer. But if, with all the light of modern learn- 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 669 
 
 ing, we have only lately gained a clear understanding of the 
 social organization of Indian tribes, it need occasion no sur- 
 prise, nor call for any indignant denial, to affirm that the 
 Spaniards totally misunderstood the social organization of 
 the tribes with which they came in contact in Mexico. 
 
 We must also take into consideration the political condi- 
 tion of Europe at this time. Feudalism still exercised an 
 influence on men's minds. The Spanish writers, in order to 
 convey to Europeans a knowledge of the country and its 
 inhabitants, applied European names and phrases to Ameri- 
 can Indian (advanced though they were) personages and in- 
 stitutions. But the means employed totally defeated the 
 object sought. Instead of imparting a clear idea, a very 
 erroneous one was conveyed. 
 
 As an illustration of this abuse of language, we might 
 refer to the case of Montezuma, which name itself is a cor- 
 ruption of the Mexican word " Motecu-zoma," meaning liter- 
 ally "my wrathy chief." Mr. Bandelier ^ and Mr. Morgan 
 have quite clearly shown what his real position was. His 
 title was "chief of men."^ He was simply one of the two 
 chief executive officers of the tribe and general of the 
 forces of the confederacy. His office was strictly elective, 
 and he could be deposed for misdemeanor. Instead of giv- 
 ing him his proper title, and explaining its meaning, the 
 Spaniards bestowed on him the title of king, which was 
 soon enlarged to that of emperor, European words, it will 
 
 * Mr. Bandelier is the author of three essays on the culture of the ancient 
 Mexicans. These are published in Volume II of " Peahody Museum Reports." 
 We wish to make a general reference to these essays. They are invalnnhle to 
 the student. Every position is sustained by numerous quotations from the 
 early writers. In order to save constant references to them, we will here state 
 that, unless other authorities are given for striking .statements as to the culture 
 of th'» Mi^xicans. their social organizations, etc., it is understood that our au- 
 thority is found in these essfiys. 
 
 2 In Mexican, " Tlaca-tecuhtli." 
 
670 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 be observed, which convey an altogether -wrong idea of 
 Mexican society. Many such illustrations could be given. 
 
 The literature that has grown up about this subject is 
 very voluminous, but the authors not being acquainted with 
 the organization of Indian society, have not been able to 
 write understandingly about them. We do not flatter our- 
 selves that we have now solved all the difficulties of the 
 case. But since Mr. Morgan has succeeded in throwing 
 such a flood of light on the constitution of ancient society, 
 and especially of Indian society, and Mr. Bandelier has 
 given us the results of his careful investigation of the cul- 
 ture of the Mexicans, we feel that a foundation has been 
 laid for a correct understanding of this vexed problem. 
 
 We will now examine their architecture, or stvle of 
 building. In dealing with prehistoric people, we have sev- 
 eral times referred to the tribal state of government, in- 
 volving village life and communism in living. We have 
 seen how this principle enabled us to understand the con- 
 dition of Europe during the Neolithic Age. In still another 
 place we have used this principle to show the connection of 
 the Pueblo Indians and other tribes of the United States. 
 Now we think this is the key which is to explain many of the 
 ruins we have described in the preceding chapter. But an- 
 other principle to be borne in mind, is that of defense. 
 War, we have seen, is really the normal state of things 
 amongst tribal communities. Therefore, either some posi- 
 tion naturally strong must be selected as a village site, or 
 the houses themselves must be fortified, after the fashion 
 of Indians. This will be found to explain many peculiari- 
 ties in their method of construction. 
 
 Amongst the pueblo structures of to-day, and among the 
 ruins of the cliff-dwellers, we have seen ho\V compact every 
 thing was. The estufa, or place of council nnd worship, 
 
THE CULTURE OF'tHE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 671 
 
 was built in close proximity to the other building, and 
 sometimes it formed part of it, and we do not learn that 
 there was any thing distinguishing about the apartments of 
 the chief. Further South a change is noticed. A special- 
 ization of structures, if we may use such an expression, 
 has taken place, and, among the Mexicans, three kinds of 
 houses were distinguished. It is extremely probable the 
 same classification could be made elsewhere. There was, 
 first of all, the ordinary dwelling houses. Every vestige of 
 aboriginal buildings in the pueblos of Mexico has long since 
 disappeared, and our knowledge of these structures can only 
 be gathered from the somewhat confused accounts of the 
 early writers. 
 
 Many, perhaps most, of the houses had a terraced, pyra- 
 midal foundation. Some were constructed on three sides of 
 a court, like those on the Rio Chaco, in New Mexico. Others 
 probably surrounded an open court, or quadrangle. The 
 houses were of one and two stories in height. When two 
 stories, the upper one receded from the first, probably in the 
 terraced form. As serving to connect them with the more 
 ornamental structures in Yucatan, we are told they were 
 sometimes "adorned with elegant cornices and stucco de- 
 signs of flowers and animals, which were often painted with 
 brilliant colors. Prominent among these figures was the 
 coiling serpent."^ After pointing out, by many citations, 
 that the evidence always was that these houses were occu- 
 pied by many families, Mr. Morgan concludes, "They were 
 evidently joint tenement-houses of the aboriginal American 
 model, each occupied by a number of families ranging from 
 five and ten to one hundred, and perhaps, in some cases, 
 two hundred families in a house. "^ 
 
 1 Bancroft's " Native P.aces," Vol. II, p. 572. 
 
 ' ''Contribution to North American Etiinology," Vol. IV, p. 229. 
 
672 THE PREHISTO'RIC WORLD. 
 
 We can discern this kind of dwelling-house in many of 
 the descriptions we have given of the ruins in the i)receding 
 chapter. M. Charney evidently found them at Tiilla and 
 Teotihuacan. Mr. Bandelier concludes that similar ruins 
 once crowded the terraces at Cholula, and that to this class 
 belongs the ruins at Mitla. The Palace, at Palenque, is 
 evidently but another instance, as well as the House of 
 Nuns, at Uxmal. In fact, Avith our present knowledge of 
 the pueblos of Arizona, and the purposes which they sub- 
 served, as well as the uses made of such houses hy the 
 Mexicans, we are no longer justified in bestowing upon the 
 structures in Yucatan the name of palaces. 
 
 The mistake was excusable among the Spaniards. They 
 were totally ignorant of the mode of life indicated by these 
 joint tenement-houses. When they found one of these 
 large structures, capable of accommodating several hundred 
 occupants, with its inner court, terraced foundation, and 
 ornamented by stucco work, or sculpture, it was extremely 
 natural that they should call it a palace, and cast about for 
 some titled owner. 
 
 A second class of houses includes public buildings. The 
 Mexicans, when at the height of their power, required 
 buildings for public use, nnd this was doubtless true of the 
 people who inhabited Uxmal and Palenque. The most im- 
 portant house was the tecpan, the official house of the 
 tribe, the council house proper. This was the official resi- 
 dence of the ''chief of men" and his assistants, such as 
 runners. This was the ])lace of meeting of the council 
 of chiefs. It was here that the hospitality of the Pueblo 
 was exercised. Official visitors from other tribes and traders 
 from a distance were provided with accommodations here. 
 When Cortez and his followers entered Mexico Ihoy were 
 provided for at the tecpan. We would not expect to find 
 
THE CULT VIE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 673 
 
 these public buildings, except in rich and prosperous pueblos. 
 It has been suggested that the Governor's House at Uxmal 
 was the official house of that settlement. The large halls, 
 suitable for council purposes, favor this idea.^ 
 
 A third class of buildings was the teocalli, or "House of 
 God" — in other words, the temple. These were quite com- 
 mon. Each of the gens that 'composed the Mexican tribe 
 had its own particular medicine lodge or temple. This was 
 doubtless true of each and every tribe of sedentary Indians 
 in the territory we are describing. " The larger temples 
 were usually built upon pyramidal parallelograms, square or 
 oblong, and consisted of a series of superimposed terraces 
 with perpendicular or sloping sides." ^ It is not necessary 
 to dwell longer on this style of buildings. We have only 
 to recall the temples of the Sun, of the Cross, and of the 
 Beau-relief at Palenque; the House of the Dwarf at Ux- 
 mal, and the Citadel at Chichen-Itza, to gather a clear idea 
 of their construction. 
 
 The architecture of a people is a very good exponent of 
 their culture. Yet all have seen what different views are 
 held as to the culture of the tribes we are considering. 
 We have, perhaps, said all that is required on this part of 
 the subject, yet even repetition is pardonable if it enables 
 us to more clearly understand our subject. The ornamenta- 
 tion on the ruins of Yucatan is so peculiar that in our 
 opinion it has unduly influenced the judgment of explor- 
 ers in this matter. Thev lose sight of the fact that the 
 apartments of the houses are small, dark, and illy ven- 
 tilated. 
 
 That they should have gone to the trouble of so pro- 
 fusely decorating their usual places of abode is, indeed, 
 
 ' Morsran'a "Contributions to N. A. Ethnology," p. 256. 
 2 Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. II, p. 576. 
 
674 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 somewhat singulai-.^ But Mitla was certainly an inhabited 
 pueblo at the time of the Spanish conque.-5t, and there is 
 no good reason for concluding it was ever any thing more 
 than a group of communal buildings. Yet, from the de- 
 scription given of it, we can not see that the buildings are 
 greatly inferior in decoration to the structures in Yucatan. 
 And yet again, fi-om the imperfect accounts we have of the 
 aboriginal structures in the pueblo of Mexico, we infer they 
 were constructed on the general plan of communal buildings. 
 As for the decorations, we have seen they had sometimes 
 elaborate cornices, and were covered with stucco designs of 
 animals and flowers. In this case some of them were, to 
 be sure, public buildings for tribal purposes, but the major- 
 ity of them were certainly communal residences. With 
 these facts before us, we can not do otherwise tiian con- 
 clude that these so-called ruins of great cities we have de- 
 scribed are simply the ruins of pueblos, consisting of com- 
 munnl houses, temples, and, in the case of large and powerful 
 tribes, of&cial houses. To this conclusion we believe Amer- 
 ican scholars are tending more and more. 
 
 This requires us to dismiss the idea that the majority 
 of the people lived in houses of a poorer construction, which 
 have since disappeared, leaving the ruins of the houses of 
 the nobles. There was no such class division of the people 
 as this would signify. These ruins were houses occupied 
 by the people in common. With this understanding, a 
 questioning of the ruins can not fiil to give us some useful 
 hints. We are struck with their ingenuity as builders. 
 They made use of the best material at hand. In Arizo!ia 
 the dry climate permits of the use of adobe bricks, which 
 
 ' " Wlio ever heard of an imporfertly developed race dcrnrafing so pro- 
 fusely and so delicately their ordinary ahodes, in a manner usually reserved 
 for temples and palaces?" S. F. Haven, in Proceedings of Am. Anfiq. Society, 
 April, 1880, p. 57. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 675 
 
 were employed, though stone was also used. Further south 
 the pouring tropical ruins would soon bring down in ruins 
 adobe structures, and so stone alone is used. 
 
 In the Arizona pueblo we have a great fortress-built 
 house, three and four stories high, and no mode of access 
 to the lower story. This is in strict accord with Indian 
 principles of defense, which consists in elevated positions. 
 Sometimes this elevated position was a natural hill, as at 
 Quemada, Tezcocingo, and Xochicalco. Where no hill was 
 at hand they formed a terraced pyramidal foundation, as at 
 Copan, Palenque, and Uxmal. In the highest forms of this 
 architecture this elevation is faced with stone, or even com- 
 posed throughout of stone, as in the case of the House of 
 Nuns at Chichen-Itza. In the construction of houses prog- 
 ress seems to have taken place in two directions. The 
 rooms increased in size. In some of the oldest pueblo 
 structures in Arizona the rooms were more like a cluster of 
 cells than any thing else.^ 
 
 They grow larger towards the South. In the house 
 at Teotihuacan M. Charney found a room twenty-seven feet 
 wide by forty-one feet long. Two of the rooms in the 
 Governor's House at Uxmal are sixty feet long. But the 
 buildings themselves diminish in size. In Mexico the ma- 
 jority of the houses were but one story high, and but very 
 few more than two stories. In Yucatan but few instances 
 are recorded of houses two stories high. We must remem- 
 ber that throughout the entire territory we are considering 
 the tribes had no domestic animals, their agriculture was in 
 a rude state, and they were practically destitute of metals.^ 
 They could have been no farther adA'^anced on the road to 
 
 ' Morgan's " Contribution to N. A. Ethnology," Vol. IV, p. 186. 
 
 ' Cortez saw " trinkets made of gold and silver, of lead, bronze, copper, 
 and tin." They were on the confines of a true Bronze Age. Proceedings 
 of Am. Antiq. Society, April, 1879, p. 81. 
 
 41 
 
676 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 civilization tlian were the various tribes of" Europe during the 
 Bronze Age. Remembering this, we can not fail to be im- 
 pressed with the ingenuity, patient toil, and artistic taste 
 they displayed in the construction and decoration of their 
 edifices. 
 
 It may seem somewhat singular that we should treat of 
 their architecture before we do of their system of government, 
 but we were already acquainted with the ruins of the former. 
 When we turn to the latter we find ourselves involved in 
 very great difficulties. The description given of Mexican 
 society by the majority of writers on these topics represent 
 it as that of a powerful monarchy. The historian Prescott, 
 in his charming w^ovk ^ draws a picture that would not suffer 
 by comparison with the despotic magnificence of Oriental 
 lands. At a later date Mr. Bancroft, supporting himself by 
 an appeal to a formidable list of authorities, regilds the 
 scene.^ But protests against such views are not wanting. 
 Robertson, in his history, though bowing to the weight of 
 authority, can not forbear expressing his conviction that 
 there had been some exaggeration in the splendid descrip- 
 tion of their government and manners.^ Wilson, more skep- 
 tical, and bolder, utterly repudiates the old accounts, and re- 
 fuses to believe the Aztecs were any thing more than savages.^ 
 
 With such divergent and conflicting views, we at once 
 perceive the necessity of carefully scanning all the accounts 
 given, and make them conform, if possible, to what is known 
 of Indian institutions and manners. The Mexicans are 
 but one of several tribes that are the subjects of our re- 
 search; but their institutions are better known than the 
 others, and, in a general way, whatever is true of them will 
 
 ' " History of the Conqnost of Mexico." 
 M^aiirroft's "Native RjieeP," Vol. II. 
 '" Ili.story of America," iSlS, Vol. Ill, book viii, p. 9. 
 * Wilson's "Conquest of Mexico." 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 677 
 
 be true of the vest. We have seen the efforts of the Span- 
 ish explorers to explain whatever they found new or strange 
 in America by Spanish words, and the results of such pro- 
 cedure. We are at full liberty to reject their conclusions 
 and start anew. 
 
 What the Spaniards found around the lakes of Mexico 
 was a union or confederacy of three tribes. Very late in- 
 vestigations by Mr. Bandelier have established the presence 
 of the usual subdivisions of the tribes. So we have here a 
 complete organization according to the terms of ancient so- 
 ciety : that is, the gens, phratry, tribe, and confederacy of 
 tribes. It is necessary that we spend some time with each 
 of these subdivisions before we can understand the condition 
 of society among the Mexicans, and, in all probability, 
 the society among all of the civilized nations of Central 
 America. 
 
 We will begin with the gens, or the lowest division of 
 the tribe. We must understand its organization before we 
 can understand that of a tribe, and we must master the 
 tribal organization before attempting to learn the workings 
 of the confederacy. To neglect this order, and commence 
 at the top of the series, is to make the same mistake that 
 the older writers did in their studies into this culture. A 
 gens has certain rights, duties, and privileges which belong 
 to the whole gens, and we will consider some of the more 
 important in their proper place. We must understand by 
 a gens a collection of persons who are considered to be all 
 related to each other. An Indian could not, of his own will, 
 transfer himself from one gens to another. He remained a 
 member of the gens into which he was born. He might, by 
 a formal act of adoption, become a member of another gens; 
 or he might, in certain contingencies, lose his connection 
 with a gens and become an outcast. There is no such thing 
 
678 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 as privileged classes in a gens. All its members stand on 
 an equal footing. The council of the gens is the supreme 
 ruling power in the gens. Among some of the northern 
 tribes, all the members in the gens, both male and female,, 
 had a voice in this council. In the Mexican gens, the coun- 
 cil itself was more restricted. The old men, medicine men, 
 and distinguished men met in council — but even here, on 
 important occasions, the whole gens met in council. 
 
 Each gens would, of course, elect its own officers. They 
 could remove them from office as well, whenever occasion re- 
 quired. The Mexican gentes elected two officers. One of 
 these corresponded to the sachehi among northern tribes. 
 His residence was the official house of the gens. He had 
 in charge the stores of the gens ; and, in unimportant cases, 
 he exercised the powers of a judge. The other officer was 
 the war-chief. In times of war he commanded the forces 
 of the gens. In times of peace he was, so to speak, the 
 sheriff of the gens. 
 
 The next division of the tribe was the phratry — the 
 word properly meaning a brotherhood. Referring to the 
 outline on page 486, we notice that the eight gentes were 
 reunited into two phratries. Mr. Morgan tells us that the 
 probable origin of phratries was from the subdivision of an 
 orio;inal gens. Thus a tradition of the Seneca Indians af- 
 firms that the Benr and the Deer gentes were the original 
 gentes of that tribe.' In process of time they split up into 
 eight gentes, which would each have all the rights and 
 duties of an original gens — but, for certsun jnirposes, they 
 were still organized into two divisions. 
 
 Each of these larger groups is called a phratr^'. All of 
 the Iroquois tribes were organized into phratries, and the 
 same was, doubtless, true of the majority of the tribes of 
 
 ' Morgan's " Ancient Society" p. 91. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 679 
 
 North America. The researches of Mr. Bandolier have 
 quite conclusively established the fact, that the ancient Mex- 
 ican tribe consisted of twenty gentes reunited as four phra- 
 tries, which constituted the four quarters of the Pueblo of 
 Mexico. 
 
 ' It is somewhat difficult to understand just what the 
 rights and duties of a phratry were. This" division does 
 not exist in all tribes. But, as it was present among the 
 Mexicans, we must learn what we can of its powers. 
 Among the Iroquois the phratry was apparent chiefly in 
 religious matters, and in social games. They did not elect 
 any war-chief. The Mexi<}an phratry was largely concerned 
 with military matters. The forces of each phratry went out 
 to war as separate divisions. They had their own costumes 
 and banners. The four phratries chose each their war-chief, 
 who commanded their forces in the field, and who, as com- 
 mander, was the superior of the war-chiefs of the gentes. 
 
 In time of peace, they acted as the executors of tribal 
 justice. They belonged to the highest grade of war-chiefs 
 in Mexico — but there was nothing hereditary about their 
 offices. They were strictly elective, and could be deposed 
 for cause. They were in no case appointed by a higher 
 authority. One of these chiefs was always elected to fill 
 the office of "Chief of Men ;"^ and, in cases of emergency, 
 they could take his place — but this would be only a tempo- 
 rary arrangement. 
 
 Ascending the scale, the next term of the series is the 
 tribe. The Spanish writers took notice of a tribe, but failed 
 to notice the gens and phratry. This is not to be consid- 
 ered a singular thing. The Iroquois were under the ob- 
 servation of our own people two hundred years before the 
 discovery was m;ide in- reference to them. ''The existence 
 
 'But, on this point, see "Peabody Reports," Vol. II, p. 685— note, p. 282. 
 
G80 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 among them of clans, named after animals, was pointed out 
 at an early day, but without suspecting that it was the unit 
 of a social system upon which both the tribe and the con- 
 federacy rested."^ But, being ignorant of this fact, it is not 
 singular that they made serious mistakes in their description 
 of the government. 
 
 We now know that the Mexican tribe was composed of 
 an association of twenty gentes, that each of these gens was 
 an independent unit, and that all of its members stood on an 
 equal footing. This, at the outset, does away with the idea 
 of a monarchy. Each gens would, of course, have an equal 
 share in the government. This Was effected by means of a 
 council composed of delegates from each gens. There is no 
 doubt whatever of the existence of this council among the 
 Mexicans. "Every tribe in Mexico and Central America, be- 
 yond a reasonable doubt, had its council of chiefs. It was the 
 governing body of the tribe, and a constant phenomenon in 
 all parts of aboriginal America."^ The Spanish writers knew 
 of the existence of this council, but mistook its function. 
 They generally treat of it as an advisory board of minis- 
 ters appointed by the " king." 
 
 Each of the Mexican gens was represented in this coun- 
 cil by a "Speaking Chief," who, of course was elected by 
 the gens he represented. . All tribal matters were under the 
 control of this council. Questions of peace and war, and 
 the distribution of tribute, were decided by the council. 
 They also had judicial duties to perform. Disputes between 
 different gentes were adjusted by them. They also would 
 have jurisdiction of all crimes committed by those unfor- 
 tunate individuals who were not members of any gens, and 
 of crimes committed on territory not belonging fo any gens, 
 .«n(h as the Teocalli, Market-place, and Tecpan. 
 
 > Morgan's " Ancient Society," p. 197. ' Ibid., \\ 205. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 681 
 
 The council must have regular stated times of meeting; 
 thej could be called together at any time. At the time of 
 Cortez's visits they met daily. This council was, of course, 
 supreme in all questions coming before it ; but every eighty 
 days there was a council extraordinary. This included the 
 members of the council proper, the war-chiefs of the four 
 phratries, the war-chiefs of the gentes, and the leading medi- 
 cine men. Any important cause could be reserved for this 
 meeting, or, if agreed upon, a reconsideration of a cause 
 could be had. We must understand that the tribal council 
 could not interfere in any matter referring solely to a gens; 
 that would be settled by the gens itself. 
 
 The important points to be noticed are, that it was an 
 elective body, representing independent groups, and that it 
 had supreme authority. But the tribes needed officers to 
 execute the decrees of the council. Speaking of the North- 
 ern tribes, Mr. Morgan says, " In some Indian tribes, one 
 of the sachems was recognized as its head chief; and so 
 superior in rank to his associates. A need existed, to some 
 extent for an official head of the tribe, to represent it when 
 the council was not in session. But the duties and powers 
 of the office were slight. Although the council was supe- 
 rior in authority, it was rarely in session, and questions 
 might arise demanding the provisional action of some one 
 authorized to represent the tribe, subject to the ratification 
 of his acts by the council."^ 
 
 This need was still more urgent among the Mexicans; 
 accordingly we find they elected two officials for this pur- 
 pose. It seems this habit of electing two chief executives 
 was quite a common one among the tribes of Mexico and 
 Centrnl America. We have already noticed that the Mex- 
 ican gentes elected two such officers for their purpose. We 
 
 1 "Ancient Society," p. 118. 
 
682 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 are further told that the Iroquois appointed two head war- 
 chiefs to coiimiand the forces of the confederacy/ 
 
 One of the chiefs so elected by the Mexicans bore the 
 somewhat singular title of " Snake-woman." He was prop- 
 erly the head-chief of the Mexicans. He was chairman of 
 the council and announced its decrees. He was responsible 
 to the council for the tribute received, as far as it was ap- 
 plied to tribal requirements, and for a faithful distribution 
 of the remainder among the gentes. When the forces of the 
 confederacy went out to war, he commanded the tribal 
 forces of Mexico ; but on other occasions this duty was 
 fulfilled by his colleague, who was the real war-chief of 
 the Mexicans. His title was " Chief-of-men." This is the 
 official who iippears in history as the " King of Mexico," 
 sometimes, even, as " Emperor of Anahuac." The fact is, 
 he was one of two equal chiefs ; he held an elective office, 
 and -was subordinate to the council. 
 
 When the confederacy was formed, the command of its 
 forces was given to the war-chief of the Mexicans ; thus he 
 was something more than a tribal officer. His residence 
 was the official house of the tribe. " He was to be present 
 day and night at this abode, w'hich was the center wherein 
 converged the threads of information brought by traders, 
 gatherers of tribute, scouts and spies, as well as all mes- 
 sages sent to, or received from, neighboring friendly or hos- 
 tile tribes. Every such message came directly to the 
 " Chief-of-men," whose duty it was, before acting, to ])re- 
 sent its import to the " Snake-woman," and, through him, 
 call together the council." He might be present at the 
 council, but his presence was not required, nor did his vote 
 weigh any more than any other member of the council, 
 only, of course, from the position he occupied, his opinion 
 
 'Morgan's " Ancient Society," p. 147. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 683 
 
 would be much respected. He provided for the execution 
 of the council's conclusions. In case of war, he would call 
 out the forces of the confederacy for assistance. As the 
 procurement of substance by means of tribute was one of 
 the great objects of the confederacy, the gathering of it 
 was placed under the control of the war-chief, who was 
 therefore the official head of the tribute-gatherers. 
 
 We have thus very imperfectly and hastily sketched the 
 governmental organization of the Mexican tribe. It is some- 
 thing very different from an empire. It was a democratic 
 organization. There was not an officer in it but what held 
 his office by election. This, to some, may seem improbable, 
 because the Spaniards have described a different state of 
 things. We have already mentioned one reason why they 
 should do so — that was their ignorance of Indian institu- 
 tions. We must also consider the natural bias of their 
 minds. The rule of Charles the V was any thing but lib- 
 eral. It was a part of their education to believe that a 
 monarchical form of government was just the thing ; they 
 were accordingly prepared to see monarchical institutions, 
 whether they existed or not. 
 
 Then there was the perfectly natural disposition to ex- 
 aggerate their achievements. To spread in Europe the re- 
 port that they had subverted a powerfully organized mon- 
 archy, having an emperor, a full line of nobles, orders of 
 chivalry, and a standing army, certainly sounded much 
 better than the plain statement that they had succeeded in 
 disjointing a loosely connected confederacy, captured and 
 put to death the head war chief of the principal tribe, and 
 destroyed the communal buildings of their pueblo. 
 
 We must not forget that, from an Indian point of view, 
 the confederacy was composed of rich and powerful tribes. 
 This is especially true of the Mexicans. The position they 
 
684 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 held, from a defensive standpoint, was one of the strongest 
 ever held by Indians. They received a large amount of 
 tribute from subject tribes, along with the hearty hatred 
 of the same. From the time Cortez landed on the shore 
 he had heard accounts of the wealth, power, and cruelty of 
 the Mexicans. When he arrived before Mexico the " Chief- 
 of-men," Montezuma, as representative of tribal hospital- 
 ity, went forth to meet him, extending " unusual courtesies 
 to unusual, mysterious, and therefore dreaded, guests." We 
 may well imagine that he was decked out in all the finery 
 his ofiice could raise, and that he put on as much style and 
 " court etiquette " as their knowledge and manner of life 
 would stand. 
 
 The Spaniards immediately concluded that he was king, 
 and so he was given undue prominence. They subsequently 
 learned of the council, and recognized the fact that it was 
 really the supreme power. They learned of the ofiice of 
 '' Snake-woman," and acknowledged that his power was equal 
 to that of the " Chief-of-men." They even had some ideas of 
 phratries and gentes. But, having once made up their minds 
 that this was a monarchy, and Montezuma the monarch, 
 they were loath to change their views, or, rather, they tried 
 to explain all on this supposition, and the result is the con- 
 fused and contradictor}^ accounts given of these officials and 
 divisions of the people. But every thing tending to add 
 glory to the "Empire of Montezuma" was caught up and 
 dilated upon. And so have come down to us tlie commonly 
 accepted ideas of the government of the ancient Mexicans. 
 
 That these views are altogether erroneous is no longer 
 doubted by some of the very best American scholars. The 
 organization set forth in (his chapter is one not oidy in ac- 
 cord with the results obtained by the latest research in the 
 field of ancient society, but a careful reading of the accounts 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 685 
 
 of the Spanish writers leads to the same conclusions.^ In 
 view of these now admitted facts, it seems to us useless to 
 longer speak of the government of the Mexicans as that of 
 an empire. 
 
 We have as yet said nothing of the league or confed- 
 eracy of the three tribes of Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan; 
 nor is it necessary to dwell at any great length on this confed- 
 eracy now. They were perfectly independent of each other 
 as regards tribal affairs ; and for the purpose of government, 
 were organized in exactly the same way as were the Mex- 
 icans. The stories told of the glories, the riches, and power 
 of the kings of Tezcuco, if any thing, outrank those of 
 Mexico. We may dismiss them as utterly unreliable. 
 Tribal organization resting on phratries and gentes, and the 
 consequent government by the council of the tribe was all 
 the Spaniards found. These three tribes, speaking dialects 
 of the same stock language, inhabiting contiguous territory, 
 formed a league for offensive and defensive purposes. The 
 commander-in-chief of the forces raised for this purpose was 
 the " Chief-of-men " of the Mexicans. 
 
 We have confined our researches to the Mexicans. Mr. 
 Bandelier, speaking of the tribes of Mexico, remarks : " There 
 is no need of proving the fact that the several tribes of the 
 valley had identical customs, and that their institutions had 
 reached about the same degree of development." Or if such 
 proofs were needed, Mr. Bancroft has furnished them. So 
 that this state of society being proven among the Mexicans, 
 it may be considered as established among the Nahua tribes. 
 Neither is there any necessity of showing that substantially 
 the same state of government existed among the Mayas of 
 
 ' We refer again to Mr. Bandelier's articles. A careful reading of them 
 will convince any one that the picture of Mexican Government as set forth in 
 Mr. Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. II, is very erroneous. Mr. Bancroft's 
 views are, however, those of many writers. 
 
686 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Yucatan. This is shown by their architecture, by their 
 early traditions, and by many statements in the writings of 
 the early historians. These can only be understood and 
 explained by supposing the same social organization existed 
 among them as among the Mexicans. 
 
 But this does not relegate these civilized nations to 
 savagism. On the other hand, it is exactly the form of gov- 
 ernment we would expect to find among them. They were 
 not further along than the Middle Status of barbarism. 
 They were slowly advancing on the road that leads to civil- 
 ization, and their form of government was one exactly suited 
 to their needs, and one in keeping with their state of archi- 
 tecture. When we gaze at the ruins of their material 
 structures, we must consider that before us are not the only 
 ruins wrought by the Spaniards; the native institutions 
 were doomed as well. Traces of this early state of society 
 are, however, still recoverable, and we must study them 
 well to learn their secret. 
 
 We have yet before us a large field to investigate ; that 
 is, the advance made in the arts of living among these 
 people. This is one of the principal objects of our present 
 research. We are here slightl}^ de{)arting from the pre- 
 historic field, and entering the domain of histor3\ But the 
 departure is justifiable, as it serves to light up an extensive 
 field, that is, the manner of life among the civilized nations 
 just before the coming of the Spaniards. And first we w'ill 
 examine their customs in regard to property. We have in a 
 former chapter reverted to the influence of commerce and 
 trade in advancing culture. The desire for wealth and prop- 
 erty which is such a controlling power to-dny was one of the 
 most efficient agents in advancing ninn from savagism to 
 civilization. The idea of property, which scnrcely had an 
 existence during that period of savagism, had grown stronger 
 
THE CULTURE OE THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 687 
 
 with every advance in culture. " Beginning in feebleness, it 
 has ended in becoming the master passion of the human mind." 
 
 The property of savages is limited to a few articles of 
 personal use; consequently, their ideas as to its value, and 
 the principles of inheritance, are feeble. They can scarcely 
 be said to have any idea as to property in lands, though the 
 tribe may lay claim to xjertain hunting-grounds as their own. 
 As soon as the organization of gens arose, we can see that 
 it would affect their ideas of property. The gens, we must 
 remember, was the unit of their social organization. 
 
 They had common rights, duties, and privileges, as well 
 as common supplies; and hence the idea arose that the 
 property of the members of a gens belonged to the gens. At 
 the death of an individual, his personal property would be 
 divided among the remaining members of the gens. "Practi- 
 cally," says Mr. Morgan, " they were appropriated by the 
 nearest of kin ; but the principle was general that the 
 property should remain in the gens."^ That this is a true 
 statement there is not the shadow of a doubt. This was 
 the general rule of inheritance among the Indian tribes of 
 North America. As time passed on, and the tribes learned 
 to cultivate the land, some idea of real property would 
 arise — but not of personal ownership. 
 
 This is quite an important topic ; because, when we read 
 of lords with great estates, we are puzzled to know how to 
 reconcile such statements with what we now know of the 
 nature of Mexican tribal organization. Mr. Bandelier has 
 lately gone over the entire subject. He finds that the ter- 
 ritory on which the Mexicans originally settled was a marshy 
 expanse of land which the surrounding tribes did not value 
 enough to claim. 
 
 This territory was divided among the four gentes of the 
 
 ^ "Ancient Society," p. 528. 
 
688 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 tribe. As we have already seen, each of these four gentes 
 subsequently split up into other iudepeudeut gentes until 
 there were twenty in all. Each of these gens held and pos- 
 sessed a portion of the original soil. This division of the 
 soil must have been made by tacit consent. The tribe 
 claimed no ownership of these tracts, still less did the head- 
 chief. Furthermore, the only right the gentes claimed in 
 them was a possessory one. " They had no idea of sale or 
 barter, or conveyance, or alienation." 
 
 As the members of a gens stood on equal footing, this 
 tract would be still further divided for individual use. This 
 division would be made by the council of the gens. But 
 we must notice the individual acquired no other riglit to 
 this tract of land than a right to cultivate it — which right, 
 if he failed to improve, he lost. He could, however, have 
 some one else to till it for him. The son could inherit a 
 father's ris:ht to a tract. 
 
 We have seen that the Mexicans had a great volume of 
 tribal business to transact, which required the presence 
 of an official household at the tecpan. Then the proper ex- 
 ercise of tribal hospitality required a large store of pro- 
 visions. To meet this demand, certain tracts of the terri- 
 tory of each gens were set aside to be worked by communal 
 labor. Then, besides the various officers of the gens, and 
 the tribe, who, by reason of their public duties, had no time 
 to till the tracts to which, as members of a gens, they 
 would be entitled, had the same tilled for them by com- 
 munal labor. This was not an act of vassalage, but a pay- 
 ment for public duties. 
 
 This is a very brief statement of their customs as regards 
 holding of lands. It gives us an insight into the workings 
 of ancient society. It shows us what a strong feature of 
 this society was the gens, and we see how uocessaiy it is 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 689 
 
 to understand the nature of a gens before attempting to un- 
 derstand ancient society. We see that, among the civil- 
 ized nations of Mexico and Central America, they had not 
 yet risen to the conception of ownership in the soil. No 
 chief, or other officer, held large estates. The possessory 
 right in the soil was vested in the gens composing the tribe, 
 and they in turn granted to individuals certain definite lots 
 for the purpose of culture. A chief had no more right in 
 this direction than a common warrior. We can easily see 
 how the Spaniards made their mistake. They found a com- 
 munity of persons holding land in common, which the indi- 
 viduals could not alienate. They noticed one person among 
 them whom the others acknowledged as chief. They im- 
 mediately jumped to the conclusion that this chief was a 
 great " lord," that the land was a " feudal estate," and 
 that the persons who held it were " vassals " to the afore- 
 said " lord."^ 
 
 We must now consider the subject of laws, and the 
 methods of enforcing justice amongst the civilized nations. 
 The laws of the Mexicans, like those of most barbarous peo- 
 ple, are apt to strike us as being very severe; but good rea- 
 sons, according to their way of thinking, exist for such se- 
 verity. The gens is the unit of social organization; which 
 fact must be constantly borne in mind in considering their 
 laws. In civilized society, the State assumes protection of 
 person and property; but, in a tribal state of society, this 
 protection is afforded by the gens. Hence, "to wrong a per- 
 son was to wrong his gens; and to support a person was 
 to stand behind him with the entire array of his gentile 
 kindred." 
 
 The punishment for theft varied according to the value of 
 the article stolen. If it were small and could be returned, that 
 
 * Morgan's " Ancient Society," p. 537. 
 
690 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 settled the matter. In cases of greater value it was dif- 
 ferent. In some cases the thief became bondsman for the 
 original owner. In still others, he suffered death. This was 
 the case where he stole articles set aside for religion — such 
 as gold and silver, or captives taken in war; or, if the theft 
 were committed in the market-place. Murder and homicide 
 were always punished with death. According to their teach- 
 ing, there was a great gulf between the two sexes. Hence, 
 for a person of one sex to assume the dress of the other sex 
 was an insult to the whole gens — the penalty was death. 
 Drunkenness was an offense severely punished — though aged 
 persons could indulge their appetite, and, during times of 
 festivities, others could. Chiefs and other officials were pub- 
 licly degraded for this crime. Common warriors had their 
 heads shaved in punishment. 
 
 These various penalties necessarily suppose judicial of- 
 ficers to determine the offense and decree the punishment. 
 Having established, on a satisfactory basis, the Mexican em- 
 pire, the historians did not scruple to fit it out with the 
 necessary working machinery of such an organization. Ac- 
 cordingly we are presented with a judiciary as nice!}' 
 proportioned as in the most favored nations of to-day. But 
 when, under the more searching light of modern scholar- 
 ship, this empire is seen to be something quite difl'ercnt, 
 we find the whole judicial machinery to be a much more 
 simple affair. 
 
 Not much need be added on this point to what we 
 have already mentioned. Each gens, through its council, 
 would regulate its own affairs, and would punish all 
 offenses against the law committed by one of its mem- 
 bers against another. Of necessity the decision of this coun- 
 cil had to be final. There was no appeal from its de- 
 cision. The council of the tribe had jurisdiction in all 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILEZED TRIBES. 691 
 
 other cases — such as might arise between members of dif- 
 ferent gentes, or among outcasts not connected with any 
 gens, or such as were committed on territory not belonging 
 to any gens. 
 
 For this work, the twenty chiefs composing the council 
 were subdivided into two bodies, sitting simultaneously in the 
 different halls of the tecpan. This division was for the pur- 
 pose of greater dispatch in business. They did not form a 
 higher and lower court, with power of the one to review the 
 decisions of the other. They were equal in power and 
 the decisions of both were final. The decision of the coun- 
 cil, when acting in a judicial capacity, would be announced 
 by their foreman, who was, as we have seen, the head-chief 
 of the Mexicans — the Snake-woman. It is for this act that 
 the historian speaks of him as the supreme judge, and 
 makes him the head of judicial authority.^ His decisions 
 were, of course, final, not because he made them, but be- 
 cause they were the conclusions of the council. 
 
 The " Chief-of-men," the so-called " king," did not properly 
 have any judicial authority. He was their war-chief, and 
 not a judge; but from the very nature of his office he had 
 some powers in this direction. As commander-in-chief, he 
 possessed authority to summarily punish (with death, if 
 necessary) acts of insubordination and treachery during 
 war. It was necessary to clothe him with a certain amount of 
 discretionary power for the public good. Thus, the first run- 
 ner that arrived from the coast with news of the approach of 
 the European ships was, by the order of Montezuma, placed 
 in confinement. " This was done to keep the news secret 
 until the matter could be investigated, and was therefore a 
 preliminary measure of policy." Placed at the tecpan as 
 the official head of the tribe, he had power to appoint his 
 
 1 Bancroft's " Native Races," Vol. II, p. 435. 
 
 42 
 
692 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 assistants. But this power to appoint implied equal power 
 to remove, and to punish.^ 
 
 This investigation into their laws and methods of en- 
 forcing them, carries us to the conclusion already arrived 
 at. It is in full keeping with what we would expect of a 
 people in the Middle Status of barbarism. We also see how 
 little real foundation there is for the view that this was a 
 monarchy. There is no doubt but that the pueblo of Mex- 
 ico was the seat of one of the largest and most powerful 
 tribes, and the leading member of one of the most powerful 
 confederacies that had ever existed in America. 
 
 It may be of interest for us to inquire as to what was 
 the real extent of this power, and the means employed by 
 the Mexicans to maintain this power ; also how they had 
 succeeded in attaining the same. They "were not by nature 
 more gifted than the surrounding tribes. The valley of 
 Mexico is an upland basin. It is oval in form, surrounded 
 by ranges of mountains, rising one above the other, with de- 
 pressions between. The area of the valley itself is about 
 sixteen hundred square miles. The Mexicans were the last 
 one of the seven kindred tribes who styled themselves, col- 
 lectively, the Nabuatlacs. We treat of them as the Nahuas. 
 The Nahuas on the north and the Mayas on the south 
 included the civilized nations. When the Mexicans arrived 
 in this valley, they found the best situations already oc- 
 cupied by other tribes of their own family. To escape 
 persecution from these, they fled into the marsh or swamp 
 which then covered the territory which they subsequently 
 
 ' It is needless to remark that these results are preatly at variance with 
 those generally hel<l, as will be seen by consultintr ]Mr. Bancroft's " Native 
 Races," ^'ol. II, Chaji. xiv. i\Ir. Bancroft, however, sinijily >;atlu'rs topetlier 
 what other writers have stated on this subject. We follow, in tliis niattcr, 
 the conclusions of an acknowledged leader in this field, Mr. Bandelier, who 
 has fully worked out Mr. Morgan's views, advanced in " Ancient Society." 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 693 
 
 converted into their stronghold. Here on a scanty expanse 
 of dry soil, surrounded by extensive marshes, they erected 
 their pueblo. Being few in numbers they were overlooked 
 as insignificant, and thus they had a chance to improve their 
 surroundings. They increased the area of dry land by 
 digging ditches, and throwing the earth from the same on 
 the surrounding surface, and thus elevated it. In reality, in 
 the marshes that surrounded their pueblo was their greatest 
 source of strength. " They realized that while they might 
 sally with impunity, having a safe retreat behind them, an 
 attack upon their position was both difficult and dangerous 
 for the assailant." They were, therefore, strong enough for 
 purposes of defense. But they wished to open up communi- 
 cation with the tribes living on the shore of the great marsh 
 in the midst of which they had their settlement. For this 
 purpose they applied to their near and powerful neighbors, 
 the Tecpanics, for the use of one of the springs on their 
 territory, and for the privilege of trade and barter in their 
 market. This permission was given in consideration that 
 the Mexicans become the weaker allies of the Tecpanics, 
 that is, pay a moderate tribute and render military assistanc e 
 when called upon. 
 
 The Pueblo of Mexico now rapidly increased in power. 
 Communication being opened with the mainland, it was 
 visited by delegates from other tribes, and especially by 
 traders. They fully perceived the advantages of their loca- 
 tion and improved the same. By the erection of causeways, 
 they entirely surrounded their pueblo with an artificial 
 pond of large extent. To allow for the free circulation of 
 the water, sluices were cut, interrupting these causeways 
 at several places. Across these openings wooden bridges 
 were placed which could be easily removed in times of 
 danger. 
 
694 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Thus it was that they secured one of the strongest de- 
 fensive positions ever held by Indians. The Tecpanics had 
 been the leading power in the valley, but the Mexicans now 
 felt themselves strong enough to throw oJBf the yoke of 
 tribute to which they were subject. In the war that ensued 
 the power of the Tecpanics was broken, and the Mexicans 
 became at once one of the leading powers of the valley. 
 We must notice, however, that the Mexicans did not gain 
 any new territory except the locality of their spring. 
 Neither did they interfere at all in the government of the 
 Tecpanics. They simply received tribute from them. 
 
 Once started on their career of conquest, the Mexicans, 
 supported by allies, sought to extend their power. The re- 
 sult was that soon they had subdued all of the Nahua tribes 
 of the valley except one, that was a tribe located at Tezcuco. 
 This does not imply that they had become masters of 
 the territory of the valley. When a modern nation or state 
 conquers another, they often add that province to their 
 original domain, and extend over it their code of lavv's. This 
 is the nature of the conquests of ancient Rome. The ter- 
 ritory of the conquered province became part of the Roman 
 Empire. They became cubject to the laws of Rome. Pub- 
 lic works were built under the direction of the conquerors, 
 and they were governed from Rome or by governors ap- 
 pointed from there. 
 
 Nothing of this kind is to be understood by a conquest 
 by the Mexicans, i,nd it is necessary to understand this 
 point clearly. When they conquered a tribe, they neither 
 acquired nor claimed any right to or power over the terri- 
 tory of the tribe. They did not concern themselves at all 
 with the government of the tribe. In that respect the tribe 
 remained free and independent. No garrisons of troops 
 were stationed in their territory to keep them in subjection; 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 695 
 
 no governors were appinted to rule over them. What the 
 Mexicans wanted was tribute, and in case of war they could 
 call on them for troops. Secure in their pueblo surrounded 
 by water, they could sally out on the less fortunate tribes 
 who chose to pay tribute rather than to be subject to such 
 forays. 
 
 Instead of entering into a conflict with the tribe at 
 Tezcuco, the result of which might have been doubtful, a 
 military confederacy was formed, into which was admitted 
 the larger part of the old Tecpanic tribe that had their 
 chief pueblo at Tlacopan. The definite plan of this confed- 
 eracy is unknown. Each of the three tribes was perfectly 
 independent in the management of its own affairs. Each 
 tribe could make war on its own account if it wished, but 
 in case it did not feel strong enough alone, it could call on 
 the others for assistance. When the force of the confed- 
 eracy went out to war, the command was given to the war 
 chief of the Mexicans, the "Chief-of-men." 
 
 If a member of the confederacy succeeded in reducing 
 by its own efforts a tribe to tribute, it had the full benefit 
 of such conquest. But when the entire confederacy had 
 been engaged in such conquest, the tribute was divided into 
 five parts, of which two went to Mexico, two to Tezcuco, 
 and one to Tlacopan. This co-partnership for the purpose 
 of securing tribute by the three most powerful tribes of the 
 valley, under the leadership of Mexico, was formed about 
 the year 1426, just about one hundred years from the date 
 of the first appearance of the Mexicans in the valley. 
 
 From this time to the date of the Spanish conquest in 
 1520, the confederate tribes were almost constantly at war 
 with the surrounding Indians, "and particularly with the 
 feeble village Indians southward from the valley of Mexico 
 to the Pacific, and thence eastward well towards Guatemala. 
 
696 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 They began with those nearest in position, whom they over- 
 came, through superior numbers, and concentrated action, 
 and subjected to tribute. These forays were continued from 
 time to time for the avowed object of gathering spoil, im- 
 posing tribute and capturing prisoners for sacrifice, until the 
 principal tribes within the area named, with some exceptions, 
 were subdued and made tributary.^ 
 
 The territory of these tribes, thus subject to tribute, con- 
 stitutes what is generally known as the Mexican Empire.^ 
 But, manifestly, it is an abuse of language to so designate 
 this territory. No attempt was made for the formation of a 
 State which would include the various groups of aborigines 
 settled in the area tributary to the confederacy. " No com- 
 mon or mutual tie connected these numerous and diverse 
 tribes," excepting hatred of the Mexican confederacy. The 
 tribes were left independent under their own chiefs. They 
 well knew the tribute must be forthcoming, or else they 
 would feel the weight of their conquerors' displeasure. But 
 such a domination of the strong over the weak, for no other 
 reason than to enforce an unwilling tribute, can never form a 
 nation, or an empire.^ These subject tribes, held down by 
 heavy burdens — inspired by enmity, ever ready to revolt — 
 gave no new strength to the confederacy : they were rather 
 an element of weakness. The Spaniards were not slow to 
 take advantage of this state of affairs. The tribes of Vera 
 Cruz, who could have imposed an almost impassable barrier 
 to their advance through that section, were ready to welcome 
 them as deliverers.'* The Tlascaltecans, though never made 
 tributary to the Mexicans, had to wage almost unceasing war 
 for fifty years preceding the coming of the Spaniards. 
 
 'Morgan's "Ancient Society," p. 103. 
 
 ' RancToft's " Native Races," Vol. II, p. 95. 
 
 'Mtirgan's "Ancient Society," p. 194. 
 
 ♦ Bancroft's " Native Races," Vol. II, p. 94. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 697 
 
 Without their assistance,. Cortez would never have passed 
 into history as the conqueror of Mexico. 
 
 A word as to the real power of the Mexicans. Their 
 strength lay more in their defensive position than any thing 
 else. As we have just stated, the entire forces of the con- 
 federacy were unable to subject the Tlascaltecans, the 
 Tarasca of Michhuacan were fully their equal in wealth and 
 power. The most disastrous defeat that ever befell the 
 forces of the confederacy was on the occasion of their attack 
 upon this last-named people in 1479. They tied from the 
 battle-field in consternation, and never cared to renew the 
 attempt. As to the actual population of the Pueblo of Mex- 
 ico, the accounts are very much at variance. Mr. Moigan, 
 after taking account of their barbarous condition of life — 
 without flocks and herds, and without field agriculture, but 
 also considering the amount of tribute received from other 
 tribes — considers that an estimate of two hundred and fifty 
 thousand inhabitants in the entire valley would be an ex- 
 cessive number. Of these he would assign thirty thousand 
 to the Pueblo of Mexico.^ 
 
 This is but an estimate. In this connection we are in- 
 formed, that, when the forces of the confederacy marched 
 against Michhuacan, as just stated, they counted their forces, 
 and found them to be twenty-four thousand men. This in- 
 cludes the forces of the three confederate tribes, and their 
 allies in the valley, and would indicate a population below 
 Mr. Morgan's estimate. The Spanish writers have left 
 statements as to the population of Mexico which are, evi- 
 dently", gross exaggerations. The most moderate estimate is 
 sixty thousand inhabitants; but the majority of the writers 
 increase this number to three hundred thousand. 
 
 The main occupation of the Aztecs, then, was to enforce 
 
 ' Morgan's " Ancient Society," p. 195. 
 
698 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the payment of tribute. From the limited expanse of ter- 
 . ritory at the disposal of the Mexicans, and the unusually 
 large number of inhabitants for an aboriginal settlement, as 
 well as the natural inclination of the Mexicans, they were 
 obliged to draw their main supplies from tributary tribes. 
 It is human for the strong to compel the weak to serve 
 them. The inhabitants of North America were not behind, 
 in this respect.^ This is especially true of the civilized 
 tribes of Mexico and Central America. The confederacy of 
 the three most powerful tribes of Mexico was but a copart- 
 nership for the avowed purpose of compelling tribute from 
 the surrounding tribes, and they were cruel and merciless in 
 exacting the same. 
 
 Our information in regard to this tribute is derived 
 almost entirely from a collection of picture writings, known 
 as the Mendoza collection, which will be described more par- 
 ticularly when we describe their picture writings. The con- 
 federacy was never at a loss for an excuse to pounce upon 
 a tribe and reduce them to tribute. Sometimes the tribe 
 marked out for a prey, knowing their case to be hopeless, 
 submitted at once when the demand was made ; but, whether 
 they yielded with or without a struggle, the result was the 
 same — that is, a certain amount of tribute was imposed on 
 them. This tribute consisted of articles which the tribe 
 either manufactured, or was in situation to acquire by means 
 of trade or war; but, in addition to this, it also included the 
 products of their limited agriculture. 
 
 The same distribution of land obtained among all the civ- 
 ilized tribes that we have already sketched among the Mex- 
 icans. So, a portion of the territory of each conquered tribe 
 would be set aside to be cultivated for the use of the confed- 
 eracy. But, as the tribe did not have any land of its own. 
 
 ' Bancroft's " Native Races," V(jl. T, p 344. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 701 
 
 except for some official purpose, this implies that each gens 
 would have to set aside a small part of its territory for such 
 purpose. Such lots Mr. BandeUer calls tribute lots. These 
 were worked by the gentes for the benefit of the Mexicans. 
 It is to be noticed right here, that the Mexicans did not 
 claim to own or control the land ; this right remained in the 
 gentes of the conquered tribe. 
 
 The miscellaneous articles demanded were generally such 
 that they bore some relation to the natural resources of the 
 pueblo. For instance : pueblos along the coast, in the warm 
 region of country, had to furnish cotton cloth, many thou- 
 sand bundles of fine feathers, sacks of cocoa, tiger-skins, 
 etc. In other, and favorable locations for such products, 
 the pueblos had to furnish such articles as sacks of lime, 
 reeds for building purposes, smaller reeds for the manufac- 
 ture of darts. 
 
 These facts are ascertained in the Mendoza collection. 
 We are given there the pictorial symbol, or coat-of-arms, 
 of various pueblos; also, a pictorial representation of the 
 tribute they were expected to pay. The plate opposite 
 is a specimen of their tribute rolls. The pueblos paying it 
 are not, however, shown. Considerable can be learned from 
 a study of this collection — such, for instance, as that the 
 Pueblo of Chala had to pay a tribute of forty little bells, 
 and eighty copper ax blades.^ And, in another place, we 
 learn that the Pueblo of Yzamatitan was tributary to eight 
 thousand reams of paper. The articles are here pictured 
 forth ; the number is indicated by the flags, feathers, etc. 
 The tribute of provisions consisted of such articles as corn, 
 beans, cocoa, red-pepper, honey, and salt — amounting in all, 
 accordins; to this collection,^ to about six hundred thousand 
 
 ^ Valentini,in Prooeedings of Amprican Antiqnarinn Society, April, 1879. 
 * Gallatin: ''American Ethnological Society's Transactions," Vol. I, p. 119. 
 
702 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 bushels, still it "will not do to place too great a reliance 
 on picture records. The number of tributary pueblos must 
 have been constantly changing. The quantity of articles 
 intended for clothing was certainly very great. A moderate 
 quantity of gold was also collected from a few pueblos, 
 "where this "was obtainable. 
 
 The collection of this tribute was one of the most im- 
 portant branches of government among the Mexicans. The 
 vanquished stood in peril of their lives if they failed to 
 keep their part of the contract. In the first place, the Mex- 
 icans took from each subject tribe hostages for the punctual 
 payment of tribute. These hostages were taken to the 
 Pueblo of Mexico, and held there as slaves; their lives were 
 forfeited if the tribute was refused.^ But special officers 
 were also assigned to the subject tribes, whose duty it was 
 to see that the tribute was properly gathered and trans- 
 mitted to Mexico. These stewards or tribute gatherers, are 
 the officers that the early writers mistook for governors. 
 Their sole business, however, had to do with the collection 
 of the tribute, and they did not interfere at all in the in- 
 ternal affairs of the tribe. 
 
 Where the forces of the confederacy had conquered a 
 tribe, but one steward was required to tend to the tribute, 
 but each of the confederate tribes sent their representative 
 to such pueblos as had become their own prey, and as some- 
 times occurred, one pueblo paid tribute to each of the con- 
 federate tribes, it had to submit to the presence among them 
 of three separate stewards. 
 
 We can easily enough see that it required men of ability 
 to fill this position. Thoy were to hold their residence in 
 the midst of a tribe who wore conquered, but held in sub- 
 jection only by fear. To these people they w'cre the con- 
 
 ' Valentine: Proceedings American Antiq. Soc, October, 1880, p. 75. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 703 
 
 stant reminder of defeat and disgrace. They were expected to 
 watch them closely and report to the home tribe suspicious 
 movements or utterances that might come to their notice. 
 We need not wonder that these stewards wore the tokens of 
 chiefs. It was a part of their duty to superintend the re- 
 moval of the tribute from the place where gathered to the 
 Pueblo of Mexico. The tribe paying tribute were expected 
 to deliver it at Mexico, but under the supervision of the 
 steward. Arrived at Mexico the tribute was received, not 
 by the so-called king, the Chief-of-men, but by the Snake- 
 woman, or an officer to whom this personage delegated his 
 authority. This officer was the chief steward, and made the 
 final division of the tribute. We are not informed as to 
 details of this division. A large part of it was reserved for 
 the use of the tribal government. It was upon this store 
 that the Chief-of-men could draw when supplies were needed 
 for tribal hospitality or for any special purpose. The stores 
 required for the temple, its priests and keepers were gathered 
 from this source. The larger division must have gone direct 
 to the stewards of the gentes, who would set some aside for 
 their official uses, some for religion or medicine, but the 
 larger part would be divided among the members of the 
 gentes. 
 
 In our review of the social system of the Mexicans we 
 have repeatedly seen how the organization of gentes in- 
 fluenced and even controled all the departments of their 
 social and political system. One of the cardinal principles, 
 we must remember, is that all the members of a gens stand 
 on an equal footing. In keeping with this we have seen 
 that all were trained as warriors; yet the great principle of 
 the division of labor was at work. Some filled in their 
 leisure during times of peace by acting as traders; others 
 became proficient in some branch of work, such as feather 
 
704 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 work, or making gold and silver ornaments. Yet under a 
 gentile system of society, persons practicing such callings 
 could never become very rich or proficient, simply because, 
 being members of different gentes, there could not be that co- 
 operation and united efforts among workmen in these various 
 trades and callings that is necessary to advance them to the 
 highest proficiency. It required the breaking up of the 
 gentes and substituting for that group a smaller one, our 
 modern family, as the unit of social organization, before great 
 progress could be made. 
 
 From what we have just said it follows that it is not at 
 all likely that there was any great extremes in the condi- 
 tion of the people. No very wealthy or extremely poor 
 classes. This brings us to consider the condition of trade 
 and commerce among them. They had properly no such a 
 thing as money, so their commerce must have consisted of 
 barter or trade and exchange. Some authorities assert quite 
 positively that they had money, and mention as articles 
 used for such purposes grains of cacao, " T " shaped pieces 
 of tin or copper, and quills of gold dust.^ But Mr. Bande- 
 lier has shown that the word barter properly designates the 
 transactions where such articles passed. But tliis absence 
 of money shows us at once that the merchants of Mexico 
 were simply traders who made their living by gathering 
 articles from a distance to exchange for home commodities. 
 
 We are given some very entertaining accounts of the 
 wealth and magnificence of the " merchant princes of Mex- 
 ico." ^ It needs but a moment's consideration of the state of 
 society to show how little foundation there is for such ac- 
 counts. Mr. Bancroft also tells us that " throughout tlio Na- 
 
 • Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. II, p. 381. Proceedings American Anti- 
 quarian Society, April, 1879, p. 110. 
 
 'Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol IT, j.. 193. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 705 
 
 hua dominions commerce was in the hands of a distinct class, 
 educated for their calling, and everywhere honored by the 
 people iind by kings. In many regions the highest nobles 
 thought it not disgraceful to engage in commercial pursuits." 
 
 Though we do not believe there is any foundation for 
 this statement, yet trading is an important proceeding among 
 sedentary tribes. '' The native is carried over vast distances, 
 from which he returns with a store of knowledge, which is 
 made a part of his mythology and rites, while his personal 
 adventures become a part of the folk lore." ^ It was their 
 principal way of learning of the outside world. It was 
 held in equally high esteem among the Mexicans. Such an 
 expedition was not in reality a private, but a tribal under" 
 taking. Its members not only carried into distant countries 
 articles of barter, but they also had to observe the customs, 
 manners, and resources of the people whom they visited. 
 Clothed with diplomatic attributes, they were often less 
 traders than spies. Thus they cautiously felt their way 
 from tribe to tribe, from Indian fair to Indian fair, exchang- 
 ing their stuff for articles not produced at home, all the 
 while carefully noting what might be important to their own 
 tribe. It was a highly dangerous mission ; frequently they 
 never returnee! , being waylaid or treacherously butchered 
 even while enjoying the hospitality of a pueblo in which 
 they had been bartering." 
 
 We may be sure the setting out of such an expedition 
 would be celebrated in a formal manner.^ The safe return 
 was also an important and joyful event. The reception was 
 almost equal to that afforded to a victorious war-party. 
 After going to the temple to adore the idol, they were taken 
 before the council to acquaint them with whatever they had 
 
 ' " Fifth Annual Report Archseological Institute of America," p. 83. 
 ''Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. II, p. 389. 
 
706 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 learned of importance on their trip. In addition to this, 
 their own gens would give them approprinte receptions. 
 From the nature of things but little profit remained to the 
 trader. They had no beasts of burden, and they must bring 
 back their goods- by means of carriers; and the number of 
 such men were limited. Then their customs demanded that 
 the most highly prized articles should be offered up for re- 
 ligious purposes ; besides, the tribe ^nd the gens each came 
 in for a share. But the honors given were almost as great 
 as those won in war. 
 
 The Mexicans had regular markets. This, as we have 
 already stated, was on territory that belonged to the tribe ; not 
 to any one gens alone. Hence the tribal officers were the 
 ones to maintain order. The chiefs of the four phratries were 
 charged with this duty. The market was open every day, but 
 every fifth was a larger market.^ They do not seem to have 
 had weights, but counted or measured* their articles. In these 
 markets, or fairs, which would be attended by traders from 
 other tribes, who, on such occasions, were the guests of the INIex- 
 icans, and lodged in the official house, would be found the vari- 
 ous articles of native manufacture : cloth, ornaments, elaborate 
 featherwork, pottery, copper implements and ornaments, and 
 a great variety of articles not necessary to enumerate. 
 
 We must now briefly consider their arts and manufac- 
 tures. Stone w\as the material principally used for their 
 weapons and implements. They were essentially in their 
 Stone Age. Their knives, razors, lancets, spear and arrow- 
 heads were simply flakes of obsidian. These implements 
 could be produced very cheaply, but the edge was quickly 
 spoiled. Axes of different varieties of flint were made. 
 They also used flint to carve the sculptured stones which 
 we have described in the preceding chapter. They also had 
 
 » Bancroft's "Native Race.s," Vol. IT, p. ?^2o. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 707 
 
 some way of working these big blocks of stone used in 
 building. But they were not unacquainted with metals — 
 the ornamental working of gold and silver had been carried 
 to quite a high pitch. Were we to believe all the accounts 
 given us of their skill in that direction, we would have to 
 acknowledge they were the most expert jewelers known. 
 How they cast or moulded their gold ornaments is unknown. 
 They were also acquainted with other metals, such as cop- 
 per, tin, and lead. But we can not learn for what purpose 
 they used lead or tin, or where they obtained it.^ 
 
 Cortez, in one of his letters, speaks of the use of small 
 pieces of tin as money. But we have already seen that 
 the natives had not risen to the conception of money. 
 They certainly had copper tools, and bronze ones. It seems, 
 however, that their bronze was a natural production and not 
 an artificial one — that is to say, the ores of copper found in 
 Mexico contain more or less gold, silver, and tin. So, if 
 melted, just as nature left them, the result would be the 
 production of bronze.^ They were then ignorant of the 
 knowledge of how to make bronze artificially. This shows 
 us that they had not attained to a true Bronze Age; and 
 yet the discovery could not have been long delayed. Sooner 
 or later they would have found out that tin and copper 
 melted together would 
 produce the light copper (/•' 
 that experience had 
 taught them was the most 
 valuable. 
 
 The most important ^ Yucatan Axes. 
 
 tool they made of copper was the ax. The ax, in both 
 Mexico and Yucatan, was made as represented in this 
 
 ' Valentine : Proceedings Am. Antiq. Society, April, 1879, p. 90. 
 2 Ibid., p. 111. 
 
708 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 illustration. From their shape and mode of hafting them, 
 
 we see at once they are simply models of the stone ax; 
 
 and this recalls what we learned of the Bronze Age in 
 Europe. At first they contented them- 
 selves with copying the forms in stone. 
 
 ^^j^ \A Nature, everywhere, conducts her chil- 
 
 dren by the same means to the same 
 ends. This form of ax is a representa- 
 arpen era x. ^.^^ ^^ ^ carpenter's hatchet. The next cut 
 
 is from the Mendoza collection, and represents a carpenter 
 at work. He holds one of these hatchets in Ms hand, 
 and is shaping a stick of timber. The 
 cut below represents a form of copper 
 tool found in Oaxaca, where they 
 were once used in abundance. The 
 supposition is that this implement was 
 used for agricultural purposes — proba- 
 bly as a hoe. The pieces of T-shaped 
 copper said to have been^used as money, 
 
 T . ,. n f- 11 • J. 1 Mexican Carpenter. 
 
 are diminutive lorms ot this same tool. 
 
 The statement is sometimes made that they had a way of 
 
 hardening copper. " This," 
 says Mr. Valentine, " is a hy- 
 pothesis, often noted and 
 spoken of, but which ranges 
 under the efforts made for 
 explaining what we have no 
 positive means to verify or to 
 ascertain." The presence of 
 metals necessarily implies 
 some skill in mining; but their ability to mine was certainly 
 very limited. Gold and silver were collected by washing the 
 sands. We do not know how copper was mined ; the probabili- 
 
 
 Copper Tool. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 709 
 
 ties are that this was done in a very superficial way. When- 
 ever, by chance, they discovered a vein of copper, they prob- 
 ably worl^ed it to an easy depth, and then abandoned it. 
 M. Charney speaks of one such locality, discovered in 1873. 
 In this case they had made an opening eleven feet long, five 
 feet wide, and three feet deep. To judge from appearances, 
 they first heated the rock, and then perhaps sprinkled it 
 with water, and thus caused it to split up.^ This is about 
 all we can discover of their Metallic Age. It falls \evy far 
 short of the knowledge of metallurgy enjoyed by the Euro- 
 peans of the Bronze Age; and, with the exception of work- 
 ing gold and silver, it was not greatly in advance of the 
 powers of the North American aborigines.^ Certainly no 
 trace of mining has been discovered at all on the scale of 
 the ancient mines in Michigan. 
 
 A few words as to some of their other arts, and we will 
 pass on to other topics. In manufacturing native pottery, they 
 are spoken of as having great skill. The sedentary Indians 
 everywhere were well up in that sort of work.^ They knew 
 how to manufacture cotton cloth, as Avell as cloth from 
 other articles. We have stated that paper furnished an im- 
 portant article of tribute. They made several kinds of paper. 
 One author states that they made paper from the membrane 
 of trees — from the substance that grows beneath the upper 
 bark.* But they also used for this purpose a plant, called 
 the maguey plant. This was a very vnluable plant to the 
 aborigines, since we are told that the natives managed to ex- 
 tract nearly as great a variety of useful articles from it as 
 does an inhabitant of the East Indies from his cocoa palm. 
 Amongst other articles, they made paper. For this paper, 
 
 * North American Review, Oct. 1880, p. 310. 
 
 ^ See " Copper Age in Wisconsin," in Proceedings American Antiqua- 
 rian Society, No. 69, p. 57. ' Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. 11, p. 483. 
 
 * Proceedings Am. Antiq. Society, Oct., 1881, p. 66. (Valentine.) 
 
 43 
 
710 TSS PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 we ar© told, "the leaves were soaked, putrefied, and the 
 fibers washed, smoothed, and extended for the manufacture 
 of thin as well na thick paper,"^ 
 
 They used feathers for plumes, fans, and trimmings for 
 clothing. The articles the Spaniards are most enthusiastic 
 in praising is that variety of work known as feather mosaic. 
 They took very great pains with this sort of work. The 
 workman first took a piece of cloth, stretched it, and 
 painted on it, in brilliant colors, the object he wished to re- 
 produce. Then, with his bunch of feathers before him, he 
 carefully took feather after feather, arranging them accord- 
 ing to size, color, and other details, and glued each feather 
 to the cloth. The Spanish writers assert that sometimes a 
 whole day was consumed in properly chocsing and adjust- 
 ing one delicate feather, the artist patiently experimenting 
 until the hue and position of the feather, viewed from dif- 
 ferent points, and under different lights, became satisfactory 
 to his eye.^ 
 
 This disregard of time is a tlioroughly Indian trait of 
 character. Years would be spent in the manufacture of a 
 choice weapon. The impression is given that these feather- 
 workers formed a craft, or order, and that they lived by 
 themselves. But this would be such an innovation on the 
 workings of the gens that there is probably no foundation 
 for it. 
 
 We will now consider the subject of religion. We can 
 never judge of the real state of culture of a jicdiik! I)y their 
 advance in the arts of government and of living alone. 
 Constituted as men are, they can not help evolving, in the 
 course of time, religious conceptions, and the result is (hat 
 almost all the races and tribes of men have some system 
 
 ' Proceedings Am. Antiq. Socioty, Oct., 1S81, p. GO. (.Viilcntine.) 
 ' Bancroft's " Native Races," Vol. II, p. 489. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 711 
 
 of belief, or, at any rate, some manner of accounting for the 
 present ootid itiou of affairs, and some theory as to a future 
 state. It is true that these theories and beliefs are often 
 very foolish awd childish, still they are not ou that account 
 devoid of interest. From our present standpoint, we can 
 clearly see that the religious belief of a people is a very 
 good index of their culture. At first such conceptions are 
 necessarily rude, but as the people advanced in culture, 
 they become clearer. 
 
 Fearing that we will be misunderstood in the last state- 
 ment, we will state to whom it applies. The Christian 
 world hold that God revealed himself to his chosen people, 
 and that we draw from his Word what is permitted mortals 
 to know of his government and the future world. We 
 make no question but that this is true. But long before 
 there was a Hebrew people there was a Paleolithic race, 
 who doubtless had some vague, shadowy, ill defined idea of 
 supernatural power, and sought, in some infantile way, to 
 appease the same. Afterwards, but long before the glories 
 of Solomon, a Neolithic people were living in Palestine, and 
 the same culture was wide-spread over the world. To tliis 
 day a large part of the world's inhabitants have never so 
 much as heard of the Christian religion. It is to such peo- 
 ple that we especially refer. 
 
 The religious beliefs of the Indians have not been fully 
 studied as yet; but, until that is done, it is scarcely possi- 
 ble to understand and fully weigh what is said as to the 
 religious beliefs of the Mexicans. What we can discern of 
 the religion of the Nahua and Maya tribes shows us that 
 it is not at all probable they had reached a stage of devel- 
 opment in which they had any idea of One Supreme, Over- 
 ruling Power. But our scholars differ on that point, many 
 contending that the Mexicans distinctly affirmed the exist- 
 
712 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ence of such a God.^ To form such conceptions implies a 
 power of reasoning on abstract topics that is vain to expect 
 of a people in their state of development. We think, there- 
 fore, that the idea that they had such a belief, arises from a 
 misconception. Let us see if we can discover how that was. 
 
 Nearly all of the North American tribes had some word 
 to express supernatural power. The Iroquois used ibr this 
 purpose the words "oki" and "otkon."- The first meaning 
 of these words is "above." As used by these Indians, how- 
 ever, they expressed the working of nny unseen, mysteri- 
 ous, and, therefore, to them, supernatural power. There 
 was, however, no idea of personality or of unity about it. 
 Other Indian tribes had words to express the same meaning. 
 The English and French explorers translated these words 
 into their languages in various ways. The most common is 
 the rather absurd one of " medicine," which has passed into 
 common use. Thus, to mention one in very frequent use, 
 we have tlie expression "Medicine-men" — meaning their 
 priests and conjurers. The same custom prevailed among 
 the higher class of sedentary Indians of Mexico and Cen- 
 tral America. The Aztecs used the word "teotl" to express 
 the name meaning; the Mayas, the word "ku;" the Peru- 
 vians, "huaca." But the word used, in each case, meant 
 not so much a personal supreme-being as it did an ill-defined 
 sense of supernatural, mysterious power. This point not 
 being clearly understood, it was quite natural that the early 
 writers understood by these various expressions their name 
 of the First Cause. 
 
 In the present state of our knowledge, it is certainly 
 
 ' Bancroft's " Native Races," Vol. Ill, pp. 182-109. In tliis connection, 
 see also Bandelier: "An Ardireological Tonr in Mexico," p. 185, note 2. It 
 seems tliat none of tlie early writers s])eak of such a belief. Tlie idea of one 
 single CJod is first found in the writings of Ixtilxochitl. 
 
 •Brinton's "Myths of the New World," p. 45. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 713 
 
 very h;ird to give an intelligent statement of the religious 
 conceptions of the Maya and Nahua tribes. Among the 
 Nahuas, their conception of creative power was that of a 
 pair — a man and wife. These were not the active agents, 
 however — they engendered four sons, who were the creators. 
 This seems to be a widely extended form of tradition. Two 
 authors, writing about fifty years after the conquest, speak 
 of the four principal deities and statues. They had a great 
 many idols besides — but four were the principal ones. 
 
 It would be very satisfactory could we frame some the- 
 ory to account for this state of things. If we could only 
 be sure that each god was symbolic of some of the elements — . 
 or, if we could only say that this was but another instance 
 of the use of the number "four" — and thus connect them 
 with the cardinal points, it would be very satisfactory to 
 many. The amount of study that has been bestowed on 
 this question is very great, and it is very far from being 
 settled. Each of these four was the principal, or guardian, 
 deity of a particular tribe.^ All of these appear in native 
 traditions as historical personages, as well as deities. It is 
 for this reason that Mr. Bandelier concludes that the " four 
 principal gods were deified men, whose lives and actions be- 
 came mixed up with the vague ideas of natural forces and 
 phenomena."^ 
 
 As prominent a figure as any in Central American My- 
 thology is Quetzalcobuatl ; and we can form a good idea of 
 the force of the preceding remarks by considering this case. 
 The name is a compound of two words, "quetzal-cohuatl" — 
 and is, says Mr. Bandelier, a fair specimen of an -Indian 
 personal name. He tells us that the meaning is "bright," or 
 
 • Tezcatlipoca, the tutelar deity of Tezcuco; Huitzilopochtli, the tutelar 
 deity of Mexico; Camaxtli, the tutelar deity of Tlaxcala ; Quetzalcohuatl, the 
 tutelar deity of Cholula. 
 
 ^Bandelier: "An Archjeological Tour in Mexico," p. 188. 
 
714 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 "shining snake." Others have translated it, "feathered ser- 
 pent." We have referred to the attempt to show that the 
 tablet of the cross, at Palenque, had reference to him. Those 
 who think he was the nature-god of the Nahuus find a great 
 deal of significance in the name.^ Mr. Bundelier, after care- 
 fully considering all reference to him by the early writers 
 shows that it is quite as likely that Quetzalcohuatl " was a 
 man of note, whose memory was afterward connected with 
 dim cosmological notions." It is plain that our idea of the 
 culture of the Mexicans will vary according as we consider 
 the base of this myth to be a man, or the forces in nature 
 producing the fertilizing summer rain.^ 
 
 The worship of Quetzalcohuatl was very widely ex- 
 tended ; but it was mostly confined to the Nahua tribes. 
 But there are somewhat similar traditions among the Maya 
 tribes; and this is one of those few points which, like the 
 similarity of their calendar systems, seems to point to a 
 close connection in early times. The Quiches have a very 
 similar myth. Briefly, it is to the effect that four principal 
 gods created the world. One of these was named Gucu- 
 matz — meaning, also, shining, or brilliant snake. Some think 
 that this is the same personage as Quetzalcohuatl, and from 
 this fact show how true it is that the operations of the 
 forces of nature everywhere affect the minds of men in a 
 similar manner.^ Others will not, however, go as far as this, 
 and will only say there is a similarity between the two 
 characters. The tribes in Yucatan also have a tradition of 
 Cuculcan, whose name means the same as the two already 
 mentioned. The authority who refers to him speaks of 
 him only as a man. The Quiche legend, alrendv referred to, 
 
 ■ This subject is fully treated of in Brinton's "Myths of the New AVorld." 
 ' " Aiiionf; tlio Indians it is very easy to hocomo doifiod. The dcvr-lnjjinont 
 of the Montoziiiiia myth among the Puelilo Indiiiiis of New Mcxicii is jui in- 
 stance." (Bandelicr.) ' Brinton's " Myths of the New WoiM." 
 
TEE CVLTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 7 15 
 
 speaks of Gucumatz only as a god. The Nahua traditions 
 of Quetzalcohuatl, as we have seen, are confused accounts of 
 a man and a god. 
 
 The traditions having reference to the earthly career of 
 Quetzalcohualt represent him as having considerable to do 
 with Tulla and Cholula. At TuUa he appears in the light 
 of a great medicine-man, or priest; at Cholula, as a sachem. 
 Still other traditions represent him as a great and successful 
 warrior. None of these characters are incompatible with 
 the others, from an Indian point of view. These traditions 
 are so hopelessly confused, that it is doubtful if any thing 
 of historical value can be gained from them. As a deity, 
 he was worshiped as god of the air or wind. Why he should 
 be so considered is answered in various ways. If, reasoning 
 from his name, we choose to believe he is a nature-god — Jis 
 such standing for the thunder-storm, clouds of summer — 
 then, as the winds "sweep the path for the rain-clouds," he 
 would be considered their god. Also, following out this line 
 of thought, we can see how, as the god which brings the fer- 
 tilizing summer rain, he would be considered the god of 
 wealth, and the patron deity of traders. 
 
 We must not lose sight of the fact that all these tradi- 
 tions are most wofully mixed; that, since the conquest, 
 many ideas from other than native sources have been en- 
 grafted on them; and, furthermore, that other explanations 
 that are worth considering can be presented. The horticul- 
 tural tribe located at Cholula had Quetzalcohuatl for their 
 tutelar deity. Their crops depend upon the timely descent 
 of the rain. What more natural than that they should regard 
 such rains as sent by him? This pueblo was also famous for 
 its fairs. " By its geographical position, its natural products, 
 and the industry of its people," it became a great trading 
 market. Near it was raised cochineal dye, in large quanti- 
 
716 TSE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 ties. This was eagerly sought after by traders from a dis- 
 tance. Cholula was also famous for its pottery. The Tlax- 
 ealtecos told Cortez that the inhabitants of Cholula were a 
 tribe of traders ; what more natural, then, than that their 
 tutelar deity should become, in the eyes of foreign tribes, 
 the god of traders.^ 
 
 Quetzalcohuatl was but one of the four principal gods. 
 The tutelar deity of the Mexicans was Huitzilopochtli. Ilis 
 altars were almost daily wet with the blood of sacrificed 
 victims. No important war was undertaken, except with 
 many ceremonies he was duly honored. If time were so 
 short that proper care could not be bestowed on the cere- 
 monies, then there was a kind of deputy god that could be 
 served in a hurried manner that would suffice.^ After a suc- 
 cessful battle, the captives were conducted at once to his 
 temple, and made to prostrate themselves before his image. 
 In times of great public danger, the great drum in his tem- 
 ple was beaten. The Spaniards, by dire experience, knew 
 well the meaning of that awful sound. 
 
 The plate opposite represents what was probably the idol 
 of Huitzilopochtli. "It was brought to light in grading the 
 Plaza Mayor in the City of Mexico in August, 1790. It 
 was near the place where the great Teocalli stood, and Avhere 
 the principal monuments of Mexico were. They were 
 thrown down at the time of the conquest and buried from 
 sight. It is an immense block of bluish-gray porphyry, about 
 ten feet high and six feet wide and thick, sculptured on 
 front, rear, top, and bottom, into a most complicated and 
 horrible combination of animal, human, and ideal forms.""' 
 This idol is generally stated to be that of the goddess of death. 
 
 'Bjmilclicr: "An Arohjcoloprical Tour in Mexico," pp. 1G8-213. 
 » BaniToft's "Nalivo Kncos," Vol. Ill, ]>. 2<)S, note 9. 
 ""American Antiquarian," January, 1883, p. 78. 
 
HUITZILOFOCHTLI. 
 
 717 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 719 
 
 But Mr. Bandelier, after carefully reviewing all the author- 
 ities, concludes that it represents the well known war-god 
 of the Mexican tribe.^ 
 
 To properly conduct the services in honor of these 
 various gods, required established rites and a priesthood. 
 What we call "Medicinemen" wizards, and names of similar 
 import among the northern tribes, were more correctly priests. 
 There was no tribe of Indians so poor but what they had 
 these priests. But we would expect this office to increase 
 more in power and importance among the southern Indians. 
 Among the Iroquois, we are told each gens elected certain 
 "keepers of the faith." These included persons both male 
 and female. Their principal duty was to see that the feast 
 days were properly celebrated. From what we know of the 
 gens we feel confident that they would be perfectly in- 
 dependent in religious matters as well as in other respects. 
 Consequently it is not probable that there was even in 
 Mexico any hereditary caste of priests.^ 
 
 However set aside, or chosen, or elected, we have every 
 reason to believe that the organization of the priesthood was 
 systematic. The aspirant for the office had to acquaint 
 himself with the songs and prayers used in public v,?orship, 
 the national traditions, their principles of astrology, so as to 
 tell the lucky and unlucky days. When admitted to the 
 priesthood, their rank was doubtless determined by meri- 
 torious actions. Successes in war would contribute to this 
 result as well as sanctit3% a priest who had captured 
 several prisoners ranking higher than one who had captured 
 but one, and this last higher than the unfortunate who had 
 
 ' "An Archseological Tour in Mexico," p. 67. ' 
 
 ^"Peabody Musenm Reports," Vol. 11, p. COO. Dr. Brinton in "Myths 
 of the New World," p. 281, gives some instances Hint might be thought to 
 show the contrary. But even in those extracts we notice tiie parties had to 
 deserve the office, and that in no case was it confined to certain persons. 
 
720 TSE PREHISTORIC WORLD, 
 
 taken none.^ We must not forget that war was the duty 
 of all among the Mexicans. The priests were not in all 
 cases exempt; part of their duties may have been to care 
 for the wounded. It is. not likely that the priests of any 
 one god ranked any higher than the priests of others, or 
 had any authority over them. 
 
 This body of priests of whom we have just treated con- 
 cerned themselves a great deal with the social life of the 
 Mexicans, and their power was doubtless great. Their 
 duties commenced with the birth of the child, and con- 
 tinued through life. No important event of any kind was 
 undertaken without duly consulting the priests to see if the 
 day selected was a lucky one. The Nahuas were, like all 
 Indians, very superstitious, so there was plenty of work cut 
 out for the priests. Into their hands was committed the art 
 of explaining dreams, fortune-telling, astrology, and the ex- 
 planation of omens and signs. Such as the flight and songs 
 of birds, the sudden appearance of wild animals; in short, 
 any unexpected or unusual event, was deemed of sufficient 
 importance to require in its explanation priestly learning. 
 In addition there was the regular routine of feasts.^ We 
 have seen what a multitude of gods the Nahuas worshiped. 
 Like all Indian people, they were very fond of feasts and 
 gatherings of that character; therefore feast days in honor 
 of some one of the numerous deities were almost constantly 
 in order, and every month or two were feasts of unu.'^ual 
 importance. The most acceptable sacrifice to these gods, 
 and without which no feast of any importance was complete, 
 was human life. 
 
 This introduces us to the most cruel trait of their char- 
 acter. It was not alone true of the Mexicans, but of all the 
 
 ' Bancroft: "Native Races," Vol. Ill, p. 335. 
 * Bancroft: "Native Races," Vol. II, p. 500. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 721 
 
 Niihua tribes and of the Mayas, though in a less degree. 
 On every occasion of the least importance victims were 
 sacrificed. Any unusual event was celebrated in a similar 
 manner. Before the departure of a warlike expedition, the 
 favor of Huitzilopochtli was sought by the sacrifice of human 
 life ; on the return of the same, similar scenes were enacted. 
 On all such occasions the more victims the better. These 
 victims were mostly captives taken in war, and wars were 
 often entered into for the express purpose of procuring such 
 victims. They were even made a subject of tribute. De- 
 vout people sometimes offered themselves or their children 
 for the sacrifice. The number of victimai^ of course, varied 
 from year to year, but it is possible that it counted up into 
 the thousands every year. 
 
 What we are able to gather from the religious beliefs of 
 the civilized nations sustains the conclusions we have already 
 arrived at in reference to their culture. We can but believe 
 this had been greatly overrated. It is the religion of bar- 
 barians, not of a cultivated and enlightened people the his- 
 torians would have us believe in. It is a religion in keeping 
 with the character of the people who had confederated to- 
 gether for the purpose of compelling unwilling tribute from 
 weaker tribes. It is in keeping with what we would expect 
 of a people still in the Stone Age, who still practiced com- 
 munism in living, and whose political and social organization 
 was founded on the gens as a unit. 
 
 It will not be out of place to devote some space to a 
 consideration of their advance in learning; and first of all 
 let us see about their system of counting or numeration. 
 This knowledge, as Mr. Gallatin remarks, must necessarily 
 have preceded any knowledge of astronomy, or any effort 
 to compute time. They must have known how to count the 
 days of a year before they knew how many days it con- 
 
722 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 tained. We all know how natural it is for a child to count 
 by means of his fingers. This was undoubtedly the first 
 method employed by primitive man. Pioof of this is found 
 in the wide extended use of the decimal system. Among 
 tlie civilized nations, traces of this early custom are still 
 preserved in the meaning of the words used to express the 
 numbers. 
 
 To express the numbers up to twenty, small dots or circles 
 were used — one for each unit. For the number twenty they 
 painted a little flag ; for the number four hundred, a feather ; 
 and for eight thousand, a purse or pouch. The following 
 table represents the method of enumeration employed by the 
 Mexicans. But it is necessary to remark they used different 
 terminations for different objects.^ 
 
 Substantially the same system of numeration prevailed 
 among all the Nahua tribes and the Mayas. It will be 
 seen from this table that the only numbers having simple 
 names are onej two, three, four, five, ten, fifteen, twenty, four 
 hundred, and eight thousand. The other names are com- 
 pounds of these simple names. It is also easy to understand 
 their method of pictorial representation. In reference to the 
 flag, the feather, and the purse, we must remark that, when 
 these were divided into four parts, only the colored parts 
 were counted. The collective number, used among them 
 much as we use the word dozen, was always twenty; but 
 queerly enough their word for twenty varied according to 
 the object to be counted. The regular word given in the 
 table was "pohualli." In counting thin o1)jo('ts that could 
 be arrauQ-ed one above the other, the word twontv was 
 "pilli." Objects that were round and plump and thus re- 
 
 ' Mr. Bandelior remarks tliat the numbers from five to ten should he 
 macnil-pa-oc-ce, etc. We give the same table as both Mr. Gallatin and Jlr 
 Bancroft. 
 
M:E;XICA.IM system or NUIVIERATlOISr. 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 40 
 100 
 
 200 
 400 
 800 
 1000 
 
 8000 
 
 MKXICAN 
 
 N A .\1 K. 
 
 Ce or ceni. 
 
 PICTORIAI, 
 SIUN. 
 
 Ome. 
 
 Yey or ey. I 
 
 Nal\ni. 
 
 Macuilli. 
 
 Chico a ce. 
 
 Chic ome. 
 
 Cbico ey. 
 
 Chxo nahui. 
 
 Matlactli. 
 
 Matlactli oc 
 ce. 
 
 Matlactli 
 oni ome. 
 
 Matlactli 
 cm ey. a 
 
 Matlactli o 
 nahui. 
 
 Ca.xtolli. 
 
 CaxtoUi oc 
 ce. 
 
 Cempohualli. 
 
 Cempohualli 
 ihiian mat- 
 lactli. 
 
 I 'em pohualli 
 
 ihuan cax- 
 
 tolli. 
 
 Ome pohu- 
 alli. 
 
 Macuil po- 
 liLialli. 
 
 Matlactli po- 
 hiialli. 
 
 Cen tzontli. 
 
 Ome tzontli. 
 
 Ome tzontli 
 
 ihuan matlac 
 
 tli pohualli. 
 
 Xiquipilli 
 
 • • o • e 
 9 • • • • 
 
 « • • * e 
 • • • • * 
 
 • s • • • 
 
 • • • • « 
 
 p 
 
 \" 
 
 EQinVA 
 
 LE.S i. 
 
 5+1 
 
 5+2 
 
 5t3 
 
 5+4 
 
 10 fl 
 
 10+2 
 
 10 1 3 
 
 10+4 
 
 15+1 
 
 1x20 
 
 1x20+10 
 
 lx20+!£ 
 
 2x20 
 
 5x20 
 
 10x20 
 
 1x400 
 
 2x400 
 
 2x400 + 
 10x20 
 
 8000 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 The word for five means " clinched hand," or all the 
 fingers en a hand. 
 
 They set their dots for units in sets of five. 
 
 Notice from si.\ to nine we have the ordinary num- 
 bers from one to four with a prefix, the meaning of 
 which, though not very plain, is "with one side." 
 
 A new word, meaning " upper part of the body.' 
 
 Notice we have for the numbers from eleven to four- 
 teen, inclusive, the word for ten; and the words for 
 the numbers from one to four, inclusive, joined by the 
 words oc, om, or o, evidently used as conjunctions. 
 
 A new word, meaning unknown. 
 
 For seventeen, eighteen, and nineteen, we vv ui) 
 have the word caxtolli connected with the words from 
 one to forr, inclusive So they need not bf given. 
 
 This word iiohualli means a "count " Twenty was 
 their base. In some languages the word for man nieans 
 twenty also. Cem is the word for one. 
 
 We have the words for twenty and ten connected by 
 the word ihuan. evidently used as the word om ( above i. 
 The flag meant twenty. When divided inio ibuiparts, 
 each colored part, meant five; in this case we use halt 
 the flag. The words to express thirty-five, forty, and 
 one hundred can easily be made out. 
 
 A feather is the proper sign for frur hundred. Half 
 a feather sometimes meant two hundred, or use ten 
 
 flMgS. 
 
 The word tzontli means the " hair of the head. 
 
 The words for eight hundred and two hundred con- 
 nected by "ihuan." 
 
 The pictorial sign is apurse supposed to contain 8,r00 
 grains of cocao. 
 
 723 
 
724 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 sembling a stone, were counted with "tetl" for twenty, and 
 other words for dilierent objects.^ • 
 
 The division of time or their calendar system, is one that 
 was ihonght to show great advance in astronomical learn- 
 ing, but of late years it has been shown that this also was 
 overrated. This question of how to keep a record of time 
 w;is a difficult one for primitive man to solve; that is, when 
 he began to think about it at all. A long while must have 
 elapsed, and considerable advance in other respects been 
 made before the necessity of such a thing occurred to them. 
 The increase and decrease of the moon would form a natural 
 starting point. It is well known that this is about as far as 
 the knowledge of the Indians extended. The Maya word 
 for month means also moon, showing this was their earliest 
 system of reckoning time.^ 
 
 The various Nahua and Maya tribes of Mexico and Cen- 
 tral America had reached about the same stage of develop- 
 ment. But their calendar system is so similar that it 
 affords a strong argument of the original unity of these 
 people.^ All of the civilized tribes had months of twenty 
 days each, and each of these days had a separate name, 
 which was the same for every month of the year. This 
 period of twenty days was properly their unit of time 
 reckoning. It is true they had smaller divisions,^ but for 
 all practical pur[)Oses, they were ignored. As none of these 
 tribes possessed the art of writing, they had to represent 
 these days by means of hieroglyphics. The preceding table 
 
 ' For autlioritics on this subject see Giillatin in " Amorican Ktlinolopiical 
 Society's Transactions," Vol. I, p, 49 ; Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. II, p. 
 497; Valentine, in Am. Antiq. Soc. Prncee(iin<rs, Oct., 1880, p. (it. 
 
 ^ Perez " Clironolofry of Yucatan," in Stepliens's " Yucatan," Vol. I, p. 435. 
 
 'See Valentine : " The Katunes of ^laya History," in Proceedinjis Am. 
 Antiq. Soc, October, 1879, p. 114. 
 
 ' We refer to the ilivision of jQve days, not to the thirteen day period, of 
 which we will soon speak. 
 
TABLE OK DAYS. 
 
 MAYA. 
 
 Kan, . . 
 
 Chicchan, 
 
 Quimij, 
 
 Manik, 
 
 Lam at, 
 
 MULUC, 
 
 Oc, . 
 
 Chuen, 
 
 Eb, 
 
 Been, 
 
 Gix, . . 
 
 Men, . 
 
 Quib, 
 
 Caban, . 
 
 Edznab, 
 
 Cavac, 
 
 Ahau, 
 
 Ymix, 
 
 Yx, 
 
 Akbal, 
 
 © 
 
 MEANING. 
 
 Snake. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Death. 
 
 Swiftness. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Monkey. 
 
 Staircase. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Wizard. 
 
 Builder (?). 
 
 Gum, or 
 Wax. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Unknown. 
 
 Chief. 
 
 Dragon. 
 
 Breath, or 
 
 Wind. 
 
 Household. 
 
 MEXICAN. 
 
 Cipac, . 
 
 Ehecatl, . 
 
 Calli, . . 
 
 Quetzpalin, 
 
 Cohuatl, 
 
 Miquitzli, 
 
 Matzatl, . 
 
 TOCHTLI, 
 
 Atl, . . 
 
 Itzcuintli, . 
 
 Ozomatl, 
 
 Malinalli 
 
 ACATL, . 
 
 Ocelotl, 
 
 Quauhtli, 
 
 Gozcaquauhtli 
 
 Ollin, . . 
 
 Tecpatl, 
 
 Quiahuitl, 
 
 Xochitl, . 
 
 SIGNS. 
 
 XT 
 
 ^^ 
 
 i^ 
 
 (P^1 
 
 n 
 
 MEANING. 
 
 Monster. 
 
 Wind — A croco 
 dile head with 
 open jaws. 
 
 House-A Mex 
 lean house. 
 
 Lizard. 
 
 Snake. 
 
 Skull. 
 
 Deer. 
 
 Eabbit. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Dog. 
 
 Monkey. 
 
 Knot, or 
 Twist. 
 
 Cane. 
 
 Wild-cat, or 
 Tiger. 
 
 Eagle. 
 
 Vulture. 
 
 Motion. 
 
 Flint. 
 
 Rain. 
 
 Flower. 
 
726 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 shows the Mexican and Maya days, the meaning of each, 
 and the pictorial sign by which they were represented. We 
 must notice that the Maya hieroglypics look more arbitrary, 
 more conventional than the Mexican. This is interestiui;-, 
 because some of our scholars now believe the Mayas were 
 the inventors of the calendar. Their hieroglyphics, there- 
 fore, as being the older of the two, should appear more con- 
 ventional. In the Mexican hieroglyphics fur the days, we 
 can still trace a resemblance to the natural objects they rep- 
 resent; in the Maya hieroglyphics, this resemblance has 
 disappeared. 
 
 It is not out of place to theorize as to the facts already 
 mentioned. The first thing that strikes us is that they 
 should have chosen twenty days for a unit of time. There 
 must have been some reason lying back of this selection. 
 It would have been more natural for them to h;ive chosen a 
 number of days (say thirty) more nearly corresponding to 
 the time from one new moon to another. Whether we shnll 
 ever learn the reason for choosing this number of days is 
 doubtful ; but Mr. Bandolier has given us some thoughts on 
 this subject, which, though he is careful to state ni-c not 
 results, but mere suggestions, seem to us to have some germs 
 of truth, the more so as it is fully in keeping with Indian 
 customs. 
 
 He points out that many of the names for these days 
 mean the same as the names of the gens in the more north- 
 ern Indian tribes. Thus seven of the days have the same 
 meaning as the names of seven of the nine gons of the 
 Moqui tribe in Arizona. He, therefore, suggests that the 
 names of these twenty days are the names of the twenty 
 gens of the aboriginal people from whom have descended 
 the various civilized tribes under consideration. Indeed, 
 this is expressly stated to be the method of naming tlio 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 
 
 727 
 
 days adopted by the Chiapanecs, one of the tribes in ques- 
 tion.^ 
 
 As soon as the people commenced to take any observa- 
 tion at all, they would perceive that it took just about eight- 
 een of these periods of twenty days to make a year. So 
 the next step appears to have been the division of the year 
 into eighteen months. These months received each a name, 
 
 POP. UO» Zlf^. TZ02r. TZECk 
 
 XUL, 
 
 YAXKIN. MOU CHEN. 
 
 YAX; 
 
 aAC. 
 
 CEH. 
 
 MAC. KAN KIN. 
 
 cVIUAN; 
 
 PAX. 
 
 KAYAB. 
 
 CUMHU. 
 
 ,«2 
 
 MAYA MONTHS. 
 
 and were of course designated by a hieroglyphic. The 
 names of the Mexican months seem to have been deter- 
 mined by some of the feasts happening therein. There is 
 great diversity among the early writers both as to the names 
 of these months, and the order in which they occur, as well 
 as by the hieroglj'phics by which they are represented.^ It 
 
 ' Bandelier: Peabody Museum Reports." Vol. II, p. 579. Note 29. 
 
 ^ Mr. Bancroft, " Native Races," p. 508, gives a table showing the varia- 
 tion of authors in this respect. Gallatin " American Ethnological Society's 
 Transactions," Vol. I, p. 66, says, " the published hieroglyphics are dissimilar 
 
 in many respects." 
 
 44 
 
728 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 does not seem worth while to give their names and meaning. 
 We give a plate showing the name, order in which they occur, 
 and hieroglyphic symbol of the Maya months. In point of 
 fact, the months were very little used, as we shall soon see it 
 was not necessary to name the month to designate the day ; 
 but of that hereafter. 
 
 But it would not take these people very long to discover 
 that they had not hit on the length of a year. Eighteen 
 months, of twenty days each, make only three hundred and 
 sixty days; so the next step would be to add on five 
 days to their former year. As these days do not make a 
 month, they were called the nameless days. They were 
 considered as being unlucky — no important undertaking could 
 be commenced on one of them. The child born therein was 
 to be pitied. But we will see that the expression, '-name- 
 less days" was hardly the case among the Mayas, though it 
 was among the Mexicans. 
 
 Perhaps this will be as good a place as any to inquire 
 whether they had exact knowledge of the length of the 
 year. As every one knows, the length of the year is three 
 hundred and sixty-five and one quarter days, or very nearly ; 
 and for this reason we add an extra day to every fourth 
 year. We would not expect to find this knowledge among 
 tribes no farther advanced than we have found these to be. 
 If, as our scholars suspect, the Maya be the one from which 
 ihe others were derived, they would be apt to possess this 
 knowledge, if known. Perez, however, could find no ti-ace 
 of it among them/ Many authors have asserted that the 
 Mexicans knew all /il^o.^t it. Some say they added a day 
 every four years; others, that they waited fifty-two years, 
 and then added thirteen day.s.; and some, even, give tlicm 
 credit for still closer knowledge, g,n,d say they added twelve 
 
 •Stephens's "Yucatan," Vol. I, p. 438, 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 729 
 
 and one-half days every fifty -two years.^ Prof. Valentine, 
 who has made their calendar system a special study, con- 
 cludes that they knew nothing at all about the matter.^ 
 
 The beginning of the year is variously stated. Among 
 the Mexicans it seems that, while the authors differ very 
 much, all but one places it on some day between the second 
 day of February and the tenth of April. As their word for 
 year means "new green," it is probable they placed its 
 commencement about the time new grass appeared. The 
 Mayas are said to have placed the commencement of the 
 year about the sixteenth of July. As this happens to be 
 just about the time that the sun is directly overhead in Yu- 
 catan, it has been surmised that the natives took astronom- 
 ical observations, and tried to have their year commence at 
 that time. But it must be manifest that, if they did not 
 possess a knowledge of the true length of the year, and so 
 make allowance for the leap-year, in the course of a very few 
 years they would have to revise this date. 
 
 Refer once more to the Maya table of days. Suppose 
 the first day of the year to commence with the day Kan. 
 As there are twenty days in a month, we see that the second 
 month would also commence with Kan. In like manner, Kan 
 would be the first day of every month of that year. When 
 the eighteen months were past, there would still remain the 
 five days to complete the year. Now, although they were 
 said to be nameless days, the Mayas gave them names. The 
 first day was Kan, the second day Chichan, the third day 
 Quimij, the fourth day Manik, the fifth day Lamat. The 
 regular order of days we see. They were now ready to 
 commence a new year. 
 
 The next day in the list is Muluc. This becomes the 
 
 1 Bancroft's "Native Races," Vol. IT, p 51,3, note 15. 
 ^ Proceedings Am. Antiq. Sociely, April, 1878, p. 99. 
 
730 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 first day of the first month of the new year. But, being 
 the first day of the first month, it was the first day of every 
 month of that year. At the end of the eighteen months of 
 that year, the five days would have to be named in their 
 order again, which would carry us down to Gix, the first day 
 of the first month of the third year. It would also be the 
 first day of every month of that year. Similarly we see 
 that Cavac would be the fiist day of every month of the 
 fourth year. The fifth year would commence again with 
 Kan. So we see that four of these twenty dnys became of 
 more importance than the others. The years were named 
 after them. The year in which the month commenced with 
 Kan was also called Kan. The same way with the other 
 diiys. So the name of the year was either Kan, Muluc, 
 Gix, or Cavac. These four d;ivs were called "carriers of 
 the year;" because they not only gave the name to the year, 
 but because the name of the year was also the name of the 
 first day of every month of that year. 
 
 The foregoing will help us to understand the Mexican 
 method. Let us refer now to the list of Mexican da3's. The 
 first day of the first month was Cipac. For the same reason 
 as above set forth, this would be the first day of every 
 month of the year. The five extra days either were not 
 named at all, or at any rate they were not counted off in the 
 table of days. The consequence was that Cipac was the 
 first d.iy of every month; for we have just seen that it 
 was the first day of every month of the first year. At 
 the end of the eighteen months the five nameless days 
 would come in; but, as they did not form ])art of a month, 
 were not named. The first day of the first month of tlie^ 
 next year would be named as if they had not occurred.^ 
 But, when they came to name the years, wc find thoy pro- 
 
 ' Gallatin: "American lltlinological Soc. Tr:ii\s.," N'dl. I. p. 71. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 731 
 
 ceeded on exactly the same principle as the Mayas. Thus 
 four of the twenty days, occurring just five days apart, were 
 taken to name the years. These days were Tecpatl, Calii, 
 Tochtli, and Acatl.^ 
 
 Mr. Bandelier, who made the valuable suggestion in re- 
 gard to the origin of the names of the days, has also sug- 
 gested that, inasmuch as there are four of the days more 
 prominent than the others, they may signify four original 
 gentes, from which the others have come. It seem to us, 
 however, when we notice they are just five days apart, that 
 the system pursued by the Mayas in naming their years 
 explains the whole matter. 
 
 Before we mention the longer periods of time in use 
 among them we must refer to another mode of reckoning 
 time, and trace the influence of this second method on the 
 one already named. The method already explained seems 
 to have been a perfectly natural one — the second method is 
 founded on superstition. A large part of the duties of the 
 priests, we remember, was to determine lucky and unlucky 
 days, and in soothsaying. For this purpose they made a 
 peculiar division of time, which we will now try and explain. 
 
 For some cause or other, thirteen was a number contin- 
 ually recurring in their calendar. We can perceive no 
 reason why it should have been chosen. It has been sug- 
 gested that it was just about the time from the appearance 
 of a new moon to its full. Be that as it may, the num- 
 ber of days thirteen comes very near to what we would 
 call a week. Among the Mexicans, and probably among 
 the Mayas, these thirteen days were divided into lucky, 
 unlucky, and indifferent days, and were supposed to be 
 
 ' See Valentine, in Proceedings American Antiq. Societj', April, 1878, p. 
 106. Gallatin, who is also good authority, gives the order difl'erent, viz., 
 Tochtli, Aeatl, Tecpatl, Calli. 
 
732 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 under the guidance of different gods. The priests had reg- 
 ularly painted lists of them, with the deities which governed 
 them. These lists were used in fortune telling. 
 
 "VVe must now inquire as to how they kept track of the 
 years. The Mayas named their next longer period of time 
 an ahau. There is some dispute as to what number of 
 years it meant. Most of the early writers decide that it 
 was twenty years ;^ but Perez, whose work we have already 
 referred to, contends that it was twenty-four years. And 
 this conclusion seems to be confirmed by a careful study 
 of some of their old manuscripts.^ Thirteen of these ahaus 
 embraced their longest period of time, known as an ahau- 
 katun. It had a length of either two hundred and sixty 
 or three hundred and twelve years, according as we reckon 
 either twenty or twenty -four years to an ahau. It may be 
 that the length of an ahau varied among the different tribes 
 of the Mayas. 
 
 The Mexicans also had this week of thirteen days. 
 Twenty of these weeks, or two hundred and sixty days, 
 formed that part of the year they called the moon-reckon- 
 ing; the remainder of the year was the sun-reckoning. 
 Their longer period of time was also based on this number. 
 A period of thirteen years they called a tlapilli ; four of 
 these Gonstituted a cycle equal to fifty-two years. The end 
 of this cycle was anxiously awaited by the Mexicans. 
 They supposed the world was to come to an end on one of 
 these occasions. As the time drew near, the furniture was 
 broken, the household gods were thrown into the water, the 
 houses were cleaned, and finally, all the fires were extin- 
 guished. As the last day of the cycle drew to a close, the 
 
 ' Valentine: Proceedings Am. Antiq. Soc, Op ., 1870, p. S4, rl srQ. 
 'Thomas: "A study of the Manuscript Troano," in "Contrihufions to 
 North American Ethnology," Vol. V, p. 29. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 733 
 
 priests formed a procession, and set out for a mountain 
 about six miles from Mexico. There an altar was built. 
 At midnight a captive, the bravest and finest of their pris- 
 oners, was laid on it. A piece of wood was laid on his 
 breast, and on this fire was built by twirling a stick. As 
 soon as fire was produced, the prisoner was killed as a sac- 
 rifice. The production of new fii'e was proof that the gods 
 had granted them a new period of fifty-two years. 
 
 To understand how the years in this cycle were arranged 
 and numbered, we must refer once more to the Mayas, for 
 though they did not use the cycle themselves, yet they give 
 us a hint as to how it was obtained, and afford one more 
 reason why we should think the Mayas were the originators 
 of this calendar system. We give a table showing the ar- 
 rangement of the days of the year among the Mayas. We will 
 take the year Kan — that is, we remember, when Kan was the 
 first day of every month. We would naturally think they 
 would describe a day by giving the name of the d:iy and 
 the month — as, the day Kan, of the month Xul, or the first 
 day of the month Xul — but instead of so doing, they made 
 use of the period of thirteen days. 
 
 For instance, we see, by looking at the table, that the 
 day ten Kan can not be any other day during the year than 
 the day above mentioned; so that, for all purposes, it is suf- 
 ficient to give the day and its number in the week. We 
 notice, however, that the last five columns of figures for 
 week days of thirteen are just the same as the first five. 
 But this did not confuse any, for the last five columns of 
 days belong to the "sun-reckoning," the others to the moon- 
 reckoning. And though the number of the day in the week 
 was the same, yet a different deity ruled over them than in 
 the corresjDonding days of the first five columns. We can 
 not affirm that we know this to be true of the Mayas. 
 
734 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 
 We see by looking 
 
 at this that all tliat is 
 
 necessary is to give 
 
 the name of the day 
 
 and its number in the 
 
 week to determine at 
 
 once what day of what 
 
 month it was, or what 
 
 day of the year it 
 
 was- For instance, 
 
 the day " four Kan " 
 
 can not be any other 
 
 day in the year than 
 
 first day of the seventh 
 
 ith ; or, as there are 
 
 nty days in the niontli, 
 
 one hundred twenty- 
 
 t of the year. But it 
 
 lid be necessary to 
 
 w whether the day be- 
 
 j;ed to the moon rcck- 
 
 ig or to the sun reck- 
 
 ig. In the Aztec 
 
 em this was deter- 
 
 ed by the hieroglyj)hic 
 
 he deity governing the 
 
 . Some such system 
 
 st have been in use 
 
 )ng the Mayas. 
 
 
 •a: 
 
 LU 
 
 >• 
 
 o 
 
 >- 
 «c 
 o 
 
 UJ 
 
 3: 
 t- 
 
 O 
 :<: 
 
 o 
 
 1— 
 
 LU 
 
 > 
 
 LlJ 
 CQ 
 
 o 
 1— 
 
 >- 
 
 a: 
 
 <: 
 
 CO 
 CO 
 
 LU 
 
 u 
 
 LU 
 
 z 
 
 1— 
 o 
 
 z 
 
 IxJ 
 
 h- 
 O 
 
 z 
 1— 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 3: 
 (— 
 z 
 O 
 E 
 u. 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 LU 
 
 E 
 «S 
 Z 
 
 Nameless 
 days 
 
 O r-. I'l O; .-H 
 
 the 
 mo 
 twt 
 the 
 firs 
 wo I 
 kn( 
 
 oni 
 on! 
 syst 
 mill 
 of t 
 day 
 mu 
 anu 
 
 < 
 
 2 Cumku .. 
 
 CO -i- lO » 1^ 00 C-. O .-^ C-1 t*3 ^ I<I CO Tf lO O l^ 00 C5 
 
 6 
 1 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 iC 
 
 u' 
 
 u 
 
 a: 
 
 Z 
 
 D 
 
 i; Kayab.... 
 
 o;o--iiM05rH(Mco-*io<£)t^ooaiO-^Mror-i-) 
 
 r— <i— •r-H*-* I— II— 11— »>«.. 
 
 2 Pax 
 
 IMCO'*lOCOI^~OOC50.-i'Mr>3r-IMeO'<*"U5wt^OC 
 I— 1 I— t I— 1 T-«» 
 
 < 
 
 S Moan 
 
 00030>-llMC>5r-ie<ICOTt<iOi»t^00030i-llN05rH 
 
 I— II— (!—(**• T— ll— II— 1*^ 
 
 S Kaiikin.. 
 
 i-l(NC0-t"lCCDI^00C5O'-'MtV3i-l(MC0-!j<i-0C0I^ 
 
 > 
 
 < 
 
 2 Mac 
 
 l:^OOC;0^'M03,-i(MCC'*lC»t^OOC3Ci-i'M03 
 
 I— ir-tn^>^ i-^i— II— 1*-* 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 S Quej 
 
 03 rt (M CO -f lO --C t- 00 a; O .^ IM Co .-i(N CO ^ LC -o 
 >^ ^^ I— 1 I— ) »*. 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 S Zac 
 
 COt^OOOOr-^'MOji-lNCO-^lOCOt^OOOSOrt^M 
 
 5 Yaax 
 
 C-105,-iC<>CO-*ii5COt>00050'-<<MOjr-l(NCO-*iC 
 
 ^-11-, — 1 ^^ I— 1 >^ 
 
 » Dclien.... 
 
 iCCOr^00030rt(M05r-HMCO-*lOCOt^00050i-l 
 1 — ^ I— 1 I— ( *^ I— 1 f— t 
 
 CO Mol 
 
 i-IC<ltV5i-l(MC0rJ<i0Ol:^0003O"!MCt5>-((MC0Tt< 
 I— 1 I— 1 >^ I— 1 1— 1 I— ( »^ 
 
 < 
 < 
 
 Dze-yax- 
 - kin 
 
 -*<io:ot^oocr:o-j<M03^0'icO'fi-':cor^ooC30 
 
 r-l r-H ,-1 »^ I— 
 
 o Xul 
 
 O'-i'Mf>3^<MC0Tt<lft<£)t^0005O — 'MOji-'C^CO 
 
 I— II— II— 1^ I— (I— Ir-i^ 
 
 o Zeec 
 
 CO-*iO»t^OOaiO.--IM03^<MCO-*lOOt^0003 
 I— 1 ^^ ,— I *-* 
 
 <: 
 
 f Zodz 
 
 OSO-^MOji-ltNCO-^iCOI^OOOJOf-IIMOSr-IIM 
 
 
 » Zip 
 
 C^)CO-*iOOt-»00050i-i'Mf>5i-<<MC'0-^iO«Dt^CC 
 
 — I— I f— 4 *•• 
 
 
 M Uoo 
 
 00C:O'--'Mr>3i-llMC0-*»O'ffll^00ClO^'Mt»3'- 
 
 
 - Pop.. 
 
 r^ c-i CO -r lO » t^ CO cs o --< c^i oj .-1 c-> CO -t lO o 1^ 
 
 !—• rH I— I *.. 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 V. 
 
 — -M ^o -MO • 
 
 ot^ccc:o — 'Mco-riO--rr-xo:c? 
 
 
 
 ■ ' 
 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 
 
 735 
 
 Such, however, we know to be the case among the 
 Mexicans.^ 
 
 Now we notice in this ahnanac that the hist day of the 
 year Kan, is number one of the week. As the count goes 
 right along, the first day of the next year, Muluc, must be 
 number two. If we would make an almanac for that year, 
 we would find the first day of the third year would be num- 
 ber three of the week. If we weie to continue this, we 
 would find that the first days of the years would range 
 from one to thirteen. This table shows the number in the 
 week of the first day of the first fourteen 
 years. The first day of the fourteenth year 
 would be number one of the week again, but 
 this time one Muluc, and not Kan. If we 
 would continue our researches, we would 
 quickly discover that fifty-two years would 
 go by before we would have a year Kan in 
 which the first day of the year would be num- 
 ber one n2:ain. 
 
 We think the above explains the origin of 
 the Mexican cycle of fifty-two years. The 
 Mayas either never had this cycle, or had 
 abandoned its use.^ The Mexicans, however, 
 used this period of time, and they numbered their years in 
 it in such a way that we can not explain it, unless we sup- 
 pose they derived it in some such a way as just set forth. 
 We give a table showing the order of the years in a cycle, 
 and also notice that all that was needed was the number 
 and name of the year to sliow at once what year of the 
 cycle it was. The year seven Calli, for instance, could 
 
 ^ According to the teachings nf the Mexican priests nine deities iroverned 
 the days. They had j>ainted lists of these weeks, and the deities governing 
 each. 
 
 ■^ Valentine : Proceedings Am. Antiq. Soc, Oct., 1879, p. 85. 
 
 002; 
 "^ 7 S 
 
 YEAKS. 
 
 - ft 
 
 
 1 
 
 Kan. 
 
 2 
 
 ]\Iuluc. 
 
 3 
 
 Gix. 
 
 4 
 
 Oavac. 
 
 5 
 
 Kan. 
 
 6 
 
 Muluc. 
 
 7 
 
 Gix. 
 
 8 
 
 Cavac. 
 
 9 
 
 Kan. 
 
 10 
 
 Muluc. 
 
 11 
 
 Gix. 
 
 12 
 
 Cavac. 
 
 13 
 
 Kan. 
 
 1 
 
 Muluc. 
 
736 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 never be any other year than the twentieth year of the 
 cycle. ^ 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF YEARS IN A MEXICAN CYCLIC. 
 
 NO. 
 
 NAME OF THE YEARS. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 3 
 4 
 5 
 6 
 7 
 8 
 9 
 
 10 
 11 
 12 
 13 
 
 Tocbli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Tpcnatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Tocbli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Calli 
 
 TecDatI 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Acatl 
 
 Calli 
 
 Tochli 
 
 Acatl , 
 
 Tecpatl 
 
 Tecnatl 
 
 Toohli 
 
 Acalt 
 
 Calli 
 
 
 
 
 To express the dates, they of course painted the hiero- 
 glyphic of the day, and dots for the number of days. This 
 cut, for instance, expresses the day-date " seven Acatl." 
 I • They generally wrote the dots in sets of 
 five. Seven was sometimes expressed in 
 the above manner. When they wished to 
 express a year-date, they made a little frame 
 Day Date. g^j^jj painted in the hieroglyphics of the 
 year, and dots for the number. This date 
 here expressed is their thirteen Acatl, which, 
 by the above table, is seen to be the twenty- 
 sixth year of tlie cycle. 
 
 We have already dwelt too long on this 
 part of the subject. Glancing back over the 
 ground, we see there is nothing implying astronomical 
 knowledge, more than we would expect to find among 
 a rude people. We find there are several particulars 
 
 ' In this table we have followed IMr. Gallatin. Accordin<j to Prof. Vnlcn- 
 tine, the order of the years is different. Thi.s, however, is immaterial to an 
 understanding of the system. 
 
 Year Date. 
 
CALEilDAH STONE. 
 
 788 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 739 
 
 of the Mexican system which we could not understand, 
 except by reference to the Maya system. It would 
 bother us to explain why they should choose the days 
 Tochli, Acatl, Tecpatl, and Calli, to be the names of 
 their years, if we did not know how the Mayas proceeded. 
 We would be at a loss to explain why they choose the 
 number of fifty-two years for the cycle, and arranged their 
 years in it as they did, if we had not learned the secret 
 from the construction of the Mayas' almanac. From this 
 comparison, we should say the Mexican calendar was the 
 simpler of the two. As the Mayas had twenty days in the 
 month, and, for priestly use, weeks of thirteen days, so 
 they took twenty years, which, as they imagined, were sup- 
 ported by four other years, as a pedestal for their next 
 longer period, the ahau; and for apparently no other reason 
 than that they had weeks of thirteen days, they took thir- 
 teen of these ahuas for their longest period of time. They 
 did not use the cycle of fifty-two years, but they numbered 
 their years in such a way that, in effect, they were pos- 
 sessed of it. The Mexican did away with all but the cycle 
 of fifty-two years. 
 
 No account of the calendar system of the Mexicans 
 would be complete without reference to the so-called calen- 
 dar stone. The stone, the face of which is sculptured as 
 represented in this cut, was dug up from the square in front 
 of the cathedral of the City of Mexico, where it had been 
 buried in 1557. When the temple was destroyed, this stone 
 still remained entire. Finally the authorities, fearing it at- 
 tracted too much attention from the natives, ordered it 
 buried. It was brought to light again in 1790, but its early 
 histoiy was completely forgotten. The astronomer Gama 
 pronounced it a calendar stone, and his interpretation of the 
 characters enijraved on it have been the foundation for the 
 
740 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 idea that the Mexicans had considerable knowledge of as- 
 tronomy.^ !Prof. Valentine and others have, however, shown 
 that it was simply a sacrificial stone, which the artist had 
 <lecorated in a peculiar manner. This stone is considered 
 by some to be so important that we will condense Prof. Val- 
 entine's description of it as being the best at hand. Not all 
 of our scholars accept it, however. The central figure is the 
 face of the sun-god. It is decorated in a truly savage style. 
 It has ear-rings, neck-chain, lip-pendant, feathers, etc. The 
 artist's design has been to surround this central figure 
 with all the symbols of time. We notice on each side of 
 the sun a small circle or oval with hieroglyhics resembling 
 claws. In Mexican traditions these represent two ancient 
 astrologers who were supposed to have invented the calen- 
 dar. According to Nahua traditions of the world, there had 
 been four ages of the world ; at the end of each age, the 
 world was destroyed. Right above and below the ovals 
 with the claws, we see four squares containing hieroglyphics. 
 
 Each of these squares refers to one of the destructions 
 of the world. The upper right hand square contains the 
 head of a tiger. This represents the first destruction of 
 the world, which was by tigers. The four dots seen in this 
 square do not refer to a date as they generally do; it is a 
 sacred number, and constantly reappears in all hieroglyphics 
 referring to feasts of the sun. To the left of this square, 
 crowded between it and the pointer, can be seen the hiero- 
 glyphic of the day Tecpatl. The little dot is one, so this 
 day one tecpatl probably refers to the day in which the 
 feast in reference to this destruction was celebrated. The 
 second age was terminated by a hurricane. The upper left 
 hand square containing the hieroglyphic for wind refers to 
 this destruction. Between this square and the pointer is 
 
 ' Gallatin : "Am. Eth. Soc. Transactions," Vol. I, p. 94, el srq. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 741 
 
 crowded in the hieroglyphic of one Calli, referring to the 
 feast in memory of this destruction. The third destruction 
 of the world was by rain, the lower left hand square con- 
 taining the hieroglyphic of rain. Below, not very distinctly, 
 is the date of this feast, one quiahuitl. The last destruction 
 was by water, represented by the lower right hand square. 
 The date of this feast as represented below is seven Ozomatl.^ 
 
 Passing out of this central zone we notice the hierogly- 
 phics for the days of the month arranged in a circle. The 
 A shaped ray from the head of the sun indicates where 
 w^e are to commence to read ; and we notice they must be 
 read from right to left. Resting on this circle of day, we 
 notice four great pointers not unlike a large capital A. 
 They are supposed to refer to sunrise, noon, sunset, and 
 midnight. Next in order after the days we notice a circle 
 of little squares, each containing five dots. Making allow^- 
 ance for the space covered by the legs of the pointers just 
 mentioned, there are found to be two hundred and sixty of 
 these days ; they, therefore, refer to the days of the moon 
 reckoning. We notice four smaller pointers not quite so 
 elaborate as those already referred to, resting in this circle. 
 They probably refer to smaller divisions of the days. The 
 next circle contains a row of glyphs not unlike kernels of 
 corn. One hundred and five are represented on this circle; 
 they refer to the days of the sun reckoning. 
 
 Resting on this circle of days are small towers ; they, 
 like the smaller pointers, refer to divisions 
 of the day. Adjoining each of these lit- ' 
 tie towers is a figure ; this cut represents 
 one of them. We notice they form a cir- ^^°^ °* ^^"^• 
 cle extending clear around the stone. The meaning of this 
 
 ' Thus says Prof. Valentine. The cast of this stone in the Smithsonian 
 Institution gives the date eight, instead of seven Ozomatl. 
 
(42 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Sign of a Cycle. 
 
 circle is gathered from other painted records. It represents 
 a rain storm; four drops are seen falling to the ground. The 
 ground is cultivated, as shown by the three ridges ; a grain 
 of corn is represented lying on the ground. This band on 
 the stone is in honor of the rain-god. 
 
 There remains only to explain the outer row or band. 
 At the bottom is a rude representation of two heads with 
 helmets. The meaning of these figures is 
 unknown. From each of these figures ex- 
 tend in a semicircle a row of figures of 
 this shape, ending with pointers at the top, 
 between which is a year-date. Near the 
 points on each side is what might be de- 
 scribed as four bundles tied together. Each 
 of the small figures just described is the representation of a 
 cycle of fifty-two years. 
 
 The date on the top is the year date, Thirteen Acatl. 
 This is an easily determinable date. From Mexican paint- 
 ings, we know the conquest of Mexico occurred in the 
 year Three Calli. From this tracing their years back by 
 the table given on page (736), we would find that the first 
 Thirteen Acatl we meet was in the year 1479. This is ex- 
 actly the date when, according to tradition, the great temple 
 was finished, and this -stone dedicated by bloody sacrifices. 
 If we count the number of signs for cycles, we find that 
 there are just twelve on each side, twenty-four in all. As 
 the artist could easily have made this number more or less, 
 the probabilities are that it means something. The most 
 plausible explanation is, that in the year 1479, they had 
 traditions of twent^'-four cycles. But this number of cycles 
 is equivalent to twelve hundred and forty-eight years, whicli 
 would carry us back to about the year 281, A. D., which 
 date we must bear in mind: not that wc think thcic is anv 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 
 
 743 
 
 scientific value to it, but for its bearing on other matter at. 
 the close of the chapter/ 
 
 We come now to consider the subject of their picture 
 writings. The germ of writing is found in the rude at- 
 tempts to assist the memory to recall past events. Some of 
 the northern Indian tribes resorted for this purpose to belts 
 of wampum. When a new sachem was to be invested with 
 office among the Iroquois, the historical wampum belts were 
 produced; an old man taking them in hand, and walking back 
 and forth, proceeded to "read" from them the principles of 
 the confederacy. In this case, particular events were con- 
 
 "•u, 
 
 * V''^'4!i 
 
 
 Indian Picture Writing. 
 
 nected with particular strings of wampum.^ Pictorial repre- 
 sentation would be the next stage. At first the aim of the 
 artist would be to make his drawings as perfect as possible. 
 A desire to save labor would soon lead them to use only the 
 lines necessary to show what was meant. This seems to be 
 about the stage of picture writing, reached by some Indian 
 tribes, who have left here and there specimens carved on 
 
 ' For information on the Calendar Stone, consult, "American Ethnological 
 Society's Transactions," Vol. I, p. 94, et seq. ; Bancroft's " Native Races," Vol. 
 II, chap, xvi, and p. 755, et seq. ; Valentine : American Antiquarian Society's 
 Proceedings, April, 1878, p. %2, et seq. ; Short's "North Americans of Anti- 
 quity," p. 419, et seq. 
 
 2 Morgan's "Ancient Society," p. 143. 
 
744 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 rocks. This cut is a specimen of such writing from the 
 canon of the San Juan in Arizona. Although quite inqjos- 
 sible to read it, there is no doubt but what it expressed a 
 meaning at the time it was engraved. 
 
 From this stage of development wouhl naturally ari.-e 
 symbolical paintings. Thus "footsteps" might signify the 
 idea of going. A comma-shaped figure, issuing from a per- 
 son's mouth, would stand for speech. The next 
 step is what we might call rebus-writing, where 
 not the thing itself was meant but the sound. Thus 
 this cut represents Chapultepec — meaning grass- 
 ciiapuuepes. hopper-hill, or locust mount. It is evident, here, 
 the pictures, of the objects represent the name. They, prob- 
 ably, did not use this principle farther than to represent the 
 proper names of persons and things before the coming of 
 the Spaniards. 
 
 Some think that, in addition to the above, the Mexicans 
 used, to a very limited extent, a true phonetic writing — 
 one in which the figures refer not to the thought, but to the 
 sound of the thought.^ Others are not ready to concede 
 that point. They could not have been further along 
 than the threshold of the discovery, at all events. The 
 Spanish missionaries were very desirous of teaching the 
 Indians the Pater-noster, the Ave-Maria, and the Credo. 
 Either the Indians themselves, or the priests (probably the 
 Vjy latter), hit on the device of using 
 painted symbols for the words and syl- 
 Vcj^ lables of the church prayers and foim- 
 Amen. ulas. Thus in this manner was paintoil 
 
 the word Amen. The first sign is tlie conventional figure 
 for water, in Mexican "atl," which stood for A. For the 
 second syllable they put the picture of a maguey plant, in 
 ' Brinton : " Introduction to the Study of tlie Mniinscript Tronno." 
 
 # 
 
&" 
 
 €i 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 vN2 
 
 S 
 
 
 1 
 
 0/ 
 
 
 -> 
 ■Q 
 
 (V* 
 
 .-^ 
 
 ^-^&^.? 
 
 U 
 
 
 i^. 
 
 ^'"'^ 
 
 
 ooxo p 
 
 o 
 
 fl l^feTSIf 
 
 
 3 
 
 746 
 
 HISTORICAL SHEET. 
 
THE CULT U HE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 
 
 747 
 
 Mexican "metl." The whole, then, was "atl-metl," which 
 was as near as they could express the word amen. We 
 must observe, that this was after the conquest.^ 
 
 The plate opposite is one of the paintings of the Men- 
 doza collection. This collection, we must remember, was 
 made after the conquest, simply to gratify the curiosity of 
 the King of Spain. The matter treated of is the events 
 connected with time -when Motecuma the fifth "chief-of- 
 men" held office. Around the edge we see the hiero- 
 glyphics of the years. We notice he was chief-of-men from 
 the year one calli to two tecpatl. About the only thing 
 recorded of him is the different pueblos he conquered. In 
 all he subdued thirty-three; but only eleven are shown in 
 this plate. The pueblos are indicated by a house toppling 
 over — flames issuing from under the roof. The other little 
 hieroglyphics are the names of the pueblos. The last one in 
 the second transverse line from the bottom is the hiero- 
 glphic of Chalco, which we thus learn was reduced to tribute 
 under this chief. All the events indicated in this cut took 
 place before the discovery of America.^ 
 
 A second part of this codex has reference to the tribute 
 received from various tribes. In this cut the left-hand figure 
 
 yis the hieroglyphic 
 of the town of Chi- 
 lapi, and is an excel- 
 lent representation of 
 their rebus- writing we 
 have just referred to. 
 
 Chilapi— Tribute. It IS a tub of Water, 
 
 on which floats a red-pepper pod. The Mexican word for 
 this last is chilli, for water it is "atl." The word "pa" 
 
 * Valentine : Proceedings of American Antiquarian Society, AprD, 1880. 
 " Gallatin : "American Ethnological Society's Transactions," Vol. I, p. 131. 
 
 45 
 
748 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 means above. For the full word we have "chilli-atl-pa." 
 Contracted, it becomes chilapi. The figure to the right is 
 the tribute. The five flags denotes one hundred. Below is 
 represented a copper ax-blade — from which we infer that 
 the Pueblo of Chilapi had to furnish a tribute of one hundred 
 copper axes. 
 
 A third part of this same collection refers to the Mexi- 
 can customs. In this cut we have represented the training 
 of a boy at the different ages of four, six, thirteen and four- 
 
 oooooo 
 
 o o o c 
 
 Child Trainir.g 
 
 teen years of age. The little round marks number the 
 years of his age. The little elliptical-shaped figures show 
 the number of tortullas the child is allowed at a meal. The 
 boy is trained to carry and make various thing.x, to row a 
 boat, and to fish. 
 
 The most interesting of Mexican picture-writings is the rec- 
 ord of their wanderings. This was formerly supposed to rep- 
 r<3«ent their migrations from Asia — but is now known to refer 
 (Onlj to their wanderings in the Valley of Mexico. Dc La- 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TBIBES. 
 
 749 
 
 field, in his "Antiquities of America," gives a full represen- 
 tation of this picture-writing. Bancroft's "Native Races," 
 Vol. II, pp. 548-49, give a very good reduced copy. We 
 vs^ill not attempt to re- 
 produce it all. This cut 
 represents the begin- 
 ning of it. A man is 
 seen crossing a stream 
 in a boat. The figure 
 behind him may mean 
 an island, on which are 
 represented some pueb- Migration chart. 
 
 los and human figures. On the opposite bank of the stream, 
 to which the footsteps lead, is the hieroglyphic of Culhua- 
 can, " the curved mountain." The year date of this move- 
 ment is "one tecpatl." The character within that of Cul- 
 huacan is Huitzilopochtli, their national god. The flakes 
 issuing from his mouth signify that he is guiding them. The 
 principal figures about this map are the hieroglyphic names 
 of various places where they stopped, and the time spent 
 at each place. 
 
 The Mayas seem to have been further advanced in the 
 art of writing than their Nahua neighbors. Specimens of 
 their hieroglyphic writings have been given in the preced- 
 ing chapter. The hopes of our scholars were greatly raised 
 when, in 1863, the announcement was made that there had 
 been discovered, in Madrid, a Maya alphabet, which, it was 
 expected, would unlock the mysterious tablets just men- 
 tioned. 
 
 The alphabet thus discovered is represented in the next 
 cut. It will be seen that some of the letters have a number of 
 different forms. This discovery was hailed as of the greatest 
 importance, and a number of scholars at once set about to 
 
750 
 
 THE PREJnSTORIC WORLD. 
 
 decipher the tablets. They were speedily undeceived. The 
 alphabet is, practically, of no help whatever. Prof. Valen- 
 tine even goes so far as to declare that this alphabet was not 
 
 of native oris-in. 
 
 d S 
 
 B 
 
 £ 
 
 C (q?j 
 
 H 
 
 CA (?) 
 
 '^ 
 
 ^ O :>;: 
 
 cS 
 
 LI 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 f 
 
 PP 
 
 KU X X 
 
 (dj or dz?) 
 
 U(?) 
 
 u 
 
 o-n_o 
 
 MA 
 (me, mo?) 
 
 Landa Alphabet. 
 
 ^ 
 
 TI 
 
 n 
 
 Sign of 
 Aspiration. 
 
 He thinks that Bishop Landa, who is the authority for 
 this alphabet, and who was Bishop of Yucatan from 1549 
 to 1579, being anxious to assist the natives in learning the 
 new faith, set about the manufacture of an alphabet for 
 
 ©them. This he did by having the natives paint 
 some native object which came the nearest to the sound 
 of our alphabet. Thus, for instance, this symbol there 
 ^^y^"^- are excellent reasons for supposing represents the 
 sun, or the word "day." The Maya word for this is te. We 
 
752 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 find that this is the symbol that Landa employs for the 
 letter T, only, in his drawing, the central dot has fallen into 
 the lower dashes. Nearly all the other letters can be traced 
 to a similar source.^ But the professor's reasoning does not 
 satisfy all. He is believed to be right in a number of his 
 identifications ; but still the characters might have been used 
 in a phonetic way.'' 
 
 There is no doubt but that the Mayas had a different 
 system than that in use among the Nahua people. The 
 knowledge how to use it was, probably, confined to the 
 priests ; and, furthermore, the system was, doubtless, a mixed 
 one. A few phonetic characters might have been used; but 
 they also used picture-writing. Plate on page 751 is a sample 
 of the manuscripts they left behind. It is in the nature of 
 a religious almanac, and refers to the feasts celebrated at the 
 end of a year. The line of characters on the left hand are the 
 days characters Eb and Been. In the lower division, a 
 priest offers a headless fowl to the idol on the left. In the 
 middle division, the priest is burning incense to drive away 
 the evil-spirit. In the upper division, the assistant, with 
 the idol on his back, is on his march through the village. 
 As yet, we know but very little about the tables. We 
 know the hieroglyphics of days and of months. 
 
 Examining the tablets in the Temple of the Cross, at Pa- 
 lenque, represented in opposite plate, we notice a large glyph, 
 at the commencment of the tablet, something like a capital 
 letter. This, Mr. Valentine thinks, represents the censers 
 which stood in the temples before the idols, in which fire 
 was constantly kept.^ Running through the tablets we no- 
 tice glyphs, in front of which are either little dots, or one 
 
 'Valentine: Amer. Antiq. Society's Transactions, April, 1880, pp. 59-91. 
 ' Rrinton's " Introduction to Study of manuscript Troans," p. xxvi. 
 3 American Antiquarian Society, April, 1881, p. 294. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 
 
 753 
 
 or more bars with little dots in front of them. These are 
 day-dates. The dots count one — the little upright bars, five. 
 
 Hieroglyphics— Tablet of the Cross. 
 
 The- probabilities are that this tablet is a sort of list of feast- 
 days in honor of the gods represented by the central tablet. 
 
754 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 As we have made a considerable effort to acquaint our- 
 selves with the social organization and customs of the va- 
 rious tribes, and have spent some time in learning the 
 details of their calendar system, and their advance in the 
 art of writing, it will not be out of place to inquire as to 
 their history — to determine, if possible, some of the dates 
 to be given for the arrival of the tribes, and some of the im- 
 portant points of their prehistoric life. Whatever difficul- 
 ties we have experienced in acquiring a knowledge of their 
 customs will be greatly increased now. Their architecture, 
 social organization, and general enlightenment could be per- 
 ceived by the conquering Spaniards, and our information in 
 regard to the same should have been full and complete. 
 We have seen, however, how meager it is. The only light 
 thrown on these disputed points is the result of the labors 
 of modern scholars. When we were made acquainted with 
 some of the first principles of Indian society, we could read 
 with profit the accounts of the early writers. 
 
 But, when we come to ask for dates in their history, we 
 are almost entirely at sea. The traditions, in this respect, are 
 almost worthless. So, all that we shall attempt to do, is to pre- 
 sent some of the thoughts of our scholars as to the probable 
 connection of the civilized tribes Avith each other, and what 
 value is to be given to the few dates at our command. We 
 will begin, first, with the Maya tribes. This includes those 
 tribes that speak the Maya language, and its dialects. It 
 was in their territory that the most striking ruins were 
 found. They include the tribes of Yucatan, Guatemala, 
 Chiapas, and Tobasco. Then there comes a break ; but they 
 were also settled on both banks of the River Panuco. Many 
 theories have been advanced as to the origin of the INTaj-as. 
 As yet, the question is not solved. 
 
 Not a few have supposed them to be the same as the 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 755 
 
 Mound Builders of the United States. Dr. Brinton has 
 pointed out that the hmguage of the Natchez ludianJi con- 
 tains some words of the Maya.^ A Mexican schohir, Seiior 
 Orozco-y-Berra, thinks it probable that the Mayas once occu- 
 pied the Atlantic sea-board of the United States; that they 
 passed from the peninsula of Florida to Cuba, and thence 
 to the other Caribbean Islands, and so to Yucatan. He states 
 that the traditions of the Mayas uphold this view.^ But 
 others are not ready to admit it. We have found a number 
 of points of resemblance between the Mayas and the Nahuas. 
 Differences we would, of course, expect to find ; but still 
 the points of resemblance are sufficiently strong to indicate 
 either that the tribes were once subject to the same influ- 
 ence, from whence they derived their culture, or else that 
 they are descended from the same stock. We have reverted 
 to the worship of Quetzalcohuatl, and shown how the Quiches, 
 under the name of Gucumatz, worshiped a similar deity. 
 We have also referred to the great similarity of the calen- 
 dar system. 
 
 From the limited space at our command, it is not possible 
 to refer to the traditions of the Mfiya tribes. We will refer 
 to but one manuscript bearing on this question ; but this is, 
 probably, the most important one. This manuscript was 
 written by a native with the Spanish letter, but in the Maya 
 langunge. It was written not far from the time of the con- 
 quest of Yucatan by the Spaniards, and the account is, 
 doubtless, as full a one, from the native stand-point, as can be 
 given. The period of time used by the author is Ahau, 
 which we have seen is either twenty, or twenty-four years. 
 
 Carefully going over this manuscript. Prof. Valentine ar- 
 
 ' " Myths (jf the New World." The doctor now tliinks his statement just 
 referred to too strong. Tliere is, indeed,. a resemblance, as he pointed out; but 
 it is not strong enough to found any theories on. 
 
 ^ yiiort's " North Americans of Antiquity," p. 474. 
 
756 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 rives at the following couclusious : About the year 137. A. 
 D., the Mayas started from some place they called Tulla, 
 or Tullapan, on their migration. Where this phiee was we 
 do not know. The traditions of all the civilized nations 
 refer to this place as a starting-point. It was a " land of abun- 
 d-ance." It may be that this was but some fabled place, such 
 as almost all primitive people have traditions of.^ About 
 the year 231, A. D., they arrived on the coast of Central 
 America, and spread themselves over a large part of it. This 
 same manuscript speaks of the "discovery" of Chichen- 
 Itza, 522, A. D. The date of the founding of Uxnial is 
 given as about the year 1000, A. D. From 1000 to 1200, 
 A. D., w'as the golden era of the Mayas in Yucatan. 
 
 The tribes at Uxmal, Mayapan, and Chichen-Itza formed 
 a confederacy of which Mayapan seems to have been the 
 head. About the year 1200, inter-tribal war broke out. It 
 seems to have been caused by the arrival of Nahua tribes, 
 who established themselves in Mayapan. They were finally 
 expelled, but they left the Mayas in sucli a state of ex- 
 haustion that they could not present a united front against 
 the Spaniards. Such are the conclusions of Prof. Valentine. 
 He estimates the length of an Ahau at twenty years, and 
 it does seem that the author of the manuscript used that 
 number of years.^ 
 
 Of the other branch of the civilized tribes we know but 
 very little. The historical picture writings of the Mendoza 
 
 ■ Rrinton's " Myths of the New World." 
 
 -This historical manuscript represents the traditions of the Maya people 
 shortly after the conquest. It is very likely its author had before liini picture 
 records of what he wrote. Such records have since (lisappeare<l. The manu- 
 script it.self, the interpretation of it, and Perez's remarks are found in Stephen's 
 "Yucatan," Vol. II, Appendix. The same in Bancroft's " Native Races," Vol. 
 V, p. fi28. The fullest and most complete discussion is hy Prof. Valentine in 
 Proceedinps Am. Antiq. Soc, October, 1879, p. 80, et scq. Whether there is 
 any thing worthy of the name of history is doubtful. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 757 
 
 collection, a collection compiled, remember, after the con- 
 quest, and, therefore, representing the traditions then current 
 among the Mexicans, takes us back to 1325, A. D., to the 
 first settlement in the Pueblo of Mexico. Sahagun, a Fran- 
 ciscan monk, who went to Mexico as early as the year 1529, 
 and remained there until his death in 1590, wrote a very 
 voluminous account of the Mexicans, their customs and his- 
 tory, and as he was in Mexico at the time when their tra- 
 ditions were still fresh in the minds of the natives, his 
 account is probably as good as any. He obtained his in- 
 formation in a very credible manner. He gathered together 
 some old Indians, well acquainted with the traditional history 
 of their country. They are supposed to have "refreshed" 
 their memory by inspecting a number of picture writings, 
 which have since disappeared. 
 
 It is manifest that this history is valuable, just in pro- 
 portion as the traditions are valuable. He makes one state- 
 ment that Prof. Valentine has dwelt upon with great ability. 
 He states that numberless years ago the first settlers came 
 in ships and landed at a northern port, which, from that 
 cause, was called Pauntla. This is supposed to be the 
 Panuco River. After they had settled here, a large part of 
 them, including their leaders and the priests, went off south; 
 Sahagun says as far as Guatemala. The party left behind 
 organized themselves into an independent body. They re- 
 constructed from memory the calendar ; they increased and 
 became powerful, until pushing over the mountain, they built 
 the pyramid of Cholula, and finally reached the x;ity of 
 Teotihuacan, where they built a central sanctuary. For 
 some reason they abandoned their homes, all except the 
 Otomies, and wandered off across the plains, and high, cold, 
 desert places, that they might discover new lands.^ 
 
 ' Proreedings Am. Antiq. Society, Oct., 1882. 
 
758 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 No dates are mentioned for these occurrences, and we are 
 not aware that this tradition is mentioned by other writers. 
 We recall that from the mouth of the Panuco River south- 
 ward, we found evidence of considerable population in olden 
 times. We also recall that in this section are the ruined 
 pyramids of Tuzpan and Papantla. Prof. Valentine is in- 
 clined to think that this date is referred to on the calendar 
 stone ; that is, 231 A. D. Just twenty-four cylcles elapsed 
 from this time to the date of the dedication of the calendar 
 stone in 1479 (page 742). 
 
 He also thinks that the Maya traditions refer to this 
 same occurrence. One more reference to this same mysteri- 
 ous date is contained in the traditions of the Tezcucan tribe. 
 According to the traditions, the beginning of things were in 
 the year 245 A. D. According to this view, then, the ancestors 
 of both Nahua and Maya people appeared on the gulf coast 
 about 231 A. D.; in the same place where a Maya-speaking 
 tribe :ire found to-day. From here those who developed 
 the Ma^a culture went to the south and south-west; those 
 who developed the Nahua went to the west and north- 
 west. 
 
 We do not profess to be a judge as to the value of this 
 tradition. Our scholars will, probably, at no distant day, 
 come to more definite conclusions in the matter. Prof. 
 Short thinks the strangers who at this early time made 
 their appearance on the gulf shore were colonies of Mound 
 Builders from the Mississippi Valley.^ We think it best to 
 be very cautious about coming to any such conclusions. 
 We must not forget that back of the twelfth century is 
 nothing but vague trftditions. Mr. Bandelier tells us that 
 "nothing positive can be gathered, except that even during 
 the earliest times Mexico was settled or overrun bv seden- 
 
 ' " North Americans of Antiquity," p. 578. 
 
THE CULTURE OF THE CIVILIZED TRIBES. 759 
 
 tary, as well as by nomadic tribes that both acknowledged 
 a common origin." ^ 
 
 The savage tribes have the general name of Chichimecas, 
 but by right this term ought to be applied to the sedentary 
 tribes as well; however, the word Toltec stands for these 
 sedentary tribes. We have all read about the great Toltec 
 Empire in Mexico. This is a ridiculous use of words. There 
 was no tribe or nation of people of the name of Toltecs.^ 
 All these prehistoric aborigines were probably Chichimecas; 
 but by Toltecs we refer to the sedentary tribes, the skillful 
 workers among them. If we are to judge any thing of tra- 
 ditions, the original home of these people were somewhere 
 to the north of Mexico. 
 
 There was doubtless the usual state of inter-tribal war- 
 fare, but after a prolonged period the sedentary tribes — the 
 Toltecs — were exterminated or expelled. Their successors 
 were utter savages, coming from the north also. We doubt 
 very much whether any date can be given for this event, 
 but traditions assign it to about the year 1064. Prof. Val- 
 entine thinks he finds a reference to it in the calendar ot 
 stone. If we will notice, in the outer band near the top are 
 four little bundles, or knots, in all, eight. We are told that 
 each of these bundles refers to a cycle of fifty-two years, 
 or in all four hundred and sixteen years. The date of the 
 inauguration of the stone is 1479. If we subtract the num- 
 ber of years just mentioned, we have the date 1063. 
 Whether this is simply a coincidence, or was really intended 
 to refer to that event, we can not say. 
 
 Considerable speculations have been indulged in as to 
 where the Toltecs went when driven out of Mexico. Some 
 have supposed they went to Yucatan, and that to them we 
 
 " " Peabody Museum Eeports," Vol. II, p. 387. 
 
 ^ Valentine : Proceedings Am. Antiq. Society, October, 1882, p. 209. 
 
760 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 are to look for the builders of the ruined cities. This is 
 the view of a very late explorer, M. Char ney.^ Some have 
 supposed we yet see certain traces of their presence in 
 Guatemala, where they helped to build up a great Queche 
 '' monarchy."^ But we know very little about it. It is 
 not probable that more than a feeble remnant of them 
 escaped with their lives. 
 
 From the same mysterions regions from where had is- 
 sued the aboriginal Chichimecas and Toltec people, there 
 subsequently came still other bands of sedentary Indians, 
 who finally came to settle around the lakes of Anahuac. 
 These settlers all spoke closely related dialects of tlie .same 
 language as their predecessors, the Toltecs. Finally the 
 Aztecs appeared on the scene, coming from the s;ime mys- 
 terious land of the " Seven Caves." According to their his- 
 torical picture-writings, they founded the Pueblo of Mexico 
 in 1325. It is somewhat singular that no record of this 
 event appears on the calendar stone. If the artist was in- 
 genious enough, as Prof. Valentine thinks he was, to rep- 
 resent the dispersion of the Toltecs in the eleventh century, 
 he surely would have found some way to refer to such an 
 important event as the founding of their Pueblo. From 
 this date the Mexicans steadily rose in power, until they 
 finally became the leading power of the valley.^ 
 
 ' North American Review, from Sept., 1880, to 1883. 
 
 2 Short's "North Amerioans of Antiquity," p. 218. 
 
 ^ This historical notice is a more outline. Such, however, is all we wished 
 to give. Those who wish for more details can not do better tluin to refer to 
 Mr. Bancroft's fifth volume on the ''Native Races." We <lo not believe, how- 
 ever, that any thing defiiiite is known of tlie early ])eriiids of which some 
 writers give such glowing dcscrij>tions. 'When they talk about the doings of 
 monarchs, the rise and fall of dynasties, and royal governors, we must re- 
 member the majority of the descriptive matter is mere nonsense, consequently 
 our faith in the dates given can not be very great. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 761 
 
 GH^PTER XVI. 
 
 ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 FiEST knowledge of Peru — Expeditions of Pizarro — Geography of Peru — 
 But a small part of it inhabitable — The tribes of ancient Peru — 
 How classified — Sources of our knowledge of Peru — Garcillaso De 
 La Vega — Origin of Peruvian civilization — The Bolson of Cnzco — 
 Historical outline — Their culture — Divided into phratries and 
 gentes — Government — Efforts to unite the various tribes — Their sys- 
 tem of colonies — The roads of the Incas — The ruins of Chimu — 
 The arts of the Chimu people — The manufacture of pottery — Exca- 
 vation at Ancou — Ruins in the Huatica Valley — The construction 
 of a Huaca — Tlie ruins at Pachacamac — The valley of the Canete — 
 The Ghincha Islands — Tiahuauuco — Carved gateway — The Island 
 of Titicaca — Chulpas — Ruins at Cannar — Aboriginal Cuzco — Tem- 
 
 ple of the Sun- 
 marks. 
 
 -The Fortress — General re- 
 
 EARLY part of the sixteenth century was 
 surely a stirring time in the world's his- 
 tory. The night of the Dark Ages was 
 passing off of the Old World ; the darker 
 gloom of prehistoric times was lifting from 
 off the New. Spanish discoveries followed 
 each other in rapid succession in the South. As 
 yet, they supposed these discoveries to be along 
 the eastern shores of Asia, but, in 1513, Balboa, from a 
 mountain peak, in Darien, saw the gleam of the great Pa- 
 cific, which intervenes between America and Asia. At the 
 same time he was informed there was a country to the 
 southward where gold was in common use, and of as little 
 value among the people as iron among the Spaniards. As 
 
762 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 gold was what the Spaniards most desired, we can imngine 
 how thej rejoiced OA'er such information. 
 
 The rich country of which Balboa was thus informed 
 was later known as Peru. Balboa himself did not attempt 
 its discovery. There was no lack, however, of those who 
 wished to achieve fame and fortune by so doing. Among 
 other restless spirits who had been attracted to the New 
 World, was Francisco Pizarro. He had been associated 
 with Balboa in founding the settlement of Darien, and, of 
 course, he was among the first to hear of the marvelous 
 country further south. In 1518, Panama, on the Pacific 
 coast, was made the seat of government for the Spaniards 
 in that section of the country. Pizarro was one of the 
 first there — his services had been rewarded by the grant of 
 an estate. The historian of his expedition speaks of him 
 as "one of the principal men of the land, possessing his 
 house, his farm, and his Indians.'"^ We need not doubt but 
 wLat he often pondered over his knowledge of the rich coun- 
 try south. He was well acquainted with Indian character, 
 and knew that a small band of resolute Europeans, possessed 
 of fire-arms, could sweep every thing before them. 
 
 He could not endure the quiet life on his estate, and so 
 he obtained from the governor permission to explore the 
 coast of the South Sea to the eastward. He spent a large 
 part of his fortune on a good ship and the necessary sup- 
 plies for the voyage, and finally set sail from Panama in 
 November of 1524. It needed a man of no common spirits 
 to withstand the disappointments of the next few years. 
 In less than a year this ship returned to Panama for rein- 
 forcements. Pizarro himself and a few of his men remained 
 at a place not very far from Panama. Here he was joined 
 
 'Xeres: "Report on the Discovery of Porn," Markham's translation, 
 Haliluyt Society's Publication. 
 
46 
 
 76;^ 
 
764 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 by reinforcements under Almagro. Undismayed by his first 
 experience, he again sailed southward along the coast. 
 Xeres's brief account is as follows : " When they thought 
 they saw signs of habitations, they went on shore in their 
 canoes they had with them, rowed by sixty men, and so 
 they sought for provisions. They continued to sail in this 
 way for three years, suffering great hardships from hunger 
 and cold. The greater part of the crew died of hunger, in- 
 somuch that there were not fifty surviving. During all 
 these years they discovered no good land; all was swamp 
 and inundated land without inhabitants." 
 
 This expedition accomplished nothing further than to 
 obtain definite information as to Peru. Pizarro's grant from 
 the governor having expired, and the further fact that he 
 had spent all his fortune in these unsuccessful expeditions, 
 made it necessary for him to go to Spain. Received by the 
 emperor with favor, clothed with ample authority, he was 
 able to raise men and money, and finally sailed from Panama 
 in 1531 on his third and successful expedition for the con- 
 quest of Peru. Thus was made known to the world what 
 is regarded as the most wonderful example of native civili- 
 zation in the two Americas. 
 
 The dawn of history for Peru was the sunset of her 
 native culture. In a few short years what has come down 
 to us as the Empire of the Incas was completely over- 
 thrown; the enslaved Indians were groaning under the 
 weight of Spanish oppression; the demolition of her ancient 
 monuments had already begun, and romance, tradition, and 
 wonder had already thrown their subtle charms around the 
 ruins. The old customs and usages were on the sudden 
 <lropped, a new culture was forced upon the unwilling na- 
 tives, and prehistoric Peru, though distant but a few years 
 in time, was as completely separated from historic Peru as 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 765 
 
 is the culture of the Neolithic Age in Europe from that of 
 the early historic period. 
 
 The magician's wand in the" fairy stories of olden day's 
 did not present results more bewildering in their changes 
 than did the operations of the Spaniards in Peru. All accounts 
 unite in praising the government of ancient Peru. There is 
 probably no question but what the government the Spaniards 
 overthrew was one far better adapted to the wants of the 
 native inhabitants than the one they forced them to accept. 
 But when we read the accounts of that government as set 
 forth by the early writers, we are at a loss to know what 
 to believe. There is such an evident mixture of fables, 
 traditions, and facts, that the cautious student hesitates, and 
 asks what support thq researches of later scholars give to 
 these early writers. We doubt whether we have to this 
 day clear ideas of the culture of ancient Peru. This is to 
 be regretted. There is no question but that here was the 
 highest development of the Indian race in America. If we 
 accept the accounts given us, here rose an empire which will 
 not suffer by comparison with the flourishing empires of 
 early times in Oriental lands. Let us try and learn what 
 we can of this culture, and see wherein it differed from that 
 of the civilized tribes already discussed. 
 
 We must, first of all, acquaint ourselves with the physi- 
 cal features of the country. We can never fairly judge of 
 the civilization or culture of a people until we know their 
 surroundings. One of the discoveries of late years is, that 
 the culture of a people is greatly influenced by their sur- 
 roundings. 'I'he very appearance of a country whether it is 
 mountainous or plain, sea-girt or inland, influences the char- 
 acter of a people. Civilization is found to depend upon such 
 ■common factors as climate, food, and physical surroundings/ 
 
 ' Buckle's " History of Civilization," chap. ii. 
 
766 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Now if we will examine the map of South America, we will 
 see that the entire section of country occupied by the tribes 
 under consideration is very mountainous. What is known 
 as the Andes is in reality the most eastern of the two ranges. 
 The western one nearer the coast is called the Cordillera, or the 
 Coast Range. The summit of this mountain range often 
 spreads out into great undulating plains, the general elevation 
 of which is from fourteen to eighteen thousand feet above the 
 sea. This series of elevated plains forms a dreary, uninhabited 
 stretch of country, "frigid, barren, and desolate, where life 
 is only represented by the hardy vicuna and the condor." ^ 
 
 This is the uninhabited portion of Peru. The general 
 width of this plateau region is about one hundred and fifty 
 miles. Passing this .dreary stretch of country we come to 
 another still elevated plateau section, which extends to the 
 snow-clad Andes proper. The distance between these two 
 great mountain ranges is from one to two hundred miles, 
 but as we see on the map they come together in places. 
 One such place, the Pass of La Raya, fifteen degrees south 
 latitude, is of importance as marking the northern extremity 
 of the great basin of Lake Titicaca. This basin is remark- 
 able in many respects. It is of no inconsiderable size, being 
 six hundred miles in length by one hundred and fifty in 
 width. It has a lake and river system of its own. At the 
 northern extremity of the basin is the noted Lake Titicaca, 
 which is given by some as the traditional place of origin of 
 the Tncas. This lake finds an outlet in the River Desagua- 
 dero, which flows in a, broad and swiff stream in a southerly 
 direction, where it em))ties info Lake Anllagas. 
 
 Of this lake we know next to nothing. ])nt if seems to 
 be established that it has no outlet to the sea. Thus this 
 Titicaca basin is but another example of interior basins like 
 
 ' yquier's " Peru," p. 9. Tin- N'icuna is a speries of the llama. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 767 
 
 that of our own great Salt Lake. ' It is not, however, favor- 
 ably situated for agricultural purposes. It is a "region 
 where barley will not ripen except under very favorable 
 circumstances, and where maize in its most diminutive size 
 has its most precarious development; where the potato, 
 shrunk to its smallest proportions, is bitter; where the only 
 grain is the quinoa, and where the only indigenous animals 
 fit for food are the biscacha, the llama, and the vicuna." ^ 
 
 Thus we see that a large part of the interior of Peru 
 wras not desirable for habitations. But this great plateau 
 region north of the basin of Lake Titicaca is here and there 
 broken up by what we would call valleys, but which the 
 Spaniards more appropriately named bolsons, literally mean- 
 ing " pockets." These bolsons are of various altitudes, and, 
 therefore, have different climates and productions. Some are 
 well drained and fertile, others are marshy and contain con- 
 siderable lakes. As a general thing, the bolsons are separated 
 from each other by stretches of the dreary, desolate plateau ; 
 or by ranges of precipitous hills and mountains ; or by pro- 
 found gorges, along which courses some river on its way to 
 swell the flood of the mighty Amazon. 
 
 The coast range of mountains of which \Ye have spoken 
 runs nearly parallel to the coast, distant from it about forty 
 miles. This stretch of country along the entire coast of 
 ancient Peru is mainly a desert. Owing to causes which 
 we need not explain, rain is almost unknown; the conse- 
 quence is, the coast presents a dreary, verdureless, forbid- 
 ding appearance. The melting snows on the great Cordil- 
 
 ' Squier's " Peru,'' p. 12. The quinoa is a species of plant of the same 
 genuB as our pig-weeds. But it is a larger plant, and its seeds give a very 
 nutritious meal. The biscacha is about the size and shape of the rabbit. It 
 belongs to the chinchilla family. The llama is the only representative of the 
 camel family on the western hemisphere There were three species of this 
 genus in Peru, the llama, alpaca, and vicuna. These domesticated and consti- 
 tuted wlmt the Spaniards in their first reports called sheep. 
 
768 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 lera, however, send down", here aad there, on their western 
 flanks, feeble rivers. Some of these rivers reach the sea, 
 others prolong their flow but a few miles from the moun- 
 tains before the thirsty desert swallows them from view. 
 As is true of all desert countries, all that is needed to 
 render it fertile is water; so, wherever these rivers occur 
 there are found wonderfully fertile valleys. Every one 
 of these valleys was once thickly settled, but, like the 
 bolsons of the interior, they were not connected with each 
 other. Each valley is separated from its neighbor by many 
 miles of almost trackless desert, across which the Incas are 
 said to have indicated the road by means of stakes driven 
 into the sand and joined by Ozier ropes. No remains of 
 such roads have been found by modern travelers. 
 
 
 Fortress. Hnatioa Valley. 
 
 From this description it is "clojir thnt but a small por- 
 tion of the country was inhabitable, or capable of sup- 
 porting a considerable number of people. The rich and 
 productive valleys and bolsons are hardly more than specks 
 on the map."' It is necessary that we bear this description 
 
 'Squier's "Peru," p. 12. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 769' 
 
 of the country in mind. It will help us to understand as 
 nothing else will how the tribes located in one rich and 
 productive bolson could, by successive forays, reduce to a 
 condition of tribute tribes living in other detached valleys 
 and bolsons. It will also enable us to put a correct esti- 
 mate on the extravagant accounts that have reached us of 
 the population of this country under the rule of its ancient 
 inhabitants. We can also readily see why the tribes living 
 in the hot and fertile valleys along the coast, which were 
 called Yuncas by the Peruvians, should differ in religion 
 and mental and moral characteristics from the tribes living 
 in the bolsons of the interior, where the snow-clad peaks 
 were nearly always in sight, and where the sun, shedding 
 his warm and vivifying beams, would appear to the shiver- 
 ing natives as the beneficent deity from whence comes 
 all good. 
 
 We must now turn our attention to the tribes inhabiting 
 the section of country just described. We have seen that 
 the Mayas, of Central America, the Nahuas, of Mexico, and' 
 the sedentary tribes, of the United States, were consider- 
 ably in advance of the great body of the Indian tribes of 
 North America. We find the same fact true of the natives 
 of South America. Those tribes inhabiting the territory of 
 ancient Peru, and those of the territory now known as the 
 United States of Columbia, were considerably further ad- 
 vanced than the wild tribes living in the remaining portions 
 of South America. Quite a number of our scholars have 
 grouped in one class these partially civilized tribes of both 
 North and South America, and called them the Toltecan 
 Family.^ But others do not think that there are sufficient 
 grounds for such a class division. They can not detect any 
 
 * Morton's "Crania Americanse," pp. 6, 83. Winchell's "Pre-Adam- 
 ites," p. 388. 
 
770 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 radical changes in the domestic institutions of the various 
 tribes.^ On this point we must wait until our authorities 
 are agreed among themselves. 
 
 Attempts have been made to classify the various par- 
 tially civilized tribes of Peru. There are several difficulties 
 in the way. It Avas, for instance, the custom of the Incas, 
 whenever they had reduced a tribe to tribute, to force them 
 to learn their language, which was the Quichua, and is what 
 the early Spanish writers call the general language of Peru.^ 
 How far this language was forced on the tribes, and how 
 far it was their own idiom, we can not tell. Mr. Markham, 
 who has made a very careful study of all the authorities 
 bearing on Peru, divides the territory of ancient Peru 
 into five divisions, and m each locates a number of tribes, 
 which he thinks forms a family. 
 
 The first, and most northern one, extends north from 
 near Tumbez, in the present State of Ecuador. The sec- 
 ond extends from Loja, on the north, to Cerro De Pasco, in 
 about eleven degrees south latitude. The third, and most 
 important, extends from this last named place to the pass 
 of La Raya, fifteen, degrees south latitude. This was the 
 home of the Incas and five other closely related tribes. To 
 the south of La Raya is the basin of Lake Titicaca, the 
 home of a family of Indians generally known as the Ay- 
 mara Indians. This name is, however, wrong; these tribes 
 should be called the Collao Indians. These four divisions 
 do not include any territor}^ west of the Cordillera range, 
 except one part of the third division. These four families 
 
 ' TT. L. Mnrsran: "Systoms of CnnpnTieninity and Affinity of tlio ITunian 
 Family," p. 255; other works by flie sanio autlior, " IIoiiso and llonso-lifc of 
 Atnoriran Aborifrines," and "Ancient Society." 
 
 *Tlio Qniclnias wore a closely related tribe to tbe Tncas, and their name 
 has been jrivcn to the lan<rua<re of Pern. V,\\\ as tbe Incas were the ruling 
 tribe, llii'ir tiaine should have been given to Ibis family of languages. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 771 
 
 are all closely related. Mr. Markham thinks they all had 
 a common origin. Mr. Squier thinks the Collao, or, as 
 they are generally called, the Aymara Indians, are distinct 
 from the others. " They differ from each other as widely 
 as the Germans differ from the French," is his own conclu- 
 sion. The entire coast district of Peru was the home of 
 many tribes of Indians, about which we as yet know but 
 little. The name by which they are known is Yuncas.^ 
 
 We are now ready to proceed to a consideration of the 
 culture of ancient Peru, and a description of the monuments. 
 But before doing so we must have a word to say as to the 
 authorities. At the time of the Spanish conquest of Peru, 
 the Empire of the Incas was supposed to have been in ex- 
 istence about four hundred years. But the Incas had no 
 hieroglyphic or pictorial system of recording cA^ents.. The 
 most they had was a system of knot records or quippos, 
 which will be explained in due time. These records were 
 simply aids to the memory. Mr. Squier places them "about 
 on a par with Robinson Crusoe's Notched Calendar, or the 
 €halked tally of an illiterate tapster." ^ They are manifestly 
 of no value as historical records. 
 
 It must be evident, then, that all our knowledge of Peru, 
 previous to the arrival of the Spaniards, rests solely upon 
 traditions. We have no reason to suppose that these tradi- 
 tions are of more value in their case than in the case of 
 other rude and illiterate people. The memory of such peo- 
 ple is very short lived. The tribes in the southern part of 
 the United States must have been greatly impressed with 
 De Soto's expedition. They heard fire-arms for the first 
 time, and for the first time saw horses ridden by men. Yet 
 
 ' " The Geographical Distribution of the Tribes of the Inca Empire," in 
 'Journal of the Geographical Society," Vol. XLI, p. 281, et seq. 
 i"Peru," p. .^71. 
 
772 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 in the course of a few generations they had completely for- 
 gotten all this.^ 
 
 One very eminent authority is Garcillasso De La Vega.^ 
 Let us examine his writings a minute. He \Yas born in Cuzco 
 about 1540, but a few years after the conquest. His mother 
 claimed descent from the royal family. He left Peru in 
 1560, when he was just twenty years old, and went to Spain. 
 He first sought advancement in the army. Despairing of 
 success in that line, he turned his attention to literature. 
 One of his first works was an account of De Soto's expedi- 
 tion to Florida. The historian Bancroft thus characterizes 
 this work : "An extravagant romance, yet founded upon 
 facts — a history not without its value, but which must be 
 consulted with extreme caution." Yet in this work there 
 were no subtile ties of blood, no natural bias as there would 
 be in favor of the land of his birth. 
 
 About 1600 he commenced his " Royal Commentaries 
 of Peru." This is the main source of information as to an- 
 cient Peru. We must reflect that he had been away from 
 his native land forty years when he commenced the work. 
 His sources of information were the stories told him in his 
 boyhood days, the writings of the Spanish travelers, monks, 
 and conquerors, and what he learned by corresponding with 
 his old friends in Peru, which he did when he formed the 
 design of writing his history. In other words, his history 
 rests on the traditions extant at the time of the conquest, 
 viewed, however, from a distance of sixty years. Who can 
 doubt but what the old man, writing his accounts of this 
 mother's race, that race that h;ul been so deeply wronged, 
 
 ' Foster's "Prehistoric Races," p. 37"). Tlie Zuni Indians have indeed 
 prestTvod a trnditioii of the visit of Coronado tlncc hmidicd and fifty years 
 ago, but in sucli a form that no one not acquainted witli tlie fads would 
 guess tlic meaning:. "Fifth Annual Report ArclucoloKica! Institute," p. 40. 
 
 'More than one-third of Mr. Pre.scott's quotations arc frmn this anthority. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 773 
 
 wrote it under the influence of that potent spell, which the 
 memory of old age throws around childhood's days? 
 
 It is evident we haA^e in these accounts but. little de- 
 serving the name of history. When he undertakes to tell us 
 of the doings of the Incas, who are supposed to have reigned 
 three or four hundred years before the Spanish conquest, 
 descending to such details as what nations they subdued, 
 the size of their armies, their speeches to their soldiers, the 
 words of counsel they addressed to their heirs, their wise 
 laws and maxims — and we know that this account rests on 
 traditions — he who believes that they are of historical value, 
 is surely possessed of a good store of credulity. We do not 
 mean to say that his writings are of no account. On the other 
 hand, they are of value. The historical part we are to con- 
 sider simply as traditions, and we are to weigh them just as 
 we would any other collection of traditions and compare 
 them with monuments still extant. He is good authority 
 on the customs and manners of the Peruvians just previous 
 to the arrival of the Europeans. 
 
 We have seen what strange mistakes the Spanish writers 
 made in describing the government and customs of the Mexi- 
 cans. We have no doubt but what substantially the same 
 mistake has been made in regard to Peru. We believe that 
 a careful, critical study of all that has been written on the 
 subject of Peru by the early writers will establish this fact: 
 As yet this has not been done. We must therefore be care- 
 ful in our description of the state of society amongst them, 
 as we do not wish to make statements not supported by 
 good authority. 
 
 We must try and decide as to what is the most probable 
 origin of the ancient Peruvian civilization. Some of the 
 earlier writers on this subject would trace it to an influx of 
 Toltecs, the same mythical rnoe that is credited with being 
 
774 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 the originators of the culture found in Mexico and Central 
 America. But our modern scholars have clearly shown that 
 the Toltec Empire, which was supposed to have preceded 
 the Mexican, never existed. ^Yhat we are to understand by 
 the Toltecs is the sedentary tribes of Indians, either of the 
 Nahua or Maya ^tock. The only value we would assign to 
 the story of their dispersion is that it is a traditional state- 
 
 Rnins at Paohacamao. 
 
 ment that the migration of the sedentary Indians has been 
 in a direction from north to south. 
 
 We have no means of knowing when the first tribes ar- 
 rived in the country, or of their state of culture. It was 
 doubtless at a very early date, and the tribes were probably 
 not far advanced. We have no reason to suppose the cul- 
 ture of Peru was influenced from outside sources at all. 
 We can not detect any evidence of a succession of races in 
 Peru. The distinguished author to whom we have already 
 referred^ speaks of what he calls the ancient Peruvians as 
 distinguished from the modern tribes that acknowledged the 
 
 * Morton. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 775 
 
 government of the Incas/ We think that all the evidence 
 points to a long continued residence of the same nu-o 
 of people. 
 
 We may suppose that in the fertile valleys of the coast, 
 and in the bolsons of the interior, tribes of rude people were 
 slowly moving along the line of progress that conducts at 
 last to civilization. There is no reason to suppose that this 
 progress was a rapid one. Under all circumstances this de- 
 velopment is slow. We must not forget the natural features 
 of the country. The inhabited tracts were isolated, hence 
 would arise numerous petty tribes, having no common aims 
 or mutual interests. Each would pursue their own way, 
 and would keep about equal pace through the stages of 
 Barbarism.^ 
 
 In process of time geographical and climatic causes would 
 produce those effects, from which there is no escape, and 
 some tribes would distinguish themselves as being possessed 
 of superior energy, and the same results would follow there 
 as elsewhere ; that is the dominion of the strong over the 
 weak. All other circumstances being equal, we would look 
 for this result in a section where a mild climate and fertile 
 soil enabled man to put forth his energies, and rewarded his 
 labors. All accounts agree in speaking of the bolson of 
 Cuzco as well provided by nature in this respect. One emi- 
 nent traveler speaks of it as "a region blessed with almost 
 
 ' This idea was larjrely based on tlie differences of the skialls. On this 
 point see " Fourth Annual Report Peahody Museum." Some authors speak 
 rather vaguel}^ of the ancient race of the Titicaca basin. We know of no good 
 foundation for such expressions. 
 
 ^ Garcillasso impresses on his readers the idea that the Tncas was the only 
 tribe at all civilized. The Aymara Indians were certainly as far advanced as 
 the Incas, and even surpassed them in the art of cutting stone, if we conclude 
 the ruins at Tiahuannco to be of Aymara origin. The tribes of the coast re- 
 gion were certidnly not far liehind. The IMuyscas, of Bogota, who were never 
 under the (l.iniininn of the Iiicns, were yet possessed of a high degree of culture. 
 
776 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 every variety of cliimite. On its braciug uplands were flocks 
 of llamas and abundance of edible roots, while its sunny 
 valleys yielded large crops of corn, pepper, and fruits.^ Mr. 
 Squier thinks that, on the whole, the climate is very nearly 
 the same as that of the south of France.^ 
 
 This bolson was the home of the Incas. A number of 
 writers speak of the Incas very much as if they were a 
 royal family. It is not necessary to discuss this point very 
 extensively at present. All our accounts of their early his- 
 tory are traditional. Mr. Markham and Mr. Squier, both 
 competent judges, assert that the weight of traditions is to 
 the effect that the Incas originated near Cuzco. " Universal 
 traditions," says Mr. Markham, "points to a place called 
 Peccari Tampu as the cradle or point of origin of the Incas." 
 As near as we can make out from the description, this was 
 where, as seen from Cuzco, the sun appeared to rise.^ 
 
 We must remark that the sun was the ancestral deity of 
 the Incas. All the Andean people worshiped some object 
 as an ancestral deity. "An Indian," says La Vega, "is not 
 looked upon as honorable unless he is descended from a 
 fountain, river, or lake, or even the sea, or from a wild ani- 
 mal, such as a bear, lion, tiger, eagle, or the bird they 
 called a condor, or from a mountain, cave, or forest." The 
 Incas claimed descent from the sun. So we can see why 
 their legends would center on the place where the sun ap- 
 peared to rise. In after years, when they had extended 
 their conquests to the Collao,^ and stood on the shore of 
 Lake Titicaci. the sun appeared to them to rise out of its 
 waves; nnd so this lake became to them a second point of 
 traditional oiitrin. 
 
 ' Markham in Fort.cs's " Aymara Indians,"].. 111. ' "Pprn," p. 427. 
 ' "It was from Cuzco the nearost jwint to the sun-rising." (Markliam.) 
 * Their name for the Titicnca basin. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 777 
 
 We see we can not solve the question of the origin of 
 the Incas until we solve the deeper problems of the origin 
 of the Andean tribes. Every thing seems to indicate a 
 long-continued residence, perhaps for centuries, and a slow 
 advance in culture. We are not to suppose the Incas were 
 endowed with unusual capacity for improvement; all- the 
 tribes were probably about equal in this respect.^ But their 
 situation was in their favor, -ind they did not have to con- 
 tend with those obstacles that confronted other tribes. 
 They must have increased in numbers and in culture ; they 
 would in time feel themselves strong enough for conquest. 
 We must bear in mind the peculiar geographical features of 
 the country. In the isolated valleys and bolsons were liv- 
 ing other tribes, but little inferior to the Incas. There 
 were no common interests between these tribes. One by 
 one they fell before the assaults of the Incas, and were re- 
 duced to tribute. Rendered still more powerful by success, 
 the Incas pushed on their conquests until finally all the 
 tribes living in that vast stretch of country from the Andes 
 to the Pacific, from Chili to the United States of Colombia, 
 acknowledged themselves tributary to the Incas. This was 
 the state of things when the Spaniards, under Pizarro, ap- 
 peared on the scene. 
 
 When we undertake to learn the history or the state of 
 culture among the Incas, we are entering on a difficult sub- 
 ject. Of their history, we know but very little more than 
 is given in this outline; and owing to the complete absence 
 of all records, we can not expect to know very much. 
 Garcillasso draws such an inviting picture of the happy 
 government of the Incas, that we would suppose that no re- 
 bellion or insurrection would ever occur. It seems, how- 
 ever, that their government was as much subject to such 
 
 ' Markham, in Forbes's " Aymara Indians." 
 
778 ■ THE PBEHISTOmC WORLD. 
 
 trials as any. Mr. Forbes tells us that " the Aymaras never 
 submitted tamely to their Peruvian masters, but from time 
 to time gave them much trouble by attempting to recover 
 their independence." And M. Reville tells us of the Incas 
 that, " more than once they had to suppress terrible insur- 
 rections." And we shall see, farther on, that the probabil- 
 ities are that the various tribes composing this so-called 
 empire were not more compact and united than were the 
 tribes composing the Mexican Empire. 
 
 Shortly before the conquest, the Incas had reached their 
 zenith of power. Huayna Capac, who died about 1525, 
 was in reality the last of the Inca chiefs. Under his man- 
 agement the tribes as far north as Quito were reduced to 
 tribute. The story goes that shortly before his death he 
 divided the empire between two of his st)ns. One, Huas- 
 car, the rightful heir to the throne ; the other, Atahualpa, 
 half-brother to Huascar. His mother was daughter of the 
 last king (?) of Quito. Her father had been forced to sub- 
 mit to the victorious Huayna Capac. This division of the 
 Incarial Empire, was not at all to the liking of either Huas- 
 car or Atahualpa. They both wished to be sole Inca. 
 Civil war was the result. Atahualpa, by treachery, had 
 taken his brother prisoner, and would doubtless have 
 achieved his ambition, but just then Pizarro invaded the 
 country, and the reign of the Incas was over. 
 
 Thus far, the story. We very much doubt whether 
 this expresses the facts of the case. There is no question, 
 of course, that civil war was in progress when the Span- 
 iards arrived, which war, by the way, was a very fortunate 
 thing for the Spaniards ; but we do not know enough about 
 the government of the Incas to know whether Huayana Ca- 
 pac could bequeath any powers to his sons. About all we 
 are justified in saying is, that on his death, two persons 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 779 
 
 (they were very likely brothers, and sons of Huayna Ca- 
 pac) aspired to the chieftaincy of the Incas, and, failing to 
 agree, resorted to war to settle the matter. 
 
 The question is, how far back in the unrecorded past 
 can we follow tradition? Huayna Capac is thought to ha\ o 
 been chief for about fifty years. His predecessor is said 
 to have been one Tupac Yupanqui. Velasco, an early writer on 
 the Peruvians, thinks he was chief for about thirty-six years. 
 As this would carry us back nearly one hundred years, it 
 must be evident we have gone about as far as we can phice 
 any reliance on tradition. However, the third chief, going 
 backwards, was also called Yupanqui, sometimes denomi- 
 nated "Yupanqui the Great," and his reign (?) takes us 
 back to about the year 1400. " Beyond this point," says 
 M. Castaing, " we fall into a mythological era." We fully 
 agree with him. We can not think there is any special 
 value in accounts of events said to happen before that 
 time — that is, for historical purposes. 
 
 That there were victorious chiefs, conducting victoi'ious 
 forays before that date, is, of course, admitted. That the 
 names of many of the chiefs have come down to us, as well 
 as some of their notable achievements, is quite possible. It 
 is also evident that some mythological personages would ap- 
 pear in tradition as "reigning Incas." It is equally plain 
 that neither Gaicillasso, nor any of the Spanish writers, had 
 any clear ideas of these ancient times or events. All tradi- 
 tions finally settle on Manco Capac as the first chief of the 
 Incas. M. Castaing says he "is but an allegory of the pe- 
 riod of formation.^ The date of the accession of this myth- 
 ological chief is given by most authorities as about the year 
 1000. M. Castaing thinks it was in the middle of the 
 twelfth century. It does not make much difference which 
 
 ^ American Antiquarian, Sept-, 1884, p. 295, et seq. 
 
 47 
 
780 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 date the reader concludes to accept — one will do as well as 
 the other. "^ 
 
 Let us turn our attention to the culture of the Incas, 
 and their state of government. Here we would expect to 
 be on firm ground. We would expect the Spanish writers 
 to give us reliable accounts of the state of society of the 
 people they conquered. But, as Mr. Squier remarks, the 
 overthrow of the Peruvian government " was so sudden and 
 complete that the chroniclers had hardly time to set down 
 the events which took place before their own eyes, and had 
 little leisure, or perhaps inclination, to make a careful inves- 
 tigation into the principles of their civil and religious pol- 
 ity. As a consequence, this work has devolved upon the 
 laborious student and archaeologist of a later time." In 
 other words, we are to compare the accounts given us by 
 the early writers with our present knowledge of Indian 
 society. 
 
 We have already made the statement that the Incas 
 were a tribe of Indians. But, if they were a tribe, did 
 they have the usual subdivisions of a tribe — which, we re- 
 member, are the phratry and gens? The Spanish writers 
 say nothing about such divisions. This is not strange. They 
 said nothing about the phratries and gentes of the Mexi- 
 cans; and yet they were in existence. Neither did the 
 English mention the institution of the phratries and gentes 
 among the Iroquois; and yet they were fully developed. We 
 
 " It is manifest that, (lurinjj the centuries of slow development which the 
 Incas underwent, tlicy had a great many chiefs. How many we shall never 
 know. Garcillasso gives us a list of fourteen, including Hnascar and Atahu- 
 alpa. Montesino gencronsly increases this nnml)er to one hundred and one- 
 Neither of them knew any thing positive ahovit it; hut tliis latter luiinher is 
 the more reasonable of the two. Mr. Markham, who goes at the prohlem in 
 another way, thinks there were five historical Incas, counting Iln.iyiia-Capac 
 the la.st. He surmises that the first may have flourished two hundred years 
 before the conquest. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 781 
 
 answer, that the Inca tribe were divided into both phratries 
 and gentes. It is necessary to show what grounds we have 
 for such belief. It is well to have a little better understand- 
 ing of the surroundings of this tribe. 
 
 The isolated section of country which they occupied is 
 about seventy miles long by sixty in width. " The proper 
 name for the aboriginal people of this tract," says Mr. 
 Markham, "is Incas." This word must have been at first 
 the title for chief — for all the chiefs in this section were 
 called Incas ; but, in process of time, the name was assumed 
 as the special title of the tribe at Cuzco. Mr. Markham 
 gives us further the names of seventeen lineages who occu-, 
 pied this valley. Whether a lineage was a tribe or not we 
 can not decide. We will now confine our attention to the 
 ruling tribe at Cuzco. 
 
 The Spaniards noticed that Cuzco was divided into two 
 parts, called respectively Upper and Lower Cuzco. Garcil- 
 lasso tells us that this division was made as follows: Manco- 
 Capac with his wife and queen were childi'en of the Sun, 
 sent to civilize the Indians, who, before their arrival, were a 
 very degraded sort of savages. From Cuzco this sun-de 
 scended couple went their different ways — the king to the 
 north, the queen to the south — "speaking to all the people 
 they met in the wilderness, and telling them how their 
 father, the Sun, had sent them from heaven to be the rulers 
 and benefactors of the inhabitants of all that land ; . . . and, 
 in pursuance of these commands, they had come to bring 
 them out of the forests and deserts to live in villages." This 
 sounded so good to the wild tribes, that they "assembled 
 in great numbers, both men and women," and set out to fol- 
 low their exhorters.^ 
 
 The tribe tlint followed the king settled Upper Cuzco; 
 
 ^ Markham's Garcillasso's "Royal Commentaries," Vol. I, p. 66. 
 
782 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 while the queen's converts settleil Lower Cuzco. This divis- 
 ion was not niaile so that tliose li\'iug in one lialf should 
 have any special piivileges over the other — for the}^ were 
 all to be eipial, like brothers. The division was solely in 
 Qi'der "that they might be a perpetual memory of the fact 
 that the inhabitants of one were assembled by the king, and 
 the other by the queen." The only difference between them 
 was, "that the people of Upper Cuzco should be looked ujion 
 and represented as elder brothers, and those of Lower Cuzco 
 as younger brothers." 
 
 Such is the account of the settlement of Upper and 
 Lower Cuzco. Any one acquainted with the general princi- 
 ples on which the division of Lidian tribes into phratries took 
 place, can not help concluding that these divisions were sim- 
 ply two phratries. The inhabitants of each traced their 
 descent back to a supernatural personage. They were equal 
 in power to each other as elder and vounger brothers. Polo 
 Ondegardo simply remarks that "the lineage of the Incas 
 was divided into two branches, the one called Upper Cuzco, 
 the other Lower Cuzco."' There ought to be no objection 
 to substituting for the word branches used above the scien- 
 tific term our scholars now employ; that is, phratry. Each 
 tribe of the Iroquois confederacy was divided into two 
 phratries, and their name for this division was a word which 
 meant brotherhood.^ 
 
 Whatever doubt we may have on this point vanished 
 when we come to examine into the customs of the Licas. 
 We must not forget that the most prominent w^y a phratry 
 shows itself is in matters of religion, and in the play of so- 
 cial games. " The phratry, among the Iroquois," says Mr.' 
 Morgan, " was partly for social and partly for religious ob- 
 
 • Markham's translation, p. IT)!. 
 
 » Morgan's "Ancient Society," p. 100. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 783 
 
 jects. ... In the ball game, for example, they play by 
 phratries, one against the other. Each phratry puts I'orward 
 its best players, usually from six to ten on a side, and the 
 members of each phratry assemble together, but on opposite 
 sides of the field in which the game is played. The mem- 
 bers of each phratry watch the game with eagerness, and 
 cheer their respective 
 players at every success- 
 ful turn of the game." 
 Let us see how it 
 was among the Incas.^ 
 Like all Indian tribes, 
 the Incas were very 
 fond of ceremonious 
 feasts. Nearly every 
 month they celebrated ^^^^ 
 one or more. We gather 
 from Molina that on oc- 
 casions when the whole 
 tribe participated in 
 such religious observ- 
 ances, the people of 
 Upper Cuzco sat apart 
 from Lower Cuzco. 
 
 J 111 
 
 iiI'llJiiiiliiL ■'. "■ 
 
 In 
 
 Relics frcm Guano Deposits. 
 
 the month corresponding to 
 August they had a celebrated feast, the object of 
 which was to drive out all evil from the land. We read: 
 "All the people of Cuzco came out, . . . richly dressed, 
 sat down on benches, each man according to the rank he 
 
 ' Our authority is Christoval Molina, a priest of Cuzco. He made a report 
 to the bishop, which must have been written some time between 1570 and 1584, 
 on the "Fables and Rites of the Incas." This was translated by Markham, 
 and published by Hnklnyt Society in 1873. He obtained his information by 
 gathering together a luimher of aged Indians, including some priests, who had 
 participated in these ceremonies in the davs of the Incas- 
 
784 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 held, those of the Upper Cuzco being on one side, and those 
 of Lower Cuzco on the other." And of another feast we 
 read: "They brought out the embahned (?) bodies of the 
 dead Incas, placing those who had belonged to Upper Cuzco 
 on the side where that lineage was stationed, and the same 
 "with those of Lower Cuzco." Other examples could be given, 
 but this point is well established. In games this same divis- 
 ion was observed, since we read that in the month of Decem- 
 ber, "on the first day of the month, those who had been 
 armed as knights — as well those of the lineage of Upper Cuzco 
 as those of Lower Cuzco — came out into the square with 
 slings in their hands, . . . and the youths of Upper 
 Cuzco hurled against those of Lower Cuzco." We may 
 therefore consider it well established that the Licas were a 
 tribe of Indians having two phratries. 
 
 Let us now see how the matter stands in regard to gens. 
 This division follows almost as a matter of course, but it is 
 well to see what separate grounds exist for the assertion. 
 Garcillasso, in his description of Cuzco, after a reference to 
 the division into Upper and Lower Cuzco, tells us further 
 that it was divided into twelve wards. Mr. Squier gives us 
 a map of the ancient city. From this we see that the twelve 
 wards were arranged in an irregular oval around the princi- 
 pal square. Seven of them belonged to the division of Upper 
 Cuzco, the other five to Lower Cuzco. 
 
 This division is utterly unintelligible to us, unless we sup- 
 pose them to be subdivisions of the phratries. It makes no 
 difference what name we bestow upon them, in effect they 
 can be nothing else than gentes. As to the number of them, 
 it is well to notice a coincidence in the statement of an In- 
 dian writer, Salcamayhua.' On a certain very important 
 occasion there were assembled "a// the councilors. The 
 
 ' This writer, a native Indian, wrote about the same time as Garcilhisso. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 785 
 
 governor entered the chamber, where twelve grave councilors 
 were assembled."^ The most reasonable explanation that can 
 be given for the number twelve is that each gens had one 
 representative in the council. The Incas are thus seen to 
 be very probably, at least, no exception to the general rule 
 of Indian tribes. 
 
 From our present standpoint what can we learn as to 
 their government? It is, of course, well known what the 
 position of the early writers on this subject is. They all 
 Mgree that the government of the Incas was a monarchy of 
 (he strictest type. We have seen what a wonderful empire 
 they bestowed on the Mexicans. The Peruvian Empire is 
 painted in still brighter colors. Modern writers have not 
 allowed the early accounts to suffer by repetition. Rivero 
 uses the following language : " The monarchs of Peru, . . . 
 uniting the legislative and executive power, the supreme 
 command in war, absolute sovereignty in peace, and a ven- 
 erated high-priesthood in religious feasts, . . . exercised 
 the highestpower ever known to man.'"'^ Even so cautious 
 a writer as Mr. Squier speaks of the Incas as ruling " the 
 most thoroughly organized, most wisely administered, and 
 most extensive empire of aboriginal America."^ 
 
 It is freely admitted that there is much that is indeed 
 wonderful in the culture of the Incas ; but it has, undoubt- 
 edly been greatly exaggerated. To deal with this question 
 as it should be would require an entire volume of itself, and 
 would require far more extensive research than the writer 
 has been able to make, or is, indeed, prepared to make. It 
 will do no hiirni to see what we can learn by comparing the 
 statements of some of the early writers with what we have 
 now learned of Indian society. 
 
 ^ " Fables and Rites of the Incas," p. 105. 
 
 2 " Peruvian Antiquities," p. 105. ^ "Peru," p. 5. 
 
786 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Let US first inquire as to the council. There is no ques- 
 tion as to the existence of a council. Garcillasso and all 
 the early writers refer to it in an accidental sort of wdy.. 
 To show the force of this statement, we will give a few quo-^ 
 tations. Garcillasso, speaking of the movements of the Inca 
 Viracocha, says : " Having passed some years in making 
 these journeys, he returned to Cuzco, where, with the advice 
 of his councilors, he resolved on war." And, in another 
 place: "Having consulted with his council" he assembled his 
 army. Talking about the son of the foregoing, he says: "In 
 fine, this king, with the advice of his council, made many 
 laws, rules, ordinances," etc.^ In the foregoing we arc made 
 aware of the existence of a council, but are not told as 1o 
 its size or powers. Each gens would of course be repre- 
 sented in the council. We ha\e spoken in one place of the 
 number twelve. Mr. Bandelier tells us Ihat the council 
 consisted of sixteen members.^ As to its power we are also 
 left in the dark; but, judging from what we have learned 
 of the council amontj^ the Mexicans and Indian tribes of the 
 North, who can doubt but that it was the supreme go^■ern- 
 ing body?^ 
 
 The more we study this question, the more ])oints of re- 
 semblance we would find with the social organization of the 
 Mexicans. The tenure of land was of course the i5iime, 
 as we learn from the report of Ondegardo — some diiferences 
 may have occurred in regard to tribute. 
 
 ' ;\Iany such qnntations could be given, not only from Garcillasso, but from 
 Molina, Salcamaylnia, and others. 
 
 * Address before the Historical Society of New Mexico. 
 
 ' Wo can not help wonderinfr if the Incas did not have two chief execu- 
 tives. This would make them similar to the Iroquois, and most of the more 
 southern tribes, such as we liave already seen to be true of the Jlexicans. Mr. 
 li.indclier says there is abiindant proof that the Tncas liad two chiefs— one the 
 "dis|)ensing Inca," the other the "speaking head." ("Archreological Tour in 
 Mexico," p. 1()7, note G.) 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 787 
 
 The Mexicans, we must remember, were at the head of 
 a confederacy, and the tribute was brought to Mexico to be 
 divided among the three tribes. The lucas were the only 
 tribe, in the case of Peru, having supreme power. Having 
 no one to suit but themselves, tliey introduced some new 
 features. The tribute, instead of being all brought to Cuzco, 
 seems to have been, at least a portion of it, stowed away in 
 storehouses located at places most convenient for the Incas. 
 Cieza De Leon says : " The Incas . . . formed many depots 
 full of all things necessary for their troops. In some of 
 these depots there were lances; in others, darts; and in 
 others, sandals : and so, one with another, arms and arti- 
 cles of clothing which these people used, besides stores 
 of food. Thus, when a chief was lodged in one of these 
 depots with his troops, there was nothing, from the most 
 trifling to the most important article, with which they were 
 not supplied."^ This tribute was gathered by regular tribute- 
 gatherers. As in the case of Mexico, these appear in his- 
 tory as governors. Ondegardo says they left "Cuzco every 
 year, and returned in Februarj^, . . . bringing with them 
 the tribute of the whole empire." 
 
 As a rule, the Incas did not interfere with the customs 
 of the tribes they had conquered. Garcillasso says: "Ex- 
 cepting a few alterations that were necessary for the welfare 
 of the whole empire, all the other laws and customs of the 
 conquered province were retained without any change." In 
 the main, all they wished for was tribute. Yet they seem 
 to have had some idea of a higher policy than that. They 
 are credited with carrying out measures which would cer- 
 tainly tend to bring the tribes into a close union. Mr. 
 Squier remarks: "The pffoits of the Incas to assimilate the 
 families that were brought within their empire, by force or 
 
 ' " Travels," Markham's Translation, p. 164. 
 
788 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 alliance — in respect to language, religion, and modes of life — 
 were powerful and well-directed."'^ This was a step ahead 
 of any thing that can be said of the Mexicans. 
 
 In the matter of language, it is said they made persist- 
 ent efforts to have the conquered tribes learn their own lan- 
 guage. De Leon tells us that it was a law throughout the 
 kingdom that this language should be used — ''fathers were 
 punished if they neglected to teach it to their children in 
 their childhood." How much we are to believe of this ac- 
 count is doubtful. Mr. Markham has shown us that the 
 languages of all the interior tribes were related. We know 
 
 Burial Towers. 
 
 how difficult it is to compel a conquered people by law to 
 learn a foreign language. William the Conqueror made an 
 unsuccessful attempt to compel the Anglo-saxons to learn 
 French — it ended by his followers learning English. Are 
 we to believe that a tribe of Peruvian Indians were suc- 
 cessful in spreading their language over a wide extent of 
 territory in the course of a few generations? 
 
 What is considered as the great stroke of policy on the 
 part of the Incas, was their system of colonies. On this 
 
 •In Forbes's "Aymara Indians," p. 109. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 789 
 
 point De Leon tells us: "As soon as a province was con- 
 quered, ten or twelve thousand men were ordered to go 
 there with their wives; but they were always sent to a 
 country where the climate resembled that from whence they 
 came. If they were natives of a cold province, they were 
 sent to a cold one; and if they came from a warm province, 
 they went to a warm one. These people were called miti- 
 maes — which means Indians who have come from one 
 country and gone to another." On this we might remark, 
 that the Incas did not always show such discriminating care 
 where they sent the exiles, since Mr. Markham tells us that 
 the " descendants of colonists on the coasts of Peru (a waf m 
 climate, notice) still retain traditions concerning the villages 
 in the Andes (a cold province), whence their ancestors were 
 transported." 
 
 We will only refer to the so-called royal roads of Peru. 
 Humboldt observed them in Northern Peru, and speaks in 
 high praise of them. Many of the early writers mention 
 them. De Leon gives us a really wonderful account. Mod- 
 ern travelers have not been so fortunate in finding their re- 
 mains. Mr. Squier does not mention them. Mr. Hutch- 
 inson searched at every place along the coast, and could 
 find no trace of such works. The northern part of Peru, 
 where Humboldt saw them, was almost the last section to 
 be conquered by the Incas. It is singular that they should 
 have been in such a hurry to build roads in that section, when 
 the other parts of their territory were destitute of them. 
 
 We are now prepared to inquire as to what remains of 
 this ancient people have come down to us ; and in studying 
 these ruins we must keep constantly in mind the social or- 
 ganization of Indian tribes.^ We notice on the map, at 
 
 ' " Indian architecture, from the Sioux lodge to the houses of Uxnial, 
 Mitla, and Tiahuanuco, is only understood through Indian social organiza- 
 tion." (B:inddier.) 
 
790 
 
 THE PREHlSruRIC WORLD. 
 
 about 8° south latitude, a place marked Truxillo. It is sit- 
 uated nearly two miles from the sea, in the valley of the 
 Chimu. Its port is the town of Iluanchaco, a dil.-ipidated 
 village of a few hundred houses, about ten miles further 
 north. Truxillo was founded in 1535 by Francisco Pizarro, 
 and was once a place of considerable importance, but at 
 
 present it is probably 
 most noted for the fa- 
 mous ruins located near it. 
 Several of the fertile coast 
 valleys that we have pre- 
 viously described, here 
 unite; consequently this 
 was a place of great im- 
 portance to the coast 
 tribes. The ruins here are 
 among the most remark- 
 able in Peru. The road 
 from Iluanchaco to Trux- 
 illo passes directly through 
 the field of ruins. 
 
 Mr. Squier tells us that 
 the ruins "consist of a 
 wilderness of walls, form- 
 ing great inclosures, each 
 containing a labyrinth of 
 ruined dwellings and 
 ] other edifices." As our 
 space is limited, we will 
 describe but one of those inclosed spaces. This is a view 
 of what is usually called a palace, but Ihis certainly is an 
 absurd name. The inclosure contnins some thirty-two acres; 
 the walls surrounding it are double, nnd sufficiently heavy 
 
 Palace. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 791 
 
 Section of Palace Wall. 
 
 to resist field urtillery. At the base the walls, in some 
 oases, are fifteen feet thick, gradually diminishing toward 
 the top, where they are not more than three feet thick. 
 They vary in height, the highest ranging from thirty to 
 forty feet high. In order to give a clear idea of these 
 walls, we introduce this cut, 
 which gives us a section of 
 the walls. The materials 
 of which they are built is 
 adobe. 
 
 Within this inclosure we 
 notice three open places, or 
 courts, a number of smaller 
 cross-walls dividing the re- 
 maining space into a number of small courts. Around each of 
 these courts, generally on three sides, are the ruins of houses. 
 All in the interior of the large inclosures is so far gone in 
 ruins that we can with difficulty make out the plan. In- 
 closures, such as we have described here, are the principal 
 features of the Chimu ruins. Mr. Squier speaks of one 
 three or four times the size of this one. With our present 
 knowledge we are justified in concluding that Chimu was 
 the head-quarters of a powerful tribe. We are surely justi- 
 fied in assuming further that each of these great inclosed 
 squares, containing upwards of thirty, forty, and even fifty 
 acres, was the home of a gens — their fortified place. 
 
 Of the houses, Mr. Squier says: ''Around each court 
 the dwellings of the ancient inhabitants are grouped with 
 the utmost regularity. . . . Some are small, as if for 
 watchmen, or people on guard ; others are relatively spa- 
 cious, reaching the dimensions of twenty-five by fifteen 
 feet inside the walls. These walls are usually about three 
 feet thick, and about twelve feet high. The roofs were not 
 
792 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 flat, but, as shown by the gables of the various buildings, 
 sharply pitched, so that, although raiu may not have been 
 frequent, it was, nevertheless, necessary to provide for its 
 occurrence. Each apartment was completely separated from 
 the next by partitions reaching to the very peak of the 
 general roof. There are no traces of windows, and light 
 and air were admitted into the apartment only by the 
 door." 
 
 Ou one side, at least, the whole area of the city was 
 protected by a heavy wall, several mile.s of which were still 
 standing at the time of Mr. Squier's visit. At various 
 places along this wall, cross-walls extended inwjird, thus in- 
 closing great areas which have never been built over, and 
 which show all evidence of ancient cultivation. We notice, 
 near the upper end of this inclosure, a court, occupied by a 
 mound. This is known as a hiiaca, which calls for some ex- 
 planation. It seems that the general name among all the 
 Peruvian people, for a sacred object, is huaca. Being a very 
 superstitious people, this name is applied to a great variety 
 of purposes, amongst others, to these great artificial mounds, 
 the majority of Avhich are probably burial mounds. The 
 construction of many of these mounds is very singular. It 
 seems as if they were a large collection of rooms, each one 
 of which was filled with clay or adobe. In some of these 
 chambers, probably, treasures are concealed. One very cel- 
 ebrated huaca, at Chimu, was found to contain an enormous 
 amount of gold vessels. 
 
 We must not forget to notice the arts of the Chimu 
 people. The walls of the inner edifices were often orna- 
 mented as is seen in the following cut, of which the ujiper 
 one is stucco-work and the lower one is in relief. Adobe 
 bricks are allowed to project out, forming the ornnniental 
 design. Other ornaments of stucco-work were observed. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 793 
 
 The second figure on this page gives us an idea of this 
 style of ornaments. As an evidence of how the climate of 
 Peru preserves ruins, we would mention that, though this 
 last stucco-work has been exposed to the elements for prob- 
 ably several centuries, yet it is still apparently perfect. 
 
 The Chimu people were 
 certainly very expert work- 
 men in gold and silver. De 
 Leon asserts that, when the 
 Incas conquered them, they 
 took to Cuzco many of the 
 artisans of the country, " be- 
 cause they were very expert 
 in the working of metals, 
 and the fashioning of jew- 
 els and vases in gold and 
 silver." In the cut on 
 
 next page we have two ornamentation on Walls. 
 
 vases — the smaller one of gold, the larger of silver." 
 The material is very thin, and the ornaments are pro- 
 duced by hammering from the inside. 
 
 Besides such works as just 
 described, they had the art of 
 casting representations of men, 
 animals, and reptiles in silver — 
 sometimes hollow, sometimes 
 solid. They even cast more 
 complex objects. Mr. Squier 
 Adobe Ornament. says he has One "representing 
 
 three figures — one of a man, and two women, in a forest. 
 It rises from a circular base about six inches in diameter, 
 and weighs forty-eight and a half ounces. It is solid 
 throughout — or, rather, is cast in a single piece, and rings, 
 
794 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 Gold and Silver Vasss. 
 
 when struck, like a bell." The trees, he says, are well rep- 
 resented, their branches spreading in every direction. The 
 human figures are also well proportioned, and full of action. 
 
 Bronze Knives and Tweezers. 
 
 They also knew how to manufacture bronze. Many agri- 
 cultural implements are found, not only at Cliimn. bnt m11 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 795 
 
 along the coast. In the preceding cut we have bronze knives 
 and tweezers — also, a war-club of the same material. 
 
 All the coast tribes of Peru excelled in the manufacture 
 of pottery. Mr. Squier 
 tells us that, in this sort 
 of work, we find "almost 
 every combination of reg- 
 ular or geometrical fig- 
 ures " — men, birds, ani- 
 mals, fishes, etc., are re- 
 produced in earthenware. 
 In this cut we have one 
 of the many forms. No- 
 tice the serpent emblem. 
 The people of Chimu, 
 whose ruins we have been 
 describing, belong to the 
 
 coast division— differing Water-Jar. 
 
 in many respects from the Peruvian tribes in the interior. 
 Our information in regard to the coMst people is very lim- 
 
 ited. 
 
 Water-jars from Anecn. 
 
 We have to judge of them almost entirely from the 
 
 ruins of their towns, and the remains of their handiwork. 
 
 48 
 
796 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 There is no reason lu suppose they were the inferiors of 
 the Peruvians in culture. It is quite the custom to speak 
 of them as if they were low savages betbre the Incas con- 
 quered the country; and that they owe to the latter all 
 
 Cloth I'ouna in Grave. 
 
 their advance in culture. On the contrary, we may well 
 doubt whether their condition was at all improved by the 
 Inca conquest. The coast peoi)le are supposed to have been 
 conquered about one hundred years before the Spanish con- 
 quest. It was only after a most stubborn resistance that 
 the principal valleys were subdued. 
 
 It is not necessary, neither have we space, to give a 
 review of all (he ruins along the coast. They are very 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 797 
 
 plentiful. There is not an inhabitable valley but that they 
 abound there. The soil where not irrigated is very dry, and 
 tends to preserve any thing buried therein. All the coast 
 people buried their dead ; hence it is that we find, in nearly 
 all the coast valleys, such extensive cemeteries. At Ancon, 
 for instance, twenty miles north of Lima, it is simply won- 
 derful how extensive the cemeteries are. Mr. Hutchinson 
 
 Wall in Huatiea Valley. 
 
 says they extend for miles. Very extensive explorations 
 have been made here for scientific purposes. We have 
 given, on page 795, some water-jars excavated at Anccn; 
 in last illustration we have some specimens of cloth found 
 in graves farther north ; and in the same locality was found 
 a very wonderful piece of feather-work. The small feathers 
 were so fastened to a ground of cotton cloth that they 
 could not be pulled off. 
 
 Another noted place, about the same distance south of 
 Lima, is Pachacamac. Mr. Squier concludes, from the cem- 
 eteries at this place, that it was a holy place, to which pil- 
 grims resorted from all parts of the empire so as to be laid 
 to rest in holy ground. When we learn of so many other 
 similar localities, we see that this conclusion does not follow. 
 
798 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 The most we can say is, that these valleys have surely been 
 settled for a long while. 
 
 The city of Lima is situated on the south bank of the 
 Rimac River, about six miles from the coast. Its port is 
 the town of Callao. The valley is called the Huatica Val- 
 ley. Very extensive and wonderful ruins occur in this val- 
 ley, between Lima and the sea. We are told these ruins 
 are thick and close over a space of a few square miles, and 
 are inclosed within a triple wall. The last cut is given as a 
 representation of a portion of this wall, though only a small 
 portion here and there is still discernible. Amongst these 
 ruins are a large number of immense mounds. 
 
 Some are huacas, or burial mounds ; and some are in the 
 nature of fortresses. It is best to explain a little more par- 
 ticularly about the burial mounds of the coast region of Peru. 
 
 Burial r.Icur.cl, cr Huaoa. 
 
 This cut gives us an idea of their appearance. As to their 
 construction Mr. Squier says: "Many if not most of the 
 pyramids, or huacas, were originally solid — built up of suc- 
 cessive vertical layers of bricks, or compacted clay, around 
 a central mass or core." 
 
 But this is not always the case; since in many huacas 
 we find walls, in some rooms, and, finally, as before re- 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 799 
 
 marked, some apparently consist of a large, many-storied 
 building, the rooms of which are all filled with clay. In the 
 mound just mentioned, Mr. Hutchinson found a number of 
 inclosures — though the work was done in a rough, shapeless 
 manner. Mr. Squier gives us a description of a many- 
 roomed huaca as follov. s : " Thanks to the energy of treas- 
 ure-hunters who have penetrated its sides, we find that it 
 had numerous large painted chambers, was built in succes- 
 sive diminishing stages, ascended by zigzag stair-ways, 
 and was stuccoed over and painted in bright colors. The 
 conquerors filled up these chambers, and recast the edifice 
 with a thick layer of adobe."^ 
 
 This is surely a singular piece of work. The building 
 just described by Mr. Squier must have been much like a 
 pueblo. We wish we had fuller descriptions of it. Mr. 
 Squier is eminent authority, and scholars delight to honor 
 him for his researches. We take the liberty, however, to 
 question some of his conclusions. How does he know that 
 this structure was ever used for any other purpose than as 
 a mound ? It is indeed a singular way to construct a 
 mound, but when we learn of the existence of mounds 
 showing the different methods of work — some solid, some 
 with walls, others with rude rooms, still others with rooms 
 towards the top — why not say that this many-storied build- 
 ing was simply one style of mound-building? He claims 
 that the Incas filled up these rooms, and transformed the 
 house into a mound. Mr. Hutchinson claims there is no 
 proof that the Incas did this sort of work. 
 
 As an example of fortress-mounds, also prevalent in the 
 valley of the Huatica, we present the next cut. Mr. Hutch- 
 inson describes this mound as being eighty feet high, and 
 about four hundred and fifty feet square. " Some of the 
 
 ' " Peru," p. 214. 
 
800 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 adobe walls, a yard and a half ia thickness, are still quite 
 perfect. That this was not likely to have been a burial- 
 mound may be presumed from its formation. Great large 
 square rooms show their outlines on the top, but all filled 
 up with earth. Who brought this earth here, and with 
 what object was the filling up accomplished? for the work 
 of obliterating all space in these rooms with loose earth 
 
 must have been almost as great as the construction of the 
 building in itself."^ So it seems that in the fortress-mounds 
 also we meet with this same mysterious feature — rooms 
 filled with earth. 
 
 The Huatica Valley was also the location of a famous 
 temple — at least such are the traditions — and ruins are 
 pointed out as being those of the temple in question. It is 
 simply an immense, large inclosed square, of some 'forty- 
 nine acres. On each side of this square there is a huge 
 mass of ruins, and another in the center. In our next illu.s- 
 tration we have a portion of the wall surrounding the ruins 
 on the south side of the supposed temple. This is the largest 
 
 • "Two Years in Peru," Vol. I, p. 283. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 801 
 
 of the group of ruins. The walls are seventy feet high; 
 the area of the top is over five iici'es. Here, again, we no- 
 
 Temple Wall. 
 
 tice the same uiysierious feature ah'eady referred to, for 
 "on the top of this were also discernible the outlines of 
 
 Fortress. Huatica Valley. 
 
 large square rooms, filled up, as all the others, even to the 
 topmost height of seventy feet, with earth or clay." 
 
 This cut is given as that of a fort, meaning thereby a 
 
802 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 fortress-mound, such as we have ah-eady described. It is 
 said to be situated to one side of the temple. From this 
 we understand that the wall seen in the cut is that already 
 mentioned as inclosing the temple. Another ruined fortress 
 found in this valley is given on page 768. 
 
 Twenty miles south of Lima, in the valley of the river 
 Lurin, is an important field of ruins, known as Pachacamac, 
 which is still the name of a small village in the neighbor, 
 hood. We give a general view of the ruins. The principal 
 point of interest about it is the ruins of an old temple. 
 Traditionally, this is one of the most interesting points in 
 Peru. All the coast tribes were very superstitious. We 
 have already referred to the celebrated temple near Lima. 
 The temple at Pachacamac was of still greater renown. 
 Arriaga, a famous ecclesiastic, took an active part in extir- 
 pating their idolatrous belief. From his accounts, it seems 
 they were much addicted to fortune-telling. Their gods 
 were made to give out oracles, and their temples became re- 
 nowned just in proportion as their priests were shrewd in 
 this matter. 
 
 Those at Pachacamac were especially skillful, and it is 
 said, pilgrims resorted to it from all parts of the coast. As 
 a consequence, it became very rich. The god that was wor- 
 shiped here was a fish-god. The name of this god, and the 
 name of this old town are alike lost to us. When the In- 
 cas conquered the coast people, they imposed the name of 
 one of their own divinities on this temple, and by that name 
 the place i< now known to us.' 
 
 The ruins of the supposed temple are seen on the hill 
 in the background of the picture. A number of writers 
 speak of this hill in such terms as to imjily that it was 
 altogether artificial, like the famous pyramid at Cbolula. 
 
 ' Markhain's " Iiitroiliictinn," lt> " ncnoil mi llw Discovi'iv i>l' I'crii." 
 
o 
 
 n 
 
 Q 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 805 
 
 Mr. Squier says that it is largely artificial, but that the cen- 
 tral core is a natural hill. He speaks of rocks cropping out 
 on the highest part, which seem to be conclusive of the 
 matter. They built up great terraces around this central 
 core. These terrace walls are now in such a ruined condi- 
 tion that they can with difficulty be made out. We intro- 
 duce this cut as a nearer view of the ruins of the temple. 
 
 Yievsr of the Temple. 
 
 Some writers assert that the Incas erected on the sum- 
 mit of this hill a temple of the sun. • There are, however, 
 no good proofs of this assertion. According to Mr. Squier 
 the only ruin of the Inca type of architecture is a mile and 
 a half distant. Mr. Hutchinson noticed, on the very top of 
 the hill, evidence of the same mysterious proceedings to 
 which we have already referred — that is, great rooms all 
 filled up with clay. He propounds this query : " Whose 
 hands carried up the enormous quantities of earth that 
 fill every space and allow no definition of rooms, halls, 
 or, indeed, of any thing but the clay itself, and the walls 
 cropping up from amongst them?' We are afraid this query 
 
806 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 can never be answered. Mr. Hutchinson found graves to 
 be very plentiful all over the field of ruins. Quite a num- 
 ber of curiosities have been found in these graves. We 
 present in this cut some of the same. We call especial at- 
 tention to the duck-headed bowl. Compare this with the 
 cut given on page 404, and we will be struck with the sim- 
 ilarity. Another view of the ruins at Pachacamac is given 
 on page 774. As in the case of the ruins of Grand Chimu, 
 the whole field of ruins was encompassed by a wall, por- 
 tions of which Mr. Hutchinson obserA^ed on the north, 
 stretching away from the sea inland. Explorers have found 
 here true arches. They are said to exist in Northern Peru. 
 
 Relics from Graves at Pachacamac. 
 
 We are at a loss to account for their appearance, for cer- 
 tainly the people generally were ignorant of their use. 
 
 The valley of the Canete, the next one we meet going 
 south, is a very large and very fertile valley. It is also 
 full of ruins, but not difi'ering enough from the others to 
 justify a separate description. About one hundred miles be- 
 low Lima we notice three small islands. These arc the 
 Chincha Islands, noticeable on account of tlie immense quan- 
 tities of guano they contain. It seems th;tt ;it vjirious depths 
 in this guano deposits are found relics of iiimh. Tu our next 
 cut we present some of these objects. The (wo small vessels, 
 ■which were probably water jars, were ('iniii.l hurict] in the 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 807 
 
 guano at a depth of sixty-two feet. The other figure, a 
 wooden idol, was found at the depth of thirty-five feet. 
 
 We have no very good data on which to rely when we 
 attempt to estimate the number of years required to bury 
 the water jars to the depth where found. Thousands of 
 years must have passed.^ The water jars are not rude 
 forms. No little skill is indicated by their formation. The 
 wooden idol is not necessarily near as old as the jars, but 
 no one can doubt 
 but that it dates 
 from long before 
 the Inca conquest 
 of the valley. An- 
 other collection of 
 small idols, and 
 supposed royal em- 
 blems, also found 
 in guano deposits, 
 but at an unknown 
 depth, is shown on 
 page 783. 
 
 We have thus 
 far been describing 
 the ruins that oc- 
 cur in the territory Renos found buried in Guano deposits. 
 
 occupied by the coast tribes, a people in many ways 
 different from the great body of Peruvian people in 
 the interior. According to traditions, the conquest of the 
 coast tribes took place about one hundred and fifty years be- 
 fore the Spanish conquest. The details of this conquest are 
 given with great precision. We doubt whether any great 
 reliance can be placed upon them. We might remark that 
 
 • "In this case it is nonsense to talk of hundreds." (Hutchinson.) 
 
808 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 while Garcillasso traces the progress of the conquest from 
 the south north, Salcamayhua reverses this order, and makes 
 the victorious Incas march from the north to the south. One 
 or the other made a mistake in traditions. 
 
 The Inca conquest of the coast tribes was a very thor- 
 ough one. The names and traditions of the tribes were 
 blotted out. The word Yunca, by which they are known, 
 
 Prehistoric Pottery Ware. 
 
 is from the Inca language. The same is true of the names 
 of the coast valleys, and yet, from what we have already 
 learned of them, we feel sure that they were very far from 
 the degraded savages Garcillasso would have us believe they 
 were. The inhabitants of each valley formed a distinct 
 community under its own chief. De Leon says : " The chief 
 of each valley had a great house, with adobe pillars and 
 door-ways, hung with matting, built on extensive terraces." 
 This might have been the oflicial house of the tribe. 
 
 They were an industrious people, and the evidence is 
 abundant that they had made considerable advance in culti- 
 vation of the ground. They "set apart every square foot 
 of ground that conld be rondicd l)y \v;it(>i- for (Motivation, 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 809 
 
 and built their dwellings on the hillsides overlooking their 
 fields and gardens. Their system of irrigation was as perfect 
 as any that modern science has since adopted. "^ It is tin 
 altogether mistaken idea to suppose the Incas were the 
 authors. 
 
 We are not without evidence that they were possessed 
 of considerable artistic skill. This preceding collection of 
 pottery ware is not the work of savages. Mr. Markham 
 further tells us that they made " silver and gold ornaments,, 
 mantles, embroidered with gold and silver bezants, robes of 
 feathers, cotton cloth of fine texture, etc." We have already 
 referred to the tasteful decorations of the walls of Grand 
 Chimu. "Figures of colored birds and animals are said to 
 have been painted on the walls of temples and palaces." At 
 Pachacamac the remains of this color are still seen on a por- 
 tion of the walls. This 
 cut represents the head 
 of a silver cylinder found 
 in one of the coast valleys. 
 The ornamentation is pro- 
 duced by hammering up 
 from below. 
 
 We must now leave 
 the coast regions and in- 
 vestigate some ruins in the 
 interior. We have already 
 spoken of the Lake Titi- 
 caca region. Not far from 
 the southern border of that lake we notice a place marked 
 Tiahuanuco. Here occur a very interesting group of ruins. 
 They consist of "rows of erect stones, some of them rough, 
 or but rudely shaped by art, others accurately cut and fitted 
 
 ' Markham, in Journal of the Royal Geog. Society, Vol XLI. 
 
 Silver Cylinder Head. 
 
810 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 in walls of admirable workmanship ; long sections of founda- 
 tions, with piers and portions of stairways ; blocks of stone, 
 with mouldings, cornices, and niches cut with geometrical 
 precision, vast masses of sandstone, trachyte, and basalt, but 
 partially hewn, and great monolithic doorways, bearing sym- 
 bolical ornaments in relief, besides innumerable smaller rec- 
 tangular and symmetrically shaped stones rise on every hand, 
 or lie scattered in confusion over the plain."^ In fact, all ex- 
 plorers are loud in their praise of the beautifully cut stones 
 found in the ruins. 
 
 We have seen in our review how general has been the 
 desire to raise foundations, sometimes of great extent, on 
 
 11, 1 ■! 
 
 .;'^=-_ 
 
 -== 
 
 Pk 
 
 JIL 
 
 1 
 
 Terrace Wall, Tiahiianuoo. 
 
 vsrhich to place buildings This is true of the ruins under 
 consideration. Here the pyramid or foundation was faced 
 with stone work. In this illustration we have a view of such 
 a wall yet remaining in place. The labor expended on such 
 a wall was very great. We notice in the cut three large 
 standing stones. These are ranged along at regular inter- 
 vals between. No mortar was used in the construction of 
 
 » Squier's " Peru," p. 375. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 811 
 
 arrange- 
 
 the wall. If we examine the large standing stone carefully 
 we will notice on the side a sort of projecting shoulder. The 
 stones of the wall that come in contact with this standing 
 stone are cut to fit this shoulder. 
 
 The remaining stones in the wall were held in place by 
 a peculiar arrai 
 ment, illustrated 
 
 in 
 this cut. Round holes 
 were drilled in the bot- 
 tom and top of each ^ 
 stone. There is reason 
 to suppose that bronze 
 pins fitted into these 
 holes. Furthermore, -^ 
 
 each stone was cut Method of Joining stone Tiahuamioo. 
 
 with alternate grooves and projections, so as to fit immova- 
 bly into each other. 
 
 Oi;ie case was observed where either the wall has en- 
 tirely disappeared, or else it was left unfinished, and so we 
 have a row of these standing stones, as seen in this illustra- 
 tion. This has been called the American Stonehenge This 
 
 Pillars oi Stone, Tiahuanueo. 
 
 name is inappropriate, because we have no reason to suppose 
 the plans of the builders of the two structures were at all 
 similar. 
 
 The most celebrated feature of these ruins is the pres- 
 ence of huge gateways, each one cut out of a solid mass of 
 
812 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 GateTway, at Tiahuanueo. 
 
 stone. We give a view of the most noteworthy of these 
 gateways. It is now broken, tradition says, by a stroke 
 of lightning.^ The upper portion is covered with carvings. 
 
 North of Tiahua- 
 nueo is Lake Titi- 
 caca. This was the 
 sacred lake of the 
 Incas. We have al- 
 ready referred to the 
 probable origin of 
 this feeling. Near 
 the southern end of 
 this lake, on the 
 western side, is the 
 peninsula of Copacabana. Separated by a narrow strait 
 from the northern extremity of this peninsula is the 
 sacred island, Titicaca. According to traditions, the In- 
 cas sought, in all ways, to beautify this island. They 
 built temples, and laid out gardens. The hills were lev- 
 eled as much as possible, terraced, and then covered with 
 earth brought from afar. According to the statements 
 of early writers, pilgrims were not permitted to land on 
 its sacred soil until they had undergone certain prelimi- 
 nary fasts and purifications on the main-land. Landing on 
 the island, they traversed a terrace, and by a narrow pas- 
 sage way they were conducted between two large buildings, 
 where other ceremonies were performed. 
 
 The most sacred spot in all the island was a rock in the 
 northern part. Only priests of especial sanctity were al- 
 lowed near it. The rock to-day presents but the appear- 
 ance of a weather-worn mass of red sandstone. It is 
 
 ' The dimensions are : Length, thirteen feet five inches ; lieight above 
 ground, seven feet two inches ; thicliness, one foot six inches. (Squier.) 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 813 
 
 traditionally represented as having been plated all over with 
 gold and silver, and covered, except on solemn occasions, 
 with a mantle of rich color and material. Here the 
 5un was believed to have first risen to dispel the primal 
 darkness. To this day the Indians regard it with super- 
 stitious veneration. The traveler's guide, when he comes in 
 sight of it, removes his hat, and reverently bows to it, and 
 mutters to himself a few words of mystic import.^ 
 
 The whole appearance of the island shows how highly 
 it was regarded. In one place the remains of a drinking 
 fountain were noticed. Streams from some unknown source 
 were still bringing to it their limpid burden. Perhaps as 
 noticeable a ruin as any is represented in this cut. It is 
 
 Rtiins on the Island of Titieaca. 
 
 called the Palace. It is in a sheltered nook. The lake 
 washes the very foot of the foundation on which it stands. 
 It is two-storied. In the lower story were twelve rooms, 
 so connected with each other that but four of them com- 
 municated by doors with the outside. The others were 
 certainly dark and illy ventilated. The second story was 
 entered by means of the terrace in the rear. The same 
 
 * Squier's " Peru," p. 336. 
 
 49 
 
814 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 statement may be made in regard to its rooms; they did 
 not, however, at all correspond in arrangement with the 
 rooms below. The Island of Coati, but a short distance to 
 the south-east, was sacred to the moon. It has also a num- 
 
 Ruins, Island ol Coati. 
 
 ber of ruins. The approach to this was guarded by a 
 number of terraces. 
 
 We will describe one more class of ruins found abun- 
 dantly in the Collao region. These are burial towers, or 
 chulpas. A view of one is here presented. The chulpas 
 are common in the Titicaca basin, and usually occur in 
 
 groups, and almost always in 
 positions from which a large 
 extent of country can be 
 viewed. The great mass of a 
 chulpa is solid, but within is 
 a dome-shaped chamber, into 
 which the opening seen in 
 the cut leads. Sometimes the 
 chulpns are round, and in some the masonry is of that va- 
 riety we have already mentioned, called the Cyclopean. 
 Another view of burial towers is given on page 788. 
 
 As a mere description of ruins becomes tiresome, we 
 will now pass to Cuzco, and see of what we cnn learn of the 
 
 Burial To-wer. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 816 
 
 architecture of the Incas. The Incas were, of course, a 
 very rich and a very powerful tribe. All the tribes of an- 
 cient Peru had to pay them tribute. We may therefore 
 suppose that the pueblo of Cuzco was well built, the houses 
 large, and imposing, and that the official buildings for wor- 
 ship and tribal business would be commensurate with their 
 importance as a tribe. Yet we have but very few accounts 
 of these buildings. Immediately after the conquest, many 
 of the Spanish leaders settled in Cuzco. They made many 
 changes in the various edifices, and introduced into them 
 many improvements. At present in the modern city we 
 still find portions of ancient walls, and can trace the foun- 
 dation of various buildings. 
 
 The site of the city of Cuzco is very uneven. It stands 
 on the slopes of three hills, where as many rivulets come 
 together. The ancient 
 builders had to resort 
 to extensive terracing 
 in order to secure 
 level surfaces on 
 which to build. These 
 terraces, built in a 
 substantial manner, 
 and faced with stone, 
 are still standing in 
 many places. In this 
 
 illustration we have a Terrace Wall at Cuzco. 
 
 view of such a wall. Observe that the stones are not laid 
 in regular courses, nor is there any regularity as to their 
 size. This is a good example of a Cyclopean wall. Some 
 of the stones must weigh several tons, and they are fitted 
 together with marvelous precision, one stone having as 
 many as twelve angles. 
 
816 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 All accounts agree that the temple of the sun was the- 
 grandest structure in Cuzco. We present an illustration of 
 one end of it. This end is slightly curving. It is neces- 
 sary to remark that this end now forms part of the Church 
 of Santo Domingo. The fine-looking window and balcony 
 are modern additions to this ancient buildins;. AccordinQj 
 to Mr. Squier, the temple was an oblong building, nearly 
 
 Temple cf the Sun. 
 
 three hundred feet long, by about fifty in width. It formed 
 one side of a spacious court. It did not extend east and 
 west, but rather north-east and south-west. Early chron- 
 iclers affirm that the inner walls of this temple were covered 
 with gold. Portions of very thin plates of gold exist in 
 private museums in Cuzco, said to have formed part of this 
 covering. The end of the temple shown io our illustration 
 was covered with a great plate of gold intended to represent 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 817 
 
 the 8un. This plate was all in one piece, and spread from 
 wall to wall. 
 
 Only fragments of the ancient buildings of Cuzco now 
 exist. But enough are at hand to enable us to describe 
 their general characteristics. As a rule, they were built 
 around a court, the outer surface presenting the appear- 
 ance of an unbroken wall. These walls are excellent speci- 
 mens of Inca masonry. All travelers speak in their praise. 
 Mr. Squier says : " The world has nothing to show in the 
 way of stone-cutting and fitting to surpass the skill and ac- 
 curacy displayed in the Inca structures at Cuzco." There 
 was but one gateway to the court. This entrance was broad 
 and lofty. On the lintels, over the doorway, was frequently 
 carved the figure of a serpent. The apartments were con- 
 structed so as to face the court, and nearly all opened upon 
 the same. In some cases rooms were observed, to which 
 access could be obtained only after passing through several 
 outer rooms. Some of the walls yet remaining at Cuzco are 
 from thirty-five to forty feet high. This would indicate 
 houses of two or three stories. 
 
 It is here necessary to state that the structures we have 
 been describing are considered by most writers as palaces of 
 the Inca chiefs. Names have been bestowed upon thera- 
 such as the palace of Huayna Capac. It is asserted that 
 each Inca chief built a separate palace. The credulous traveler 
 is even pointed to a pile of ruins said to have been the palace 
 of that mythical personage, Mmuco Capac. There is some 
 conflict of authority as to the names of these palaces. Modern 
 tradition names one of the most imposing piles as the palace 
 of Inca Rocca, and as such it is described by Mr. Squier 
 and others. Garcillasso De La Vega says this chief's palace 
 was in an altogether different part of the city.^ Those wha 
 
 * Markham, in "Journal of Geog. Soc," Vol. XLI. 
 
818 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 <3all these buildings palaces, think the houses of the ordinary- 
 people have all disappeared. It is evident, however, that 
 if our views of the state of society among the Incas be 
 right, that it is a misnomer to call these structures palaces. 
 Some of them may have been public buildings, devoted 
 to tribal purposes. But we need not doubt but that this 
 was the type of communal buildings erected by the natives 
 of Cuzco. 
 
 "We must describe one more piece of aboriginal work. 
 This 18 the celebrated Fortress of Cuzco. As we have 
 
 Fortress Walls. 
 
 stated, the ancient pueblo, or city, was built on the slopes 
 of three hills. One of these, easily defended, was strongly 
 fortified, and thus converted into a citadel. Though called 
 a hill, it is in reality a projecting headland. Back of it rise 
 still higher hills. The portion overhanging the city is very 
 precipitous, in fact, almost incapable of ascent. There is, 
 however, a pathway up this front, ascending in places by 
 stone steps. On this front it did not need very strong for- 
 tifications, yet sections of stone wall, serving for this pur- 
 pose, are to be seen. They have been mostly thrown down, 
 and the stones rolled or tumbled down the hill to be utilized 
 in building. The main defensive works are .where the head- 
 land commences, from which \io'm\ tlio city is not visible. 
 
ANCIENT PERU. 
 
 819 
 
 In this illustration we have a view of the three massive 
 walls which defended the citadel. They are really wonder- 
 ful works. In order to understand the construction, we will 
 present an imaginary section of the walls. The walls sup- 
 port terraces, but they 
 rose above the terraces 
 so as to form a parapet. 
 To prevent the accumula- 
 tion of water behind the 
 parapet, channels were 
 cut through the walls at 
 regular intervals to drain 
 
 them. The height of the section of Fortress Walls. 
 
 outer wall is at present twenty-seven feet; the width of the 
 terrace thirty-five feet. The second wall is eighteen feet 
 high; the width of its terrace is also eighteen feet. The 
 •height of the third wall is fourteen feet. 
 
 The Incas divided the year into twelve months, but we 
 do not learn how they kept track of the years. In this re- 
 spect they were behind the Mexicans. Neither do we know 
 of any hieroglyphics for days, or months, or years. In the 
 matter of keeping records, they must have been far below the 
 Mexicans. Our next illustration is that of one of their knot 
 records, or quippos. It is a very rude attempt to assist the 
 memory. To the base cord are attached other threads of va- 
 rious colors, and tied in various ways. We, of course, know 
 but very little about them. It is claimed, however, that a 
 red thread signified a soldier, or war; a yellow one signified 
 gold ; a white one silver, or peace ; a green one wheat, or 
 maize. A single knot is said to have stood for ten; two 
 knots, twenty ; a knot doubly intertwined, one hundred, etc. 
 Also the position of the knots on the threads was to be con- 
 sidered, their distance apart, the way the threads were 
 
/ 
 
 /a/i-y 
 
 820 
 
 THE PREHISTORIC WORLD. 
 
 twisted, and many other details.' It is manifest, however, 
 that this system of records is of very little value, and is 
 
 way below the picture-writing 
 of the Mexicans. 
 
 Take it all in all, the Incas 
 are indeed an interesting people. 
 We believe, however, their cult- 
 ure has been greatly overrated. 
 Our object in this chapter has 
 been to give an outline of the 
 Incas and the tribes subject to 
 them. It is impossible in these 
 few pages to give more than 
 an outline. Should the reader, 
 by the perusal of these pages, 
 acquire an interest in the cult- 
 ure of the Andean people just- 
 before the Spanish invasion, 
 and be thereby induced to continue his investigations, the 
 writer will consider such a result reward enough, even though 
 the conclusions reached should be totally opposed to those 
 set forth in this chapter on Ancient Peru. 
 
 * "Peruvian Antiquities," p. 110. 
 
 Quippos, or Knot Record. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 m^