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ELEMENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE, 
 
 NEW RULES, 
 
 MADE EASY TO THE MEMORY BY THEIR 
 BREVITY : 
 
 BEING A TRANSLATION OF 
 
 DR. MOOR'S 
 
 CELEBRATED GREEK GRAMMAR. 
 
 WITH 
 
 LARGE ADDITIONS AND IMPROVEMENTS 
 
 FROM THE LATEST EDITIONS, 
 BY 
 
 PROFESSORS DUNBAR AND NEILSON, 
 
 AND 
 
 FROM THE LATE WORKS 
 
 OF 
 
 MATTHLE, BUTTMAN, THIERSCH, 
 AND OTHERS. 
 
 BY THE 
 
 REV. PETER BULLIONS, 
 
 PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADEMY. 
 
 "WEBSTER AND SKINNER, AND LITTLE AND CUMMINC: 
 ALBANY. 
 
 W. E. DEAN, PRINTER. 
 
 1S31. 
 

 Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year One 
 Thousand Eight Hundred and Thirty-one, by Collins & Han- 
 nay, in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of Neto-Yor/c. 
 
 / 
 
 Jf 0t>V" "" ' 
 
 1^X317} . 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Among the various Compends of Greek Grammar now be- 
 fore the public, that of Dr. Moor deservedly occupies a very 
 high rank. The simplicity of his manner, the accuracy of his 
 observations, and the admirable precision and system that runs 
 through the whole, render his work far superior to most of 
 others as a manual of Elementary instruction in the Greek 
 language. Yet, with all its excellencies, it was, as first pub- 
 lished, still defective in many parts. This was to be expected 
 in a work which its Author did not live to complete. In the 
 late editions by Professors Dunbar of Edinburgh and Neilson 
 of Belfast many of these defects have been supplied. The 
 late voluminous and valuable works of Matthiae, Buttman, and 
 Thiersch, in which they have embodied " the result of philologi- 
 cal researches up to the present time," have contributed greatly 
 to advance the interests of Grecian literature. These, added to 
 the valuable works of Middleton, Vigerus, Bos, Hoogeven. and 
 others in different departments of this subject, furnish the stu- 
 dent with all the information requisite to conduct him to a tho- 
 rough and critical acquaintance with the Greek language. 
 These works, however, are within the reach of comparatively 
 few. They w r ere neither designed for, nor are they suited to, 
 the wants of the junior student ; and will hardly ever be known 
 or consulted except by the advanced scholar. Still, however, 
 the benefit of labours so well directed and successful, ought not 
 to be confined to so narrow a circle ; and to bring their results 
 more fully than has yet been done before the student in a con- 
 densed and systematic form, is an object which has been stea- 
 dily kept in view in the present work. 
 
 The plan and arrangement of Moor's Elements have been 
 
riiii.jr akjZ*. 
 
 followed, the translation of which is, for the most part, new ; 
 and in which the valuable additions made by Professors Dun- 
 bar and Neilson have been incorporated. An entirely new 
 Syntax has been prepared from the ample materials furnished 
 by the writers already mentioned. In this, as well as in every 
 other part, I have freely availed myself of all the sources of in- 
 formation within my reach ; and no labour has been spared to 
 render it as complete as possible. The Rules of Adams* Latin 
 Grammar have been adopted so far as they are applicable to 
 the construction of the Greek language ; when it was neces- 
 sary to add others, brevity, accuracy, and comprehensiveness 
 have been chiefly studied. The same thing has been aimed at 
 in the Notes and Observations under each rule ; and the whole, 
 it is believed, contains the substance of Matthise's volume on 
 this subject. For many observations in different parts, and 
 especially on the doctrine of the Tenses and of the Prepositions, 
 I am greatly indebted to the Grammar of Professor Goodrich,, 
 and of Valpy as edited with large additions by Professor An- 
 thon ; both of whom have enriched their works from the same 
 sources. The observations on the nature of the Subjunctive 
 and Optative Moods are abridged from an ingenious essay on 
 the subject by Professor Hunter of St. Andrew's College, un- 
 questionably one of the first classical scholars of the present 
 day. In Prosody, the rules for Quantity have been translat- 
 ed from Neilson's edition of Moor ; and those for the different 
 Metres have been taken from Scale's Analysis of the Greek 
 Metres. The tables of the different kinds of Metre, in which 
 each species with its varieties is made visible to the eye } have 
 been constructed with great care from the Rules laid down in 
 Maltby's edition of Morell's Thesaurus ; and they have been 
 placed together to afford the student, who wishes to scan the 
 Lyric Poets or the choruses of the Dramatic writers, an op- 
 portunity of applying the scale more conveniently to the sub- 
 ject of his investigation. Besides these, the Greek Exercises of 
 Prof. Dunbar, and Jamie'son's Hermes Scythicus, have been con- 
 sulted on the subject of the Prepositions. The Greek Gram- 
 mars of Verwey, Bournouf, Jones, and others, have also been* 
 
PREFACE* 
 
 consulted, as well as Crornbie's Gymnasium and English Gram- 
 mar, and Zumpt's Latin Grammar ; and from all of them I 
 have endeavoured to collect and condense whatever was suited 
 to my purpose. This general statement of the sources from 
 which the materials for the present work have been drawn, is 
 here made to supersede the necessity of quotation or particular 
 reference, which could not well be made in the body of the 
 work itself. 
 
 The Analysis of the Verb, from § 85 to § 103, is a modifica- 
 tion of Thiersch's doctrine of the Verb, in which the whole 
 subject is rendered definite and satisfactory by the application 
 of Moor's Rules for the penult of the Second Future and Per- 
 fect Middle to the change of the Roots ; a part of the system 
 which, in Thiersch's work, is left so loose and indefinite as to 
 render the whole nearly useless to the beginner. The view of 
 the Verb given in this- analysis, as it respects the formation of 
 the Tenses, is different from that given by Moor or any other 
 Grammarian; and for brevity, simplicity, and philosophical 
 accuracy, certainly has not hitherto been equalled. A more 
 minute and accurate knowledge of the Greek Verb, it is believ- 
 ed, may be obtained in a much shorter time by studying it in 
 this way than in any othei\ It has, at least, this advantage, 
 that it enables the student to form or to resolve every tense di- 
 rectly, and at once, without the tedious process of forming one 
 tense from another : and without burdening the memory, and 
 perplexing the judgment, with a multiplicity of Rules. The 
 simple process is to ascertain the different forms of the Root, 
 and from these to form each Tense by adding its appropriate 
 termination ; and the whole inflexion of the Verb is completed, 
 without the aid of a paradigm, by varying the termination through 
 the different Moods as in the Table of Terminations. Should 
 any, however, prefer the system of Dr, Moor, among ail others 
 incomparably the best, this analysis may be entirely passed 
 over, as the other is complete without it. But if the analysis 
 is studied, all that follows respecting the formation of the 
 Tenses, and even the committing of the Paradigm, is supers 
 seded, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The plan proposed in the whole undertaking was to furnish, 
 on the foundation of Moor's Grammar, a system of elementary 
 principles suited to the use of the junior student, and to arrange 
 under these principles, as distinct heads and with a smaller 
 type, all the illustration and detail necessary to enable the ad- 
 vanced student, without farther assistance, to prosecute the 
 study of the language with success. How far I have succeed- 
 ed in accomplishing my object must be left to others to deter- 
 mine. The chief difficulty lay in compressing the great mass 
 of materials within proper limits ; and, notwithstanding my 
 efforts to accomplish this, the work has swelled much beyond 
 the dimensions to which I wished to limit it. Any suggestions 
 from the friends of Grecian literature, for the correction and 
 improvement of the work, should another edition ever be called 
 for, will be thankfully received. 
 
 4t remains only to state here, that in using this Grammar 
 the beginner should first make himself master of the general 
 outline or Elements (distinguished, for the most part, by a larger 
 type), committing the Rules and Inflections accurately to me- 
 mory, which may generally be accomplished in a few weeks ; 
 and when this has been rendered familiar by exercises in read- 
 ing and parsing, the whole should be studied in course in fre- 
 quent revisals. 
 
 No recitation in Greek is thoroughly prepared till the student 
 can not only render the passage into good English, but until 
 he knows every thing belonging to the inflexion and forms of 
 all the words, it contains, and understands the construction of 
 every part. With less than this, the student who wishes to 
 profit will not be satisfied. That the Grammar may be pro- 
 fitable to such in their preparations as a book of reference, the 
 whole has been divided into Sections, and a copious Index has 
 been prepared, by which any subject treated of in the work 
 may be readily found. 
 
 Albany Academy, 
 November 18th, 183L 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Accents ..... 7 and 397 
 
 Accusative of 3d dec!. . . 28 
 
 construction of . 322 
 
 governed by a 
 
 neuter verb . 324 
 
 Adjectives, of 51 
 
 of the 1st and 2d 
 
 decl 52 
 
 of the 1st and 3d 
 
 decl. .... 53 
 of two termina- 
 tions .... 56 
 irregular ... 57 
 different significa- 
 tions of. . . 58 
 comparison of . 59 
 comparison of ir- 
 regular ... 62 
 concord of with a 
 
 substantive . 261 
 other words used 
 
 as 261 
 
 used adverbially . 261 
 obs. on the con- 
 cord of . . . 267 
 pronouns, con- 
 struction and 
 use of . . . 269 
 words, related 
 construction of 276 
 
 Adverbs, of, 217 
 
 signification of . . 217 
 formation and deri- 
 vation of . . . 218 
 comparison of . . 220 
 construction of . . 338 
 Adverbial particles (insepa- 
 rable) ....... 221 
 
 Analysis of the Greek verb . 97 
 
 Page. 
 Anomalous and defective 
 
 verbs ....... 200 
 
 alphabetical list of 203 
 
 Apostrophe 9 
 
 Apposition . . . . . . 260 
 
 Article ........ 49 
 
 dialects of .... . . 50 
 
 construction and use 
 
 of .... \ . 278 
 
 as a demonstrative 
 
 pronoun .... 284 
 
 as a relative and per- 
 sonal pronoun . . 280 
 position of ... . 286 
 
 omissions of . . . 287 
 Augment, of . . . 102 and 171 
 place of, in com- 
 pound words . 174 
 observations on . 175 
 Auxiliary verbs ..... 94 
 
 Case, of 18 
 
 C haracteristic of the verb, of 98 
 
 and 170 
 Circumstances, construction 
 
 of. ........ 330 
 
 of cause or origin . 331 
 
 of limitation . . . 332 
 of cause, manner, 
 
 and instrument . 334 
 
 of time .... 336 
 
 of measure . . . 336 
 
 of price .... 337 
 
 Comparison of adjectives . 59 
 
 general rule for 60 
 
 in toiv and io-tos 61 
 
 irregular . . 62 
 
 defective . , 63 
 
 dialects of . . 64 
 
Vlll 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 Comparative deg. construc- 
 tion and use of ... . 226 
 
 Concord, of 259 
 
 Conjunctions, of ... . 256 
 construction of 365 
 signification & 
 use of . . . 368 
 Contractions, of ... . 37 
 of the 1st decl. 38 
 of the 2d decl. 39 
 of the 3d decl. 40 
 general rules 
 for. . . . 40 
 do. with ex- 
 amples . . 42 
 special rules for 45 
 
 Dative plural 3d decl. of . . 30 
 construction of . . 313 
 after substantives . 314 
 governed by adjec- 
 tives 314 
 
 by verbals in t6$ and 
 
 riog ..... 316 
 
 by verbs .... 316 
 
 by impersonal verbs 321 
 
 Declension, general rules for 18 
 
 first. 19 
 
 second 22 
 
 do. Attic form of 23 
 third ..... 24 
 gen. of . . . 25 
 do. of adjec- 
 tives . 27 
 accusative of . 28 
 vocative of . . 29 
 dative plural of 30 
 dialects of . . 32 
 genders of . . 32 
 
 Dialects 405 
 
 JEoWc 406 
 
 Doric 407 
 
 Ionic 407 
 
 Attic 408 
 
 of the 1st declen. . 21 
 
 of the 2d .... 23 
 
 of the 3d .... 30 
 
 of the article . . 50 
 
 of comparison . . 64 
 
 of the pronoun . . 78 
 
 of the verb . . . 145 
 
 of'Ec/il .... 161 
 
 Diaeresis 9 
 
 Diastole ....... 9 
 
 Page. 
 8 
 2 
 
 Digamma . 
 Diphthongs 
 
 Etymology 15 
 
 Euphony, rules of ... . 10 
 
 Exclamation 337 
 
 Figures affecting syllables . 9 
 Final letters of the active 
 
 voice .... 103 
 mid. and pass. 104 
 of verbs in jui . 151 
 Future 1st active, formation 176 
 of special rules for 177 
 of pure verbs . . 178 
 passive, rules for . 182 
 special do. for . 183 
 Future 2d, rules for the pe- 
 nult of 188 
 
 special do 189 
 
 verbs which want the 190 
 
 Gender, of 17 
 
 Genders of the 3d decl. . . 32 
 
 Genitive of do 25 
 
 of adjectives of do. 27 
 Obs. on construc- 
 tion of .... 298 
 governed by sub- 
 stantives . . . 301 
 by adj. in the 
 
 neut. gender . 303 
 by adjectives . 304 
 by thecomp. de- 
 gree ... 307 
 by verbs ... 308 
 Government of 297 
 
 Imperative mood, Syntax of 345 
 Impersonal verbs .... 166 
 construction of 321 
 Indicative mood, construc- 
 tion of 344 
 
 Infinitive mood, construc- 
 tion of 349 
 
 a&a verbal noun . 349 
 
 without a subject 351 
 
 with a subject . 353 
 
 used absolutely . 355 
 
 Metre, of . . . 
 Iambic . 
 Trochaic 
 Anapaestic 
 Dactylic , 
 
 383 
 385 
 386 
 
 386 
 387 
 
INDEX. 
 
 IX 
 
 Page. 
 
 Metre, Choriambic » . . 38S 
 
 Antispastic . . . 388 
 
 Ionic a majore . . . 389 
 
 Ionic a nainore . . 390 
 
 Phonic 390 
 
 Metres compound, of . . . 391 
 
 tables of .... 392 
 
 Mood vowels, of . . . . 103 
 
 Moods, subjunctive and op- 
 tative, construction of . 345 
 
 Mutes 6 
 
 New present, formation of . 261 
 
 Negatives, of 340 
 
 double . . , . 341 
 
 Nom. ca3e, construction of . 293 
 
 concord of, with the 
 
 verb in number . 294 
 
 in person . 296 
 
 Noun, of . 16 
 
 properties of . . . 17 
 
 Nouns irregular, of . . . 35 
 
 defective, of ... . 36 
 
 of peculiar signification 37 
 
 Number, of 17 
 
 Numbers, cardinal .... 65 
 
 ordinal . . * . 66 
 
 " notation of . . .67 
 
 table of .... 67 
 
 Numerals. ....... 64 
 
 classes of . . . 69 
 
 Orthography .... 1 
 
 Paradigm of the active voice 120 
 
 of the middle . . 124 
 
 of the passive . . 130 
 
 of contract verbs . 135 
 
 of verbs in pi . . 155 
 
 Participles, of 96 
 
 Obs, on the con- 
 struction of . . 357 
 for the infinitive . 359 
 with Xavddvu), &e. . 361 
 with eljxl. yivofxai, &LC. 361 
 used adverbially . 362 
 in the case absolute 364 
 Particles, conjunctive and 
 adverbial ...... 368 
 
 siguiiication of . . 368 
 
 Parts of speech 16 
 
 indeclinable, of the 216 
 Passive voice, construction 
 
 of cases with .... 328 
 
 Page. 
 
 Perfect active, formation of 180 
 active, special rules 
 
 for penult of . . 181 
 
 passive, formation of 186 
 
 specialrulesfor 187 
 
 middle, rules for . . 191 
 
 specialrulesfor 191 
 
 Prepositions, of .... 221 
 
 Greek, of. . . 223 
 alphabetical list of 224 
 construction of . ." 342 
 in compo- 
 sition . 343 
 Pronouns, personal ... 69 
 possessive ... 70 
 construction of 275 
 in apposition . 260 
 definite .... 71 
 
 reflexive . . . . 71 
 
 reciprocal ... 72 
 
 demonstrative . . 73 
 
 construction of 270 
 
 relative . . . ,73 
 
 concord of . . 287 
 
 other words 
 
 used as :, . 291 
 
 in the sense of 
 
 other words . 291 
 
 interrogative . . 74 
 
 construction of 274 
 
 indefinite ... 75 
 
 construction of 273 
 
 declension of . • 75 
 
 correlative ... 77 
 
 dialects of . . . 78 
 
 Prosody. ...... 373 
 
 Punctuation 15 
 
 Root of the verb, of ... 98 
 
 of finding and changing 99 
 
 of the first .... 99 
 
 second ... 99 
 
 third .... 100 
 
 verbs wanting the 2d 
 
 and 3d .... . 101 
 
 of the tenses . . . , 101 
 
 Sentences, simple . . . . 257 
 
 complex ... 258 
 
 Spiritus, of the 8 
 
 Substantives in apposition . 259 
 Superlative degree, construc- 
 tion and use of ... . 268 
 Syllables 7 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page. 
 
 Syntax 257 
 
 parts of .... 258 
 general principles of 259 
 2d part of ... 297 
 of the verb ... 344 
 
 Table of vowel sounds . . 5 
 
 Tenses, of 89 
 
 obs. on the use of . 92 
 of mute and pure 
 
 verbs, formation of 110 
 of liquid verbs, forma- 
 tion of .... 112 
 secondary rules for . 193 
 tabular view of . • 195 
 of verbs in j«, of . • 195 
 formation of . 196 
 formed from the 
 primitive . . 197 
 terminations of 103 & 169 
 table of # . . 107 
 of verbs in /u 151 
 
 Verbs, of ..... 79 U 169 
 division and significa- 
 tion of 79 
 
 different kinds of . . 80 
 conjugation and inflec- 
 tion of 81 
 
 auxiliary . . . . . 94 
 analysis of ... . 97 
 characteristic of 98 & 170 
 root of (see root.) 
 mutable parts of . . 102 
 augment of (see aug- 
 ment.) 
 termination of (see 
 termination.) 
 
 Page. 
 
 Verbs, synopsis of . . . . Ill 
 
 dialects of .... 145 
 
 of the 2d conjugation 149 
 
 in /a, tenses of . . . 150 
 
 analysis of ... . 150 
 
 root and final letters, 
 
 combination of . . 152 
 
 paradigm of . . . . 155 
 
 obs. on ...... 159 
 
 irregular and defective, 
 
 inflection of . . . 160 
 
 impersonal .... 166 
 
 of peculiar signification 168 
 conjugation of, through 
 
 the primary tenses . 192 
 
 anomalous & defective 200 
 
 concord of ... . 293 
 
 rules and obs. 
 
 concerning 294 
 
 governing the genitive 308 
 
 dative . 316 
 
 accus. . 322 
 
 ace. & gen. 325 
 
 ace. & dat. 326 
 
 two accus. 327 
 
 syntax of ..... 344 
 
 Voice, of 82 
 
 active, inflection of . 104 
 
 table of. . . 114 
 
 obs. on . . . 141 
 
 middle, of ... . 82 
 
 tenses of . . 84 
 
 table of . . 116 
 
 inflection of . 106 
 
 passive, inflection of . 106 
 
 table of . . 118 
 
 middle and passive, 
 
 obs. on .... 142 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 The following are the principal Errata that have been observed. 
 
 Page 9 line 11, for apostrope read apostrophe. 
 
 50 22, for re read <5e. 
 
 53 14, for rbv read rffv, 
 
 73 18, for 6 read $. 
 
 77 5, for bTiva read Hvnva. 
 
 81 8, for anomolous read anomalous. 
 
 104 16, dele "1. aor." 
 
 107 last line but two, for aor. read fut. 
 118 line 13, for fy^v read ty/^v. 
 
 120 1, before paradigm insert § 105. 
 
 193 last line but three, for iTpax6pev read bpa*6nr}v. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 § I. The number of Letters in the Greek 
 Alphabet is twenty-four, as follows : 
 
 A, a. 
 
 al(pa. 
 
 alpha* 
 
 a, in father. 
 
 B, (i, §. 
 
 (iijva. 
 
 beta. 
 
 b. 
 
 r, y, r. 
 
 yaufia. 
 
 gamma. 
 
 g, hard as in got 
 
 j, d. 
 
 dtlra. 
 
 delta. 
 
 d. 
 
 E, e. 
 
 ixiulov. 
 
 epsilon. 
 
 e, in met. 
 
 Z, *. 
 
 Zftta. 
 
 zeta. 
 
 z. 
 
 H, t], 
 
 r\%a. 
 
 eta. 
 
 e, in there. 
 
 0, &,6. 
 
 &r\xa. 
 
 theta. 
 
 th. 
 
 I, i. 
 
 ifora. 
 
 iota. 
 
 i, in tin. 
 
 K, x. 
 
 KCtTZJia. 
 
 kappa. 
 
 k, or c hard. 
 
 A, JL 
 
 Xau§da. 
 
 lambda. 
 
 1. 
 
 M, ju. 
 
 [IV. 
 
 mu. 
 
 m. 
 
 N, v. 
 
 vv. 
 
 nu. 
 
 n. 
 
 S, I- 
 
 ¥- i 
 
 xi. 
 
 X. 
 
 0, o. 
 
 OUMQOV. 
 
 omikron. 
 
 o, in not 
 
 IT, 7T, VS. 
 
 nl. 
 
 pi. 
 
 P- 
 
 P, q. 
 
 ()(b. 
 
 rho. 
 
 r. 
 
 Z, o, g. 
 
 olfya. 
 
 sigma. 
 
 s. 
 
 T, T, 1. 
 
 %av. 
 
 tau. 
 
 t. 
 
 Y, v. 
 
 v\\itkbv. 
 
 upsilon. 
 
 ue, in vue, French. 
 
 *,9- 
 
 (pi. 
 
 phi. 
 
 ph. 
 
 x,x. 
 
 X^ 
 
 chi. 
 
 ch, aspirated. 
 
 % w- 
 
 \$L 
 
 psi. 
 
 ps. 
 
 I2 5 a). 
 
 <ou4ya. 
 
 omega. 
 
 o, in note. 
 
DIVISION OF LETTERS. 
 
 § 2. Letters are either Vowels or Consonants. 
 
 I. OF VOWELS, 
 
 The vowels are seven ; viz. 
 
 Two short, «, o* 
 
 Two long, 7\ r a>. 
 
 Three doubtful, a, i $ t/. 
 
 a, i, u, are called doubtful vowels, not because there is any 
 uncertainty about their quantity, but because they are short in 
 some syllables and long in others ; and sometimes in the same 
 syllable they are short or long, according to the pleasure of the 
 writer. Thus, 
 
 a in «7rar^, is always short. 
 
 a in X<io£, is always long. 
 
 a in"Af?]c, may be either long or short, 
 
 Obs. 1. There are but five distinct vowel sounds in the Greek 
 
 language, viz. a, s, i, o, u. The *), and w, are used to express 
 
 the lengthened sound of s and o. The vowel sounds then may 
 
 be thus expressed : 
 
 Short, s, o, a, r, ff. 
 
 Long, 7], w, a, r, v. 
 
 II. OF DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 The miion of two vowels in one syllable, is 
 called a Diphthong. If the sound of both vowels 
 be distinctly heard, it is called a Proper diphthong; 
 if not, it is called an Improper diphthong. 
 
 Notel. The first vowel of a diphthong is called the preposit ive ; and 
 the second, the subjunctive. 
 
§ 3. OP THE VOWEL SOUNDS. Z 
 
 1, The Proper diphthongs are six; and are 
 formed from d, e, o, with toru subjoined : thus, 
 
 from a are formed ai and av, 
 from e u and ev, 
 
 from o o^ and ov. 
 
 2. The Improper diphthongs are also six. Three 
 have the Subjunctive vowel i written under ; viz, 
 a, fl, oh The other three are yv, oru, w. 
 
 iVbfe 2. A vowel, preceded by another vowel not long, with which 
 it does not form a diphthong, is snid to be pure. Thus, a is pure in yia 
 and (j>i\ia ; oj is pure in ttoXcos, patios, &c. 
 
 § 3. OF THE PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS 
 AND DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 1. It is now, perhaps, impossible to ascertain with precision 
 what was the mode of pronouncing the vowel sounds among 
 the ancient Greeks. Among the moderns, very considerable 
 variety has prevailed, almost every nation being inclined to 
 give to the Greek rowels and diphthongs the same power they 
 have been accustomed to give to the corresponding vowels and 
 diphthongs in their own language. Besides the great incon- 
 venience arising from the diversity of pronunciation to which 
 this method unavoidably leads, the pronunciation itself is found 
 in many instances to differ widely from the known power of 
 some of the Greek vowels, and to be incapable of distinguish- 
 ing, in a definite manner to the ear, between several of the 
 vowel and diphthongal sounds. 
 
 2. Of the different methods of pronouncing the vowel sounds, 
 the two most prevalent at the present day are the Jleuchlinian 
 and Erasmian. The former, introduced by Reuchlin, coin- 
 cides with the pronunciation of the modern Greeks, according 
 to which a» is pronounced like the English a in ale ; $u and au 
 receive the sound of ef and of; and r t) si, oi, u and ui, the sound 
 of the English e in mete. This system, by confounding the 
 most dissimilar letters and syllables under one sound, renders 
 elementary instruction much more difficult, and at the same 
 time militates against the directions of the ancients, and the 
 plainest principles of Orthography, without proposing any other 
 advantage than that of agreeing with the modern Greeks, who 
 have departed, at least as widely as any other nation, from the 
 pronunciation of the ancients. 
 
 3. In consequence pf these difficulties, at the instigation of 
 
4 OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS. § 3, 
 
 Erasmus, a return was made to the more ancient method of 
 pronouncing, which now bears his name. This, besides being 
 more simple and philosophical, and free from most of the objec- 
 tions to which the other is liable, evidently, according to the 
 best authorities, approaches nearer to the ancient pronunciation 
 than any other. According to this method, the r\ has the sound 
 of the English e in there ; the u is pronounced like the French 
 u in tu; while the proper diphthongs a», au, si, su, 01 and on, are 
 spoken so as to make the sound of both the vowels distinctly 
 heard. 
 
 4. The ancient pronunciation of the Greek tongue, as far 
 as it is now possible to ascertain it, may be learned partly from 
 the comparison of words which languages yet living have in 
 common with the Greek— partly through Greek words which 
 appear in Latin, and Latin words which appear in Greek — 
 partly from imitations of natural sounds, as well as from plays 
 upon words and other hints of a similar nature. 
 
 5. By means of these aids, the sound of 77, according to the 
 Erasmian scheme, is pretty satisfactorily ascertained to be sim- 
 ply a prolongation or doubling of the sound of s, (which is 
 equivalent to the short e in met } ) in the same manner as w is a 
 prolongation of the sound of 0. Thus c/ H^ was written in La- 
 tin Hebe. Plutarch expresses the long e of Latin by q, e. g. 
 in the life of Cicero, Rex is written Tvjg ; in that of Numa, 
 potens is written ^or^c, and sapiens <r airing. Dionysius of Ha- 
 licarnassus teaches to form the sound of this letter " at the root 
 of the tongue" (vefi t^v £a<rtv *% yXwtftf'^,) whereas he directs 
 the sound of t (the same sound with the English long e in mete % 
 or the Reuchlinian sound of *),) to be formed outwards " about 
 the teeth" (irsgl <rouc oSovra^) and, which may be considered de- 
 cisive, especially when taken in connexion with what is alrea- 
 dy said, Cratinus expressed the cry of the sheep by £>j, %y). 
 
 6. The sound of the 1 is ascertained by its being uniformly 
 written in Latin by i ; as, KfitfTivos viyf ou<:, Crispinus nigros 6 
 (pronounced according to the Latin sound of i, Crispeenus nee- 
 gros). 
 
 7. The diphthong cci was originally pronounced like the 
 English i in fire, or the monosyllable aye. Thus, MaTct is writ- 
 ten in Latin J\taia. "Virgil writes aulai pictai for aulce pictce f 
 clearly distinguishing the sound of the vowels by the dicer esis^ 
 in imitation of the Greek sound in the termination of avXai. 
 
 8. The sound of si is preserved in the Latin eia ) similar to the 
 sound of the English i in jine ) or ei in height, sleight. The 
 sound of the diphthong, however, appears to have been some- 
 what variable ; sometimes the sound of the s, and sometimes 
 that of the 1, being predominant. 
 
§ 3. OF THE VOWEL SOUNDS. 5 
 
 9. oi was originally pronounced like oi in oil 
 
 10. The Greek au was written in Latin by the corresponding 
 au. Thus, Augustus, Claudius, Paulus, were written Auyourf- 
 <rog, K\ol68io$, IlauXog ; in which the diphthong has the sound 
 of the English ou in our. This sound is preserved in the Ger- 
 man auge for auyyj, and is determined from the use oi it in Aris- 
 tophanes to imitate the barking of a dog ; thus, au, au. 
 
 11. The open sound of su is expressed in Latin by eu ; thus, 
 sZ^ os, is written Eurus } and is heard in the English pronoun 
 you. 
 
 12. The sound of ou seems generally to have been express- 
 ed by the Latin u heard in tu ) which is similar to the English u 
 in full , though it is probable from analogy that the diphthongal 
 sound was preserved by slightly sounding the o, and but slight- 
 ly, to distinguish it from au. Thus Moutfai and Mouo~sibv' were 
 rendered in Latin, Musce and Museum ; and Augustus was 
 written as above, A uy outf<ros. If uniformity in the pronuncia- 
 tion of the Greek language is to be aimed at, and it is certain- 
 ly very desirable that it should, the Erasmian method seems 
 entitled to preference as a standard, not only on account of its 
 simplicity and perspicuity, but also as having the authority of 
 the ancients, so far as this can be ascertained, decidedly in its 
 favour. The whole system is exhibited in the following 
 
 13. TABLE OF VOWEL AND DIPHTHONGAL 
 
 SOUNDS. 
 
 Short a 
 
 
 like 
 
 a 
 
 in hat, 
 
 as nrcwYig, 
 
 Long & 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 father. 
 
 as tfoi$. 
 
 Short s 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 met, 
 
 as yivog. 
 
 Long y\ 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 there, 
 
 as ity 
 
 Short i 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 tin, 
 
 as fya. 
 
 Long i 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 machine. 
 
 as IXiov, j^r'Xo^. 
 
 Short o 
 
 
 
 
 
 not,* 
 
 as tjvos., 
 
 Long w 
 
 
 
 
 
 note, 
 
 as <pw£. 
 
 Short u 
 
 as 
 
 French 
 
 u 
 
 tu, 
 
 as f^ruf. 
 
 Long u 
 
 as 
 
 French 
 
 ue 
 
 vue, tortue 
 
 as xuvoY. 
 
 
 or 
 
 the Scotch 
 
 ui 
 
 puir, 
 
 as tfu£ 
 
 at 
 
 
 like 
 
 i 
 
 fire, or aye 
 
 , as ru^cu. 
 
 61 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 fine, 
 
 as tv^sl 
 
 au 
 
 
 
 ou 
 
 our, 
 
 as avrog* 
 
 e\> 
 
 
 
 eu 
 
 feud, 
 
 as eu|g. 
 
 01 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 soil, 
 
 as o)« 
 
 ou 
 
 
 
 ou 
 
 tour, 
 
 as o$Vo£, 
 
 VI 
 
 
 
 ui 
 
 quick 3 
 
 as iw£. 
 
 1* 
 
6 DIVISION OF CONSONANTS. § 4„ 
 
 § 4. OF CONSONANTS. 
 
 I. The simple consonants are either mutes or 
 semi-vowels. 
 
 1 . The mutes are nine, ancf are divided into 
 three classes; viz. 
 
 Smooth, n, x, r. 
 Middle, §, y, (J, 
 Aspirate, 9, #, 6. 
 
 0^5. 1. Each smooth mute has its own middle and aspirate^ 
 which three are said to be of the same order, or of the same 
 sound, as being pronounced by the same organ ; but of different 
 strength, as greater force of voice, or of breathing, is required in 
 the middle than in the smooth mutes, and in the aspirate than 
 in the middle. 
 
 Obs. 2. All mutes of the same order may be distinguished 
 by the name of their smooth mute, or from the organ by which 
 they are pronounced ; thus, *, §, <p, may be called flr-mutes, as 
 being mutes of the « sound ; or they may be denominated 
 labials, being pronounced by the lips ; as followSj 
 
 JI mutes, or labials, jr, §, <p, 
 K mutes, or palatals, a, y y y, 
 T mutes, or dentals, r, d, 6. 
 
 Obs. 3. In mutes of the same order, one is frequently chang- 
 ed for another. 
 
 2. The semi -vowels are five, X, fi 9 v, q and g. 
 Of these, four are termed liquids, because they 
 readily unite with, or flow into, the sound of other 
 consonants. They are also called immutable, be- 
 cause they do not, like the mutes, suffer any 
 change in the inflection of nouns and verbs. 
 
 II. The double consonants are three, y 9 £, f; 
 and are formed from the three orders of mutes, 
 thus, 
 
 with 5 makes yl ? > equivalent to 7 x, 
 
§ 5. OF SYLLABLES. 7 
 
 Obs. 1. In the declension of nouns and verbs, when a *- 
 sound, or a x-sound, would be followed by £, the double conso- 
 nant -X or | is substituted ; thus, instead of Agaftfi or tfXsxtfw, 
 must be written "Afa^i, <xXs£w, &c. But a <r-mute, coming 
 before <:, must be rejected ; thus, for aviktfw must be written 
 avurfw, &c. § 6. 6. (c.) 
 
 O&s. 2. In like manner a double consonant may be resolv- 
 ed into the mute from which it is formed, and a ; thus, 
 
 4» may be resolved into *g 3 fe, or <ps. 
 
 I into*?, 7^,orx^. 
 
 £ into t v c, 5s, or 0s. 
 
 This is done when, in the declension of nouns and verbs, it 
 becomes necessary to separate the g from the mute with which 
 it is combined ; thus, XaiXa-^, by dropping the g becomes Xai- 
 Xatf ; xogag becomes xojax ; and so of other combinations. 
 
 Obs. 3. Sigma, at the end of a word, is written g ; not at the 
 end, tf. 
 
 Obs. 4. y, before a mute of its own order, i. e. before x, y 7 yr t 
 or SJ, is pronounced like ;^ in ang-/e, or in the syllables ing, ang } 
 ung ; thus, (iyxog, ayyfkog, sy/pu CaX-riyf w. 
 
 § 5. OF SYLLABLES, 
 
 A Syllable is a distinct sound, forming the 
 whole of a word, or so much of it as is pro- 
 nounced by one impulse of the voice. To these 
 belong certain marks and characters ; as, 
 
 I. ACCENTS. 
 
 Accents are used to regulate the tone of syllables over which 
 they are placed. They are three : the acute ('), the grave Q, 
 and the circumflex, which was first marked \ then °, and last- 
 
 The acute is placed on one of the three last syllables of a 
 word, and indicates that the tone of the syllable is to be raised 
 or sharpened ; as, tuattw, J strike. 
 
 The grave is never placed but on the last syllable, and indi- 
 cates that its tone is to be lowered ; as, <nju^, honor. 
 
 The circumflex is placed on a long vowel or a diphthong, in 
 one of the two last syllables, and unites the force of both the 
 former, by first raising and then depressing the tone of the syk 
 lable ; as, sroiw, 
 
OF MARKS, ACCENTS, &C. § 5. 
 
 II. SPIRITUS Or BREATHINGS. 
 
 The Spiritus, or breathings, are two ; the asper ^ 
 or rough breathing, marked ('); and the lenis, or 
 soft breathing, marked ('). 
 
 1. The spiritus asper has the force of the La- 
 tin H ; thus, 'aw is pronounced Hama. 
 
 Note. Anciently h was the mark for the aspirate, in Greek, as it is in 
 Latin ; thus, Uar6v was written HEKATON. This was afterwards divid- 
 ed, and one half, 1 , used as the mark for the aspirate, and the other, I, 
 as the mark for the soft breathing. These were afterwards changed into 
 L. and J , and lastly into their present forms ( f ) and ('). 
 
 2. The spiritus lenis only indicates that the spi- 
 ritus asper is not to be used. These marks are 
 used as follows : 
 
 1.) A vowel or diphthong, beginning a word, has always a 
 spiritus. In the diphthong it is placed over the second vowel ; 
 as, ajAa, lyci, svgs> ou-rog. 
 
 2.) u, or £, beginning a word, has always the spiritus asper. 
 
 3.) f in the middle of a word, if single, has no spiritus, bat 
 if doubled, the first has the spiritus lenis, and the second the 
 spiritus asper ; as, *ro£|w, porrho. 
 
 Note. The iEollc dialect, the most ancient form of the Greek lan- 
 guage, had no spirit l us asper, and it is seldom used in the Ionic. The 
 want of it, in the former, whs compensated, in all words beginning with 
 a vowel, by a species of aspirale, now called 
 
 THE iEOLIC DIGAMMA. 
 
 This was originally a full and strong consonant, represented 
 by f, F, in the form of a double T. • Thus, while the single r 
 denoted a soft guttural aspiration, the double, or F, represented 
 the roughest breathing, approaching nearer to the sound of the 
 modern/ or v. Originally, this letter seems also to have been 
 universal between two vowels, and remained in many words 
 of the Attic and common dialects as u, especially where fol- 
 lowed by a consonant ; thus, ^s'fw changed into x £uw ; anc * l ast " 
 ly into x^ ] so v &Ftfi, vautfi. The original use of the diga'ra- 
 ma between two vowels, is manifest from the Latin words de- 
 rived from the Greek, in which it still holds its place, in the 
 form of v, though it has disappeared from the original word, 
 Tb is, from a/wv comes ovum ; from pots, boves ; % E*<s<r\o^ Vesta / 
 
§ 5. OP MARKS, ACCENTS, &C« 9 
 
 ?f , ver ; 'A^iocr, Jlchivus ; o/xo<r, vicus ; ojov, ovum ; shewing 
 that when the derivation was made, the original words were 
 written a/FWv, /3ofsV» FsoVi'a, F>jf, A^cufos, Forxos, wf&v. 
 
 III. THE APOSTROPHE, 
 
 The Apostrophe (') is written over the place of a short vow= 
 el which has been cut off from the end of a word ; as, aXX' 
 iyd for dXXa syu. Sometimes the diphthongs are elided by the 
 poets ; as, GovXoi*? syu for €oi5Xo,uai syu ; and sometimes after a 
 long syllable the initial vowel is cut off from the following 
 word ; . as, d 'ya&s for gj dyaBs. 
 
 Exc. Instead of the apostrope, or cutting off the final vow- 
 el, the concurring vowels are sometimes contracted ; as, a^oUj- 
 yov for flrj o tgyov ; xdx for x.od h. 
 
 Note. The union, or contraction of such words, is indicated by the 
 spiritus being placed 'over the vowel, at the place of junction, as in the 
 preceding examples. 
 
 IV. DIASTOLE. 
 
 The Diastole is a comma, inserted between the parts of a 
 compound word, to distinguish it from another word consisting 
 of the same letters ; as, r6,«rg, and this, to distinguish it from 
 rirs, then ; o,ti, what, to distinguish it from en, because. Some- 
 times they are written apart, without the comma ; thus, tots, 
 
 Tl. 
 
 V. DUERESIS. 
 
 The Diceresis (") is placed over a vowel, to shew that it does 
 not form a diphthong with the vowel which precedes it ; as, 01V, 
 a sheep, flrjoifc, mild, pronounced cms, pra-us. 
 
 VI. FIGURES AFFECTING SYLLABLES. 
 
 1. Prosthesis is the adding of one or more letters to the be- 
 ginning of a word ; as, tfjmixfo.c for ixwjo'c:, ssixotfi for slxMfi* 
 
 2. Paragoge is the adding of one or more letters to the end 
 of a word ; as, rjaQa for %s ; roTtfi for to7$. 
 
 3. Epenthesis is the insertion of one or more letters in the 
 body of a word ; as, e'XXaSs for s'Xa£s ; oWoVs^os for birorsgog. 
 
 4. Syncope is the taking away of one or more letters from 
 :he body of a word ; as, ^Xdov for >jXu0ov ; suja^v for eugr^a^v, 
 
10 COMBINATION OF LETEERS. § 6. 
 
 5. Aphaeresis is the cutting off of one or more letters from 
 the beginning of a word ; as, (frsgoirri for aoVsjoog ; of<n) for §o£ti$. 
 
 6. Apocope is the cutting off of one or more letters from the 
 end of a word ; as, <5w for Sfipa ; IIo(r$i(5oj for no^siiojt/a. 
 
 7. Metathesis is the transposition of letters and syllables ; 
 as, Itffa^ov for IVajdov ; eSeaxov for sSagxov ; xa^og for xf arog. 
 
 Obs. The Ionians, by a species of Metathesis, change the 
 breathing in a word ; as, xidwv for x i ™ v 5 ^vdaura for Jvrauflpt. 
 
 8. Tmesis is when the parts of a compound word are sepa- 
 rated by an intervening word j as, vtsg rivdt I'^siv for uir eg s^siv 
 <nvct. 
 
 § 6. EUPHONY. 
 
 In combining their letters into words, the Greeks paid the 
 strictest attention to Euphony, or agreeableness of sound. This 
 principle, indeed, pervades the whole structure of the language. 
 From a regard to this, they carefully avoided every concur- 
 rence of consonants not easily pronounced together. The means 
 by which this is effected may be summed up in the following 
 
 ADDITION QF LETTERS. 
 
 1. Words ending in oi, and verbs of the third 
 person in € and t, add v to the termination be- 
 fore a vowel, or before a pause ; as, 
 
 tfatfiv sfrfsv sxewotg for tfatfi sftfs ix ; also the diphthong si, in 
 the pluperfect indicative active. The word s)Wi, (twenty), and 
 the adverbs Tgjutfi, <KaxTOL*aG\, votfqji, <7rf6<r0s, oVi^s, x& and vu. 
 
 Obs. cr is sometimes added, on the same principle ; thus, ou- 
 «rw becomes ovtuc;. Also the particle ou is changed into oik 
 before a vowel, and into ou^ before an aspirated vowel. 
 
 2. When two mutes of a different sound come 
 together, they must be of the same strength; i. e. 
 they must be both smooth, or both middle, or both 
 aspirate ; as, 
 
 Iflrrot, a§5s\ov, a%/)os. And if, by derivation or declension^ 
 two mutes of different strength would come together, the for- 
 mer must take the class of the latter ; thus, the terminations 
 -ro£, -<5*]v, -dsig, with yf acpw, the w being omitted, form yfcMiroV, 
 
§ 6. COMBINATION OF LETTERS. 11 
 
 ygaS&iv, yja<p0sfe. And of two mutes already combined, one 
 cannot be changed without a corresponding change in the 
 other. Thus in kirra and oxtcj, if the <r be changed into <5, the 
 cr and x must be changed into € and y ; as, sff<ra,s £<5ojao£ ; oxtw, 
 
 ©ycJo'of* 
 
 O&s. 1. The same takes place in composition when the fol- 
 lowing word begins with an aspirated vowel ; thus, from erfi, 
 by apostrophe s*\ in composition with fyxs'ja, comes scpvipsgos ; 
 so g^Tiot, — sW, §(p^f/-gf 05 ; from xara and au^w, — xadauSw, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. On the same principle also, when words only stand 
 together, or are joined together by contraction, an aspirated 
 vowel in the beginning of the latter word, changes the final 
 mute of the former into an aspirate ; thus, xa«ra, standing be- 
 fore fyj-as, must be written xad' fyxas ; euro before ou — a<p ou. So 
 by contraction to i/xanov becomes $oi/xa<nov j to sVsgov — fla<rs£ov, 
 &c. 
 
 06s. 3. To this rule the preposition sx forms an exception, as 
 it remains unchanged before all consonants. It is, however, 
 changed into sg before a vowel. 
 
 3. Two successive syllables should not each 
 begin with an aspirate. When, by inflection, 
 this would occur, the aspirate of the first syllable 
 is changed into its corresponding smooth mute ; 
 as, 
 
 •Trsqjj'Xyjxa for (pscplX^xa ; dji|, *"£ix°V 5 not ^'X ' 5 5 T £ 5 X W > not 
 ^f £ 'X w 5 rgefyw, not dfgqjw. In these last verbs, as soon as the 
 second aspirate is lost, by inflection or otherwise, the first is re- 
 sumed ; as in the future djs'gw and dgs'-^w, and in the deriva- 
 tives d££XfflXO$, dfStfrOf, &C. 
 
 05s. 1. To this rule there are jive exceptions : 1. In com- 
 pound words generally ; as, ofviflo^ja?, av0o<po'go£. 2. The 
 passive aorist ending in drjv, with its derivatives ; as, sx^v, 
 atpsflrjv, (excepting two verbs only, 0uw and ridijui, from which 
 sVudriv and sVg^v.) 3. If a consonant, whether rough or 
 smooth, precede the second aspirate ; as, 0£s<p0s/£, daXqi&eig, 
 ri&s<f8ai. 4. If the second aspirate has been formed by chang- 
 ing a smooth mute before a rough breathing ; as, U-frf 6 avdjw- 
 *os, for Bdbjic'j &c. 5. By affixing the adverbial termination^ 
 -6ev and -0i ; as, ^avraxo^v, Kogiv&o6i, 
 
 Obs. 2. The second of two aspirates is seldom thus changed : 
 it^ is regularly done, however, in imperatives in -di j as, dgVi, 
 rtyflijTi, for te'to, <ru<pdr)di. 
 
12 COMBINATION OF LETTERS. § 6. 
 
 4. The aspirates are never doubled ; instead 
 of this, an aspirate must be preceded by the 
 smooth mute of the same sound; as, 
 
 'Ard/p, not 'A&Qls ; Bax^op, not Ba^os ; MoLT6aTog t not Ma0- 
 daTog ; Scejrpw, not 2a<p<pw. 
 
 5. When q stands at the beginning of a word, 
 if a simple vowel be made to precede it, in com- 
 position or inflection, the g is usually doubled ; 
 as, 
 
 I'^stfov, c^istfyjc:, from |gVw. This rule, however,^ does not 
 hold in the case of diphthongs ; as, sujwCtws, from si and £wv- 
 
 VU/XJ. 
 
 6. In the composition and inflection of words 
 the following changes are to be particularly ob- 
 served* 
 
 I. THE MUTES BEFORE 2. 
 
 (a.) A Tt-mute (7t, §, cp,) before <r, unites with 
 it and forms t/; ; as, 
 
 XsiVw, XsjVtfw, written X5i\J/«. 
 
 (b.) A x-mute (x, y, /,) before a, unites with 
 It and forms g ; as, 
 
 ^xw, ijxtfw, written ?}2;w. 
 
 (c.) A r-mute (r, d, 3,) before 0, is rejected ; 
 
 as, 
 
 Cw^ari, pi. not tfw/xartfi, but tfw.aaa'i ; a<Jw, not a<5<f<*>, but txtfto. 
 
 II. THE MUTES BEFORE M. 
 
 (d.) A 7r-mute before fi, is changed into ju ; 
 thus, 
 
 for c&Vutf/xcci, rir^tSaai, yiygaQpflai, 
 write TtVufJLjxai, <r£T£i/jL|U(,aj, ^s'^ajx/xai. 
 
 (e.) A x-mute before /x, is changed into y ; 
 thus, 
 
§ 6, COMBINATION OP LETTERS. 13 
 
 for iriirXexiMu, SsS^jumxi, 
 write tfsVXsyfjia/, GiSgeypiCu. 
 
 Hence y before /a, remains unchanged ; as, "kiXsypui, 
 
 (f.) A r-mute before ^ is changed into ; 
 thus, 
 
 for ^vurjxai, ^stJjxaY, tfsVsid/xai, 
 write ^vueffxai, Tjjsia'f/.ai, viifstifpai. 
 
 Obs. To these rules there are some exceptions in substantive 
 forms ; as, ctxp?, not dypri ; tfoVjuu>£, not irodpog. 
 
 III. CHANGES OF THE LETTER N. 
 
 (g.) JV, before a jr-mute, and also before t||*, Is 
 changed into /x ; thus, 
 
 for Xivtfavw, XavSavw, £V(pu^, Iv-^u^o^, 
 write Xif/iTravw, Xa/j.§avw, spcpvg, s/x^u^os. 
 
 (h.) JV, before a x-mute, and also before |, is 
 changed into y ; thus, 
 
 for svxsijxai, (puvyavw, Tuvp^avw, crXavgw, 
 write syxsipai, (puyyavw, ruypcavw, TrXaygw. 
 
 (i.) iV, before a sr-mute, remains unaltered ; 
 
 as, 
 
 ivrig, tfvvSsa. 
 
 (k.) i\ r ? before another liquid, is changed into 
 the same ; thus, 
 
 for svf/ivw, tfuvXaju^avw, tfuvjarfrw, 
 write §pi*ivu, tfuXXafju§avw, tfu££dwrT«. 
 
 (1.) iV, before a or t, is usually rejected ; thus, 
 
 not daifjLovtfi, tfuv^uyia ; but 5a(fAotfi, <fu£uyia. 
 
 0£s. N is retained before tf only in a few words ; as, Tigivg, 
 fXftiv^, *r£<pavtfai. In tfuv before <r, followed by a vowel, it is 
 shanged into <f ; thus, tfutfoeuw, tfutftfirfa. Ev retains the v be- 
 
 IV. OF THE LETTER 2. 
 
 (m.) When a would stand between two conso- 
 lants, it is rejected ; thus, 
 
 2 
 
14 COMBINATION OF LETTERS. § 6, 
 
 XsXciV-tfdwv, rer'giS.tftcu, XsXs/.^wtfav, 
 without tf, XsXsiV-dwv, <rsrf (g.dai, XsXsy-dwtfav. 
 combined, XsXsupdwv, Tsrjiipflas, XsX^wtfav. 
 And so from *jyys'Xtf#ai, rj^ye'Xdai ; from tf&pavtf/Jov, tfe'(pav0ov s 
 or itevoLdbw. 
 
 Note. Also when <r by inflection comes before «•, one of them is re- 
 jected ; as, 
 
 Perf. hKevaa-jxai iffKevacr-ffai. Plup. fff/ccvaff-ao, 
 become iaicevaoai* ioxcvaao. 
 
 (n.) When a single T-mute, or v by itself, is re- 
 jected before 0, the vowel remaining suffers no 
 alteration; thus, 
 
 iXrfiS&i, kdPtifyttj jxsr^Qvfy Satiiovtfi ; 
 give sXtfro'/, xofUrfi, fASj^otfi, daf/xo<fi. 
 
 (o.) But when both v and a T-mute together, are 
 cast out before cr, the vowel remaining, if short, 
 is changed into its own diphthong, (i. e. e into u, 
 and into iv,) and if a doubtful vowel, it is 
 lengthened: but tj and o> remain unchanged; 
 thus, 
 
 <rvq>Qsvr(fi becomes rvtpQsttfi ; 
 tftfsv^w, (firsltfo) ; 
 
 Xsovrtfi, Xs'outfi ; 
 
 ru^avrtfi becomes r^atfi ; 
 foixvuvrtfi, (Jsixvutfi 5 
 
 TU«7rT6JVT(Tl, fMTTWfl'l. 
 
 Ofe. In some instances, and perhaps always in the nomina- 
 tive, this alteration takes place when v only has been ejected ; 
 thus, from £vf, TcuXdvg, fAsXctvs, come slg } TaXdi£, ^s\ag. 
 
 7. When two consonants meet, which are not 
 easily pronounced together, and which do not 
 come tinder any of the preceding rules, the pro- 
 nunciation is sometimes relieved by inserting a 
 third consonant between them : thus, 
 
 ctvfoir, by syncope for Avigog, is relieved by inserting S ; as,, 
 av6jo£. Sometimes by a metathesis, or transposition of let- 
 ters ; as, £Vf adov for l^raf 0ov, 
 
 ! 
 
§ 7, 8. ETYMOLOGY. 15 
 
 § 7. OF PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The marks of punctuation in Greek are, the 
 comma (,); the colon and semi-colon (•) ; the 
 period (.) ; and mark of interrogation (;). 
 
 § 8. ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Etymology is that part of Grammar which 
 treats of the different sorts of words, their various 
 modifications, and their derivations. 
 
 All words are either simple or compound ; primi- 
 tive or derivative ; declinable or indeclinable* 
 
 1. A simple word is that which is not made up of more than 
 one ; as, £6tXXw. 
 
 2. A compound word, is one that is made up of two or more 
 words ; as, sx&xXXw, from sx and €<xXXw. 
 
 3. A primitive word is that which comes from no other ; as, 
 Arctic:, aya&tiS, 
 
 4. A derivative word is one that is derived from another 
 word ; as, tfaiddia, ayadoT-yjcr, from wctfe, dya&og. 
 
 5. A declinable word is one subject to certain changes of ter- 
 mination, to express the differ ent relations of gender, number^ 
 case, person, &c. 
 
 Obs. 1. Every declinable word consists of at least two parts ; 
 the root, or basis, which remains unchanged in all the different 
 forms of the word ; and the termination, which consists of cer- 
 tain letters and syllables, which are varied according to certain 
 rules. 
 
 Obs. 2. The formula according to which the terminations of 
 nouns, adjectives, pronouns, and participles are varied, is called 
 their declension ; that according to which the various termina- 
 tions of the verbs are arranged, is called their conjugation ; the 
 variation of nouns, verbs, &c. according to these formulae, is 
 called their inflection. 
 
 6. An indeclinable word is one that is subject to no change 
 of termination. 
 
 7. The different classes into which words are divided, ac- 
 cording to their signification and use, are called parts of speech. 
 
16 OF THE NOUN. § 9 f 10, 
 
 §9. PARTS OF SPEECH. 
 
 The Parts of Speech in the Greek language 
 are eight; viz. 1. Noun or Substantive, Adjective, 
 Article, Pronoun, and Verb, declined. 2. Adverb, 
 Preposition, and Conjunction, undeclined. 
 
 Obs. 1. The participle, which in most Grammars is consi- 
 dered a distinct part of speech, is properly a modification of the 
 verb, and may, therefore, be considered as a part of it. 
 
 Obs. 2. In Greek, the interjections are considered, though 
 improperly, by most Grammarians, as adverbs. 
 
 § 10. I. OF THE NOUN. 
 
 A Noun, or Substantive, is the name of any 
 person, place, or thing. 
 
 Nouns may be divided into two sorts, Proper 
 and Common. 
 
 1. Proper names are the names appropriated 
 to individuals, whether persons or places ; as* 
 J A&i\vai, * OfirjQoq, Athens, Homer. 
 
 Among these may be included, 
 
 a. Patronymics, or those which express one's parentage or 
 family ; as, Hgta^iS^ the son of Priam. 
 
 b. Gentile , or P atrial, which denote one's country ; as, ? A^n- 
 vaibs, an Athenian. 
 
 2. Common nouns are those which represent 
 the idea of a whole kind or species; as, avr\^ 
 oiKog, §i§Xog, a man, a house, a book. Under this 
 class may be ranged, 
 
 a. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify ma- 
 ny in the singular number ; as, Xetos, people. 
 
 b. Abstract nouns, or the names of qualities ; as, ayM*^ 
 goodness. 
 
 c. Diminutives, or nouns which express a diminution in the 
 signification of the nouns from which they are formed ; as ? 
 *rai<5iov, a little boy ; from *u7g. 
 
 d. Amplificative nouns r or those which denote an increase in 
 
§ 11. OP THE PROPERTIES OP THE NOUN. 17 
 
 the signification of the nouns from which they are formed ; as 
 xstpaXwv, a person who has a large head ; from xscpakr\. 
 
 § 11. OF THE PROPERTIES OF THE NOUN, 
 
 To the Greek noun belong Gender ■, Number? 
 and Case. 
 
 I. OF GENDER, 
 
 Gender is the distinction of sex 5 with respect 
 to this a noun is either masculine, ox feminine, or 
 neuter. Of some nouns the gender is determined 
 by their signification ; of others by their termina* 
 tion. Of the first class, all nouns which denote 
 the male sex are masculine. Those which de- 
 note the female sex are feminine, except diminu* 
 1 tives in ov f which are always neuter; as, nrndLov, 
 Nouns which are both masculine and feminine 
 ] are said to be of the Common Gender. Nouns 
 , which are neither masculine nor feminine, are 
 said to be of the Neuter Gender. The gender of 
 nouns not determined by their signification, is, 
 in general, to be ascertained by their termina- 
 tion ; as will be noticed under each declension. 
 
 Obs. In Greek lexicons and grammars, the gender is indi- 
 cated by the article ; viz. 6 indicates the masculine, r\ the femi- 
 ; nine, and to the neuter ; as., 6 av^, the man % fy yyvoj, the woman % 
 to £wov, the. -animal. 
 
 % OF NUMBER. 
 
 Nouns have three numbers, the Singular, Dual? 
 and Plural. The Singular denotes one, the Plu- 
 ral more than one. 
 
 The Dual number denotes two, and is most 
 commonly used in speaking of those things 
 which are produced^ or are usually spoken of in 
 pairs. 
 
 2* 
 
18 OF DECLENSION. § X2< 
 
 Obs. In the oldest state of the Greek language the dual is 
 not used. It is not found in the iEolic dialect — in the New 
 Testament — in the Septuagint, nor in the Fathers. It is most 
 common in the Attic dialect, in which, however, the plural is 
 often used instead of it. 
 
 3. OF CASE. 
 
 Cases are certain changes of termination, 
 which nouns adopt to shew the relation in which 
 they stand to other words in a sentence. 
 
 Greek nouns have Jive cases. The Nominative, 
 Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Vocative. 
 
 Obs. 1. The Ablative case is not used in Greek as in Latino 
 Its place is supplied by the genitive and dative. 
 
 Obs. 2. All the cases except the nominative, are called ob- 
 lique cases. 
 
 § 12. OF DECLENSION. 
 
 Declension is the mode or manner of changing 
 the terminations of a noun, through the several 
 cases in each number In the Greek language 
 there are three Declensions, in which are to be 
 observed the following 
 
 GENERAL RULES I 
 
 1. The nominative singular ends always either 
 in a vowel not short, or in v, q, q. 
 
 2. The vocative, for the most part in the sin- 
 gular, and always in the plural, is like the nomi- 
 native. 
 
 3. Nouns of the neuter gender have the nomi- 
 native, accusative, and vocative, alike in both 
 numbers, and these cases, in the plural, end al- 
 ways in a. 
 
 4. The dative singular ends always in i, either 
 adjoined or written under. 
 
§ 13, 14. 
 
 OF DECLENSION. 
 
 19 
 
 5. The genitive plural ends always in cov ; the 
 accusative (neuters excepted) in q. 
 
 6. The nominative, accusative, and vocative 
 dual, end always alike ; so also the genitive and 
 dative. 
 
 The difference between the declensions will 
 be seen by inspection, in the following table : 
 
 § 13. TABULAR VIEW OF THE -TERMINATIONS 
 
 IN THE THREE DECLENSIONS. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 First Declension. 
 
 Second. Third. 
 
 Nom. a, ij, as, ij£, 
 
 g£, neut. ov, 
 
 a, »> u, w, v, g, f , s, 4^, 
 
 Gen. a£, ijs, ou, ou, 
 
 OU, 
 
 °fc 
 
 Dat. a, ij, a, 17, 
 
 V> 
 
 ', 
 
 Ace. av, ijv, av, ijv, 
 
 ov, 
 
 «, V, 
 
 Voc. a, i], a, ij. 
 
 s, neut. ov. 
 
 like the nom. 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N. A. V. a, 
 
 w , 
 
 g ? 
 
 G. D. aiv. 
 
 OJV. 
 
 01V, 
 
 1 ■ 
 ( 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ! Nom. ai, 
 
 oi, neut. a, 
 
 s£, neut, a, 
 
 Gen. wv, 
 
 wv, 
 
 wv, 
 
 Dat. ai£, 
 
 oV, 
 
 *H 
 
 Ace. cc v c, 
 
 ou?, neut. a, 
 
 as, neut. a, 
 
 Voc, ai. 
 
 oi, a. 
 
 S£, neut, a. 
 
 § 14. FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 The First Declension has four terminations : 
 two feminine, 17, a ; and two masculine, ?jc, aq ; 
 which are formed from the feminine by adding q. 
 
 Of these the primary termination is rj, and is 
 thus declined. 
 
20 
 
 MASCULINE NOUNS. 
 
 § 15, 16. 
 
 Paradigm of Nouns in ij ; xifir\^ honour. 
 
 N, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 G. •au-rjg, 
 D. tip-fi) 
 A. rifjL-r]v. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N. A. V. r^-a, 
 G. D. %i\\,-alv. 
 
 N, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 G. tl[l-5)Vy 
 
 D. riu-atq, 
 A. Ttjte-dg. 
 
 § 15. SPECIAL RULES FOR FEMININE NOUNS. 
 
 1 . In the singular, a has always av in the ac- 
 cusative. 
 
 2. a pure, (i. e. after a vowel,) and qa, have 
 also aq and « in the genitive and dative. 
 
 Obs. To these may be added a few words ending in &x, Qa r 
 and a circumflex ; and a very few in Xa and f/.a, in which cases 
 a is always long ; as, <J>iXofj^X<x, #iXo/jt»7?Xa£. 
 
 N. V. Moutf-a, a mwse. 
 G. Mou<r-rj<r, 
 D. Mowr-ij, 
 A. Moutf-av. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 N.V. (piXi.a, friendship. 
 G. <ptXi-a£, 
 D. (piXl-a, 
 A. (piXi-av. 
 
 G. fyw'f.as, 
 D. Tj/jLSf-a, 
 A. fyjtij-ccv. 
 
 JVb/e. In the dual and plural all nouns are declined like r*/x^. 
 
 § 16. SPECIAL RULES FOR MASCULINE NOUNS. 
 
 1. Nouns of the masculine termination have 
 ©u in the genitive, and lose q in the vocative. 
 
 Excep. 1. Some nouns in ag have the genitive in ou or a; 
 as, «7ra<rfa«7rXojas, gen. «7rar£a<7rXoiou, or <7ra<rf «<7r> oia, a parricide. 
 Some have a only; as, ©wiwaV, gen. 0w/xa, Thomas. 
 
 Excep. 2. -<ty;s, has a in the vocative ; but -oV^s, has either *j 
 or a ; as, tfoiY]^, a jDoetf ; voc. ^ci^ra. 
 
 XrjtfTYjc;, a robber ; voc. X^gv^, or X^tfVa. 
 
 06s. Also nouns denoting a people or nation ; as, Tii£<f*\£ % a 
 Persian ; compounds in -*">]£ ; derivatives from /ulst^, ttoXw, and 
 <rf i€w. Also Xayvrjj, Mevaijfljwjs, and nu£aj'xfjt/>)£, have the vo- 
 cative in a. 
 
§17. 
 
 OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 21 
 
 In the other cases, masculine nouns are declin- 
 ed as the feminine from which their termination 
 is formed. 
 
 N. Xgitt-w, 
 G. Xfjtf-ou, 
 D. Xju^ft 
 
 A. Xfi><r-?]v, 
 
 V. Xfu<Mj. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 N. Tlavtfavi.ag, 
 G. nautfavi-ou, 
 D. riautfavj-a, 
 A. nautfav/.av, 
 V. IIau(ravi-a. 
 
 N. nu0ayof-a£, 
 
 G. Ilu^a^oj-ou, 
 
 D. Iludayoj-a, 
 
 A. JJuda^of-av, 
 
 Obs. Since the termination -*r<r, belongs also to the 3d de« 
 clension, it may be observed, that to the 1st pertain the nouns 
 in -i&is, -aSris ; as, 0ouxi5i5tj<t, 'AXxi&a&gs ; the names of na- 
 tions ; as, 2ixsXiwt7]£. Nouns in -<nj£, derived from verbs ; as t 
 *rwj<rfe from -flroisw : compounds from ctvcupai, / Zwi/ ; pe<rg& } I 
 measure ; rpi'gw, J rw£, w^ar, fr#m ; twXw, / se// ; and from words 
 of this declension ; e. g. 'OXufJwriovix>]£, from vix?) ; afxs5«»i£» 
 from Six*]. 
 
 § 17. DIALECTS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. 
 
 Besides the regular terminations exhibited in the paradigms, 
 many words are found in different cases inflected according to 
 some of the peculiar dialects. In the tables of terminations f 
 A. denotes Attic, I. Ionic, D. Doric, JE. JEolic. But the dis- 
 tinctions are not strictly observed in every instance : the same 
 peculiarities sometimes occurring in two, and sometimes in 
 three dialects. The following words are exhibited as exam- 
 ples, but it is not to be inferred that each part of them will be 
 actually found in the Greek authors. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 ri/i-^, D. a, 
 aovc-j. } T 
 
 Hv9ay6p-i 
 
 Nom. 
 
 fi/x-ai 
 
 -ns, 
 
 Gen. 
 D. as. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ■vs, 
 
 D. as. 
 
 •%, D- «• 
 
 •as, 
 
 h vs. 
 
 •<?> !• v- 
 
 -a, I. J}- 
 
 -QV, 
 
 ?D. a. 
 
 ( JEt. ao. 
 
 -V, D- * 
 
 Ace. 
 
 rjv, D. 
 
 dv. 
 
 -aVj I. 
 
 VV. 
 
 ■av, I. 
 
 ^ { D. 
 
 yv. 
 
 av. 
 
 Voc. 
 •*, D. d, 
 
 I. n. 
 
 A, af, 
 17- 
 
 A. m 
 
 it 
 
 Plural. 
 Dat, 
 
 -afc, I. Jfe, & 
 fife 
 
 Ace, 
 
 , CI. sV 
 
 -a£. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 -ai. 
 
22 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 §18. 
 
 Thus, fjwiTifnjs, JE. fju)ri£ra, a wise person ; TIiqXsi5ou, I. IT>j- 
 Xsi<5su, of P elides ; AiViou, iE. AiWac, 0/* JEneas ; G^a7g i I. 
 ®v)£fi$j or ©tj^Ci, m Thebes ; oXoa, I. 0X019, pernicious ; X£ u0 ^ a > !• 
 X? u(rsr J) golden. 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 (fsX^vr), ^ W00W. 
 Co^iCt'^ a sophist. 
 4rg'Xfcio(, a <<toe. 
 A/vsiag, JEneas. 
 yscpvga, a bridge. 
 Xucftfa, frenzy. 
 xi^ajPKTT^, a harper. 
 Avagayof a?, Anaxago- 
 
 ras. 
 'Afsr^, virtue. 
 II jiafjuMi^, Priamides. 
 
 yXwtftfa, the tongue. 
 a/oja, the forum. 
 
 ^Sov^j pleasure. 
 ^wvia, #?z awg*/e. 
 [3 ia, force. 
 ai3f«, a breeze. 
 avj«, sadness. 
 , d^ojvKTT^c:, a wrestler. 
 vgcpsXVj, a cloud. 
 KfiTiag, Critias. 
 
 sigqvy\ 9 peace. 
 cTocp/a, wisdom. 
 /xs'Xaiva, 0/0C&. 
 raXaiva, miserable. 
 51x7], justice. 
 /3ouX>?, counsel. 
 jtxa^aifa, # svjord. 
 (pgovri^oLT lag, high" 
 
 minded. 
 (potfsVja, a quiver. 
 atria, Me cause. 
 
 ev5ia 7 serenity. 
 
 Note. The learner should decline some of the words in this table ac- 
 cording to the different dialecis. In like manner in the second and 
 third declensions, according to their dialects. 
 
 § 18. SECOND DECLENSION, 
 
 The second declension has two terminations, 
 05 and 01/; ov is always neuter, og never. 
 I. Paradigm of the Masculine and Feminine Nouns 
 in oq j 6 Aoyog, //&e speech. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. A6y-oc, 
 
 
 N. X6y-ot, 
 
 G. Xoy-ov, 
 
 N. A. V. taJy-w, 
 
 G. Xoy-cov, 
 
 D. A6y-f;», 
 
 
 D. X6y-o*g, 
 
 A, loy-ov, 
 
 G. D. A,6y-on/. 
 
 A. X6y-oi;g, 
 
 V. X6y-g. 
 
 
 V. Xoy-o** 
 
 In the same manner also are Reclined nouns 
 in ov, observing the third general rule ; thus, 
 2. Paradigm of Neuter Nouns in ov ; [istqov, a 
 measure. 
 Sing. Dual. Plural. 
 
 N.A.V. asVf.ov, (§ 12. 3.) 
 
 G. jXS<Tf-0U, 
 
 N.A.V. fAsVf-w, 
 G.D, jjt-sV^.oiv. 
 
 N.A.V. /xsV^-a, 
 G. fjusVf.wv, 
 
 D, fArgVf-OI^. 
 
§19. 
 
 SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 23 
 
 § 19. DIALECTS OF THE SECOND DECLEN- 
 
 SION. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Nom. Gen. Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Xay-os, A. ug. 
 
 -ou, A. w, 
 I. & D. oio. 
 
 -OV, A. CJV, & w. 
 
 -2, A. 0£ & W£. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 
 Nom. Dat. Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Xay-o(, A. w. 
 
 -ofc, A. fig, 
 
 -ous, A. w£, 
 
 -of, A. w. 
 
 
 I. & D. or<ri. 
 
 D. w.Cj&oV, 
 
 
 Neuter nouns in the Attic dialect have the same terminations 
 with nouns in -og ; except that v is substituted for g. 
 
 Thus it will appear that the Attic form, in which o^is chang- 
 ed into wg, ov into cjv, and o* into w, is the principal variation in 
 this declension. Let it be observed, however, that a long, and 
 *) before o$, are changed into s before w.c ; as, XaoV, Attic Xsug. 
 a short remains unchanged ; as, ra-oc:, Attic tcuws, or it is con- 
 tracted with the o into w$ ; as, apj^aos, dyiigwg. 
 
 EXAMPLES OF THE ATTIC DECLENSION OF NOUNS IN 0$. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 \uyug for Xayo's. 
 
 vsw£ for vaog. 
 
 dvdysuv for avwysov, 
 
 N. Xa/ws, 
 
 v*ug, 
 
 avajyswv, 
 
 G. Xa^w, 
 
 vsw, 
 
 dvw^ew, 
 
 D. Xa^w, 
 
 vsw, 
 
 &\>uye(jj f 
 
 A. Xa^w, or wv. 
 
 vsw, or vswv, 
 
 dvuyswv, 
 
 V. Xayws, or 6$. 
 
 vbw?, or vao£ 
 
 Dual. 
 
 dvwyecjv. 
 
 N. A. V. Xa 7 w, 
 
 vSw, 
 
 dvuyew, 
 
 G. D. "kayyv. 
 
 vscjv. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 dvuysajv. 
 
 N. V. Xayw, 
 
 us% 
 
 avwyfw, 
 
 G. Xa^wv, 
 
 vswv, 
 
 uvcj^sgjv, 
 
 D. Xaywg, 
 
 vstig, 
 
 dvwysws, 
 
 A. "kayug. 
 
 V8W£. 
 
 dvwysw. 
 
 Obs. The Attics did not decline all 
 
 nouns in os in this man- 
 
 ner, but only a very 
 
 few. The same 
 
 forms occur also in the 
 
24 
 
 THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 §20 
 
 Ionic and Doric writers. The Attics often declined after this 
 form, nouns which otherwise belong to the third declension ; 
 as, Mivw, Ace. for Mivwoc, from Mivws, G. Mivwos ; ysXwv, Ace. 
 for yiXw<ra, from ys'Xws, yiXuros. 
 
 ayyekog, a messenger 
 aerog, an eagle. 
 a4Xo£, a combat. 
 aflXov, a prize. 
 ajuwrsXo?, a vine. 
 ctf7i>£ o£, silver. 
 af/ufiov, silver. 
 Ifyov, work. 
 |jl^Xov, an apple. 
 
 WORDS FOR PRACTICE. 
 
 votoc:, the south wind* 
 oixos, a house. 
 tfai&ov, a child. 
 ^o5ov, a rose. 
 tficSqgog, iron. 
 <r<rfa<ro£, a?2 army. 
 (pofTiov, a burden. 
 ^aXxo^j copper. 
 Xptife gold. 
 
 § 20. THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 The third declension has all the terminations 
 of nouns (§ 12. 1.) except rj ; it has all genders, 
 and increases the noun by one syllable in the 
 oblique cases. 
 
 1. Paradigm of Masculine and Feminine Nouns. 
 6 £^o, the wild beast. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. 6riQ. 
 G. 6r;j)-6g, 
 
 D. 6tj{}4 9 
 
 N. A. V. $j0-e, 
 
 N. ^9-€S, 
 G. QrjQ-ibv, 
 D. dr^-fti, 
 
 A. ^i]()-a, 
 
 V. %. 
 
 G. D. ^Q-otv. 
 
 A. &rjQ-ag, 
 
 In the same manner neuter nouns are declined, 
 observing the 3d general rule. 
 
 2. Paradigm of JVeuter Nouns. 
 Br\ua, a tribunal. 
 Singular. Dual. Plural. 
 
 N. A. V. (iijua, 
 G. /Srjua-roc, 
 
 firjua-Toiv, 
 
 fir\ua-(H. (§ 6. 6. c.) 
 
§ 21, 22. THIRD DECLENSION. 25 
 
 § 2J. OF FORMING THE GENITIVE. 
 
 GENERAL RULES. 
 I. 
 
 If the noun does not end in g, the genitive is 
 formed by adding -og, or -roc, to the nominative ; 
 as, 
 
 nectar, naiav-oq, pecan. 
 
 [i£fo, juiAt-rog, honey. 
 
 Xevo(po)Vy Stvoipw-Toq, Xenophon. 
 
 II. 
 
 If the noun does end in g, the genitive is form- 
 ed by rejecting g, and adding the terminations 
 -og, -rog, -dog, or -$og ; as, 
 
 rJQcogy ?]£G)-og, a hero. 
 
 laiXaif/j Xaikan-oq, a storm. 
 
 ta'&ijg, ta'§)j-Tog, a cauldron. 
 
 ava|, avaz-Tog, a ruler. 
 
 lafinaq, Xafina-doc, a torch. 
 
 6'()ng, o^n-^og, a &W. 
 
 iVbte. Which of these terminations is to be added, can be learned 
 only by practice and a good ear. 
 
 Exception. But if the noun ends in oc 9 the 
 genitive is formed by inserting t before it. All 
 these are neuter ; as, 
 
 m'xog, tdx-£-oc, a wall. 
 
 jui^og, jLteQ-c-og, a part. 
 
 §22. OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Obs. 1. If the final syllable of the nominative be long, it is 
 generally, though not always, shortened before the terminations 
 in the oblique cases. 
 
 This is done in three ways : 
 
 (1.) A diphthong casts away its subjunctive vowel, (§2, 
 jl note 1.) as, 
 
 a 
 
26 GENITIVE OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. § 22, 
 
 (3a.tfiksvg, jGatfjXs-os. a king, 
 
 /3ous, /3o-o$. an ox. 
 
 vau£, va-o£. a ship. 
 
 (2.) A long vowel is changed into its own short one ; as 3 
 
 tfoif/z^v, flrotjxsv-off, a shepherd. 
 
 Atjtw, Ayj<ro-o£, Latona. 
 
 xavwv, xavov-o£, a rule. 
 
 o^axwv, <5£axov-<ro£, a dragon. 
 
 al5ug, alSo-og, modesty. 
 
 <rsru<pw£, <rsrucp6-<ro£, having struck. 
 
 (3.) » and u are changed into s> in which case o$ only is add- 
 ed ; as, 
 
 SvvoLp/ig, <5uva/xs-o^, power. r 
 
 IVote. This change takes place, though the t or v be previously 
 short; as, 
 
 7z6\i$ t 7r6\e-o$ r a city. , 
 
 a*™, aare-os ? a city. 
 
 Obs. 2. All Greek words ending in g, which take v in the 
 genitive, appear to have originally, ended in vg } and the v at 
 length was dropped for the sake of euphony; § 6. 6. (1.) 
 But to maintain the former quantity of the nominative, the 
 doubtful vowel was made long, and the short vowels were 
 changed into their own diphthongs ; 
 
 Thus, the original terminations avg, ivg, wg, svg, wg, 
 were changed into <x£, r$, vg, sig, ou£. 
 
 But the oblique cases, regularly formed from the original no- 
 minative, remain unchanged ; as in the following examples : ' 
 ylyag originally yiyavg, Gen. yiyav.<rog. 
 <5sX$r£j 8s\<plv$ y SsXyTv.og. 
 
 cpogxxjg, cpopxvvg, <po'£xuv.o£. 
 
 w&ki xtsVc, xrsv-og. 
 
 ISvog, oSovg, oSov.Tog. 
 
 Obs. 3. Instead of rejecting v before g in the nominative, 
 sometimes the g was dropped and the v retained ; and hence 
 the double forms of the nominative which sometimes occur ; 
 as, Sekylg or SsXcph ; cpogxvg or pojxuv. 
 
 Obs. 4. Nouns in -<t7J£, having -*$£og in the genitive, are 
 contracted by syncope in the oblique cases ; as, 
 tfa<n?£, a father, tfarsgog, tfurfog, 
 
 tfarsgsg, ira<rgsg. 
 R]T-4£, a mother, f///]<rsf o$, f^*W. 
 So also, av^, a man, Uvigog, dvdgog. (§ 6. 7.) 
 
§ 23. OF THE GENITIVE OF ADJECTIVES. 27 
 
 Note. But where such change would occasion obscurity by making 
 the contracted word similar to another, it is omitted. Thus the accu- 
 sative Traripa, and urjTipa, remain unchanged, to distinguish them from 
 TTdTpa and fujrpa. 
 
 § 23. OF THE GENITIVE OF ADJECTIVES, 
 
 Adjectives of the third declension form the 
 genitive by the same rules as substantives ; but 
 some form it from the masculine and- others 
 from the neuter gender ; and the genitive form- 
 ed from either gender, is also the genitive of the 
 other. The gender from which the genitive is 
 formed may be ascertained by the following 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1. Adjectives in -ig and -ovq, form the genitive 
 from the nominative masculine ; as, 
 
 N." J!xoVa?f \ Genitive 0f both ' ^wktfXk. 
 M. Sko-oc, } s , . 
 
 2. But adjectives not in -tg or -ot>g, form the 
 genitive from the nominative neuter ; as, 
 
 Masc. Neut. Gen. of both. 
 cifyiv, rggsv, Tsgsv-og, tender. 
 dXridrig, dX^sg, dX^s-og, true. 
 piXag, /As'Xav, fjisXav-os, black. 
 X&gfas, X a t iSv i X a ?' sv ' T0 ^ graceful. 
 Obs. 1. This rule applies universally to participles of the 
 third declension, and these have their genitive always in -tgs ; 
 
 Masc, 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Gen. of both. 
 
 OVo:^ 
 
 GVav, 
 
 <frav.<rog. 
 
 TUtfCOV, 
 
 TUtfOV, 
 
 rurfov-rog. 
 
 <7u--rwv 9 
 
 TUtfOUV, 
 
 TUtfOUV-TOS. 
 
 rvtpdsig, 
 
 <TtKjp0£V, 
 
 TU(pd£V-TOff. 
 
 Note. By attending to the principles stated § 22. Obs. 1. (2 ; ) the 
 genitive of all adjectives and participles of the third declension may be 
 formed from the masculine gender; thus, M. riptjv, Gen. ripev-og, by $ 
 22. Obs. 1. (2.) crds, originally craw, (§22. Obs. 2.) Gen. gtuvtoS) by 
 
28 OF THE ACCUSATIVE. § 24. 
 
 the 2d general rule ; and so of the others. Yet the special rule3 givers 
 above will enable the beginner to form the genitive with more facility 
 than in this way. 
 
 Obs. 2. The genitive being once formed according to the 
 preceding rules, all nouns, adjectives, and participles, of the 
 third declension, are inflected regularly from it, by changing 
 -os into the terminations of the other cases, according to the 
 paradigms already given ; (§20. 1. & 2.) It is therefore not 
 only wholly unnecessary, but would tend to perplex the young 
 student, to give more examples under this declension. The 
 only variations that occur are to be found in the accusative, 
 and vocative singular, and dative plural ; and may be learned 
 more easily from the few following rules than from the unne- 
 cessary multiplication of paradigms. 
 
 § 24. OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 The accusative of masculine and feminine 
 nouns, generally ends in a. But, 
 
 Rule I. The genitive in -og pure, (<§ 2. Note 2.) 
 from tg, vg, avg, and ovg, changes g of the nomi- 
 native into v ; thus, 
 Nom. Gen. Ace. 
 
 oyig, oyi-og, of if, a serpent. 
 
 Potqvg, jSoT()u-og, (Sorqw, a bunch of grapes* 
 o'atig, va-bq 9 vavv, a ship, 
 
 fiovg, /3o-6g, fiovv, an ox. 
 
 Likewise laag and #a(^g have v ; as, 
 *kaag, Xda-og, Xaav, a stone. 
 
 %ttQig 9 %aqi-%og, X&QW) favour. 
 
 Exc. But Jig Ai-og, Jupiter, has Aia ; and Xa- 
 qig, for one of the Graces, has Xaqtxa, and %Qovg, 
 the skin, has £Qoa, seldom %qovv. 
 
 Rule II. -vg, -eog, and compounds of novg, a 
 foot, have a or v ; as, 
 
 wuvg, a)X£-og, wvJa, or <ouvv. 
 dinovg, dino-dog, dino-da, or dinovv. 
 
§ 25. VOCATIVE OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 29 
 
 Likewise words in eg and vg, unaccented on 
 the last syllable, which have a consonant before 
 ~og in the genitive ; as, 
 
 tQig, ity-dog, zQL-da, or eqw. 
 
 ytoQvg, xoQV'&og, Kqqv-Qa, or koqvv. 
 So also, kXmq, nlei-dog, nlu-dd, or x\uv. 
 
 § 25. OF THE VOCATIVE. 
 
 The vocative singular is for the most part like 
 the nominative. But, 
 
 L IN SUBSTANTIVES, 
 
 Rule 1. A short vowel in the genitive, from a 
 long vowel of the nominative, remains short in 
 the vocative; as, 
 
 Nom. Gen. Voc. 
 
 *■ 
 
 7rer?)o, naxt^og^ TtaveQ, a father. 
 
 "Extooq, EutoQ-ogj ^Extoq, Hector. 
 
 Obs. Three nouns which retain the long vowel in the geni- 
 tive, sometimes shorten it in the vocative ; viz. 2wr% 'AVo'XXwv, 
 
 Rule 2. -og pure in the genitive, not from rjg 9 
 rejects g from the nominative ; as, 
 jjaoiXevg, fiaoikt-og, fiaaiXev, a king, 
 fiovg, /?o-6g, (3ov«, an ox. 
 
 ocpig, oqi-ogj ocpty a serpent. 
 
 fiotQvg, fioxqv-og, fiorqv* a bunch of grapes. 
 
 Also most nouns in *g, which have idog in the 
 genitive ; as, 
 
 *xou$ y rfaA-Sot;, tfeu, a boy, 
 
 «rujavviV, rugawj-fe^ rvguvvi, arbitrary power* 
 
 \4/xafuXX/£, 'AfAaguXXi-fiDS 1 , Afjict£uXX* ? Amaryllis* 
 
 Ilapjg, tLaguSos, Ilaj/, Paris, 
 
 and sometimes, 
 
 OiSkmg, OlSko-Sog, QJ&Vov, (Edipus, 
 
 3* 
 
30 OF THE DATIVE PLURAL. . § 26. 
 
 Exc. Nouns In -w and -ws, having -og pure in the genitive, 
 make the vocative in -oj ; as ; Scwrpw, V. 2cwr<por; ai'Scis, V.'aMo?. 
 
 Rule 3. Nouns in ag and ag, (§ 22, Obs. 2.) 
 which have v in the genitive, retain i> instead of 
 g in the vocative ; thus, 
 
 ^4lag, Gen. Aiav-ro^ Yoc. Alav, Jljax. 
 JSYpWg, ^/ioev-TTog, JSfyiiev, Simois. 
 
 Note. In proper names, however, the poets often reject v ; as, Afo 
 for hXav. 
 
 Obs. yvvri has yvvou in the vocative ; and avccg, in address- 
 ing the deity, has ccva ; otherwise avag. 
 
 II. IN ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Rule. The vocative masculine is like the no- 
 minative neuter ; as, 
 
 N. Masc. N. Neut. V. Masc." 
 
 dta^g, alrj&tq, akr}6tg. 
 
 £Xm]U(ov, ilerjiioVj iXir^fiov. 
 
 dinovq, dinovv, dinovv. 
 
 fjitlaq, fitlaVj fielav. 
 
 %aqiuq, %aqUv, xa^uv^ also %aqiuq. 
 
 Note. This rule does not apply to participles. These follow the 
 general rule ; as, N. & V. tvktojv, rv^Tovca, tvvtov. 
 
 § 26. OF THE DATIVE PLURAL. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 The dative plural is formed from the dative 
 singular, by inserting a before i ; thus, 
 
 D. Sing. D. Plur. 
 
 QrftWQi qfyoQ-i, QifVOQ-o-i, an orator. 
 
 *Aqa\\), *Aqa%-i) "Aq&S-o-i, "Aqccfti an Arab* 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1. Before -crt, the rejected vowel of the nomi- 
 native (§ 22. Obs. 1. (1.)) is resumed ; as, 
 fiaciktvc,) fiaoiki-i, paoilzvai, a king. 
 (?oi/g, P° m h ftovoi) an ox* 
 
§ 26. OF THE DATIVE PLURAL. 31 
 
 Exc. no vg , xrei.g, ovdeig, and (irjdeig, are except- 
 ed ; which do not resume the rejected vowel ; 
 thus, 
 
 jiovg, nod-i, no-oi, afoot. 
 
 xrag, xrtv-i, xre-ol, a comb. 
 
 ovdelc. ovdtv-i. ovdt-oi* ) 
 
 (MjOEig, [irjdtv-i, firfit'Oij ) 
 
 Note. The three last can scarcely be called exceptions ; els being put 
 for hs. (} 22. Obs. 2.) 
 
 . 2. The assumed consonant (t, d f £,) of the ge- 
 nitive is rejected ; v also is rejected ; (§ 6. 6, c. & 1.) 
 as, 
 
 ItSrjg, . )J§r}-Ti, ta'§ij-0£, a caldron. 
 
 lajJLTcdg^ XauTCa-di, Xa/juza-ci, a torch. 
 
 oQvtg, 8qvi-Gi, 6qvl-(Hj a bird. 
 
 %oi\JLvp, noi\iiv-i, noi^e-oi, a shepherd. 
 
 dai[Mov, dal{iov-i, daifio-oi, the Divinity. 
 
 3. -m]Q -T^og, after a syncope has aot ; as, 
 
 TxaTr.Q, Tiaxiqi, naxql^ natqaoi, a father. 
 likewise .avi]Q, aviqi^ avdqi, avdqaoi, a man. 
 Exc. yaOTJjQ, yaotzqi) yaotr^oi, is excepted. 
 
 4. -zvxi and -ov%i in the singular are changed 
 into uol and ovoi ; (§ 6. 6. o.) thus, 
 
 Xaqiag^ %aqwv-%i, %aqiuoi, graceful. 
 tvTtxwv, xirnxov-xii rvjiTovoi, striking. 
 \mv, Mov-ti, Xtovoi, a lion. 
 
 Note. Different theories of the formation of the dative plural have 
 been adopted by philologists. A very common one is that which forms 
 it from the nominative plural, by adding <n or i, and for this purpose, 
 giving to neuters a form of the nominative plural in eg; thus, nolSes, by- 
 adding ffi, becomes naihaai ; jrpdyftara, (rrpdyfjiaTea^ irpayfxareai^ and SO of 
 others; and that these forms (which still remain in the Ionic, Doric, 
 aod JEolic dialects) were afterwards, in the common and Attic dialects, 
 ! shortened into kouoi % rpdyfiaai. Another theory is that the dative plural 
 is a double dative singular. However ingenious or correct these theo- 
 ries may be, they are too intricate to be of much service to the learner. 
 The rules above given are preferable, as they conduct him at once to 
 the common form of this case. The same remark is applicable to seve- 
 
32 
 
 DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. § 27, 28. 
 
 ral of the rules in this grammar, their design being, not so much to give 
 a history of the present form of a case or tense, as to enable the student 
 to form it for himself from data already in his possession. 
 
 § 27. DIALECTS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 From the variety of terminations, in nouns of this declen- 
 sion, it is impossible to exhibit them in one concise table. But 
 the general principles are — The nominative and vocative Attic 
 are alike, — The Attic genitive is in -sws, instead of eog and io£, 
 — The Ionic has v\ in the penult, through the oblique cases, in- 
 stead of s and a ; and makes -sti\ or -stfcft instead of -Ci, in the 
 dative plural, with the poets. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Norn. 
 aai\-£vs- ) 
 
 ad-tig. ) 
 
 ft 
 
 d(j)-is. 
 vavg. 
 
 alS-wg. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 (I. *>s.) > 
 
 -io S} { D. & >A. iug. > 
 ( M. ev S . ) ) 
 
 ■log, 
 ads, 
 
 A. iiag. 
 I. vtg* 
 
 JE., <3j. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 ■i'L, I. 5?i'. 
 
 u. 
 
 ■aXf I. rfi. 
 
 ■61, 
 
 Acc. 
 
 la. ) 
 
 iiv or ia. } 
 iv. 
 
 avv, I. rjvv Or rja 
 
 ( I. ovv. 
 
 ° a > \ JE. ft* 
 
 Voc. 
 
 ev, A. evg. 
 
 U; A. VS. 
 
 i, A. ig. 
 -av f A. avg* 
 
 -oXj A. W£. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 vaiS) I- *}£$• 
 
 C A. rjs. 
 ■\~iss, < or i)s. 
 
 ( I. ffo. 
 
 Gen. 
 -lav, I. J7«v. 
 •awv, I. rjZv. 
 
 "£V(Tt f 
 
 -eat, 
 
 Dat. 
 
 f I. T/fft, 
 
 ■(.P. i'jecrai. 
 
 I. 77UO-/. 
 
 £ I. ?7tJ 
 { P. J7£. 
 
 . -fitaai. 
 cacti. 
 
 P. ££CGi. 
 
 Acc. 
 
 -iag i I. ffaf* 
 -auj, I. rjag. 
 -ea. 
 
 Thus, Gen. xsi'Xsos, of a lip, D. x^ s u£ ; Voc. Masc. 6VaV>J~ 
 2£S£, A. Sv(f<rtxYi$ ysgov, O unfortunate old man ; Dat. pi. x s ^h !• 
 ^gifstftfi, to jtecfc ; Accus. A19TW, Latona^ I. A^rouv ; Gen. atf- 
 <rso£, #/* a c%^ A. oitfTeug ; Voc. a/for, modesty, A. a/<Jw£. 
 
 § 28. GENDERS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 The Genders of Substantives of the Third Declension^ so 
 far as determined by the termination, are as follows : 
 
 RULES. 
 
 as, 
 
 I. Nouns in eu£ ? a^avrog, av and uv, are always masculine; 
 
§ 29. GENDERS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 33 
 
 MS, 
 
 °X**, 
 
 Gen 
 
 px*V, 
 
 0, a ctejp. 
 
 ug-axrog, 
 
 dvSgiag, 
 
 
 dv<j£iav70£, 
 
 6, a statue* 
 
 av, 
 
 tcuav, 
 
 
 tfajavos, 
 
 6, a pecan. 
 
 uv, 
 
 (poVxvv, 
 
 
 ^o'fxuvo^, 
 
 6, a harbour. 
 
 II. Nouns in as-ttfiog, 
 
 T7)s-Tr,T0£, au$, w, 
 
 and verbals in -ig ) are 
 
 always feminine ; aSj 
 
 
 
 
 ag-a5og, 
 
 Ts.a^ag, 
 
 
 XajUMra5o£, 
 
 ^, a torcA. 
 
 7r}g-r7]Tog, 
 
 xax;<r/]£, 
 
 
 xaxo'r?jTO£, 
 
 yj, wickedness. 
 
 ws, 
 
 vafig, 
 
 
 vao£, 
 
 7}, a ship. 
 
 to, 
 
 cpsiSd, 
 
 - 
 
 <psi5oo£, 
 
 ^, parsimony. 
 
 is verbal- 
 
 (pCtftg, 
 
 
 <pt5<reos, 
 
 y, nature. 
 
 Ill. Nouns 
 
 in a, 1, u, 
 
 ug-arogy og and o£ 
 
 , are always neuter. 
 
 «, 
 
 03jfi.a, 
 
 
 fifaarog, 
 
 to, a tribunal. 
 
 h 
 
 fxsXi, 
 
 
 liekir og, 
 
 to, honey. 
 
 v, 
 
 srwu, 
 
 
 nt&mg, 
 
 to, a flock. 
 
 ag-oLTog, 
 
 xgiag, 
 
 
 xgearog. 
 
 to, flesh. 
 
 °S, 
 
 *J r X°Sy 
 
 
 rttysfg, 
 
 TO, tf Wfl//, 
 
 •?• 
 
 aog, 
 
 
 ao£o£, 
 
 to, a sword. 
 
 § 29. The Gender of Nouns, in nearly all the other termina- 
 tions of the Third Declension, are exhibited in the following 
 summary, together with the exceptions. 
 
 I. MASCULINE. 
 
 Terminations. 
 
 -*jVj as, Xi/^v, Except 3 ; viz. y 2s»jj^v, y (pf^v, and 6, ^ ^v. 
 
 -r,£, as, o Cwr^, Except 4 ; viz. v\ yadrty, y x*j£ : nouns which, 
 
 from their signification, are feminine ; 
 
 as, r\ pyrrig. Also 6, rj d^f , aM5jf ; and 
 
 nouns in fg contracted for saf , which 
 
 are all neuter. 
 -up, as, o -^Of , Except 2 ; viz. ^ ^^l and to d*f, 
 -wjj, as, o (pw£, Except 6 ; viz. aksxreo^ awf, i^^m. eXwf , §'X- 
 
 5wj , B5wf , Tgxjxwj , neuter. 
 -ou?, as, o X£°^> Except 1 ; viz. to o5V- 
 -4v as, 5 9d^, Except 5 ; viz. XaiXa-^, (pXs^, xH vl ^' °4^j anc ^ 
 
 xaXau^o^, all feminine. 
 
 II. FEMININE. 
 
 -iv, as, ^ dxTiv, Except 2 ; viz. 6, % d/v, and 5 dsXcpiv. 
 ^g. as, i? xXsfc, Except 1 ; viz. 6 xtsjV. 
 
34 
 
 GENDERS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 §30. 
 
 Terminations. 
 
 -u£, as, r\ ■xofbgj Except 7 ; viz. fiorgvg, ^voc:, ix^S, fAu^vixuc 
 
 (frayvg, ^x u ^j masculine ; and % and 
 
 Cfc, maisc. ox fern. 
 
 III. NEUTER. 
 
 -a j, as, to ?jxcef, Except 2 ; viz. 5a^&£ and oa^ feminine. 
 
 Obs. 1. Nouns of other terminations are so varied in gen- 
 der, that no general rule can be given respecting them. 
 
 Obs. 2. Dialect frequently varies the gender in all the de- 
 clensions. Thus, /3aro£ is mas'c. in Attic, otherwise feminine ; 
 and so of others. 
 
 § 30. In all the declensions, many substantives which have a 
 masculine and feminine signification, distinguish the gender 
 by a difference of termination ; thus, 
 
 TABLE OF EXAMPLES. 
 
 Terminations. 
 Masc. Fern. 
 
 -w, has|- T <" a > "•""?** 
 
 | -rpts, as, dXirrjg, 
 
 Masculine, 
 
 as, SecrxdTrjs, a master^ hatdng, 
 
 a poet, noir/Tpia, 
 
 a miller^ akttpig, 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 'OS, 
 
 -£UJ, 
 
 -vp, 
 
 -vg, 
 
 -up, 
 
 -wv, 
 
 
 as, £Kvp6s t a father-in-law, hvpd, 
 as, 8ov\os, a male slave, 8ov\v, 
 
 -ig, as, cTparrjyds, a general , crparrjyU, 
 
 {^-aiva, as, Bz6$ t a god, Biaiva, 
 
 has -aeca, as ,5 * va ?> ^ prince, livacca, 
 
 ' $6$, a wild pigeon, fdcaa, 
 
 C -eia, as, Upevg, a priest, lipeia, 
 
 ) > as, fiaaiXeus, a king, I v, ,* ' 
 
 has -apa, as, cwn/p, a preserver, c&Ttipa, 
 
 has -£c«ra, as, flofoif, a Phoenician, Qoiviuoa, 
 
 has -yccra, as, Ai6vs, 
 
 has 
 has 
 
 has^ 
 
 a Lybian, 
 •eipa, as, Trav^a^arwp, a conqueror, 
 
 -aiva, as, >fw»/ ; fl Zio?«, 
 
 -wt'ff, a3 ? ^pwy, a Aera, 
 
 -as, as, Tpwj, a Trojan, 
 
 AWvcraa, 
 andreipa, 
 
 a mistress, 
 a poetess, 
 a female * 
 
 miller, 
 amotlier-in- 
 
 law. 
 afemale 
 slave. 
 < afemale 
 I leader, 
 a goddess. 
 a princess. 
 C afemale pi- 
 l geon. 
 a priestess. 
 
 > a queen. 
 
 afemale 
 
 preserver. 
 
 a Phamici- 
 
 an woman. 
 
 a Lybian 
 
 woman. 
 
 « a female 
 TcavdanaTtipa, < 
 
 iva t 
 
 a heroine. 
 
 Xiaiva, 
 
 vpiois, 
 
 Tpwds, 
 
 conqueror* 
 a lioness. 
 
 a Trojan 
 woman. 
 
§31. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 35 
 
 § 31. IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
 
 1. Some nouns have one gender in the singular, and ano- 
 ther in the plural ; as, 
 
 (1.) 6 Sicpgog, the chariot-seat ; o fAo^Xo^, the lever ; 6 xori ^ Ta£- 
 rctfog, Tartarus ; 6 Tga'/ri'kog, the neck ; 6 Crad/xo^, Me station ; 6 
 <6£jj,o£, Me decree ; 6 vwros, Me back ; 6 sPST^og, Me oar ; 6 £uyos, 
 Me yoke ; are neuter in the plural ; as, to, &'<pja, &c. The 
 three last have also neuter forms in the singular, as, ro vwtov, 
 &c., but with a variation of meaning. 
 
 (2.) 6 Sc&pog, the bond ; 6 Xu^vos, Me lamp ; xuxXo£, the circle ; 
 pyfog, Me thigh ; 6 oTtos, com ,• have both a masculine and 
 neuter form in the plural ; as, oi 5so>o; and ra <Jstff/,a, &c. 
 
 (3.) 7) xs'Xsudos, Me way, has ai xsXsudoj, and to- xs'Xsuda. 
 
 (4.) to <Jra<5iov, Me stadium, has oi tfroiioi, and rot draSia. 
 
 (5.) Tuv^, a woman ; 6(Sog, a way ; a-dXis, a c%; ^s^, a ^^ 3 * 
 feminines, have tcj yuvarxs, too 6<Sw, tgj ^oXis, and tw j^s, in the 
 nominative and accusative dual. 
 
 2. Some have more than one declension ; thus, 
 
 a. 1st and 2nd, as ^ (faatpavij, and 6 (frs<pavo$, a crown; 1st 
 and 3d, as Mcdtf-%, -ou ; and Mwtfsus, -sw£, Moses, 2d and 3d, 
 as to <$<xxfu-ov, -ou ; and to <5<xx£-u, -uo$ ; jx<xptu£-os, -ou ; and pagr*vg, 
 -u|o£, <z witness. 
 
 1 b. Some have more than one declension in the oblique cases, 
 from one form of the nominative ; thus, ©aXrjs, gen. -ou, 1st, 
 and -y)TQ£ 3d, Thales ; "Aj-qs, -ou 1st, and ~sog and -tjtos 3d, Mars ; 
 6 and to tfxoVos, darkness ; o^og, a chariot ; §'Xso£, mere?/ ; Ta^i^o^, 
 pickle ; ocro'os, a# eye ; have -ou the 2d, and -sos the 3d. 
 
 c. Some have the forms of different declensions, in certain 
 i cases, though not regularly inflected through all the cases ; 
 
 thus, 1st and 3d in the ace. sing. Avjjxotfdsv-ris, ace. -yjv and -sa, 
 
 ' Demosthenes ; 2wxpgcttj£, Socrates, ace. 2cox£ow-y)v and -sa ; 
 
 dXx-rj. fortitude, gen. -yj£, (1st) dat. -;, (3d) ; ufyMv*;, a battle^ 
 
 dat. utffJtivTj and ucffjuivi, 1st and 3d ; dvo^owroSov, a slave, 2d, dat. 
 
 ■"Vpl. dvSgatf 60 goVi, 3d Horn. 
 
 d. Feminine nouns in -w, and -w£, of the third declension, 
 have generally the form of the second as if from -o£, in the 
 dual and plural, when their meaning is such as to admit of 
 their being used in these numbers. 
 
 3. Some from one form of the nominative, have different 
 forms in the oblique cases, in the same declension ; thus, riygis, 
 a tiger, has -io$ and -iSog ; Qspig, Justice, has -i5o£, -nog, and 
 -iG-og ; Xa^ojVj Charon, has -c^vee, and -ovrog ; yevu, a knee, and 
 
36 DEFECTIVE NOUNS. § 32, 
 
 <5of u, a spear, have -uo.c and -aro£ ; x?^ X? wt ^j an( i Xf °fc> X?°°£> 
 Me $Azw, have two forms of the nominative as well as of the 
 oblique cases, both of the 3d. 
 
 4. Some appear to form the oblique cases from obsolete no- 
 minatives ; as, yxoLgj a liver ; faag, a day ; efSag, food ; <pf saj, 
 a well; (fr sol^ fat ; xagrjaf, a head ; aXswpaf, ointment ; Js'Xsag, a 
 bait ; ovua^ a benefit ; ouda£, fatness ; 85wj, water ; tfxwf, dirt ; 
 yovu, the knee ; dogv, a spear ; have the genitive in -a<ros, as if 
 from -as ; thus, yturos, ujaros, yivawg. Ou£, an ear, w<ro£ ; yaXa, 
 milk, yaXaxrog ; yuv^, a woman, yuvaixos, voc. yuva; ; ItjCous, 
 gen. ou, dat. ou ; ace. ouv ; voc. ou. 
 
 5. Some are indeclinable, i. e. have no change of termination 
 in the different cases ; such as, 
 
 (1.) Names of letters ; as, <ro <xX<pa, <rou aXtpa, &c. (2.) The 
 cardinal numbers from itsvts to sxarov. (3.) PoetiG nouns 
 which have lost the last syllable by apocope ; as, to <5w, for 
 <SwfA<x. (4.) Foreign names which are not susceptible of Greek 
 inflexions ; as, 6 A§£aaj/., <rou A^aa/x, &c. 
 
 §32. DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 
 
 1. Some have no plural ; as, ot^f, az> ,* tfv^fire ; s'Xcuov, ^7; 
 yy\, earth ; aidws, sAame ; akg, salt. 
 
 2. Some have no singular ; as, akywa, victuals ; 'A^va* 3 
 Athens ; ovs/^aroe, dreams ; and the names of festivals ; as, IIa= 
 va^vaia, Panathencea. 
 
 3.^ Some occur in one case only, and are called monoptots ; 
 as, wrotv, O friend ; w tfoVoi, O gods ; <ro 2<psXo£, Me advantage. 
 
 4. Some have only two cases ; (diptots,) as, nom. Xfc, ace. 
 Xfy fe ; nom. Zsus, voc. Zsu, Jupiter ; to qW ? Me vmora ; 
 nom. & ace. 
 
 5. Some have only three (triptots) ; as, nom. /xa^rus, a witness^ 
 ace. j&af <ruv, dat plur. y*a§r\xf\. 
 
 6. a. The Poets sometimes cut off the final letter or syllable 
 from a word, which is called apocope; as, xagn for xaj-Tjvov, a 
 toi; which are then indeclinable, (§31. 5.) 
 
 4. Sometimes they terminate the genitive and dative singu- 
 lar and plural in cpi, or <piv, changing or shortening the termina- 
 tion of the original word. This is called Par ago ge : thus, 
 vsvgricpi for vsu£a£, of a string ; daxguiptv for Jaxjuwv, of tears ; 
 ©3v5j<pi for suv^c, of a bed. 
 
 The termination -&sv, appended to the genitive only is of the 
 same nature as if aXo'&v for If; aXo£. So also, fy^sv for i/juou, <kc. 
 
.$33,34* OF CONTRACTIONS. 37 
 
 §33. NOUNS OF PECULIAR SIGNIFICATION 
 
 Some nouns have peculiar significations, according to their 
 terminations ; as, 
 
 1. Masculine Patronymics, (§ 10. 1. a.) commonly in $qg or 
 wv ; as, Uriksvg, Peleus ; IIsXsio*j£, P "elides ', or the son of Peleus : 
 Kmog, Saturn ; K^oviwv or KgoviSrig, the son of Saturn. 
 
 2. Feminine Patronymics, commonly in -iocs and -i£, -ivi»j and 
 -liwij ; as, Atjtw'iocc: and Aifrafc, from Avjrw, Latona ; 'A^tfTivij 
 from "ASpifaog : N*jgiv?i from N'i£eus ; 'AxPitfiwvTj from ? Ax£i<fro£, 
 <&c. 
 
 3. Gentile Nouns, (§ 10, 1. b.) commonly in tjs, og, or sus, 
 masculine ; and ec, ct£, or i£, feminine ;. as, 2tfagrv\ y Sparta ; 
 Stfugncurvig, a Spartan ; Scqxajsia, Samaria; Sapagsing, awoman 
 of Samaria. But many of these are inflected as regular ad- 
 jectives. 
 
 4. Diminutives, (§ 10. 2. c.) commonly in ia, iov, itfxo£, or Xog ; 
 as, rfoLrty a father ; tfargidiov, a little father, (a term of endear- 
 ment ;) tfafc, . # Joy or girl ; rfai&'ov, a &'#/g fo?/ or g7>/ ; tfai&Vwg, 
 a young daughter ; sfjw^ fcue ; s£W<ri;Xo£ 3 « £#& /over. 
 
 5. Jlmplificatives, (§ 10. 2. d.) commonly in pa, or wv ; as, 
 jixog,a house, ©5'xi^a, a large building ; Qphtivg, bold; focufuv a 
 bully. 
 
 6. Verbal Nouns. From the three persons singular of the 
 perfect passive, 'are formed three nouns of different termina- 
 tions and signification, as follows : 
 
 Verb. Perf. Pass. 
 
 «Ww, from 1st Pers. tfSfl-on^cu, comes tfon^a, a poem. 
 
 2 tfSrfoiritfoLi, tfoirfiig, poetry. 
 
 3 rtStfoirirau, tfottjTife, a poet. 
 tfpaiffa, 1 Kstfgwyiwi, rtguyiia, thing done. 
 
 2 rfitfgajgat, . i?§<x£ig 9 action or doing, 
 
 3 cftV^axraij tfguLmty or ) , 
 
 irgcwTTig, I ^ * 
 
 § 34. OF CONTRACTIONS. 
 
 in a concourse of vowels, if two syllables are 
 converted into one, it is called a Contraction. Of 
 these there are two kinds: 
 
 1. A contraction without a variation of vow- 
 
 4 
 
38 CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLENSION. § 35. 
 
 els, is called Synceresis ; as, %tiy€i, by Synaeresis 
 
 2. A contraction with a variation of the vow-, 
 els, is called Crasis ; as, drjfioo&zveeq, by Crasis 
 drjixooQevug ; %uim, by Crasis, %tifjtf\. 
 
 Note. A contraction is often made, but not always. 
 
 Obs. A Crasis or change of vowels is made 
 in three ways : 
 
 1 . By striking^out one of the vowels, in which 
 case the other, If short before contraction, is 
 lengthened; as, noQtpvQta^ noQcpvqd. 
 
 2. By substituting a long vowel or diphthong 
 for the other two ; as, %ti%m, %u%r\ ; noQcpvQtov^ 
 
 TtOQCpVQOVV. 
 
 3. By changing one of the vowels so as to 
 form a diphthong with the other ; as, fiaoilhq, 
 fictoilelq ; 06cg, /SoDg. 
 
 Note. If any of the concurrent vowels has an accent, it is changed 
 into the circumflex, and placed over the contracted syllable. 
 
 In the rules for contractions let it be remem* 
 bered that, 
 
 the two short vowels, e, o, 
 
 have their own long ones, ?j, cu, 
 and their own diphthongs, a, ov< 
 
 § 35. CONTRACTIONS OF THE FIRST DECLEN- 
 SION. 
 
 In the first declension no contraction takes 
 place, unless the first of the concurrent vowels 
 is either a short vowel, or a short, and the no- 
 minative contracted is then declined regularly. 
 
 Rule 1. «a, without q before it, is changed in- 
 to ij- 
 
§ 36. CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DECLENSION. 39 
 
 Rule 2. In qia and others strike out the first 
 vowel; thus, 
 
 1. 
 yea, earth, yrj, G. yijg, D. y?j, &c. like %i\ir\. 
 XQvaea, golden, xqvar^ G. XQvoijg, D. XQ va fli 
 &c. 
 
 ^Eqpmg, Mercury, Eqjir\g, G. c Eq{iov, D. EqiJifj, 
 &c. 
 
 2. 
 
 Ttoqcpvqta, purple, rcoqcpvqa, G. noqcpvqag,, D. 
 Tioqcpvqa, &.c. 
 
 anXorj, simple, anXr\, G. ankr\g, &c. 
 
 'i^jw, Minerva, 'A&qva, G. 'AQrjvag, D. 
 A&tjva, &c. (§ 15. Obs.) 
 
 'Ajiellerig, Apelles, ^ArnXkn^g, G. y An^XXov^ D. 
 ^AntXkfi, &c. 
 
 § 36. CONTRACTIONS OF THE SECOND DE- 
 CLENSION. 
 
 In the second declension no contraction takes 
 place, unless the first of the concurrent vowels 
 be short. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. If a short vowel follow, change them into 
 on, 
 
 2. If the second vowel be not short, strike out 
 the first ; thus, 
 
 ttOQcpVQaov, purple. 
 Rule 1. Ttoqcpvqtov, contract Ttoqcpvqovv. 
 
 2. TlOQtpVQZOV, TlOQCfVQOV. 
 
 2. nOQ(fVQ£U) 9 TlOQCpVQW. 
 
 2. TCOQCpVQea, TCOQCpVQCC. 
 
 2. noqcpvqeoig, noqcpvqolg, &c. 
 
40 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION, § 37, 38 
 
 di7iX6ov, 
 
 double. 
 
 Rule 1. dmlopv, contract dinlovv* 
 
 2. dtnkoov, 
 
 diTilov. 
 
 2. dinloah 
 
 &ii%X5h 
 
 2. dircloa* 
 
 diTiXa. 
 
 2. dinXooiq, 
 
 dinlolq* &e~ 
 
 vooQj the 
 
 ' mind. 
 
 Rule J. v^oq^ 
 
 vovq* 
 
 2. voov,' 
 
 vov. 
 
 2. VO(x)j 
 
 
 1. voov* 
 
 vovv. 
 
 1. voe f 
 
 VOV, &c. 
 
 So &I$o $6os, a current ; 'tfepyvghs,' purple; crXoos, navigation 
 diit\6o$, double ; a^yugcog, of silver ; o(frsov } a bone. 
 Note, u y of the vocative, is not contracted. 
 
 § 37. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DE- 
 CLENSION, 
 
 In the oblique cases there is no contraction,, 
 unless the first of the concurrent vowels is either 
 short, or a doubtful £aketi as short. 
 
 The following Rules are universal, being ap- 
 plicable, not only to contractions of the third 
 declension, but also to those of verbs, and of all 
 cases in which concurrent vowels admit of con- 
 traction. 
 
 Note. With the exceptions mentioned under rule HI and VI. 1st, 
 they are applicable also to contractions. of the first and second deelers* 
 sions fc s 
 
 § 38. GENERAL RULES. 
 
 Concurrent vowels are contracted as follows; viz, 
 
 I. A short vowel before itself, into its own diph- 
 thong; as, w into n ; oo into ov« 
 
§ 38. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 41 
 
 Exc. But eg of the dual, almost always into rj, 
 seldom into u. 
 
 II. A short vowel before the other short, is 
 contracted into ov, 
 
 III. A short vowel before a, is contracted into 
 its own long vowel ; as, ea into tj ; oa into to. 
 
 Exc. But ea pure into a; (also qecc of the first 
 declension, and m as well as oa of the second, 
 are contracted into a.) 
 
 IV. A short vowel before i is contracted by . 
 Synceresis ; as, u into u ; oX into 01. 
 
 V. e before a long vowel or diphthong is re- 
 jected. 
 
 VI. 1. o before a long vowel, is contracted in- 
 to W : as, or] into to ; ocd into to. 
 
 Exc, In numeral adjectives in -nloog, o not 
 before a short vowel is rejected; as, § 36. 2, 
 
 2. o before a diphthong, the prepositive vowel 
 being rejected, is contracted by Synceresis ; as, 
 coi into ot, &c. 
 
 Exc. But oeiv, i being rejected, is contracted 
 by Crasis into ovv. 
 
 VII. I. a before o or a>, is contracted into to ; 
 as, ao or aw into co. 
 
 2. a not before o or w, is contracted into a ; 
 as, ae into a. 
 
 Obs. I . a before a diphthong is contracted 
 with the prepositive vowel, the subjunctive being 
 previously rejected, 
 
 2. tin contraction is never rejected, but in 
 this as well as others is Yvritten under, except in 
 cuv ; as in Rule VI. 
 
 3. Neuters in ctg pure and qag, reject % from 
 the oblique cases, and then contract the con- 
 current vowels. 
 
 VIII. If the former of two vowels is i or u, or 
 
 4* 
 
42 CONTRACTIONS OP THE THIRD DECLENSION § 39, 
 
 a long vowel, the latter is rejected j as, i& con- 
 tracted v ; ve-v ; tjs-^. 
 
 § 39. THE RULES WITH EXAMPLES: 
 
 I. A short vowel before itself, is contracted 
 into its own diphthong ; as, 
 
 Jrj^oa^veeqj Ar\\ioa&&vuq<. 
 
 Arfiooq, Arpovg. 
 
 in verbs, (piXs&ve, (pilelre. 
 
 drjloo^evj drjlovfiev. 
 
 Exc. But «e of the dual almost always into fy 
 (seldom into u ;) as, 
 
 Jflfwa&iveey Jrjfioa&ivf]. 
 
 It, A short vowel before the other short, is 
 contracted into ov ; as, 
 
 In nominatives, pehrbevj mfaxovv. 
 In oblique cases, Jiifioo&evtog, Jrj^oo&tvovg^ 
 
 ($6zg, fiovg. 
 
 In verbs, xptXzofiev 1 xpilovfiev* 
 
 drjXoertj dijXovTz. 
 
 III. A short vowel before a, is contracted into 
 its own long vowel ; as, 
 In nominatives, mq 3 i]q. 
 
 In oblique cases, JriaoaMveaj ArjfjLoa6ivr r 
 Arfioa, A'rjtd). 
 
 Exc. 1. But ea pure into a ; thus, 
 In oblique cases, A. UeiQaiza, Uuqaia* 
 N. P. #0££a, %qm. 
 
 Exc. 2. (>£« of the first declension, and ea as 
 well as oa of the second, are contracted into a -:, 
 (for examples see § 35 and 36,) 
 
§ 39. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION 43 
 
 IV. A short vowel before i, is contracted by 
 Synseresis; (§ 34. I.) as, 
 
 In oblique cases, J-rjuoo&hzV, Jt]fwoMvu. 
 ArrroC, Arpoi. 
 
 V. g, before a long vowel or diphthong, is re- 
 jected ; thus, 
 
 In nominatives, 'HqccxUijc, f BgaxX^g. 
 
 In oblique cases, Jripoo6evmv, Jr}ftoa6evSn>. 
 
 Jrjuoo&sveoiv, Jrj^ioa&evoiv. 
 
 In. verbs, (pitea>, (fiXib. 
 
 (fiXiuq, (pihlg. 
 
 Exc. But ecu is contracted otherwise: thus, 
 xifcoai, omitting <r, <vi6eai, by Diasresis %Mai, and 
 by Crasis, according to Rule III. t%. But -scat. 
 m the Attic dialect, is contracted bv syncope 
 into ei. 
 
 VI. I . o before a long vowel is contracted in- 
 to w. 
 
 2. o before a diphthong, the prepositive vowel 
 being rejected, is contracted by Syndesis. 
 
 Note. The concurrent vowels under this rule 
 are contracted in verbs only ; as, 
 
 1. 
 
 drjkoa, dtf/M. 
 
 drjloTjTE, df]Xwe % 
 
 2. 
 dtjlooi, drjXoi. 
 
 tiylbrj, drjXoi. 
 
 dr)X6ov, dr t Xov. 
 
 drjldu, drjXot. 
 
 Exc. But ouv, v being rejected, is contracted 
 by Crasis into ovv ; (Rule II.) as, 
 
 drjXdeiv, drjXovv. 
 
44 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. § 39. 
 
 Rem. This however, is more properly a contraction from the 
 ancient infinitive JyjXos/xsva/, thence the Doric tirikos^sv. The 
 Ionics, omitting ju,s, made it fojXosv ; and lastly, the Attics con- 
 tracted it into fojXoilv. In pure verbs, and those in f/.i, they 
 omitted fjus ; in others only n*. 
 
 Exc. Another exception to this rule, as well 
 as to the note, occurs in numeral adjectives in 
 nlooQ, in which o, not before a. short vowel, is 
 rejected; thus, 
 
 dmXoi], dinXi]. dtnlooi, dirtXol. 
 dinX6a, diTtXa. dmkbai, dtnlal ; &c. 
 
 VII. 1 . a before o or co, is contracted into co. 
 
 2. a not before o or co, is contracted into a. 
 
 1. Before o or w. 
 
 2 S Not before o or co. 
 Idag, Xaq. 
 
 Obs. 1. a, before a diphthong, is contracted 
 with the prepositive vowel, the subjunctive being 
 previously rejected ; as, 
 
 Tlfl&OVCfl, TLUWGl. 
 
 Obs. 2. But i, in contractions, is never reject- 
 ed ; in this, as well as in others, it is written un- 
 der; as, 
 
 xtQai, vJqcz. 
 
 Obs. 3. Neuters in ag pure and gag, reject % 
 from the oblique cases, and then contract the 
 concurrent vowels ; as, xtqag. 
 
 Sing. 
 Gen. uzqatog, yJ^aog, contracted k£qwq* 
 
 Dat. TteQctrij xtQai, yctqa. 
 
 I 
 
§ 40. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 45 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. utQccve, iteQae 9 contracted yiiqa. 
 G. D. k£qcctoi,Vi utqaoiv, zeqaw. 
 
 Plur. 
 N. A. V, ueQaTct, vJgaa, xeQa. 
 
 G. D. %EQ(kcG)V 9 X£Q<XO)V, mQCDV. 
 
 VIII. If the former of two vowels is i or u,'or 
 a long vowel, the latter is rejected : as, 
 
 oeptcj, a serpent. 
 
 N. and V. Plur. clytzg, contracted jkpiq. 
 D. Sing. otpiX, Qtpi. 
 
 (JoTQvg, a bunch of grapes. 
 
 N. V. PI. PptQV^ ftoTQVQ* 
 
 In verbs. Tififyv, %i\ir\v. 
 
 2d Sing, ti&ipai) %i^r\ai^ T^fj. 
 
 Note, edos, and <n5o?, safe,- of the first and second declensions, are con- 
 tracted, in those cases which are found contracted, by the foregoing: 
 rules ; thus, edos, oZs. R. VII. 1. cda, oa> VII. 2, &c. 
 
 § 40 CONTRACTS OF THE THIRD DECLEN- 
 SION. 
 
 Concurrent vowels are not always contracted 
 in the third declension, but only as directed by 
 the following 
 
 SPECIAL RULES, 
 
 1 . The accusative plural, in all cases, assumes 
 the contraction of the nominative ; thus, 
 
 N. Arifioa6£vteq 9 contracted Arjfioo&tvaq. 
 A. Arj/jioaMveaqj AiifiooMveig. 
 
 I tl I % a: & \ &?* 
 
46 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. § 40. 
 
 2. 
 -oog. 
 and 
 
 The genitive in eog, from -iyg, -eg, -og, or in 
 , not from ovg, and also neuters in ag pure 
 oag, contract the concurrent vowels in all 
 
 cases. 
 
 
 • 
 
 Example of the genitive in 
 Sing. 
 
 -eog from ?jg. 
 
 
 N. ArtfiQO&tvrjg, 
 G. Aij/iWO&tveog, 
 D. Arjfioo&tvti, 
 A. Arjuoo&tvea, 
 V. ArjfidoGeveg. 
 Dual. 
 
 A^fiod&ivovg. 
 
 ArjfiooAevu. 
 
 Arjfioo&tvt]. 
 
 
 N. A. V. Arjfioo&bvse, 
 G. D. ArjfiooMveoiVi 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Arjfioa&evt]. 
 Arj[AOO&zvoZy. 
 
 
 N. V. ArjfiooQivaeQj 
 
 G. Arjftoo&evmv, 
 
 ArftiooHvug. 
 Arjuoo&ivwv. 
 
 D. Arj/LiocMveoi. 
 A. Ar}[Jioo6£vmQ, Arjfioo&iveig. 
 Example of the genitive in oog, not from ovg ; viz. 
 of feminities in to and cog. 
 
 Sing. 
 N. ArjT(o, Latona. 
 
 G. Aijtoog, Arfovg. 
 
 D. Ar\%oi\ Arjtol. 
 
 A. Arjtoa, ArjTcb- 
 
 V. Ar\%oi. 
 For the plural of such nouns, see § 31. 2. d. 
 Example of the contracted cases of neuters in ag 
 pure, and £ag. 
 Sing. 
 
 N. A. V. XQiag, flesh. 
 
 G. yiqtaxog, ytqmog, xQmg. 
 D. %qia%i, yiqiaX, nqia. 
 
§ 40. CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 47 
 
 Dual. 
 N. A. V. KQtate, KQM8) %qia. 
 G. D. ytqe&toiv, xgeaoiv, xqecov. 
 
 Plur. 
 N. A. V. xQtccTa, xQeaa, xqw. 
 
 D. KQWOL. 
 
 3. The genitive in -eog, not from -tjg, -eg, -og, 
 and also the genitive in -*og, contract only the 
 dative singular and nominative plural. 
 
 Examples of the genitive in -cog, not from -r^g, -eg, -og. 
 ■ (iaoilevg, a king. 
 D. Sing. paoilei', fiaoilu. 
 
 N. V. Plur. Baoiteec. ) ' . 
 A. paoiktaq, ) t - 
 
 aoxv, a city. 
 D. Sing, aoru, aaret. 
 
 N. A. V. Plur. aOTea, &ovrj. 
 
 Ttoliq, a city. 
 
 D. Sing. 7t6tal', noXu. 
 
 N. V. Plur. Ttolzeq, ) ,, 
 
 A. 7t6Xe« S , ^ n6Xu? ' 
 
 Genitive in -*og ; as, o^^g, a serpent. 
 D. Sing* 6(pii\ ocpi. 
 
 N. V. Plur. ftp*, > . 
 
 A. o^mg, £ * ** 
 
 4. Nouns in -i>g, vog, and -ovq, -ooq, contract 
 only the nominative plural ; as, 
 
 p6rqvQ-voc, N. V. Plur. pfcqtkc, > i^^ 
 
 A. fioTQvaq, 
 
 V. /Joeg, 
 
 A. /Soag. 
 
 0oi)s-6o ? , N. V. /36eg, ) ^ 
 
48 
 
 CONTRACTIONS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 
 
 §40. 
 
 % (ttfovg, 
 
 /3sX<n'to. 
 
 /3sX<r/ou£» 
 
 5. Comparatives in <ov reject v in the accu- 
 sative singular and nominative plural, and then 
 contract the concurrent vowels ; as, 
 
 r]OOQ)V) less. 
 
 A. Sing, Tjdtfova, ^Coa. 
 
 N. V. Plur. %<t<foves, fytosg, 1 
 
 A. ytftiovccs, 7i<f<foag, J 
 
 N. A. V. Plur. Neuter, ^(TCova, ijtftfoa, 
 
 (iekciaw, better. 
 
 A. Sing. /3sXriova, jSsXtjoc^ 
 
 N. V. Plur. /SfsXn'ovss/ fieXrioes, 
 
 A. /SsXriovas, /SsXrioas, 
 
 N. A. V. Plur. Neuter, £gXnova, '/SsXrioa, 
 
 6. The nominative contracted, is then declin- 
 ed regularly; as, 
 
 §'&£, spring, by contraction $f, G. ^£os ? D. ^ji, &c. 
 aococs. « stone, Xac, G. Xao$, D. Xar, &c. 
 
 JVb/e. And if vowels concur in the oblique cases, they are moreovej 
 contracted in the usual way; thus, 
 
 N. 'ttvpaKMrn, Contr. r HpaK\r}s, Hercules, 
 
 G. Hpa.K\io$, HpavXou?. 
 
 D. HpafcAii, Hpa/cXc?. 
 
 A. HpaxX/a, Hpa^Xr?. 
 V. w Hpa/cXfj, 
 
 7. In adjectives, the contraction of the neuter 
 gender remains in the- masculine and feminine ; 
 thus, 
 
 utXitoeig, made of honey. 
 
 Nom. fXsXi<ro£/£, jwsXiroStf'o'a, jUsX;<rdsv. 
 
 contracted ^sXjtous, ixsXiroiJtro'a, 
 
 Gen. fxsXj<rouv<ro£, (xsXiToutftf^, 
 
 f ci[i'f}UQ, honoured. 
 
 Nom. ^f^sjs, Tiuy^a'o'a, 
 
 contracted <nu%, r/fj^tftfa, 
 
 Gen. dfATjvTOfr, rju^artfyjs, 
 
 jWSXlTQUVTOS, &e- 
 
 n/Jtrtj£y # 
 
§41,42,43. 
 
 OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 49 
 
 § 41. The following table, containing the most usual concur- 
 rent vowels, promiscuously arranged, will serve for exercise 
 on the rules. 
 
 1, 81. 
 
 10, aoi. 
 
 19, si. 
 
 28, 7)o. 
 
 2, sol. 
 
 11, ^. 
 
 20, sst. 
 
 29, la. 
 
 3, 07). 
 
 12, o/. 
 
 21, us. 
 
 30, so*. 
 
 4, ao. 
 
 13, ew. 
 
 22, aou. 
 
 31, os. 
 
 5, ow. 
 
 14, as. 
 
 23, st). 
 
 32, ost. 
 
 6, SSy. 
 
 15, iff. 
 
 24, oa. . 
 
 33, osw. 
 
 7, oou. 
 
 16, a*. 
 
 25, oo. 
 
 34, aa. 
 
 8, op. 
 
 17, sou. 
 
 26, ssa. 
 
 35, so. 
 
 9, aw. 
 
 18, a*j. 
 
 27, ii. 
 
 36, as*. 
 
 § 42. WORDS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION TO 
 BE DECLINED AND CONTRACTED. 
 
 cvtfsSris, pious. 
 afjLSivwv, better. 
 <r<r a^us, a spike of corn, 
 agsiuiv, more excellent. 
 * o/jusuV, # shepherd, 
 (psiSu^ parsimony, 
 yrigas, old age. 
 'Ax'^^su^, Achilles, 
 virs pyvqg, excellent. 
 dXrjdsV, frwe. 
 jxuff, a mouse. 
 f*s'f o£, a; jwtf. 
 tfXsfov, more. 
 
 7facps<5£, a painter. 
 Uspixkirig ) Pericles. 
 %$>£} a fish. 
 atfru, a city. 
 qrXsiwv, more. 
 '<iw£, /Ae morning. 
 /3a0uV, fifeep. 
 ^gX-r/wVj tofer. 
 <7rsj#cj 5 persuasion. 
 '/)Ou, sttfee/. 
 tfotfig, « husband. 
 '^0^, custom. 
 xegoLSj a horn. 
 
 alSug, modesty. 
 tfs'f a$, a limit. 
 
 5ju5, aw oa£. 
 (povsO^, a murderer. 
 dvajc%, impudent. 
 '(pg&tfifc diction. 
 ogog, a mountain, 
 irgstf&jg, old. 
 etiSe*is 9 indigent. 
 AioxKsr^ Diodes. 
 sVos, a word. 
 Spq^svs, a runner. 
 
 §. 43. OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The article is an adjective word of three gen- 
 ders. The terminations of the nominative are 
 irregular. In the oblique cases the masculine 
 and neuter genders are of the second declension ; 
 the feminine is of the first. It wants the voca- 
 tive, and is thus declined : 
 
50 
 
 DIALECTS OP THE ARTICLE, 
 
 §44, 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 N. 
 
 c 
 
 h 
 
 rd. 
 
 G. 
 
 rov, 
 
 *n$$ 
 
 xov. 
 
 D. 
 
 rw, 
 
 *fl> 
 
 TO). 
 
 1 
 
 A. 
 
 rov, 
 
 %r\V) 
 
 %b. 
 
 V. 
 
 d), interjection- 
 
 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 
 N. A. 
 
 Tea, 
 
 TCC, 
 
 TO). 
 
 G. D. 
 
 roiV, 
 
 tctlv. 
 Plural. 
 
 %oiv< 
 
 N. 
 
 of, 
 
 ccl. 
 
 ta* 
 
 G. 
 
 TCOV, 
 
 T(QV, 
 
 TCOV. 
 
 D. 
 
 Torg, 
 
 %alg, 
 
 rolg 
 
 A. 
 
 roig, 
 
 rdg y 
 
 TO. 
 
 V. (b, interjection. 
 
 Ofo. 1. The Greeks spoke definitely , by placing the article 
 before the substantive ; indefinitely, by omitting it or prefixing 
 the pronoun rig ; as, 6 av^wtfos, the man ; av0£wtfo£, a man, or 
 rig oLv&gutfos, any man. 
 
 Obs. 2. In grammar and lexicography, the article is used 
 technically , to distinguish the gender of nouns, (§ H. obs.) 
 
 Obs. 3. The particles <rs and ys, annexed to the article 
 through all its cases, give it the force of the pronoun " this ; n 
 as, o<$s, ^5s, «r65s, Gen. tqvSs, tSjo'Js, <roufc, &c. In Homer and 
 the other old Epic writers, the article itself is, with few excep- 
 tions, used in this sense. 
 
 Note. The article 6, §, rd, being commonly placed before & noun, is by 
 some Grammarians called the prepositive article, to distinguish it from 
 the relative pronoun ds, h o, which, from being generally placed after 
 the noun to which it refers, they call the postpositive article. 
 
 §. 44. DIALECTS OF THE ARTICLE, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 M. and N. Fern. . 
 
 N-C ™. ^ ^ D. L 
 
 G. tou, A. I. P. roTo ] D. tw, tsv ; P. row. «%, D. <rag. 
 
 D. Ttjj. T7J, D. Ttt. 
 
 A. tov, ro, I. *£(*). <rrjv ) D. «rav. 
 
§ 45. OF ADJECTIVES. 51 
 
 Plural. 
 
 M. and N. Fern. 
 
 N. ol, D. to ». neut. ra. a/, D. toll 
 
 G. twVj I. tswv. <rwv, D. rav, ^E. rawv. 
 
 D. ro^, D. & I. Toffy I. TsWi, P. toi5sV/, rals, D. & I. rartfi, ttJo'i. 
 and ToiSs<f<ft. 
 
 A. TOl)^ D. ToVj T6J£. <ra^. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 § 45. OF THE PROPERTIES OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 1. An adjective is a word added to a substan- 
 tive, to express some quality belonging to it; as, 
 aocpoQj wise ; aya&oq, good. 
 
 2. Adjectives in Greek, as well as Latin, indi- 
 cate the gender, number and case, in common 
 with the substantive, by the termination; as, 
 xccX-6q, masc. xa!-r n fern. xaX-ov, neuter, &c. 
 
 3. Participles have the form and declension of 
 adjectives, while in time and signification they be- 
 long to the verb. 
 
 4. Some adjectives denote each gender by a 
 different termination in the nominative, and con- 
 sequently have three terminations. Some have 
 one form common to the masculine and femi- 
 nine, and are adjectives of two terminations ; and 
 some are adjectives of one termination, which is 
 common to the masculine and feminine ; such 
 want the neuter. 
 
 5. In adjectives of three terminations, the 
 feminine is always of the first declension. In all 
 adjectives the masculine is always of the second 
 or third ; and the declension of the neuter is al- 
 ways the same with that of the masculine. 
 
 Note.. As the inflection of adjectives and participles corresponds en* 
 tirely with that of nouns of the same termination and declension, it is 
 altogether unnecessary, if not improper, to perplex the learner with 
 
52 
 
 REGULAR ADJECTIVES OP THE I. AND II. DECL. 
 
 §46, 
 
 many examples. Due attention being paid to the rules for forming the 
 genitive, ($ 23.) a little reflection will enable him to decline readily any 
 regular adjective even without the artificial aid of a paradigm. 
 
 § 46. REGULAR ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST 
 AND SECOND DECLENSION. 
 
 1. Adjectives of the first and second declen- 
 sion have usually three terminations : the mas- 
 culine always in og, the feminine always in t\ or 
 a, and the neuter always in ov 5 and are declin- 
 ed like nouns of the first and second declension 3 
 according to their terminations ; thus, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 N. yial-bg^ 
 
 yial-rii 
 
 uaX-bv. 
 
 
 G. %a\-ov r 
 
 %aX-r[g, 
 
 yiaX-ov. 
 
 
 D. uaX-ihj 
 
 ytal-fi, 
 
 naX-au 
 
 
 A. xaX-6j>, 
 
 yiaX-riV) 
 
 %aX-ov« 
 
 
 V. xaX-€ 9 
 
 yiaX-r\, 
 Dual 
 
 xaX-bv« 
 
 N. 
 
 , A.-V. uaX-(b) 
 
 yial-a, 
 
 naX-ch* 
 
 
 G. D. 7taX-olv 9 
 
 uaX-aZv f 
 Plural, 
 
 yiaX-olv* 
 
 
 N. V. xaA-ol* 
 
 naX-ai, 
 
 %aX-a» 
 
 
 G. xaX-G>v 9 
 
 %aX-m\ 
 
 xaX-cbv* 
 
 
 D. %al-olgi 
 A. yia\-ovg, 
 
 uaX-alg, 
 
 yiaX-ag^ 
 
 y.aX-oig» 
 
 uaX-a* 
 
 Thus decline 
 
 
 
 
 ay ados 9 good. 
 TiOLxos, bad. 
 <p*Xo£, friendly 
 fjuaXaxo£, soft. 
 
 Xsuxog, white, 
 firj'kos, manifest, 
 aira'kbs, tender, 
 rvigirvos, pleasant. 
 
 2. 
 
 nine 
 
 But og pure, and qog, have 
 ; as, Q&diog, -a, -ov ; tpccvtQ - 
 
 a in the femi 
 
 6g, -a, -ov. 
 
 Exc. The terminations -oos ? and sometimes -$o$, especially 
 
§47. 
 
 ADJECTIVES OF THE I. AND III. DECLENSIONS. 
 
 53 
 
 in adjectives denoting matter and colour, retain v\ ; as, oySoog, 
 the eighth, oySor] ; oXoocr, 0X0^ ; XfuCsos, golden, XS vCf ^ ! 9 0,vt ' xs °£| 
 purple, cpomxsri. Except where f stands before the vowel ; as, 
 d&goog, frequent, ddfoa ; d^ujsos, silver , dgyvgsa,. 
 
 3. The Attics often decline adjectives in -oq, 
 especially derivatives and compounds, by the 
 common gender, without the feminine termina- 
 tion ; thus, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Masc. and Fern. 
 r h aQawrog, 
 
 tou, d^dvarou. 
 toj, d^avarw. 
 
 to, dddvocTov. 
 
 w, d^dvotTS, 
 
 N. 
 
 G. T0U, 
 D. TWj 
 A. TOV, 
 
 V. 
 
 TOV, 
 
 Neut. 
 to, d^dvccTov. 
 
 w. dddvcwov, 
 
 Dual. 
 
 N. A. V. tcj, 
 G. D. tow, 
 
 TOt, 
 
 ran/, 
 
 TW, 
 
 Ton/, 
 
 ddavaTW. 
 d^avaToiv. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Td, dddvctTa, 
 
 N. V. oi, al, dddvaTOf, 
 
 G. twv, twv, tojVj d^avaTOJV. 
 
 D. to^j tocT^ to?£, d0avaTO(£. 
 
 A. tou£, <rag, aQuvarovg, <ra, Mavaroc. 
 
 After this manner decline, 
 
 6, y) itaixcpiXog, to tfd/x<piXov, from tfdv and <piXo£. 
 
 6j 7j d<Jixo<r, to d&xov, from Sixr). 
 
 6, >j ou£avjo£, to ovg avibv, from ouf avocr. 
 
 6, ri o^ogoc, to ofjuojov, from o>o£ and o£o$. 
 
 iVbte. Though this form of declension is most used by the Attic 
 writers, it is not confined to them. Instances of it occur in Homer. 
 
 §47. 
 
 ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND THIRD 
 
 DECLENSIONS. 
 
 The masculine and neuter of all adjectives not 
 ending in -og, are of the third declension. 
 
 5* 
 
54 
 
 ADJECTIVES OF THE I. AND III. DECLENSIONS. § 47. 
 
 The regular terminations of these are, 
 M. F. N. 
 
 1. aq y aiva, av. 
 
 2. eiq, zooa, w. 
 
 3. vo, ua, v ; thus, 
 
 Example of an adjective of three termina- 
 
 tions in aq, aiva, av ; fitlaq, black. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 N. 
 
 fAsX-a£, 
 
 jasX-aiva, 
 
 figX-av. 
 
 G. 
 
 jWe'X-CtVOg, 
 
 jxsX-aiw)?, 
 
 fjLsX-avo£. § 23, 2, 
 
 D. 
 
 j&gX-avi,' 
 
 /xsX-aiv7) 7 
 
 jxsX-avi. 
 
 A. 
 
 jxs'X-ava, 
 
 jxeX-ccivav, 
 
 fAsX-av. 
 
 V. 
 
 f/iX-aVj 
 
 fJ^'X-CUVa, 
 
 Dual. 
 
 fxsX-av. 
 
 N. A. V. 
 
 jwsX-avs, 
 
 lisk-cciva, 
 
 jxsX-avs. 
 
 G. D. 
 
 fjisX-avoiVj 
 
 /xsX-ocivatVj 
 
 Plural. 
 
 fAsX-avow. 
 
 N. V. 
 
 jWgX-avs£, 
 
 /xsX-ajvai, 
 
 jxsX-ava. 
 
 G. 
 
 jxsX-avwVj 
 
 /xsX-ajvwv, 
 
 jiisX-avwv. 
 
 D. 
 
 fjiX-atfi, 
 
 fjbsX-a*'vai£, 
 
 fjtiX-atfi. § 26. 2„ 
 
 A. 
 
 fxsX-ava^, 
 
 fjisX-ou'vas, 
 
 jxsX-ava. 
 
 2. Example of an adjective 
 
 in -«eg, -tooa, -€V ; 
 
 as, %a()iuq, comely. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 N. 
 
 x a ej- £ K> 
 
 Xa£«-soWa, 
 
 Xa^'-sv. 
 
 G. 
 
 Xafi'-svTos, 
 
 Xagi-irtW, 
 
 X«f f-swog. § 23. 2 
 
 D. 
 
 XH[-*wi, 
 
 X a gi;&<fji, 
 
 XafJ-svTi. 
 
 A. 
 
 Xafi-svra, 
 
 Xagi-stftfav, 
 
 Xotff-sv. 
 
 V, 
 
 Xag*-sv, 
 
 Dual. 
 
 X^i-sv. 
 
 N. A. V. 
 
 Xag«-svrs, 
 
 Xajl-itftfa, 
 
 X*gioevra. 
 
 G. D. 
 
 Xagi-ivToiv, 
 
 X&gi'S<f<faiv, 
 
 Xaf'-sVoiv. 
 
§47. 
 
 ADJECTIVES OF THE I. AND III. DECLENSIONS. 
 
 55 
 
 G. ^agi-gvTwv, 
 D. X a i ir ^h 
 
 A. ^aji-gvras, 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ^a^i-gottai, 
 pcafi-g'ottwv, 
 •Xagt-sdtioLtSj 
 2(a£j-gottac;, 
 
 ^afi-gvra. 
 yo^i-sidi, § 26. 4. 
 
 3. Example of an adjective in -t/g, -««, -v ; as, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 M. F. N. 
 
 G. W4k 9 
 
 D. %#-&, contr. 
 
 A. y}$-uv, or -sa, 
 
 -si; 
 
 §24 
 
 r^-sTag, 
 ^(5-gia, 
 . R. II. 7}5'STav, 
 7j5-g?a, 
 
 £;<5-U. 
 
 •5j<5-g'o£. 
 
 ^(5-s'j, contr. -sr. 
 
 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 
 N. A. V. *M, 
 
 G. D. *)<5-£oiv, 
 
 
 
 
 r}8-eow. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. V. ?j<5-£%, contr. gfc, qS-sTat, yS-ea. 
 
 G. '/J(5-g'wV, 7J(S-gfwV, $J(5-£6JV a 
 
 D. ^-gV*, f^-gjai^, ^(S-gV*. 
 
 A. ^5-g'as, contr. gfc, ^(5-g/a^, T^-sa. 
 
 After the same manner decline 3 
 
 1. 
 
 raX-aiva, <nxX-av. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 <raX-a£, 
 
 |j,gXi<ro-gi£, 
 
 Ti^.gi^ 
 
 dvgjxo.gig, 
 
 hxy" s *s> 
 
 /Xux-u^, 
 
 jSaf-ug, 
 |3a0-u£, 
 
 Obs. Participles follow the same analogy, those of the mid- 
 dle and passive in .oc, being inflected throughout like xaXo's ; 
 § 46. 1. Of others, the feminine always follows the termina- 
 tions of the first declension ; and the masculine and neuter 
 
 -gotta, 
 
 -ev. 
 
 -gotta, 
 
 -gv. 
 
 -gotta, 
 
 -gv. 
 
 -gotta, 
 
 -gv. 
 
 -sTu, 
 
 -u. 
 
 -g/a, 
 
 -u. 
 
 -s7a, 
 
 -u. 
 
 -sTa, 
 
 -u. 
 
56 ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. § 48. 
 
 those of the third, the genitive being formed as directed, § 23. 
 Obs. 1 . The terminations of these with their genitives are as 
 follows : 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 3. 
 4. 
 5. 
 6. 
 
 M. 
 
 -wv, 
 
 sis, 
 
 F. 
 
 -outfa, 
 
 -atfa, 
 
 -vTu, 
 
 -sfoa, 
 
 -outfa, 
 
 -utfa, 
 
 N. 
 -ov. 
 -av. 
 
 -fe. 
 -sv. 
 -ov. 
 -uv. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 M. 
 
 -0V<T0£, 
 
 -avros, 
 -6<ro£, 
 
 -ovtoc:, 
 
 -UVT0£, 
 
 F. 
 
 -0U<ft]£, 
 
 -vices, 
 
 -ovdvis, 
 -toys, 
 
 N. 
 
 -ovro£, &C. 
 -ocvto£, &C. 
 -oVog, &c. 
 
 -SV<TO£, &C. 
 
 -oVros, &c. 
 
 -UV<70£, &C. 
 
 § 48. ADJECTIVES OF TWO TERMINATIONS. 
 
 Many adjectives of the third declension have 
 but one form for the masculine and feminine, and 
 are therefore said to be declined according to the 
 common gender. They are declined throughout 
 like nouns of the third declension, of the same 
 termination. The regular terminations of these 
 are cov, rjv, rjq, iq, vq and otic, (viz. compounds of 
 novq ;) and they form the neuter according to 
 the following 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. Adjectives of the common gender in -cov, 
 -?]i/, -rjq, form the neuter by changing the long 
 
 vowel into its own short one ; thus, 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 o, r), cwcpQwv, TO 0(D(pQOV, 
 
 %ov, %r\q, %ov odocpQov-oq, &c. 
 
 ^, CLQQ-rjV, TO a()Q-£Vi 
 
 prudent. 
 
 male. 
 
 rov, %r\q, toy a^Q-evoq, &c. 
 
 Note. But ripvv, tender, usually has the feminine ripciva, N. rfyev, 
 
 N. 6, r\, akrj6^q 9 to alrjA-zq, true. 
 
 G. toiJ, Trj£, toiJ ah]&-eoq, contr. -oi/g, &c. 
 
 Note. So also some in -wp ; as, 
 
 h, fj, ficyaX^jT-oip, rb fjLeydXrjr-op ; 
 
 Toy, Ttjs, tov, ficyah'iT-opos, &C. 
 
§ 49. IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 57 
 
 2. Adjectives of the common gender in eg and 
 t/g, form the neuter by rejecting g ; as, 
 
 N. 6, rj, evxttQ-ig, to evxaQ-i. 
 
 G. rov, %r\g, toi), avxay-wog, &c. 
 
 N. 6, i|, adax^-ug, to a<5ax()-i/. 
 
 G. tou, T^g, Toi3, adaxy-vog, &c. 
 
 3. Compounds of novg, afoot ; have the neu- 
 ter in -ovv ; as, 
 
 N, 6, r], diTt-ovg, to din-ovv ; 
 
 tou, Trjg, Toi), din-odog, &c. § 23, I. 
 
 Note. It is probable this word was originally ndos; whence 6, %, h'ntoo< J 
 rb Si-roov, contracted Siirovg, S'nrow ; and that the declension was after- 
 wards changed from the 2d to the 3d, as was done also in yf'Aoo b , fyus, 
 from the ancient yi\ao$, and spaos. 
 
 §49. OF IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Every adjective not ending in some of the 
 regular terminations already mentioned, is irre- 
 gular. It always wants the neuter gender, and 
 lis declined like a noun of the Ad declension ; 
 thus, 
 
 tou, Trig, fynayog, &c. 
 
 Exe. 1. jfxwv and ocsxwv, (by syncope axwv) are declined with 
 three genders like participles ; thus, 
 
 N. £x-wv, sx-outfa, §x-6v, 
 
 G. SX-oVro£, kx-ou(fvi$, sx-ov-roc, &c. 
 
 UThe adjective tfac:, all, is also declined like the participle in 
 g ; thus, 
 
 N. tag, <koAcl, tfav, 
 
 G. tfavros, flraCif]^, ^avTocr, &c. 
 
 Exc. 2. fxs/ac, greatf, and *oXu£, wrai/, are irregular in the 
 nominative and accusative singular. The other cases are re- 
 gularly formed from the ancient nominatives p-s^aXos and <roX- 
 Kog 9 of the 2d declension ; thus, 
 
58 
 
 DIFFERENT SIGNFICATION OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 §50. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 M, F. N. 
 
 G. |ns^otXou, fJvgyotXTjc, jxsyaXou. 
 D. fJis^aXw, ixsyoikTj, jxeyaXw. 
 A. juiyav, fju^ocX^Vj fjt^a. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 M. F. ^ N. 
 
 tfoXus, croXXT], «7roXu. 
 tfoXXou, toXXtjs, tfoXXou. 
 toXX-gj, tfoXXTj, 4 7ToXXoj. 
 iroXtV «7T0XX^V, «7ToXu. 
 
 N.A.V. /xs^aXw, fxs^ocXa, jji,sya>»w. | ttoXXw, nroXka, tfoXXw, &c. 
 
 through the dual and plural, like xaXo£. 
 
 iVbie Homer and other Poets inflect -xoXvg regularly, Gen. Tro\ios, Dat. 
 rroXfl, he. It was afterwards changed, in those cases in which it would 
 not be distinguished from the same cases of nd'Xis, a city. 
 
 Obs. Some substantives in -a? and -r\c 1 inflected in the first 
 declension, are called by Grammarians, adjectives; as,-u€fi<r<nte, 
 an insolent man ; tj aufjw.<nas, a wounded man ; but they are real- 
 ly independent of any other substantives in construction. The 
 same observation may be applied to several other words, called 
 adjectives of one termination. 
 
 xax-of, -y\ ) -ov, bad. 
 <ra\-ug, -aiva, -av, miserable. 
 /3af-0c } -^a, -0, heavy. 
 6, fij rsgriv to Tgfsv, tender. 
 6, tj, eutfs&fe to suaeSeg, pious. 
 6, '/j, /3sXt/gjv ? -ov 3 #e//er. 
 ri^rEi^ -?tf<7a, -sv 5 honoured. 
 6, tj, a&xoc, -ov, unjust. 
 agioc^ -a, -ov, worthy. 
 b 1 tj, (piXoVas-fis, * i, patriotic. 
 6, ^,. ttoXiWous, -ouv, having ma- 
 ny feet. 
 6, $7, jwaxaf, happy. 
 /3a0-u<r, -sra, -0, 
 
 ADJECTIVES TO BE DECLINED. 
 
 o, tj, u-si^wv, -ov, greater. 
 {poSej-op, .dt, -ov, formidable, 
 dya&oc:, .$, -ov, g-tftfa?. 
 6, 7?, f^axpopcgif, long-handed. 
 
 ), ^, xaXXlwv, -ov, more beautiful, 
 ra-^-vg, -efa, -u, swift. 
 $X$h* l Ji -zaoLy .sv, sonorous. 
 <piX-os, -tj, -w^ friendly. 
 avsjuLo-sjcr, -stftfa, -tv, windy. 
 o, 7), jULvTjjawv, -ov, mindful 
 o, 73, a5|x^, unconquered. 
 6, tj, <pifyac, aw &n7e. 
 ^Xux-i)c:, -sfa, -y, sweet, 
 
 § 50. DIFFERENT SIGNIFICATION OF ADJEC- 
 TIVES ACCORDING TO THEIR 
 TERMINATION. 
 
 Adjectives in 
 
 1. -aios, and -eic£, signify origin from, or belonging to; as. 
 irYiyaiQ$,from a fountain. 
 
§ 51. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 59 
 
 2. -aXsos, signify fulness ; as, da^aXsos, full of courage. 
 
 3. -avo£, possessing the quality of the primitive ; as, t£u* 
 
 'xeSavog, better. 
 
 4. -ms, 1. origin; as, iWsiss, #/* or belonging to horses. 
 
 2. Suitableness to ; as, av^sroc, manly. 
 
 5. -so£, contr. -ou£, material made of ; as, ^f jrfsocr, golden. 
 
 6. -S£o£, -and --/jgoff. 1.* quality ; as, 8o\s^6g, crafty. 2. pro- 
 
 pensity to ; as, o»vv)£6c:, g-^gft to z#me. 3. causa- 
 tion ; as, vo>T5f oc, causing sickness. 
 
 7. ^8K, fulness; a.s, SsvSpfeic, full of trees. 
 
 8. -?jXo£, propensity to, capability of or fitness for, as,'<fiy?j. 
 
 X6$:, jonwe /# silence. 
 
 9. -«xo£, I. belonging to; as, tfw|ut.a<nx6s, corporeal. 2. qua- 
 
 lified for ; as, w<$»*6<;, skilled in singing. 3. on- 
 gi?z ; as, <7raT£i>to£, paternal. 4. becoming, or adapt- 
 ed to ; as, dv^Dcoc:, <piXi> k o£, becoming a man, a 
 friend. 
 
 10. -ijxos, 1. chiefly fitness ; as, i^w&jxtfc:, eatable. 2. quali- 
 
 ty ; as, flrsvdiixoc: , mournful. 
 
 11. -ivo£, and -sivoc, 1. material made of; as, yfy'vos, ma^ 
 
 of earth. 2. quality ; as, flrg&vos, djeivo's, /eye/, wwwft- 
 tainous. 
 
 12. -<o<r, 1. generally quality; as, -daXaatfioc:, marine. 2. 
 
 tendency to ; as, xa^ioc:, loving purity. 
 
 13. -osier, fulness-; &s, vivosic, full of snow, snowy. 
 
 14. -oXy]c 3 quality ; (derived from verbs) as, fjiaivoXy]£, furious. 
 
 15. -^v]£, 1. fulness ; as, irSTgu)8rif,fidl of stones, rocky, 2. 
 
 resemblance ; as, rfoTjxwf^, wasp-like. 
 
 16. -wXr,£ ? propensity i to ; as, a.uagrwXoc:, pray,e to sin. 
 
 17. -gjc£, properly wYog and ofo^ origin ; as, tfarfejoe, spring- 
 
 ing from a father. 
 
 18. Verbals in -ts'o£, denote necessity ; as, tfgatftfw, /o 
 ^/o ; irgaxreos, that must be done. 
 
 §51. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 1, Adjectives have three degrees of compari- 
 son, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. 
 
 The Positive simply indicates the existence of 
 a quality in an object ; as, "a wfoi man." 
 
 The Comparative expresses the existence of a 
 quality, in a higher or lower degree, in one ob- 
 
60 GENERAL BULE. § 52. 
 
 ject, than in another with which it is compared ; 
 as, " Caius is more learned than Titus." 
 
 When more than two objects are compared 
 together, with respect to any quality possessed 
 by all, the Superlative degree expresses its exist- 
 ence in one, in a higher degree than in any of 
 the rest; i. e in the highest degree of all; as, 
 u Caius is the most learned of the three." 
 
 Note. The positive or simple state of the adjective, is therefore not 
 properly a degree of comparison, no comparison being implied in it, 
 though it is so called from its relation to the other two. 
 
 2. Hence also it is obvious, that those adjectives only can be 
 compared, whose signification admits the distinction of more 
 and less. This is indicated in Greek by a new termination, of 
 which there are two forms. 
 
 L 
 § 52. GENERAL RULE. 
 
 The comparative degree is formed by adding 
 the termination -Tzqog to the positive, and the 
 superlative by adding -%axog ; thus, 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 /LiaxctQ,. [laxaQ-reQoq, /jiaxccQ^vaTog. 
 tvvovg, evvovg-rtQOQ, zvvovg-rxaxog. 
 yiayiovovg, xaKovovo-TeQog, yia%ovovo-%a%og. 
 arcXoog-arcXoygj anXova-TJegog^ anlovo-xatog. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1. -ug rejects i; as, 
 
 XaQiug, xaQieo-TEQog, xaqiio-ratog. 
 
 2. a. -og rejects g ; thus, 
 oQ6bg y o^do-r^og, dQ&o-Tatog, 
 dinaiog, diyiaiQ-tzQog, §maio-%a%og. 
 Tiovrjqbg, novrjQd-TEQog, novrjQo-Ta'vog. 
 Qav/jLctoxbg, &av/jiaox6- f vzQog, &aviiao%6-%a$og. 
 dr}log, drjlQ^eQog, drjXd-rarog. 
 
 w 
 
§ 53. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 61 
 
 b. And also after a short syllable changes o 
 into a) ; as, 
 
 oocpoq, oo(p(D-T£Qoc, oocpdo-zccvoq. 
 
 xevbq, xevdo-reQoq, xevco-TaToq. 
 
 (pogzQog, cpo§eQ(Q-T£Qoq, (pogeQw-Tavoq, 
 
 (pavegbq, (paveQoj-xeQoq, (paveQco-taroq. 
 
 Xctlsnbq, xali-Ttco-TtQoq, ia\zTtl$-%a%oq. 
 
 Obs. The change of o into w, is made to prevent the con- 
 currence of four short syllables. Hence o, after a doubtful vowel 
 considered long, remains unchanged ; but if considered short, 
 the o is changed into oj ; thus, svtt (mo$ has svripoTSgog ; and 
 o^vfog has k-xygorsgog ; because * and u are considered long ; 
 but oiypiog has dypwrsgog •; and havoc } ixavwTS^ &a, because 
 the i and a are considered sAortf ; while i'tfog has sometimes 
 I&o-spoc, and sometimes fa&raroj?, according as the « is considered 
 long or short, in the positive. For the same reason, bSowogog 
 is put for oiotfofoff ; and Homer, in order to prevent the meeting 
 of three short syllables, which cannot be admitted in hexame- 
 ter verse, frequently changes a short syllable into a long one. 
 
 3. aq 9 tjq 9 and vq> add to the neuter gender ; 
 as, 
 
 /Lielaq, iiil.aiva, aiXav ; [icXav-zeQoq, &c. 
 
 6, r}, ev6£§ii]q, to svoeS'cq; tvoeSta-reQoq^ &c. 
 svQvq, evQElct, evQv; £VQv-TtQoq, &c. 
 
 4. -cov and -?;v, add to the nominative plural 
 masculine ; as, 
 
 acpQwv, N. P. ayQovtq, aifqovia-xtqoq^ &c. 
 teqrjVj TZQtvzq, teQeveO-WQoq, &c. 
 
 Exc. But crsVwv makes nc&aks^ &c. and tfi'wv, — vi&rsgog, 
 inorarog. 
 
 II. 
 
 § 53. Some adjecitves are compared by -/cov and 
 HOtoq ; viz. 
 1. Some in oq, derived from substantives. In 
 these the comparison is made, not from the ad- 
 
62 IRREGULAR COMPARISON. § 54. 
 
 jective, but from the substantive from which it is 
 derived; thus, 
 
 xocXo£, beautiful, from xctXkog, beauty, xaXX(wv J xaXXio'<ros. 
 
 sx&gki inimical, from ex^i enmity, sx^' wv > £'x^ tf<r °£- 
 
 cJxTgog, compassionate, from o/xros, compassion, q/xtiwv, o'/x<naVo£. 
 aiV^gog, &ase, from afify ^ baseness, a fa^wv, cLitixifaog. 
 
 fjiax^og, tog-, from pjxos, Zercg^, ^xiwv, ,u?jxitf<ro£. 
 
 2. Some in -i;g are compared both ways ; as, 
 
 and fia&iwv, fia&iOTog. 
 
 In like manner compare (iqadix;, slow; %a%vg, 
 swift ; JiaxvQi thick ; ylvxvc, sweet ; (bxvg, quick ; 
 &c. 
 
 3. (5a<5iog, easy, has Qatwv, qd'ioxoq ; or, with t 
 subscribed, ^awv, qaorog. 
 
 Note. Some of these, and of others compared in this way, are occa- 
 sionally found compared by -repoj and -faro*. 
 
 dya&og, good,< 
 
 § 54. IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 
 
 The following adjectives are irregular in their 
 comparison; viz. 
 
 r clfxsivcjv, dya^TUTog, viz. from d^svos, pleasant. 
 
 df sfwv, df itfrosr, from ''A^, Mars. 
 
 jSsKrlwv, /SiXTi-oVo^ from fioyXo^ofi, I wish. 
 
 xgsitftfw, xga.Ti<f<rog, from xfdruf, Amve. 
 
 XwtwVj Xwiftrcs, from "h&,(oibekw,Iwish< 
 
 yigregog, < (ps'jiaVos, \ from (pgjw, J foar. - 
 
 peyag, great, ^sf^wv, psy irf rog. 
 
 tfoXu^ many, tfXsfwv, -rXglaVos. 
 
 gXa^, S7W«J/ } sXdtfcrwv, eXaxitfrog. 
 
 fjux£0£, Zi#fe, Jjtfa'wv, or fASiwv, or fjux^orsjos ; fwx^oVaros. 
 
§55. 
 
 DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 
 
 63 
 
 § 55. DEFECTIVE COMPARISON. 
 
 Some adjectives hi the comparative and superlative degree, 
 have no positive, but are formed from 
 
 
 
 1. nouns ; as, 
 
 
 f3u(fl'ksv£ 
 
 a king ; 
 
 f3a(fi\suTS^og ) 
 
 (SaffiXsvrarog. 
 
 x4gSog } 
 
 gain ; 
 
 xsgSiuVj 
 
 xsgdicfrog. 
 
 Gsos, 
 
 God; 
 
 Qeursgog, 
 
 
 ■x.\itfT f r\g ) 
 
 a thief; 
 
 
 XhStfTldTOLTOg. 
 
 xuJocr, 
 
 glory ; 
 
 XU&'wVj 
 
 xCSuftog, 
 
 xuwv, 
 
 a dog ; 
 
 X*JVT£P0£, 
 
 
 ^\7)XT7]g, 
 
 a striker ; 
 
 
 irXyxr'Hf rarog. 
 
 tfOTTJS, 
 
 a drinker ; 
 
 
 if or i(f rarog. 
 
 Fr°^ 
 
 cold j rigor ; 
 
 giyiwv, 
 
 ^iyicfrog. 
 
 <puf, 
 
 a thief; 
 
 2. pronoun ; as 
 
 
 auro£, 
 
 self; 
 
 
 au<ro<raro£. 
 
 
 s 
 
 ►. participle ; as, 
 
 '££|w/xg'vo£, strong ; 
 
 J||wfJL£Vgrf-TSfO^, 
 
 g||«fi.svg0Va<rog. 
 
 
 
 4. adverbs ; as 
 
 9 
 
 etvw, 
 
 Up; 
 
 dcVW-7££0£, 
 
 -tocto£. 
 
 acpag, 
 
 immediately ; 
 
 0((pa£-r££0£, 
 
 
 syyvg ) 
 
 near ; 
 
 { syyv-rsgog, 
 ( syy-iuv } 
 
 * -rarog. 
 1 -Kfrog. 
 
 *&, 
 
 out ; 
 
 gfw-T££0£, 
 
 •rarog. 
 
 X0CT6J, 
 
 down ; 
 
 xaxu-rsgog, 
 
 -rarog. 
 
 gVw, 
 
 in ; 
 
 gVto-Tg£0£j 
 
 -rarog. 
 
 initio, 
 
 back ; 
 
 O'TJfl'W-TSfO^ 
 
 -rarog. 
 
 fpggaVj 
 
 beyond ; 
 
 'B'gja^TgfOgj 
 
 -rarog, 
 
 *6g|w, 
 
 far ; 
 
 flro££w-TS£0£, 
 
 -TGtTO^, 
 
 *fw, 
 
 early ; 
 
 4rgGJ'iai-r6£9£, 
 
 -rarog, 
 
 H<, 
 
 highly ; 
 
 
 -v^Mfrog. 
 
 
 5. 
 
 prepositions ; 
 
 as, 
 
 tf£0, 
 
 before ; 
 
 <F£0-TSfO£, <7f£ 
 
 6-<raf o£, whence tfgurog. 
 
 StfSf, 
 
 over ; 
 
 iwrB^-rsjo^j utt 
 
 s^rarog } whence vxarog, 
 
 Some comparatives and superlatives are again compared ; 
 
 as, 
 
64 
 
 NUMERALS. 
 
 § 56, 57, 
 
 Xwtwv, letter, 
 fxs/wv, less j 
 £<xwv, easier. 
 
 xaXXi'wv, more beautiful, 
 
 xu5«<fro£, m<95^ glorious, 
 i\a-)Q<rTog, least , 
 
 Some words ending in r,g, of 
 pared ; thus, (see § 49. Obs.) 
 
 vSgnfrris, aw insolent man, 
 tfXsovsxry]s, aw avaricious man. 
 
 Xufiregog, 
 
 /XSlOTS£0£. 
 TO £qCOTS£0V. 
 
 <ro xaXXiwrsjov. 
 $ to ygfgio-rsfov, 
 ( and ^sifoTSgov. 
 
 rfpuritfrog. 
 the first declension, are com- 
 
 flrXsovsxr* aVow o£„ 
 
 § 56. DIALECTS OF COMPARISON. 
 
 1 . The Attics compare many adjectives by -icregog and -*V~ 
 <ra<ro£, or -aiVsjos and -cu'rctros ; as, 
 
 "KaXog, loquacious , XaXitf-rsjos, -rarog. 
 
 Hfai-rsgog, -<raro£. 
 
 <piXaf-fS£o£, -<ra<ros. 
 
 <p»XTSfo^, <piXTa<ros and (pi'Xjtfro^. 
 
 (frfoy&oLiiif-fSgQgj -Ta<ro£. 
 
 d(p0ovs(?-TS£O£, -ra<ro£. 
 
 tfccXai-TSfocr, -rarog, 
 
 ysgai-rsgog, -7a<rog, 
 
 ^(fv^ai-rs^og, -wroc, 
 
 agirayicf-TSPoc^ -ra<ro£. 
 
 2. Dialects of particular comparatives and superlatives are f 
 for x^si/Ttfwv, I. and D. xjsVffwv, to/er ; x si '? wv » P- X s ? e ' wv : ^- ^at. 
 X^V, ace. x^P^i nom - plur. xH^S ! — i^ ei T wv ? ^ f^T wv > E* 1^^ 
 tfwv, greater ; with others which may be learned by practice in 
 reading 
 
 ?tfoc:, egw^ 
 
 by Sj^ncope, 
 flVou&xibs, diligent, 
 acpGovog, not envying, 
 <raX«io£, o/of, 
 ysgaiog, an old man, 
 
 agsrag, rapacious, 
 
 § 57. NUMERALS, 
 
 Numbers are either Cardinal, which answer to 
 the question how many ? — or Ordinal, answering 
 to the question which of the number ? There is 
 no peculiar form in Greek for distributives ; the 
 
§ 57. CARDINAL NUMBERS. 65 
 
 meaning of these is expressed by the cardinal 
 numbers, sometimes compounded with ai)v ; as, 
 avvdvo, avvxquq, &c. bini 9 terni, — and sometimes 
 preceded by xard, dvd, &c. 
 
 I. THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 1. dq, one , has the singular number only, and is 
 
 thus declined ; 
 
 N. elq, \iia, %v. 
 
 G. ivbq, fiiaq, ivoq. 
 
 D. £vi 9 fita, ivL 
 
 A. hi a, \iiav, ev. 
 
 In like manner the two compounds, 
 
 ovd-eiq, ovde-fiia, ovd-tv. 
 
 Obs. From eTg, one, is formed the adjective &rsgos, either, one, 
 other ; and from ovSsig, ^Ssig } are formed ovSersgog, ixy\SsTS^og } 
 neither. 
 
 2. dvto, two, has properly the dual only ; thus, 
 
 N. A. dvo), ) r ii i 
 G. D. dvoxv, { for a11 g enders ' 
 
 Yet it is found in the plural, G. dv5>v 9 D. dvoL 
 dvo, two, is indeclinable. 
 aucpw, both, is declined like dvw. 
 
 3. %quq, three, and ^eaoaqeq^four^ are declined as 
 
 follows : 
 
 N. A. 
 
 TQtlq, %quq, 
 
 rqia* 
 
 G. 
 
 %qi(bv, xqiSyv, 
 
 TQlWVo 
 
 D. 
 
 veooageq, four. 
 
 rqioi. 
 
 "■ 
 
 veOGaqeq, ueaaaqeq, 
 
 vaCGaqa* 
 
 
 teooaqcov, teocaqoov, 
 
 tzOOaqwv 
 
 
 reoaaqac, teooaqoi, 
 
 % too ago 'i. 
 
 
 reooaqaq, teaaaqaq, 
 
 teooaqa* 
 
 6* 
 
66 ORDINAL NtmffiBft?, § 58, 
 
 4. The Cardinal numbers from mvre,jive, to 
 zxaxbv, a hundred, are indeclinable. 
 
 5. After titarbv the larger numbers are regu- 
 lar plural adjectives of the first and second de- 
 clension ; as, 
 
 N, 
 
 Siaxocfia, two hundred. 
 
 <r£iax6(fta, three hundred. 
 
 ypM\ a thousand. 
 
 (W^IXia, two thousand. 
 
 ju/j^oCj ten thousand. / 
 
 Siapiipitii twenty thousand. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the composition of numbers, either the smaller 
 precedes, and the two are joined by xal ; or the greater pre- 
 cedes, in which case the xal is generally omitted ; thus, tfsvrs 
 xal sixotfi, or s'ixotfi nrivrs, twenty-Jive ; its^ftrog xal eJxoflVos, or si- 
 xotfrog tffywrro.c, twenty -fifth. When three numbers are reckoned 
 together, the greatest comes first, and so on in succession, w T ith 
 the conjunction xal ; as, viag sxarov xal sixo&i xal kwra, a hun- 
 dred and ttoenty-seven ships. 
 
 2. Instead of the numbers compounded with eight or nine, 
 more frequent use is made of the circumlocution hbg (or juucfc), 
 Ssovrog, &c. thus v^sg i^ag Ssovtfai s'ixotfi, tiventy ships loanting one ; 
 i. e. nineteen ships ; hsa SvCjv Ssovra sj'xqCi, twenty years wanting 
 two ; i. e. eighteen years. 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 oiax&ftoi, 
 
 Siaxorfiaij 
 
 Xi'Xioi, 
 
 Sitf^'Xio*, 
 
 rfiaxotfiai, 
 X»X/ai, 
 
 diG^ugiai, 
 
 § 58. II. ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 The Ordinal numbers are formed from the Cardinal. All 
 under 20, except second, seventh, and eighth, end in -<ro£ ; from 
 20 upwards all end in -o(T<ro£, and, in their inflection, are re- 
 gular adjectives of the first and second declension ; thus, 
 <vg&Tog, tffWT?], qegurov, first, 
 
 (irgoregog, wjorsfa, irgoregov, first of the two.) 
 Seursgog, Ssursga, Ssuregov, second. 
 <rf kog, <rf iVtj, <rf irov, &c. third. 
 
 Obs. 1. In order to express half, or fractional numbers in 
 money, measures, and weights, the Greeks used words com- 
 pounded of fyw, half and the name of the weight, &c. (fxva, 
 6§oXos, q-aXavTov,) having the adjective termination ov, tov, aTov, 
 appended to it, and placed before the Ordinal number, of which 
 the half is taken ; as, r^iVov fywraXavrov, 2 J talents ; i. e. the 
 
§ 59. GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBERS. 67 
 
 first a talent, the second a talent, the third a half talent, and 
 so of others. In like manner the Latin Sestertius, 2£ Asses by 
 Syncope from Semis terlius ; the first an As, the second an As, 
 the third a half As, {tertius semis). 
 
 From this must be distinguished the use of the same com- 
 pound word in the plural, preceded by the Cardinal number ; 
 thus, Tpj'a rftiiTaXavray not 2i talents, but 3 half talents, or one 
 and a half. 
 
 Obs. 2. From the Ordinal numbers are formed numerals 
 in -aTog, expressing " on what day ; n as, SswrBgsfiogj on the second 
 day ; rgiraTog, on the third day, &c. 
 
 § 59. OF THE GREEK NOTATION OF 
 NUMBERS. 
 
 The Greeks used the letters of the alphabet, to denote num- 
 bers, in three different ways. 
 
 1 . To express a small series of numbers, each letter was 
 reckoned according to its order in the alphabet ; as, A, 1, B, 2, 
 E, 5, ft, 24. In this manner the books of Homer's Iliad and 
 Odyssey are distinguished. The technical syllable HNT, will 
 assist the memory in using this kind of notation ; for if the al- 
 phabet be divided into four equal parts, H will be the first letter 
 of the second part, that is 7 ; N, of the third, or 13 ; and T of 
 the fourth, or 19. 
 
 2. The capital letters were used, in denoting larger series 
 of numbers, thus ; I, 1, II for ffsvrs, 5, A for Ssxa, 10, H for 
 HsxaTov, 100, X for xiXioij 1000, and M for pvgm, 10,000. A 
 large Fl round any of these characters, except I, denoted five 
 times as much as that character represented ; as, IT], 50. 
 
 3. To express the 9 units, the 9 tens, and the 9 hundreds, 
 the Greeks divided the alphabet into three parts ; but, as there 
 are only 24 letters, they used g' , called sVjVt^ov, for 6 ; £, or 
 2j, called xoiMra, for 90 ; and 3, called (fav<ir7, for 900. In using 
 this kind of notation, the memory will be assisted by the tech- 
 nical syllable A1P ; that is, A', denotes 1 ; 1', 10 ; and P', 100. 
 It is to be observed, also, that all the numbers under 1000, are 
 denoted by letters with a small mark like an accent, over them ; 
 and that a similar mark placed under any letter, denotes that 
 it represents so many thousands. 
 
 TABLE OF NUMBERS. 
 
 Cardinal,j?we, &c. Ordinal, first, &c. 
 
 1. a, slg tffw<ro£. 
 
 2. /3', Suo dsvrsgog. 
 
68 
 
 GREEK NOTATION OF NUMBEKS. 
 
 §59. 
 
 3. 
 
 7> 
 
 rpif 
 
 4. 
 
 *, 
 
 Tsdifapes 
 
 5. 
 
 i\ 
 
 itiws 
 
 6. 
 
 £, 
 
 
 7. 
 
 ft 
 
 §*7TT0C 
 
 8. 
 
 k 
 
 0XTCJ 
 
 9. 
 
 f, 
 
 evvga 
 
 10. 
 
 h 
 
 ${xa 
 
 11. 
 
 ia, 
 
 ev^sxa 
 
 12. 
 
 ,g', 
 
 <$u<$sxa 
 
 13. 
 
 ■/= 
 
 trpi<fx&i.5$xa 
 
 14. 
 
 ,5', 
 
 rstf&age&xaiSexa 
 
 15. 
 
 IS, 
 
 irevrsxciiSsxa, 
 
 16. 
 
 < 
 
 sxxaiSixa, 
 
 17. 
 
 •r> 
 
 srfraxaiSsxot, 
 
 18. 
 
 <*)> 
 
 oxruxaiSsxa 
 
 19. 
 
 ,«', 
 
 evvsaxoLiSsxot, 
 
 20. 
 
 x '' 
 
 s'ixo&i 
 
 21. 
 
 xot. 
 
 s'ixoGi slg 
 
 30. 
 
 V* 
 
 tpkxovrct 
 
 40. 
 
 A 
 
 TStf&agaxovra 
 
 50. 
 
 v', 
 
 tfSVT'YjXGVrOL 
 
 60. 
 
 r, 
 
 s^/jxqvra 
 
 70. 
 
 o, 
 
 s^So^xovra 
 
 80. 
 
 *', 
 
 oydo^xovTct 
 
 90. 
 
 s, 
 
 or 2L svvsv^xovTa 
 
 100. 
 
 f\ 
 
 Ixocrov 
 
 200. 
 
 <r' 5 
 
 (Jiaxotfioi 
 
 300. 
 
 *', 
 
 rgiaxotfioi 
 
 400. 
 
 <5, 
 
 <rs&&agaxG<fioi 
 
 500. 
 
 9* 
 
 tfSvraxQ&M 
 
 600. 
 
 x', 
 
 £%OLXG&101 
 
 700. 
 
 +;* 
 
 sirraxoGioi 
 
 800. 
 
 6, 
 
 oxraxotfioi 
 
 900. 
 
 3, 
 
 ivveoLXotfioi 
 
 1,000. 
 
 & 
 
 Xi'Xioi 
 
 2,000. 
 
 ^ 
 
 dtf-%i\iot 
 
 3,000. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Tfitf^iXio* 
 
 4,000. 
 
 ^ 
 
 rST^axitf^fXioj 
 
 5,000. 
 
 S /> 
 
 ?r£v<ra,xj0'p£iXioj 
 
 6,000. 
 
 £,> 
 
 Igaxitf^lXioi 
 
 7,000. 
 
 e, 
 
 I^TaxiC^jXioi 
 
 8,000. 
 
 77, 
 
 o^oxjtf^fXjo* 
 
 9,000. 
 
 A„ 
 
 svvsaxitf^iXioj 
 
 «T£lTO£. 
 
 <r£raf<ro£. 
 
 sxrog. 
 
 oySoog. 
 
 hvatog, 
 
 dsxarog. 
 
 svSsxarog. 
 
 SuSsxarog. 
 
 T^KtxaiSixarog. 
 
 recfcfagoLxai Ssxarog, 
 
 itsvrsxaiSsxarog, 
 
 sxxaiSsxarog. 
 
 srfraxaidsxarog. 
 
 oxruxaiSsxarog* 
 
 ivvsaxuiSsxarog. 
 
 shotirog. 
 
 slxotfrog tf£w-ro£. 
 
 rgiuxo&Tog. 
 
 vstftfagoixotfTog. 
 
 rfSMTYixo&rog. 
 
 s%v}XQ(f<r6g. 
 
 s^oo^xocfTog. 
 
 o<y8o7ixo(f<r6&. 
 
 svvsvwcoaVo£. 
 
 sxaroflVoV. 
 
 SioLXotfiotfros. 
 
 rgiaxo&iotfTog. 
 
 rsrftfagOLXotfi otfro£ s 
 
 tfSVTaxotfiotfro^. 
 
 sgaxotfjotfVoV. 
 
 etfrcixo(fiQ(f<r6g. 
 
 oxraxotfiotfrog. 
 
 ^vvsaxocfjocfTo^. 
 
 yikiofaog. 
 
 iiC^iXioaVo's. 
 
 Tgid'/ikiotfrog, 
 
 rSTgaxitf-xiXiotfrog, 
 
 qrsvraxKfxikiQ&trog, 
 
 sgaxitf^iXioaVos. 
 
 ItfTaxia^/XioaVo's. 
 
 o^oxitf^jXioaVo's. 
 
 s vvsolxi tfp£iXi o tf<r 6$, 
 
§ 60. OF THE PRONOUN. 69 
 
 10,000. I„ jXL'flOl (XU£lOflVo£. 
 
 20,000. x,, Sufpvgiot dufuvgioarog. 
 
 50,000. v y , ^cv«raxicT/Au^o* tfSVTaxHfptigioifTos. 
 
 100,000. f y , 5sxaxi&i*ugKii Ssxaxi&ix-agiotfrog. 
 
 Thus the number 1831, is a w X' a. 
 06s. From the Cardinal numbers are formed 
 
 OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS ] viz. 
 
 1st. The Numeral adverbs; as, &'c, twice, from <Suo ; -?ffe, 
 thrice, from r^s/g ; and from the others, by adding the termina- 
 tion -xi£, -axjc, or -raxtg ; as, tmftfagax^, sjgaxig, exaTovruxig ; ybwr 
 &mes, m /zmes, a hundred times. 
 
 2d." Multiple numbers in ^Xoop, contracted tfXous; as, (WXoo£ f 
 two-fold; <rfi*rX6o£, three-fold ; <rs~gan\6oc, four-fold. 
 
 3d. Proportionals in ffXatfios ; as, tj iffXatfiof, ^ree toes as 
 
 4th. Substantives in -as, -oc$o£, which express the w#me of the 
 several numbers ; as, -fxovag, Gen. -£&>£, Me number one, unity ; 
 £ua£, Me number two ; Ssxag, the number ten ; slxag, the number 
 twenty ; rgioixag, the number thirty, &c. 
 
 5th. The Distributives, answering to the question, in how 
 many parts ? are formed in ~x a 5 as > ^'X°S TX"? TS '~? a X a ) *&*<*•-. 
 X* ; and connected with these are such adverbs ; as, rgvxjji, 
 trebly, Tfxou, m three places, and the like. 
 
 OF THE PRONOUN. 
 
 A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 
 
 According to their signification and use, pro- 
 nouns may be divided as follows ; viz. into Per- 
 sonal, Possessive, Definite, Reflexive, Reciprocal^ 
 Demonstrative, Relative, Interrogative, and Indefi- 
 nite. Of these the Personal only are substan- 
 tives ; the rest are adjectives. 
 
 § 60. I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 The substantive, or personal pronouns, are iya>, 
 , of the first person; ov, thou, of the second; 
 and oc, he, of the third, tylo and ov, assume the 
 gender of the noun for which they are placed, 
 
 /, 
 
 
70 
 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 §61. 
 
 but 6g is masculine only. They are thus declin- 
 ed. 
 
 N. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 £/G), i. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 N. tyu, 
 G. £fxo£ 
 D. sixol 
 A. s^s 
 
 or juoou, 
 or fjLoi, 
 or jxg. 
 
 N. A. vw7 or vw, 
 G. D. vfiVv or vcpy. 
 
 0U, f^ott. 
 
 N. fasTg. 
 
 G. ?JfAtoV. 
 
 D. ryjuun/. 
 A. 4j}jf*a£. 
 
 V/ctf, 
 G. tfou, 
 D. (Toi, 
 
 A. fit. 
 
 
 N. A. V. fltywi" or tf<pc5, 
 G. D. cfcpwiV or tf(pwv. 
 
 og, -Ac. 
 
 N. V. fyifc 
 
 G. TJjULWV. 
 
 D. fif*n/. 
 A. iifjuac. 
 
 N. (|, 
 G. ou, 
 
 •D. ol 
 
 A. I. 
 
 
 N. A. tfcps, 
 G. D. tfcpfv. 
 
 N. tf<psr^. 
 
 G. <T(pwv. 
 D. tfcpiVi. 
 A. tf(pa£. 
 
 05s. The third personal pronoun, like sui in Latin, is com- 
 monly used in a reflexive sense by the Attic prose writers, i. e. 
 it refers to the subject of the proposition in which it stands, or 
 of the foregoing, if the second be sufficiently connected with 
 it. As thus used it wants the nominative, and is translated 
 Ci of himself" " to himself" &c. — In Homer and Herodotus, 
 and the Attic Poets, on the contrary, it is more frequently used 
 as the pronoun of the third person, for auroc, he ) and has the 
 nominative singular eg ; as, og i'cpr), he said. This pronoun, 
 however, is but little in use ; auros, and the compound reflexive 
 pronoun iaurou, being used instead of it. A neuter form of 
 the plural tf<ps'a occurs in Herodotus. 
 
 § 61. II. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The possessive pronouns correspond, in signi- 
 fication, to the genitive of the personal pronouns 
 from which they are derived, and for which they 
 may be considered as a substitute ; thus, 6 adeX-* 
 cpog fiov, the brother of me ; and, 6 ifibg adelcpbq^ 
 my brother ; are synonymous expressions. 
 
§ 62, 63. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. 71 
 
 Inform they are regular adjectives of the first 
 and second declension, and are derived from the 
 primary or personal pronouns ; as follows, 
 From Ipi comes Ijxos, .ij } . 0V) my. 
 
 *?* 5°S> <n), Cov, thy. 
 
 % fc* . 5J) ov, his. 
 
 vul, vw'iV^-o?, -«, -ov, our, i. e. of us two. 
 
 rtpwf, tfipwtrsi-of, -a, -ov, yowr, i. e. o/yoM two. 
 
 V^'J, W-irsg-os, -a, -ov, our. 
 
 ufisjj, ipkeg-os, -a, -ov, yowr. 
 
 Cfpsi?, rtprsj-oj, -a, -ov, fe'r. 
 
 Doric tfp-oj, -■>), -ov. 
 
 ( Obs.^ To this class also belong feudmri^ owe 0/ owr corafrw • 
 W*s*Mroe, owe o/ yot(P coa»/ry. But tfo5(Mrif x wha ^J ? 
 more properly belongs to the interrogative ; and dXXo<5«4, 
 one of another country, to the indefinite pronouns 
 
 § 62. III. THE DEFINITE PRONOUN. 
 The definite pronoun ambg, is used to give a 
 closer and more definite designation to the per- 
 sons. In the nominative it imparts the force of 
 the English word self to the word to which it 
 ; belongs ; as, iyb ambg, I myself; o{, afa&g, thou 
 [ thyself; ccvcbg, he himself. In the oblique cases 
 , it retains the same force when it begins a clause ; 
 : as, avvbv ecoqaxa, I have seen the person himself; 
 but when it stands after another word or words 
 in the same clause, it signifies him, her, it ; as, 
 ovx moccxccq amov, thou hast not seen him. With 
 the article preceding it, it signifies the same. 
 
 § 63. IV. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. 
 The three substantive pronouns combine with 
 avToq, in the oblique cases of the singula! , and 
 form the compound pronouns iiiavtov, oeavtov, 
 
72 RECIPROCAL PRONOUN. § 64. 
 
 and tavTov ; the two last of which are often writ- 
 ten aavxov and amov, &c. They are used in a 
 reflexive sense, referring to the subject of the 
 proposition in which they stand. They are thus 
 declined : 
 
 G t/uiavTov, taavxr\g\ tfiawov, of myself . 
 D. ifiavrG), .■ zuavTfj, tfiavTU), to myself . / 
 A. z/jLawov, tfiavxriVj &[iav%Q, myself. 
 
 Obs. I. sfxauTou and csaurou, are used as compounds in the 
 singular only ; in the other numbers, the parts of the compound 
 are used separately ; as, G. ypCiv auVuv, of ourselves, &e. But 
 saurou is used, in its compound form, in the plural also ; thus, 
 
 G. sauTWv, saurwv, saurwVj of themselves. 
 
 D. sauToJcj kawcuSj eavroTg, to themselves. 
 
 A. £aurou£, saura^, £au<ra, themselves. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes in the singular, and often in the plural, 
 the various cases of saurov are used for the same cases of fyoau- 
 <rcu and trsaur&u ; as, ou<5' dvaXa^sn/ £au<rou£ dv ^<$uv^hfl/xsv, we 
 could not have recovered ourselves. 
 
 
 § 64. V. THE RECIPROCAL PRONOUN. 
 
 The reciprocal pronoun in signification resem- 
 bles the reflexive pronoun, and is sometimes used 
 instead of it. Its proper office is to indicate a 
 mutual relation between different persons, ex- 
 pressed in English by the phrase " one another." 
 It is formed from aXXoq, another, wants the singu- 
 lar, and is regularly declined, like an adjective 
 of the first and second declensions, in the oblique 
 cases only ; thus, 
 
 Plural. 1 
 
 G. aXkr]k(OV, aXXriXwv, aXkr[kw, of one another. I 
 D. aXXr\Xoig, aXXr\Xaig, aXXriXotg^ to one another. 
 A. aXXiqXovQ) aXX^Xaq, aXXrjXa, one another. 
 
§ 65, 66. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 73 
 
 § 65. VI. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The demonstrative pronouns are those which 
 demonstrate, or, as it were, point to a person 
 or thing already known. These are 
 
 owog, avtrjj xovxo, this, the latter, the one. 
 
 ixelvoq, ixdvijj ixelvOythat, the former, the other. 
 b delva, 7) delva, to dtlvcc, such an one, 
 
 (known and designated, but whom the speaker 
 does not wish to name, or whose appellation he 
 does not know-) 
 
 Obs. 1. ovrog is a compound of the article 6, yj 9 to, (the varia- 
 tions of which it follows in the first syllable,) and aurfe. Among' 
 the Attics this, as well as sxsTvog, was rendered emphatic by 
 the addition of 1 to the termination ; as, ourotfi', rourout, tovtu)% 
 &c. But a or 0, at the end of a word, is dropped, and 1 added 
 to the letter preceding 5 thus, recur/ for rauroot ; -tout/ for rovrol ; 
 1 ixsivi for hsml. 
 
 Obs. 2. The article 6, 6, to, with 8s annexed, and sometimes 
 without it, is used as a demonstrative, instead of euros; and 
 without <5s, for the personal ; thus, 6, % y <ro, this man (he) ; this 
 woman (she) ; this thing (it) ; oSs, r\Ss, roSs, this. 
 
 Obs. 3. SsTva, such an one, belongs more properly to the de- 
 ll monstrative than to the indefinite pronouns with which it is 
 generally classed ; as it refers generally to some one known 
 and designated. It is never found without the article preceding 
 it, and it appears to be a contraction of the emphatic 8s of the 
 article, and elg, one ; thus, Ss sfg, sihis or that one, contracted 
 e SsTg, Gen. tou Ss svog, contr. rov SsTvog, &c. It is, however, 
 also indeclinable ; as, tou SsTm. 
 
 § 66. VII. RELATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 The relative pronoun og, fj 9 0, sometimes call- 
 ed the postpositive article, usually relates to 
 some noun or pronoun before it, called the ante- 
 cedent. It is rendered emphatic by adding the 
 I enclitic syllable niq ; as, QGneQ, TJrceg, ont{) 9 
 1 
 
74 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. § 67. 
 
 Obs. 1. Instead of og y the compound pronoun oting is used as 
 a relative after aus, or any word in the singular expressing an 
 indefinite number ; and 0V01, after the same words in the plural ; 
 as, <iroi$ oaVi£, every one who ; itavrsg otfoi, all who. 
 
 Obs. 2. In the Epic poets, and in the Ionic and Doric wri- 
 ters, the article 6, fy to, is often used as a relative. See Syntax 
 of the Article. § 210, 
 
 § 67. VIII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 The interrogative pronoun %iq, corresponding 
 to the Latin quis ? who ? or what ? has the acute 
 accent placed over the first syllable to distinguish 
 it from the indefinite rig, which has the grave 
 accent on the last. It is a regular adjective of 
 the third declension ; thus, Nom, *rig 5 <ag 9 <u, Gen. 
 rivoQj Dat. Tin, &c. 
 
 Obs. 1. The interrogative jrfe, has its responsive Sting ; thus, 
 rig itfoivitis ; ivho did it ? ovx olSa oVti£, I know not who (did it). 
 
 Obs. 2. otfris, compounded of % and r\g ) declines both parts 
 of the compound through all the cases and numbers..; thus, N. 
 otiriSj fyngj o, <n, Gen. ouVivo£, 7}tf<rivog, outivos, &c. § 69. 5. But 
 Homer uses oVis, and declines the latter part without changing 
 the former. 
 
 Obs. 3. There appears to- have been among the ancient 
 Greeks another interrogative pronoun, cro£, ^, #o, and its re- 
 sponsive O7T0S, k"q, o^o, which have become obsolete, except in 
 two cases, now used adverbially ; viz. tfou ; where? <ky\\ in 
 what way ? and hence the responsives otfou and otffj. From 
 these are formed the interrogative flrorsfo^ -a, -ov, which of the 
 two ? and its responsive otforsgos, -a, -ov, either of the two ; with 
 several other adverbs and adjectives still in use, each interroga- 
 tive having always its own responsive ; as, 
 
 i INTERROGATIVES. RESPONSIVES, 
 
 Adj. tfolbs ; of what kind ? oto'i'og, of what kind. 
 
 Kbtio$ ; of what number ? otfotfocr, of what number. 
 tf'r\\ixog] of what age? oitr\\ixog 1 of what age. 
 Adv. tfws j how ? oVw£, how, &c. thus, 
 
 rrrfkixog ititl ] of what age is he ? oux olSa hiryXixng, I know not ! 
 of what age. In the same manner the responsives are used j 
 without an interrogation preceding ; as, wXafero hoTog -?v 7 " km 
 
§ 68, 69. DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 75 
 
 forgets of lohat kind he was" To these also may be added ffo- 
 
 Swrrog ; of what country ? 
 
 § 68 THE INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 The indefinite pronouns refer to an object, not 
 as previously known and designated, but in a ge- 
 neral and indefinite manner, They are 
 
 tiq, rig 9 -u, some one. 
 
 alloQ, akhrj, aU.o 9 another, hence aXXodanoq, one 
 
 of another country. 
 iTEQoq, «T€()a, zreQoV) other, a different one, another. 
 
 To which may be added the following negatives ; viz. 
 
 ovrig, ouris, ovvl 
 
 ou&fe, ovSsuiift. o v udsv. , a 
 
 , ? , , > no one. 
 
 Wri$ 9 ^ng 1 prjri. 
 
 Obs* 1 . All words used interrogatively, are also used inde- 
 finitely, but generally with the accent changed ; thus, 
 
 INTERROGATIVES. INDEFINITES. 
 
 tfocfos ; how great ? how many ? tfotfo^, of a certain size or num- 
 ber. 
 tfoibs ; of what kind ? #otos, of a certain kind, such. 
 
 tfYiKixog ; hovj old ? how large ? <nr[K[mg ) of a certain size or age. 
 
 § 69. DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE PRO- 
 NOUNS. 
 
 1. Of the adjective pronouns, those which end 
 in -oq and -ov in the masculine and neuter, are 
 declined as regular adjectives of the first and se- 
 cond declension, of which an example is given 
 § 46. 
 
 2. Others differ from these only by striking 
 off v from the neuter termination in -ov. They 
 are the following : # 
 
n 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS, 
 
 § 69, 
 
 aXkoq, akXi]^ alio, another. 
 
 avToq, amr\, amo, he, she, it. 
 
 og, r], o, who, which. 
 
 zxelvoq, txuvi], ixuvo, that* 
 
 ovrog, amr^ towo, this. 
 
 3. The demonstrative oltog, besides varying 
 the termination by inflection, varies also the ar- 
 ticle from which it is formed ; thus, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 N. V. oltoq, 
 G. tovtov, 
 
 D. TOVTto, 
 
 A. tovtov-) 
 
 N. A. V. rowct), 
 G. D. f coi) f toLV f 
 
 N. 
 
 'V. QVXQl) 
 
 G. roirvw, 
 D. Tohtoiq, 
 A. rowovQj 
 
 taijrrjq^ 
 Dual 
 . Plur. 
 
 tOV'VCOV, 
 
 %av%aiq, 
 tamaq, 
 
 xovxo. 
 towov. 
 
 TOVtO). 
 
 <COWW* 
 
 ravta. 
 Tovrcjv* 
 xovtotq. 
 tavra. 
 
 Note. The correlatives tovovtos, toiovtos, and ttjIikovtos, have either o» 
 or o in N. A. singular ; thus, 
 
 N. Toaovros, roaavrrj, tocovtov or togqvto. 
 
 G. Too-ovrou, &C. 
 
 4. rfg; w/io? (trig, some owe, in the same Way.) 
 
 Sing. 
 
 IS. TtSi Tig, t'i, 
 
 G. TWOS, TWOS, TWOS, 
 
 D. TtJ/t, TlVl, TWl, 
 
 A. Tiva, Tiva, tU 
 
 Dual 
 
 N. A. TIPS, TLV£, TWC, 
 G. D. TWO IV, TWOIV, TIVOIV. 
 
 Plur. 
 
 N. rives, t'wis, Tiva, 
 
 G. Tiv&V, TIVUJV) TWQJV) 
 
 D. ria i, riat, tioi, 
 A. rivas, rivas, Tiva* 
 
 Note. After the same manner are declined uns, ovns, and ptfnj. 
 
 5. otfrxg, whosoever , from og and <ng, declines 
 both parts of the compound ; thus, 
 
§70. 
 
 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 77 
 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 D. 
 A. 
 
 bong, 
 oilxivog, 
 mvvi\ 
 bxiva, 
 
 Singular. 
 
 rjzig, 
 rjoxtvogj 
 r\xivi, 
 rjvxiva^ 
 
 Dual 
 
 a 
 
 0,Xl* 
 
 ovxwog. 
 mtvi. 
 
 o,Te. 
 
 N. 
 
 A. 
 
 mive, 
 
 axive, 
 
 arrive* 
 
 G. 
 
 D. 
 
 oivrivoiv, 
 
 aivxivoiv, 
 Plural. 
 
 olvXIVOlV 
 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 ofoweg, 
 &vxiva)v, 
 
 cdxcveg, 
 (qvxivcjv, 
 
 ax iv a. 
 
 CQVXLVtoVt 
 
 
 D. 
 
 oioxlol, 
 
 alexia* 
 
 oiaxioic 
 
 
 A. 
 
 ovoxtvag^ 
 
 aoxivag, 
 
 OXIVU. 
 
 6. delva, {such an one,) of all genders, and al- 
 ways with the article prefixed, is declined like a 
 noun of the third declension ; thus. 
 
 Sing". 
 N. 6, r h ro, deTva, 
 G. xov, &c. dcJVogj 
 D. rw, &c. tet, 
 ■A. toi' 3 "&c. delva. 
 
 Dual 
 
 N. A. dwe, 
 G. D. dsivoiv. 
 
 PluraL 
 N. dsiVbg, 
 G« delvcov, 
 D. dtfot, 
 A. deZvaq. 
 
 §70. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 1 . The Greek language has likewise correlative pronouns^ 
 each pair of which has a mutual relation. The latter of the 
 two is "expressed in English by as. 
 
 Totfos, . 6Vo£, (Lat tantus, quantus,)^o great, as, 
 
 toToc, oio^, (Lat. talis, qualis,) such, as. 
 
 njXfcog, rikixog, of the same age, as ; of the same size, as, 
 
 2. When the correlation is more expressly designated, ex- 
 pressing just as great as, exactly as great as, the former pro- 
 noun (cotfot;, roTog, ttjXixos,) has Ss or ouros attached to it, and the 
 latter has oV (from oVtj,) prefixed • as, 
 
 rotfooSs, \ _,_,_ roibV^s, )?__>__ rrfKwotfSs, 
 
 ) ,^ roio<ft5s 
 votjQvroc, ) roiovr-og. 
 
 , J TTjXlXOVTOJ, J 
 
 7* 
 
78 
 
 DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 §71 
 
 § 71. DIALECTS OF THE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Dual. 
 Plur. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Dual. N. 
 Plur. 
 
 IoNiC. 
 
 G. {fXtlO €[XEO. 
 
 ijxtodev- 
 D» 
 
 IN". A. 
 
 N. rjfxks- 
 
 G. fjjAEWV* 
 
 D. 
 
 A. fjixtas* 
 
 N. V. 
 
 G. cuo. cio, (riOev. 
 D. 
 
 A. 
 A. V, 
 
 N. V.lfxkg. 
 
 ... D. ' 
 A. i(x(a$» 
 
 *Eyu, I. 
 
 Doric. 
 
 ly&v, iy&vij* 
 ty&ya, ey&vya. 
 ipev. 
 
 ifjth. 
 
 ct/*££, appiES. 
 
 vtfihj a/xlv. 
 
 apa$, ape, ajwfte 
 
 20, Thou. 
 
 tEqlic. 
 fy(f>, lyojv. 
 B. iw, twya. 
 B. f/toCf. 
 
 e/iot|. B. Ifxv, 
 
 d'jujui, afxfxiv, 
 ajxji£<nv» 
 
 ■ 
 
 Poetic^ 
 
 y y<ii. 
 
 
 fjjieia$< 
 
 TV, rtivr], rvya. 
 
 T£V, T£%, T£OV$. 
 
 TGWrj. 
 Q£V, GiBeV. 
 
 acioQsvo 
 
 roi, riv, ri'iv. 
 
 rivrj. 
 
 
 T£, TV. 
 
 tiv, ri'iv. 
 
 
 VfA£, V[JL(l£.. 
 tflES, %IA{X£S. . 
 
 
 D(lfJ.£, iifip.£& 
 
 vjaSjv. 
 vfiiVj vfxlv. 
 
 VfAfAWV, V[Xfi£(j)V, 
 
 vpHi, vpniv, 
 
 H[A}X£(71V. 
 
 hfxeiwv. 
 
 IfiaSf l>//-f, VfAflS, 
 
 fyjxas, vpniag. 
 
 {-/^Tajc- 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Dual. 
 Plur. 
 
 G. €10, Old, £010 f 
 
 r h Wev. 
 D.iol 
 A. 
 N. A. <T(ph* 
 N. o-cphs* 
 G. c(ptb)v. 
 D. cfiv, afu * 
 A. cfias. 
 
 "Of, JEfc. 
 
 G(pU)£ t 0(pO)' 
 C(j>h- 
 
 ff0£, T^/f. 
 
 £^ev, yiQev. 
 [uVj vlv. 
 
 
 eloB'e'vo. 
 
 ioT. 
 'it, <r$h 
 
 C0S?£?. . 
 
 <fiv. 
 
 Obs. 
 
 plv, VlV. (T0£. 
 
 1. piv and viVj are used for the accusative in all genders 
 
 and numbers ; so also is ff<ps> among the poets, i. e. for a&t-ov -^v 
 -o, and avT-ovg -us ~a. 
 
 Obs. 2. The adjective pronouns are inflected in the different 
 dialects according to the models of the first and second declen- 
 sions. Other peculiarities will be learned by practice ■ as, for 
 7}psrsgcs -a -ov, our ; D. a^hg -a -ov — for ipsrsgos, D. ujxo?.- 
 
 tf(p£T6^0^j D. (f90g for 0U*"IV0£, A. OT0U, D. oVSU, I. 6VS0, P. (&*$&} 
 
 ■ — for wtivIj A. oVw, I. ors'w, — for o*o£, <s% Cov, thine ; I. <reo^ itt$ % 
 Tii} — fpr o£, fy ov, his, I. so£ 3 fy £6v. 
 
§ 72, 73. DIVISION AND SIGNIFICATION OF VERBS. 79 
 
 § 72. OF THE VERB. 
 
 A verb is a word which signifies to be, to do. or 
 to suffer ; or it is that part of speech which ex- 
 presses what is affirmed, or said, of persons or 
 things. 
 
 A verb is inflected or varied by Voices, Moods, 
 Tenses, Numbers and Persons. 
 
 In Greek the Voices are three ; Active^ Passive, 
 and Middle. In the active voice, the subject or 
 nominative of the verb is represented as acting ; 
 in the passive, as being acted upon ; and in the 
 middle as acting upon itself, ox for itself 
 
 The Moods are five ; the Indicative, Subjunctive, 
 Optative, Imperative, and Infinitive. 
 
 The Tenses are nine ; the Present, the Imperfect, 
 the First and Second Futures, the First and Second 
 Aorists, the Perfect, and Pluperfect ; and in the 
 passive voice, the Paulo-post-future or Future Per- 
 feet. 
 
 The Numbers are three ; the Singtdar, Dual, 
 and Plural. 
 
 The Persons are three; the First, Second, and 
 Third. 
 
 § 73. DIVISION AND SIGNIFICATION OF 
 VERBS. 
 
 In respect of signification, all verbs may be 
 reduced to two classes, viz. Active or Transitive 
 Verbs, and Neuter or Intransitive. 
 
 Active verbs are those whose action is exert- 
 ed directly on some object. In the use of them 
 three things are necessarily supposed, viz. the 
 
 s 
 
80 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. § 74. 
 
 agent, the act, and the object acted upon j as, 
 h§Xa\fJa ot, / hurt you. 
 
 Neuter or Intransitive verbs denote either 
 simply the existence of a thing; as, /am, or the 
 state, habit or condition in which it does exist ; 
 as, 1 sleep, I stand, fivalk, or run. In the use of 
 neuter verbs two things only are supposed ; the 
 subject about which the verb affirms, and the be- 
 ing, slate, or condition affirmed of it ; as, I walk, 
 I run. Hence 
 
 Obs. 1. Neuter verbs which express a state of action differ 
 from active verbs in this — that the action of the neuter verb is 
 confined to the subject, while that of the active is exerted on 
 some external object. 
 
 Obs. 2. Many verbs which express action are used some- 
 times in an active, and sometimes in a neuter sense ; as, (pdivw, 
 Act. / destroy , Neut. I sink or decay ; <pu£w, Act. I put to flight, 
 Neut. I flee. This change from an active to a neuter sense, 
 however, is generally indicated by a change from the active 
 to the middle form of the verb ; as, <pan/w, Act. / shew> (paivofwxi, 
 Mid. / shew myself, i. e. Neut. 1 appear. — See § 77. Note. 
 
 Obs. 3. Verbs usually neuter assume an active signification 
 when a word of similar signification with the verb itself is in- 
 troduced as its object ; as, He runs a race. 
 
 Obs. 4. In like manner when a writer intends to direct the 
 attention, not so much to any particular act of an agent, as to a 
 certain state of action affirmed of it, an active verb assumes the 
 character of a neuter verb. Thus in the sentence " John 
 reads," nothing more being indicated than the present state or 
 employment of the subject " John," in answer to the ques- 
 tion, what is John doing ? the verb has obviously a neuter sense. 
 Whereas in the sentence." John reads Homer," the attention is 
 directed to a particular act terminating on a certain object. 
 u Homer," and contains the answer to the question, what does 
 John read t 
 
 § 74. DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBS. 
 
 Though the division of verbs into active and 
 muter comprehends all the verbs in any Ian- 
 
§ 75. CONJUGATION AND INFLECTION OF VERBS. 81 
 
 guage, yet from something peculiar in their form 
 or signification, they are characterized by differ- 
 ent names expressive of this peculiarity. The 
 most common of these are the following; viz. 
 
 1. Regular verbs, which in their inflection fol- 
 low th^ regular forms given in the paradigms of 
 the 1st and 2d conjugation. 
 
 2. Irregular or anomalous verbs, which differ, in 
 some of their parts, from the regular forms. 
 
 3. Deponent verbs, which, under a passive form r 
 have "an active or neuter signification. 
 
 4. Defective verbs, which want some of their 
 parts. 
 
 5. Redundant verbs, which have more than one 
 form of the same part. 
 
 6. Impersonal (or more properly Unipersonal) 
 verbs, which are used only in the third person 
 singular, § 120. 
 
 7. Desideratives, which denote desire, or inten- 
 tion of doing, § 121. 1. 
 
 8. Frequent atives, which express repeated ac- 
 tion, § 121.2, 
 
 9. Inceptives, which mark the beginning or con- 
 tinued increase of any thing, § 121. 3. 
 
 § 75. OF THE CONJUGATION AND INFLECTION 
 OF VERBS. 
 
 There are two forms, according to one or 
 
 other of which all regular verbs are inflected : 
 
 viz. that of verbs in a), called the First conjuga- 
 
 ion, and that of verbs in at, called the Second 
 
 conjugation. 
 
 Note. Some verbs appear in both forms ; as, Swcvfo and foiKvvfu* I 
 hew. Some verbs are partly of the first conjugation and partly of the 
 scond; thus, Sat™, I go, of the first; 2d Aorist, &ijv t 7w?ew£, from %i of 
 
82 THE MIDDLE VOICE. § 76, 77. 
 
 the second ; yiyvwoKu), I know ; 2d Aor. %yvw % I knew, from yvofyu of the 
 second. Such verbs as these, however, though regular in each form, 
 are generally reckoned among the irregular verbs. 
 
 To the inflection of verbs belong Voices, Moods, 
 Tenses. JSFtimbers, and Persons. 
 
 §76. OF VOICES. 
 
 Voice is a particular form of the verb, which 
 points out the relation in which the subject of an 
 active verb is viewed with respect to the action 
 which it expresses : thus, 
 
 The Active Voice represents the subject of the 
 verb as the agent by which the action is exerted j 
 as, rvJiTiti) I strike. 
 
 The Passive Voice represents the subject of 
 the verb, as the object on which the action is ex- 
 erted ; as, uvTtTOfiai, I am struck. 
 
 The Middle Voice in Greek represents the sub- 
 ject of the verb as both the agent by which the 
 action is exerted, and also as the immediate or 
 remote object, on which, or for which, it is exert- 
 ed ; as, Kvixvofiai, I strike myself. 
 
 Note. Neuter verbs are generally in the form of the active voice ; 
 frequently in that of the middle or passive ; but whatever be their form, 
 they have always one uniform signification ; as, Qvyjoku or 6vfaKopai> 1 
 die. 
 
 The Active and Passive voices have nothing 
 peculiar in their signification, compared with 
 those of the Latin ; nor, indeed, farther than is 
 expressed in the definition above given. It is ne- 
 cessary, however, to notice some things more par- 
 ticularly respecting 
 
 § 77. THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 The Middle Voice, in Greek, is so called, be- 
 cause it has a middle signification between the 
 
§ 77. THE MIDDLE VOICE. 83 
 
 Active and Passive Voices, implying neither ac- 
 tion nor passion simply 3 but an union, in some de- 
 gree, of both. Middle Verbs may be divided 
 into Five Classes, as follows: 
 
 1. In Middle Verbs of the First Class, the action of the verb 
 is reflected immediately back upon the agent ; and hence verbs 
 of this class are exactly equivalent to the Active Voice joined 
 with the Accusative of the reflexive Pronoun ; as, Xouw, I wash 
 another ; Xouo/juxi, I wash myself ; the same as Xouw sfjtaurov. 
 
 2. In Middle Verbs of the Second Class, the agent is the re- 
 mote object of the action of the verb, with respect to whom it 
 takes place ; so that Middle Verbs of this class are equivalent 
 to the Active Voice with the Dative of the reflexive Pronoun 
 (spuaurw, (fsavTu, savru) ; as, algsTv, to take up any thing for ano- 
 ther, in order to transfer it to another ; cugsTrtQai, to take up in order 
 to keep it one's self to transfer to one's self. Hence verbs of this 
 class carry with them the idea of a thing's being done for one's 
 self 
 
 3. Middle Verbs of the Third Class express an action which 
 took place at the command of the agent, or with regard to it ; 
 
 .| which is expressed in English by to cause. In other words, 
 
 ; this class may be said to signify, to cause any thing to be done ; 
 
 as, y^W, I write, yj a<po|xai, I" cause to be written ; I cause, the 
 
 name, as of an accused person, to be taken down in writing by the 
 
 \ magistrate before ivhom the process is carried, or simply, I accuse, 
 
 4. The Fourth Class of Middle Verbs includes those which 
 denote a reciprocal or mutual action ; as, <firev8s<f&ou, to make liba- 
 tions along ivith another, to make mutual libations, i. e. to make a 
 league ; SiaXusotfai, to dissolve along ivith another, to dissolve by 
 mutual agreement. To this class belong verbs signifying " to 
 contract,' 1 " quarrel," " contend," &c. 
 
 5. The Fifth Class comprehends Middle Verbs of the First 
 Class, when followed by an Accusative, or some other Case : 
 in other words, it embraces all those Middle Verbs which de- 
 note an action reflected back- on the agent himself, and which 
 are at the same time followed by an Accusative, or other case, 
 which that action farther regards ; as, dvafjt-vatfdai <ri, to recall 
 any thing to one's own recollection. 
 
 Note. From the reflected nature of this Voice, many verbs, which are 
 active or transitive in the active voice, may be rendered by a neuter or 
 intransitive verb in the middle voice; as, arAAw, I send, (viz, another ;) 
 oTiX^ofxai, I send mi, self, i. e. / go ; dpyify, I provoke another ; opyl^ouai, [ 
 provoke myself, i. e. I am angry ; retflw, ] persuade another ; Trddofiai, I per- 
 suade myself i. e. J yield, or obey. In many instances, however, the re- 
 
84 TENSES OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. § 78. 
 
 Jation to self is not so clearly distinguishable. This is particularly the 
 case with the later writers, as Plutarch, Herodian, &c. In the writings 
 of the Ancients, Herodotus, Xenophon, and others, the distinction of 
 the active and middle voices is much more strictly observed. 
 
 §78. TENSES OF THE MIDDLE VOICE : 
 
 Obs. 1 . The Future Middle has usually an Active, some- 
 times a Passive sense, while the Future Passive has seldom, 
 if ever, the signification of the Middle. 
 
 Obs. 2. In many Verbs the Aorist Passive has a Middle 
 signification. In such verbs, either the Aorist Middle is obso- 
 lete or rare, or else it has one of the meanings of the verb, 
 and generally the original one, appropriated to itself, and the 
 Passive Aorist another': thus, the Aorist Passive tfraX^vai, is 
 attached with the medial signification to flWXXstfdai, to journey ; 
 'whereas oVsfXatfdai, the proper Aorist middle, belongs only to 
 CrsKhstfSai, to clothe one's self, or send for. ' # 
 
 Obs, 3. The Perfect Middle, in some .verbs, supplies the 
 
 place of the Perfect Active, this latter tense being obsoletejm 
 
 account of euphony ; as, sWova, ax^xoa, stftfofa, Xs'Xoitfa, o/<5a, 
 
 Tfffovfla, rgVoxa, &c. In many verbs, however, the Perfect 
 
 Middle is found with an Intransitive meaning, clearly based 
 
 upon, and deducible from, its Middle meaning. To understand 
 
 the examples which follow, the student will bear in mind the 
 
 peculiar force of the Perfect Tense of the Verb in all the 
 
 voices, viz. its reference to a continued action. (§ 81. 2.) Thus: 
 
 '*AyvufM, J break. Perf. Middle, sotyce, / have caused myself to 
 
 be broken, (by not offering, for example, sufficient 
 
 resistance,) and I continue broken, i. e. I am broken. 
 
 'Avo/yw, I open. Perf. M. dvswyoc, I have caused myself to be 
 
 opened, (speaking, for example, of a door which 
 
 does not offer sufficient resistance in remaining 
 
 shut,) and I continue open, i. e. J stand open. 
 
 ^Eyeijw, I awaken. Perf. M. fyghyogoi, I have awakened myself, 
 
 and continue awake, i. e. J am awake. 
 *EX«rw, I give hopes. Perf. M. I'oXtfa, J have given myself 
 
 hopes, and I continue in hopes, i. e. / hope* 
 J/ OXXt»;Ai, / destroy. Perf. M. 6'XwXa, J have destroyed or ruined 
 
 myself and 1 continue ruined, i. e. I am undone, 
 n^yvu/xi, I fix. Perf. M. tfsVyjya, J have fixed myself and con- 
 tinue fixed, i. e. I am fixed. 
 JMe'vw, T remain. Perf. M. jxsjuuova, / have caused myself to re- 
 main, and I continue remaining, i. e. I persevere. The 
 
§ 79. OF MOODS, 85 
 
 perfect Active, pspevvpca, merely signifies, J have re- 
 mained. 
 TJgcutifu, I do. Perf. M. iriirgaya., J have caused myself to do, I 
 have acted in suck a way as to do ; hence ArgVjaya 
 xaXws, 1" have caused myself to do well, I have acted in 
 such a way as to do well, and I continue to do well; i. e. 
 I do well, I am fortunate, or prosperous. 
 The list might be extended farther, but a sufficient number 
 of examples has been cited to show that the Perfect Middle 
 can only obtain its Intransitive meaning through its Middle 
 one. It seems therefore incorrect to term it, as some Gramma- 
 rians have done, the Second Perfect Active. 
 
 Obs. 4. The Perfect and Pluperfect Passive are often used 
 in a Middle sense. This appears in general to be the case, 
 when the corresponding Middle Tenses are either obsolete or 
 rare, 
 
 § 79. OF MOODS. 
 
 Mood is the mode, or manner of expressing the 
 signification or meaning of a verb. 
 
 The moods, in Greek, are five ; the Indicative, 
 ^Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative, and Infinitive. 
 
 1. The Indicative, in Greek, is always used to 
 express a thing which is conceived of, not as 
 conditional or contingent, but. as actual and certain. 
 
 lit is, therefore, frequently used where the sub- 
 junctive is employed in Latin or English/ 
 
 2. The Subjunctive and Optative moods do 
 not, like the Indicative, declare the actual exist- 
 ence of an action, but express the conception 
 of it in the mind, as what may, or can, or might 
 take place ; and which, in order to become real, 
 
 \ requires the intervention of something else. 
 
 Obs. Whether the subjunctive and optative moods be made 
 t ip of some word equivalent, in meaning, to the English auxi- 
 liary verbs, may, can, might, could, &c., incorporated with the 
 oot of the verb, as some Grammarians suppose, or not, it is fl- 
 owed that these auxiliaries, in English, express the meaning 
 
 8 
 
86 or moods. §■ 79, 
 
 of these moods in the Greek verb. It is obvious, then, from an 
 attentive consideration of the import of these moods, that they 
 involve a complex idea, including firsts and chiefly, the general 
 idea of liberty ox power, expressed in English bj the verbs may, 
 or can, or mighty &c. from which the secondary ideas of contin- 
 gency or futurity are deduced ; and second, the particular 
 modification or limitation of this general idea, by combining it 
 with the meaning of the verb, in the various states of present 
 or past time, which the different tenses express. Thus, yfiy% 
 he may write, and yeygacpri, he may have written, express 1st, 
 the general idea of liberty or power present in the subject he; 
 and 2d, the limitation or particular direction of this to the act 
 of writing, whether conceived of as present, as in yg&(p% or 
 past, as in ysypayvi. Hence, in strict propriety of language,, 
 the verb in the subjunctive and optative moods is not so pro- 
 perly modified by connecting with it the ideas of liberty, pow- 
 er, contingency, &c. as that these general ideas (always includ- 
 ed or presupposed in the use of these moods) are, in fact? 
 modified by the verb. 
 
 An act conceived of, not as done, or doing, but only as that 
 which the agent has liberty or power to do, is obviously both 
 contingent and future. It may, or may not, be done ; and if 
 done, must be conceived of as posterior to the liberty, or power, 
 in the exercise of which it is effected. Hence, though the 
 present subjunctive and future indicative are manifestly diffe- 
 rent when uttered separately, and not combined with another 
 verb, yet, when they are found in combination, as generally 
 happens, the effect of them is, in most cases, the same. They 
 equally present the verbal state as future, and also as contin- 
 gent or possible. Thus, Sijubebis, faciam, and Si jubeas, fa- 
 dam, with equal propriety express this idea, If you order me, I 
 will do it. Both form* represent my doing it as depending on 
 your ordering me ; and both, at the same time, mark the rela- 
 tion of that order to the present time, the one as an event now 
 uture, the other as now contingent or possible. Jubebis, how- 
 ever, in this combination, leaves it uncertain whether you shall 
 order me or not ; and Jubeas leads to the inference, that, if you 
 order me at all, that order is future. What the one states as 
 future, is, at the same time, stated by si, as uncertain ; what ;' 
 the other states as uncertain, is, at the same time, perceived to j 
 be future. The two modes of conceiving the event are so i 
 blended together, that it is often a matter of indifference whe- ! 
 ther we employ the one tense or the other ; and hence, in nu- I 
 merous instances, the present subjunctive may be rendered by 
 Shall, and hence also, the future is used in a subjunctive sense, 
 
 H 
 
§ 79. OF MOODS, 87 
 
 i. e. it is used in subordinate clauses, where the present subjunc- 
 tive would be used in other languages. When thus used, like 
 the subjunctive, it involves a complex idea, including 1st, the 
 general idea of will or obligation, considered as present ; and 2d, 
 the modification of this by the meaning of the verb ; from 
 which combined, the idea of futurity and contingency is de- 
 rived by inference. Hence the future indicative, thus viewed, 
 may be considered as a present, expressing present loill or obli- 
 gation, in the same manner as the subjunctive expresses pre- 
 sent liberty or power. Thus, I will write, is, strictly speaking, 
 nothing more than " It is my present will, purpose, or inclina- 
 tion, to write ;" and from this the futurity of the act. is inferred, 
 and the inference has come to be the usual, if not the only, 
 meaning of the expression. 
 
 This twofold use of the future indicative, or its being employ- 
 ed both in an indicative and subjunctive sense, as well as the 
 idea of futurity implied in the subjunctive mood itself, shews 
 the reason why the future tenses of Greek verbs have no sub- 
 junctive form. It would express nothing different from what 
 is usually expressed by the subjunctive of the present and aor- 
 ists, or by the indicative future in its subjunctive sense. The 
 two decided instances of a future subjunctive form in the Greek 
 testament, viz. 1 Cor. xiii. 3. and 1 Pet. hi. 1, are plainly un- 
 necessary, and a deviation from the usage of the language, as 
 the subjunctive of the present, or of the aorists, would express 
 the same idea. If fiXq&Jcr^ in Mat. v. 25, be the subjunctive, 
 and not the indicative of the future, it proves the truth of this 
 remark ; for it is there connected with the subjunctive of the 
 ] 2d aorist, in precisely the same construction, and involving the 
 same ideas of contingency and futurity. But if it is to be con- 
 sidered in the indicative, it is in the subjunctive sense, and ac- 
 cords with usages of the language above noticed. 
 
 It must also be noticed here, that when the auxiliary may or 
 can is joined with the past tense ; as, he may have written ; or 
 the subjunctive of a past tense, in Greek, is used, as ysygacpr) ; it 
 is obvious that the idea of liberty ox power, as also of futurity, is 
 lost, as being inconsistent with what is conceived of as already' 
 past, and that the idea of contingency or uncertainty predomi- 
 nates ; and this contingency, moreover, not absolute, but relative 
 to the knowledge of the speaker. Thus, he may have written, ex- 
 presses a contingency or uncertainty at present in the mind of 
 the speaker, in relation to an act conceived of as past. Re- 
 move this contingency, and the word may, by which it is ex- 
 pressed, is dropped ; in other words, the subjunctive is changed 
 into the indicative form, he has written, 
 
88 OF MOODS, § 79 
 
 The Optative Mood is nothing more than the past tense of 
 the subjunctive, which, as we have seen, is always present. ' Its 
 proper office is to express as past the same ideas of liberty or 
 power, which the subjunctive always represents as present. 
 Of this one example may now suffice. Agamemnon, in II. a. 
 32. thus addresses Chryses, VAX' U^ jxtj p? i&s^s, crawrspos w$ 
 xsvsrou, But go provoke me not, that you may return the more 
 safely. Plato afterwards, in relating this as a past event, 
 changes the subjunctive vsr\c/A into the optative ; thus, Rep. iii 
 p. 276. arfiivai ds ixsXsve xal ^r\ i6sgi%sw S'voc tfws ohaSs £'X0oi, JLnd 
 he commanded him to he gone and not to provoke him 3 that he might 
 return to his house in safety. Hence, in whatever way the 
 connexion of a passage may require the subjunctive to be 
 translated, whether by may or can, or (as is sometimes the 
 case) by shall or will, the same connexion, in past time, will 
 require that the optative be rendered by the corresponding past 
 tense, might, could, should, or would ; and when the future in- 
 dipative is used in a subjunctive sense, its corresponding past is 
 the optative of the future ; thus, Xsysi oVi yga-^si, he says that 
 he will write ; s^sye on y^a-^oi, he said that he would write. 
 
 From these observations the following principles are derived : 
 
 First, That in all the tenses of the Greek verb 
 (except the future, which has no subjunctive) the 
 subjunctive is universally of the present time or 
 tense, and the corresponding optative is the cor- 
 responding past time. 
 
 Second, That the optative of the future is the 
 past time of the indicative of the future 5 which 
 itself is of the present time. 
 
 The application of these principles to the construction of the 
 subjunctive and optative will be considered in the Syntax. 
 
 3. The Imperative Mood is used, in Greek, as 
 in all other languages, to command, exhort^ entreat, 
 and permit ; in which sense also the future indi- 
 cative, and the infinitive mood, are frequently 
 used. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the past tenses it expresses urgency of command, 
 expedition or completion of action ; as, flroir^ov, have done. In 
 the perfect, moreover, the idea of permanent and completed 
 
 u 
 
§ SO. OF THE TENSES. 89 
 
 action is implied ; as, sjx&SX^w, let him have been cast^'i. e. let 
 Mm be cast speedily and effectually, and continue so. 
 
 4. The Infinitive Mood expresses the mean- 
 ing of the verb in a general and unlimited man- 
 ner, without referring it to any subject, and con- 
 sequently, without any distinction of person or 
 number 5 as, to read, to speak, to he loved. 
 
 Obs. 1. Besides the common use of the infinitive as in Latin, 
 it is completely a verbal noun, and it is inflected as such with 
 the neuter article ; as, h tov ojay, yiyvsrai ro sgq,% From seeing 
 arises love. (See Syntax of the Infinitive.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Hence the Greek infinitive supplies the place of 
 those verbal nouns, the gerunds, and supines, in Latin, except 
 the ablative gerund, which is expressed in Greek by a partici- 
 ple, agreeing with the subject of the verb with which it is 
 connected ; as, sus^/srwv avrovg ix^tfoc^v, Benefaciendo acqui* 
 sivi eos. 
 
 Obs. 3. When the infinitive mood has a subject expressed 
 or understood, it is rendered, in Greek, as well as in Latin, in 
 the sense of the indicative j as ; syrj .tf#D.u<5a£siv, he said thai he 
 \ was in haste. 
 
 i *•■■-.- 
 
 § 80. OF THE TENSES. 
 
 The tenses are certain forms of the verb, in- 
 tended to express the different divisions and mo- 
 difications of time, in which the action is repre- 
 sented to take place. 
 
 These forms are the result of certain changes, made some- 
 times in the beginning^ but more frequently in the end, of the 
 'verb. 
 
 Time is naturally divided into the past, the pre- 
 tent, and the future ; and in each of these divi- 
 sions an action may be represented as incomplete 
 and still continuing ; or, as completed ; thus, 
 
 I. PRESENT TIME. 
 
 1 . Action incomplete and continuing ; as 3 ygoupw, / write^ or am 
 writing ; expressed by the present. 
 
 S* 
 
90 OF THE TENSES. § $0. 
 
 2. Action completed; as, ysy gaya, I have written, (just finish- 
 ed,) expressed by the perfect. § 81. II. 
 
 II. PAST TIME. 
 
 1 . Action incomplete and continuing ; as, sygacpov, I wrote, or 
 was writing, (e. g. when he came, I was still writing,) express- 
 ed by the imperfect. 
 
 2. Action completed; as, sysygacpsiv, I had written, (e. g. when 
 he came, I had then finished,) expressed by the pluperfect. 
 
 III. FUTURE TIME. 
 
 1 . Action incomplete and continuing ; as, yg oc^w, J shall tvrite, 
 or be writing, (e. g. when he comes,) expressed by the first or . 
 second future. 
 
 2. Action completed ; as, ysygatpug ftfofjuu, J s^0# Aave written, 
 (e. g. when he comes, I shall then have completed writing,) to 
 express which there is no separate tense, in Greek, except in 
 the passive, where it is expressed by the paulo-post future. In 
 the other voices it may be expressed by a circumlocution; 
 thus, ysyg&xpug stfoacci, and may be called the future perfect.* 
 
 Rem. In each of these three divisions of time, also, by means 
 of an auxiliary verb and the infinitive, an action may be re- 
 presented as on the point of beginning ; as, present, jxs'XXw yga- 
 psiv, I" am about to write ; past, s'fxsXXov ygacpsiv, I was about to 
 write ; future, tksXkycfu) ygacpsiv, 1 shall be about to write ; thus 
 furnishing, by a circumlocution, as it were three additional 
 tenses, so that by all, an action may be represented as past, 
 present, or future ; and in each of these divisions as incomplete, 
 complete, or about to be commenced or completed. Besides 
 these, the Greek has the advantage of a separate tense, under 
 the division of past time 3 to intimate, simply, that the action is 
 past, without referring to any particular point of time at which 
 it took place ; and hence is denominated the Aorist or indefi- 
 
 * It might, perhaps, be attended with advantage, if, instead of the usual 
 designation of the tenses which convey their meaning, to say the least, 
 very imperfectly, Grammarians, in accordance with ihe above division, 
 were to use the following, or something similar to it, to indicate at 
 once, by the name of the tense, the time of the action as present, post, 
 or future ; and also its state, as complete or incomplete, at the time indi- 
 cated ; thus, in the usual order, 
 
 Instead of Present, to use Present imperfect. 
 
 Imperfect, Past imperfect. 
 
 1 & 2 Future, 1 8? 2 Future imperftct. 
 
 Ih2 Aorist, 1 fy 2 Past indefinite. 
 
 Perfect, Present perfect. 
 
 Pluperfect, Past perfect. 
 
§ 80. OF THE TENSES. 91 
 
 nite tense. This tense is rendered into English and Latin by 
 the imperfect and perfect tenses in an indefinite sense. 
 
 Obs. 1. Of the six divisions of time enumerated above, it 
 will be perceived that all, except the last, are expressed by dis- 
 tinct forms or tenses of the verb ; and that this last is also ex- 
 pressed by a distinct form, in the passive. 
 
 Obs. 2. There are two forms of the future and aorist, distin- 
 guished as 1st and 2d ; but, in signification, precisely the 
 same. 
 
 Obs. 3. The tenses, divided as above into three classes, in 
 respect of time, are farther, with regard to their termination 
 and use, divided into two classes or series, which may be deno- 
 minated the Chief or Primary ) and Secondary tenses ; thus, 
 
 Chief, or Primary. Secondary. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. 
 
 Perfect. Pluperfect. 
 
 1 Future. 1 Aorist. 
 
 2 Future. 2 Aorist. 
 
 The terminations of the secondary are uniformly derived from 
 those of the chief tenses ; and, in respect of use, the chief tenses 
 are employed in the direct address, to express actions as pre- 
 sent or future. The secondary are used in the recital of these 
 actions as past ; and hence are sometimes denominated the His- 
 torical Tenses. 
 
 Ohs. 4. In the English expression of the moods and tenses, 
 &c. great precision cannot be expected. Their signification 
 often varies according to the conjunctions and particles with 
 which they are joined, and hence, a corresponding variety of 
 translation becomes necessary. In consequence, also, of the 
 number of independent forms being greater in the Greek verb 
 than in the English, it is necessary to express certain tenses 
 and moods, in the former, by a circumlocution in the latter : 
 and sometimes, in order to give the precise idea of the Greek 
 tense, a totally different construction must be adopted in the 
 English sentence by which it is translated ; thus, having no 
 imperative in the past tense in English, the full force of the 
 imperative forms, in the past tenses in Greek, must either be 
 lost in the translation, or preserved at the expense, often, of a 
 clumsy circumlocution. (§ 79. 3. Obs. 1.) In like manner, 
 if we were required to give a strict translation to an aorist par- 
 ticiple, according to the idiom of our language, we must use, 
 not a participle, but a tense of the verb ; thus, touto tcivfiaz 
 aTvj\$?v, is commonly rendered, having done this, he departed ; 
 when, in fact, it should be, when he did this % he departed. Ths 
 
92 USE OF THE TENSES. § 81. 
 
 ordinary rendering of the moods and tenses is given in the Pa- 
 radigm of the verb, § 105. and more particularly illustrated in 
 the following. 
 
 §81. OBSERVATIONS ON THE USE OF TF1E 
 
 . .TENSES. 
 
 I. The Present Tense (present incomplete) represents an 
 action, or event, as passing at the time it is spoken of ; as, 
 ygaqw, / write, or am writing. It is likewise used to express 
 general truths ; as, £wa «rgl%si, animals run. 
 
 II. The Preterperfect, (present completed,) represents 
 an action just completed, now, at the present time ; or, if com- 
 pleted in past time, continued to, and connected with, the pre- 
 sent in its consequences and attendant circumstances ; as, 
 ysyaf/.7jxa, I have been married, and still continue so, i. e. / am mar- 
 ried ; whereas iya^a, the aorist, signifies I xoas, or have been 
 married ; without indicating whether the relation still subsists, 
 Hence, the perfect is generally used to denote a lasting or per- 
 manent state, or an action finished in itself, and therefore often 
 occurs in Greek, where, in English, we use the present ; as, 
 dii(pi$£&{)ws, thou protectesi, (i. e. thou hast protected, and still con- 
 iinuesi to protect.) The continued force^of the perfect accom- 
 panies it through all the moods ; as, s/Vov r^v Mgav xsxk$7<fQai 9 
 they gave directions for the door to remain shut. 6 piv XtjoV^ outos 
 is tov livgKpksyiQovra. Jfx§s§X^tf^w, Let this robber be cast into the 
 Pyriphlegethon, and continue there. 
 
 Note, tn several verbs the perfect tense is always used to denote only 
 the finished action, whose effect is permanent, and therefore, in Eng- 
 lish, is translated by the present of some other verb, which expresses 
 the consequence of the action contained in the Greek verb. Thus, 
 icaXtw, I name, perf. pass. /ctVA^at, I have teen named, and continue to be 
 so, but commonly rendered, I am named, or my name is. So also, from 
 tcrdofxai, I acquire for myself \ kektyj^oli, I possess ; (i. e. 1 have acquired, and 
 the acquisition continues mine;) nvdojxai, I call to my recollection, iMipvypat, 
 I remember, 
 
 III. The Imperfect (past incomplete) represents an action 
 as going on, but not completed, at some past time expressed 
 or implied ; as, sygacpov, I" was writing, (e. g. when he came,). 
 
 Obs. 1 . From its expressing the continuance of an action, 
 it is frequently used to express what was customary, or con- 
 tinued from time to time ; as, 6 fatfoxopos tov IWov fag&e, xai 
 sxrivi^s nra&as ^sms i the groom kept rubbing the horse every 
 day. 
 
§81. USE OF THE TENSES. 93 
 
 Obs. 2. For the same reason it is used instead of the aorist, 
 to express a past action, without reference to any specified time. 
 When the action is continued, and not momentary, and when 
 actions of both kinds are mingled in a narration, the continued 
 is often expressed by the imperfect, and the momentary by the 
 aorist ; as, egsSgups xai xa^uXoWsi, He ran forth (the aorist) and 
 continued barking at them, (the imperfect). <toj$ psv ouv TsXrao*- 
 Ta£ iSggavro ©< Sajfafoi, *aj saavovTo* sVs/(5' syyug ?(fav oi offXiVai 
 irpatfovro, xai oi tfaXratfrou $O0i)£ s'/Vovro. The barbarians re- 
 cwerf (aorist) the peltastse and fought (imperf.) with them. 
 But when the heavy-armed soldiers were near, they turned 
 (aorist,) and the peltastae immediately pursued them (imperf.). 
 
 Obs. 3. When the action represented by the imperfect as 
 begun and continuing, in past time, does not succeed, or fails 
 to be completed, it expresses only the beginning of an action, 
 or the attempt to accomplish it ; as, KXIagjfog Ss <rou£ tfrg a«nw<ras 
 Sia^sro i'svai, Clearchus attempted to force the soldiers to go. 
 
 IV. The Pluperfect represents an action as completed, 
 at or before some past time, expressed or understood ; and if 
 before it, still continued to, and connected with it, in itself or 
 attendant circumstances. It is therefore to the imperfect, 
 what the perfect is to the present. And as the perfect is often 
 rendered by the present (II. Note), so in all such cases the 
 pluperfect will be rendered by the past : as, Perf. 8£8oixa 9 I am 
 afraid; sSsSoixsiv, I was afraid ; (i. e. / had been, and still continu- 
 ed to be afraid.) 
 
 V. The Aorists. The first and second aorists differ in 
 form, but not in signification. They are used to represent an 
 action or event simply as past, without reference to any fixed 
 period of time in which it took place ; as, gyfa^a, I wrote. 
 Hence the name Aorist, i. e. indefinite in respect of time. 
 
 Obs. 1. From the indefinite nature of this tense, it is used 
 by the Greeks to express what is usually or always true ; and 
 is rendered by the English expressions, * usually, 1 l to be wont, 1 
 , l to use ;' as, rots twv (pauXwv tfuvvjdsias oXiyog X?° v °£ 8is"kv<is, A 
 short time commonly dissolves the confederacies of the wicked. 
 2^xjarrjs iSiSa^e roOg fxaJrjTots d/xi<74/, Socrates was wont to teach 
 his disciples without any charge. In this signification, how- 
 ever, it differs from the imperfect, (III. Obs. 1.) in that the aorist 
 denotes what is always customary ; the imperfect what was 
 customary during a specified period of time. 
 
 Obs. 2. As the aorist does not, like the imperfect, express 
 continuance, it is often used to express momentary action, and 
 
94 AUXILIARY VERBS. § 82. 
 
 that in the same construction in which the imperfect is used -to 
 express continued action. (III. Obs. 2.) 
 
 VI. The First and Second Futures, (future incomplete) 
 though different in form, are in signification the same. They 
 are used to express an action which is to be performed at a fu- 
 ture period. Other varieties of future time are expressed by 
 means of auxiliary verbs. § 80. III. 2. Rem 
 
 VII. The Paulo Post, or Third Future Passive, as it is 
 
 sometimes called by Grammarians, is, both in form and signi- 
 fication, compounded of the perfect and future, and denotes, 
 
 1 . The continuance of an action, or state, in itself, or conse- 
 quences j as, rj mXireia rsXiujg xsxotf|J//ja's-Tai, The city will con- 
 tinue to be completely organized ; syyga^srai, He shall continue en- 
 rolled. In thus expressing continuance, it agrees in signification 
 with the perfect, and hence, 
 
 2. It is the natural future of those perfects which have ac- 
 quired a separate meaning, of the nature of the present (II. 
 Note) ; as, As'Xsitfraj, he has been, and continues left, i. e. he re- 
 mains ; Paulo post F. Xs^si^srai, he shall remain ; xexrrHxoa, I 
 have acquired and continue to retain, i. e. I possess ; Paulo post F* 
 xsxrr^o^ai, J shall possess. 
 
 3. It is frequently used to intimate that a thing will be done 
 speedily ; as, <p£ a£s ml <xs<irga%s<rai, speak and it shall be done im- 
 mediately. 
 
 § 82. AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 Although the Greek language is richer than any other in 
 independent forms, nevertheless a circumlocution is frequently 
 made use of, by means of the auxiliary verbs sTvoa, xvgstv, utfa£^sjv ? 
 5X S ' V ) &c in connexion with a participle or infinitive, partly to 
 supply deficient, or to avoid inharmonious forms ; partly to 
 strengthen the signification, and partly to express, with more 
 minuteness and precision, the time and manner of action or 
 state expressed by the verb ; thus, 
 
 1 . The subjunctive and optative in the perfect passive, are 
 generally formed with efvai and the perfect participle ; the inde- 
 pendent forms being rarely used. The same construction is 
 sometimes used in the active voice. 
 
 2. To express a purpose of doing, or the proximity of an 
 event, psKku, with the infinitive, is used ; as, 
 
 o'jTi /xsXXsig XsysiVj whatever you are about to say. 
 
§ 82. AUXILIARY VERBS. 95 
 
 3. Continuance, or a permanent state, combined with the va- 
 rious circumstances of commencement, simple existence, priority, 
 energy, or accident, is expressed by yfvojxoti, slpi, uc&££a, xogw, 
 t^, Toy/oM^, with a participle ; as, iysVsro oivBg&amg dff$<r<faX]*e- 
 
 4. The completion of an event is expressed by sip.?, with a 
 past participle. . With such a participle, s/fju in the past tense is 
 equivalent to the pluperfect,, but is much more emphatical: as, 
 rovs tfuxoqjavTotj t% ttiksug %v 5ih%ag, he was #/*ter driving the in- 
 formers from the city. In like manner, Itfofxcti in the future, 
 with a past participle, expresses ihe future perfect in the indi- 
 cative ; the subjunctive and optative of which is supplied from 
 the aorists BXid perfect; as r tfStfon^svov gVrai, & sA## /k'i*e &e$2 
 cfowe, or «7 shall be done quickly. 
 
 5. Anticipated performance is expressed by <pdavw or sr^lfavw, 
 with a participle ; as, 2uvridsv<rai (pdatfai -?/ SpatfavTzg y^oMvj, they 
 conspire to do something to avoid suffering. 
 
 6. Secrecy, so as to escape not only the knowledge of others, 
 but even a person's own consciousness, is expressed by X#v0a,- 
 vw, with a participle ; as, sXadov «nvgg gsviutfcwrsg a/ysXXoug, some 
 persons entertained angels unawares. 
 
 7. A variety of other circumstances are expressed by join- 
 ing appropriate adjectives and participles, with s/jw : as, <pavs- 
 ?o£ ^v duwv, Ae sacrificed openly. 
 
 8. Strong and earnest desire is expressed by the imperfect or 
 second aonst of 6<psiXw, agreeing with its subject, and common- 
 ly followed by the infinitive ; the particle shs is sometimes join- 
 -ed with it and sometimes not ; as, 
 
 4$ ocpsXov vixav, I wish that 1 had not conquered. 
 AW efosXov ^sirni, Would to God I had staid. 
 
 9. Imperious duty or necessity is expressed by verbal adjectives 
 in -<reo£, (§ 84.) either agreeing with their substantives, or, what 
 is more usual, having their agents in the dative, and governing 
 their objects as the verbs do from which they are derived ; as, 
 6 ay ados \umg rifjwjrgps, the good man alone must be honoured, 
 
 10. In some cases there appears to be a pleonasm in the use 
 of certain auxiliaries, where there is really none ; for by ana- 
 lyzing the expressions, we^shall find every word have its own 
 distinct force ; thus, £*w.v sTvai iinXa^svog, is incorrectly trans- 
 lated forgetting willingly. The fall force of the words may 
 be expressed in English, thus, willing to be after forgetting, ac- 
 cording to the ancient Celtic idiom. (See No. 4. also Construc- 
 tion of the Participle.) 
 
96 VERBAL OR PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES. § 83, 84. 
 
 §83. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 The participle expresses the meaning of the verb in every 
 tense, considered as a general quality or condition of an ob- 
 ject ; as, 
 
 rj\6s teXg'flrwv, he came seeing. 
 
 €tcL<Sol$ xtxTwdcv Icjfvei ayrov, standing below he praised him. 
 
 Participles are varied like adjectives, by gender, number, and 
 case, to agree with substantives in these accidents. If the idea 
 of time be separated from the participle, it becomes an adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 Every tense, in the Greek verb, has its participle, a circum- 
 stance which gives the language a decided advantage over 
 the Latin, which has no present participle passive, nor past 
 participle active. 
 
 § 84. VERBAL or PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVES in 
 -tos and -reos. 
 
 The Greeks have verbal adjectives in -tos and -rsog, which, 
 both in signification and use, nearly resemble participles. They 
 are formed from the 3d pers. sing, of the perf. indicative pass, 
 by rejecting the augment, and changing -<rai into to£ or <rso$ ; 
 thus, 
 
 Perf. Pass. Verbal adj. 
 Xayw, J say , Xs'Xsxtch, XsxtoV, said, 
 
 y f a<pw, I write, yiygtxffrui, ygwirrog, written. 
 
 (p»Xsw, J love, irecpiXurai, cpihffk^ to be loved. 
 
 irsivw, I extend^ rsVarai, rariog, to be extended. 
 
 In some verbs, however, the vowel preceding the termina- 
 tion is changed ; thus, alfsw, perf. p. fyfflrm, adj. algsrog: 
 
 Obs. 1. The verbal adjectives in -roc: have commonly, though 
 not exclusively, a passive signification, and either correspond 
 to the Latin perfect participle passive ; as, ffoiijTo's, J ? actus, made ; 
 yyrki aggestus, ffrjstfTos, fiexus ; or, they convey the idea of 
 ability and capacity, expressed by the Latin adjectives in -His ; 
 thus, ojaro.c, visibilis, visible ; dxouefTo's, audible, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. Those in ts'os correspond to the Latin future parti- 
 ciple m -dus, and convey the idea of duty, necessity, or obliga- 
 tion ; as, <piXijrso£, amandus, who ought to be loved ; tforscs, biben- 
 dus, which ought to be drunk, • 
 
§ 85. ANALYSIS OF THE GREEK VERB. 97 
 
 Obs. 3. -T?ov, in the neuter, (among the Attics more com- 
 monly -rsa in the plural,) corresponds to the Latin gerund; 
 thus, tforsov (Attic rtoTsu) £<fri, bibendum est ; ifdhs^ria. l€?\ y 
 bdiandum est. 
 
 Note. For the construction of these adjectives, see Syntax. §235. Obs. 2. 
 
 OF THE CONJUGATION AND INFLECTION OF 
 THE VERB. 
 
 The conjugation of a verb, is the arranging of 
 its different moods and tenses according to a cer- 
 tain order. 
 
 1. There are two conjugations in Greek: the 
 first, of verbs in -ca, and the second, of verbs in ^ 
 
 2. The moods and tenses are characterized by 
 certain changes in the form of the verb, some of 
 which affect the beginning, some the termination., 
 and some the -root of the verb itself. 
 
 3. Each mood, in each tense, is inflected by 
 certain changes in the termination, which indi- 
 cate the number and person ; except the infinitive, 
 to which the distinctions of number and person 
 do not belong'. 
 
 § 85. ANALYSIS OF THE GREEK VERB. 
 In the form of the verb, two things are to be considered. 
 
 1 , The root, or that part which remains unchanged by in- 
 flection, (except as required by the laws of Euphony, § 6.) 
 and which serves as the bafeisi of all the different forms which 
 the verb assumes : and, 
 
 2. The mutable parts, w T hich, by the changes they undergo, 
 serve to point out the different moods l tenses, numbers, and per- 
 sons, 
 
 Of these there are two sorts, 
 1st. Those which affect the beginning of the verb, Usually 
 denominated the augment. • 
 
 2d. Those which affect the end of the verb, commonly call- 
 ed the termination. 
 
 9 
 
98 OF THE CHAEACTERISTIC § 86, 87. 
 
 I. OF THE ROOT. 
 
 § 86. DIFFERENT CLASSES OF VERBS. 
 
 Verbs are divided into three classes, denominated mute, pure y 
 and liquid, according as the final letter of the root is a mute, a 
 vowel, or a liquid, which from this circumstance is called the 
 Characteristic. 
 
 § 87. OF THE CHARACTERISTIC. 
 
 The Characteristic, or final letter of the root, in all primary 
 forms of the verb, is the letter next the termination, in the pre- 
 sent indicative; thus, y in Xlyw; tf in regtfu ; uinX^w; v in 
 <rsivw, &c. 
 
 Exc. But if, of two consonants, the last be either <r or a li- 
 quid, the first is the characteristic ; thus, nc in rutfrw and papx- 
 «rw ; x in *ww ; ^ in <rg/xvw. 
 
 Note, -r, and the second liquid, in all such verbs, have probably- 
 been inserted between the root and termination, in the present and im- 
 perfect, to strengthen the sound, In all the other tenses they are re- 
 jected. 
 
 Obs. Many verbs have a secondary form, in the present and imperfect, 
 which has come into general use, while the primary form has become 
 obsolete. The root of the primary form, nevertheless, remains the pro- 
 per root of the verb in the other tenses, and will be found in the first 
 future, by striking off -c-w. If the letter next preceding be a consonant, 
 it is the characteristic of the verb. If it be a vowel, this vowel is either 
 itself the characteristic, or the letter preceding the characteristic, which, 
 in that case, is always a r-mute, which has been omitted for the sake of 
 sound. (§ 6. 6. c.) This Obs. applies 
 
 1. To'verbs whose present indicative ends in -ovu (Attic -m>,) or -f«. 
 The primary form of these appears to have ended in -yw or -Sio ; and con- 
 sequently their characteristic is y or <5, according as they make -^w or -«r&> 
 in the first future ; thus, <■•'•'• 
 
 Secondary forms 7rpd-oou), -df-o), Kpa-£ov-a|a), (ppd-fa, -dow. 
 
 Primary forms irpdy-o), Kpdy-a), <ppd&-(». 
 
 Root npay, K 9^Yi (ppdS. 
 Characteristic y. " y. 6. 
 
 2. To verbs in -<r*cw, which are formed from pure verbs, by changing 
 o> into -ffKtt) ; thus, yrjpduKw, 1 fut. ynpdou, root yfipa ; characteristic a. 
 
 3. To the greater part of anomalous verbs, for which see §'161. 
 
§ 88, 89. OF THE SECOND ROOT. 99 
 
 § 88. OF FINDING AND CHANGING THE ROOT. 
 
 The root of any verb is found, by striking off from the pre- 
 sent indicative, in any voice, all that follows the characteristic ; 
 thus, Xs^-w, Wgtf-w, rutf-rw, ^aftf-<rw, oVa'X-Xw, rsfA-vw, &c. 
 
 In the same manner with verbs of a secondary form in the present, 
 after reducing them to their primary form ; thus, 
 
 Secondary form. Primary form. Root . 
 
 <pd%u), 1 fut. icpdi-oj, Kpoyo). Kpdy 
 
 rrpdaaa), 7rpafw 3 irpdyu)* npdy- 
 
 <ppd%u), (ppdaio, (ppdSw. <ppd§- 
 
 yypdcrKQ), yripdffb), yrjpdu. yfjpa- 
 
 Obs. Many verbs change the form of the root in the second 
 tenses, i. e. in the second future and second aorist ; and again 
 m the perfect and pluperfect middle ; which forms, for the sake 
 of distinction, may be termed the second and third roots, the 
 root of the present being the first. 
 
 §89. OF THE SECOND' ROOT. 
 
 The second root is always formed from the first, according to 
 the following 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. A long vowel in the first root is changed into a in the se- 
 cond ; thus, 
 
 fl^rfw, 1st R. ffyjtf- 2d R. tfatf- 
 
 2. In diphthongs, a is retained and s is rejected ; as, 
 
 1st R. 2d R. 1st R. 2d R, 
 
 XsjVgj, XsjV, XiV. 
 
 Exc. But liquid dissyllables change si into a ; polysyllables 
 into s] as, 
 
 Diss. ts[vw, 1st R. rsfv- 2d R. rav- 
 
 Polysyl. dysigu, uysig- *Y s g- 
 
 3. In dissyllables, s before or after a liquid, is changed into 
 
 (paivw, 
 
 oaiVj 
 
 pav 
 
 xaic*j, 
 
 xai, 
 
 xa. 
 
 ^rauw, 
 
 TOW, 
 
 tffc. 
 
100 OF THE THIRD ROOT, § 90. 
 
 
 IstR. 
 
 2d. R. 
 
 
 IstR. 
 
 2dR. 
 
 (Jg'fXOJ, 
 
 8igx- 
 
 Sagx. 
 
 (triWu t 
 
 tfXs'xw, 
 
 tfTg'X- 
 
 tfXgV 
 
 <f<raX- 
 tfXax- 
 
 Exc. But s remains unchanged after X, in Xsyw, /3XsVwj 
 pXgyw. 
 
 4. Pure verbs in -aw and -g'w, reject the a and s ; as ? 
 <njuuxw, 1st R. n^<x- 2d R. <n/x- 
 
 (piXgw ? (pike- <piX~ 
 
 § 90. OF THE THIRD ROOT 
 
 The third root is always formed from the second, according 
 to the following . 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. e $ of the second root, is changed, into o in the third ; as ? 
 
 Verb. IstR, 2d R. 3d R. 
 
 Xeyw, ' Xs'y* Xsy- Xoy- 
 
 dyei^Wj aysig- ays£~ ayog- 
 
 2. a] of the second root, from s or si in the first,- is changed 
 into o in the third ; as, . . 
 
 lstR 2dR e 3d'R... 
 
 #X&w ? irXsx- #Xax- x\ox- 
 
 GfrtsigWy tfireig- <fara£- oVog- 
 
 rsivw, «rsiv- . <7av- rov- 
 
 3. « of the second root, from si of the first, is changed into 
 oi ; as, 
 
 1st. '2d. . 3d. 
 
 XsiVwj XsiV- Xi«7f- Xoj<tt- 
 
 4. a of the second root, from v\ or ai of the first, is changed 
 into y\ in the third ; as, 
 
 *> • 1st. 2d. 3d.. 
 
 tfr^w, Cv\r,- (Sati- <fy#- 
 
 {pecivw, 9a«v- <pav- (prjv- 
 
 likewise 0aXXw, 0aX- ^X- 
 
§ 91, 92. 
 
 OF THE TENSB ROOT. 
 
 101 
 
 § 91. OF VERBS WHICH WANT THE SECOND 
 AND THIRD ROOTS. 
 
 Many verbs want the second tenses, and perfect middle, and conse- 
 quently the second and third Roots ; these are, 
 1« Verbs in -ow. 
 
 2. Pure polysyllables, which have v in the penult; as, fiaetietiu. 
 
 3. Verbs in -aw and -ew, after a vowel ; as, law, ttotlu ; and likewise, 
 with few exceptions, those which have more or less than three sylla- 
 bles. 
 
 § -92. OF THE TENSE ROOT. 
 
 In some of the tenses, certain letters are introduced between 
 the root of the verb and the termination. 
 
 1 . In mute and pure verbs these are. 
 
 1 Future, 
 
 1 Aorist, 
 
 2 Future, 
 
 In liquid verbs, 
 
 1 Future, 
 
 1 Aorist, 
 
 2 Future, 
 
 Act. 
 
 rtf- 
 
 Mid. 
 
 -s- 
 
 Pass, 
 
 These letters may be denominated szg-ns of the tenses in which 
 they occur, and being added to the root of the verb, form the 
 Tense Root ; which remains unchanged throughout the in- 
 flection of each tense* In all the other tenses, the termination 
 is added to the Verb Root, which, on this account, in each 
 tense except the above, is also the tense root. 
 
 WORDS FOR PRACTICE ON THE PRECEDING RULES. 
 
 tvtttw, I strike. 
 >iyw, 1 say. 
 XaipUf 1 rejoice. 
 
 OTTtipU), I sow. 
 
 rpi<pu), I nourish. 
 ayo), I lead. 
 Kpdfy, 1 cry aloud. 
 B&Woi, least. 
 7ctf6v, I persuade. 
 
 \diru), I ham. 
 ttA^w, I fold. 
 Tpuyw, I cat. 
 dfpsiXu, I owe. 
 IxdpiTTU)) I seize* 
 
 Trpaffffw, J do. 
 
 (fydfy, I say. 
 (paivu, I shew. 
 apirdfw, I plunder o 
 
 9* 
 
 fciSu), I fear. 
 tiSdcKU), I learn. 
 rpsTTco i I turn. 
 (uaivu), I pollute* 
 Trip-no)) I send. 
 pivot, I remain. 
 vifxd), I assign. 
 Trotew, I make. 
 crAAo^ / send. 
 
102 OP THE AUGMENT. 
 
 II. THE MUTABLE PARTS OF THE VERB. 
 
 The mutable parts of the verb are those which, by the 
 changes they undergo, serve to point out the different moods r 
 tenses, numbers, and persons. These are two, the augment 
 and the termination. § 85. 2» 
 
 § 93. OF THE AUGMENT. 
 
 The indicative mood of the imperfect and aorists, and also 
 the perfect and pluperfect, receives an augment prefixed to the 
 root, according to the following 
 
 GENERAL RULES. 
 
 1. If the verb begin with a consonant, the augment e is pre- 
 fixed ; as, ruffrw, eVwrov, sru-^a. 
 
 2. The perfect also reduplicates the initial consonant, and 
 retains the augment through all the moods; as, *w<rw, -rsVtxpa, 
 
 T8-7(J(pW, &C 
 
 Exc. 1. But. the aspirate reduplicates its own smooth ;■ as, 
 (palvw, ^scpotyxa, 
 
 Exc. 2. Verbs beginning with yv 3 <pd, and tf before or 
 after a consonant, do not Reduplicate the initial consonant j as 
 also xrsivw ] as, y vow, Perf. syvcoxa ; (p&iu % Perf. e<p0ixa ; -^siSw, 
 Perf. -IfysvnoL ; tfirsvSu, stitfsvxa. 
 
 Note. 1. The pluperfect receives a double augment in the indicative, 
 by prefixing e to the augment of the perfect ; as, 'rt-rvfa, i-re-rvcpeiv. . 
 
 Note. 2. The paulo pout future receives the same augment with the 
 perfect. 
 
 3. If the verb begin with a, s, o, or au, cu, oi, the initial vowel 
 is changed into its own long, and i of the diphthong sub- 
 scribed ; aS, AvUTGd, rjYOTQV J OlfcSW, WX50V, &C. 
 
 Exc. 1. £ is often changed into a ; as, l^w, ^ov. 
 
 2. In verbs beginning with w, e is unchanged and o is augmented ; 
 
 as, lepra Jw, iupra^ov, &C. 
 
 IVbie. In all verbs under this rule, the pluperfect does not receive a 
 new augment. 
 
 4 r If the verb begin with any other vowel or diphthong, it is 
 not augmented ; as, ixogtof, ixo^v. 
 
 Ok. 1. If the augment increase the number of syllables, it 
 is called the syllabic augment. This belongs to all verbs be- 
 ginning with a consonant. 
 
 Obs. 2. If it do not increase the number of syllables, but 
 
§ 94, 95. OF THE FINAL LETTERS. 103 
 
 merely lengthen the first syllable of the root, it is called the 
 temporal augment. This belongs to all verbs under rule 3. 
 
 N. B. For the varieties and exceptions under these rules, 
 see § 125 .to 128. 
 
 § 94. OF THE TERMINATION. 
 
 The terminations are added immediately to the Tense Root, 
 and consist of two parts ; 1st, the vowel or diphthong, which 
 indicates the mood, and hence denominated the mood-vowel ; and 
 2d, the final letters, which indicate the number and person, 
 
 I. OF THE MOOD VOWEL. 
 
 The mood-vowels of the indicative are either short or doubt- 
 ful (except in the pluperf. act. and mid. which have always si); of 
 the subjunctive always long ; of the optative always a diphthong, 
 
 Note.. The particular mood-vowels in each person and number, as 
 also in the imperative, infinitive, and participles, will be seen in th& 
 following tables of terminations, § 98. 
 
 § 95. II. OF THE FINAL LETTERS. - 
 
 The. final letters, which, with the mood- vowels, form the ter- 
 inations, are as follows : 
 
 I. ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 For the chief tenses, 
 
 (§80. 
 
 For the secondary te 
 
 Obs. 3.) 
 
 
 (§ 80. Obs. 3.) 
 
 1. 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 1. 2. 3. 
 
 Sing, -o, ~ig, 
 
 -J. 
 
 - y , ->> — 
 
 Dual. htgv, 
 
 -T0V. 
 
 -roVj -<n?v. 
 
 Plur. -fAsv, -ts, 
 
 -VTtfj. 
 
 <-ja£V, -7S, -V. 
 
 Exc. The perfect active and middle have the same final 
 letters as the chief tenses, except in the singular, which, in- 
 stead of -o, -i£, -i, as above,, has — , -g, — . 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Pres. &c. -iv, Perf. & Plup. -va*, 1 Aor. -* 
 
 Sing. -0/, 
 
 -7W. 
 
 \ PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Dual, -tov, 
 
 -TWV. 
 
 V Pres. &c. -ov, .vrtfa, -v. ) 
 
 Plur. -76, 
 
 -rwo'ay. 
 
 ) 1 Aor. -vrg -vrtfa, -v. $ 
 
104 
 
 INFLECTION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 §96. 
 
 . MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 For the chief tenses. For the secondary tenses. 
 
 1. 
 
 2 
 
 3, 
 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Sing, juiai, 
 
 -tfccf, 
 
 -TOLl. 
 
 
 ■fMJVj 
 
 ■-tfoi 
 
 -TO. 
 
 Dlial. |X£0OV, 
 
 .(Tflov, 
 
 -tr^qv. 
 
 
 - 4 us£ov 7 
 
 -ar#iv, 
 
 -(T0*)V. 
 
 Plur. fxeda, 
 
 -tfte, 
 
 -v-rai. 
 
 
 -{xs#a, 
 
 -trte, 
 
 -VTO. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 
 
 -<r0ai. 
 
 
 Sing. -Co, 
 
 -tfdw. 
 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 
 Dual. -tf#ov, 
 
 -tfdojv. 
 
 
 -/xsvo£, 
 
 -fASVl],- 
 
 -ffcSVOV 
 
 Plur. -<rfc, 
 
 -o^wcfav 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Q6s. 1. The subjunctive^ throughout the whole verb, adopts 
 the final letters of the chief tenses of the indicative, and 
 
 Obs. 2. The optative adopts those of the secondary tenses. 
 
 Exc. In the optative of the 1 aor. act., the final letters for 
 the 1st pers. sing, are -^u, and for the 3d pers. pi. -sv. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the imperative active, 0i is generally dropped ; 
 and in the 1 aor. act. instead of -a0i, the usual termination is 
 -ov ; and in the middle, instead of -octfo, the usual ending is -oll 
 
 Also, in the other tenses, instead of the full form -stfo in the 
 middle and passive, the .tf is omitted, and the remaining so is 
 contracted into ou. 
 
 § 96. INFLECTION DP THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 a. Chief Tenses. 
 
 [M- vowels and fin. letters 
 divided. 
 
 The same combined. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 3„ 
 
 Sing, o-o, 
 
 *-'*> 
 
 S-J. 
 
 -w," 
 
 -si$, 
 
 -Sh 
 
 Dual 
 
 • s-roVj 
 
 S-70V. 
 
 
 -srov, 
 
 -STpV. 
 
 Plur. o-jtxsv, 
 
 S-T5, 
 
 o-vrtfi. 
 
 -0jX£V, 
 
 -sre, 
 
 -outfi. § 6.6.(o) 
 
 Exc. 1. The perfect active and middle, which have the same termina- 
 tions, have for their mood-vowel a in all the persons and numbers ex- 
 cept the 3d pers. sing, which has s. Also they have no final letter in 
 the 1st nor 3d pers. sing., making the terminations -a, -as, -s; Dual -aw, 
 <fcc. 
 
§96. 
 
 INFLECTION OP THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 105 
 
 b. Secondary Tenses. 
 M-vowels and fin* letters The same combined. 
 
 Sing. 
 Dual. 
 Plur. 
 
 divided. 
 1. 2. 
 
 o-v, s-£, 
 s-rov, 
 
 0-JUL5V, S-Tc, 
 
 3. 
 
 £-. 
 
 o-v. 
 
 1. 
 
 -ov, 
 
 -OjUlSV, 
 
 2. 
 
 -ffTOV, 
 
 3, 
 
 -sr^v. 
 -ov. 
 
 Exe. 2. The pluperfect active and middle have for their mood-vowel 
 si, in all the persons and numbers, and end the third pers. pi. in -cav ; 
 thus, -civ, -eig, -ei, &c. ; 3d pers. plur. -uoav. 
 
 2. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 The terminations of the subjunctive mood, through all the 
 tenses, are formed by prefixing its mood-vowels to the final let- 
 ters of the chief tenses ; thus, 
 
 The same combined. 
 
 M-vowels and fin. 
 divided. 
 
 letters 
 
 1. 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 Sing. w-V *H£, 
 Dual. «H*v, 
 
 Plur. W-fASV, l^-Tff, 
 
 ij'-i. 
 
 71-TOV. 
 
 1. 
 
 2, 
 
 3. 
 
 -w, 
 
 J# 
 
 ??« 
 
 
 QfJTOV, 
 
 TJTOV, 
 
 -W/JLSV, 
 
 rirs, 
 
 wtfi. § 6. 6. (o.) 
 
 3. OPTATIVE MOOD. 
 
 . The terminations of the optative mood, through all the tenses, 
 are formed by prefixing its mood-vowels to the final letters of 
 the secondary tenses of the indicative j the exception mention- 
 ed § 95. 2. being observed. The 1 aor. has ai for oi as 
 M- vowel. 
 
 M-vowels and fin. letters 
 . divided. 
 
 The same combined. 
 
 foing. 
 Dual 
 Plur. 
 
 1. 
 
 oi-fu,~ 
 
 OJ-JJ^V, 
 
 2. 
 
 oi-rov, 
 oi-ts, 
 
 3. 
 
 Of-, 
 
 01-T^V. 
 
 OJ-SV. 
 
 1. 
 
 .ojjX;, 
 
 2. 
 
 -ok, 
 
 -0IT0V, 
 
 -oirs, 
 
 3. 
 
 -o;« 
 -oiVtjv^ 
 
 -ojsv. 
 
 -QlfASV, 
 4. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The termination -Qi of the 2d pers. sing, is commonly drop- 
 ped. The 1st aor. has here also a as a M- vowel, and -ov in 
 the 2d pers. sing. 
 
 The same combined. 
 
 M-vowels and fin. letters di- 
 
 • 
 
 
 vided. 
 
 
 . 
 
 2. 
 
 3. 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 *-, 
 
 S-TGJ, 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 e-rov 
 
 , S-TWV, 
 
 
 Plur. 
 
 Wff, 
 
 s-TwCav, 
 
 & o.vtwv. 
 
 2. 
 
 -srov, 
 
 -&FS. 
 
 3. 
 
 -sVw. 
 
 -£<ra>v. 
 
 -eVojCav & o'vrwv. 
 
106 INFLECTION OF MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICES. § 97, 
 
 5. INFINITIVE. 
 
 M-vowels and fin. letters divided. The same combined. 
 s-jv 3 perf. s-vai, 1 aor. a-i. -siv,.perf. -svai, 1 aor. -ai. 
 
 6. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 M- vowels and fin. letters divided. The same combined. 
 
 m: f. n. m. f. , $. 
 
 o-ov, o-vrtfa, o-v. -wv, *outfa, -ov. 
 
 Excep. Terminations of the perfect -«$, -wa, -off, of the 1 
 aor. -affj -atfoc, -av. 
 
 §97 c INFLECTION OP THE MIDDLE AND PAS- 
 SIVE VOICES. 
 
 The perf. and pluperf. mid. have the same terminations with 
 the active. In the other tenses the mood- vowels are the same 
 in the middle and passive voices as in the corresponding moods 
 and tenses in the active voice. ' 
 
 Exc. 1. In the 1 aor. indicative mid. the mood- vowel is a 
 throughout ; arid the 2d pers. sing, of the imperative ends in*. 
 
 2. In the 1st and 2d aor. pass, the terminations properly be- 
 long to the 2nd conjugation. 
 
 3. In the perf. and pluperf. pass, the mood- vowels are drop- 
 ped, and the final letters (which in this case are the termina- 
 tions) affixed immediately to the root. But when by so doing, 
 the concurrence of consonants is such as to be difficult to pro- 
 nounce, the cacophony is avoided by substituting a circumlo'cu- 
 
 • tion of the participle and the verb sl^L 
 
 Obs. The mood-vowels and final letters, when combined, are the same 
 as when divided, except in the 2d pers. sing, in which -o- of the final 
 letters is rejected, and the remaining concurrent vowels are combined 
 by contraction ; thus, e-cai, eai contr. p (§ 39. R. v. exc.) rj-cat, ijai, contr 
 $. ($ 39. R. vni.) s-ffo, to, contr. ou, (§39. R. n.) aao, ao contr. <u. (§39, 
 R. VII. 1.) oi-oo into oio ; and aiao into ato, not contracted. These re- 
 marks, without farther illustration,- will be obvious from the following 
 
§ 98. 
 
 TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 
 
 107 
 
 § 98. TABLES OF TERMINATIONS, 
 I. ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cfe/ Tenses. 
 
 
 
 Pres. 1st and 2d Fut. 
 
 S. -W, -U$, -£{. 
 D- •tTOV, -£TOV. 
 P. 'OflEVj -£T£, -OVCrt, 
 
 Perfect. j 
 
 -a, -as, -e. j 
 -arov, -arov. j 
 -a//£v, -arc, -act. 
 
 1st AorisL 
 
 
 Secondary Tenses. 
 
 
 
 Imperf. and 2d A or. 
 
 S. -ov } -eg, -£. 
 D. -frov, -rr»7v. 
 
 P. -0/*£V, -£T£, -0V. 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 -civ, -a?,' -a. 
 
 'CLT0V 9 "EIT7JV. 1 
 
 -£<^£v, -are, * -£t<7av. | 
 
 ~a, -as, 
 
 •arov, 
 -af«£Vj -are, 
 
 'drtftr. 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 
 S. -<0, -flj, 
 D. -J7TOV, 
 
 P. -Wfisv, -»7rf, 
 
 'V* 
 
 -TJTOV, 
 
 The same. 
 
 The same, 
 
 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 
 
 8. • o«/*i, -ois, 
 D. . -dtroVj 
 P. -oifxtv, -oirs t 
 
 -01. 
 
 'oirrjv. 
 -Qiev* 
 
 ' The same, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 -aipi, -ais 9 
 
 -aiTov, 
 'CUfAtv, -aire, 
 
 •au 
 
 -auv. 
 
 S. -£,. -ero>. 
 
 D. -STOP, -fTWV. 
 
 -fT£, -iriacav, 
 
 OF -OVTWV. 
 
 The same. 
 
 i i 
 
 •ov, 
 
 ~arov 9 
 -are, 
 or 
 
 -dra)* 
 -dra>y. 
 
 •aVT0)V> 
 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 
 
 -£iV. 
 
 
 I -tvai. 
 
 -at. 
 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 N. -wv, -ovtra, 
 G. -ovro?, -ovaris, 
 
 -us, 
 
 •OTOS, 
 
 •via, 
 -vtas, 
 
 • og. 
 
 OTOS> 
 
 -as, 
 
 -avro'Sj 
 
 -aca, 
 -dens, 
 
 -av. 
 
 -avros, 
 
 Obs. In the above table all the terminations in the first column be- 
 long to the present, 1st aod 2d aor. imperf. and 2d aorist. All those in 
 the 2d, to the perfect and pluperfect ; and all those in the 3d, to the 1st 
 aorist. 
 
10S 
 
 TABLES OF TERMINATIONS. 
 
 §96* 
 
 II. MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Chief Tenses. 
 
 Prts. 1st 8? 2d future. 
 
 S. -ofiai, -r\, -trai. 
 
 D. -ofieOov, 'eadoVf -soBov. 
 
 P. 'OjxtOa, ~zo6t, 'OVTai. 
 
 1st Aorist. 
 
 Secondary Tenses. 
 
 P. 
 
 Jmperf. 
 
 -0[A£da f 
 
 2d AorisU 
 
 -OV, -£TQ. 
 •£oBov, 'iffdrjv* 
 -£<rd£. 'OVTO. 
 
 
 'dfiT)V, 
 
 -apeBov, 
 -ajAzBa, 
 
 -Si), 
 
 -acBov, 
 
 -ato'. 
 - dcQqv. 
 •avro* 
 
 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 IX 
 
 "Ufi£8a } 
 
 -yjgBqv, 
 
 -Tjrai. 
 
 -rjaBov, 
 
 'divrau 
 
 
 
 The same. 
 
 
 
 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 D; 
 P. 
 
 'Oifxrjv, 
 
 -oipeBov, 
 
 'OijfxeBay 
 
 'OlO, 
 
 -oiadov t 
 -QicBz, 
 
 'OITO. 
 
 'OiaBrjv. 
 
 'QIVTO. 
 
 
 •aifisBoP, 
 . -aifxeBa f 
 
 -aw, 
 "-aicBov, ' 
 -aicde, 
 
 •atTQ. 
 
 -aioBrjv. 
 
 -an/ro« 
 
 
 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 
 -ov f 
 
 -tcrBov, 
 
 "tods, 
 
 -£ff6(t>V. 
 
 'iarBwvav. 
 
 
 -ai, 
 
 ~aaBov, 
 -acBs, 
 
 -doBdi. 
 -ucBq)v« 
 
 -doBwaav 
 
 
 
 
 
 INFINITIVE . 
 
 
 
 
 
 •toBat. 
 
 
 I 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 -uaBai 
 
 
 N 
 
 <~4 
 
 '6fi£vog f 
 •ophov, 
 
 -opivrit 
 -opivw, 
 
 '6jX£VOV. 
 
 'Ofiivov* 
 
 
 -tifitvos, 
 -apivov f 
 
 'ay.(vt] s 
 -anivfjs, 
 
 -dptvov. 
 
 'afxivov. 
 
 Obs. In the above table of the middle voice, the terminations of the 
 Perf. and Pluperf. are omitted, being the same throughout as those o£ 
 tiae Perf, and Pluperf. active. » 
 
§98. 
 
 TABLE OF TERMINATIONS. 
 
 109 
 
 III. PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 For the terminations of the pres. imperf. 1st, 2d, and 3d fut. see the 
 same tenses in the first column of the preceding table. The termina- 
 tions of the perfect and pluperfect, and of the first and second aorists 3 
 are as follows : 
 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE MOODo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Chief Tenses. 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 -jAtdoVf 
 
 Perfect, 
 -eat, 
 
 -oBov t 
 -oQs, 
 
 -rat. 
 
 -G&OV. 
 
 -vrai. 
 
 Secondary Tenses, 
 
 Isf #w2 2a 
 
 I AorisH 
 
 
 Pluperfea 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 S. 
 £>. 
 P. 
 
 -fitBoV, 
 
 '(TO, 
 
 -oBov, 
 
 'TO, J -tft/, 
 
 -cdtjv, 
 
 -VTQ* -IJflW, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 -qtrw, 
 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 -h, 
 
 -rfrovf 
 
 -JJTOV, 
 
 
 -rjre, 
 
 -ff* 
 
 -tJTOV. 
 -WW. 
 
 
 
 
 OPTATIVE* 
 
 
 
 S. 
 P. 
 
 -pivot, -£ir)T0V f 
 
 -pivoi twptVf 't\r)Tt, 
 
 -slfirtjv. 
 
 -tfjinav* J -tlriptv % 
 
 -eitfrov, 
 'SirjTSf 
 
 -ei^-njv, 
 'tfrjuav* 
 
 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE k 
 
 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 
 -cBov, 
 
 -cBuv* I 
 
 INFINITIVE* 
 
 »rjrqv, 
 
 -firm 
 
 ~f)T(*V, 
 '$TV9aV> 
 
 
 
 ~vBau 
 
 1 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 -vvai 
 
 
 N. 
 
 M. 
 
 -pivot, 
 -pivov, 
 
 F. 
 
 ■tpivrj, 
 -pivW, 
 
 ?■ 1 
 
 -ptVQV* 
 
 -pivov* 
 
 M. 
 
 F. 
 
 -flea, 
 
 N. 
 
 10 
 
110 TENSES 0*' MUTE AND I*URE VERBS. § 99. 
 
 § 99. FORMATION OF THE TENSES OF MUTE 
 AND PURE VERBS. 
 
 GENERAL RULE FOR ALL TENSES. 
 
 In all voices the tenses are formed by prefixing the augment, 
 in the augmented tenses, and affixing the terminations, in the 
 preceding tables, to the Tense Roots, § 92. But as the tense 
 root of the present frequently differs from the verb-root (§ 87. 
 Exc. and Obs.), it may be easier for the beginner to form the 
 tenses as follows ; viz. 
 
 1 . In all the voices the imperfect is formed from the present, 
 by prefixing the augment (§ 93.), and changing the chief or 
 primary termination into the secondary ; as, 
 
 Pres. Ti5tfT«, Imperf sVutfrov, <rutf<roju,ai 3 &wtojuw]v. 
 
 Xct|&§oovw, sXa|x€oovov, Xa^€otvo/xai, £Xajx€avof/.rjV* 
 
 sugitfxw. eugi&xov, svgiGxopaiy $v^x6^r\v. 
 
 2. The other tenses are formed immediately from the verfc 
 root, by prefixing the proper augments in the augmented 
 tenses, and annexing certain terminations in the different 
 voices, as follows ; viz. in the 
 
 Active. Middle. Passive. 
 
 1 Fut. -tf-w, -tf-ofAai, -^tf-ojxa*, 
 
 2 Fut. -s-w, contr. w, -£-o/xai, contr. ou/xai, -Tja'-ofjt.ai, 
 
 1 A or. -C-a, -tf-a/XTjv, -0-*]v, 
 
 2 Aor. -ov, -6/jwjv, -7]v, 
 Perf. -aorxa, § 101. 2. -a, -jxai, 
 Pluperf. -siv or xsiv. -siv. -j//yjv, 
 Paulo-post-fut. -C-ofAocf. 
 
 Obs. The above terminations, formed by prefixing the sign 
 of the tense to the simple terminations, are added — 
 to the 1st Root, to .form the 1st fut. and 1st aor. in all the voices, 
 and the perfect and pluperfect active and pas- 
 sive, as also the paulo-post-future. 
 to the 2d Rooty to form the 2d fut. and 2d aor. in all the voices, 
 
 and 
 to the 3d Root, to form the perfect and pluperfect middle. 
 
 N. B. In combining the root and terminations, the rules foi 
 the omission and change of letters (§ 6. 6.), must be carefully 
 observed. 
 
 The formation of the different tenses, by the combination of 
 the various parts, as above stated, may be illustrated by the fol- 
 lowing example. 
 
§ 100, 101, FORMATION OP THE TENSES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 § 100. SYNOPSIS OP THE VERB. 
 
 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 The different parts divided. 
 
 
 The same combined 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Root. 
 
 \ein-a) f 
 
 
 X«7TW. 
 
 Imperf. 
 
 
 £-,Xe(7r-ov, 
 
 
 e\enrov. 
 
 lFut. 
 
 1. 
 
 XfitV-ffco, 
 
 
 Xeirpoj. § 6. 6. a» 
 
 2 Fut. 
 
 2. 
 
 \nr-iw, 
 
 eontr. 
 
 Xi™. § 38. V. 
 
 1 Aor. 
 
 1. 
 
 £-As(7r-o-a, 
 
 
 eXenpa. § 6. 6. a. 
 
 2 Aor. 
 
 2. 
 
 l-Atrr-ov, 
 
 
 eXtKov. 
 
 Perf. 
 
 1. 
 
 \i-Xeiir-a, 
 
 
 Xf'Xa^a. § 6. 2. Obs. 1. 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 1. 
 
 i-\£-\tiTT-elv, 
 
 
 iXeXetysiv. § 6. 2. Obs. I 
 
 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Root. 
 
 XetTT'O/jiai, 
 
 
 'Xeiiroftau 
 
 Imperf. 
 
 
 i'\tnz-6jxrjv t 
 
 
 i\ein6[XT]v. 
 
 IFut. 
 
 1. 
 
 \eiTT-cofJiai, 
 
 
 \eiipopai. § 6. 6. a. 
 
 2 Fat. 
 
 2. 
 
 Xl7T-£0/iat, 
 
 contr. 
 
 Xl7TOl///ai. § 38. II. 
 
 1 Aor. 
 
 1. 
 
 l-Xeiir-adjiriv, 
 
 
 i\€i^djxr]v- § 6. 6. a. 
 
 2 Aor. 
 
 2. 
 
 i-Xnr-djxijv, 
 
 
 «Ai7nfyi»7V. 
 
 Perf. 
 
 3. 
 
 \i-\oiir-a, 
 
 
 XfXot?ra. 
 
 Piuperf. 
 
 3. 
 
 J-Xc-Xo/jr-av, 
 
 
 JX£Xot7rav. 
 
 
 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 Pres. 
 
 Root. 
 
 \eirr-ojiaiy 
 
 
 Xfnro^at. 
 
 Imperf. 
 
 
 i-\ciir-6firjv t 
 
 
 i\£iir6fi.r}v. 
 
 1 Fut. 
 
 1. 
 
 Xenr drjaofiaif 
 
 
 \£Kp6fj<T0fX<XL. § 6c 2. 
 
 2 Fut. 
 
 2. 
 
 ^nr-riao^aiy 
 
 
 X(7r>yco/>iai. 
 
 1 Aor. 
 
 1. 
 
 i~\siir-6tiv, 
 
 
 eXe'Kpdriv. § 6. 2. 
 
 2 Aor. 
 
 2. 
 
 i XlV-tfV, 
 
 
 iXnr??*/. 
 
 Perf. 
 
 1. 
 
 \e-\enr-fxaif 
 
 
 AAs^ai. $ 6. 6. d. 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 1. 
 
 eXe-XeiTr-iirjVf 
 
 
 iXeXeipfiriv. § 6. 6. d. 
 
 Paulo-post-fut. 
 
 I. Xs-XetTT-ffOjxaij 
 
 
 Xshtixpofxai. § 6. 6. a. 
 
 
 
 <5 101. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1. Pure verbs in aw, sw, and ow, change the short vowel into 
 its own long before a consonant ; as, 
 
 (piXs'w, Root (p;Xs-, 1 fut. (piX^w ; perf. crspfX^xa, &c. 
 
 To this rule there are several exceptions, for which see § 
 132, 133, 134. 
 
 2. Verbs whose characteristic is a tf-mute, or a x-mute, form 
 the perfect active by adding the aspirated a, and the pluperfect 
 by adding -s!v ; which, combining with the preceding tf-mute 
 make pa, psjv ; and with the x-mute %a, p^siv. All other verbs 
 add xa, xsiv. 
 
 3. Verbs whose characteristic is ar-mute, reject it before a 
 consonant in the active and middle voices, and change it into 
 £ in the passive ; as, 
 
112 FORMATION OF THE TENSES OF LiaiTID VERBS. § 102* 
 
 Active <pfa£cj ; Root <p£a<5- ; 1 fut. pja-tfw, perf. tfi<pfa-xa. 
 
 Middle 1 fut. (pfa-tfojxou. 
 
 Passive 1 fut. (pgcttf&qtfopai ; 1 aor. Spf ottf^v ; p&rf. rfs<pfa0>a?. 
 
 4. Pure verbs which have s, or a doubtful vowel, or a diph- 
 thong before the termination, insert a before a consonant in the 
 passive voice ; as, 
 
 ysXocw, 1 fut. pass, yskad^o^on ; 1 aor. sysXatf^v, &c. 
 
 To this rule there are many exceptions, for which see § 139. 
 
 § 102. FORMATION OF THE TENSES OF LIQUID 
 
 VERBS. 
 
 In forming the tenses, Liquid verbs differ from mute and pure 
 verbs in three respects ; viz. 
 
 1st. In respect of the first l root, as follows. 
 Rule a. If the first root contain a diphthong, it is shortened 
 in the 1st fut. by rejecting the last of the two vowels ; thus 3 
 The 1st Root tsiv- in the 1st fut. becomes tsv. 
 
 <pouv- (pay, &c. 
 
 Rule h. If the root be short* it is lengthened in the 1st aor, 
 by changing s into s*, and lengthening the- doubtful vowels; 
 as, 
 
 cVs'XXw, 1 Root, cVsX-, in the 1st aor. oVsiX-, 
 
 4<aXXw, N^aX-, ^otX-, <&c. 
 
 2d. In respect of the tense root^ in the 1 f. and 1 a. active and 
 middle, § 92. 2. . 
 
 Rule a. The first future active and middle in liquid verbs ? . 
 is formed by adding a'w and £ojxai to the first root ; as, 
 cVs'XXw, 1st root tfrsX- ; 1 fut. oVsXs'w, contr. oVsXw. 
 <rsivw, 1st root in the fut. csv- ; 1 fut. <rsvs'w, contr. «r§vw. 
 
 Rule b. Instead of -tfa and -tfaju/yjv, the first aor. act. and 
 mid. adds -a and cc/xtjv to the 1st root ; as, 
 
 flVs'XXw, root in 1 aor. gVsiX, (Lb.) 1 aor. act. stfrsiXa, M. stf- 
 TSiXa/ji/^v. 
 
 3d. In respect of the root from which the perfect and pluper- 
 fect active and passive are formed. 
 
 Rule. In liquid verbs the perfect and pluperfect act. and 
 pass, add their terminations to the 2d root, and not to the first. 
 
 In other respects, the tenses of liquid verbs are formed as 
 the corresponding tenses of mute or pure verbs. These points 
 
§103. SPECIAL RULES. 113 
 
 of difference will be manifest, by comparing the active voice of 
 the following verbs with the active voice of XsiVw, § 100. 
 
 EXAMPLE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE OF LIQUID VERBS. 
 
 Root. 
 
 Pres. 1. flVsif-w. tfrs'XX-w, cpaiv-w. 
 
 Imp. 1. ?-<frre»g-ov. g-<xVgXX-ov. g-<paiv-ov. 
 
 1 Fut. 1. tftfg^.gw, Gi flVsX-sw, u. <pav-gw, w. 
 
 2 Fut. 2. tftfaf-g'w, w. tfraX-sw, w. cpav-gw, w. 
 
 1 Aor. 1. l-tfrrsif-a. g-aVgiX-a. g-<pftv-a. 
 
 2 Aor. 2. I'-Ccraf-ov. g-aVaX-ov. s-qjav-ov. 
 
 Perf. 2. s-aVaf-xa. , g-tfraX-xa. tfg-<pav-xa, tficpayxa. 
 
 Pluperf. 2. £-<firag-xsn. gVraX-xsiv. gVg-<pav-xsiv, gVepayxsiv. 
 
 § 103. SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1. In verbs whose characteristic is /x, when, by inflection, it 
 would stand before a consonant, they are separated by interpos- 
 ing rj ; as, vg'.aw, perf. act. vgvg|x->]-xa ; 1 fut. pass. vs/x-yj-^tTofxaj ; 
 perf. pass. vsvg'ix-Ti-fjiai. 
 
 So also /3<xXXw and jxsvw. 
 
 2. Dissyllables in -eivw, -ivw f -uvw, reject v before a conso 
 aant ; as, 
 
 «ivw, 2 root Tav-, perf. <rg'raxa, &c. 
 xj ivw, xf iv-, xe'xfixa, &c. 
 
 duvw, jfov-j rg'duxa, &c. 
 
 Exc. But v remains in xrgi'vw and *Xj5vw. 
 
 The preceding Analysis, beginning at § 85, contains a com- 
 plete view of the Greek verb ; anU it is believed that a more 
 thorough, comprehensive, and philosophical knowledge of this 
 most important part of Greek Grammar, can be obtained by 
 studying it in this way, in a shorter time than in any other. 
 Those, however, who prefer to study it otherwise, may pass 
 over the preceding 18 sections, and proceed directly to the Pa- 
 radigms. The following tables, in which no other arrange- 
 ment of tenses is sought than to bring those together which 
 agree in termination, will present the whole of each voice at 
 one view in the shortest space possible, and contribute to the 
 facility of acquiring an accurate knowledge of the verb, by 
 enabling the student to compare readily the different parts with 
 each other. They will also shew, that though the Greek lan- 
 guage is rich beyond every other, in the number of verbal 
 forms, yet the variety of terminations is so very small that the 
 knowledge of them may be easily acquired, 
 
 10* 
 
114 
 
 TABLE OF THE 
 
 §10*. 
 
 § 104. I. TABLE OF THE— 
 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tmwi- — 
 
 Tense.- 
 
 Root. 
 
 Sing.. Da— 
 
 Present. 
 
 Tutfr- V 
 
 
 
 I Future.- 
 
 TU-S^- > Uy 
 
 •fSy -% 
 
 -STOVj 
 
 2 Future- 
 
 <ru<?rs- j 
 
 
 
 Perfect. 
 1 Aorist. 
 
 rs-7vcp- ) 
 irw^- y * 
 
 iftv "fl 
 
 -arovj 
 
 Imperfect.- 
 
 
 -<?£ -B 
 
 -etov,. 
 
 2 Aorist. 
 
 w *r j 
 
 
 Pluperfect. £-rs-<ru<j)- siv, 
 
 •*» ~% 
 
 -ewov r 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Present & ImperfT 
 
 Tutfr-A 
 
 
 
 I Aorist. 
 
 «ru%L- f 
 
 
 
 2 Aorist. 
 
 <rutf- r 5 
 
 ■flPr 1R* 
 
 -IJTOV,, 
 
 Perfect & Pluperi 
 
 <r&-rup- J 
 
 
 
 
 OPTATIVE- 
 
 
 Present & ImperJ. 
 
 TUtfr-" 
 
 
 
 
 1 Future,. 
 
 TU-n^- 
 
 
 
 
 2 Future. 
 
 rutfs- 
 
 M»f% 
 
 -«£,; "° J * 
 
 ~oirbv r 
 
 % Aorist. 
 
 «zw- 
 
 
 
 
 Perfect & Pluper£ 
 
 TS-TU(p- j 
 
 
 
 
 1 Aorist- 
 
 TU-v^- CUfJt^ 
 
 -ai£ r -ai r 
 
 ; -a»rov r 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE — 
 
 Present & Imperf. 
 
 rutfr- y 
 
 
 
 2 Aorist- 
 
 STMf- > 
 
 -s t . -sVw r 
 
 -$T0V r 
 
 Perfect & Piuperf. 
 
 r^^TBg-'J 
 
 
 
 j Aorist. 
 
 TU^- 
 
 -0V,. -0CT6J r 
 
 -arovj 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. PARTI — 
 
 Present & Imperf. 
 
 *wr~ y 
 
 
 M. 
 
 I Future. 
 
 TU^- > 
 
 SIV. 
 
 N. -wv r 
 
 2 Future, 
 
 <ru«jrs- J 
 
 
 
 1 Aorist. 
 
 TV^- 
 
 Oft 
 
 N. -«£, 
 
 Perfect & Pluperf. 
 
 rs-ru(p- 
 
 ivau 
 
 N. ^ 
 
 Note. In the above table, and in those that follow, the accent is omit- 
 
 ted in the tense wot, I 
 
 >ecause, v 
 
 phen combined with I 
 
 Ike te 
 
 rmination, if 
 
 will not always stand on the same syllable^ 
 
Acmni toicz. 
 
 
 —ACTIVE VOICE 
 
 — MOOD. 
 
 -«1 
 
 - » 
 
 .--. 
 
 F. 
 
 
 •: -.-. 
 
 •4BJ0I 
 
 
 
 
 •"• : 
 
 — ::: :: 
 
 -.-..-; 
 
 —::::: 
 
 Bok 
 
 -:.r 
 
 -r 
 
 
 
 ' ' 
 
 -:..-;. 
 
 • - r - .' 
 
 — CIPLJLS- 
 
 
 " 
 
116 
 
 TABLE OF THE 
 
 §104. 
 
 II. MIDDLE- 
 
 INDICATIVE— 
 
 Termi — 
 
 Tense. 
 
 Root. Sing. 
 
 
 
 Dix— 
 
 Present. 
 1 Future. 
 
 <ru4" > ofJtcci, -77, 
 
 -srai. 
 
 -OfAS0OV 3 
 
 2 Future. 
 
 TUtfS- J 
 
 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 
 -STO. 
 
 «6jXS0O>V 3 
 
 2 Aorist. 
 1 Aorist. 
 
 -aro. 
 
 -ajutsdovj 
 
 Perfect. 
 
 re-Turf- a, -a£, 
 
 -5. 
 
 - 
 
 Pluperfect, s-rs-rurf- siv, **, 
 
 -SI. 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE — - 
 
 
 
 Present & Imperf. 
 
 9WT- } 
 
 
 -OJfJLS^OVj 
 
 1 Aorist. 
 
 tv^- > w^ai, -J7, 
 
 -7jr.ai, 
 
 2 Aorist. 
 
 TUtf- J 
 
 
 
 Perfect & Pluperf. 
 
 OPTATIVE 
 
 -ft 
 
 
 Present & Imperf. 
 
 tu^t- "\ 
 
 
 
 1 Future. 
 
 
 •oirt. 
 
 -oifjid.ov, 
 
 2 Future. 
 
 <ru«rs- 1: 
 
 
 
 2 Aorist. 
 
 TUflP- J 
 
 
 
 1 Aorist. 
 
 Tu-sp- aijxqv, -aio, 
 
 -euro. 
 
 -aiV^ov, 
 
 Perfect & Pluperf. 
 
 re-rutf- oijjw, -oi£, 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 -01. 
 
 
 Present & Imperf. 
 
 > -Otf, 
 
 •i<t6u* 
 
 
 2 Aorist. 
 
 <ru«r- ^ * 
 
 
 
 1 Aorist. 
 
 <ruv]>- -ai, 
 
 -a^w. 
 
 
 Perfect & Pluperf. 
 
 cWuir- -s, 
 
 -sVw. 
 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PARTI— 
 
 Present & Imperf. 
 
 TUtfr- *\ 
 
 
 
 M. 
 
 1 Future. 
 
 TU M • nrfai. 
 
 
 ! 
 
 ST. -6>£vo£, 
 
 2 Future. 
 
 ru^rs- f J 
 
 
 
 
 2 Aorist. 
 
 TVtf-J £fl##l, 
 
 
 
 
 1 Aorist. 
 
 tu-^- atfdai. 
 
 
 
 -c^evo^ 
 
 Perfect & Pluperf. 
 
 re-ru*- f'vai. 
 
 
 
 ,-<5& 
 
5 104. 
 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 —VOICE. 
 MOOD. 
 
 — nations. 
 
 
 — al. 
 
 
 Plural 
 
 
 •Stf^OVj 
 
 -stf^ov. 
 
 -6/xeda, -stfds, 
 
 -ovrai/ 
 
 ■stfdov, 
 
 -sV%. 
 
 -o//,sda, ' -stf^, 
 
 -oyro, 
 
 -aa^ov, 
 
 -atf^v. 
 
 -a/xs0a, -atfds, 
 
 -ttVTW* 
 
 •arov, 
 
 -arcv. 
 
 -a/xsv, -a<rs, 
 
 -oWi. 
 
 •ZiTOVj 
 
 -s/ttjv. 
 
 — MOOD* 
 
 -sitfav* 
 
 »yj^ov, 
 
 -Tjtf^OV. 
 
 -WfAE0a> -¥]<#$,. 
 
 -cavra? 
 
 ■rjrov, 
 
 ->]TOV. 
 
 -WjXSV, -7)T? S 
 MOOD. 
 
 •Wtfl, 
 
 117 
 
 -Oi'tfflov, -oitffl*]?.' 
 
 -aifx^a, -carts,. -oivro. 
 
 -aio^ov, 
 
 -aitfdqv. 
 
 -aif/i£tfa, 
 
 -eu<rtff t . 
 
 -aivro, 
 
 -cirov, 
 
 -OlV^V. 
 
 -0I/X6V, 
 -HMQOD-* 
 
 -019*?, 
 
 -qisv, 
 
 -stfdov, 
 
 -itfdwv. 
 
 
 -Stffe. 
 
 «-sVdwtfav« 
 
 -artov^ 
 
 -atfdwv. 
 
 
 -atfd*,; 
 
 -atf^wtfav 
 
 -STOV, 
 
 -gVwv. 
 
 — CIPLES, 
 
 -STS, 
 
 -eVwtfav* 
 
 F. 
 
 N. 
 
 
 
 
 -o/xsvr], 
 
 -o/xsvov, 
 
 Gen. 
 
 -OfJLSVOV, &C 
 
 
 -afASVTj, 
 
 4NO, 
 
 
 Gen. 
 Gen., 
 
 -a.asvou,, 
 
 
118 
 
 TABLE OP THE 
 
 Tense. 
 
 Root. 
 
 Pres. 
 
 <ru<n / «r- 
 
 1 Fut. 
 
 vv(pQr\(f- 
 
 2 Fut, 
 
 <rvrfr)(f- 
 
 3 Fut. 
 
 <TS<TV-^- 
 
 Imperf. 
 
 Itw<t- 
 
 1 Aor. 
 
 favcpQ- 
 
 2 Aor. 
 
 swrf- 
 
 Perf. 
 
 <rs«r« 
 
 Pluperf. 
 
 irs<r* 
 
 III. PASSIVE- 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Termi- 
 Sing. 
 
 o/xai, 
 
 -srat. 
 
 Pres. & Imp. tuat- 
 
 1 Aor. <ru<p0- 
 
 2 Aor. rutf- 
 Perf. & Plu. vsrvii- 
 
 Pres. & Imp. rvirr- 
 
 1 Fut. <rvcp6r\<f- 
 
 2 Fut. «wqcr- 
 
 3 Fut. wih]/- 
 
 1 Aor, «n>(p0- 
 
 2 Aor. rytf- 
 Perf. & Plu. rsTvp- 
 
 Pres. & Imp. *wr- 
 
 1 Aor. «ru(pd- 
 
 2 Aor. Tu*r- 
 Perf. & Plu. <re.ru- 
 
 Pr. & Imp. 
 
 1 Fut. 
 
 2 Fut. 
 
 3 Fut. 
 
 1 Aor. 
 
 2 Aor. 
 Per. & Plu. 
 
 \* 
 
 Wiv, -ou, 
 
 -sro. 
 
 ->]v, -73?, 
 
 -if. 
 
 vfliiat, -u4>ai, 
 
 -UrfTCCJ 
 
 ^^yjv, -u^o, 
 
 -utfro. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE — 
 
 
 wfxai, -/?, 
 
 ->j<rai. 
 
 w, -fo 
 
 ■£ 
 
 l^voSi Z, 
 
 -fa - 
 
 OPTATIVE 
 
 
 oif/^v, 
 
 *wo* 
 
 -oi<r&.. 
 
 IMPERATIVE 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 T^vau 
 
 N. 
 
 Du— 
 
 -UfXfJLg^OV ? 
 
 PARTI- 
 
 M. 
 
 N. -0/XSV0£ 3 
 
 -Wing, 
 
§ 104. 
 
 PASSIVE VOICB, 
 
 119 
 
 — al. 
 
 -etfdov, 
 -stfdov, 
 
 «^<rov, 
 
 -srfov. 
 -yjr^v. 
 
 -IKpdoV, 
 
 -%ov. 
 
 -sirjrov, -sirjrqv, 
 -etfiov, -itfdwv. 
 
 -7JT0V, -^TWV. 
 
 F. 
 
 •OjUdgVI), 
 
 N. 
 
 — VOICE- 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 — nations. 
 
 -o/xs^a, 
 
 Plural, 
 
 -s<rts, 
 
 MOOD. 
 
 -fJlivOl W/XSV, -^TS, 
 —MOOD. 
 
 -OV<TCCJ. 
 
 -ovro, 
 
 -^o'av. 
 
 -UfAjJiivoi 6l(fL 
 
 -u/x/xgvoi ^tfav* 
 
 -wvrai, 
 
 -wCr. 
 -wo*/, 
 
 -offwda, -oirts, -oivto, 
 
 -Siqjxsv,- -slrjTff, -Sj'Tjtfav. 
 
 -jasvoi rifyfASv, -g7y)^, -s77]<fov. 
 
 — MOOD. 
 
 — CIPtES. 
 
 G. ^f/ivov, &C 
 
 -f*fASVfy -fJ^VOV. 
 
 G. *sv<ros, &c. 
 
 G, -ffcfAgvoy, &c. 
 
120 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 $104, 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Present, xhiixo), I am striking. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 a 
 
 xvrtxco^ 
 
 xinxecg^ 
 
 XVTCXU, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 XVUXIXOVj 
 
 xvnxexov. 
 
 P. 
 
 XVTCXOfXEV, 
 
 xvitxaxz, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE* 
 
 xvnxovoi. 
 
 S. 
 
 tvmcDj 
 
 . xvnxrjg. 
 
 XvTtXT], 
 
 D. 
 
 
 XV71X7JX0V, 
 
 %V7CXf)X0V f ' 
 
 P. 
 
 XV7tX0)[jlW, 
 
 xvnxrjxe^ 
 
 OPTATIVE. 1 * 
 
 XVTZXW01. 
 
 a 
 
 tVJXTOifll) 
 
 xvnxoig, 
 
 XvTTXOli 
 
 D. 
 
 
 XVUXOIXOV, 
 
 xvnxoixr^v^ 
 
 P. 
 
 tvjttoipeV] 
 
 xhjixoixe, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 xinxQiw. 
 
 S, 
 
 
 xi)7ixe 9 
 
 xvitxixo), 
 
 D, 
 
 
 xvnxexov, 
 
 xvnxixmv, 
 
 P. 
 
 
 %i)TCXtX^ 
 INFINITIVE. 3 
 
 xinxuv. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 xvnxixitioav. 
 
 
 Masc 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut, 
 
 N, 
 
 XVTCXW, . 
 
 tiiTtxovoa^ 
 
 TVTCXOV. 
 
 G* 
 
 xvnxovxoq, 
 
 xv7Cxovarjg 9 
 
 xvrtxovxog* 
 
 Imperfect, Uxvtixov 9 I was striking* 
 
 INDICATIVE* 4 
 
 S% HxvTtxovi exvnxeg, hvicxe, 
 
 D* ixvTtxexov$ ixvnxtxfjVj 
 
 P. ixv7txo^ev 9 ixvrtxexe $ txvnxov. 
 
 The other moods the same as the present. 
 
 • For the reference by numbers in this paradigm, see { 107. 
 
§ 105. PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 121 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE, 
 
 Future I. rv-^o), I shall strike, or will strike, or 
 am to strike. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 TVWQflEV 9 
 
 UVlfJETOV, 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 x&yexov, 
 
 xtyQVCU 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 
 vvyoifit, 
 
 TVlfJOlfAEV, 
 
 vvyoiq, 
 xvyoixov, 
 
 ZVlfJOLTE, 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 xvyeiv. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 KvipOl, 
 
 xvifJoixrjv, 
 xtyowv. 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 G. 
 
 
 xmuovca, % 
 xvyovorjq, 
 
 rvyjov. 
 
 XVljJOVXOq* 
 
 Fi 
 
 jture II. xvnG), / s/&«// strike, 
 am to strike. 
 
 or will strike, or 
 
 
 - 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 %V7t&, 
 
 %V7l£lQ 9 
 
 zvml, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 xvnuxov, 
 
 XVHUXQV, 
 
 P. 
 
 ; 
 
 ZVTTOVfieV, 
 
 XVTZUX8, 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 XVTtOVCl* 
 
 S. 
 
 tVTtOlfl^ 
 
 xvnolfxtv, 
 
 xvnolq, 
 
 XVTtOlXOV, 
 
 . xvjtolxs, 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 xvtceTv. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 XVTtOl, 
 
 xvTCoixrjv, 
 xvnojev. 
 
 
 Masc, 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut, 
 
 N. 
 
 rt;7rwv, 
 
 xvnovaa, 
 
 XVTCQVV, 
 
 G 
 
 TUTrowrog, 
 
 xvn ovOr}q 9 
 11 
 
 XVTtQVVXQq. 
 
122 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 §10C 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Aorist I. etv^a, I struck, or did strike, 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 4 
 
 
 s. 
 
 stm/soc, 
 
 ewxfjaq, 
 
 ervxfjej 
 
 D. 
 
 
 fovyatov. 
 
 irv\parrjv f 
 
 P. 
 
 ivbyaptV) 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 zxvyav. 
 
 S. 
 
 rvyctij 
 
 rvxfjrjg, 
 
 %iyri, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 xv^rpov. 
 
 Tvyr)Zov f 
 
 P. 
 
 vvyjwtiWi 
 
 vbifjri'ce, 
 
 OPTATIVE, 
 
 tvycoou 
 
 S. 
 
 tVipCUfJl^ 
 
 %v\yaig, 
 
 TvifJai, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 %v\yai%QV* H 
 
 WifjafarjV, 
 
 P. 
 
 vbyaifjLW} 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 xvMpuimt* 
 
 S. 
 
 
 rvxfjov, 
 
 rv\fjdta) 3 
 
 B. 
 
 
 thyatovt 
 
 TVipcCTWVj 
 
 P. 
 
 
 vvipate^ 
 
 tvifJcttmoav 
 
 
 
 INFINITIVE* 
 PARTICIPLE, 
 
 
 
 Masc. ' 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 N 
 
 ■ vbyagi 
 
 TijxjJaaa^ 
 
 xv^uv. 
 
 G, 
 
 %v\jjav f cog f 
 
 tvy&orjq, 
 
 tv-fyavtog. 
 
& 105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 123 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Aorist II. evvjzoV) I struck, or did strike* 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE,* 
 
 
 s. 
 
 ifcyjtdP, 
 
 €TV7l£Q, 
 
 tryne, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 irvTttTov, 
 
 kxvnixrp* 
 
 P. 
 
 ixvjtofiev, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 tTVTCOV* 
 
 S. 
 
 xvno)^ 
 
 vvrtrjC, 
 
 TVTZr], 
 
 D. 
 
 
 tvnrfiQV, 
 
 rvTtrjTov^ 
 
 P. 
 
 tVTtCOfiSVj 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 VVTtOOOl. 
 
 S. 
 
 rvnoifu, 
 
 tVTlOiq, 
 
 %\)7t0l, 
 
 D, 
 
 
 TvTiorvov, 
 
 xvjtoirrjv. 
 
 P. 
 
 TVJtOlflSV, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 VVTIOUV. 
 
 S. 
 
 
 %VJlB r 
 
 vvneto), 
 
 D, 
 
 
 tvtzwov, 
 
 ZVTttTCDV, 
 
 P, 
 
 • 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 xvnziv. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 %VTt£%0)OUV. 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut, 
 
 N. 
 
 TVTKDV, 
 
 tvjtovoa, 
 
 TVTtOV. 
 
 G. 
 
 rvnovtoq, 
 
 rvTCovOrjg, 
 
 tvTtovxoq. 
 
124 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 § 105, 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 Perfect, rtrvcpctj I have struck. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 zezvyaubv, 
 
 ztzvcpaq, 
 
 lezvyazov, 
 
 zezvcpaxe^ 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE, 5 
 
 rezvcpazovy 
 
 TEZVCpaOl* 
 
 P. 
 
 tezvcpco, 
 
 Tezvcpijqj 
 zstviprjze, 
 
 OPTATIVE, 
 
 rezviprjTor^ 
 zezvcpwot. 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 
 rtrvcpoiQ, 
 
 ZtZV(fOiZOV f 
 
 rezvcpoize, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 zezvcpot, 
 
 Tezv(poiri]v f 
 
 zezvcpoiev. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 TtzvcpeToi/^ 
 zetvcpezs, 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 rervcptvai* 
 
 zezvcptTtOy 
 
 zetvcpeTWj 
 
 zezvcpezcDOar 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 Mas. 
 zezvcporoq^ 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 6 
 
 Fern. 
 Tezvipvlag, 
 
 Neixt. 
 
 ZZZVtyOQ. 
 
 ztzvcpozoq* 
 
 
 Pluperfect, irervcpuv. 
 
 I had struck o 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 izezvcpuv^ 
 iTwbtpeifiev, 
 
 iZtZtXpUQ, 
 
 tzeTvcpeiTov, 
 
 izezixpei, 
 
 zTezvcpekrjv, 
 
 irervcpuoav. 
 
 The other moods the same as in the perfect. 
 
6 105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 125 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Present, %\m%o\iai, I am striking myself. 
 
 P. %VTt%6\izba, 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 S. xv7txo)fiat. tvjvzrii 
 P. TvmfofM&a, xvmrjG6e, 
 
 OPTATIVE, 
 S* TVItToi/LHyV, TV71XOLO, 
 
 D. TVJlTOLjLie&OV, TVTCX016&OV, 
 
 P. TVTttoi^a, %i)Tt%oio&z, 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 xi)7txov^ 
 
 p. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 TVTZTSO&OV, 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 xvnxzo&ai* 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 N. rvtt'tdfiGVog, WTiro/Liavi], 
 
 %VTt%QV%ai. 
 
 xvnwycai, 
 
 zvjztrjO&ov, 
 
 %V7txo)vxau 
 
 xvjitoiro, 
 TVTivoio&rjV) 
 
 XVTCXQWCQ. 
 XVTVUtO&W, 
 
 Neut. 
 xvittojuiivov. 
 
 Imperfect, ixvTtxdurjVj I was striding myself 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 So itvrtro/JLrjv, ixirnxov, itvnxerOj 
 
 D. irvTitofiEQov, irvTtxea&ov^ i%vn%iG&r\v* 
 P. h%wjt%b\itba, ivimxeoQe, irvTivovzo. 
 
 The other moods the same as the present. 
 
 11* 
 
126 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 §105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 Future I. rtJ^oftai, 1 shall strike, or will strike^ or 
 am to strike, myself. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 S. TV-^OfJLCX,^ 
 P. TV^6[ls6Uj 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 
 S; fvtyoifwv, 
 D. rv^olfieOoh 
 P. rv^oi[xs0oc^ 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 G. ry^o^e^ot;, 
 
 
 
 Future II. rvTrov^ah I shall strike, or will strike. 
 
 or 
 
 am /a strike, myself. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 D. rvTrovjisdov, 
 
 
 
 P. rvffov[jLs@ct2 
 
 OPTATIVE, 
 
 rvzovvrtM. 
 
 S. TV7T0l[AyiVi 
 
 P. rvvQijisOa, 
 
 TV7ro7(r8ei 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 rwzoiro. 
 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 N. rvttovfjLsvQfr 
 G. rvffoviihov, 
 
 
 
 
§ 105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 127 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Aorist I. erv^dfjwv, I struck, or did strike, myself] 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 erv^dfA60a,, 
 
 £r vigour 0ov, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 srv-i^aTo, 
 etv$/d,(rffqv, 
 
 S. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 rti^yi<r8ov, 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 rv^riordov, 
 rv-^oovTcit* 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 
 ri'4/aio, 
 
 I3IPERATIVE. 
 
 rv^atro*, 
 rv-^aivro* 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 
 7V-^acr8QV, . 
 
 * * 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 rv-^dtrfl®, 
 
 rv-^tdvOm, 
 
 rv-\tdar0M&v 
 
 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 
 
 Mas, 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 N 
 
 rv-^toftivov. 
 
 
 rv^dpevov. 
 
12B 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE, 
 
 § 105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Aorist II. erviropyiv, I struck, or did strike, myself. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 SfVVOV, 
 
 S. ervffofinvi 
 
 lsrvir£<r(lnv. 
 
 irvffWTO- 
 
 S. TVTT&JlJLai, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 TVTTfl, 
 
 rv7rq<rflov, 
 
 Tvxqrah 
 rvffuvrou* 
 
 D. TMTOill60OP 9 
 P. TVTTOifisdtti 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 rvTroio, 
 
 TVVOIC 
 
 TV7roi(T0^$ 
 TVTTQIVTO. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 S. 
 P. 
 
 rvnov, 
 
 rmWQmh 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 twcfotim. 
 
 Mas. 
 N. rvvofievogi 
 
 PARTICIPLE, 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Tviropfaov. 
 
§105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 129 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE MIDDLE VOICE. 
 Perfect, rervffci, I have struck myself. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 s. 
 
 TBTVZCC, 
 
 rerwag, 
 
 rervxe, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 rervxarovj 
 
 TSTVTUTOVi 
 
 P. 
 
 TBTVKCtlMV, 
 
 rsrvTroire, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 rSTVTTUFl. 
 
 S. 
 
 TZTbitw, 
 
 rervxTig, 
 
 rervxyi, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 Tsrv7ryiT0Vi 
 
 rsrvxnrovj 
 
 P. 
 
 rsrvTroopsv, 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 r stiff Mr t. 
 
 a 
 
 rsrvTtotyLi') 
 
 rsrvKOigi 
 
 renvoi, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 TSrVTTOiTOV, 
 
 rsTV7roirqv 9 
 
 P. 
 
 TSTV7r0l[JLSVi 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 TSTlMQhVJ. 
 
 S. 
 
 
 TBtVXS, 
 
 rerwreTco, 
 
 D. 
 
 
 rervverovy 
 
 rtTwiruVi 
 
 P. 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 Terv7riru<rav 
 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 N. 
 
 mwwg. 
 
 7£rV7Tv7(X,<) 
 
 rervffog. 
 
 G. 
 
 rsrv7r6ro$i 
 
 rsrvffvlug, 
 
 rsrvxoTog. 
 
 Pluperfect, hervvsiv, I had struck myself. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 S. irsrvireiv, erervirsig^ irsrvxeh 
 
 D. irsrvzsirov, irsrvirsirnv, 
 
 P. ersrv7rei[JLSv, ersTvzsiTSi hervvti<rav* 
 
 The other moods the same as in the perfect." 
 
132 
 
 PARADIGM OP THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 § 105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 Aorist I. IrbQ&rih I was struck. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 s. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 erv(p0yig, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 lrv$07i<ruv. 
 
 S. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 rv<p0&, 
 
 rv<p6?}7Qv, 
 
 rvtp&qte, 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 rvtpdwh 
 
 a 
 
 P. 
 
 
 rv$6eing, 
 rvtpdsinrovi 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 rvfpdstriT^ 
 
 S. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. 
 
 
 Tv(pdyirov 9 
 Tvtpfyrs, 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 PARTICIPLE, 
 
 rv$0yirco<) 
 
 rvtpOqruvj 
 7v(p0nfM<ruv 
 
 N. 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 rv$0$t<rnsi 
 
 Neut. 
 rvQtievrog* 
 
§ 105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 133 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 Aorist II. ervnyiv, I ivas struck. 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 
 ■S. 
 D. 
 
 P, 
 
 fvv&, 
 
 TVZS[A6V 9 
 
 OPTATIVE, 
 
 7 VITUS' h 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 
 r ursine* 
 7VTsiqrov 9 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 rvTreiyirnv, 
 ?vff$iyiG'(Zv> 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 
 P, 
 
 
 ruxnOh 
 
 INFINITIVE, 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 7V7rqrot)9, 
 
 7VVq7to<rM 
 
 N. 
 G. 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 rvrsTra, 
 
 12 
 
 Neut. 
 7virh. 
 rvvhrog. 
 
134 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 § 105. 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 Perfect, rlftf/quai, / am, or have been struck. 9 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 s. 
 
 rlrufiftaf, 
 
 
 rerv^ot^ 
 
 TeTVTTTUh 
 
 
 D. 
 
 rsTv(jt,[ji.$(}ov, 
 
 
 r&vtpOov, 
 
 HtvQGov, 
 
 
 P. 
 
 rsTviipefa, 
 
 
 rervQds, 
 
 rsrv[JL[/<hoi sltri m 
 
 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 10 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 rsrv^svos, 
 
 5, 
 
 
 & 
 
 h 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 r£rv[A[jt,ha, 
 
 fyrov, 
 
 fr-OV^ 
 
 P. 
 
 rervpfifooi, 
 
 Si^KSV, 
 
 %rs, 
 
 w<ri> 
 
 
 
 
 OPTATIVE. 10 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 Tervpfihog, 
 
 e'iqv 
 
 9 
 
 eh$i 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 TeTvpfihWi 
 
 efyrovi 
 
 slqrqh 
 
 P. 
 
 rerv[jt.(ihoi, 
 
 s'inpiv, 
 
 styrsi 
 
 Sfyf&h 
 
 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 
 
 S. 
 
 
 
 reTv^o, 
 
 tstvQQm, 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 rirv$8w, 
 
 rsrvtpO&jv, 
 
 
 P. 
 
 
 
 r&v$Qe, 
 
 rsrvQOumv* 
 
 
 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rer6$Qa,i. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 
 
 
 Mas. 
 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 
 N 
 
 . TSTV^llSVOS, 
 
 
 rtrvtitihn, 
 
 rs7V(nikm. 
 
 G 
 
 . rsTvpphov, 
 
 
 riTvpiA&Tig, 
 
 rsTVfA^hov. 
 
 Pluperfect. $reTvf/*[Aqv, I had been struck.® 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 P. irsrvfi[jt,eQ<x, } 
 
 
 weru 
 
 
 The other moods the same as in the perfect. 
 
§106. 
 
 OF VERBS IN ttW. 
 
 135 
 
 § 106. PARADIGM OF CONTRACT VERBS IN An. 
 nudw, I honour. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE OP THE ACTIVE VOICE, 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 W. 
 
 
 -derovy &rw, -dsrov, &rov> 
 
 -aire 
 
 are. 
 
 -UOViTh 
 
 (fJ(Th 
 
 Tifi'dwfiBVi 5l[JLSV 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 a^roy, tirov. -dqrovi drov* 
 
 -aCfJFL 
 
 
 -aoi, 
 
 w. 
 
 -ao/r^v. 
 
 wr*j* 
 
 -doisv, 
 
 fisv* 
 
 dru. 
 
 
 drm. 
 
 
 -anrs, are. 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 -aQjroy, wrov. 
 -dotrs, tire. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 a. -alrw, 
 7i L U'ds7s^ are. -airwuv, draffM* 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 zip-dM) ®h rift-dowa, wra. Tip-doy* Si; 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 WFi* 
 
 krip-uoV) uv 
 
 12 13 
 
 -a$$, a£. -as, a. 
 
 £rip-do[ASv, tipsy, -aers, are. -aw, w. 
 jhperf. subjunct. optat. &c. same as the present, 
 
136 of verbs in am. § 106. 
 
 PARADIGM OF CONTRACT VERBS IN ACL 
 rifidu, I honour. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE OF THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 ri[t-dQ[JLUh Sj[jloci. -dp, &. -dsrah 6Lrai. u 
 ri(JL-a,6(JL6Qov, djpeOov. -detrdov, ti<r0ov, -dstrOov, wlkv. 
 Ti[/,-a6[jL$0oL) ojiasQqi. -deirOs, 6L<r8e. -dovroch wvruu 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 ?i[/,-du[ioii, &[aui. -dp, d. -d^mi, drou- 
 
 7l[A-MW(t£0QV,OO[J(,6{)oV.'dW'@O}/, d<r0QV- -dipr0QV, CUrOoV. 
 
 rip-uojpeQu, wpeQu. -dntrfe, dtrds* -duvrui, tinou* 
 
 OPTATIVE, 
 
 rz/A-ao/^^y, dfifiv, -ao;o, wo. -ao/ro, wro. 
 ri[i-&Qi[Ae0QV, ufAsOov. -cco/a^oy, ti(r6ov. -aoivQnv, wd%v« 
 rifi-uoitJLsQcc, tifjLsOa,. -dourde, w&fe. -aowro, wyro* 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 rt[A-dov, w. 'r&Mv) d<r6&). 
 
 rip-.dscr8ov, dtrQov. -uetrffuv, dtrScov. 
 rifi-dscrQei dccls. -otkirQwow, dtrffutrotu 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 rifjL-ds<r8&h dtrGtxL 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 rtfi-oiofJLSPOV) -ojpevov. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 iri[A-a,6[AW, MfJLqv- -dov> Si. -dsro 9 dro* 
 eri[A~a6[/,60a> ups^a- -dstrOs, &<r6e. -dovro, mtq* 
 
 IMPERF. SUBJUNCT. OPTAT. &C. Same OS the PRESENT, 
 
§ 106. 
 
 OF VERBS IN SW. 
 
 137 
 
 PARADIGM OF CONTRACT VERBS IN EQ, 
 0f Xl&, / love. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE OF THE ACTIVE YOICE. 
 
 sp/X-sw, w. 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 13 
 
 -661S? sig. 
 
 -esrov, titty) 
 
 <pi\4o[JLSV, ovpev. -ssrs, sirs* 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 <p*X-lft/, w. 4ysi fig. 
 
 -iqrov, qrov. 
 Qik-kufiM, Sf&et* 4%rs, %re. 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 $fX-io*/AJ, ofyci. 4wft oft. 
 -foiroy, o7rof. 
 -hipsvj <H{ifS^ -fairs, olrs. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 (piX-ss, ' si. -e&rw, 
 
 QiX-esrov, eTrov* -sbtgjv, 
 
 4si 9 
 
 -isrov, 
 -iovtri, 
 
 -sqrov, 
 
 -so/, 
 
 -S0I5V, 
 
 a. 
 
 elf 09. 
 
 QVfh 
 SjTI. 
 
 oirw?. 
 oTsv. 
 
 : $ik4mi wir. 
 
 <pi\4srs, sirs. -ssrctxrcw, sirutrow* 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 $jX-I*w> si*. 1 * 
 
 PARTICIPLE* 
 
 $iX-lo w&, q3$u. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 $jX-£o*, ovh 
 
 *<piX-soy, ow. -j»ft 
 
 -s*roy 
 
 slrov. 
 
 JpiX-lo^sy, oD^y. 4*rf* sirs. 
 
 -ss, 
 
 -sirvfh 
 
 -so*. 
 
 si. 
 sirnv. 
 
 QVV. 
 
 imperf. subjunct. optat. &c. same as the PRESENT. 
 12* 
 
138 OF VERBS IN SU, § 106* 
 
 PARADIGM OF CONTRACT VERBS IN Ea 
 <piXsw, I love. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE OF THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE. 
 INDICATIVE, 
 
 <pi\-B6y,60ov, ovpedov. 'kstrdov, s7<r@ov. -setrOoVi b7<t8qv« 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 <£ifi.-edj(AeQov, tifAsflov. -syi<r0QVi 7i<r0ov. -l*j<r#oi>, qirOov.. 
 (pi'k-sQjfjLeOu, JjfieOa,. 4yi<r0e, n&Qe. -kwrui, tivrai* 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 tpik-soifitiVi olfinv. -£Oio, oTo. -lojro, oTro. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 $;X-£oy, oS. -£s<r@6), tiirdw. 
 
 <pi7s.-6e<r(}ov, sivffoi. -n<i0m,- si<r0w. 
 (piX-iscds^ e7(T0e. -8&<r0Qj(rctv i si&Qw&v. 
 
 INFINITIVE, 
 m PARTICIPLE. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 iQik-soimh oifinv. -ioy, ov. 4sro, $7ro. 
 l<pjX-£6/*£0oy, ov(jls0ov 9 -sWop, e7<rflov. -sktrOqv, eitrQnf* 
 ktpi'K-sopetia,, ovpsfa. 4s<rQs, e7<r@s, -lowo, otwo. 
 
 imperf. subjunct. optat. &c same as the PRESENT. 
 
§106. 
 
 OF VERBS IN 0W. 
 
 139 
 
 PARADIGM OF CONTRACT VERBS IN On, 
 ^Xow, / manifest. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE OF THE ACTIVE VOICE, 
 
 
 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 
 
 $yfk-6u, 
 
 s. 
 
 f6e*4i oig. 
 
 -05/, 
 
 o7. 
 
 
 
 -oerov, ovrov. 
 
 -osroy, 
 
 oSrop. 
 
 §?jX-6o^, 
 
 OVfASP. 
 
 -osre, ovre. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 -6oy<n, 
 
 o5<n. 
 
 $yfk-6u>> 
 
 &. 
 
 -o^;, oTg. 
 
 -6fr 
 
 or. 
 
 
 
 -onrov, Sjtov. 
 
 -o^roy, 
 
 firou. 
 
 dnk-ocopsvi 
 
 5)[/,6V. 
 
 -6nre, Sirs. 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 -dw<n, 
 
 W(T/. 
 
 ^X-oo/^c/, 
 
 OlfJLl. 
 
 -00i£, olg. 
 
 -6o/, 
 
 or. 
 
 
 
 -oo/rov, oiroir. 
 
 -oo/njv, 
 
 oifyp. 
 
 <5?2X-6o//^ 
 
 aiil&sp. 
 
 -oo/rs, oirs. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 -OOieit, 
 
 olsv* 
 
 tojX 
 
 -6s, 
 
 o5. -ogVw, 
 
 ovrco. 
 
 
 a^x 
 
 -osrov, 
 
 ovrov. -o&oov, 
 
 ovrwy. 
 
 
 hrfk-osrS) ovre. -os7wav, ovroocap^ 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 S^X-OS/V, ovv. • 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 ^rfk-QMi &v. S^X-oo^a, o&ra. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 JdqX-ooy, otw. -o*£, ou£. 
 
 -osrov, oSrov. 
 J3qX-6o/K£9 9 ovpsv. -osrs, ovre. 
 
 ^X-oop, otto. 
 
 -05, oy. 
 
 -OOP, 
 
 ow. 
 
 imperf. subjunct. optat. &c. same as the PRESENT. 
 
140 OP VERBS IN ow. § 106, 
 
 PARADIGM OF CONTRACT VERBS IN Oa 
 ^Xow, I manifest. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE OF THE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICE, 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 $Yik-o6(t<Mi ovpL&i. -6$?, or. -Qsrat, ovrai. 
 diik-oofteOov, oviisOov.-QStriloVi ovtrQw.-QStrGoV) ov<rt)ov. 
 dyfk-ooiAsQa, ovfjieOoc. -osrSs, ov<?Qz. -oomw* oSvrai. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 dnk-owfAoii, Si put. -6/j, di. -oqraty wrou- 
 5?jX-o&/a£#ov, wpedov. -dflff^oj* m6w. -oajrtfoPj 8<r0ov. 
 fylk4&{ii6a 9 ypLetia. -6%wfe } Strife, -owrai* fiforai. 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 d)jX-oo/fMjv, oi^y. -oojg, oJb. . -ooiro, ofro. 
 $Yfk-ooi[JLs0toi oipsOoc. -QQitrfe, olWfe. -6ojwo 9 ofrro. 
 
 IMPERATIVE* 
 
 5^X-6ot;, oS. -oifir^, owtrdd* 
 d-ftk-osir-tej ovaritis. -oifOwcrMV, oipOwfrcw. 
 
 INFINITIVE, 
 
 (i%'k-6eG'Q(Zh ov<rt)at. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 ^X-oo^of, ovfJLevog. 
 drfc-oopsm, ov^svov. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 INDICATIVE. 
 
 iiSqX-oo/AW) ofytij*. -dot;, ov. nfero, oSro, 
 idn'k-o6(Asi!)ov i Q6iJt,6t)ov,-66<r0ov, owfov. *oi<r0w?oi<r0fiv.. 
 iiffK-ooiieffuy q6[jl£0ol.' -6str0e 9 ovtrOs. -oojw, ovvto. 
 imperf. subjunct. optat. &c. same as the PRESENT. 
 
§ 107. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. 141 
 
 § 107. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. 
 
 The following Observations, to which reference is made by 
 numbers from the parts of the verb in the preceding paradigms 
 to which they relate, are designed to point out more particular- 
 ly, certain changes in the terminations of these parts which 
 frequently occur, and which, without explanation, might per- 
 plex and retard the student in his progress. Farther informa- 
 tion respecting these and other changes will be found in the 
 table of dialects which follows. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 1. a. In the optative mood, instead of the usual terminations 
 -oijxf, -oig, -oi, &c. the Attic dialect has the following : 
 
 Sing. Dual. Plur. 
 
 -oi'rjv, -ofr]£, -oiv\ ; -ofyrov, -ojtjtviv ; -of^sv, -oryjrs, -oiyitfav. 
 
 This form is also used by Ionic and Doric writers. 
 b. In the optative of the 1 aor. active, instead of the com- 
 mon termination -aifjii, -aig, -ai, &c. the iEolic has, as follows, 
 
 Sing. Dual. Plur. 
 
 -sia, -siug, -as ; -sjWov, -siwnjv 5 -sia/xsv, -stars, -siav. 
 
 The Attics, as well as the Ionians and Dorians, use this 
 form in the 2d and 3d pers. sing, and in the 3d pers. plur. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 2. In the 3d pers. plur. of the imperative, in Attic writers, the 
 termination -ovrwv is more common than -srwcrav •, thus, in the 
 pres. <rjtf<rov<rwv for <ru«mVwCav. For other varieties, see Table 
 of Dialects, §108. This form is met with also in Doric wri- 
 ters. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 3. The infinitive, in the ancient dialects, ended in -spsvou. It 
 was changed, in the Ionic, into -sjxsv ; and afterwards, the (6 
 being rejected, was contracted by the Attics into -siv. 
 
142 OBSERVATIONS ON THE THR&E VOICES. § lOlft 
 
 INDICATIVE, IMPERFECT, AND AORISTS. 
 
 4. The iEolians and Dorians use a peculiar form of the im- 
 perfect and first and second aorists, which is made by adding 
 the syllable -xov, to the usual form of the 2d persuing, and 
 then inflecting them like the imperfect ; thus, instead of sVuffr- 
 ov, -sg ) -s, &c. it makes IrucrrsCx-ov, -s£, s, &c. in the 1 aor. stv- 
 4/atfx-ov, -sg ) -e, &c. ; and in the 2d aor. sVutfsa'x-ov, *f£j -s, &c. 
 Hence the same tenses in the middle voice, and the imperfect, 
 in the passive, make sVutf<rscfa«&/x£v, -ou, -sro ; 3d pi. -ovto, &c. 
 
 Note 1. But before the terminations -kov, -ices, -ne, he. in contracted 
 verbs, diphthongs reject the subjunctive vowel, and in verbs in /u the 
 long vowels are changed into their own short ones ; as, 2 sing. houlS) 
 
 iirokoKov ; hidrjg, hideoKov, &.C. 
 
 Note 2. This form is used only in the indicative mood ; it usually re- 
 jects the augment, and is scarcely to be found, except in the sing, num- 
 ber and 3d pers. plur. It is used only to express repeated action. 
 
 PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE, &C. 
 
 5. The subjunctive and optative of the perfect are some* 
 times made by a periphrasis of the perf. participle, and the verb 
 sip}, I am ; thus, sub. rsrvepus 5, %g 9 %,. rsrucpoVs ^<rov, &c. ; opt. 
 Tsrupws s/V, £''*)£, *h> And sometimes the indicative ; as, tstu- 
 (p&S §'tfo/xai, I shall have struck. 
 
 PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 
 
 6. -fa'ws and -i-xws, in the perfect participle, when contract- 
 ed by syncope into -w£,. make the feminine wtfa, instead of w'a, 
 and the neuter like the masc. Also w remains in the oblique 
 cases ; 
 
 thus, ^qx*ij, -wee, -6$ ; Gen. -oVo£, &c. 
 becomes sV<rw£, sVrwtfa, ifa&s] Gen. sVrw<ro£, &c. § 137. 
 
 Obs. 3. <L 
 
 MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 
 
 2d PERSON SINGULAR. 
 
 7. The 2d pers. singular pres. indicative originally ended in 
 -stfeu. In the Ionic dialect, the tf being rejected, it became -fa/, 
 and was afterwards contracted into -7? ; (§ 39. R. v. exc.) some- 
 times by the Attics into -si. In the same manner, in other 
 moods and tenses. In the sub. -qCai became -73a/, and then -p 
 In the imperative imperf. and 2 Aor. -stfo became -so, contr. -ou ; 
 and the 1 aor. mid. -atfo became -ao, contr. -«. In like manner, 
 in the 2 sing, of the optative, o«fo became 010, and, being inca« 
 pable of farther change by contraction, remains in this form, 
 
§ 107. OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES* 143 
 
 IMPERATIVE, 3d PLURAL. 
 
 8. In the 3d pers. pip?, of the imperative, the Ionic, Dorie f 
 and especially the Attic writers, use the termination -wv instead 
 of wtfav ; thus, Tvffrs'a'dwv for rutfrsVdwfl'av. See Table of Dia* 
 lects, § 108. 
 
 PERFECT AND PLUPERFECT PASSIVE, 
 
 9. The terminations of the .perfect, and pluperfect passive, 
 cannot be correctly represented in any paradigm of a mute 
 verb, because the termination, combining with the final mute 
 of the root, undergoes various changes, according to the laws 
 of euphony, (§ 6. 6.) which, causes an apparent, but not a real 
 variety in the terminations of these tenses. For the termina- 
 tions alone, see <§ 98. III. 
 
 a. The terminations preceded by atf-mute, as in the para* 
 digm, according to the laws which regulate the combinations 
 of consonants, combine with it as there exhibited ; viz, 
 
 S. r&Vu/xjuccj, § 6. 6. d. rsVu^ai, § 6. 6. a- HmMrm, 
 
 D. TSnJjXjxsflov, do. <r£rv(p6ov, § 6. 2. & 6. m. rsVucp^ov, 
 
 P. TSrufAfAS^a, do. Tsrv<pQe 9 do. rSTUftfXsvoi ski 
 
 b. Preceded by a x-mute, they combine as follows : 
 
 XsXsyjxai, Xs'Xsfa*, § 6. 6. b. XsXsxrcu, § 6. 2, 
 
 \s\sypsQov, XsXs^ov, § 6. 2. & 6. m. Xs'Xs^ov, 
 XsXiyfxs^a, XgXsp^s, do. XsXsy^svo* skL 
 
 c. A T-mute before a consonant in the passive voice, is chang- 
 ed into tf, and combines with the terminations of the perfect 
 and pluperfect without change, except where the termination 
 begins with C, in which case one tf must be dropped. (§6, 6. 
 m. note.) 
 
 The terminations in the other moods, and in the pluperfect, 
 combine with the preceding mute in the tense root, according 
 to the same rules. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. 
 
 10. If the termination in the perf. and pluperf. passive is 
 preceded by a vowel, the circumlocution in the 3d pers. plur. 
 and in the subjunctive and optative moods, as exhibited in the 
 paradigm, becomes unnecessary ; thus, in the 3 pers. plur. of 
 the indicative, instead of tfsp»X*j/xsvoj ski, tscpi'krivrai is used. But 
 
 a. In the subjunctive, the vowel preceding the termination 
 is dropped, and the terminations of the present sub. annexed * 
 
XsXu-o, 
 
 Xs'Xu-<ro, &c 
 
 sxrai-o, 
 
 IWa/-<ro. 
 
 «7TS(piX7)-0, 
 
 •7rs(piX7j.<ro, 
 fot^Xw-ro. 
 
 144 OBSERVATIONS ON THE THREE VOICES. § 107. 
 
 thus, perf. rfs<p(Xy]-u,ai ; subj. tfsqjiXwfjiai, ->j, -/Jrai, &c. ; perf. xs- 
 xfi/xai ; subj. xsxg-u/jt,ai, -Ji, -jfrai. 
 
 Exc. But verbs in -6w, frequently retain w, as a mood-vowel, 
 through all the numbers and persons ; as, <5s<5y]XwfAai, -cp, -wrai, 
 &c. 
 
 6. The optative adds the terminations -fjwjv, -o, (viz. from <ro,) 
 -to, to the characteristic of the tense, with i interposed after a, 
 and subscribed with >j or w ; thus, 
 
 xsxgi-|X7)v, xg'xfi-o, xixji-ro, &C. 
 
 XsXu.fJt/Tjv, 
 
 ixrai.-fMfv, 
 
 ^sJrjXw-ixyjVj 
 
 iVo/e. Both in the subjunctive and optative, however, these forms are 
 but seldom used, the circumlocution being generally preferred. 
 
 IONIC AND DORIC FORMS. 
 
 11. In the Ionic and Doric dialects, v before -«rai and -to, in 
 terminations of these tenses in the 3d pers. plur., is changed 
 into a, so that -vtoli becomes -ctrai and -vro, -a<ro j thus, Xs'Xuvrai 
 becomes XsXuotTai ; XsXuvro, XsXiWo, &c. 
 
 a. As the circumlocution rervpsvoi ski is used to avoid the 
 cacophony of the regular termination, ■rgcuiprcu, this being re- 
 moved by the change of v into a, the circumlocution in the in- 
 dicative, of all such verbs, becomes unnecessary. Thus, rs- 
 Tufj^gvoi zki) is changed into rsrutparai ; XsXsy/xs'voi ritfi, into Xs- 
 Xspcarctj, &c. 
 
 b. If cr (changed from a r-mute ; § 101. 3.) precede the ter- 
 mination, it is changed into S ox $ before -oltoli and -aro ; thus 3 
 tfxsua^w, perf. icrxsuarffjuw ; 3 pers. pi. Ionic JtfxsuaoWai ; ^rX^^w, 
 perf. pass, tfsir'krictpai 3d pers. pi. tfs#sX^aTai, for tfStfX^tffAsvoi 
 sltfh 
 
 c. In pure verbs, r\ or si before -/xai is usually changed into s 
 before the Ionic -arai and -aro ; thus, #s<piX->jv<rai and --*jvro are 
 usually changed into tfs<piX-sWai and -saro. In like manner, 
 a before -arai and -aro is changed into s to avoid the duplica- 
 tion of the a ; thus, dvcwriravrai, from avoMr*raw, becomes ava- 
 srmWai. 
 
 .<£ In the same manner, v before the terminations -rem and -ro 9 
 in the indicative and optative of the other tenses, but never in 
 the subjunctive, is changed into a ; thus, for rtkroivro we have 
 <ru#roJaTo ; for yevoivro, ysvoiWo, &c. So also in verbs in ui ; 
 as n&iaron for r/fevrai ; laWara* for I'aVavrai. 
 
§ 108. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN W AND fM. 145 
 
 e. But in these forms, o before v is changed into s ; as, 
 -s€oi>X&Wo for sQou'Kovto. 
 
 CONTRACT VERES. 
 
 \% A few contract verbs in aw contract as into r\ instead of 
 a, according to the rules § 39, VII. 2. They are principally 
 the following ; viz. 
 
 #eivyjv y to hunger, from tfs<vaw. 
 
 &4^Vs to tfAar^, from &4>aw. 
 
 • x O 3 
 
 |^jv, to live, from ^aw. 
 PCfSja'dcu, to wse, from ^f aojxai. 
 
 Accordingly, besides these forms in the infinitive, we have 
 in the indicative, £jjj, £jj, sgSj, ^fTjraj, & c * f° r £^ s| Sj ?* fe "'j *? as j 
 2(fas<rai, &c. 
 
 Doric and Ionic Forms. 
 
 13. a. The Dorics, who in other cases use a for r\, in this 
 ease make use of *j, without 1 subscript, instead of all contrac- 
 tions of asi and sst ; as, ofTJv for ofav ; xoo>tjv for xotfjxsiv. Also, 
 «s was usually contracted by them into r\ ; as, toX/xtjts for toX- 
 
 fJ*d$TSi 
 
 b. The Ionic dialect often converts a, in verbs in *aw, into s ; 
 
 as, 
 
 of iw, of so/xsvj for of aw , of aojxsv ; y^ssrai for ^f as-rai. 
 
 c. The Epic writers, on account of the metre, often insert the 
 kindred long or short vowel before the contracted vowel ; as, 
 
 ofasiv, contr. ofo/v, Poet, ofaav ; of aw, contr. 6fw, Poet, of w. 
 Participle fern. fj§aoutfa, contr. f^wtfa, rjSwwCa, &.c. 
 
 This, from the frequency of its occurrence in Homer, is some- 
 times called a Homeric form. 
 
 § 108. DIALECTS OF VERBS IN w and pw. 
 
 A principal difficulty in learning Greek, arises from the vari- 
 ety of terminations in verbs, according to the different dialects, 
 These can hardly be reduced to any general principles ; but a 
 pretty clear idea of them may be formed from the following 
 table. It must be observed, however, that many of the same 
 terminations occur in all the dialects, although that one only is 
 mentioned in which they are the most usual. Besides the 
 final syllables, of which this table chiefly consists, the Ionians 
 used to insert a vowel before the last syllable, which the poets 
 often changed into a diphthong ; as, rusrw, I. rutfs'w, P. Tutfsiw. 
 So, <pyy-ejv, I, <puy.££»v ; /3o-wtfi, I. j3o4u(fi ; of-a's, I. of-aa^, 
 
 13 
 
146 
 
 DIALECTS OF VERBS IX 6J AND f£f. 
 
 §108, 
 
 But as this does not affect the inflexion of the final syllable, it 
 is not noticed in the table. 
 
 Those moods and tenses of the middle and passive voices^ 
 which agree in termination with the active, and are not here 
 specified, are subject to similar changes in the different dialects 
 with those having the same terminations in the active voice. 
 The same is true respecting the terminations of verbs in juu ; 
 so that this table is general applying to the terminations here 
 specified, whether they belong to verbs in -w or -jaj. The dual 
 is omitted in the table, as it but seldom occurs. For other 
 changes by dialect, see § 107 throughout? 
 
 A Table exhibiting the most usual Dialects of the termi- 
 nations of Greek Verbs. 
 
 I. 
 
 1 Person. .v\pt r 
 
 2 Person. sis f 
 
 m 
 
 3 Person, a, JJJJ; 
 
 eel, 
 ft 
 
 1 Person. -fxev } 
 
 -yjfASv, 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 FINITE MOODS. 
 
 SINGULAR, 
 
 i£. s/*|xi ; D. gj/xi and (if from aw) apt % 
 
 as, tM-s^jxi fof -7}pi ; i'tfT-a/xj for i'tfr- 
 
 #'. 
 I. set, I>. A. q ; as, ixs^v-^ for -siv. 
 A. oiV, D. o/^v ; as, (piX-oiKjy for -0^1. 
 A. ^v ; as, Tif^-wrjv for -$jxi. 
 A. oSrjv ; as, &5-&J?jv for <5id-oiV- 
 
 And so on through all the persons* 
 D. s's } M. yg ; as, o>sXy-ss for -si£. 
 A. atfda, qcfda ; as,'s<p->i<ri)a for -*j£ ; 08J- 
 
 a<r0a, contr. oiVda for of&x£. 
 2E. A, sicc^ ; as, <ru^-sia£, for -a*£. 
 A. D. %g ; as, qwr- jfe, for -as. 
 D. $, iE. ^ ; as, r\)ir<r-r) for -«. . 
 A, tj, I. ss ; as, ksTvcp-ri for -£j. 
 iE. A. eis ; as, tu-^-sis for -ai* 
 I. fltf* ; as, rinrr-jitfi for -?}. 
 T>. % fi ; as, of-jj for -<£. 
 P. «n ; as, Tj^-Ti for -tfi. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 D. fxss ; as, TuVro-.a^ for -jixsv ; ru%J> ou- 
 psg or -sufjt.^ for -o/xsv ; yiX-svpsg for 
 -ovj&sv ; <^X-oC^sg for -oujasv. 
 
 A. fASv ; as, rvyQsi-psv for rupdgi.yjfA&v. 
 
§108. 
 
 2 Person. 
 & Person. 
 
 DIALECTS €WF VERBS IN W AND fW. 
 
 1« 
 
 -7]Tff> 
 
 A. <rs ; as, <ru<p&gi«rg for -TU(p^si-rjTS. 
 D. vt/ ; as, w5r/x.av<n for -atfj ; s^-wvci 
 
 for -weft ; Xg'y-ovn for Xs'y-outfj ; <rgX- 
 S'jvti for ovrfi ; (piX-ouv<n for -oOVj ; *(&. 
 -Svti or -yjv-ri for -glfti ; &'5-6jv<n for outfi. 
 
 B. into v ; as } rervep-av for -atf*. 
 
 -art*, utfi, gfaj, I. gaCi, oWi, g'atfi ; as, (Jgixv-uatfi for 
 
 -utfi ; rifl-s'aoYfor -sfoi. 
 ~oOVi, I. sutfj, o'aeft, D. oftff ; as, 5i$-6a<fi for -ou- 
 
 -eft ; pi>g-oftfi for -outfj. 
 -ov, B. otfctv ; as, gVx«£-otfav for -ov. 
 
 -gtfav, -Tfj(j!av } -otfav, -wtfav, P. -sv, -av, -ov, -wv ; as, 
 
 ri&'Sv for -gtfav ; £5-ov for -otfav ; gyv- 
 
 -wv for -wtfav. 
 -si(Tav, A, I. -stfav ; as, gjX^-gtfav for -sitfav. 
 
 -tfpcaffijj axatfi, JE. A. a<ft ; as, rsdv-atfi for -fjxaoft. 
 -aisvj JE. A. -siav ; as, ru^-gjocv for -aiev. 
 
 1. 2. 3. 3, 3. 
 
 -avuefav, -gYwtfav. gjVwtfav, oVwtfav, •ourwo'av, A. into 
 
 1. 2. 3. 
 
 avTWVj ovrwv, ouvrwv ; as, ru^-avrcjv 
 for -ccrwtfav ; Xsy-ovrwv for -gVutfav* 
 Xuff-ouvrwv for -stTc^cfav. 
 
 J > D. I. guv ; as, ^yewr-guv for -wy. 
 :, ouv, ) 
 
 <xov, contr 
 low, contr 
 
 INFINITIVE. . 
 
 -5jv, -gvai, I. -snxgv, A. D. Ifjbsvat, guv, iE. gv, fy; ; as, 
 
 gX^-SjjLgvai for -siv ; dc/xgXy-gv for -g*v ; 
 
 ■<n'0-gfji#sv and -gfjusvou for -svai. 
 -ou, A. D. gfxgvai ; as, rv-^-fyevou for -cw. 
 
 -av, A. D. -ajxsvai, ffv, M. -*jv, -*jg; -ai£ ; as, 
 
 %fr for £<xv. § 107. 12. 
 -dyv, A. D. -ojxsvai,- D. -guv, -wv ; jE. -oft; -ofv ; 
 
 as, £jy-wv for -ouv. 
 
 PARTICIPLES, 
 
 -ouVa, D. -o7<fa, -gOVa ; as, £af-0u<fa for £V- 
 
 outfa. 
 *$, -acta, -av, D. -ai£, -aitfa, -a*v ; as, |»-s|>-«^ for 
 
 -Off, &C. 
 
148 
 
 DIALECTS OF VERBS IN CO AND fU. 
 
 § 108. 
 
 -7]x-w£, > -ufa, -o£, A. -£)<f T -wcfa, -w£ ; as, stfa-ws for 
 -ax-ws, J -t]xw£, § 107. 6. I. -sw£. 
 
 w$, i£. -wv : as ? <rs<ru<p-wv, G. ovto£, for -w£, 
 
 It MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 
 
 1 Person. 
 
 -o.aai, 
 
 
 -oufxa* 
 
 
 -ffflV, 
 
 2 Person. 
 
 ■3?i 
 
 
 -ou, 
 
 
 -w, 
 
 FINITE MOODS. 
 
 SINGULAR, 
 
 1 f. D. -ou/xai ; as, <ru-^-ou,uai for .q/jmw. 
 D. -sv^'ui * as, fxa^-sO|xai for -oujulou. • 
 D. -jwav ; as, gVytfro-jxav for -ju/iflv. 
 
 A. -si, I. indie, .-sai, subj. -nai ; as, /3ouX~ 
 
 si for -7}. 
 I. -so, D. su ; as, j&a^-su for -ou. 
 I. -ao ; as, sXutf-ao for -w. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 1 Person, -sda, D. -stfda ; as, ixo/x-s^a for -eda. 
 
 3 Person, -vrai, -s'voi sJtf/, I. -arai or -s'arai ; as, xsatou for 
 
 xsi'vrai ; slgu-arat for -v<rai ; XsXs^-arai 
 for -^e'voi sitfi, (§ 107. 11). 
 
 -vto, -svqj ^tfav, I. aro or s'ctro ; as, irsvGoi-aro for 
 -OJVTO ; cysv-suro for -ovro ; sVraX-aro 
 for -jxs'vo/ ftfav. (§ 107. 11). 
 
 -*jtfav, iE. sv ; as, dvw\Qe7-ev for -^tfav ; sVu<pd-sv 
 
 for -rja'av. 
 
 -wtfav, A. I. D. wv ; as, Xega<rt)-wv for -wtfav. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 -'/jvai, D. -*jjwsva/, jE. -vjjxsv ; as, XsKptf-Sjfxsv for 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 -ouffcsvos, D. jE. sufxsvoj : as, (piKsv^svog for -oujas- 
 vo£. 
 
 I 
 
§ 109. SECOND CONJUGATION. 149 
 
 § 109. SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 All verbs of the second conjugation end in [u, 
 and are formed from pure verbs of the first, as 
 follows : 
 
 J . -jm is changed into -jut, and the short vowel 
 before it is changed into its own long, or the 
 doubtful vowel lengthened ; thus, 
 
 From tfSsw is formed tfSSjfAi, I extinguish, 
 yvow yvuf/u, I know, 
 
 cpaui <p v\ I say. 
 
 viu flrffW, I drink. 
 
 xXuw xXufw, J hear. 
 
 2. Regular verbs in-H&w,--ea), -oca, reduplicate 
 the initial consonant with t in the pres. and im- 
 perf. ; thus, 
 
 From Siu is formed &&fjuu, I bend. 
 
 &su W-d^i, I place. 
 
 Sou 6»5wf*i, I give. 
 
 But tfXsw makes flrifJwrXrjfM-, ////. (§ 6. 7.) 
 
 3- Verbs, beginning with a vowel, prefix *, 
 which is called the improper reduplication ; thus, 
 From s w is formed y-^/jui, J g-0. 
 
 0£s. 1. So also verbs beginning with te or rfr, prefix * with 
 the aspirate; thus, 
 
 From <r<raw is formed Y-flV*jf/.i. 
 
 Obs. 2. The reduplication is not used in verbs whose ras- 
 cal primitive has more than two syllables ; thus. 
 From /craw eomes fibfju, i ibiofg. 
 6vgw evrjfM* I. assert. 
 
 Likewise some other verbs-; as, 
 
 .cpaw <p»jjxi, f sti$i &c. (No. !.■) 
 
 Ok. 3. Some verbs which begin with a vowel repeat the 
 fkst syllable, after the manner of the Attic reduplication, § 128. 
 5. (c.) ; thus, aXrjfAi and dXaX>jfx,i ; a^rj/xi.and &&0piU 
 
 13* 
 
150 ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN ftl. § 110, 111, 
 
 § 110. TENSES OF VERBS IN p. 
 
 1 . Of the tenses belonging to verbs in jxi, three only are of 
 the Second Conjugation ; viz. the Present, Imperfect, and 
 2d Aorist. The other tenses are formed from the primitive^ 
 and are of the First Conjugation. (See § 154.) 
 
 2. Verbs in fit want the second root and all 
 the tenses formed from it ; viz. the second future^ 
 the second aor. pass., and the perfect and pluperfect 
 middle. 
 
 Note. Sometimes the primitive verb has the perf. mid. ; 
 thus, 
 
 Craw, p. m. earaa, part. loVatt£, -u~a, -©£. 
 yaw, ysy aa, ysyaws, -v7a 9 -o£. 
 
 3. Several verbs form only the 2d aor. according to this con* 
 jugation ; as, 
 
 (SaivM from /3<xw. Root /3a- 2d aor. &§*}v, &c. 
 yiyvwtfxw yvow yvo §'yvojv ? &c. 
 
 duu Su sSw : &c. 
 
 4. Many verbs of this conjugation are deponent, having only 
 the passive form, while their signification is active or neuter ; 
 such are 5vvupcu y I can ; xsl/xai, I lie ; di^/xai, J seek ; Q/ofAai, 
 I think 
 
 § 111. ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN p. 
 
 As in the first conjugation, so also in the second, every verb 
 consists essentially of two parts, the Root and the Termina- 
 tion, 
 
 OF THE ROOT. 
 
 The Root of every verb in -/xi is the same with that of the 
 verb from which it is derived ; thus, 
 
 j'oVYjfM from Craw, Root of both tfra- 
 «-M*lfM tew ds- &c. &c. 
 
 Note 1. In this conjugation the verb-root has but oneform^ 
 corresponding to the first root in verbs in w. (§88.) 
 
§ 112, 113. ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN [U. 131 
 
 2. To the verb-root is prefixed the Reduplication in the pre- 
 sent and imperfect in verbs that reduplicate. § 109. 2. , 
 
 3. The imperfect and 2d aorist are augmented in the same 
 manner as verbs of the first conjugation. 
 
 4. The root thus changed, as the formation of each tense 
 requires, may be called the Tense Root. 
 
 § 112. OF THE TERMINATION. 
 
 The terminations in the first conjugation consist of two parts, 
 the mood-vowels and final letters. In the second conjugation the 
 mood-vowels are wanting, and the final letters are, properly 
 speaking, the termination also. These are attached immediate- 
 ly to the root, and are the same in all verbs belonging to this 
 conjugation. 
 
 Obs. As the roots of all verbs in jju end in a, s, o, or u, these, 
 in combining with the final letters, occasion axi apparent four- 
 fold variety of inflection, which is usually exhibited in four dif- 
 ferent paradigms. 
 
 §113. FINAL LETTERS. 
 
 So far as the final letters can be separated from the roo^ 
 they are as follows : 
 
 I. ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 CHIEF TENSE. 
 
 Sing. -fWj -*, -*»* 
 
 Dual. — — ., -tov, -rov, 
 Plur. -osv, -rs~ -vrtfi 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 SECONDARY TENSES. 
 
 -v* -i, i 
 
 >. -rov, -rqv, 
 
 -/JLSV, -TS, -tfav. 
 
 Sing. 
 Dual. 
 Plur. 
 
 NATIVE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 -k, -rw, 
 
 -VCCJ. 
 
 -70V, -TWV, 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 -rs, -rwtfav. 
 
 N. vt£, -vrtfa, -vr. G. vro;, &c, 
 
 II. MIDDLE AND PASSIVE VOICES. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 CHIEF TENSE. 
 
 Sing, -^ai, -tfai, -rai, 
 Dual. -fxe$ov, -o7)ov, -otev, 
 Plur. -/xsda, -ate, -vrcu. 
 
 SECONDARY TENSES. 
 -fjwjv, -tfo, -to. 
 
 -jxsdov, -atev, -(Td^v. 
 -fjtsda, -(Tdff, -vro. 
 
152 ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN |XI. § 114. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 Sing. , -Co, -<rdw, 
 
 Dual. , -tfdov, -tfdwv, 
 
 Plur. , -fltfe, -<r0wtfav. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 N. -|XSV0£, -JJkSVTJ, -^SVOV. 
 
 Note. The final letters in the middle and passive voices are 
 the same as in the 1st conjugation. 
 
 § 114. COMBINATION of the ROOT and FINAL 
 LETTERS in the formation of the tenses, moods, &c. 
 
 I. INDICATIVE ACTIVE. 
 
 In combining with the final letters in the -indicative, the short 
 vowel of the root is changed into its own long in the sing, of 
 the present and imperfect ; and in all the numbers in the 2d 
 aor. ; thus, iWvjfxi from tfraw ; root oVa, (and with the, redupli- 
 cation in the present and imperf. iV<r«,) to which the final let- 
 ters in the chief tense are added in the present , and those of the 
 secondary in the imperf. and 2d aor. ; thus, 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 D. i'tfVcc — , -tov, -tov. 
 P. S'flVa-jutgv, -<rg, -aV 
 
 2d aor. 
 
 I'tf^-v, -g 9 — ■, 
 
 g tfr^-^sv, -r5, -tfav c 
 
 IMPERF. 
 
 i'cTTOT-Vj -£, — . 
 iflVa— } -TOV, -Tlr]V. 
 
 i'0Ta-/JLSv, -t-Sj -Cav. 
 
 Exc. ri^fjw, jftjcopi, and iV'j are excepted, which in the 2d 
 aor. have the long vowel in the singular only. 
 
 II. INDICATIVE MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 
 
 In combining the root with the final letters in the middle and 
 passive, the short vowels in the root remain unchanged ; thus^ 
 Pres. iWa-f^aij -tfai, -<rai ; Imp. ioVa^yjv, -tfo, -to, &c. 
 
 III. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD IN ALL THE VOICES. 
 
 In the subjunctive mood, through all the voices, the short 
 vowel of the root, together with the final letters ) are changed into 
 the ordinary terminations of the subjunctive in the first conju- 
 gation ; thus, StofifM from tfraw, root era. 
 Active ioV-w, iflV-fjs, loV-^ .-; Dual. *%©v, -*j<rov 5 &c. 
 
 Mid. & Pass. itfV-w/jia/, .-JJ, -Sjrai ; Dual. ~&fjie0ov, -5j<j#ov, -Tjtfdov. 
 
 Exc. But verbs in -cjfM retain w through all the persons and 
 numbers ; as, SiSu-pi from <5ow, ropt 60. 
 
 Active Si5-Q 9 -&£, -cTj ; Dual. wrov, -wtov ; PI. -wjutsv, &c. 
 
 Mid. & Pass. Ajfijxai, -$, -wrai; Dual. r«jx$ov r -wtfdov, &c. 
 
§ 114. ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN fX*. 153 
 
 IV. OrTATIVE MOOD. 
 
 In the optative mood the short vowel of the root is through 
 all the voices changed into its own diphthong, and the final 
 letters of the secondary tenses (§ 113, I.) annexed ; to which 
 also, in the active voice^ ^ is always prefixed ■ thus, 
 Act. itfral-^v -y\g -?), &c. ti^sj-tjv, -yj£ -vj. 
 
 -tjtov -V^v, -tjtov -777*1 v. 
 
 Mid. & Pass, l^ral-p^v -o (tfo) -to, ti0s(-^t]v -o (cfo) -to. 
 
 joVai'-f/iS0ov -tfdov -a'drjv, «-i05i-jxs0ov -tfdov -c^tjv. 
 iCTai-/xs0a -tf0s -vto. «ri0si-/xsda -tf0g ^vtb, 
 
 V. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The imperative mood through all the voices adds the final 
 letters immediately to the root ; as, 
 
 Sing. Dual. Plur. 
 
 Act. i0Va-0i, -to, I -Tov, -twv, 
 
 Mid. & Pass. itfTa-tfo, -C0w, | -cf^ov, -tfdwv, 
 
 -rs, -Tootfav. 
 -tfds, -o'dwa'av. 
 
 Exc. The 2d aor. changes the short vowel of the root into 
 its own long, as tfTTj-di -to, &c. But tj^/uw, 5Ww/*i, and iVi/xi, 
 retain the short vowel and have s instead of & in the 2d sing, 
 as 0£-£, Qs-r^ &c. ds'-tfo, dl-tf&w, &c. 
 
 VI. INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 The infinitive mood adds the final letters to the root ; as, 
 i'Cra-vai, rifls-va/, Vtfra-tfQai, ri&s-tfQat. 
 
 Exc. tM^ijw, (5i5wfjij, and i'yj/xi, are excepted, which in the 2d 
 aor. act. change the short vowel of the root into its own diph- 
 thong before the final letters ; as, M-vai, fou-vai, ir-vsu. 
 
 VII. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 In the active voice participles change the short vowel of the 
 root together with the final letters into the following termina- 
 tions ; viz. in verbs formed from 
 
 -aw into -a£, -outa, -av ; as J0V-a£, -atfa, -av. 
 
 -s'w into -s<V, -s7<fa, -s'v ; as tj0-s<V, -sTtfa, -sv. 
 
 -6w into -ou£, -outfa, -6v ; as ftS-ous, -oStfa, -o'v. 
 
 -uw into -U£, -uCa, -uv ; as <5eixv-vs, -utfa, -uv. 
 
 In the passive voice the final letters are added to the root ; 
 
 flS, lOVa-fASVOS, TJ0£.fASVO£, &5o.fASVO£, &C 
 
 Note. In consequence of tbe apparent fourfold variety in the termi- 
 nations ($ 112, Obs.), four paradigms are usually given under this con* 
 
154 ANALYSIS OF VERBS IN |XTJ § 114* 
 
 jugation. It will greatly diminish the labours of the student and lead 
 to a more correct knowledge of the verb to remember, that though ap- 
 parently four, there is properly but one, form of this conjugation ; as the 
 final letters, when separated from the root, are properly the terminations, 
 and are the same in all the paradigms. By first ascertaining the root, 
 as in § 111, and attending to the changes it undergoes in combination 
 with the final letters, as stated in $ 114, the whole is mastered at once, 
 without the labour of committing four separate paradigms, and the con- 
 fusion inseparable from the great number of terminations occasioned 
 by the combination of the different final vowels of the roots with the 
 proper termination or final letters. To enable the student to do this 
 more readily, as well as to shew the manner of combination in the 
 following table, the four paradigms are given together as one. In doing 
 this, however, the accents have been omitted in all cases in which their 
 position changes with the termination to be added to the root. The 
 figures 1, 2, &c 9 in the paradigm refer to the observations §116, 
 
§115, 
 
 PARADIGM OF VERBS IN f/J, 
 
 155 
 
 § 115. PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -MI, 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD, § 114. I. 
 
 Sing. Dual Plur. 
 
 Tito, 
 
 IffV 
 SiS 
 
 -fw, -<T,. -tfi, 
 
 -rov, -rov, 
 
 i Ti&Sttfl. 
 
 riQettfi, 
 $i8ov(fi t 
 
 Scixvvtfu 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE, § 114. III. 
 
 
 -7J70V, ->JT0V 5 
 
 -wrov, -wrov, 
 
 ,-w/xsv, -wrs, wtff* 
 
 OPTATIVE, § 114. IV. 
 
 for a/ } 
 
 TI0SI V -y]V, -7]£, -7], 
 
 -TjroV -^7VJV. 
 
 ■o^aev, 2 -yjre, -Tjtfav. 
 
 IMPERATIVE, § 114, V. 
 
 SoVa -to 3 
 
 rite -n 4 (§6,3.0bs.2.) | 
 
 -rs, -TWtfav.' 
 
 6,5o -0,*'" 
 Plixvu-& 
 
 INFINITIVE, § 114, VI. PARTICIPLES, § 114, VII. 
 
 itfra } p ^.itfr-aff -atfa -av r 
 
 rite f 7 rid-sfc -sfaa -s'v, 
 
 < \ comb. (§6.6, (o.)) /* > ~, , 
 
 jtfra 
 
 &XVU 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE, § 116, 6. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Dual. Plur. 
 
 iSiixvv J 
 The other moods in the imperf. the same as in the present, 
 
 Sing. 
 
 -rov, -r*)v, 
 
 •{ASV, -ts, -tfav* 
 
156 
 
 PARADIGM OF VERBS IN fit. 
 
 §115, 
 
 PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -ML 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 SECOND AORIST. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD, § 114, I. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 
 Dual. 
 
 S<fTYj } 
 
 US > -TOV, -TYJV, 
 
 §'5o V 
 
 Plur. 
 .-j»sv, -ts, -(fay. 7 
 
 subjunctive, § 114, III. 
 
 5 -w, -w£, -w, 
 
 -?}T0V, -?JT0V, 
 -WT0V-, -W70V, 
 
 -W(XSV, -WTS, -W(fr. 
 
 OPTATIVE, § 114, IV. 
 
 'rai } 
 of ) 
 
 5c 
 
 -7]T0V, -VJT^V, 
 
 -yjfjisv, -ifjrg, -vja'av. 
 
 IMPERATIVE, § 114, V. 
 
 0S-£ > -TW, 
 
 -rov, -rwv, 
 
 -<rs, -r&jtfan 
 
 INFINITIVE, § 114, VI. PARTICIPLES, § 114 3 * VII, 
 
 5o j com.(§6.6.(o.)) ( Sovg, flovtfa, 5ov. 
 
 tf<T7J } 
 
 M > -vca 
 So\j S 
 
§115. 
 
 PARADIGM OF YERBS IN f*i. 
 
 157 
 
 PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -ML 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 INDICATIVE, § 114, II. 
 
 Sing. Dual. Plur. 
 
 -fJLg^OV, -tfdov, -0$OV, 
 
 Tide v 
 
 5sjxvu 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE, § 114, IIL 
 
 m v - 
 
 Ti4 4 " W ^ ai ' "^ " >3TOtl 
 
 •fjLS^a, -tfte, -vrcu. 
 
 5i5 *w|xai,-w } -wtoj, 
 
 W/XS0OV, -7jtf^0V, -TJtf^OV, 
 
 -W/&S0OV, -wtfdov, -wtfdov, 
 
 SoVai 
 Tiflsi 
 
 >-W> -»i 
 
 OPTATIVE, § 114, IV. 
 
 (-Co) 8 -to, -fxs^ov, -tfdov, -a^v, 
 
 IMPERATIVE, § 114, V. 
 
 -tf0ov, -tfdwv, 
 
 -fxs^a, -Cde, -vto. 
 
 && Y'* * "°^ w ' -tf0ov, -tfdwv, ..tfte, -tfdwtfav. 
 
 *5sjxvu a 
 
 INFINITIVE, § 114, VI. PARTICIPLES, § 114, VII, 
 
 itfra 
 
 5i<5o 
 &fxvu 
 
 -tflflM, 
 
 JsixvJ ) 
 
 I^TOO 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 INDICATIVE, § 114, II. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 SoVa 
 <k»ds 
 
 ifaxvu 
 
 -/xrjv, -<fa\ -to, 
 
 Dual 
 
 .{xsdov, -tfdov, -tfdrjv, 
 
 Plur. 
 
 •/X5^a, -tf$£, -vro. 
 
 The other moods of the imperf. the same as in the present. 
 
 14 
 
158 
 
 PARADIGM OF VERBS IN fW, 
 
 [ § H8- 
 
 PARADIGM OF VERBS IN -ML 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 SECOND AORIST. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD, § 114, II. 
 
 Sing. 
 stfroL \ 
 16$ }-M v > '**> mtro > 
 
 Dual. 
 
 ■^s^ov, -tfdov, -(rtfyv, 
 
 Plur. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE, § 114, III. 
 
 tir 
 
 . > -wptti, -y\ y «>)<raj, 
 
 WJJIS0OV, -?j<J7)0V, -Sjtf^OVj 
 ■WfASdoV, -Wfl^OV, -WfltfoV, 
 
 5 -Sjxai, -w, -urai : 
 
 OPTATIVE, § 114, IV 
 
 }* 
 
 ds* J- -fltf)V, -o,(tfo) 8 -<ro,|-f/.s0ov, -C0ov, -tfdijv, 
 Jo; 
 
 wjAS$a, -Cote, -5v*ai„ 
 
 •jxsda, .tits, -vTft* 
 
 » V-fl 
 
 5o i 
 
 tftct 
 
 0b \ -Co, 9 -tfflw, 
 
 56 
 
 IMPERATIVE, § 114, V. 
 
 -tf#ov ? -<rfwv, 
 
 *<ffc, -tfdwa'av. 
 
 INFINITIVE, § 114, VI. PARTICIPLES, § 114, VIL 
 
 56 j 56 j 
 
 0S }-/ASV0&*, -/XSV7J, -fJISVOV, 
 
 56 
 
 The present and imperfect passive are like the pre- 
 sent and IMPERFECT MIDDLE. The SECOND AOR. PASS. IS 
 
 wanting. 
 
 Note. For the other tenses of verbs in p, see § 154 and 155, and for 
 the dialects, J 108. 
 
OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN fA|. 159 
 
 § 116. OBSERVATIONS ON VERBS IN pi. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 1. The final letters of the 3d pers. plur. are properly -vrtfi ; 
 and these, combining with the preceding vowel, according to 
 the rules of Euphony, (§ 6. 6. (o)), become -a<Ti, -swfi, -ouCi, -ucfi, 
 •wtfi. 
 
 2. In the optative, y is often dropped before the final letters 
 of the plural, making 
 
 -ai/xsv, -airs , -aisy 5 -sifxsv, -sire, -Sis* ; -oijxsv, -oirs, -ojsv. 
 
 instead of 
 
 -anjj&sv, -afyfS, -afytfav ; -sitjjxsv, &c. 
 
 3. \4rri\u has sometimes Storif for \drak in the imperative ; 
 and in compounds ora is commonly used for aVJjdi ; thus, avatf- 
 fa for dvatf<njdi ; iroLgaufra, for ^rag atff 5#i, &c. 
 
 4. So also riAijfUj £i$wftt, and nj/xi, have sometimes fidsi, (Si- 
 5ou, S'si, for f /ten., SiSofa, Ufa ; but these are properly contracted 
 forms of the primitive verb with the reduplication, used in the 
 Ionic and Doric dialects ; thus, frfsw, imper. vifee, contr. tMsi. 
 
 5. As in verbs in w, (§ 107. 2.) so also in those in fw, -g'vfwv 
 is used for -sVwtfav in the imper. 3d pers. pi. 
 
 6. In the imperfect the primitive verb with the reduplication 
 is often used ; thus, 
 
 if Msov, irifesg, IriQss, &c. 
 contracted JrMouv, ififes, irifai, &c. 
 
 7. The terminations -ettfav, -stfav, &c. in the 3 pers. plur., 
 are frequently shortened by syncope ; as, i'<Jf av for S'tff atfav ; sV 1- 
 6sv for £f Mstfav j £'£av for g'SqCav. 
 
 MIDDLE AND PASSIVE. 
 
 8. In the 2d pers. sing, of the imperfect indicative, mid. and 
 pass, tf is often rejected, and the concurring vowels contracted ; 
 thus, ioV w for i'aV atfo - Ti4.au for f itetfo, &c. So in the indie, pres. 
 .sometimes iW 77 for SW atfai. Also in the 2d pers. sing, of the 
 optative, d is rejected, but the vowels, being incapable of con- 
 traction, remain unchanged. 
 
 9. The same contraction takes place in the imperative ; but 
 in the 2d aor. 6s<fo is contracted into 0ou only in compounds ; as, 
 
160 
 
 THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 
 
 §117. 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERBS, § 156. 
 
 § 117. I. THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. 
 
 i. Ei'fAi, sum, J am. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 
 PRESENT TENSE INDICATIVE. 
 
 D. 
 
 P. kfiw, 
 
 
 efe or sf, 
 
 £<r«rs, 
 
 
 S. <S, 
 D. r 
 
 P. W/X5V, 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 
 g. efyv, 
 D. 
 
 P. S**]{ASV, 
 
 
 
 s'/yjo'av. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 g. stfo * 
 D. soVov, 
 
 P. §We, 
 
 sdVwv, 
 
 e/vai. 
 
 M. £v, 
 F. k<fa 9 
 N. 8v. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSB INDICATIVE. 
 
 S. %v r fs> f or ^v, 
 
 P. ^sv, yjr s , ^Vav. 
 
 The Imperfect of the remaining moods the same as the Pre* 
 sent. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 P. faefa, 
 
 
 
 * l(ro seems to be of the imperative of the middle voice, the rest of 
 the persons appear to be of the active voice ; from ladi. See ApolL 
 Alex. 261, 17. 
 
§ 118. 
 
 THE CHIEF DIALECTS OF 6ifAi. 
 
 161 
 
 E/fA;, I am> arises from su ; from which it has, regularly, 
 the first future, through all moods and persons : thus, 
 stfo/Jtai, icfoijm.Tjv, eifstfdcu, stfojxsvos. 
 
 § 118. THE CHIEF DIALECTS OF ripf. 
 PRESENT. 
 
 1. 
 
 Sing, tint, D. i^?, 
 
 Plur. iopev, D. rt/xes, 
 P. £/*£>, rfpw. 
 
 INDICATIVE* 
 
 2. 
 
 Jr, or it, I. «(f ; P. ««, 
 
 iaah 
 lor*, P. Ire. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 "Sing. '5, 1, cw, P. £?u>. | jfo I. «#$, P. tigs* 
 
 Plur. fyl£V, D. &p€Si | #T£. 
 
 P. dujtevj £iOjxev> \ 
 
 Sing. dr]v, L EOipi. 
 Plur. drj^ev, I. £<ju£v. 
 
 sing, 
 Plur, 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 e'/?7?, I. Soc£. 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 [ Ico, P. luuo, A. Iff0l. 
 
 ! lore. 
 
 «rr|, D. ivrt, in. 
 
 dcrt, D. ivrl, JR. evn, stjy- 
 rtf P. eaai, sacau 
 
 f/, I. ejj 9 £*/?, |<W, l*«, P» 
 
 Steffi. 
 
 w<rt, I. faxrt. 
 
 | UT) } I. £0i. 
 
 j ei^cav, LA. ehv. 
 
 EOTW. 
 
 eoTwcraVf A. saroiV) P. £<fe- 
 rwv. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 
 cTvat, I. £^£p, c7/*«v 3 D. Sfttvai, rj^tv : fyx, £?(*£$, ^E« spfJ-Svai, P. t^ucp. 
 
 PARTICIPLE. 
 
 JVI. WV, I. £CdV, j32. £if. 
 
 Sing. #i/, I. co, #a, P, 
 
 2??v, £i>?l/, ^v, gov, 
 ?}OV 7 €OKQV* 
 
 Du. 
 
 Piur. ^, D. ?/!«, P. 
 
 £//£V. 
 
 Fem. o#aa, T. eovcra, D. 
 r&o-a, tolvciy saaua, 
 JEt. €iaa f sacra, 
 
 IMPERFECT* 
 
 fc, I. If j, Ssif, P. fjec, 
 eas, totes? J£t* fjcda, 
 erjcrda. 
 
 tjTOV, JEt* ItJTOV, P. %TOV, 
 
 jjarov, 
 %t£, I. ears. 
 
 14* 
 
 Neilt. Gv } I. iovy JEt. evo 
 
 % orjfa I. D. fc, fa P. 
 
 ijttjv, A. ^or^y, P. larr,v. 
 %cav, P. fVav, faaav, tffKov* 
 
162 VERBS OF GESTURE, &C. §119. 
 
 IMPERFECT MIDDLE. 
 Plur- I I #vro, I. saro t rtaro. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE. 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Sing, faopai, D. foov- 
 
 fiai, ioevfiat, P. 
 
 cVcro/iat. 
 Piur. ia6fjLe6a t M. ic6> 
 
 INFIN. wtvQai, P. eaaeaBai. PARTIC1P. h6^tvQS f P. eao-fysvos* 
 
 lafi r A. eaa. I. £0£ai f let- 
 ezai, D. €<t^, hcfjt 
 P. 2<r(r^. 
 
 £<7£ff0£. 
 
 P. Ir«rai. 
 
 § 119. II. VERBS OF GESTURE, dec. 
 
 i. ET(ii,Igo, 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE, 
 
 S. sifM, 
 
 D. 
 
 P. Zfwv, 
 
 . sis or el, 
 
 JVov, 
 
 1«, 
 
 Sttfl, 
 
 #Vov 3 
 
 jtfi or /atf!»* 
 
 
 IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 S. sfv, 
 D. 
 
 P. '/fJISV, 
 
 if* 9 
 
 iVov, 
 
 7tfav. 
 
 
 PRESENT IMPERATIVE. 
 
 S. 
 D. 
 P. 
 
 17QV, 
 ITS. 
 
 Trwtfav, 
 
 E/f/.», /^o, among" the Attics, has another imperfect tense of 
 the indicative mood. Thus, 
 
 IMPERFECT INDICATIVE ATTIC, 
 
 S. fjeiv, folSy yfel, 
 
 D. fisirov, 7jsiV*]v, 
 
 P. fj£//^sv, ffcirs, TjSKTav, or ^'stfav. 
 
 * tao-4 is the Ionic form. 
 
§ 119. VERBS OF GESTURE, &C. 163 
 
 
 
 
 
 SECOND AORIST. 
 
 Indie. 
 
 S. 
 
 7ov, 
 
 
 \H, 
 
 
 i!> 
 
 
 D. 
 
 
 
 Tsrov, 
 
 
 isrqv, 
 
 
 P. 
 
 i'ofJlSVj 
 
 
 7STc, 
 
 
 j'ov. 
 
 Subjunct, 
 
 
 /w, 
 
 
 fyVj 
 
 
 i/j, &c. 
 
 OptaU 
 
 
 fOlfJil, 
 
 
 «*£, 
 
 
 101, &c. 
 
 Imper. 
 
 
 
 
 lh 
 
 
 ISTW, &C 
 
 Injin. 
 
 
 Tva;. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Particip. 
 
 
 /'wVj 
 
 iStfo 
 
 , IOV, 
 
 J0V<T0£ 
 
 &c. 
 
 E/|X'» / go, is formed from another verb, J'w, from which it 
 has a regular imperative Is, contractedly sf ; hence, in com- 
 position, cwrsi , abi ; ggsi, exi. But I w, J 5*0, itself seems to be 
 abbreviated from the more ancient saw * by an aphaeresis, (as, 
 Wku from Idg'Xw, and many of the same kind.) But lew seems 
 to be also abbreviated, contractedly, in siw ; from which are 
 found various persons of different tenses ; as, fitfa ; siVag, or 
 Attice j* fitfag ; siVar^jv, Attice, isitfowijv, &c. sfxa ; s/xsiv, Attice 
 fixsiv. 
 
 And in the Middle Voice, s/'tfojxai, siVsrai, sldoflo, siVa/xsvos ; 
 and in the perfect, sfa, Attice, 5ja, and $»a ; and in the pluper- 
 fect, tJsiv Attice ; which is the same again with the imperfect 
 active Attic : which circumstance, according to certain gram- 
 marians, has deceived very many. 
 
 Note. 'E?/u, in the present tense, is used in a future sense ; as sTpi, I will 
 go. In the middle voice it signifies to hasten. 
 
 II. TfojfM, ^£"0- 
 
 From the same root, sw, likewise comes r*#u, J ^0 ; found 
 however, only in a few persons, but these regularly formed like 
 verbs in fxi ; thus, 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Indicative, 3d pers. sing. 5V» ; 1st pers. plur. i'sjxsv. 
 Optative, 3d sing. Jsfy. 
 Infinitive, isvat. 
 Participles, kig, Gen. Js'vros. 
 
 * And cT^u may be from ecu ; so by the same analogy £<W may be from 
 iht. Also in the imperfect, as from dpi may be eJv, so from eta/ci may 
 be ttuv ; and with the Attic augment, jjeiv. 
 
 t So &ri?(ra?, abiisti, Plato, Hipp. Maj. 291. C. 8, Steph. 
 
164 VERBS OF GESTURE, &C. § 119- 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Indicative, 'iefav. 
 Participle, e?$, 
 
 2d AORIST. 
 
 MIDDLE VOICE, 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Indicative , feffcai, hrai, iWcei. 
 
 Imperative, 'J'sCo, UtfGu. 
 Participles, U^svog, 
 
 in. *I*?jm, 1 send ; is regularly formed in all its parts like 
 TMijfti. In the active voice it signifies J send another ; in the 
 middle, I send myself; and hence the secondary signification, / 
 desire or wish. 
 
 
 iv. r H/xa(, JszV. 
 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE. 
 
 S. ?fjwxi, 
 D. Jjfii&dov, 
 P. fyjisfa, 
 
 TJtfOU, rjrai, 
 fUft6V 9 7)(f&QV, 
 
 
 IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 D. %sdov, 
 P. fyjusda, 
 
 7}<f0, 7]T0, 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 INFIN. PARTICIP 
 
 ^tfo, yif&u), &c. ^Vdai, ^/xsvoff, *j, ov. 
 
 Ohs. 1. For ?vrai, the Ionians use Sarai, and the Poets si'araj J 
 so also sWo, and siWo, for ?vro. (§ 107, 10. c.) 
 
 Obs. 2. The compound xaQripai, is more common than rjiia^ 
 which has also the subjunctive, xaQupui ; and the optative, xcctfof- 
 fjwjv ; which has also the Ionic forms xorsara), xoltsolto, for xa- 
 $*jvraj, xcWtjvtq. 
 
 v. Ksfyai, I fee dww. 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE. 
 
 S. xeljxai, 
 
 XST&CU, 
 
 xsi<rai, 
 
 D. XSlf/.S0OV, 
 
 xsTtfQov, 
 
 xsTtfQov, 
 
 P. xei^eQoL, 
 
 xeTtfQe, 
 
 , xeTvrai 
 
§ 119. VERBS OF GESTURE, &C 165 
 
 IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 S. hsi^Yjv, sxsitfo, sxsiro, 
 
 D. ixeipsQov, exeitf&ov, hsMr\v } 
 
 P. ixsipeQa, Ixsitfds, sxsivro. 
 
 IMPER. ItfFIN. PARTICIP. 
 
 xsirfo, xsitfdw, &c. xs7<f&cu, xsipevogy 17, ov. 
 
 1. fut. mid. xsiVo/xoti, xsi'tfj], xsitterai, &c. 
 
 05s. 1. xs7f/,ai may be regularly derived from xss'w, from 
 which, in the active voice, *6pi ; in the middle, xssfxai ; by con- 
 traction, xeTpui. So also xsstfopai, xsiVo^ai. 
 
 2. From xss'w, by syncope, arises xs'w, mid. xsof*ai ; hence 
 the forms xs'ovrai, sxs'ovro ; xe'w/xai, X577, xs^rai ; xsoiffcyjv, xsoio, xsojto, 
 &c. The subjunctive x^rai also occurs. 
 
 3. From xsw also arise the iEolian and Doric forms xs'tfxw, 
 xetfxofAai, ixitfxsro, Odyss. 9. 41. 
 
 4. For xgivtai, and sxsivro, the Ionians use xsarui, sxsolto, &c. 
 
 vi. <£>jfA/, I s^y. 
 
 *r)f*/, in all the parts in use, is formed regularly like S'tfrqfAi. 
 It is necessary only to observe concerning it, 
 
 1. This verb appears to have had, as an ancient form, Tjfxf, 
 which occurs in Aristophanes, Nub. 1145. whence probably 
 the forms of the imperfect ?v, qj£, ?j, frequently used with & iyd 
 and 5' o$, (he) ; as, fy 6' syw, said I; ^ 6' fc, s<w'rf Ae. 
 
 2. The imperfect sprjv, is used in the sense of the 2d aor., and 
 hence yawi is always used in the sense of past time ; as, (pavai 
 7ov 2wx£a<ryj, that Socrates has said. 
 
 3. When the present infinitive is required, it is supplied by 
 fcsysiv. 
 
 vii. "ItfyfM, I know ; and of<5a, I know. 
 
 "itfuiu forms its parts regularly like iVojixi, but is used only 
 in the present and imperfect, in which it wants the subjunctive 
 and optative. The singular of the present indicative is used 
 by the Dorians only. The imperfect also is seldom used. The 
 parts of jtfyjjxi, which are defective or but seldom used, are sup- 
 plied from ofda, the perf. middle of s'/5w, in the sense of the pre* 
 sent, and its pluperfect oj&iv, in the sense of the imperfect. In 
 like manner the parts of oTSa not required to complete the de- 
 fective parts of '/tf*)|xi, are but seldom used. The two together, 
 by supplying each other's defects, make, as it were, one verb ; 
 as follows, 
 
166 IMPERSONAL VERBS. §120. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Indicative, Sing. of<5a, oTSag, (ofada,) o/5e, 
 
 Dual. foarov, (iVrov,) foarov, 
 
 Plur. factftsv, /'(Tare, foot**, 
 
 Subjunctive, Sing. sW-w, -#£, fi; D. -fyrov, &c. 
 Optative, s/<5si-*iv, --*]<:, -rj ; &c. 
 
 Imperative, itfafii, (fofy) iVarw, (iVrw), &c. 
 
 Infinitive, iVavai, and sMsvai. 
 
 Participles, 'itfcts, '/tfatfa, '/tfav. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 Indicative, Sing. #5siv, fi<5s/£, (^eio^a,) vffe, 
 
 Dual. fjferov, ;/J5siV>jv, 
 
 Plur. fiSsi^isv, (>jV^sv,) »J&i<r£, ($Ws,) fi5&<fav, (^tfav,) 
 
 also, Sing. T^-igv^ -r\g, ->j, -arov, &c. 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Indicative. Sing, s'/tf-ojxa*, -77, -srai, &c. (more rarely s/^w.) 
 MIDDLE VOICE. 
 
 Indic. Pres. Sing, faa-ju^ai, -tfar -<rai ; -f*e£ov, -tfdov, -aTJov ; &c 
 
 Indic. Imperf. ltfoL-py\v, -Co, -to ; &c. 
 
 Infinitive, '/tfaCdai, participles, iVa^sv-o^, -*j, -ov. 
 
 IVofe. The «0m£, perfect active, &c. are supplied from ytyv&jKO) ; as» 
 syvwv, lyvtoKa. 
 
 Obs. 1. The dual and plural of the pres. ind. active, are ge- 
 nerally shortened by a syncope ; thus, j'tfTov, /'aVov ; /Vfxsv, Urs, 
 
 H&GLtfl. 
 
 Obs. 2. The lonians have 75/xsv in the 1st pers. pi. instead 
 of fo/xsv. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the middle voice, iVra^ai, &c. is used for /Va^ai^ 
 in the compound s<7nVra|xai, I know, or understand. This, how- 
 ever, is supposed to be rather an Ionic form of the middle, from 
 E<pi0V?]fxi, to which the words <rov vouv, are to be supplied. 
 
 . § 120. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 Many verbs are sometimes taken impersonally ; as, agi<txet % 
 it pleases ; agxeT, it is sufficient ; irgoGyxsi, it is meet ; (fv^aivs^ 
 it follows, it happens ; <ruf/4>s£ejj it is profitable, &c. 
 
§ 120. IMPERSONAL VERBS. 167 
 
 But those which are chiefly taken impersonally are the fol- 
 lowing. 
 
 IlfeVsi, decet ; srffstfs, decebat ; irgiirsiv, decere ; to rffsVov, id 
 quod decet ; and, in the plural, <ra -nfgeVov7a. 
 
 Ms'Xii, curse est ; e/xsXs, curse erat ; j&sXqftf&i, curse erit ; fASwi- 
 Xrjxs, curse fuit. 
 
 AoxtT, videtur ; iSoxst, videbatur ; etfofje, visum est ; as also, 
 to 5oxovv, id quod videtur ; and in the plural, <ra Soxovvla. 
 
 AbT, oportet ; eSet, oportebat ; StfjtfBi, oportebit : Sefj, oporteat ; 
 Szhty* oportuerit ; 5s7v, oportere ; to.Ss'ov, id quod oportet ; and 
 in the plural, to SiovftL 
 
 X^fJ, oportet ; sx$ v 9 oportebat ; %#$Q 9 oportebit ; xfi y0L h 
 and xi £ v > oportere ; to xg* uv > H quod oportet. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Obs. I . Me'Xii and I'/xsXs are formed from jxs'Xw ; but the an- 
 cient verb was j&sXiw, whence psXytisi, and fjus^s'X^xs ; and in 
 Homer ixsprfks, per/, mid. for ps/reXs, to avoid the concurrence 
 of three short syllables. Homer has also fxs'jxSXwxg, by Syn- 
 cope, and Euphony, for fWf/^Xwxs, from jmsXo'w, to ta£e care. 
 
 Obs. 2. AoxsT, and idoxsi are from 5ex|w ; s<$ofs, from the an- 
 cient £o'xw. 
 
 O&s. 3. The present, in use is 8lu ; but the other tenses are 
 formed from the ancient 8ssu, 
 
 Obs. 4. X$ may be derived thus: inmost of the ancient 
 Greek words many vowels met together ; their number was 
 afterwards lessened by elision and contraction ; as, from the 
 ancient ^saoj*ai, are formed ^ao/xai, and Ion. x^°^ ai - Thus 
 in-Herod. we find (poiTsaw, cpoirsw, and (potTaw. In like manner, 
 ovaw, to benefit , was formerly ovsaw ; whence is formed ovsag, for 
 which Homer has oWaf, to avoid the concurrence of three short 
 syllables ; and so xrau, or xruopcu, was formerly xtsocw, whence 
 xt£<x£, -ixto£. 
 
 But the Attics generally lessened the number of concurrent 
 vowels by contraction. Thus they said xjsojvtcci, for XS S ^ 0V ™ i 
 J^swvto for ixf saovTo ; ^sw/jlsvo^ for XS S0L ^ SV0 ^ J all( ^ ^ e ver ^" 
 al noun, x$ u $> f° r Xf £ ' ao £5 ^- So, m t ^ le infinitive, j^saWdai, 
 Xfeatfte, xf^ a '« 
 
 In this manner from the active x? £ ' aw > m tk e 3d sm &* Xf £ ' a£l 
 is contracted into x£ £ ' a > whence, by contraction again, is made 
 Xiji' So, m ^ e imperfect, fy^* 5 ) £ X£ £ ' a > £ Xf^ ; infinitive, Xf £( *£jv 3 
 X?-£ v ? XSfv ] anc * participle, neuter, to x£ £aov > X? £WV * 
 
168 DESIDERATIVE VERBS, &C § 121* 
 
 § 121. Other kinds of verbs distinguished by 
 some peculiarity of signification are, 
 
 1. Desiderative Verbs ; or those which denote a desire or 
 intention of doing. They are commonly formed from other 
 verbs by changing -rfw of the 1st fat. into a present in -Cciw ; 
 as, from 
 
 yzXdtx)) I laugh, 1st fut. ycAa<r&> } is formed ytXaetfu, I desire to laugh* 
 
 iro\£j*j<D, I make war, TroX^jjaw, troAf/^ae/w, I desire war. 
 
 Another form of desideratives is that in -aw or -law, properly 
 from substantives ; as, from dumrog, death ; davdraw, I long for 
 death ; tfrgaryybs, a general ; tfrPowTjyiaw, / ivish to be a general. 
 Also from verbs, by first forming substantives from them ; as, 
 
 uveTtfGcu, to buy ; (wv»)t^,) wvyjfiaw, / wish to buy. 
 
 xXai'w, I weep ; (xXautfis,) xXautfiaw, I am disposed to weep. 
 
 2. Frequent atives ; or those which signify repeated action. 
 These commonly end in -£w; as, gnrra£siv, (from |iVtsiv 5 ) . to 
 throw from one place to another, Mid. to throw one's self this way 
 and that, to be restless ; tf<rsva£sjv, (from tfrsveiv,) to sigh much and 
 deeply ; so, from afrsfv, to demand ; aM£siv, to beg ; f^ffsiv, to 
 creep ; ig#yj[siv, to creep slowly. 
 
 3. Inceptives ; or those which express the beginning or con- 
 tinued increase of an action. These commonly end in -tfxw ; as, 
 ysvsiatfxw, to begin to have a beard ; yjSatfxw, to groio to manhood; 
 (the same as ysvsia^w and ^£<xw) ; in part transitive ; as, fA£0v<fxw, 
 to intoxicate ; from fAsfltfw, I am intoxicated. 
 
§ 122, 123. OP THE TERMINATION. 169 
 
 § 122. OF THE VERB. 
 
 The Tenses of verbs are distinguished by the 
 Termination, Characteristic, and Augment. 
 
 Moods are distinguished by the Termination 
 and Augment. 
 
 Numbers and Persons are distinguished by the 
 Termination. 
 
 § 123. OF THE TERMINATION. 
 
 The termination is that part of the verb which 
 is varied by inflection, through the different num- 
 bers and persons of the same tense ; thus, 
 
 Xiy.ft, Xs'y-EI2, Xiy-EI, Xs'7-ETON, Xs'7-OMEN, &c. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 1. If the first person plural ends in jxsv, the first person 
 dual is wanting. 
 
 2. If the third person plural ends in -i, the third person dual 
 ends in -ov. 
 
 3. The subjunctive mood of the present tense forms its ter- 
 minations from the indicative by changing the short vowels in- 
 to their own long ones, subscribing i and rejecting u. 
 
 The subjunctive mood of the other tenses has the same ter- 
 minations as the present. 
 
 4. The termination of the optative mood has always the 
 diphthong of, ai, or si. 
 
 5. The first future always follows the terminations of the 
 present, as also the second future passive. 
 
 But in the second future active and middle, the short vow- 
 els immediately after the characteristic are changed into their 
 diphthongs. 
 
 6. The second aorists, active and middle, always follow the 
 termination of their imperfect. 
 
 But the aorists of the passive borrow their terminations from 
 verbs in -pi. 
 
 7. The singular number of the middle and passive voice 
 
 15 
 
170 OF THE CHARACTERISTIC. § 124. 
 
 used formerly to end always in -/xai, -tfoti, -<ra», or f/^v, tfo, <ro. 
 The Ionians first struck out <? ; and afterwards the Attics con- 
 tracted the concurring vowels as in the example ; thus, <rik<rs- 
 tfai, <iw<rsa», TutfTs'aV, <rvirrr\i 9 runrrji. 
 
 But sometimes -era- is rejected by the Attics, and the remain- 
 ing vowels contracted by Syneresis ; thus, 
 
 ^ouXofjuxi, I will; /iJouXstfai, /3ouXs*i, fiovXei. 1\o^ol\ % I think ; o'/stfaj, 
 o7s7, oi'si, &c. 
 
 8. The plurals of the third person ending in ov and av, end- 
 ed formerly in -otfav and -atfav, which the Boeotians still retain ; 
 but by the rest of the Greeks -eta- is rejected. 
 
 § 124. OP THE CHARACTERISTIC. 
 
 1. The Characteristic of a tense is the let- 
 ter next the termination. It suffers no change by 
 inflection, but remains invariably the same in the 
 same tense ; thus, 
 
 y in XsT-w, XsT-s^, XsT-o/jaj, XsT-eiv, XsT-wv, &c. 
 * in ti-w, rf-sig, <n'-oijw, &c. 
 x in tfXsx-w, tfXgx-sis, &c. 
 rf in <rs'gtf-w, r§pf-&g, &c. 
 
 2. But if the latter of two consonants is either 
 t or a liquid, the former is the characteristic ; 
 thus, 
 
 it in Tutfrw ; x in <nxrw ; p in <rsfjww. 
 
 3. A verb is called Pure, Mute, or Liquid, ac- 
 cording as the characteristic of the present is a 
 vowel, or a mute, or a liquid ; as, ruo, Xeyw, aril- 
 
 1(0. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Obs, I. Verbs in -tftfw and -£w, appear to have originally end- 
 ed in -yw and -5w, from which their other tenses are still regu- 
 larly formed. The proper characteristic of such verbs there- 
 fore is y or 5, according as they .make -£w or -<to in the first fu- 
 ture ; thus, § 87, Obs. 
 
§ 125. OF THE AUGMENT. 171 
 
 Present form. Original form. 1 Future. Charac. 
 irgacfo'w, cr^ayw, *&&> y. 
 
 H^&y x g*Y u i *£?£*** 7- 
 
 tfXatftfw, tfXatSw, tfXatfw, 0. 
 
 9£<*£ w j (p|oc5w, (pjatfw, 5, 
 
 otftfa^w, 
 
 O&s. 2. 2 is never the characteristic of the present. 
 
 Obs. 3. In verbs not liquid, the characteristic of the 1st future 
 is always 4 ; thus, 
 
 <nw, 1 fut. <nV-w, I Xsyw, 1 fut. Xi|-w. 
 tfXs'xw, tfXs'g-w. j yf oupw, yja^-w. 
 
 05s. 4. In liquid verbs the characteristic of the present is 
 also the characteristic of the future ; thus, psvu, 1st fut. f*svw ; 
 tftfs/fw, — tftfSf w ; tfrsXXw, — oVsXw ; dpw, — cs^w. 
 
 06s. 5. If a simple consonant stands before -co in the 1st fu- 
 ture, the characteristic of the perfect is x ;*if a double consonant, 
 the characteristic is an aspirate of the same order ; (§ 4, 1, 
 Obs. 1.) thus, 
 
 Vfw, Trtfa, rsrixa, x. I rutfrw, ru^to, <rsVu<pa, (p. 
 
 tfrs'XXw, CTsXcti, stfraXxa, x. | X&yw, Xifw, XsXs^a, p(. 
 
 OJs. 6. All the other tenses are formed from the present, 
 the 1st future, and the perfect. 
 
 § 125. OF THE AUGMENT, 
 
 The indicative mood of every Preterite tense is 
 
 augmented ; viz. in verbs beginning with a con- 
 
 i sonant, by prefixing a syllable to the verb — in 
 
 -1 verbs beginning with a vowel or diphthong, by 
 
 lengthening the first letter or syllable. 
 
 The first is termed by grammarians the syllabic, 
 and the second, the temporal augment. 
 
 The perfect retains the augment through all 
 the moods. 
 
 The present and future have no augment. 
 
172 OF THE AUGMENT. . § 125, 
 
 I. OP THE SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 
 
 1. If the verb begins with a consonant the 
 augment e is prefixed ; thus, 
 
 rutfrw, gVutfroVj sru^a. • 
 
 q after e is doubled ; thus, 
 
 |iV<rw, I throw ; s^irfrov, Hl^ a ' 
 
 2. In the perfect the initial consonant is repeat- 
 ed before e ; thus, 
 
 Tutfrw, tu-n^Wj rsVupa. 
 
 Exc. 1. An aspirate repeats its own smooth. 
 
 Saufjux^w, I wonder ; Saufjuxo'w, rsfiaviiaxu. 
 cpaivw, I shew ; cpavw, tfecpayxa. 
 
 X£''w, I anoint; Xgfrtt* xtygotu* • 
 
 Exc. 2. q is not repeated ; thus, 
 
 §jWgj, ^4^ Httf®' 
 
 Exc. 3. Verbs beginning with yi/-, <p£-, or cr, be- 
 fore or after a consonant, do not reduplicate; thus* 
 
 yv- yvow, J know ; yvwtfw, lyvwxa. 
 
 <p#- <p0»w, J corrupt ; <p0itfw, s<p0ixa. 
 
 tftf- 4*su5wj J deceive ; -^sutfw, s-^suxa. 
 
 5<f- £aw, I live ; %r\4<A, §j?ywu 
 
 tit- (ftfevSo), I hasten; tftfsutfu, savsuxa. 
 
 oV- tf<rs<pto, I crown; Cts^w, effrscpa. 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes also verbs beginning with x<r and err do 
 not reduplicate j as, 
 
 xr- xrsfvtt, I kill ; xrsvw, fxrayxct. 
 
 xr- xri£w, I create ; xritfu, sxnxa, 
 
 *irr- tfrosu, I cause to dread ; #<ro^sfy, z^To^xa* 
 
 Obs 2. And sometimes, though rarely, those beginning with 
 yX, €X. 
 
 3. Verbs which reduplicate the initial conso- 
 nant in the perfect, prefix e in the pluperfect in- 
 dicative as a second augment ; thus, 
 
§ 126. THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 173 
 
 But if the perfect does not reduplicate, the 
 pluperfect does not receive a new augment ; as, 
 
 i*ww, m** 9 m i $ a i m^ w ' 
 
 § 126. II. THE TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 
 
 1. If the verb begins with a, €, o, or with av 9 
 cu, <u, the initial vowel is changed into its own 
 long, and i of the diphthong subscribed ; thus, 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 OLVVCa), 
 
 otfa£w, 
 
 I perform ; 
 I hope ; 
 I afford; 
 
 -ajjvUOV. 
 
 av 
 
 auljavw, 
 
 I increase; 
 
 *7i>|avov. 
 
 at 
 
 01 
 
 
 I raise ; 
 I build; 
 
 VS 0V ' 
 ww£ov. 
 
 Exc. But aw, / blow ; dtw, J hear ; Avfiitffa, I am unused ; 
 ar)5/^ofxai, / loathe ; retain the initial vowel unchanged, as also 
 some verbs derived from otxos, ohog, o/wvoj, and o'/ag ; as, oivi£w, 
 I smell of wine ; o'/v^ov. 
 
 2. € is often changed into its own diphthong ; 
 
 as, 
 
 gpj;iw, I have ; £ 0c 0V * 
 
 TABLE OF VERBS WHICH CHANGE S INTO Si, 
 
 sVw, I say. 
 igya^opai, I labour, 
 igsw, 1 say. 
 egtfu, I creep. 
 sf>rtv%0), I creep. 
 SjpJco, I draw. 
 . saViaw, I entertain. 
 
 Jaw, I permit. 
 e£ojxai, I sit. 
 idi%u, I accustom. 
 iXfatfw, I roll. 
 s'Xxw, / ^r«w. 
 IXxsw, J rfraa?. 
 sXxvw, I dmw. 
 sXsw, sXw, J /aAe. 
 sVo^ai, I follow, 
 
 3. If the verb begins with co, the « is unchang- 
 ed and o augmented ; thus, 
 
 §og<ra£«, I feast ; f w^ra^ov, I feasted. 
 
 So also in the perfect and pluperfect middle ; 
 thus. 
 
 15* 
 
174 OF THE AUGMENT IN COMPOUND VERBS. § 127 
 
 loXrfa, I hoped ; iukneiv, I had hoped. 
 
 lofya, I performed; sugysiv, 1 had performed, 
 
 sows, it seemed ; iyxst, it had seemed. 
 
 4. If the verb begins with any other vowel or 
 diphthong, it is not augmented ; thus, 
 
 I come ; ixo^yjv. 
 
 I insult ; SSf '^v. 
 
 Ismnd; vX Sov * 
 
 Ipush; <5$ov. 
 
 / compare ; s;'xoc£ov. 
 
 I direct ; sS0jvov. 
 
 / wound ; ou-ra^ov. 
 
 Note, i and u, when short, instead of the augment are length- 
 ened ; thus, 
 
 f 
 
 ixojxai, 
 
 
 wflw, 
 
 £1 
 
 sixa^u, 
 
 SU 
 
 su^uvw, 
 
 OU 
 
 oura£w, 
 
 § 127. PLACE OF THE AUGMENT IN COM- 
 POUND VERBS. 
 
 1 . Verbs compounded with prepositions, if not derived from 
 compound adjectives or substantives, generally t-\ke the aug- 
 ment after the preposition ; as, tfjotfSaXXw, / cast to, crgotfs&xX- 
 Xov ; sxqpsjw, 1 carry out, sgs'psgov ; Cu^tsw, I seek with, tfuvsj^- 
 
 C£0V. 
 
 2. Verbs compounded with <5u£ and sv, take the augment 
 after the particle, when the simple verb begins with a, s, o, or 
 with au, ai, o» ; as, (WagsoVsw, I am vexed, Svdygsfceov ; -J'jofxsw, 
 J swear M%, suwgxsov. 
 
 3. But if the simple verb begin with any other vowel or con- 
 sonant, <5utf is augmented, su remains unchanged : as, (Wru^sWy 
 I am unfortunate, iSvtfr&ysoVj SsSv^Tvy^xa ; swtu^sw, / «m fortu- 
 nate^ hTvxn^a. 
 
 4. Other compounds generally take the augment at the be- 
 ginning. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 The exceptions from these rules are but few, and will be best 
 learned by practice. Some writers augment certain compound 
 
 AyjuSov or s'xafleutJov ; ivoyTdo), I disturb) fy/wxXeov 
 
§ 128. OBSERVATIONS ON THE AUGMENT. 175 
 
 § 128. OBSERVATIONS ON THE AUGMENT. 
 
 1. In the early Greek poets the use of the augment is very 
 fluctuating, the same word sometimes occurring with the aug- 
 ment and sometimes without it ; as, £|s<psgg and hysgs, he car- 
 ried out ; i'Xa§s and Xa€c, he took ; %ys and aysv, he brought ; 
 idiSsxro, SsSsxto, and <5sWo, he had received. 
 
 From the antiquity of the Ionic, this has been usually con- 
 sidered a peculiarity of that dialect ; but it occurs frequently 
 in the Attic writers, particularly in chorusses ; as, tfufl*] for 
 itfuQri, he was driven ; ysys'vijro for sysyivYiro, it had been ; ctvaXw- 
 xa for dv*jXwxa, / have spent. 
 
 2. In Homer and Hesiod, aorists often receive the reduplica- 
 tion, which remains through all the moods ; thus, xsxa/xw for 
 xaf^w, I shall have laboured; \ska£s<f&cu for XaSstfda/, to have re- 
 
 3. In all dialects, verbs beginning with X and p* frequently 
 take si as the augment of the perfect ; as, slXr^a for XsX^a, 
 I have taken ; s'iixagrai for f/^ajrai, it has been decreed. 
 
 4. The Attics often change the simple augment s into % and 
 augment the initial vowels of verbs beginning with si and su ; 
 as, '/j(5uvafX7]v for gSuvajjwjv, I was able ; yxafyv for slxa^ov, I as- 
 similated ; rju^o/xyjv for su^o'/xtjv, i" prayed ; ySeiv for sldsiv, I 
 knew. 
 
 5. (a.) In verbs beginning with a, s, o, or with ay, pu, 01, the 
 Attics sometimes prefix s instead of the usual augment ; i. e, 
 they use the syllabic instead of the temporal augment ; as, saga 
 for yfeaL ; saXwxa for ?]Xcoxa. 
 
 (b.) Sometimes they use both ; as, o^ocw, I see, iw^aov, sw^axor. 
 (c.) Sometimes in the perfect, the two first letters of the verb 
 are repeated before the ordinary augment ; This is called the 
 Attic Reduplication ; thus, 
 
 dyeigu, I assemble ; yysgxa, Attice, dy-yysgxa. t 
 o£w, I smell ; w5a, S5-w5a. 
 
 ogOVrfw, I dig; fy v X a i °f~^£ u X a - 
 
 Note 1. The pluperfect sometimes takes a new augment on the initial 
 vowel of the reduplication ; thus, aK-tficoa, yK-rjicSeiv. 
 
 Note 2. This form of the verb frequently changes a long vowel or 
 diphthong into a short or doubtful vowel in the third syllable ; thus, 
 a\$\i(f)a for riXtKpa^ and dX^i^ai for fiXeifxpai, from a\d<pw ; aK/jicoa for 
 
 ijKOva, from OLKOVQ). 
 
 5. Rule. The simple augment is confined to the indicative 
 niood ; the reduplication remains in all the moods. 
 
176 FORMATION OF THE TENSES. § 129. 
 
 FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 
 
 
 Future 
 
 
 
 
 I honour ; 
 
 tiVw. 
 
 
 
 
 I say ; 
 
 Xs'gw, 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 I see ; 
 
 §X&pw. 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 I water ; 
 
 figi£w. 
 
 >§<>■ 
 
 6. (a 
 
 •) (b.) 
 
 I write ; 
 
 YS^u 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 I rub ; 
 
 Tfi-^W. 
 
 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 
 
 
 § 129. OF THE FIRST FUTURE, AND THE 
 TENSES DERIVED FROM IT. 
 
 GENERAL RULES. 
 
 I. In verbs, not liquid, the first future is formed 
 from the present by inserting a before co ; thus, 
 
 Present, 
 
 Xs'yw, 
 6Xs<?rw, 
 
 yfa<pw, 
 
 1. The Attics often reject tf from atfw, lorw, »Vw, otfw, contract- 
 ing the remaining vowels when that can be done ; as, £Xatfw, 
 I will drive ; sXaw, contr. sXw ; zkatfeig, iXasig, contr. sXac, &c. 
 So xaXo3 for xaXstfw, I will call; oiWi'w for olxri<fw 9 I will pity ; 
 in the middle voice of/»ou|xa/ for o/xqCo/xccj. 
 
 2. Attic futures in ico are not contracted, but inflected like 
 the 2d future. 
 
 3. 2 is sometimes elided from the 1st future of pure verbs, 
 especially among the poets, even when -tfw is preceded by a 
 long vowel or diphthong ; as, pres. ^s'w, 1st fut. -/situ or x 5 ^. 
 
 4. For -tfw, the Doric termination is -gw ; as, yaXotgw for ys- 
 Xottfw. 
 
 II. Liquid verbs do not insert a; they only 
 shorten the penult, if long, by rejecting the latter 
 of two vowels or consonants ; thus, 
 
 Present. 1st Future. 
 jxsvw, 1 remain ; p-svw. 
 
 tftfsigu, I sow ; <f*sg&. 
 
 <paivw, I shew ; <pavw. 
 
 <r£f*vw, I cut; T5/xw. 
 
 cWX^w, I send; CrsXw. 
 
" <§ 130. RULES FOR MUTES. 177 
 
 Note. The first future of liquid verbs is declined like the 2d future ; 
 thus, ixevti, peveTs, jJievsi, fxcvelrov, pevovfjiev, &C. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 1 . Verbs in -/xw, -vw, have the first future Ionic in £w ; (see 
 § 108.) as, vs/xsw for vs/xw ; jxsvs'w for jxsvw. 
 
 2. Verbs in -gw f in Homer, commonly insert tf ; as, o£Cw for 
 of w, J will excite ; sometimes also verbs m -Xw ; as, s'Xtfw from 
 g'Xw ; xsXtfw from xs'XXw. 
 
 3. The Attic and Ionic termination, particularly of liquid 
 verbs, is often -^w ; as, SaXX^tfw for §aXw, / iw'S cas£ ; ^aj^tfw 
 for x«f w, J wz7/ rejoice. 
 
 In mutes, rutfr^o'w for ri5^w, J wrcfi s/n£e. 
 
 § 130. SPECIAL RULES FOR MUTES. 
 1. r, d, 6, are rejected before -ocd (§ 6. 6. (o.)) ; 
 
 as 
 
 rejected, 
 
 Tutfrw, 1 strike ; tu^w, t. 
 
 cfdw, I sing 4 a(fM, d. 
 
 ■ttXtj^w, , I fill ; tfXTJtfw, 0. 
 
 vo/xi^w, 1 think; (vo^Ww,) vo/xiVw, 1 5. 
 
 tfXaatfw, ) rr , ^>V \ -v/i, > 5 124, Obs. 1. o\ 
 
 Attice,*X«T™;J 7/ ° m ' (irXa5w ' ),rXcC(fW 'r 
 
 OJs. 1. v also is rejected, but the penult continues long, the 
 doubtful vowel being lengthened and the short vowel changed 
 into its own diphthong ; thus, tfxfv^w, J divide^ tfxr'tfw ; tfffs'v5w, I 
 pour, fasiaw ; irdvQw, tfsj'o'w, &c. 
 
 2. ooco and Ceo, have for the most part |cu 3 (see 
 § 124, Obs. 1.); thus, 
 
 ^atftfw, Icfa; ?$?%& (as if from tffayw.) 
 
 *f a£w, J cry ; x^agw, (as if from xgayu. ) 
 
 3. Eight in Ceo, have either -tfco or -£w ; viz* 
 
 ajtfa^w, J seize. 
 <x<n£w, / despise. 
 <5itf<ra£a), I doubt. 
 
 sfwra^w, I care for. 
 y*s§y»€gt%br 9 I think. 
 /3a£w, I speak. 
 tfaX<7n£w, J sown^ « trumpet. 
 
 Note. 2aX7rf£a> has caXmvw, or caXvtyfa, the latter from flraXff/yyw. So 
 
178 OF VERBS IN aw. 
 
 also irXafw has TrXayfw, and fcXrffw has K\dy^<j) f from rrXdyyu) and kXdyyw 
 Also, Xt£a>,or \tyyta has X/yfw. 
 
 4. Verbs which have rejected the aspirate from 
 the initial letter of the present, (§ 6. 3.) resume 
 it in the future ; thus, 
 
 «-t5<pw, for Gucpu, 1 kindle ; has Sn5^«. 
 
 <r£s<pw, for Sf^pw, I nourish; &fs\^w. 
 
 Tgs'xw, for ^f^x w > I'nm; ^£ w » 
 
 i'Xw, for s'x^, I have; ?gw. 
 
 § 131. SPECIAL RULES FOR PURE VERBS. 
 
 1. -aca, -€G>, -6w, change the short vowel into 
 its own long before -ow j thus, 
 
 Present. 1st Future. 
 
 fnjxaw, I honour ; tj/XtjCw. 
 
 <piXew, J /oug ,• cpiX^rfw. 
 
 (fyXow, J manifest ; o^Xwtfw. 
 
 § 132. I. EXCEPTIONS OF VERBS IN aw, 
 
 1. -aa>, after 8 or i, retains a ; as, 
 
 £<xw, I permit; latfo), 
 
 Ssaojxai, I look ; hsatfc^ai. 
 
 xotfiaw, I labour ; xotfiatfco. 
 
 fjts&aw, J smile ; psSiucfw. 
 
 i<xofi»ai, I cure ; latfo/xai. 
 
 2. rXaco and -^ao), after a vowel, retain a ; as, 
 
 ysXotw, J fawgA ; ys\a<fu. 
 
 ogaco, I see; ofoco'w. 
 
 3. Dissyllables in -dco, which do not pass into 
 -r}(ii, retain a ; as, 
 
 xXotw, I break; xXatfw. 
 
 tftfaw, J draw ; tftfatfo). 
 
 But those which pass into -^fxi have .^tfw, except pdaw, Jaw- 
 ticipate, which has <p0atfw. 
 
4. The following also retain a ; viz. auqoao- 
 mi^ TZetaco, da{iao), KQe/jiao) and v(pdo) ; dicpaw has 
 \rdaco or -4\ao). 
 
 !3i 
 
 OF VERBS IN SW. 
 
 179 
 
 § 133. II. EXCEPTIONS OF VERBS IN to. 
 
 1. Ten in -m retain a; as, 
 
 axs'w, J Aea/. 
 oksu, I grind. 
 dgxsw, I am sufficient. 
 
 vsixto, I quarrel 
 |s ci, I polish, 
 oXsw, / destroy. 
 frsXsw, I finish. 
 •rgsw, J tremble. 
 
 Note. Likewise those which form new presents in -www, 
 vvupoi, and -tfxw; as, a^sw, a|stfxw, 1st fut. afsVw. sw, svvuw, and 
 vvu/xi, 1st fut. stfw. 
 
 2. Sixteen in ecu have etfco or ^crw ; viz. 
 
 ctj&'ofAou, J reverence. 
 a&sw, I praise. 
 dxsofjtiai, I repair. 
 otXps'w, I gain. 
 d^sojxai, / am burdened. 
 5e'w, J fo'fta 7 . 
 xaXsw, i" ca//. 
 xy]5sw, J am afflicted. 
 
 xo£sw, I satisfy. 
 /xa^so/xai, I fight. 
 
 tf o#iw, / desire. 
 tfovs'w, I labour. 
 tf-rsf sw, / deprive. 
 9ojgw, I carry. 
 cpgoveu, I think. 
 
 To these a few others but seldom used may be added ; as, 
 
 tOTSW, §XgO), XH^' 
 
 3. Six in -ea> have -e^ao) ; viz. 
 
 
 tfvs'w, J breathe ; tfusutfw. 
 ^rXe'w, J saz7 ; tfXsutfw. 
 j£gw, I pour ; xsutfw. 
 
 gsw, fjffcw? ; 
 Ss'w, / nm ; 
 vg'w, J swim ; 
 
 gsutfw. 
 
 But Jew, I speak; 
 vg'w, J SjMK ; 
 
 has J^tfw. 
 
 
180 OP THE PERFECT ACTIVE. § 134, 135, 136 
 
 § 134. III. EXCEPTIONS OF. VERBS IN -ow. 
 -6o>, in primitive verbs, retains o ; thus, 
 
 dgow, I plough ; dgoVw. 
 /3ow, I feed ; /Sotfw. 
 
 £5ow, I eat ; sSotfu. 
 
 o/xow, I sioear ; o.uoo'w. 
 
 ovow, J towe ; dvo'tfw. 
 
 Likewise verbs which form others in -vu<y and -tfxw. 
 But those which pass into -wj/,/, have wtfw ; thus, 
 
 yvow, I know ; yvSfw, yvwtfw. 
 
 § 135. The following are irregular : 
 
 Future. 
 xaiw, I burn; xavtfu. 
 
 xXafw, J weep ; xXautfa/. 
 
 § 136. OF THE PERFECT ACTIVE. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 The perfect active is formed from the first fu- 
 ture by prefixing the augment, and changing -co 
 or -aco into xa, -£cu into #a, -ya> into (pa ; thus, 
 
 ^ooXXw, I sing ; -^aXw, s-^aXxa. 
 
 <n/xaw, J honour ; Tif/^rfw, TSr/juwjxa. 
 
 <paivw, I" sfow ; <pavw, 'ffsqjayxa, § 6. 6.(h) 
 
 cpiXs'w, J love ; (piX^tfw, #s<piX?gxa. 
 
 Xs'yw, I say ; Xs^w, Xs'Xs^a. 
 
 tff atftfw, J eft? ; ^f <*gw, tfsV^a^a. 
 
 yjacpw, I write; yja-^w, yiygcupa. 
 
 But <pg itftfw, I shudder; 9 gifa 9 1 , (ittypxa. ) 5 6 - « 
 
§ 137, SPECIAL RULES CONCERNING THE PENULT. 181 
 
 § 137. SPECIAL RULES CONCERNING THE 
 PENULT. 
 
 1 . Dissyllables in Ao>, nu, qco, change e into a 
 before -xa of the perfect ; thus, 
 
 tfWXXw, . 1 send ; <7<rsXw, sWctXxa. 
 
 rsi'vcj, 1 extend; tsvw, <rsVaxa. 
 
 gVsij w, I hope ; aVs^w, sWaj xa. 
 
 J^te 1. In other verbs the Attics sometimes change t into o ; thus, 
 
 rpiirca, I turn ; Tptyw, rirpo(pa* 
 
 Note 2. A similar change has taken place in the Iono-Doric XAoy^a, 
 from (/\j?%to), Xay^w (Xay^ava)), analogous to X^w 9 "XdfxSu), \<nx6dvo). Thus 
 also -nhocxt is found for ninacy*. 
 
 2. Dissyllables in gfVco, Lvw, wco, reject a/ be- 
 fore -%a ; thus, 
 
 tsivw, I extend ; tsvw, <r£raxa. 
 
 xfj'vw, I judge; xgivw, xs'xjixa. 
 
 Suvw, Irtish; Suvu, reQvxa. 
 
 Exc. But v commonly remains in xrsivw and #Xuvw ; thus, 
 xts/vw, I kill ; xrsvw, sxTccyxa. § 6. 6. (h.) 
 
 tfXuvw, / w#$A ; 5rXuvw, # sVXuyxcc. 
 
 3. -ttw of the future inserts ^ before -xa ; like- 
 wise §ccUoi, jiiei/w ; thus, 
 
 vijxw, J distribute ; vs^w, vsvs^xa. 
 
 §aXXw, / throw ; €aXw, §s§aXr)xa. 
 
 fxsvw, I remain; fxsvw, /xs/xsv^xa. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 055. 1. These perfects in -rjxa are probably formed regular- 
 ill! ly from obsolete verbs in sw ; thus, vsjxs'w, vs/xtjo'w, vsvsfMgxa ; but 
 while the perfect thus formed remains, the present and future 
 have given place to the forms now in use. 
 
 Obs. 2. Some verbs suffer a syncope in the perfect ; thus, 
 xaXs'w, I call ; xaX^rfw, xexaX^xa, xsxX^xa. 
 In like manner, 6><5s'/xrjxa, tSaS/jwjxa. 
 
 xsxafjwjxa, xs'x/x-yjxa, &c. 
 
 05s. 3. 0. Some perfects in -^xa, from verbs in aw, strike out 
 x before a, and (except in the participles) change ?} into a ; 
 thus, 
 
 16 
 
182 FIRST FUTURE PASSIVE. § 138, 
 
 from €ocw, SgSrjxa, €s§aa. 
 
 from <rXaw, TgrXrjxa, rsrXaa, &c. 
 
 b. Of the vowels thus brought together, the latter is some- 
 times rejected ; as, 
 
 SsSrjxuiieV) §s£<xafjisv, by -syncope QsSa^sv. 
 
 rsrXyxevai, Tsr^asvai, by syncope csVXctvai. 
 
 c. The participles sometimes change v\ into ot, and sometimes 
 not. 
 
 d. In either case, by a syncope of the former vowel, r\ug and 
 aw£ are changed into -w$, which remains also in the neuter ; 
 and the feminine, which otherwise ends in ufa, becomes wtfa, and 
 in the oblique cases of the masc. and neut. co is retained ; thus, 
 
 Uncontracted. 
 
 
 
 Gontn 
 
 icted. 
 
 §e&3xw£, €s£a-w£, -ufa, 
 
 -fc, 
 
 gs€-w£, 
 
 -wtfa, 
 
 '-&£, G. -wro£. 
 
 TS0V7)XW£, <TS0V7]-W£, -uFa, 
 
 -fe," 
 
 <r?0v-w£, 
 
 -wtfa, 
 
 -W£, -W<T0£. 
 
 saV-yjxws, soV?3-w£, -ufa, 
 
 -fe, j 
 
 
 
 
 Or, 
 
 
 ► £oV-w£, 
 
 ^-wtfa, 
 
 -W£, -WT0£. 
 
 iaVaxws, IflVa-ws, -woe, 
 
 -fe 3 ] 
 
 
 
 
 e. The Ionics and Attics insert s before -w£; thus, i&rs-us, 
 -swtfa, -s«£, -wro£. But in the poets the ordinary terminations 
 frequently remain after the contraction ; as, erfTS-us, -wa, -fe, 
 
 -0T0£. 
 
 jT. The perfects in which these changes most frequently oc- 
 cur are TsVX^xa, Tsdvr.xa, /Ss'&yjxa, s'cVr/xa ; and in these the regu- 
 lar form is more common in the singular, and the contracted 
 form in the dual and plural. 
 
 § 138. FIRST FUTURE PASSIVE. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 The first future passive is formed from the per- 
 fect active, by rejecting the augment, and chang- 
 ing -a or -xa into -&r]Ooiiai ; thus, 
 
 TUflTW, 
 
 <ru%J>w, 
 
 Xs'yw, 
 qjiXfw, 
 
 Xsgw, 
 91X77 (to, 
 
 <paivw, 
 
 cpavw, 
 £<5oVw, 
 
 rirupa, 
 
 < ru<p07j(J'o|xoe/. 
 
 XsXs^a, 
 
 Xs^ijCo/xai. 
 
 tfsqji'Xyjxa, 
 
 (piX^^o/Aou. 
 
 «7rs(payxa, 
 
 <pav^(To|uiai. 
 
 ^5oxa, 
 
 s5o^d'ofjiai. 
 
§ 139. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 183 
 
 § 139. SPECIAL RULES. 
 I. 
 Many verbs, which have -na in the perfect, in- 
 sert a before ^aofiav ; viz. 
 
 ] . In pure verbs e, or a doubtful vowel, or a 
 diphthong before xa, inserts a before -Aijoofiat, ; 
 thus, 
 
 (1.) s before -xa, inserts & ; as 
 
 
 
 aWeojxai, 1 reverence ; 
 
 ^5sxa, 
 
 r}Ss(f^o^ai. 
 
 dxs'ofxa/, I" cure ; 
 
 ^XSXWj 
 
 OLXStibritiO^OLl. 
 
 aXs'w, / grind ; 
 
 ^Xsxa, 
 
 aks&Qr}Cfofioii. 
 
 af xs'w, I suffice ; 
 
 ^xsxa, 
 
 dgxs&Qrjtio^ai. 
 
 eSiu. I eat ; 
 
 rfisxOL, 
 
 shd^o^oa. 
 
 £s'w, I polish ; 
 
 rj^SXOL, 
 
 %S(fQr)(fopGLl. 
 
 tfSsw, / extinguish ; 
 
 gtf&xa, 
 
 <j£s<f&7)rto^cu. 
 
 tfro^'w, I strew ; 
 
 sOVojsxa, 
 
 (froPStfQvi&opai. 
 
 tsX^w, I perfect ; « 
 
 rsrs'Xsxa, 
 
 <rsXstf0 ^tfo/xaj. 
 
 <r£ 5W, i tremble ; < 
 
 rsVfSxa, 
 
 <rgS(fQy)<fotiai. 
 
 Except jive ) which have s before -xa, but do not insert <$ be 
 
 fore -d'/jtfojxai ; viz. 
 
 
 
 afvs'w, I praise ; ; 
 
 ^'vexa, 
 
 a/vs^^ofAai. 
 
 au^w, / tes£ ; 
 
 ^X s ^j 
 
 au^s^tfofxai. 
 
 i^sc-f), I vomit ; 
 
 ^fjisxa, 
 
 s/ji^TjCojULa/. 
 
 s££w, / row • 
 
 ^jsxa, 
 
 sjs^tfofxai. 
 
 oXsw, J destroy ; 
 
 coXsxa, 
 
 oXs^tfo^ai. 
 
 {2.) a #<?/bre -xa, inserts c? ; #s 3 
 
 
 ysXaw, I laugh. 
 
 vaw, / ofee//. 
 
 s^dw, J toe. 
 
 <7rsrdw 
 
 , J extend. 
 
 SXdw, / Z>r eak. 
 
 ff<7raw, 
 
 I draw. 
 
 /Xdw, I propitiate. 
 
 u(paw, 
 
 I weave. 
 
 xXdw, J &mz£. 
 
 •XpChuVj I relax. 
 
 x^dw, / suspend. 
 
 
 
 Except eight ; viz. 
 
 
 
 dx^oaofxaj, 
 
 I hear. 
 
 
 Srsaofxai, 
 
 I behold. 
 
 
 /ao|maj, 
 
 1 heal. 
 
 
 xovjaw, 
 
 I sprinkle ivith dust. 
 
 6fdw, 
 
 I see. 
 
 
 tfsigdojxai, 
 
 I attempt. 
 
 
 cr'sgaw, 
 
 I pass over 
 
 
 (pw^aw, 
 
 I catch a thief, 
 
184 
 
 FIRST FUTURE PASSIVE. 
 
 § 139 
 
 (3.) i before -xa, inserts tf ; a§, 
 xuXi'gj, 
 fluted. 
 
 Except one ; viz. 
 
 J cut with a saw* 
 I anoint. 
 
 I honour. 
 
 \%.) u oejore -oca, inserts a ; 
 avuw, 
 
 as, [ 
 I perform. 
 
 d(pJw, 
 
 I fill. 
 
 /3Xuw, 
 
 I overflow, 
 
 ^uw, 
 
 I cover. 1 
 
 sXxuw, 
 
 J draw. 
 
 fbSfll/W, 
 
 I am intoxicated* 
 
 ffcfw, 
 
 I shut. 
 
 |uw 3 
 
 I polish. 
 
 #TUW, 
 
 1 spit. 
 
 Bw, 
 
 I rain, ' 
 
 Except eleven ; viz* 
 
 
 agTUWj 
 
 I arrange. 
 
 £^5w> 
 
 I abound, 
 
 5uw 3 
 
 I go into. 
 
 Suw, 
 
 I rush, 
 
 i#guw^ 
 
 I place. 
 
 3CWX^W ? 
 
 I lament* 
 
 KwXl/Wj 
 
 I forbid. 
 
 Xuw t 
 
 I unbind, 
 
 JmjVUW ? 
 
 I make known* 
 
 |u&>, 
 
 I draw. 
 
 TJUW, 
 
 I bore, 
 
 (5.) cu fie/bre xa ? inserts (f ; 
 
 as, ■ 
 
 xv#nw, 
 
 I gnaw. 
 
 tfaiw, 
 
 ' I strike. 
 
 tfraiw* 
 
 I strike against 
 
 £aiw ? 
 
 I break in pieces-*. 
 
 (6.) au &e/bre xa, inserts (f ; 
 
 a$2 
 
 xXafca, 
 
 I vjeep. 
 
 S^auw, 
 
 I break. v • 
 
 ■v^auw. 
 
 I touch. 
 
 7. si Je/bre xa ? inserts tf ; as, 
 
 xXsi'w, 
 
 I shut. 
 
 tfgJWj 
 
 I shake*. 
 
§ 139. 
 
 
 SPECIAL 
 
 RULES. 
 
 to,, inserts <f ; as, 
 
 
 
 ysuw, 
 
 
 
 i" taste. 
 
 xsXs'uw, 
 
 
 I order. 
 
 tfXs'w, 
 
 ffprXsuita, 
 
 
 I sail. 
 
 
 Except seven 
 
 ; viz. 
 
 <5suw, 
 
 
 
 I water. 
 
 vsuw, 
 
 
 
 I nod. 
 
 VSW, 
 
 
 
 I swim. 
 
 tfVSW, 
 
 
 
 I -breathe. 
 
 f*% 
 
 
 
 I flow. 
 
 tfsuw, 
 
 
 
 I agitate 
 
 185 
 
 Except, alsOj many verbs derived from nouns ; as, SatfiXsuw. 
 
 (9.) oi before xa, inserts <f ; as, 
 
 •iw, I bear; oMritfopui. 
 
 (10.) ou before x, inserts tf ; as, 
 
 dxouw, 
 
 / ^6#r. 
 
 xoXouw, 
 
 / mutilate. 
 
 X£0J6J, 
 
 I beat. 
 
 Except Xouw, I wash. 
 2. oco, forming verbs in ( iu, inserts a before -<Wj- 
 
 vofiai : 
 
 as, 
 
 yvwfXi, 
 
 
 from 
 from 
 from 
 from 
 from 
 
 yvow, 
 f.ow, 
 
 J surround. 
 I strengthen. 
 I colour. 
 I heap up. 
 
 Except two ; viz. 
 
 from tfrjoWj I stfrew, tfrj o^tfojxa/. 
 56 w, 
 
 from 56w 3 I give, Sob^do^ai. 
 
 3. All verbs which reject a consonant before 
 aco, insert a before ^iqaofiai ; as, 
 
 r) 
 
 avuTWj 
 
 % dXf£«. 
 
 XTl£w, 
 
 JVtte. 
 
 I perform. 
 I draw out. 
 I assemble. 
 I arrange. 
 I found. 
 
 (6) irsiQu, 
 
 (tftf) vdtftfw, 
 qrXartfo) 
 
 I think. 
 
 I persuade. 
 
 Ifill. 
 
 I heap up. 
 
 I form , &c. &c, 
 
 wfw, I save, has awfltfo-opu, from otfw ; of the same signification, 
 16* 
 
[86 
 
 PERFECT PASSIVE* § 140 
 
 
 II. 
 
 , 
 
 Fifteen verbs sometimes insert 0, and sonie* 
 
 times not ; 
 
 viz. 
 
 
 . CtgUW, 
 
 dfutfw, 
 
 / draw. 
 
 Spau. 
 
 ^atfoj, 
 
 /#>. 
 
 £sw, 
 
 $&&>, 
 
 / foz7. 
 
 sXaw, 
 
 sXatfw, 
 
 I drive. 
 
 xcu'gj, 
 
 xaucTWj 
 
 I burn. 
 
 xs^otw, 
 
 -fcgjg&tftj, 
 
 I mix. 
 
 xvawj 
 
 XVTj'tfWj 
 
 1 scrape. 
 
 xofe'w, 
 
 XOge'tfW, 
 
 1 satisfy. 
 
 fjuvaw, 
 
 f/,v^rfw, 
 
 I call to remembrance. 
 
 (Mlgfob 
 
 fMJfutfW, 
 
 I draw out. 
 
 GVOW, 
 
 ovotfw, 
 
 I abuse. 
 
 tfauWj 
 
 tfauo'Wj 
 
 I cause to cease. 
 
 w'w. 
 
 grvsutfWj 
 
 I breathe. 
 
 p^vauw. 
 
 ^vautfw, 
 
 I nibble. 
 
 - ^aw, 
 
 III. 
 
 I touch. 
 
 Seven shorten the long 
 
 vowel or dipthong be 
 
 fore ~&vfiQ\iai. 
 
 
 ai^sw, 
 
 I take ; ai^oty 
 
 jTffjxa, aifsd^tfojxai. 
 
 sugiw, 
 
 I find ; suf Vw, 
 
 su£?jxa, ev gs&ri<f opau 
 
 *X^ or tfX s ' w » 
 
 / toe ; (fX^Ui 
 
 stf^xa, (f^rjffo^ai. 
 
 tfsutfw. 
 
 I enquire ; irsvc>^, 
 
 tfgVsuxa, tfutf^tfoffcai. 
 
 tfsuw, 
 
 I agitate ; tfsutfw, 
 
 (fs&svxa, aW^tfo/xai. 
 
 TSl^W, 
 
 I make; <rsugw, 
 
 TsVsu^a, Tu^^Jo^ai. 
 
 x* w > 
 
 I pour ; X £ ^°H 
 
 xs'^guxa, ^u^rfo/xai. 
 
 j!Vb<e. But ^stJyo), J ^ee, has either (pEvx^foofxai or QvxQfaojjLai. Also I 
 few verbs which reject v before «a of the perfect, sometimes resume i 
 before -Qrjaoixai ; as, Kpfvc*>, Kpivdi, KiiepiKa, Kpidfjoopai, or KpivBrjaoixat. 
 
 § 140. PERFECT PASSIVE. 
 
 The perfect passive is formed from its own fu 
 ture by resuming the augment and rejecting -^ 
 0o- before -jiicu ; thus, 
 
 
§ 141. . SPECIAL RULES. 187 
 
 (piXsw, 
 
 (JYfc'XXw, 
 
 fffXs'w, 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 ^iX^tfofxai, 
 tfraX^tfo/xai, 
 TsXgtf^tfofjiai, 
 
 flrS(piXyj|xa<. 
 
 sWaXjxai. 
 
 TgrgXetfj^ai, 
 
 § 141. SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 1 . x before (i, is changed into y ; cp or i/, into ju. 
 
 Xgyw, Xs^^o^a/, 'kiXeyiiai. 
 
 iVitfe. For the principle of this rule, see § 6. 6. e, d, k. 
 
 O&s. 1. In the first person singular, ^ after y ; and (p after 
 a liquid, are rejected before -fxai, but resumed in the other per- 
 son ; as, 
 x after y. 1st. Fut. Pass. Perf. P. 1st. Pers. 2d. Pers. 3d. Pers. 
 
 s\sy/w, sXsy^Tjtfojxeu, ^X5y-/xa/, ^Xsy-ga/, -Jtrou. 
 
 7T after a liquid. 
 
 daXtfWj rcikcp&ri&ofiai, Tg^aX-fAai, <rs0aX-^a/, -rfrai. 
 
 06s. 2. In the Attic dialect, fA is changed into tf before -|xai ; 
 I thus, 
 
 tfsipa/xfjuxi Attice irecpoafpai. 
 ^s^XujaiJia/, tfsVXutf/juaj. 
 
 2. Aspirates before r, are changed into their 
 own smooth mutes ; (see § 6. 2.). 
 
 TJXsyfxai, Tj^sygai, ??Xsyx<ra* 5 not -X™* 
 
 XsXsyfxai, XsXsgai, Xs'Xsxraj, not -xtou. 
 
 ysyga/xfxai, ysyga-^ai, ysygatfrcu, not -vprai. 
 
 3. Three change g into a before -^^ ; as, 
 
 rgs'<pw, TsQgccwai. 
 
 Obs. 1. tf before -dyitfo/xai, is sometimes rejected before -/xa. ; 
 as, ftvy)tf^o'oi ul ' a| ) f*gf*v^fi*a/ . 
 
 06s. 2. Others, which have not tf before -fytfopw, insert it 
 before -jwai ; as, tfwflV ^ ^ <SifSb>4\ha.i* 
 
188 
 
 OF THE PENULT. 
 
 § 142, 143. 
 
 3. v\ before -xa, returns before -/xai ; as, sugqxa, sv^r}(fo^ai t 
 
 § 142. OF THE SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 The second future is formed from the present 
 by shortening the penult and circumflecting c5; 
 
 as. 
 
 tfrs'pw, 
 
 I crown ; 
 I bear ; 
 
 
 Xuw, 
 
 I fit; 
 I honour ; 
 I loose ; 
 
 TIW. 
 
 Xuw. 
 
 oc/^uvw, 
 
 I protect ; 
 
 dcfuivw 
 
 § 143. The penult, when long, is shortened in 
 three ways : 
 
 1 . Long vowels are changed into a ; thus, 
 
 o^tfoj, I corrupt ; tfatfw. 
 
 2. In diphthongs a is retained, e is rejected j 
 thus, 
 
 (paivw, I" shew ; (pocvw. 
 
 xaiw, I burn ; xaw. 
 
 tfauw, I cause to. cease ; tfaw. 
 
 XsiVw, I leave ; Xitfw. 
 
 9Suyw, Ij?ee ; ' cpuyw. 
 
 Exc. But liquid dissyllables change n into a ; 
 polysyllables into e ; as, 
 
 Dissyllables, rsivu, I extend; ravw. 
 
 I corrupt ; (pdafw. 
 
 I assemble; a/sfw. 
 
 I excite; iyegu. 
 
 I owe ; Q9sXw« 
 
 0VSl£W, 
 
 Polysyllables, aysigw, 
 6<psiXw, 
 
'§ 144. SPECIAL RULES. 189 
 
 3. In consonants % is rejected, and the last of 
 two liquids ; thus, 
 
 rvtfTu, I strike ; tuttoj. 
 
 /3ocXXw, i" throw ; /3aXw. 
 
 •sLaXXw, / sing ; ^aXw. 
 
 xa/xvw, I labour ; xafjiw. 
 
 Note. But if, of two consonants the latter is neither r nor a liquid, or 
 f three consonants concur, the penult cannot be shortened ; thus, 
 $d\i70), I warm ; SaXitib. 
 
 judp7rrw, / Seize ; papir 
 
 P7TO>a 
 
 § 144. SPECIAL RULES, 
 
 I. In dissyllables, e before or after a liquid is 
 changed into a ; thus, 
 
 flrXsxw, I fold ; tfXaxw. 
 
 oWXXw, I send; tiTohQ. 
 
 ts^voj, I cut ; ^ajxw. 
 
 irifdw, I lay waste ; flrafdw. 
 
 Exc. But * after X .remains in Xsy w, §Xs*rw, and 9X57 w. 
 
 II. In a few verbs the mute, which is the eha- 
 acteristic of the present, is changed into another 
 >f its own order ; thus, 
 
 1 . (fpixu and 4^x w take -yw in the second future. 
 
 2. 6Xowr<rw, xj^tw, and xaXuflirw,. take -&tf. 
 
 3. ckvw, §atf*w, dowrrw, tfxowrrw, with.^tfTW, fiVrw, fa-rfrw 4 
 ike -<pw. 
 
 4^X W > ■*" breathe ; 4^? 0* 
 
 2; 
 
 ^Xowrrw, J £«rf ; €Xa§£5. 
 
 xf ucrrw, J conceal ; x£u§&3. 
 
 xaXikrw, J cover ; xaXy€w, 
 
190 OF THE 2d FUTURE. § 1 4tl' 
 
 3. 
 
 owrrw, 
 
 i bind; 
 
 Ot(pW. 
 
 Satfrw, 
 
 I dip ; 
 
 £otpw. 
 
 ^OCTTTOJ, 
 
 I bury ; 
 
 roapw. § 6. 3. 
 
 (fxarfrw, 
 
 I dig ; 
 
 (fxacpd. 
 
 dgvvrw, 
 
 I lacerate ; 
 
 dgvyu. 
 
 £iV<rw, 
 
 I throw ; 
 
 i#&. 
 
 \wttt w, 
 
 I sew ; 
 
 )acp&. 
 
 III. 1. Verbs in -rr^to or -£w, which have -£o 
 in the first future, make yw in the second ; thus 
 
 tffaatfw,' I make ; tffafw, tffayw. 
 
 2. But verbs in -£co, which have -aco in the firs 
 future, make -dco in the second ; thus, 
 
 <pfa£w, I say ; cpga&u, <*>ja5w. 
 
 s£w, /s^; sVw, Ito. 
 
 JVote. Of the latter class most verbs want the second future. 
 
 IV. Verbs in -aco and -ecu, after a consonant 
 have the second future like the present contract 
 ed ; thus, 
 
 Ti/xaw, I" honour ; rifjiw. 
 
 (piXsw, I love ; cpiXw. 
 
 Note. This rule applies to verbs of three syllables; most others wan! 
 the 2d future. 
 
 Exc. In Homer, some dissyllables in aw, s'w, circumflect the 
 « without contracting; thus, €<xw, i"g*0, 2d fut. /3aw, (p.m. 
 §8§aa) ; jxaw, J desire^ jxaw, (p. m. jxs/xaa). 
 
 § 145. VERBS WHICH WANT THE 2d FUTURE, 
 
 Some verbs want the second future and the 
 tenses formed from it ; viz. 
 
 1. Verbs in o'w. 
 
 2. Pure polysyllables which have u in the penult. 
 
 3. Verbs in -aw, -s'w, after a vowel. 
 
OF THE PENULT. 191 
 
 4. Verbs in -aw and -s'w, which 3 being contracted, form a mo- 
 nosyllable. 
 
 Exc. tfx s ' w > tf ^ 6 ' w j an ^ ^olwj which have C^j ^w, 0Vw. 
 
 JVo/e. Verbs in aw and l&, generally want the second future if the pre- 
 sent, when contracted, has more than two syllables. 
 
 § 146. PERFECT MIDDLE. 
 
 GENERAL RULE. 
 
 The perfect middle is formed from the second 
 future active, by prefixing the augment, and 
 changing co into a ; thus, 
 
 TUflrrw, J strike ; rvtfti, rsrvrfa. 
 
 x£oc£w, I cry;' Kgayu, xsxgccyu. 
 
 § 147. SPECIAL RULES FOR THE PENULT. 
 
 1 . £ of the future, is changed into o ; thus, 
 
 Xgyw, I say ; Xsyw, XsXoya. 
 
 aysif w, 1 &mte ; tyH&i *?7°f a ' 
 
 ig£yto t I stretch out ; ogsyw, w£oya. 
 
 Ex. 1. But s'5w, 7e^; J5w, has *}5a, Attice £&j<Ja. 
 
 Ex. 2. Some polysyllables retain s ; as, 
 
 ayysXXw, ayysXw, rjyysXa, 
 
 rsXsw, «rsXw, TgVsXa. 
 
 Likewise Xay^avw, and compounds of SaXXw, have o ; thus 3 
 Xay^ocvw, 7 oJtam % /otf ; Xay^w, XsXoyp^a. 
 
 ava£aXXw, 7 2M>20 upward ; ava§aXw, dva&'&Xa. 
 
 2. a of the future, from € or g£, is changed into 
 o ; thus, 
 
 crXixw, I fold; crXaxw, rfsVXoxa. 
 
 oVsijw, I hope ; cVagcj, gWofa. 
 
 tsIvgj, I extend; ravw, reVova. 
 
 ts/xvw, I cut; Tajxojj rlrojxa. 
 
 3. t of the future, from ei of the present, is 
 changed into (H ; thus, 
 
 XeiVw, I leave; XmtC, XlXoirfa. 
 
192 
 
 CONJUGATED VERBS. 
 
 § 14 J 
 
 4. a of the future, from 17 or <n, is change* 
 into 7] ; thus, 
 
 tfyjirw, I corrupt ; tfatfw, <fs<fr\rfa. 
 
 (pou'vw, I shew ; <pavw, wgcpKjva. 
 
 Likewise 0aXXw, and xXa£w, have *j ; thus, 
 
 $aXXw, I flourish ; $aXw, reQrfka. 
 
 ■ xXoc^w, • J sound ; xXayw, xs'xX^a. 
 
 JVbte 1. (psvyw and K£i!0w have rrl(pevya or iritpvya, and KEKtvBa or KiKvda. 
 
 Note2. If the penult of the perfect middle formed according to. th 
 rules, be a or o, and at the same time the initial vowel, it receives the aug 
 ment ; thus, aya, ayw, p. m. riya ; Ida, i05, p. m. (not tidcc, but) wfla, Attic* 
 «'o>0a, with a double augment, <5fu, o<5u>, &8a, Attice <3<5w<5a. 
 
 JVote 3. But if it be di, it is not augmented; as, eUo), IS&, oUa. 
 
 Note 4. aKova wants the 2d. future, but has the p. m. rjKoa, Attice cuc/jicoa. 
 
 § 148. A Verb is conjugated through all its 
 primary tenses, as follows : 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 <rsVu<pa, 
 
 <ru(p^(fo t 'xai, 
 
 TsVu/jLjULa/. 
 
 L 
 
 2. 
 
 flV/XXw, 
 Cts'XXw, 
 
 tfTsXw, 
 oVaXw. 
 
 eWaXxa, 
 I'tfroXa. 
 
 tfTaX^tfofxa^ 
 
 sVraXjutai. 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 
 irsi<fQr}(foii.ou 1 
 
 nci<KSKt\kOLl. 
 
 list o/* regular verbs m w, /or exercise in conjugation^ 
 and on the preceding rules. 
 
 Xiyw, 
 
 flrX^w, 
 ffXatfCajj -tfw, 
 
 cpaivw, 
 
 xivsw, 
 
 tfXrjfow, 
 
 ctvuw. 
 
 I say. 
 I sow. 
 
 ijiii. 
 
 Iform. 
 
 I do. 
 
 I shew. 
 
 I cut. 
 
 I move. 
 
 I turn. 
 
 Ifill 
 
 I ask. 
 
 I pour. 
 
 I accomplish. 
 
 I throw. 
 
 xtsjvw, 
 
 .Xuw, 
 «rp£<pw, 
 
 xga£w, -gu, 
 opaw, -atfw, 
 £s'w, 
 xpi'vw, 
 §aXXw, 
 
 XsiVwj 
 4rXsx&>, 
 
 J slay. 
 I anoint. 
 I insult. 
 I loose. 
 I nourish. 
 I think. 
 I cry. 
 I see. 
 I say. 
 I judge. 
 I throw. 
 I preserve. 
 I leave. 
 I/old. 
 
§ 149. OF THE OTHER TENSES. 193 
 
 § 149. OF THE OTHER TENSES. 
 
 The other tenses are formed from the primary ones, without 
 any other changes of termination than those exhibited in the 
 examples of the verb. The method of forming them can be 
 learned by inspection more easily than by rules. The follow- 
 ing summary shews what tenses are formed from each pri- 
 mary tense, and the manner in which they are formed. 
 
 I. 
 
 The first and second futures middle come from the corres- 
 Jponding futures active ; thus, 
 
 T . . 7 1. f fjXw, middle <rv-Lo&oii . 
 
 Ti/tfrw, 1 strike ; ■*%'{'■■*- ~ 
 
 2. ( *ww, tfwou/xai. 
 
 veitu I turn .,-'■"'-■ l j T £%> Tg^ojftai. 
 
 5 ' 2. ( r^a^Wj rgatfofrfAai. 
 
 The first future of liquid verbs is inflected like the second ; 
 ;hus, - 
 
 tftfs^w, I sow ; 1st. fut. (fnregZ ; mid. tftfsgoufjua/, -#, -swat. 
 
 Exc. The three following retain the short vowels in the 
 econd future middle : trio^ou, I drink ; (payojxai, / eat ; g&j/xai, 
 T eat ; and are declined crio^ai, ati/i, tf/grai ; not tfis/xai, cr/iy, ati'si- 
 fBNj &c. Sometimes, also, €Xcc§s<rcci for SXaSefrow ; fivstiQou for 
 I'gysTtfdai. 
 
 ii. 
 
 The second future passive comes from the second future 
 ictive ; thus, 
 
 III. 
 
 Through all the voices, the aorist comes from its correspond* 
 g future ; thus, 
 
 In the Active Voice. 
 
 1 
 
 <ru<zrw, 
 
 irvrtov. 
 
 
 gVfg-^a, 
 
 
 
 ■ In the Middle Voice. 
 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 <ruflr2|xai, 
 
 
 Tps-^ofxai, 
 
 
 
 
 In the Passive Voice. 
 
 
 1. 
 2. 
 
 
 j sVutpdrjv. 
 srutfrjv. 
 
 1 
 
 TpowrTjtfofMU, 
 7 
 
 eV£g<p0*jv. 
 
194 
 
 OP THE OTHEE TENSES. 
 
 §149, 
 
 Exc. 1 . The first aorist of liquid verbs makes 
 the penult long, by changing g into u, and mak- 
 ing the doubtful vowel long ; thus, 
 
 gs'XXw, SsXw. s'ssiXa. fesiXapjv. 
 
 tsijw, *"Sf w, IVsija, . srs igafjwjy. 
 
 vs/jlw, vspw, svei/Aa, ivsi^a^v. 
 
 «ivw, <rsvw, grsiva, irsivoc/x^v. 
 
 JgfjiW, 5sjaw, stJsifAcc, £§sipapr\v. 
 
 irsiVw, ^^w, eVsifa, &rsigafj,rjv. 
 
 jwsvw, fxsvw, gasiva, s/xsiva^v. 
 
 •XaXXw, ^aXw, s-^aXa, g^aXajji^v. 
 
 (paivw, (pavw, sqjava, ^ava/XTjv. 
 
 /waived, (xiavw, s^iava, £fMavafM)v. 
 
 xpivcj, x£ivw, mpvecj sx^iva/jwjv. 
 
 fjooXuvw, juuoXuvw, S|x6Xuva, ^oXuva/*7jv. 
 
 Ex. 2. The Attics change a into *j ; thus, 
 
 g'-^aXa, Attice, g-^Xa, g^Xajx^jv. 
 
 gpava, Attice, s<p?]va, £<p>jvafMf]v. 
 
 g>iava, Attice, g^fyva, g^iTjva/XTjv. 
 
 05s. Some pure verbs, which form verbs in fxi, and alsc 
 others derived from them, having no second future, form the 
 secondfaorist from the verb in pi ; (§ 110. 3.) thus, 
 
 yiyvutfxw, from yvow, forms yvw^i, 2nd. aor. fyvuv. 
 
 aXicfxw, aXow, aXw/xi, *]Xwv. 
 
 gaivw, Saw, £5jf*i, ggqv, &c. 
 
 IV. 
 
 In all the voices, the imperfect comes from the present ; anc 
 the pluperfect from the perfect : thus, 
 
 A. 
 
 M. and P. 
 
 A. 
 M. 
 P. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 <nW<rw, 
 tfWqrofiiai, 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 <rgVu(pa, 
 crsVu^ra, 
 TgVuppai, 
 
 V. 
 
 IMPERFECT. 
 
 srutfrov. 
 
 gVutfTG/JWJV. 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 sVs<nj<psiv. 
 
 gVs*WSlV. 
 
 The paulo-post-future is formed from the 2d pers. sing, perf 
 ind. pass, by changing -ai into -o/xai, and is inflected like tin 
 1st fut. middle through all its moods ; thus, 
 
§ 150, 151, 152. TENSES OF VERBS IN fXI. 
 
 195 
 
 c 1st fut. mid. ru^ojxai tu^oijuwjv, . ri-^etfdai, &c. 
 
 1 PaulO-pOSt-filt. TSW-^opOLl, TgTU^OI/XrjV, Tsru^gfltfai, &c. 
 
 § 150. TABULAR VIEW OF THE PRIMARY 
 
 TENSES, AND THE TENSES DERIVED 
 
 FROM THEM. 
 
 Primary Tenses. 
 From rikrw are formed 
 
 From tu^cj, - - - 
 
 From Tgrucpa, - - - 
 
 From ruq^tfojaai, - - 
 
 From ffsVujxjjLai, - - 
 
 From ruww, - - - 
 
 From <r&wa, 
 
 riflrw, 1 strike. 
 
 Tenses formed from them. 
 
 Imperf. act. IV urfrov, pres. mid. and 
 
 pass. rjtfTOjxai. 
 Imperf. mid. and pass, I<ru*r6fx*]v. 
 A or. 1. act. sVu^a, fut. 1 mid., ru-^o- 
 
 jxai, aor. 1. mid. sru-^a^v. 
 Pluperf. act. hswcpsiv. 
 Aor. 1. pass. it&pbp r 
 Pluperf. pass, stbtv^tiv. 
 Aor. 2. act. IVurfov, fut. 2. mid. rurfeC- 
 
 fxai, aor. 2. mid. 19-inrojuwjv, fut. 2. 
 
 pass. iwVofAB'j aor. 2. pass. £rv- 
 
 Pluperf. mid. Irsritfsiv. 
 
 § 151. SECOND CONJUGATION. 
 
 Verbs of the second conjugation end in fii 9 
 and are formed from pure verbs of the first, as 
 directed § 109. 
 
 § 152. OF THE TENSES OF VERBS IN ^ 
 
 Verbs in -#* have only three tenses proper to 
 the present, the imperfect, and second aorist. 
 
 them 
 
 ! 
 
 Note. Those in {-vyn are found only in the present and imperfect, 
 .vhich also they want the subjunctive and optative* 
 
 in 
 
196 TENSES OF VERBS IN |Xf. § 153. 
 
 § 153. FORMATION OF THE TENSES OF VERBS 
 
 IN p* 
 
 1. THE IMPERFECT. 
 
 The Imperfect in all the voices is formed from 
 the present, as exhibited in the examples : viz. 
 by changing the final letters of the chief tenses 
 into those of the secondary, § 113. I and II. 
 
 2. THE SECOND AORIST. 
 
 The second aorist active and middle is form- 
 ed from the imperfect by rejecting the redupli- 
 cation, and changing the short vowels of the im- 
 perfect into their own long ones in the aorist; 
 thus, 
 
 Imperfect, 5'<jV?]v, 
 
 iW^, 
 
 h 'r% iWarov, &c. 
 
 Aorist, soVtjv, 
 
 £oVt]£, 
 
 I'dV*], s(frr\Tov } &c. 
 
 Imperf. Imperat. 
 
 i'flVccdi,. 
 
 SWocto, &c. 
 
 Aorist Imperat. 
 
 flV^h, 
 
 tf<n;<ro, &c. 
 
 Imperf. Infin. 
 
 S'tfravai. 
 
 
 Aorist Infin. 
 
 (fTTjvai. 
 
 
 In like manner, qpjfiJT, / say ; yvwjxi, I know; /3iwjxi ? / live, 
 &c. 
 
 Exc. 1. tMtjMiI, SiSutii, 'iruxi, with their compounds, retain- the 
 short vowels -of the imperfect in the aorist ; thus, 
 2 Aor. *jv, -Jfc, ?i, srov, &c. 
 Imperative, d&, J<fc, ?s, 
 Infinitive 0s7vai, 5o(Jvai, Ifvai ; 
 
 which are contracted from the ancient forms Asusvai, fionevai, 
 epemi, by rejecting /x and contracting the concurring vowels. 
 
 Exc. 2. (fvriiu, I follow ; cpfiiu, I bear ; (tyftpi, I hold ; from 
 verbs in s'w, have the imperative cVsV, cpgsg, (f-/ig. 
 
 Note. Verbs which have the improper reduplication cannot be aug- 
 mented in the imperfect, but this being removed in the aorist, the usual 
 augment is employed; thus, 
 
 "oTvpt, Imperf. tow, Aor. 2. lornv. 
 
§ 154. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 197 
 
 3. TENSES WANTING. 
 
 Verbs in jxj want the second future, and the tenses derived 
 from it : viz. the perfect middle, and 2 aorist passive. 
 
 Exc. Sometimes the primitive verb has the perfect middle 
 from the 2 future, formed without contraction, (§ 144. iv. Exc.) ; 
 thus, oVaw, 2 fut. tfraw, p. mid. sWaa. So yaw, yaw, ys'yaa, 
 participle ysyaws, ysyavTu, ysyaog, Attic, ysyw£, ysy&tia, ysyug, 
 § 137. Obs. 3. d. 
 
 § 154. TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 
 
 1. OF THE FIRST FUTURE. 
 
 Verbs in fu form the first future, and the tenses 
 derived from it, from their own primitive, and are 
 inflected like the corresponding tenses of verbs 
 in o) ; thus, 
 
 ffM^fxi, from 6sw, has 1 fut. 0$(fa), fytopou, &c. 
 SiSwpij from 5ow, has 1 fut. 5wtfw, SwrfojUdai, &c. 
 . ioV^/xi, from oVaw, has 1 fut. flV^tfw, 1 aor. IWtjtfa, &c. 
 
 05s. 1. Some verbs occasionally retain the reduplication; 
 as, 5i5wtfw, J wz'ZZ give, from- SiSu^i ; SiSfatfw, IwiU flee r from 5/- 
 
 OSs. 2. Verbs in jxi, from derivatives in -vuw and -vvJw, form 
 the first future from the primitive ; thus, &ixvujxi from fexvuw, 
 has the 1 fut. <5sigw immediately from fe'xw. 
 
 2. OF THE FIRST AORIST. 
 
 Three have -via instead of -oa in the indica- 
 tive of the first aorist; viz. viQijfii, did&fii, and 
 
 as rid?](XJ 9 d^Cw, Idijxa, s^xa^v. 
 5{<5wfM, (Jwtfw, §'5wxa, s5wxa/x>]v, 
 i'y)|xr, ^tfw, ?jxa, Tjxa/jwjv, 
 
 3. OF THE PERFECT. 
 
 (a.) -fit from -e'w has -u before -xa of the per* 
 feet ; thus, 
 
 17* 
 
198 TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. § 154, 
 
 ri&fjftf, from diw, ^tfw, rs&sixa. 
 fyfxi, from sw, Vw, swa. 
 
 (b.) -jtii from -aw has -a before -*# of the per- 
 fect, sometimes ?] ; thus, 
 
 iVtvj/xi from Craw, cVtjo'w, saVaxa or Ifa^xai. 
 
 4. OF THE FIRST FUTURE PASSIVE. 
 
 A long syllable before -xa, is changed into a 
 short one before ^adfiat ; thus, 
 
 s/'xa, s^tfofxai. 
 
 rsQeixUj TS^tfo/xai. § 6. 3. 
 
 5. OF THE PERFECT PASSIVE. 
 
 -u before -xa of the perfect, returns before 
 -\iai ; as, 
 
 si'xa, Id^tfofAai, sl/xai. 
 
 Likewise the 1 aorist pass, with the augment, becomes sl'^v, 
 
 -7)5, -7], &C 
 
 O^s. The perfect and pluperfect passive are declined through 
 all their moods, according to the terminations of the present 
 and imperfect ; thus, 
 
 Perfect, ts&siixcu, -tfai, -rat. <rs£w/xai, g-^'sjjtx^v, g-sdsjtfo, <re$s7g- 
 
 doti, rs&siitiivog. 
 Pluperf. sts^i^v, -tfo, -to. rs'dwfjiai, &c. the same as the per- 
 fect. See § 107. 9. 10. throughout. 
 
 6. THE FAULO-POST-FUTURE. 
 
 The Paulo-post-future is formed, as in the first 
 conjugation, from the 2 pers. sing, of the perfect 
 indicative passive, by changing -ai into -opcu. 
 It is inflected regularly like the first future ; thus, 
 
 Tski^ai, triieiifou, rsd&iVojxai, -% -srou, &c. 
 sflVafxai, g'aYatfai, IflVatfoju-ai, -yj, -srai, &c. 
 
§155. 
 
 TENSES FORMED FROM THE PRIMITIVE. 
 
 199 
 
 7. REDUPLICATED FORM OF THE PRIMITIVE. 
 
 The primitive in -co, with the reduplication, is 
 sometimes used instead of the form in -\ii in the 
 present and imperfect ; thus, 
 
 Present, 
 
 tj0sw, -ssig, -ssi, contr. -w, -s?£, -sT, for tMijjm, -y\g ) -y\ffi, &c. 
 
 ioVocw, -asi£, -asi, contr. -w, -fs, -?, for itfrijjtiii,- -?]£, -ijtfi, &c. 
 
 Imperfect, 
 
 iriQsov, -ss£, -ss, contr. -ouv, -si^ -si, for IrM^v, -t]£, -73, &c. 
 
 through all the moods. 
 
 § 155. TABLE exhibiting .all the Tenses of Verbs in \ui. 
 
 ACTIVE. 
 
 MIDDLE. 
 
 PASSIVE. 
 
 Present. S'flVrjfM, 
 
 /Wa/xcw, 
 
 S'tfraixai. 
 
 Imperf. S'oVigv, 
 
 ia'Ta^v, 
 
 itfTajUWjv. 
 
 1 Fut. (frfou, 
 
 C-ryjcfo|xaj, 
 
 <fra& fac^ai 
 
 2Fut. 
 
 
 
 1 A or. IWyjtfa, 
 
 ia'r^a'afjwjv, 
 
 laVoc^v. 
 
 2 Aor. sWyjv, 
 
 sCrafjiiTjv. 
 
 
 Perf. saVaxa or -vjxa, 
 
 
 sdra^ai. 
 
 Pluperf. soVaxsiv, 
 
 
 s'flVajjwjv. 
 
 Verbs in pi to be conjugated. 
 |i*tfM, from so), J 56/2^. 
 
 tf§sw, 1 extinguish 
 
 tfSgVVUfiil, 
 ■ OV)jfM, 
 
 £suyw, I join. 
 5s w, I bind. 
 tfraw, I fly. 
 ovsw, I Ae/jt?. 
 
 oXXuwu, 
 
 ffi/jwrXijjtu, from atXs gj, J^?//, hence 
 tfXijdcd. 
 oXsw, / destroy. 
 vjxacjj J conquer. 
 (paw, I say. 
 kXuw, I hear. 
 gow, I strengthen. 
 
 (pijfjti, 
 
 xXufJM, 
 
 gWVVUjXl, 
 
200 ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 156. 
 
 § 156. OF ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE 
 VERBS. 
 
 In many of the Greek verbs, a variety of forms, and an ap- 
 parent irregularity in the formation of different tenses appears. 
 This is occasioned partly by the adoption of new forms of the 
 present and imperfect tenses, which are used either jointly with 
 their primitives, if they are still in use ; or in their stead, if they 
 have become obsolete, while the other tenses continue. as regu- 
 larly formed from the primitive verb ; and partly by the use of 
 tenses taken from synonymous verbs of a different theme, in 
 the place of those which have become nearly or entirely obso- 
 lete ; and thus, as it were, out of the fragments of two or more 
 verbs, whose other parts have disappeared, is formed a new 
 whole. The parts of this whole, being all that remains in use 
 of their respective roots, considered by themselves are really 
 defective verbs. And some of these, though regularly formed 
 from their own themes, yet not being formed from the present 
 to which they are attached, but from some other verb related to 
 it in form or signification, the whole verb is not improperly 
 termed anomalous or irregular. This appellation, then, properly 
 belongs to all those verbs whose present, first future, and per- 
 fect, do not follow the common analogy of conjugation. A 
 few examples will illustrate these remarks ; thus, &5a>, to go 
 under, has &5vw, <5i^;, and S6<fxu 9 all different forms of the pre- 
 sent ; but the first future, and the tenses derived from it, are regu- 
 larly formed from the primitive <Kw, and the second aorist edw 
 from the form in -jju. Again, tfatfxu, I suffer, has 1st fut. ira- 
 Qytfu, and p. tfStfc^Tjxa, from the obsolete present tfadew ; the 2d 
 aor. gWotdov, p. m. rf&rtjftpc, from the obsolete tffy&q ; and the 1st f. 
 m. tfsiVojxai, (§ 6, 6. (o.)), and p. m. irirfovGa, from the obsolete 
 irivQu. In this latter example, tfatf^w, the only present in use, 
 with its imperf. sVatf^ov, is a defective verb, having no other 
 tenses derived from them ; in like manner, the other parts from 
 the respective tHemes are so many defective verbs. But, taken 
 together, and as attached to ^raC^w, a theme from which they 
 are not formed, according to the common analogy of conjuga- 
 tion they form what is called an anomalous or irregular verb. 
 
§ 157. FORMATION OF A NEW PRESENT. 201 
 
 § 157. FORMATION OF A NEW PRESENT. 
 
 The new present is generally formed either from the present, 
 or from the first or second future of the primitive. 
 
 FROM THE PRESENT. 
 
 A new present and imperfect is formed from the present by 
 one or more of the five following ways : 
 
 1 . By epenthesis or insertion of letters before -co ; thus, 
 
 1st fut. 
 
 (1.) <5o'xw, by epenthesis of s becomes <Ww, £6gw. 
 
 (2.) t/w, by epenthesis of v becomes <n'vw, <nVw. 
 
 (3.) <xyw, by epenthesis of vu becomes otyvuw, otgw. 
 
 and s'wj (a pure verb) by ep. of vvu becomes swuw, e<fu. 
 
 (4.) igiu, by epenthesis of siv becomes sfssfvw, !|*jj<fca. 
 
 I (5.) sXaw, by epenthesis of uv becomes s'Xauvw, sXatfw. 
 
 Note. When o precedes the termination it is changed into w ; as, 
 (6.) £ow, to gird, by epenth. of vvu becomes £wvvuw, £wtfoj. 
 
 2. By syncope, or contraction : 
 
 (1.) Rejecting the penult vowel or diphthong in verbs pure ; 
 as, dsXgw, by syncope 0gXw, dsXvjcfw ; in verbs not pure ; as, 
 sysigu, by syncope e'yf w. 
 
 (2.) Rejecting both the penult and antepenult vowel or diph- 
 thong ; as. ocpsiXsw, by syncope of the antepenult, 6cp\su ; and 
 again, by sync, of the penult, 09XW, 1st fut. oosiX^rfw. 
 
 3. By reduplication : 
 
 (1.) Of the initial syllable, in verbs beginning with a vowel ; 
 
 ayw, I break ; becomes ayayw. 1st fut. oc^w. 
 
 (2.) Of the initial consonant with 1 ; as, 
 
 <5sw, I bend ; faUu, 1st fut. S ytfu. 
 
 tfXsw, I fill; rfi/JwrXsw, §6.7. crX^w. 
 
 (3.) Of 1 commonly denominated the improper reduplication ; 
 as, 
 
 flVaw, SaVaw, 1st fut. (J'ttjo'w. 
 
 4. By metathesis, or transposition of letters, which, however, 
 rarely occurs ; thus, 
 
 Sgsxw, 1 see ; by metathesis becomes <5s£xw, aor. 2, s'5f axov. 
 
202 FORMATION OF A NEW PRESENT. § 158, 159, 
 
 5. By Apharesis, or cutting off the initial letters ; thus, 
 I'dsXw, by apheeresis becomes dsXw. 
 Igsw, becomes |sw. 
 
 II. 
 
 § 158. FROM THE FIRST FUTURE, 
 
 The new present is formed, 
 
 1 . In primitive verbs pure by epenthesis of x before w ; thus, 
 aX6gw, 1st fut. akSri<fw 9 new pres. oCk8r)<fxw. 
 
 §*o w, 1st fut. ftwrfw, new pres. Siwcfaw, &c. 
 
 JYo/e. In some, ^ or w before tfw is changed into i before -tfxw ; 
 thus, 
 
 aXow, 1st fut. ccXwtfw, new pres. dXiVxw. 
 
 2. In verbs not pure by a metathesis of the g into tfx ; thus, 
 dv»jxw, 1st fut. dvTjgw, new pres. dv^crxw. 
 aXtxTtfcd, 1st fut. aXufw, new pres. aXutfxw. 
 SiSutf&u) or 5«5a^w, 1st fut. &5agw, new pres. diSacfaw. 
 
 III. 
 § 159. FROM THE SECOND FUTURE. 
 
 1. In verbs pure, generally by epenthesis of av or ouv before 
 co, and rejecting the circumflex ; thus, 
 
 a/xafrg'w, 2d fut. a|u,a£rw, new pres. ajuoajraveo. 
 igiSsu, 2d fut. sf j(5w, new pres. igidaivw. 
 
 2. In verbs not pure, generally by epenthesis of av before w ; 
 thus, 
 
 igi%w 9 2d fut. IjjitTw, new pres. i|i5avw, dec. 
 
 IVbfe. 1. Most verbs in -aivo) have a regular conjugation, as liquid 
 verbs from the new present. 
 
 Note 2. Many verbs of this class, when the characteristic of the 2d 
 future is a mute, insert v and sometimes p before it in the new present, 
 for the sake of euphony ; thus, 
 
 A^flw, 2d fut. Aa0c3, new pres. \av6dvw. 
 
 MjSo), 2d fut. Aa&5, new pres. \a[x6dva. 
 
 Note 3. In one verb there is an epenthesis of Xv before u> ; viz. 
 Mfw, 2d fut. 6\u, new pres. MAtfw. 
 
§ 160, 161. ANOMALOUS AND DEFCTIVE VERBS. 203 
 
 IV. 
 
 § 160. In several verbs, two or more of these modes of varia- 
 tion are combined to form the new present ; thus, 
 
 1 . By reduplication of the present, and epenthesis of the fu- 
 futre, yvow becomes yiyvwtfxw ; ^aw, (Mpatfxw, &c. 
 
 2. By reduplication and syncope of the present, fxsvw be- 
 comes pipvu ; tenses formed from jxsvw. 
 
 3. By epenthesis of the second future, <5a^w (from <5a/xaw,) 
 becomes £a^avw, and then by syncope, <5ot^vw ; tenses from the 
 primitive. 
 
 4. By aphasresis of tf, tf^^w becomes xs'w, and by metathesis, 
 I^w ; tenses are mostly formed from tfx 5 ' 60 - 
 
 5. rsxw, by reduplication, becomes titSxw ; by metathesis, 
 rixsVw ; and by syncope, tixtw ; tenses formed from tsxw. 
 
 6. Fxw, by epenthesis of the 2d. rut. becomes ixavw ; then by 
 syncope txyw ; and lastly, by epenthesis, Sxvew, ixvso^ai. In like 
 maimer utfotfx^j by reduplication of the simple verb uffirf^sw ; 
 then by epenth. of 2d. fut. C^cr^avw ; then by syncope, utfitf- 
 XV w ; and lastly, by epenth. utfitfxvs'w. The tenses are formed 
 from the primitive utfoCx^w. 
 
 § 161. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ANOMALOUS 
 AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 In the following Table, the words in capitals are the roots 
 from which certain tenses are formed, but which are themselves 
 either entirely obsolete, or are merely supposed, in order to de- 
 rive from them by analogy the forms in use. 
 
 The capital R indicates, that the verb is conjugated regu- 
 larly from the tense after which it is placed. 
 
 ' A. 
 
 aya/xai, to admire : a passive form from ay^/xi, Th. ayaw ; pr. and 
 imp. like ifoVajxai} aya^ofxa*, s. s. 1st fut. ayatfo/xai, R. 
 
 dyvucjj ayvujxi, to break : from ayw, 1 f. sfw, &c. R. 1 a. saga, 
 2 a. p. Jay^v, perf. m. say a, with a passive signifi- 
 cation. It commonly takes the syllabic augment, 
 probably owing to its having anciently had the di- 
 gamma as the initial letter ; thus, pr. Fayw, 1 a. 
 sFaga, and then saga ; &c. 
 
 a5w ; See av5avw. 
 
 ayw, to /ead : 1 f. agw, &c. R. It has a reduplication in the 
 2 a. Tjyayov, perf. ^x a > ana " W] ^h. the reduplication, 
 ayyjoxa, (poetic, ayv<3, dyiva).) 
 
204 ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 161. 
 
 as'f w ; See augdvaj. 
 
 al^w, to takej 1 f. al^tfW) or -sVw, &c. R. 2 fut. £Xw, 2 aor. 
 siXov, from EAfi, siXd^v, Alexandrian form for 
 s-iXo/XTjv. 
 
 uk&avopai, to perceive : f. m. ajVflr^fJux'j &c. R. from AI20E- 
 OMAI, aor. 2 tjV0o>??v. 
 
 dX<$aJvw, dX^tfxw, to nourish : 1 f. dX^rfw, &c. R. from AAAEQ. 
 
 dXs'gw, to avert : dXsgvjtfw, &c. from AAEHEft ; 1 aor. m. dXeg- 
 df/^v, &c. from AAEKH. 
 
 dXssi'vw, dXs'o/jiaj, to sAim ; 1 a. ^Xsutfa, 1 a. m. TjXsudpjv, and 
 TjXsd^Vj by elision of tf for TjXsutfd^v, from AAETQ. 
 
 dXivSs'w, to re// : 1 f. dXiVw, &c. R. from dXi'w. 
 
 dXjVxw, to to&e : 1 f. aXwC.w, &c. R. from AAOQ, 2 aor. sa- 
 Xwv, or >}Xojv, from AAfi'MI. This verb has a pas- 
 sive signification in the aorists and perfect active. 
 
 dXia'xw, dXutfxavw, to awic/ : 1 fut. dX'jgw, &c. R. from AAT- 
 KO, s. s. as dXs'w. 
 
 dX<paivw, (dXipdvw, dXcpaiw,) to ^m ; 1 fut. ctX^tfw, &c. R. 
 from AA$Ea 
 
 a|xajTdvco, to err : 1 fut. a/xapr^w, &c. R. from dfjiafrsw. 
 
 d^Xltfxw, to miscarry : 1 fut. dXgXwtfw, &c. R. from dfx§Xo'w. 
 
 d/xflrg'xw, and dfjwria'x v sofJ.ai. See s^w. 
 
 a/xtpis'yvufxi. See swufAi. 
 
 dva/ivwtfxco. See yivwrfxco. 
 
 dvaXiVxw, to re«6/ ; See dXiVxw. 
 
 av<5dvw, to please : 1 fut. ai^tfw, &c. R. from a5gw, 2 a. s'afov 
 for fy5ov, p. m. §a<5a, with the syllabic augment, s. s. 
 as ?j(5aj. 
 
 dvo»yv£w, avoIyvufAi, from uvoiyoi (dvd and oiyco,) to opew ; 1 f. 
 dvo(£co> p. dvs^ff., &c. R. often with both tempo- 
 ral and syllabic augment ; as, imp. dvs'wyov, p. m 
 dvgwya, &c. 
 
 dvwyw, to tfrofer ; 1 f. dvwgw, &c. R. or, 1 f. dvoj^rfw, &c. R. 
 from dvwys'w; hence, pres. imperative, dvw^i, dvw;^- 
 dco, &c. by syncope for dv^y^i, dvuyriro, &c. as if 
 from ANOrHMJ, p. m. fjvwya. 
 
 otors^dvofxai. See £%0dvof/,ai. 
 
 drfoLvPciu, to take away : imperf. R. datrfigkw 9 1 aor. dtf?juja, m. y 
 d^Tjuga^v, from dtfau^w. From this verb, or more 
 probably from AIIOTPfi, (the obsolete Th. of dtfou- 
 g(£w, to dispossess,) comes 1 aor. inf. cwroi^ai, part. 
 cwrotigas, and dtfoupa/xsvos, used by Homer, Pindar, 
 and Hesiod, in the sense of " to rob" u to plunder" 
 " to encroach on the limits or property of another P 
 
 ctaroXXvfJii. See o'XXvfw. 
 
 
 ! 
 
§161. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 205 
 
 dgitfxu, to please : 1 fut. a^gVw, >jfgxa, &c. R. from d^g'oj. 
 
 d^w, fo jfo, 02 adapt : 1 fut. dfi and dftfw, (§ 129. II. Obs. 2.) p. 
 fyxa, &c. R. p. m. ^faga and agyj^a, with the At- 
 tic reduplication from *jf«. 
 
 augw, and aug dvw,. £0 encrease : 1 fut. au^tfw, &c. R. from ATH- 
 EQ ; likewise, dg'goj, dcg^Cw, &c. from AEHEQ. 
 
 a^o^ou, to be indignant : 1 fut. d^^tfofxai, or -sVofwx/, &c. R. 
 from d^g'o^aj. 
 
 B. 
 
 ■Sa/vw, fiutixu, /3j§dw, to g-0 ; 1 fut. fifo-onou, p. /3g§r)xa, &c. R. 
 from BAQ ; 2 aor. s'g^v, from BHM1 ; imperat. /35j0/, 
 in compounds shortened, as, xa<rd§a. N. B. ^tfw, in 
 the 1 fut. act. and g&rjtfa, 1 aor. have exclusively 
 an active signification, to cause to go, 
 /SdXXw, to throw : 1 fut. /3aX£S (Poet. /3aXX?j<rw) /3g^aX^xa, &c. 
 R. as if from BAAEQ ; hence, by syncope, BAEfi, 
 >; • from which /3X7J|xj, a regular verb of the 2d conju- 
 
 gation. 
 3-iwo'xw, to /s'ye ; 1 f. jSi^o'gj, &c. R. from /3jgw ; 2 aor. I€«wv, 
 
 H'om^i, (all in use.) 
 SXaoVdvw, to bud: 1 fut. /3Xa<rdja'w, &c. R. from BAA2TE£2. 
 Soa-xw, to feed : 1 fut. /3wtfw, &c. R. from /3ow ; and 1 f. jSbflfoMj- 
 
 tfw, &c. R. from /SotfxgGj. 
 3ouXofjuxi, to will: 1 f. '/3ouXVof*»*> &c. R. from BOTAEft ; 
 
 hence also, p. m. /Ss'fcuXa. 
 S^ojo'xw, /SiSgwa'xw, to eatf ; 1 f. ^wtfw, &c. R. from /3^ ow ; 2 
 aor. i'Sjwv, as if from /3£wjxf. 
 
 r. 
 
 'ctfjigw, to marry : 1 fut. yaf/^rfw, and itfw, &c. R. 1 aor. J/d- 
 juurjcra, N. T. ; and g/^a, as if from TAMO, or TH- 
 Mfi. 
 
 X '£vto, in Homer, he took: probably for sXs<ro ; 7 being put for 
 F, and v for X, as in the Dor. fy$s for rfhbs ; thus, 
 FsXsro would become ysWo, and, by syncope, 
 yivro. 
 
 'TjpdCxw, to groiu old : 1 f. yrjg dtfw, &c. R. from y*]£a« ; 1 aor. 
 Spiptj from rHPn ; yrigavou pres. inf. from y%*jf*£ 
 :«,• ■ (yvofxou, yivofjLai, to become: 1 fut. ysv^efofAai, &c. R. from TE- 
 NEfi, by epentbesis from FENQ; whence, p. m. 
 yg'y ova. N. B. Allied to this verb is 
 ■elvofMu, to fe 00m: used in the pr. and imp. ; the first aor. 
 iysjvdfjwjv is used actively, £0 o^e^, to bear ; hence 
 01 ygjvdjxevo*, parents : ygivaf/,sv7j, a mother. 
 18 
 
206 ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 161, 
 
 yiyvwtfxw, yivwtfxw, to know : 1 fut. yvwtfw, p. syvwxcc, yvwo^oV 
 jxai, eyvwfyou, R. from TNG ft ; 2 aor. syvuv, from 
 yvw/xi, sub. yvw, opt. yvofyjv, imper. yvw0;, inf. yvwvcu, 
 part. yvou£. 
 
 A. 
 
 5a(w, to /earn : 1 fut. da.r)<fw 9 &c. R. from AAEft, by epenth. 
 
 from <5aw ; whence p. m. 5s'<5aa, (§ 144. IV. Exc.) 2 
 
 aor. p. s5a?jv, or act. from -fiowjfw ; from &xw comes 
 
 5<xo'xw, and, by reduplication, <5i5atfxw, to toacA. 
 5aiw, to divide, to feast, to entertain : 1 f. JaiVw, more frequently 
 
 (Jatfco, p. (5s<5axa, &c. R. from AAZft. 
 5afw, to 6wm : 2 fut. AAft, p. m. SeSya through all its moods. . 
 5<xxvw, to bite : 1 fut. 3^|w, &c. R. from AHKft ; 2 aor. sdaxov. 
 SoLgQavu, to sleep : 1 fut. 5a£0fyj'of/.cci, &c. R. from AAPOEft ; 
 
 2 aor. I'Safdov. 
 <5s!<5w, to fear : 1 fut. 5s»Vw, p.'5g5sixa or <5s£oixa, p. m. SiSoiSu* 
 
 also from Alft, 2 aor. sdiov, p. m. <5s'5ia, (poetice §si- 
 
 Sia) pi. 5s5iafXsv, by syncope, SeSipsv, &c. and imper. 
 
 SsSifay with a present sense, to fear ; the middle <S;o- 
 
 (wai, with its derivatives <$s<J(<7xojxai, feSiVrfojaai, &c. 
 
 have an active, signification,. " to frighten" 
 Ssixvuw, <5sixvufju, to sAew ; 1 f. feigw, &c. R. from AEIKft ; Ionic 
 
 AEKft, hence 5sgw, &c. 
 Ssofxai, to wegrf: 1 fut. (JerKTofxcti, &c. R. (from AEEOMAI.) In 
 
 the active voice it is used impersonally ; as, &?■ 5sVs», 
 
 &c. See Impersonal Verbs, § 120. 
 5i<$<xtfx6j, to toacA ; 1 f. <5i5<xijw, (and ASatfx^o'w,) 5s5/5a^a, &c. R. 
 
 § 158. 2. 
 ■5i5gatfxw, to escape : 1 fut. (Spatfw, &c. R. (from 5paw, a regular 
 
 verb in use ;) 2 aor. s5g>jv, (from APHMI,) for which 
 
 also s<5pav, -as, -a, &c. N. B. This verb in used in 
 
 composition only. 
 5oxsw, to /AiwA : 1 f. <56gw, &c. R. from AOKft ; — also 1 fut. 5o- 
 
 xVw, &c. R. but less in use than the other forms, 
 iuvajxaj, I can : (like JWafxai,) 1 f. 5uv^Co/xai, &c. R. from AT- 
 
 NAOMAI j 1 aor. pass. sSuv&atfrjv and i5uv^*)v. 
 5uw, <Kvw, to enclose, to go into ; 1 fut. <5utfw, 8i8vxa % &c. R.; 2 
 
 aor. idvv\ from ATMI. 
 
 E. 
 
 I5w, Itfflw, and itfdi'w, to eatf; 1 fut. g&efw, p. pass. iSr}Ss(f{mi for 
 vjSs^ou ; 1 aor. pass. ^5stf^v from sfe'w ; 2 f. m. s<5o- 
 fjiai and s^oujtxai ; p. m. oj<5a, Attice g<Sif)<Sa, from s&> ; 
 p. a. £<$>$oxa, Attic for ?}<$oxa, from EAOft; 2 aor. act. 
 
§ 161. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 207 
 
 s<payoVj from cpayw ; (sSo^on is rather the present 
 used in the sense of the fut. 
 
 gWXw, ds'Xw, &s\soo 1 I wish : 1 fut. dsX^tfw, <rs6ps.rpm 9 R. 
 
 ElAft, has in general two distinct meanings, " to see " and {{ to 
 know. 11 From the few tenses that do occur, it ap- 
 pears to have been regularly conjugated, ELAO, 
 EI2H, ElKA, &c. In the sense of " to see, 11 it has, 
 in the active voice, only the 2 aor. s'iSov and 'idoVj 
 which is used as a substitute for the 2 aor. of ojaw, 
 to see. In the middle voice, the pr. s<<Jo/xai, the imp. 
 sWojUdrjVj the 1 f. sirfo|xai, and 1 aor. s/Va/xyjv, occur in 
 the sense of the active, and also in the sense of " to 
 seem" " to appear" " to resemble :" in which sense 
 they are found in the pas'sive in the old poets. 
 
 fT5w, in the sense of to know, does not occur in the present, the 
 place of which is made up, in the indicative singu- 
 lar, by the p.m. of da, in the sense of the present, and 
 in the dual and pi. by '/tfyjfjw ; the subjunctive has 
 s'l8&, -ffe, &c. and the optative s/5siV, -yj^, &c. both 
 from EIAHMI. The imperative has 'itfaQi, &c. from 
 /tfv^i, and the infinitive and participle have sldhut 
 and-s?6wff, contracted from EIAHKENAI and EIAH- 
 KH2, from the perfect siSy\xa in the present sense. — 
 In the sense of " to know" also, it has the 1 fut. etSS^ 
 Cw, p. s'/5-/jxa, &c. R. (fromEIAEQj) and by syncope 
 si8u, and the pluperfect fiSeiv, Attic fj^, in the imper- 
 . feet sense ; thus, 
 
 Sing. YjSsn or $£'/), jiffes or ySsHf&a, f\$si or fjfev. 
 Dual. 7j5?rTov contr. ^tfrov, ^sIttjv contr. 
 
 yjflVrjv. 
 
 Plur. ^5s/|x5v contr. yj&psv, retire contr. jjtfrs, yj&o'av, 
 contr. rxtav. 
 
 See also § 119. vn. 
 
 EIKQ, I resemble, I seem ; used only in the p. m. oTxa, Ionic 
 soixa, Attic s/xa, infin. slxsvou, part, sfacfog, -i>ra, -o's ; 
 hence e'horug. From this verb also come eiVxw and 
 i'tfxw, to compare. 
 
 EIIIf2 or En ft, to sai/ ; used only in the aorists ; 1 aor.Y/Va, 
 2 sitfov, 1 aor. mid. s'iVa^yjv. The initial el- is re- 
 tained through all the moods. Compounds used by 
 the poets are IvsVw, svsVirw, sviWw. The other parts 
 are supplied from s£w, which see. 
 
 IXauvWj to rfra>e : 1 fut. SXatfw, p. »)Xaxa, &c. R. from eXaw, also 
 in use. The Attic future is sXw, sXas, £Xa, &c. for 
 sXatfw, e\a<fss } &c< 
 
208 ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 16 L 
 
 ivoQu, to shake, to agitate : p. m. fyoQa, Attic Jvrjvodoc ; used 
 chiefly in compounds ; as, rfaf-svfy/ofcv, av-^voflsv, 
 &c. 
 
 e'vvtijxi, to clothe : 1 fut. I^w j p. pass, si'/xat, and also §V/xai. from 
 Efi ; djxcpisvvufjui has Attice d/x<p-i£> for apcpiitfu : a/uKpioo- 
 £w and ccfX(pi(taw are rare forms of the same word. 
 
 gVw 3 see s*Vw. 
 
 sVw, to Je actively employed : mid. sVo/jwj, f 9 follow. 1 fut. s^o/xai, 
 has the 2 aor. IWov and scVofA^ as if from 2Iin or 
 2I1EQ. See s'x w : t0 De found chiefly in compounds. 
 
 igiSaivw, to contend: 1 fut. i£i8r i do ) &c. from EPIAEH, per 
 epenth. from EPIAQ ; hence ef i£w, s. s. 1 fut. egl<fu f 
 &c. Reg. 
 
 sf o/xai, see I'f w. 
 
 i'||oj, to g-o awfli/ : 1 f. i^fou, &c. R. from EPPEQ. 
 
 sgvQaivw, to make red : 1 fat. iju^Cw, &c. (R. from EPT0EH,) 
 and also sfsutfw, as if from EPETGn. 
 
 sgX°P' ai > t° g° : 1 fut- sXsjcroixa;, p. m. ^Xu0a, Attice iXyfkv&a^, 
 from EAET0H ; whence also 2 aor. act. ?JX#ov ? by 
 syncope for HAT0ON. 
 
 Note. In some tenses sTpi is more in use than sgxw a1 ' 
 
 ETO, by metathesis £sw, and by epenth. jgfcj-; also sfjw, by ep. 
 
 sifsw, from one or other of which the tenses in use 
 
 are regularly formed ; thus, from If w, 2 fut. ^w, 1 
 
 aor. m. ^f afjwjv 3 2 aor. m. ^o'/atjv ; from |sw, 1 fut. ^« 
 
 rfw, and 1 aor. p. s^^tjv and igfflriv ; from sfg'w, 1 fut. 
 
 igifw, p. s'/fyjxfx, p. pass. s^fAou, and probably from 
 
 g/fs'w, comes the fut. s/f^tfofjwxi. 
 gf o^a;, in the sense of to .asA, occurs chiefly as an aorist to s£ w- 
 
 <rocw. 
 sVdiw, to eatf .* used in the pres. and imp. for s<5w. See ?&>. 
 sb'5w, to sfeep: 1 fut. svSrjtfu, &c. R. from ETAEQ, augments 
 
 the initial vowel, thus, *iu<5ov ; eo in compounds, jca* 
 
 QrivSov, &c. 
 suffoxw, to find: 1 f. sugVw, &c. R. from ETPEO, by epenth. 
 
 from EXPO ; whence a form of the 1 aor. m. suj a- 
 
 gj(6J, to toe ; 1 fut. g|w with the aspirate, or tiyrfiu^ p. sV^xa, 
 &c. R. from 2XE0, also (fys'dw. This verb has 
 another form of the present and imperf. I'tf^w and 
 itfX&v, in the sense of to hold, which has the future 
 {fyTjtfw, &c. ; so also c^w, Itiyibm. In the com- 
 pounds observe the following varieties : viz, dvgj^Wj 
 
§ 161. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 209 
 
 (for which also avaa^edw) in the middle has a dou- 
 ble augment in the imperf. and 2 aor. yjvsi^o^yjv, 
 Tjvs^o^riv : diiKsxu, to enclose, has 1 f. apcps%u, 2 aor. 
 ^juwrftf^ov ; mid. djuwrgpcojxai or djuwria^vso/xou, to wear ; 
 
 1 fut. dfX(ps|o 4 aa», 2 aor. ^tfi^o^v ; utfitf^vsofxai, to 
 promise, 1 fut. v^ocf^^o^ai, &c. R. 
 
 l+w } to cook: 1 fut. Spj^tfu, &a Reg. from EYEa 
 
 EQ, to place : Defective, 1 a. sTtfa, 1 f. m. s/Vo/xaj, 1 a. rn. sltfa- 
 ju^v. The derivatives from this root are, 1. ?jxai, J 
 szV, (perf. for sl^ai,) § 119. iv. ; 2. s^o/xai, to set 
 down, (whence also i£w and xadi£w, R.) ; 3. svvufw, 
 to c/c^e ; and, 4. fyfj&i, to se/zo 7 , ^rfw, sS'xa, R. 
 
 £<VI, J am ; comes from EQ ; If. m. stromal, imp. ?v. See § 
 117. But 
 
 si|*i, 1 go : comes from If2, 1 f. m. s'/tfo^ai, p. sfa, Attice f|Ta. 
 See § 119. i. 
 
 Z. 
 
 , £dw, to five : 1 f. m. ^tfo/xai ; 2 aor. I'^v, as if from ZHMI. 
 See § 107. 12. To supply the defective parts of 
 this verb, tenses are borrowed from /3i6w. 
 
 £suyv;5w and £euyvupu, tojw'ft : 1 f. %ev%u, &c. R. from ZETra, 
 
 2 a. p. ^uyyjv. 
 
 |£wvvtfw 3 £wwuf«, to gird: 1 f £w<7w, &c. R. from. £6 w. 
 
 H. 
 
 ^Satfxw, to ato'w ^e ct^-e o/" puberty : If. ^tfw, &c. R. from 
 
 '?5w, to sweeten, to please : 1 f. ^tfw, &c. R. s. s. as oiv&xvw, which 
 
 '^cu, to szV ; see EQ, and § 119. iv. 
 
 m4, by Aphaeresis for p^al, I say : likewise ?v ; ^, for s(p^v, §'^. 
 See § 119. v. 
 
 0. 
 
 jftlXw. See ^s'Xw. 
 
 0HIIQ, (Poetic) to ie amazed : p. m. rs^tfa, 2 aor. IVapov, by 
 metathesis for sdcwrov, of which the part, dowrwv is in 
 
 Syjyavw, to sharpen : 1 f. 0?jgco, &c. R. from d^yw, s. & 
 lyyavu, to touch : 1 f. dlgw, &c. R. from diyco ; 2 aor. i'diyov, 
 flvTjtfxw, to die : 1 f. 0vr;|w from 0NHKQ ; p. <rst)vrjxa, and p. m. 
 ri'dvaa, (§ 144. iv. Exc.) from 0NAQ ; from0HNf2 s 
 0ANQ, or 0EINQ, comes 2 f. m. davoupaf, and 2 
 18* 
 
210 ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 161 
 
 aor. I'davov. From the p.. a. ridvqxa, comes a new 
 present r^vqxw, 1 f. rsforfeu. Parts also occur as if 
 from a form in -/xi ; thus, redvadi, Tedvafyv, as if from 
 
 dogvuu, do^vu/iw, ^wtfxw, to tojo : 1 f dof^tfw, &c. R. from 0o£scj, 
 2 f 2of ou/xai, 2 aor. act. s'dogov. 
 
 I. 
 
 i5^uvw, KfufM, to establish : from Wfuw, 1 f. i<5ft5tfw, &e. R. . 
 
 S£avw, to se£ : 1 fut. i^tfa, &c. R. from S£aw ; and J'tfco, &c. R. 
 from S'£w and in. In like manner xad»£avw, xa0i£« ? 
 &c. See EH. 
 
 iijjxi, to go : pres. m. is/xai. ^See § 119. n. 
 
 5'«jfjw, to S6w^ : 1 f. ^tfw, p. sTxa, 1 aor. ^xa, 2 aor. ?v, from EQ 
 § 119. in. 
 
 ixavw, ixvso^ai, to come : (from i'xm< s. s. R. whence they have) 
 1 f. m. 5|o/xai, perf. pass. I'yjxcu, 2 aor. Ixo^v. 
 
 iXatfxojxa/j to propitiate : 1 f..iXa<ro|iii.ai, &c. R. from iXaw ; whence 
 IAHMI, of which some parts occur in Homer. 
 
 SWajxoH. See tfsVo/xa/. 
 
 TcTtj^i, to Aww : m. i'tfajxai, used in the singular number by. Do- 
 ric writers only. See s'iSu. 
 
 jtfj£w. See s^w. 
 
 K. 
 
 KAZH, KAAQ, KAAEfi, to cawse to yfeW; 1 fut. KAAHSfi, 3 
 
 f. p. xsxaSrj&oixcu, Horn. 
 
 xa0s£o/xai, to sit : 2 f. xads<$oufji*cci, 1 aor. p. ixaMd^v. 
 
 x^Xojjwxi, to order : 1 f. x&Xvjtfo/Aai, &c. R. from xsXsc/xai. 
 
 xsl^ai, to &: see § 119. v. 
 
 xs£avvuw, xs£ocvvu,ai 7 to m&# : 1 fat. xsjarfw, &c. Reg. from xs^awJ 
 
 Sometimes it inserts cr before -dr^'o^ai, in 1 f. pass 
 
 sometimes not. Hence also xipv<xw, from which x/j- 
 
 vtjjuw, s. s. imper. xjpvtj, for xifva^j. 
 
 xsjSaJvw, to mai&e ^arn : 1 f. xsj Savw and xs^tfw ; perf. xsxegSqxcx,, 
 
 xr^otvw, to overtake : 1 f. xi^tfw, &c. R. from xi^gw ; 2 aor. g'xi- 
 
 Xov, and sxr^rjv, from -KIXHMI. 
 xi'^frjpt,!, to /ew^ ; 1 fut. xS^ u t < ^ c# ^- fr° m X?^ w - 
 xXoc£w, to cry aloud : 1 f. xXaygw, &c. R. from xXayyw ; p. m 
 
 xsxXvjya, as if from xX^w. 
 xXuw, to Aear": Reg. except the imperative pres. xXud/, as ij 
 
 from KATMI. 
 aogsvvuw, xogiwu^i, to satisfy •; 1 f. xo|sV« and xof vjtfw, &c. R. from 
 
 XOgSW. 
 
§ 161. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 211 
 
 xp<x£w, to crow : 1 f. xjagw, &c. R. exc. imper. perf. xg'x^a^i. 
 x^fjiavvuw, X£g ( wavvufxi, and x^fxvyjfxt, to hang : 1 f. x^g/xatfw, &c. 
 
 R. fromKPEMAQ. 
 xrsfvw, to £z7/; 1 fut. xrsvw, &c. R. ; 2 aor. g'xravov, and sxttjv from 
 
 KTHMI. 
 xdXiv<5w, to re//; 1 fat. xuXjVw, &c. R. from xuXiw, s. s. 
 xuvg'w, to fess ; 1 fut. xuv/jo'go, &c. R. ; also xu^w, &c. R. from xuw. 
 
 Xay^avw, ^ receive by lot : 1 f. X^gw, &c, R. from AHXft. 2 aor. 
 IXa^ov, perf. Xs'Xoyx a - § 137. 1. Note 2. 
 
 Xaju.§avw, to to£e : 1 f. m. X^/o/xai, p. s/Xrjpa, &c. R. from AH- 
 BQ. Ionic perf. XgXafirjxa ; likewise 1 f. Xaf/^/ofjiai, 
 &c. R. as if from AAMBfi. Also of the same sig- 
 nification. 
 
 -Xa^w, Xa£uw, and Xd^vjii. 
 
 Xavdavw, to #e A^ : 1 f. X^tfw, &c. R. from X^w ; in the middle 
 voice. 
 
 Xavdavo.aai, to forget : 1 f. X^tfo^ai, &c. from the same. 
 
 X(£wj to Am : 1 f. Xtygw, &c. R. "from Xi/yw, s. s. 
 
 . Xouw, to 2tf#sA ; in the Attic dialect generally omits by syncope 
 the short vowel after -ou- ; thus, sXou, gXovpgv, Xou- 
 jxcci, Xoutf^ai, &c. for s'Xous, sXouo/xev, Xouojaai, Xougrfdai, 
 &c. 
 
 Xouew, in some of its tenses occurs in Homer. 
 
 M. 
 
 fjuav^avWj to torn ; 1 f. (xa^tfoixai, p. /xg^oc^xa, &c. R. from MA- 
 
 0EQ, 2 aor. s^uQov. 
 aor^aou, to fight : 1 fut. ^a^T'o^ai and ^oc^sVo/xa/, &c. R. from 
 
 MAXEOMAI. 
 fAg^tfxw, to intoxicate : 1 f. futs^Voo, &c from jU/gduw, s. s. 
 ug'Xw, to care for : 1 f. fxgXvjtfw from MEAEfi. 2 aor. sjisXov, p. 
 
 m. (xgfwjXa. 
 jxs'XXw, to &e #fow/ to &e : 1 f. (xgXX^a'w, &c. R. from /xsXXg'w. 
 M,7jxao 4 aai, to &to£ : 1 f. ju^xatfofxai, &c. R. (^xa^w s. s.) 2 aor. 
 
 gjxaxoy, p. m. fAgfiwjxa, from MHKQ. 
 jxiyvuw, fAiyvujxi, jxttfyw, to miz ; 1 f. /xigw, &c. R. from /xiyw ; 2 
 
 aor. Sffci^v from MirHMI. 
 aijxvvjtfxw, to remember : 1 f. fM/^Cw, &c. R. from jav^w. 
 uwgyvuw, f*ofyvuf*i, to we)?e 0#\* 1 f. pjgw, &c. from MOPrQ, 
 
212 ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § I 61 . 
 
 N. 
 
 vai'w, neut. to dwell : 1 f. vatfw, &c. R. from vaw, active, to cause 
 
 to dwell 
 v/£w, to wash : 1 f. vtyw, &c. R. from viVtw, s. s. 
 
 O. 
 
 o£w, & smell: 1 f. oVw, R. also o£sVw and o^tfw, p. w^xa, &c. 
 R. # from OZEft, p. m. ZSct ; with the Attic redupli- 
 cation oSuSa. 
 
 oiyvuw, oiyvujuui, to ojom : 1 f. o'/gw, &c. R. from p/yw* See avoi- 
 yw. 
 
 o/5a»vw, oWavw, oWiVxw, to si0eZ2 : 1 f. oWvjtfw, &c. R. from oi5s'w, 
 Th. s. s. 
 
 o7o^ai and o/jxai, to think : 1 f. o/Tjtfojtxai, &c. R. from oiVofxai. o/'w, 
 the active form, is retained in some dialects. 
 
 or^ojxctij to go : 1 f. oip^tfofxoci, p."w^|xa»> R. as if from OIXEO- 
 MAI. 
 
 o'/^w, s. s. in the active form ; If. oJ^wa'y, p. ^wx« 3 as if from 
 
 oXitf^aivw, oXitf^avw, to g7£fife : 1 f. oXia^rfw, &c. R. from oXiCdlw, 
 
 s. s. 
 oXXuw, oXXufxi, to destroy : 1 f. oXs'tfw, &c. R. from OAEO ; 2 f. 
 
 oXWj m. oXou/xai, 2 a or. wXo/x^v, p. wXa, Attice oXwXa. 
 
 Other forms are 
 oXXw,' oXgxWj oXstfxw. 
 
 o/xvuw, ojuwu/xi, to sweatr : 1 f. ojxoVw, &c. R. from OMOQ, com- 
 monly with the reduplication in the perfect ; 2 f. m. 
 
 o|xou,aai from OMH. 
 o/xo^yvuw, o/xofyvufw, to wipe c^*; If o/xo^gw, &c. R. s. s. as /xof- 
 
 yvJw, which see. 
 ovyjfxi, ov/vTjfxi, to help : 1 f. ov^o:, &c. R. from ONAQ. 
 og/xaivw, to rwsA : 1. f. o^^w, &c. R. from o^fxtxw, s. s. 
 o^vuw, opvujxj, to rfe ; 1 f. oj<rw, (§ 129, n. Obs. 2.) from OP£2 ; 
 
 2 f. o£& from o£w, p. m. o'fwfa ; hence a new present, 
 
 offl'w, s. s. and also ofwjw. 
 ofrtpjaivofxoci, to sme// : 1 f. oVpavoujxai, R. and otfpf^ojxai, &c. R. 
 
 from 02&PE0MAI, by epenth. from otfcpfofxcw, from 
 
 which wtfpf oju,?jv ; hence also otf<p£<xw and otfcpf ao/xou, 
 
 s. s. 
 ouraw, oOra£w, ouraa'xw, OTTHMI, to Ai£, to wound : 1 f. ouTarfw, 
 
 &c. R. from ou<raw, infin. oura/xsvai, Horn, for oura- 
 
 vaj. 
 ocpsi'Xw, o<pXw, opXirfxavw, to we, (viz. money, punishment, i. e. 
 
§ 161. ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 213 
 
 to be guilty) : 1 f. ocpeiXrjrfu and ocpX?;tf6j, &c. R. from 
 o(psi\s6f and d<pXs« ; 2 aor. wpsXov, used only in the 
 expression of a wish ; thus, sIP wpsXov, O £to J, 
 s/0' ticpsXeg, O that thou, &c. 
 
 n. 
 
 ffaC^w, £0 sw^er : 1 f. m. tfSiVo^ai, '§ .6. 6. (o.) p. m. *r e Vo"0a ; 
 both from IIENGft ; 2 aor. SVadov from IIH0a ; 
 also 1 fat. flrad^cTw, fee. R. from IIA0EO. 
 
 VsWw, to digest : 1 f. a^u, fee. R. from ? sVrw, s. s. 
 
 flrs-ravviJw, irsTavvufw, to expand : 1 f. ffSratfcj, R. from irsrau, exc. 
 p. p. «7rsV-ra l aa;, which is from the contracted form 
 si-toggo. Another form is 
 
 tfirvaw and w.i<rv»jpui 3 s. s. 
 
 irsro/Aai, rsretfxa*, -Trs-rao^cti, to ^?y ; 1 f. •■7rsr?j<j'o|xa/, fee. R. from 
 qrerao/xai ; 2 aor. gW*jv from famffri ; also, p. p. tfetfo- 
 rrjf/ia* from tfotfxpj&at 5 by syncope sVsrofjwjv becomes 
 IWo/j/yjv, and so of other tenses. 
 
 jfyyvuw, gr^yvufAi, to fasten : 1 f. -s^gw, fee. R. from Iffim; p. m. 
 crgVriya, 2 aor. pass. sVayi?v. 
 
 mXvaw, xiKyiiiMj to approach : takes its tenses from «7rsXa£w. s. s. 
 
 irijjwrXavw and AnV^IM* 1 * to^// ; 1 f. •tX^w, &c. R. from IIAAQ 
 or irXqfa). When in composition .jx comes before 
 the initial if in this word, it is omitted before it\ ; as, 
 s/jt.<7riVX7]|xi ; so also in 
 
 rijXflrgTjfjw, to awra : 1- f. ^Vw, fee. R. from IIPEfi or tfj^uj. 
 
 n'vw, to drink : 1 f. tfwtfw, fee. R. from IIOO ; 2 aor. IVwv from 
 «riw Th. ; imperat. commonly irTdi, sometimes crj's j 
 fat. m. iriofAat, probably .he present used in the fu- 
 ture sense ; or by elision of <x for miooiiai ; iriov^ou is 
 also found. From this theme also comes 
 witixu, to cause to drink : 1 f. wtVw, &c. R. from veltih 
 'iflr^atfxw, to 56// : 1 f. t^ocCw, &c. R. from IIPAO, probably from 
 
 irsgau, to transfer. 
 'jVtw, Attic and Poetic thtvco, to fall : 1 f W<fa>, from the an- 
 cient TIETQ ; and erfiffej, p. tfiinrwxa from TITOO ; 2 
 aor. IVstToVj 2 f. m. ^stfoG^ai, as if from ITE2EQ. 
 Xoc^oj, to Ze#^ astray ; 1 f. tfXa^gw, &c, R. from cXayyw : 2 aor. 
 
 gtfXaybv. 
 'Xvjd'Cw. to s/W£e ; 1 f. tfXr/gw, &c. R. exc. 2 aor. p. sVX^y^v ; 
 
 compounds regular throughout, 
 'uvdocvofxaj, to /e«;*w £?/ inquiry ; 1 f. w^uCofxcsti, (poetic tfsu$o^«j), 
 &c. R. from ffsudw ; 2 aor. m. §Vu06fxrv ? perf. pass* 
 
214 ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. § 161 
 
 P. 
 
 §s£w, gf <Sw,. EPrn, to do : 1 f. £ggw and g$w, &c. R. p. m. g'ofya 
 
 for m^yai. 
 |iw, to flow : 1 f. ^sutfw and ^tfw, p. g££u?jxa, &c R. from £ug'w 
 
 2 aor. pass, s^gt^v. 
 grjyvuw, ffiywiM, to &re#& ; 1 f. J^fw, &c. R. from ^tf tfw » (i- e 
 
 PHrn,) s. s. p. m. g^wya ; 2 aor pass, g^wyyjv. 
 gwvvuw, gwvvufxi, to strengthen : 1 f. gwtfw, &c. R. from POQ. 
 
 2. 
 tfSsvvuw, tfSgvvujxi, to extinguish : 1 f. «r§sVw, &c. R. from tf§g'w j 
 
 also p. gtf&jxa, 2 aor. gtf&gv, from 2BHMI. 
 tfxs<5avvuw, tfxs&xwu/xj, tfxi^vaw, tfxf5vKj|xi, to scatter : 1 f. (fxsdatfu^ 
 
 &c. R. from tfxsSaw. 
 tfxs'XXw, to dry wj? : 1 f. tfxsXw, R. also tfxaXTjtfw, p. gVxXtyxa,. (try 
 
 syncope for gVxaX^xa), 1 aor. gtfx^Xa, 2 aor. gCxX^Vj 
 
 fromSKrHMI. 
 tf/xotw, to z^zjoe : 1 f. CjuiTjffw, &c. p. s<fy*Yix&9 from (fy^w, s# s * 
 tfflrgv5w, to wide a libation : 1 f. tftfs/dfw, &c. R. § 6. 6. (o). 
 tfro^svvuw, tfrof g'vvufjii, to spread : If. tf«ro£stfw, &c. R. from 
 
 2T0PEQ. 
 oVf wvvuw, oVjpwvvujuh, to spread : 1 f. GrgCxfu, &c. R. from 
 
 2TP0Q. 
 tf^gfv. See lyw. 
 tfw£w, to sawe : 1 f. tfwtfw, &c. R. exc. 1 aor. pass. sVwdqv instead 
 . of sVwtf^v. 
 
 TV 
 
 TaXocw, to fo#r ; 1 f. tX^Cw, &c. Reg. from the syncopated form 
 
 tXoco), s. si; 2 aor. sVXvjv, from <rX?j^i. 
 Wjuww, to cw£ ; Reg. also 1 fut. r fjwjtfo and t/x^w, from <r/xaw and 
 
 •r/XTjyw ; 2 aor. gVaj&oy and gVjuuavov. 
 TixTw, to foar ; 1 f. rg'gw, &c. R. from TEKO ; 2 aor. gVsxov, p. m. 
 
 Tgroxa. . .. 
 
 <nvw, tivvuWj tivvujulj, to expiate : 1 f. ritfoo, &c. R. from tiw, to 
 
 honour. 
 TirpcLu, firjaivw, tjV^/ju, to 5ore ; 1 f. fgfyfu, &c. R. from rfotco. 
 rirgwrfxa), to wound ; 1 f. t^w(Tw, &c. R. from ^ow. 
 *"£ g 'X w > ^ rww ; * *• ^ £ l w j p. 5g5^a/x'r)xa, &c. R. from APAMEQ ; 
 
 2 aor. sifajuuov, 2 f. m. S^a^ov^ai. 
 ruy^avw, to fo, to obtain : 1 f. Tu^tfw, &c. R. from TTXEH ; 2 
 
 aor. gVu^ov ; 1 fut. m. <rsi%op.ai from tsu^w. JVbto. 
 
 This verb must be carefully distinguished from the 
 
 regular verb. 
 tsvxu, to prepare : 1 f. rs^w, &c. R. 
 
§ 161* ANOMALOUS AND DEFECTIVE VERBS. 215 
 
 vtfrfXyionai, to promise : 1 f. utfotfxVo^ai, &c. R. from TII02- 
 XEOMAI. See s'xw. 
 
 (payo/jiai, pres. m. to eat : also the future for cpayovixou, in the 
 N. T. and later writers by the same anomaly as 
 - sSoixai and irio^on ; 2 aor. scpa^ov. The rest of the 
 tenses are formed from stfQiw, which see. 
 (pao'xw. See cpr^}. 
 1 9egw, to 4ear : used in the pres. and imperf. ; 1 f. otVw, (from 
 OIQ), p § . HNEXA, &C.-R. from ENEKQ ; also, 1 f. 
 ij pass, orfirjtfopai ; 1 aor. actc tysyxu for ^v.^fa, from 
 
 ENErKH, Attice commonly vjvsixtt, &c. ; 2 aor. ^vsy- 
 Ai xov from the same ; p. m. ^vo^a from ENEXfi. 
 
 , r cpTj^/j to s«y ; 1 f. cprfiu ; 2 aor. scpYjv. See § 119, vi. 
 9#avw, to come before, to anticipate : 1 f. (p^atfw or cp^cTw, &c. R. 
 
 from $0AQ, 2 aor. so^v from (p^L 
 9^'vw, to corrupt, to fall : 1 f. 9'diVw, &c. R. from 9'0/w, s. s. ; other 
 
 forms are 
 9$iaow, 9^ivgw and 9&vtMw, used in the pres. and imperf. 
 n9fayvl;w, 9g&yvvfju, to enclose: 1 f. 9fagw, &c. R. from <£PArn, 
 same as p^otcra'w, s. s. 
 9u£w, to ^ee, to /?w£ to fight : 1 f. 91; gw, &c. R. But p. m. tfs- 
 9u£a, formed immediately from the present. Other 
 kindred forms are 
 9uyw and qpeuyo), and it has the derivatives cpv^au and 9u^/xi. 
 9uw, to beget: 1 f. (pvtfw, 1 aor. s^pixfa. But the perf. irscpwa, 
 aor. 2. I9UV, have a passive signification, to #e begot- 
 ten, to be, to become. 
 r cpuojxai and putfo^a/. have the same meaning. 
 
 X. 
 
 X<x? w > p(av5otvcj, to recede, to stand open, to contain : 1 f. x^ u i ^ c * 
 R. from XAfi, (s. s. with KAZH, which see). 2 
 aor. s^okSov and xs'xacJov, p. m. xs'xa&x and xs'xav5a ; 
 derivatives and varieties of form are numerous, for 
 which see Donnegan's Lex. on the word. 
 
 j(aigw, to re/ozce : 1. f. X a f^' &c * R- Also 1 f. x a '£Vw 9 &c. R. 
 from XAIPEQ ; 2 aor. p. s'xaj'iv. 
 
 ^aivw, yk<sv.u, x atfX( *£w, ^ g^ e or 2/#wn •• 1 f. X av< ^> ^ c » &• 
 from x a, ' vw > a derivative from XAfi ; from which also 
 xa£w and x^ w > which see above. 
 
216 INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH. § 162. 
 
 p(s'w, to pour out : 1 f. xeiitfu, ^ c * &• * aor# *X Sua and s'x £a > (by 
 elision for s'xsvtfa, ) hence imperative %IW S x s ^ tw j & 0, 
 infin. x 5a, « 
 
 Xfocw. This verb has five different forms with as many differ- 
 ent significations : 
 
 1 . x?^ w > t° gi vt an oracular response : . Regular. 
 
 2. xi'x^/^', to lend : like frrqfjbj* 
 
 3. x?^> # & necessary : partly like verbs in jxi, (see impers. I 
 
 verbs, § 120.) 
 
 4. xS^^ou, to use : in the contracted tenses takes 09 for aj 
 
 § 107. 12, 
 
 5. ottfo'xf?!, 'it suffices : pi. a^oxjwo'jv, inf. d^oxfffv, &c. 
 Xfwvvuw, x^- vvu f J "'? 1° colour : 1 f, Xi^^i & c * ^ P* P ass « ksx£wC- 
 
 j^wwtJw, x^ vvu i al ) ^° heap j to dam : 1 f. x^^j & c « R« from x ow j 
 s. s. p. pass, xg'xw^aai. 
 
 a 
 
 w<i)sw, fa j?wsA : has the syllabic augment throughout ; thus, 
 imp. £w0Quv, 1 f. w?w and wJVw, Regular from both ; 
 1 f. p. wtf^ctoaj. 
 
 § 162. OF THE INDECLINABLE PARTS OF 
 SPEECH. 
 
 The indeclinable parts of speech, sometimes denominated 
 Particles, are those which suffer no change of form by declen- 
 sion. These are the Adverb, (which includes the Interroga- 
 tion,) the Preposition, and Conjunction, 
 
 
§ 163 5 164, SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS* 217 
 
 § 163. OF THE ADVERB. 
 
 An adverb is a word added to a verb adjective or other adverb 
 to express some circumstance, quality, or manner of their signifi- 
 cation. 
 
 Adverbs may be considered in respect of Signification, Deri- 
 vation , and Comparison. 
 
 § 164. I. OF THE SIGNIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 in respect of signification, adverbs may be arranged in Greek, 
 as they are in Latin and other languages, under the following 
 heads : 
 
 L Adverbs of Place ; comprehending those which signify, 
 1st, Rest in a place. These generally end in Si, &i, ou, r\, 
 
 01, x ov 9 X 7 ? i as > fyS^i *** the field. 
 2d. Motion from a place. These generally end in -to or 
 
 -3s ; as, ay £o0sv, from the field. 
 3d. Motion to a place. These generally end in Ss, tie, £s ; 
 as, aygovSs, to the field. 
 
 Note. These terminations, fo, at, Je, are commonly annexed to the ac- 
 cusative of nouns, on which they seem to have the force of a preposi- 
 ion, 
 
 4th. Motion through or by a place. These are generally fe- 
 minine adjectives in the dative singular, having odw 
 understood ] as, dXX*J, by another way. 
 I. Adverbs of Time ; as, vuv now, tots then, irors some* 
 
 times, &c. 
 J. Adverbs of Quantity ; rfotfov how much, *ok6 mucfi, 
 oXiyov a little, &c. 
 
 4. Adverbs of Quality ; these end in cos ; in <x and y 
 (which are properly datives of the first declension) ; also 
 m kj, i, si, 5gv, <5t)v, Cti, and |. 
 
 5. Adverbs of Manner ; (viz. of action or condition,) includ- 
 ing those which express exhortation, affirmation, negation, 
 granting, forbidding, interrogation, doubt, &c. 
 
 6. Adverbs of Relation ; or such as express circumstan- 
 ces of comparison, resemblance, order, assemblage, separation^ 
 &c, 
 
 19 
 
218 
 
 DERIVATION OF ADVERBS, 
 
 § 165, 
 
 7. Adverbs of Exclamation ; in other languages usually 
 denominated Interjections, (See Obs. 2.) 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Obs. 1. Some adverbs have such an affinity, that beginning 
 with a vowel they are indefinites ; with *ir 9 interrogatives ; 
 with r, redditives or responsives, as follows : 
 
 INDEFINITE. 
 
 , J which way. 
 
 V> Wj \bywhatmeans. 
 r i how far. 
 ^ (for what reason, 
 
 5r£, Sfforc, rjviKa, when. 
 
 Sdtv, bnddev, whence, 
 idt, where. 
 5ffov, how much. 
 otov, after what manner, 
 tedxis, how often. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE. 
 
 m I which way ? 
 *$' ( by what means f 
 { how far ? 
 ' (for what reason ? 
 irdre, irrjviKa, when f 
 trddev, whence t 
 ir60i, where f 
 -rrdoov, how much ? 
 notov, after what manner? 
 icoedKLS) how often ? 
 
 REDDIT1VE. 
 
 t%Ss or ( this way, or 
 rairr h \ by this means >. 
 r i so far. 
 Tl ^' (for that reason* 
 t6ts % Tfjvtica, then. 
 r6dev f thence, 
 t66i, there, 
 tSoov, so muc/i. 
 toiov, after that manner. 
 ToadKtSt SO often. 
 
 Obs. 2. tinder adverbs in Greek are classed those particles 
 of exclamation which express some sudden emotion of the 
 mind, and are, in the grammars of most other languages, de- 
 nominated Interjections* The most common of these are the 
 following, which express 
 
 Rejoicing ; as, is, jCu 
 Grieving ; as, is, w and w. 
 Laughing ; as, a, a. 
 Bewailing; as, ai, oi, id, ororoT. 
 Wishing ; as, ii, sMe. 
 Rejecting ; as, oyjrays. 
 Praising ; as, eTa, suye. 
 
 Condemning ; as, w, <p$v. 
 Admiring ; as, w, €a€ai, *avai. 
 Deriding ; as, is, .«, o. 
 Calling; as, w. 
 Enjoining silence ; as, #, §. 
 Threatening ; as, sai. 
 Raging ; as, efofl 
 
 § 165. 
 
 OF THE FORMATION AND DERIVATION 
 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 A few adverbs in Greek are primitives ; as, vCV, now ; x a P ai i 
 on the ground ; jgiife, yesterday. 
 
 But the greater part are derivatives, and consist of 
 
 I. Such words as are not strictly speaking adverbs, but are 
 so denominated from being sometimes used in an adverbial 
 sense, either by virtue of their signification or by ellipsis, for 
 an adverbial phrase ; of these the following are examples : 
 
 1. The accusative of neuter adjectives ; as, rffokov, roirj&rev ; 
 ff^wra, <ra fffwra, first ; <ra /xaXitfVa, chiefly ; ogv, sharply* 
 
 
$ 165. DERIVATION OP ADVERBS. 219 
 
 2 The oblique cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, 
 
 Gen. ojxou, together; from 6fxo£, united, 
 o'jScLfiov, never ; from ouoafj[,o£, no one. 
 , Dat. x£xXu, around, (i. e. in a circle ;) from xuxXos, a circle. 
 ra^si, swiftly, with swiftness ; from <ra^o£, swiftness. 
 Ace, Ajx^v and dgxafr (sup. xara) from the beginning; 
 from afx^, Me beginning. 
 SUr\ v, as, Zfyte ; from ifa% manner. 
 
 3. Verbs are sometimes used as adverbs ; thus. 
 
 The imperative ; as, 'Ays, 7&, *5e, &c. 
 
 2d aorist active ; as/'OpsXov, wpsXov ; from o^jiXcj. 
 
 The present optative of eljxi ; viz. s/*v. 
 
 Ote. 1 . To these may be added 
 
 1st. nouns compounded with prepositions; as, h vo- 
 
 8uv } out of the way. 
 2d. Prepositions united together ; as, tfagfo, abroad. 
 3d. Prepositions joined with adverbs ; as, sitsira, then. 
 
 II. Such words as have undergone a change of form, and 
 are used only in an adverbial sense. These are so numerous 
 and varied in form and derivation, that a perfect classification 
 cannot be given. The following, as being the most important, 
 may be noticed : viz. 
 
 Adverbs in 
 
 1 . -us, express a circumstance of quality or manner, and are 
 for the most part formed from adjectives by changing -os of the 
 nominative or genitive into us ; as, 91'Xws from (pi'Xos ; (Tupjo- 
 vw£ from tfu(p£uv, gen. <fu<pfovo£. 
 
 2. -i f or -si, express a circumstance of manner, and are gene- 
 rally formed from nouns ; as, avai/xsi, without bloodshed ; aOro- 
 X Sl gh with one's own hand. 
 
 3. ~*i and -rsi are formed from the verbal adjectives in -<ro£ 
 and .<ria$ ; thus, ovo/xocoVj, by name ; dvtSgwri, without sweating. 
 So also those in -^v, (the characteristic of the verb being chang- 
 ed when necessary, according to the laws of Euphony, § 6, 
 2.) ; thus, from /3aros is formed /3a^v, by steps, (from /3au) ; 
 from (fvXkrjtfrog, tfuXX^§5rjv, collectively ; from x£u<m>£, x£u§5*iv, se« 
 cre/Zy, &c. Sometimes the termination -a5rjv is added; as, 
 #flrofa&jv, scattered. 
 
 4. -i<jVj come from verbs in -i£w, derived from nouns signify- 
 ing a nation, party, or class, and signify after the manner^ Ian* 
 
220 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. § 166, 
 
 guage, Szc. of such nation, &c. J as, 'EXXijvitfri, after the manner 
 of the Greeks ; dv^owro&flVi, after the manner of men. 
 
 5. -5ov and -r\8ov are chiefly derived from nouns, and relate 
 generally to external form and character ; as, dysXrjiov, in herds ; 
 /3o<r£u5ov, resembling grapes. 
 
 Note. If derived from verbal adjectives they agree in signification 
 with those in -orjv; as, ava(pavS6v t openly. 
 
 6. Adverbs denoting certain relations of place, are formed by 
 the addition of certain syllables to the words from which they 
 are derived ; viz. In a place is denoted by the terminations 5i r 
 (ft, ou, % oi, x ov an d X 71 j from a place, by -dsv or 4s ; and to a 
 place, by -<5s, -tfs, and -£s. See § 164. 1. 
 
 Exc. Adverbs of place, derived from prepositions, express the 
 relations of in a place and to a place by the termination -w ; thus ? 
 In a place. To a place. From a place. 
 
 avw, fljfiove. dvw, upwards. avu$sv,from above, (from dvd.) 
 xd-7uJ r beloio. x6\<tu, downwards, xar w0sv, from below, (fromxcw-d.) 
 
 § 166. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
 
 1 . Adverbs derived from adjectives compared by -<rs£o£ and 
 -r&Tog, are compared by changing -o$ of these terminations into 
 -Wjp i as, 
 
 tfo<pGJ£, tfocpwrs^w^, tfo(p6j<rd<rw£, from tfopoV. 
 
 2. Adverbs derived from adjectives, compared by -iwv and 
 hrfriff, commonly take the neuter singular of the comparative 
 and neuter plural of the superlative for their comparative and 
 superlative ; thus, 
 
 prftfJC£W£j di (fyfov, aitiyxfaoi, (from ouV^goc;.) 
 
 Note 1. This mode of comparison is also used, though more rarely, 
 for those derived from adjectives compared by -rcpos and -raros ', as, 
 vo(p$s, (TotyuTepov, co<p&Tara, 
 
 Note 2. The accusative neuter of adjectives, both singular and plu- 
 ral, is sometimes used adverbially in all the degrees. To the superla- 
 tive degree the article is frequently prefixed ; as, to irXeiaTov, (sup. Kara.) 
 
 3. Adverbs in -w, formed from prepositions, are compared by 
 adding -rggw and -<rdrw ; as, ccvgj, dvwrefw, dvuraru. So also 
 prepositions which are compared in the sense of adverbs ; as, 
 dire, dtfcorggw. 
 
 Note. Some other adverbs imitate this mode of comparison ; as, iy~ 
 yvs, eyyvTipo), lyyvrdria ; yet as often otherwise ; thus, comp. iyytirspo* 
 and eyyiov, superl. eyyiara* 
 
§ 167, 16S. OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 221 
 
 § 167. INSEPARABLE ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. 
 
 Certain particles, never used by themselves, but prefixed to 
 words by composition, affect the signification of the words with 
 which- they are compounded, as follows : 
 
 1. a (which becomes av before a vowel) has three different 
 significations : 
 
 (1.) It marks privation, (from avsu, without;) as, avu^e^ 
 without water. 
 
 (2,) increase, (from ay av, much ;) as, a^\j\og, much 
 
 wooded. 
 
 (3.) union, (from ct^a, together ;) as, aXo^os, a con- 
 sort. 
 
 2. a£», If i, (3ov, f3fi, 86l, %a, \a, "ki, and sometimes v^ and vi, 
 encrease the signification ; as, <5>jXo£, manifest ; agiSrfkog, very 
 manifest, &c. 
 
 3. vri and vi generally express privation or negation; as 3 v?j- 
 tfios, an infant, from v^ and §Vw, J s^& ; but 
 
 Exc. v>7 sometimes increases the signification ; as, v^uto^ , 
 that flows in a full stream, from vy and yyu. 
 
 4. Sug expresses difficulty, trouble, or misfortune; as, oWfjisvr/s, 
 malevolent ; (JuCtu^sw, J am unhappy. 
 
 Note. The contrary of £d? is &, (which is also found by itself ) It 
 'signifies well or with facility ; as, ftysvfo, benevolent ; thrvx***, 1 am happy. 
 
 § 168, OF THE PREPOSITIONS, 
 
 ... 
 A preposition is an indeclinable part of speech, 
 
 which points out the relation of one thing to ano- 
 ther, and always governs a certain case, 
 
 1 . The primary use of prepositions seems to have been to 
 indicate the relation of one thing to another in respect of place. 
 From this, by a natural and easy analogy, they are used to ex- 
 press similar relations in respect of time. 
 
 2. From their primary and more common use to express cer- 
 tain relations of place and time ; they are also used by analogy 
 and figure to express various other connexions and relations 
 among objects, in all of which, however, the primary and ori« 
 ginal use of the word may easily be traced. 
 
 19* 
 
222 OF THE PREPOSITIONS. § 168. 
 
 8. The various relations of one thing to another in respect 
 of place, may be referred to two classes : the one of which in- 
 volves the idea of motion, the other that of rest These ideas ? 
 variously modified, make up the whole meaning of this class 
 of words ; and while some prepositions are used to express, the 
 idea of motion only, and others that of rest only, some are used 
 to express sometimes the one and sometimes the other. Hence 
 in construction they r#e joined with different cases suited to the 
 relation they express : thus, those which indicate motion from 
 are put with the genitive, as that case usually expresses the 
 idea of origin. Those which indicate motion to are put with 
 the accusative, as expressing that on which, action or motion 
 terminates. And those which indicate rest at, or near an ob- 
 ject, are put with the dative, as the case which expresses that 
 in, on, or with, which any thing rests and remains. The ge- 
 neral idea of motion in a particular direction, or of rest expres- 
 sed by the preposition alone, combines with the idea of the case 
 with which it is joined, and thus furnishes the appropriate 
 meaning of the preposition in its general use ; and if a prepo- 
 sition is put with different cases, its appropriate meaning will 
 be different when joined with one case from what it is when 
 joined with another, because its general meaning is modified 
 by combination with the idea of the case with which it is join- 
 ed. Thus, tfoigci with the genitive commonly signifies from, 
 with the ace. towards, and with the dat. near, by the side of. 
 
 4. It must not be supposed because a preposition is render- 
 ed into English by a great variety of words of different, and 
 sometimes of contrary, signification, that there is a correspond- 
 ing variety in the meaning of the word itself. Indeed, it may 
 be laid down as a principle, that the primary meaning of the 
 preposition is its only meaning as it was used by the Greeks 
 themselves ; and that the necessity there is for rendering it by 
 a variety of words, of different signification in different sen^ 
 tences, arises, not from any diversity of meaning in the word 
 itself, but from the different associations and habits of thought 
 prevailing among those who use a different language. Thus, 
 in Greek, a<p' SWwv /xap^g^aj, literally " to fight from horses ;" a 
 mode of expression never used in English — must be rendered, 
 (C to fight on horseback." Here it would not be correct to 
 say that on is the meaning of the preposition cwro, or that it 
 ever conveyed this idea to the mind of a Greek. Though the 
 idea conveyed in the Greek phrase is precisely conveyed in the 
 translation, yet the habit of thought manifest in the one is diffe- 
 rent from that which appears in the other. In the Greek, the 
 Idea prominent in the mind of the speaker, and properly ex- 
 
 ! 
 
§ 169, OF THE GREEK PREPOSITIONS. 223 
 
 pressed by dwro is, the place from which the fighting is directed. 
 In the English, the prominent idea is the position of the soldier 
 while fighting, no less properly expressed by on, though nearly 
 opposite in meaning to atfo. Thus, different modes of coneetc- 
 ing tJie same idea give rise to a different mode of expressing it ; 
 and hence the variety of terms often used in one language in 
 translating a word whose meaning is but one in another. 
 
 In rendering the Greek prepositions into English, the best 
 rule is not, as has been often done, to ascertain by extensive 
 induction the numerous supposed meanings of the word, and 
 then to select the best for the present purpose. It will, in gene- 
 ral, be found much better to ascertain the one primary meaning 
 of the preposition ; and then, having by means of this found 
 the meaning of the sentence, to render the whole according to 
 the authorized modes of expression in the language. 
 
 With a view to this, in the following list of prepositions the 
 primary and radical meaning is given, as stated by the best 
 authorities ; and examples are added, in which, though a va- 
 riety of translation is proper according to the usage of the Eng- 
 lish language, yet the primary and only meaning of the Greek 
 word may be easily traced. 
 
 It will also appear that different prepositions are joined with 
 the same word to express substantially the same idea ; thus, 
 dtrh S&Vvou and h <5siVvou, after sapper ; irgo <po£ou and tfSfj <po§ov, 
 from fear ; slg 3 apup/ and tfsgi rov$ pvgiovg, about ten thousand. In 
 all such instances, though the general idea is the same, it is 
 yet under the influence of different associations in the mind of 
 the speaker. 
 
 § 169. OF THE GREEK PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 There are eighteen prepositions, properly so 
 called, in the Greek language ; of these, 
 
 Four govern the Genitive only, viz. 'Av<n, 'Atfo, 'Ex 01 'Ef, IXjo, 
 Two govern the Dative only, 'Ev, 2uv. 
 
 Two govern the Accusative only, Efe or 'Es, and 'AvoL 
 Four govern the Gen. and Ace. Anx, Kara, M*ra, 'T^rsf. 
 Sis govern the Gen. Bat. and Ace. 'Ah$ nsf*\ 'E^, Ilaf a, 
 
 H£os, and ir £tfQ 9 
 
224 'AjWp/, WITH THE DATIVE. § 170. 
 
 § 170, 'Aw*;. GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSA- 
 TIVE. 
 
 The primary signification of this preposition (nearly synony- 
 mous with tfS£/), appears to be round 1 round about ; applied first 
 to place, and secondly > in a more general manner, to other ob- 
 jects. It is joined with the genitive and dative, but principally 
 with the accusative. With whatever case it is joined, its mean- 
 ing is nearly the same ; though, when strictly used, the primary 
 meaning may yet be considered as modified by the import of 
 the case, as follows ; viz. 
 
 WITH THE GENITIVE. 
 
 Besides the primary and general meaning round, round about \ 
 it intimates that that which is round another object also pro- 
 ceeds from it, is occasioned by it, or is estimated from or in con- 
 nexion with it ; thus, a/^pi tfoXios oJx&urif, they live round about 
 (near) the city ; viz. as if belonging to it, and proceeding from 
 it, round about in respect of it 
 
 Other variations of meaning with this case, referable to the 
 primary meaning, are the following ; viz. 
 Of, or concerning ; as, afMpt i&fafw ygacpri, a dissertation about 
 or concerning the stars ; as it were, a writing or 
 description round about and proceeding from 
 them, they being its subject ; so, yapsv dpcpi 0swv 
 xaXa, we speak well of the gods. 
 Upon, in addition to ; as, d{upl -rovou 6 ir&vof, toil upon toil ; i. e. 
 toil, round about, succeeding, and emanating from 
 previous toil, like wave succeeding wave when 
 a falling body disturbs the smooth surface of the 
 water. 
 For the sake of, for the love of; as, djuupj $o/§ou, for the love of 
 Apollo ; i. e. doing something concerning, round 
 about Apollo, in a figurative sense, on account 
 of some favour received from him. 
 
 WITH THE DATIVE. 
 
 To the original meaning of round, &c. is added the idea of 
 rest or continuance in, on, or with an object ; as, ajuup' wj^oitfiv i<K- 
 oraTo TSitysoi xaXa, he put the fine armour around (so as to rest 
 and remain upon, or supported by) his shoulders. 
 
 It is also used variously with this case, as follows ; to sig- 
 nify 
 
§ 170, 'A/Xpi, WITH THE ACCUSATIVE, 225 
 
 Of, or concerning" ; as, d^yi y*&xfl ^otfaura sigydQu, let so much 
 have been said concerning the fight ; where the 
 perfect, slfitibu, having a reference to continu- 
 ance of action, corresponds to the idea of continu- 
 ance expressed by the dative. 
 
 Among ; as, 'A/xp/ tf^rtfi irsv&og of wf s, sorrow arose (round about) 
 among them, and remained resting among them. 
 
 After, or' near ; as, 'Ajxp/ 5* ctf' aura] dXXo* s/Vovto, others follow- 
 ed after him, (i. e. kept close about him and fol- 
 lowed his movements). 
 
 Upon ; as, Kd£ba^Xsv dv^^d /card %0ovo£, djx<p? 5' aj' au<r(3 s£#ro, 
 he threw the man upon the ground and sa; 
 down upon him, (covering him, as it were, lound 
 about, and resting upon him). 
 
 For, in defence of; as, 'Ajxcp' 'EXsv^ xoci xTTj^oafi tarti fi#aj^fifl'4ai, 
 to fight/or, (i. e. to continue fighting, as it were, 
 round about) Helen and all her wealth, (as some- 
 thing to which they were resolved to adhere). 
 
 For, on account of ; as, roif\8s dfwp/ ywaixi # oXuv y£ ovov dX^sa 
 tfatf^siv, to suffer woes for a long period, about 
 (on account of) such a woman, (i. e. suffering 
 continued about her and identified with her). 
 
 With 5 as, #e<iragpsvr) djx(p' ovu^sotfiv, pierced wW his talons, 
 (i. e. the thing pierced still remaining r 0wra^ afow* 
 the talons). 
 
 WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 In connexion with the primary meaning, it also conveys the 
 I idea of approximation, or tendency towards an object ; as, \Ayjo- 
 |;jx5v<m *Iof<5dvou «.fX(pi N .|s's0ja, collected a&attf (having advanced 
 I from all parts to) the stream of Jordan. Hence variously, in a 
 I secondary sense ; as, 
 Near, i. e, approximating to, 1st in respect of place ; as, apqi 6b 
 xauXov (pdtf/avov s^afo^yj, the sword was broken 
 somewhere near the hilt ; 2d in respect of time 
 or number ; as, djxp/ <rd i§5q[Jwj}xovra fry], about 
 seventy years, (not precisely, but about and ad- 
 vancing towards that period). df*<pj SslXrjv, 
 against, or towards evening, ysyswjfiivoi d^w 
 rous (Jitf^iXiou^, haiing been (not precisely, but) 
 about two thousand. 
 Df, concerning or belonging to, especially in periphrases ; as, 
 oi dfMpi tyiv flijfav, hunters, (i. e. men aJow/, occu- 
 pied afow£, the chase) . cd djxpi tov tfo'XsfjLcv, what 
 belongs to war. 
 
226 'Avd, with the accusative. § 171. 
 
 Note. These expressions, however, are elliptical, and depend npon a 
 particular use of ap<p\ with the verb efyit or l^co ; thus, appi efyu or %xv, 
 I am busy, occupied, or employed about ; as, dfx^l ravra faav, they were 
 employed about these things ; apf avrovs ijSrj ?x etv > to De now occupied 
 about themselves. Hence the above may be supplied, ol &n<pl r^v 6jpav 
 fores; ra dpfi rbv ir6\epov Svra. See Syntax, Article with the Participle, 
 (} 208, VI. 3d). Also, for a particular usage of afifi and irtpt, with pro- 
 per names, see Syntax of the Article, § 208, VII. Obs. 3. 
 
 In composition this preposition has the general force of 
 about) round about; as, d|ui(pi?dXXeiv, to throw around ; df*pitf€?)- 
 rg?v, to contend/or or about any thing ; (piXov tfoViv a^iirstfoutfa, 
 mihracing her beloved husband ; djxq^ojxos, running rounds 
 whirling ; djfftf&tsftft both, i. e. going round, including each of 
 the two. 
 
 § 171. 'Av(i. ACC. In Poetry, sometimes the DAT. 
 
 The primitive meaning of this preposition is motion upwards. 
 It is opposed in meaning to xard, and carries with it the gene- 
 ral meaning of up, up on, up along ; as, ovd <rov flrorafxov tfXe'sjv, 
 to sail up along the river. This is also manifest in the various 
 Jrindred meanings which it derives from the connexion in which 
 it stands ; thus, 
 
 Over ; as, 'Ava <ra ogy\, over (i. e. up along) the mountains. 
 Through ; as, 'Ava <n}v 'EXXd5a, through (from one point up 
 along to another in, or up and down in) Greece. 
 During ; as, 'Ava <rov g/ov, during life, from the commencement 
 up through successive periods, (life being com- 
 pared to an ascent,) or tracing life back, as it 
 were, up the stream of time to its commence- 
 ment. 
 Among ; as, ava irgbrovg, among the first : i. e. up to, so as to 
 
 be with or among the first. 
 Among, i, e. up and down among ; as, ava va ogsa rfXavdefflai, 
 to wander among the mountains, as it were up 
 along the mountains, and back along the same 
 course. 
 With, i. e. in proccess of; as, ava xf°' vov > w&A time, in process of 
 
 time. 
 In ; as, cd (pgoviwv, ava 0ujxov, revolving these things in the mind ; 
 i. e. bringing them up along the mind, from one 
 faculty as it were to another. 
 It is used in adverbial phrases ; as, ava fxsVov, moderately ; I e 
 up a middle course ; ava xf aros, forcibly, by force. 
 It is also used distributively ; as, dva irivrs, Jive by five, (i. e, 
 
§ 172. 'Ave/, WITH THE GENITIVE, 227 
 
 counting up by fives, or up each five ;) dm f^os, by turns, alter- 
 nately, (up along each part.) 
 
 WITH THE DATIVE. 
 
 In this construction it is sometimes used by the Poets ; it 
 conveys the ideas of elevation and rest ; thus, it signifies 
 Upon ; as, ygoti&Q dm (fxfargtf, upon a golden sceptre. 
 On ; as, svSsi f dm tfxqirrgty Aio$ a/sro£, the eagle sleeps on the 
 
 sceptre of Jove. 
 In ; as, xfutfsais dv' iVtfois, (up) in a golden chariot ; dvd vavtfjv 
 (up) in ships. 
 
 In composition the different shades of meaning which it 
 assumes, accord with, or can easily be traced to, its primary 
 meaning. The chief of these are 
 
 1. Motion upward] as, dvaSaivw, I ascend; (hence dvcwrX&iVj 
 
 to sail from the harbour, because on a level sur- 
 face an object departing, in the perspective ap- 
 pears to move upwards; for the same reason, 
 xccraff^s'siv, to sail into the harbour ;) dvaSs/xvu/xi, 
 J shew, i. e. I hold up to view ; dvajxvVw, / re- 
 mind, I call up to mind ; dvs'^ojxai, I hold up my- 
 self, J endure. 
 
 2. Repetition ; as, dmSiSdtfxu, I teach anew or again, 
 
 3; It encreases the force of the word ; as, dva§oa«, I cry aloud, 
 I send up a cry. 
 
 4. Back ; as, dvaxaXs'w, I call back ; dmir'kiu, I sail back again. 
 Hence it conveys the idea of undoing ; as, irrtif- 
 <fw, I fold; drntfriatiu, I take up the folds, I un- 
 fold. 
 
 Note, dva, with the accent changed, is sometimes \n Homer put for 
 avdoTTjdi ; as, aAV ava fxr)5* in Ktiao, but rise, nor longer lie. Also for &vto- 
 tt\ and avtarqaav ; as, av* 5* 'Odvoatvs, but Ulysses rose* 
 
 § 172. 'Av<n. THE GENITIVE. 
 
 The radical meaning of this preposition seems to have been, 
 " in front of;" and it is constantly used of one thing at rest, tn 
 front of or, set over against another by way of exchange, compa- 
 rison, equivalence, ox preference ; hence its general meaning, /<rr 9 
 or instead of. 
 
 According to the connexion in which it stands, it may be 
 rendered as follows ; viz. 
 
22S 'AffO, WITH THE GENITIVE. § 173. 
 
 For; as, 'O^aXjxfc • civri o<p0aXfAou, an eye for (an equivalent 
 
 for) an eye. 
 Before ; 'Avri jf^jjwtrwv iXs&Acti t^v <5ogdv j^, we ought to 
 choose glory before (i. e. in preference to, or in- 
 stead of) wealth. 
 Instead of; Ei^mj dvri tfoXsfjdou, peace instead of wax. 
 Against ; 'Av<n dv5^o^ IVw, go against (in front of; the man* 
 Equal to ; 'Av^f dvri tfoXXuv, a hero equal to (fit to be set 
 
 against) many. 
 For, in consideration of; 'Avd' &v,for (in consideration of, as an 
 
 equivalent) which things. 
 Upon ; 'Aviag owt dvi'wv, sorrows upon (corresponding to, in ad- 
 dition to) sorrows. 
 In composition it generally retains its primitive significa- 
 tion ; thus, it denotes 
 
 1. Equality; as, dvrMsos, equal to a God, Godlike. 
 
 2. Substitution ; as, Xsuxwv psXttvag avraXagofxai, I will sub- 
 
 stitute black for white (scil. robes.) 
 
 3. Reciprocity ; dvrjp&f jp£», I return in the same measure (I set 
 
 measure against measure.) 
 
 4. Comparison; drnxgivti, I compare (I judge by setting one 
 
 over against another.) 
 
 5. Opposition ; dvnTdtfCw, I draw up against an enemy. 
 
 Obs. This preposition is frequently understood, after verbs of 
 buying and selling ; tfotfou Tig ftgiaddou Svvoltcu to <rr\s 4 H^ag aya\- 
 ixa ; for how much can one buy the statue of Juno '? <5pd;$/%, 
 f&r a drachma. 
 
 § 173. *A«ri. THE GENITIVE. 
 
 This preposition is properly used in reference to an object 
 which before was on, with, or a/, (in contact with) another, (not 
 ?m, nor merely in its near vicinity,) from which it is now sepa- 
 rated. Hence dffo generally expresses the idea of removal, and 
 its primary meaning is from. 
 
 In various connexions it may be rendered as follows : viz. 
 From ; 'A<p?jxg kavrov d*ro <ro£ fr^you, he threw himself from the 
 
 tower. 
 On ; &<p* IWwv j*aj£«r0ai, to fight on (from) horseback. 
 After ; dtfo (Sswrvou, a/iter (from the time of) supper. 
 Against ; 'Airb yvwjuwjs, against (aside from) his opinion* 
 
§ 174. Aid, WITH THE GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 229 
 
 By means of; viyvsv to? agyvzhio f3io7o, he killed by means of 
 
 (from) a silver ball. 
 With ; owro <r<7rou(%, with (proeeding from) zeal. 
 Upon ; &*o \siag £tJv, to live upon (from) plunder. 
 Of, proceeding from ; dy lauroi;, Qf (proceeding from) himself 
 On account of : 6 dmh twv tfoXs/x/wv <p6€os, Fear on account of(\. e. 
 
 proceeding from) the enemy. 
 For ; dtftfrsvovruv aurwv d<iro tffc x a fa> as tfte y believed not 
 
 for (from) joy. 
 Of, belonging to ; oi diro tSjs ,3ouX%$ those 0/ (belonging to, 
 i. e. from) the council, counsellors. So°also 
 "tou tXriQo'ug, Plebeians. 
 cptkotfoyias xw Xoywv, Philosophers and 
 
 Of, (as above) : oi cko J J ^^ er ^ ti . 
 
 7 ' T^ tf<rooc£, Stoics, 
 
 tou irspiwdrov, The Peripatetics. 
 w twv fwx^fjtarwv, Mathematicians. 
 So also the adverbial expressions, d#o rij(ij£,' fortunately ; 
 aTro <f ropar os or ^v^^from memory ; d<?ro yXwtftfi^, rot^a twee. 
 In Composition it denotes 
 
 1. Departure ; as 'Atfsj^ojuuaf, I go away from. 
 
 2. Separation ; as, dMro&aaVsXXw, I place quite asunder (one 
 
 from another.) 
 
 3. Negation ; asj dtfocpYj/xi, I deny, (I say different from, aside 
 
 from.) 
 
 4. Privation ; as, Gwrojxavddvw, I unlearn (I diminish /rm my 
 
 former learning.) 
 
 5. Augmentation ; as, !gs;<5w, I fix, dwrsgsi'Sw, I fix firmly. 
 
 § 174. Aia, GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 This preposition, in its original import signifies through; 
 It indicates motion directed through a certain space or time ; 
 and if the attention be drawn chiefly to the space or medium 
 through which the motion is directed, it will be followed by the 
 genitive ; as, <7rG£Suof>,svoi Sid tolvtvs <?% X^! a S? journeying 
 through this country* 
 
 But if, disregarding the medium, the attention is directed to 
 that to which the motion tends, it will be followed by the accu- 
 sative, and signify on account of. 
 
 I. From the general meaning of Sid with the genitive ap= 
 plied to place and time, it is used to express 
 
 20 
 
230 Aide, with f &e genitive anei accusative. § 174^ 
 
 1 . The instrument by means of which any thing is done, be- 
 ing as it were, the medium through which the effect is produced, 
 and, according to its connexion, maybe variously rendered; 
 thus, 
 
 With ; as, Sta psXavog yj apsiv, to write with (through the means 
 
 of) ink. 
 Of; as, 8f sXecpavrog s'/<5wXa, idols of ivory, (through means of 
 
 ivory as a material.) 
 By means of; as, Sia <rms dysiy, to do a thing by mews of 
 
 (through the agency of) another. 
 
 2. The space passed through whether of place or time* and 
 may be rendered variously, as in the following sentences : 
 
 At ; as, xwf^a* §i<x croXXou, villages placed at considerable dis- 
 tances, the space through from one to another 
 being much. 
 Every ; as, <5idl tfs'vrs fyfasgw] every five days, (five days being the 
 interval through which we come from one point 
 of time to the other.) So 8«x fxougou, after a 
 long time, scil. xfovou. 
 In ; as, Sia /S^a^c'wv sfasTv, to say in (through the medium of ) a 
 few words. 
 It is used in many phrases differently rendered, as the idiom 
 of our language requires, but in all of which the general mean- 
 ing of the word may be readily perceived ; thus, <5idc julv^jwjs <rU 
 Qstfdaij to remind, (to put through one's memory ;) Si* aWiag s'x S|V > 
 to accuse, (to hold by means of an accusation ;) and so of others, 
 for which see Donnegan's Lexicon, " <5iot." 
 
 Aia governing the genitive of a noun with several verbs* 
 such as e%w, Xa^Cavw, t Ms/jtai, ayw, &c. expresses the same 
 thing as the kindred verb of the noun ; thus, St 1 eXtfidog g^w is 
 the same as sXtf ;£w, I hope ; <5*' si^ys sW, the same as Hp^srtt^ 
 he prays, &c. 
 
 11. With the accusative as above, it expresses the tendency 
 of an action or motion to a certain object or end aimed at ; and, 
 as the end is in dne sense the occasion or reason of the action 
 or change, the preposition expresses also the influence of the 
 end as a motive hy which it was produced. Hence it is rendered 
 on account of for the sake of i. e. through the influence of, as a 
 motive. 
 
 1. The accusative chiefly as the end ; thus, to tfafSctcov 5ia 
 q-ov av0gw?rov iyivsro, the sabbath was made for man, i. e. on his 
 account, through the influence of this end operating as a rea- 
 son. 
 
§ 174. Aldt, WITH THE GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 231 
 
 But Siol tou dvdjwtfou in this sentence would mean the sab- 
 bath was made through the instrumentality or agency of man ; 
 5ia 4$ tolvtol 7£a<pw, I write these things on your account. The 
 genitive would signify through your means as an agent. 
 
 2. The accusative chiefly as the cause or occasion ; as, ouxouv 
 svSai^ovsg 6f dya^v xr^tfiv, are they not then happy on account 
 of the possession of good 7 viz. through this possession, as the 
 cause influencing or leading to happiness. Thus used, it may 
 be rendered through means of not, however, as an instrument, 
 which would require the genitive, but as an influencing cause. 
 Thus, tf£oXa€wv t^v ©f axv\v 8ia toutouj, scil. rfgsaQsfg, having pos- 
 sessed himself of Thrace by means of these ministers, not as 
 instruments or agents through whom he effected this, but ow- 
 ing to their negligence allowing him the opportunity to effect 
 it. Dem. for the crown, again referring to the same 8f ovg 
 owravr* dwrwXs-rw, through whom (not as instruments, but owing 
 to whom, as the occasion or cause) all was lost. 
 
 Note. In the early state of the language, it is supposed, before the use 
 of the prepositions was definitely settled, Sid with the accusative some- 
 times had the simple force of Sia with the genitive ; as, vvktu 6i* a^Spo- 
 vh)Vy during the divine night, unless indeed there may be a reference to 
 the influence of the night as conducing to some end. 
 
 In composition 81a, has the force of the particle dis- in Eng- 
 lish, and of dis and trans in Latin, and denotes 
 
 1. Separation; as, Jiatfiraw, I tear asunder, (through the mid? 
 
 die.) 
 
 2. Division ; as, &afASf f£w, I divide into parts, (make separation 
 
 through.) 
 
 3. Arrangement ; as, (WTatfrfw, I dispose or arrange. 
 
 4. Passage through ; as, <5ia*rXsw, I sail through ; I sail over. 
 
 5. Reciprocation; as, Suxkiy^ai, I converse with another, (I 
 
 speak after having passed through an interval 
 
 of silence, i. e. I speak in turn.) 
 6» Opposition or competition ; as, Sidfisiv, to sing by turns, as in 
 
 a contest of music ; also, to sing out of tune, 
 
 (breaking through harrnony.) 
 1, Perseverance ; as, &atfovs'w, I labour perseveringly, I bring to 
 
 perfection, (scil through all opposing obstacles.) 
 
2'32 Efe OR SX, WITH THE ACCUSATIVE, § 175. 
 
 § 175. Efe or k. THE ACCUSATIVE, 
 
 This preposition is directly opposed in meaning to h, and 
 denotes motion to a certain place, so that what is advancing 
 may enter and be within that place. Its primary and general 
 meaning is into, to ; as, ^Xdsv slg <n?v c/ EXXa5a, he came into 
 Greece. It differs from if fog, which is opposed to d«?ro j and 
 with the accusative signifies motion to, so as to he at. As 
 modified by the words with which it stands connected, it may 
 be variously rendered ; as follows. 
 
 To ; as, fasvSopai slg 'Ax^a, I am hastening to (to go into) 
 Achilles ; fyxvoj slg 'Atfo'XXwva, a hymn to (enter- 
 ing into the praises of) Apollo. 
 
 Toward ; as, evvovg slg rov d^ov, well disposed towards (with a 
 mind entering into, and concerning itself about 
 the interests of) the people ; slg gtfrrgf av, towards 
 (so as to enter into) evening. 
 
 Against ; as, afxoe|<r<xvsiv s'ig <nva, to offend against (misconduct^, 
 as it were, entering into and causing a feeling 
 of offence in) any one ; slg rgkriv ^£av, against 
 (entering into) the third day. s 
 
 Among; as* &a§s§X*]f/.svo£ slg MuxsSovug, calumniated among 
 (injurious reports having been made to enter 
 among) the Macedonians. 
 
 Before ; as, xccXa sgya dntscpjivavro slg iravrag, noble deeds have 
 been displayed before all, (have been made ta 
 enter into the vieio of all). 
 
 Concerning ; as, <ra f/iv slg MsSqv&olv, the things concerning (en- 
 tering into the account of) Medusa. 
 
 In respect of; as, iiuwgwg tfs'pux' avqg, tfX^v slg faymig®$ % he is 
 a happy man except in respect of his daughters^ 
 (not entering irjto this subject). 
 
 In ; as, slg §xxkr\<fiav xa&styixai, I sit in the assembly. Note. 
 When thus used the idea of previous entering 
 into is also intimated ; thus, having entered into 2 
 I sit, &c. iragsTvai zg 2agSig, to come to Sardis ; 
 i. e. having come to, to he in Sardis. 
 
 With numerals it signifies, 1st, about ; as, slg <rot)s f*ug*W, 
 about ten thousand ; 2d, it forms the distributives ; as, slg §va — j 
 Svo — Tf s7g, singuli, bini, terni. It is us$d in adverbial expres- 
 sions ; as, slg avaZ — Slg, &c. once, twice, &c. slg <n, koto long ? 
 fig dsi, always ; slg 0X170V, nearly ; slg otfov, as far as ; slg <ro5s ? 
 thus far, to this pass, &&c= 
 
§ 176. Ex OR eg, WITH THE GENITIVE. 233 
 
 In composition it has the general force of into ; as, s/V-xofjt.(£w, 
 J import ; siV-s^o^ai, 1 enter ; sitf-xiirroj, I fall into ; ei<f-bdh$, 
 an entrance. 
 
 When followed by a genitive the accusative is understood ; 
 as, slg 'Affl-sf/.i<$os, (scil. vaov), into the temple of Diana. Some- 
 times the preposition itself is understood ; as, BgysdMv xXitfiV, 
 go to the tent. 
 
 § 176. Ex or Eg, (viz. before a vowel). GENI- 
 ' TIVE. 
 
 This preposition properly denotes motion out of& place. It 
 is often rendered by the same term as owro, but the idea convey- 
 ed is different, the latter denoting motion from a place at which 
 the object moved, previously was ; the former expressing mo- 
 . tion from a place within which it formerly existed ; thus, dm 
 irc>\£u)g,from the city, presupposes only being at, or near it ; but 
 & tfo'Xsws, from the city, presupposes being in it ; and hence 
 the motion expressed by sx may terminate where that express- 
 ed by cko began. Hence it signifies, 
 
 1. Motion from an cbject or number with which the object 
 
 moved was previously so connected as to form a 
 part ; its removal being from within the space 
 previously occupied by the whole ; thus, atottJt 
 fiov lx xjutfou, a cup (made out) of gold ; sx jms- 
 to/xwv, one o/the strangers. 
 
 2. Causation or origin ; as, sx *y$ on^io?, in consequence of the 
 
 vision ; i. e. rising out of the vision, as a cause ■ 
 «rdc s£ 'EXXrjvwv rsi^m, the fortifications built by 
 the Greeks ; i. e. arising out of^ and the effect 
 of their labours. 
 
 3. Change of state ; as, sf st^vrig tfoXs^s/v, out of peace, to make 
 
 war. To these the various uses of this prepo^ 
 sition may readily be reduced ; thus, 
 
 By ; as, 6 Sixaiog sx <iri(j<rsu£ tytisrat, the just shall live by faith ; 
 i. e. in consequence of faith. 
 
 With ; as, sx fttktSi\$ sVi(xs'Xsia$, with all care, proceeding from, 
 or out of it as the origin or source. 
 
 According to ; as, sx twv vo/awv, - according to the laws, (arising 
 
 out of them). Note, sx and d#o are sometimes 
 
 used promiscuously ; thus, lx Ssiirvov and d^Q 
 
 osiVvou, after supper; oi ix t% oVoas and oi ouri, 
 
 20* 
 
£34- Ev, WITH THE DATIVE. § 177. 
 
 *% tfroas, the stoics, those from the stoa ; ovaf ix 
 Aios krlv and affo Aio^/a dream is from Jupiter. 
 
 In composition the primary idea is generally to be observed ; 
 as, hvovg, out of one's wits ; sx&xivw, I go out. But moreover 
 
 1 . It denotes division or separation ; as, ixxgivw, I select. 
 
 2. preeminence ; as, s|o^o^, eminent ; i. e. rising /rom 
 
 among and afoue others. 
 
 3. completion or success, and also intensity ; as, Ixjxav- 
 
 davw, I learn thoroughly ; sxTipay, I honour 
 greatly. 
 
 § 177. Ev. DATIVE. 
 
 This preposition is properly used of a thing at rest in or fttfk 
 lained within certain limits. Its primary application is to place 3 
 and signifies in or within ; as, sv toutw <r<kw, m this place ; iv 
 /8a§uXwvi, m Babylon. In its various applications to time, num- 
 ber, condition, power, and operation, it may be variously render 
 ed ; as follows, 
 
 L Within; as, sv ktfra fypsgoLig oLm&vYjtixovtfi, they die within 
 seven days. 
 During ; as, sv (frrov&xfc, during (within the time of) the 
 truce. 
 2. Among ; as, hog sv jxsX/rais, the ass among (i. e. in the 
 midst of) bees. 
 Before ; as, sv ^agruo'i, Sgfore (i. e. in the midst of) wu% 
 
 nesses. 
 In the power of; as, ovx sv fyoi sV<n, it is not in me ; i. e. 
 in my power ; sv <ro/ soVj, it depends on you ;. i. e. 
 it is in your power. 
 J$y, i. e. By means of; as, sv rourois roTg vqM&fcmQ fj^ brrfte 
 yofbov jx^sW, make no law Jy (in the operation 
 of) these lawgivers ; sv tfsXqvj7, by moonlight ; 
 i. e. in the light of the moom 
 In the case of ; as, sv i^oi ipxti^ bold against (in case of) 
 
 me. 
 With ; as, iv tfiXraig xal dxovrioig Jiaywvf^stf^ai, to fight 
 with (i. e. armed in, or with) shields and darts ; 
 as we say, " armed in mail," the armour being 
 Considered as a covering ; h oVspavois" adorned 
 with (i. e. attired in) chaplets. 
 Jnto ; as, &Mv h 'EXXo^i, to come into (i. e. so as to be 
 in) Greece, 
 
§ 178. 'Etf/, WITH THE GENITIVE. 235 
 
 Out of; as, h xS u<f V tffvsiv, to drink out of (to drink that 
 which is in) gold. 
 It is used in various connexions in which the idiom of the 
 English language requires a different mode of expression from 
 that employed in the Greek, though the proper force of the 
 preposition is still manifest; thus, ^<po§w g//*i, I am afraid ; 
 literally, " I am in fear ;" so h ^5ovj5 sfvai, to please ; sv Sumiiei 
 sJvou, to be able ; £v *by}\) swiftly ; iv ojxoi'w, equally ; Jv votfw, 
 
 Sometimes the word governed by it is understood ; as, sv wSov, 
 viz. olxu, in the shades ; iv Ss Xs'aiva, sup. Qygoig, among the wild 
 beasts vjas a lioness. 
 
 In composition it has the general force of in or among ; as, 
 svoixsw, I dwell in, I inhabit ; svo;xos, an inhabitant. In com- 
 bining with the initial consonant of the word with which it is 
 compounded, it is subject to the rules of euphony, § 6, 6. ; as, 
 Jjw-tfXsxw, sy-xaXsw, sX-Xsi<rw 3 sv-vaiw, &c. 
 
 § 178. 'ErJL GENITIVE, DATIVE, ACCUSATIVE, 
 
 This preposition is more frequently used by the Greek writ- 
 ers, and appears to assume a greater variety of meanings than 
 any other. Its general meaning seems to be motion or rest on 
 ox upon, 
 
 WITH THE GENITIVE, 
 
 It is difficult in most instances to perceive any other reason 
 for its connexion with this case, than merely that the word in 
 the genitive may be viewed as that. from which the relation ex- 
 pressed by hi is estimated, and which may be intimated by 
 the phrase " with regard to," " in respect of." Sometimes, 
 however, the idea of possession or dependence may be perceiv^ 
 ed ; and at any rate with the genitive, it does not express that 
 closeness or continuance of relation which it does with the da- 
 tive, nor that motion to, or tendency towards, an object which 
 it expresses with the accusative. Its general meaning, then, 
 to which almost all varieties of signification with this case may 
 £>e reduced, is on or upon ; as, 
 
 *E*i flgovou ixa&s^sroj He was sitting upon his throne. 
 
 e H rtpaiga xuXi'v5s<rai htt <j% rfaflrs'^s, The ball rolls upon 
 (its place of movement iri respect of) the table. 
 
236 'E«r«, with the dative. § 178. 
 
 Other varieties of meaning, which may be reduced to this 
 
 general idea, are as follows : 
 
 Through ; as, hi ©gaxr£ tytyei, he marched through (i. e. up- 
 on, over the country of) Thrace. 
 
 Of, concerning ; as, hi 4rai5os Xsywv, speaking of (upon the sub- 
 ject of) the child. 
 
 At ; as, hi (fxo«7roiJ Togsusfv, to shoot at (upon) the mark. 
 
 At, near, or beside ; as, spavs'gwtfs iaurov hi <r% daX&tftfYjs <njs Tj« 
 §sfia<Sos. he shewed himself at or near (i. e* upon 
 the shore of) the sea of Tiberias. 
 
 After, next to ; as, xal hi «-ourwv rag raf s»g twv Maxs<56vwv, and 
 after (close upon) these the ranks of the Mace- 
 donians. 
 
 Under, in the time of; as, hi Kfovou, during the life of Saturn, 
 or under, or in the time of Saturn. 
 
 Note. For a variety of other uses of this preposition, with this as well 
 as with the other cases, see Donnegan's Lexicon. 
 
 Obs. 1. 'Eflri with the genitive is frequently used to denote 
 the superintendants or administrators of certain offices ; thus, 
 o» hi rwv suduvwv. The superintendants of accounts, (i. e. those 
 appointed with regard to accounts ;) 6 hi <rou rapeTov (xateflVws) 
 the questor. 
 
 Obs. 2. Like xara and dm with the genitive of numbers, it 
 is used distributively ; as, hi <rsrra£Wv, quaterni, by fours ; s<p' 
 ivoj oiysiv <n?v <ragiv, to lead the battalions (per singulos) in si$,i 
 gle file. 
 
 WITH THE DATIVE. 
 
 This preposition with the dative signifies close upon, connect- 
 ed with the idea of continuance in, upon, or with, which the da- 
 tive usually bears ; as, 
 
 "Exsivro h' ccurw, They lay (and continued) close upon him. 
 5 E(p' vv.iv stfnv, It is in your power, (i. e. it rests upon you.) 
 'E(p' <£, On which condition, (i. e. resting on which.) 
 
 Other varieties of meaning with this case are the following : 
 During ; as, hi toutw, during this time, (i. e. close upon all thi§ 
 
 time.) 
 Besides, in addition to ; as, ha rovrotg, besides these ; i. e. close 
 
 upon, and connected with these things. 
 For ; as, hi tu xsgSei, for (close upon, and connected with) 
 
 gain. 
 After ; as, aXXoi h' aXXoi£, one after (i. e. close upon) another. 
 
§ 178. 'Eflri, WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 237 
 
 With; as, M rotfourw cVfarsu'/xar/, with (close upon and con- 
 tinuing with) so great an army. 
 
 With, against ; as, 1*1 T%U<rti paxetffai, to right with (against, 
 pressing upon) the Trojans. 
 
 Along ; as, &*i irorupti, along the river (keeping close upon the 
 river.) 
 
 Among ; as, hci cpiXoig, among his friends, (i. e. close upon, near 
 to.) 
 
 Over, viz. in authority ; as, £rj rofe itaitfh, over the boys. 
 
 WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 Connected with the accusative, besides the general meaning 
 on or upon, it also conveys the idea of approach or tendency to- 
 wards ; and hence is often rendered to ) towards % &c. as well as 
 upon. 
 
 'AvatfviSrttfoLVTSs itfl rou£, Sffffous, having mounted upon their 
 
 horses. 
 "Irs ouv hi rot oVXa, go then to arms, 
 'Eff' dvai-oX^v, towards the east. 
 
 To these may be referred the following varieties ; as, 
 
 On; as, M <n)v afav, on the ground, (previous motion towards 
 being implied.) 
 
 Under ; as, rqv atoXiv itf laurov tfoifyouf&ou, to bring the city un- 
 der subjection to himself, (more literally upon 
 himself, so that the management of it should 
 rest upon him.) 
 
 In ; as, laurov sV sgoutffav sroi^tfatf^ai, to establish himself in 
 power, (to bring himself to % so as to be upon a 
 place of power.) 
 
 Over, viz. the space of; as, IlXaros l% wv *te7w V Sio tfra&a, 
 having a breadth more than (would extend over 
 or upon) two stadia. Applied in the same way 
 to time? it signifies 
 
 During, or for the space of; as, sSyow r^v y>jv sV/ Sio %£egfl£, 
 they laid waste the country during two days. 
 
 Against, motion towards with hostile intent ; as, <fv<fxeva%srat 
 tfavrus ivfyiiirovs ij>' ^a£, he arms all men 
 against us. 
 
 Note. It is to be observed, that hi sometimes signifies motion towards 
 even when joined with the genitive ; but in that case the motion is al- 
 ways of a friendly kind, and therefore it is not rendered against, but to- 
 wards ; as, anoTr\iovT£s h* oUov, sailing directly towards home, (steering 
 upon home as the object they wish to reach.) 
 
238 Kara, with the genitive. § 179. 
 
 Obs\ 1. With all the cases like xarot, and often promiscuous- 
 ly with it, it is used in adverbial phrases ; as, J< ovo^aro^, by 
 name, (but i<ir* ovo^arj signifies uncle?' pretence ;) sV/ and war' iin- 
 TOfjL^v, briefly ; icp' kxatfrviv and xct0' IxottfTrjv fy/igav, ^az7y ," Iff' 
 dXqflsias, tfn% ; W pnptl, /Ae wfo/g wwwtfA ; £ir' sviau<rw,/0r a year, 
 &c. ; lid tfoXu, falg>; £#' oXiyov^for a little ; iff; Votfouro, thus far, 
 &c. &c. 
 
 Ofo. 2. Sometimes the noun or pronoun is omitted after &n ; 
 thus, &ri <Ss, i. e: tei (5s 9woȣ, moreover ; in addition to these 
 things. 
 
 In composition it retains its usual force, and signifies 
 
 1 . Addition ; as, smSiduixt, I give in addition. 
 
 2. Encrease or augmentation ; as, itf&Smfy causing enereased 
 
 pain, pain upon pain. 
 
 3. Reciprocity ; as, sVi€o>^sia, mutual assistance. 
 
 4. Succession ; as, iiriywopsvoi, those who succeed^ (i. e. come 
 
 upon or after), hence, posterity. 
 
 § 179. KardL GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 It would seem that the primary idea expressed by this pre^ 
 position is that of one object holding a certain course or direc- 
 tion in relation' to another, either as parallel to it, or in a state of 
 approximation* Its signification is properly active. The direc- 
 tion of the action, &c. depends on the previous relative position 
 of the objects, and may be parallel, or perpendicular, or trans- 
 verse, yet so that the general direction is always downward in 
 opposition to that expressed by dvot, which is always upward. 
 The general meaning, then, of the preposition by itself is, down 
 along, (parallel) ; down to, upon, or at, (perpendicular); 
 down through, (transverse). 
 
 with the genitive. 
 
 When it governs the genitive, the import of the preposi- 
 tion combines with the idea of the case, § 220. so that the 
 noun governed indicates, 1st. The origin of the action or mo- 
 tion, or that/rom which at first, or in its progress, it proceeds ; 
 as, /3rj 8s xar' 'OX'jjul^oio xa^vwv, he descended/rom the heights 
 of Olympus ; 2d. the cause of the particular direction express- 
 ed by xara ; as, <ra Saxgva xaratfra^ovra xara <rwv flrsirXwv, the 
 tears trickling down along her robes ; the robes as it were guid* 
 ing or causing the direction of the tears ; 3d. that to which the 
 action or motion tends, and which is in some way the cause of 
 it, or that with reference to tvhich, or about which it exists. Th$ 
 
 i 
 
§ 179. Kara, with the genitive. 239 
 
 meaning' of the preposition here also will be modified by cir- 
 cumstances ; thus, the action or motion proceeding from a hos- 
 tile source will give it the character of opposition, and the pre- 
 position will be rendered against ; as, xar' AiV^ivou 'koyos, a 
 speech against iEschines, directed against him from a hostile 
 source ; if from some other source, it will bear a meaning cor- 
 responding to the nature of the connexion ; as, iyxu^a xuV u/xwv, 
 panegyrics pronounced upon you, (directed to you concerning 
 you as their subject.) To these primary significations almost 
 all the different meanings which it bears with the genitive may 
 easily be reduced, as in the following examples numbered as 
 above. 
 
 1. Down from ; as, JjXXovro xard <rou rsl-^ovg, he leapt (dotan) 
 
 from the wall. 
 
 2. Along; as, -Kara *% bSov } (down) along the road, (the road 
 
 guiding or being the cause of the direction mov- 
 ed.) 
 On ; as, xard ^dovos o^ara nrgug, fixing his eyes (down) on the 
 . ground. 
 
 2. Through ; as, Kad' o'X^ «r% tfSf ix"? ou j (down) through the 
 
 whole region round about ; or, according to No. 
 1, proceeding from one place after another 
 through the whole region. 
 1 . Under ; as, xard j% a«swgfjwrw, I send him under (i. e. down 
 through) the earth (proceeding under from the 
 surface. 
 
 3. Upon ; as, xara *ft& tiVtsjv, to fall (down) upon the ground. 
 3. At ; as, xara <txoto5 rogsusiv, to shoot at a mark ; the arrow 
 
 coming down upon as being aimed at it. 
 3. Before ; as, Kar' o<pdaX|mwv xs'^ut' a^Xus, a mist was spread 
 
 (extended) before his eyes. 
 3. Respecting ; as, IIoXuc; IWjvos ^v xara r% r t fxsTs^g flroXs'wp, 
 
 there was great praise respecting our state. 
 3. By; viz. in swearing ; as, egofxi^w <Ts xard rou ©sou rou £wv- 
 
 n<ro£, I adjure thee % the living God ; I put you 
 to your oath down before the living God, in his 
 presence. 
 { 3. Against ; as, *0 ^ wv jutsr' Jjaou xar' Ijulou sV<n. He that is 
 not with me is against me ; directs his course 
 against me as an enemy. 
 \ Among ; as, xa<rd £v?)twv dv&gkirwv, among mortal men ; i. e* 
 down the race of mortal men from first to last. 
 
240 Kara, with the accusative. § 179, 
 
 WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. * 
 
 When xara is joined with the accusative, the idea of origin 
 &c is neglected, and that of position parallel to or motion down 
 along, or to, alone is expressed. Its meaning is consequently 
 much less varied with the accusative than with the genitive, 
 and generally may be explained by reference to the primitive 
 idea of even with, parallel to, or down to, as in the following 
 examples; viz. 
 Through ; as, Kara tfrfarov svgvv 'A^ai&v, through (even with) 
 
 the extensive army of the Greeks. 
 According to; as, Kara ys rov crov Xoyov, according to (even 
 with, not departing from) thy opinion ; with the 
 genitive it would be against, contrary to thy 
 opinion. So xa<rd r^v dX^siav (not against, but) 
 according to the truth ; xardc <rov nxdrwva, ac- 
 cording to Plato, &c. Hence, 
 In respect of; as, itfous ku^ dfid/xov equal, ira respect of number, 
 (i. e. even with or as far as number is concerned, 
 not departing from the consideration of number.) 
 
 Note. But in this sense the preposition is commonly understood ; as, 
 vz<pe\ri eiXvfiivos (Kara) a>[xovs, covered with a cloud as to, or in respect of, his 
 shoulders; (i. e. even with.) 
 
 In ; as, Kar' &£%*]£, in the beginning, i. e. even with it. 
 
 On ; as, xam tirffiog s§aXs, he struck him on (even with or 
 
 down on,) the breast. 
 By ; as, xard xXi/xaxas xuriSouvov, they went down by (even 
 
 with) ladders. 
 To, near to; as, xardrov irojipw gysvovro, they came near to 
 
 (even with, close up to) the harbour. 
 At ; as, xara <rov rotfov, at (even with) the place. 
 Opposite, over against; -as, xard Ksfxujavj over against (ever) 
 
 with, abreast of) Corcyra. 
 Before ; as, xocrd rovg 6cp&ak^ov^ i before (even with) his eyes. 
 During, applied to time »; as, xard 5s tqv$ auVpOs x£°'v° u S during 
 
 (i. e. down through and even with) these same 
 
 times. 
 
 JVbfr. Kara, in reference to a period of time, represents the computa- 
 tion proceeding forwards, as it were, down the stream of time from a cer- 
 tain point ; ava represents it as proceeding backwards, or, as it were, up 
 tht stream of time from a certain point. 
 
 Kara with the accusative is used to express certain modifl 
 cations of time, place, and relation in an adverbial manner, in J 
 
§ 180. Ifera, WITH THE GENITIVE. 241 
 
 which its primitive signification may be perceived ; as, xara 
 fjLixjov, (scil. f*e'fos) by degrees ; xara <Suvafwv, according to his 
 strength; xar ? ips, as for my part ; ret xur' ipe, my property ; 
 xar' ISiav, privately, apart ; xara x X&;iv, literally. 
 
 It is also used distributively ; as, xtxd' g'va, owe % <we ; xara 
 ^>)va, eyen/ month, monthly ; xar' gVos, word for word. 
 
 In many of these phrases it is used in common with other 
 prepositions ; thus, xara xfaros, and dva xjaVos, by force ; xa0 5 
 saurov, |(p' lavTov, and *r£os lavrov, Ay himself See Donnegan's 
 Lexicon, Kara. 
 
 In Composition, with a verb of motion its usual significa- 
 tion is down; as, §aivw, I go ; xaraSaivw, / descend; €aXXw, I 
 throw; xaraSaXXw, I throw down. It also signifies, 1. Opposi- 
 tion ; as, x£ ivw, I judge, xaraxjivw, I judge against, I condemn. 
 2. It gives additional force to the simple term ; as, <pofri£w, I 
 load, xaraqpogri^u, I load down, I overload ; fjtavdavw, I learn, 
 xara^avdavw, I learn thoroughly. 
 
 Kara, in poetry, sometimes stands before the dative, but in 
 this case it is properly in composition, with a following verb 
 from which it is separated by tmesis ; as, Kara tfixpeortfiv Ugyvu 
 1 (Horn.) for tivysoTtfiv xolt' ssgyvv. 
 
 § ISO. Mwa. GENITIVE, ACCUSATIVE, and, with the 
 Poets, sometimes the DATIVE. 
 
 This preposition represents one thing associated with ano- 
 ther, not so closely as to be considered a part of, or one with it, 
 which is the proper import of <ruv, but as joined in company 
 with it, and has the sense of with. 
 
 I. WITH THE GENITIVE. 
 
 With the genitive this preposition expresses the association 
 of one thing with another, so as to be in some way dependent 
 upon it, or occupying a secondary or dependent station in rela- 
 tion to it, or it intimates participation with another in something 
 common to both ; and hence, with this case its general signifi- 
 cation is " with,' 1 " together with, 11 in the sense described ; as, 
 Ko0>6t?)s oixsrMET' sjxou, modesty dwells with me. 
 'Or' %v ps& 9 TjfAGJv, when he was with us. 
 
 Mcrd 5jxwwv tfJvs xal %<f&\ he drank and ate together, or 
 in common with, his servants . 
 To these primary meanings of the word, when used with the 
 genitive, all others may easily be reduced ; thus, . 
 
 21 
 
242 Msrd f with the accusative. § 183* 
 
 By means of; as, fxsr' &§&qs ngUTsi&v, to excel by means of vir- 
 tue ; i. e. connected with, and dependent on it as 
 the means of excelling". 
 
 According to ; as, perd xaigou, according to (connected with and 
 depending upon) circumstances. 
 
 And, i. e. in conjunction with as an agent ; as, yXatfs roig eva- 
 ysTg KXso t asv^^ jastoL \Ad*jvafwv, Clebmenes and 
 (in conjunction with, and by the aid of) the 
 Athenians, drove out the polluted. 
 
 And, i. e. together with as the object ; as, <n}v 2ra7£i£av cr^otfa- 
 yoLyovtfoL fjisra 9% a5sX(j% dtfs*rsjve, having led 
 forth Statira, she slew her, together with her 
 sister. This example from Plutarch is consi- 
 dered a deviation from the ancient usage. Cor an. 
 
 With, in the sense of against ; as, iisrd Boiwtwv ^oi^ovto, they 
 fought with (shared the battle with) the Boeo- 
 tians. 
 
 Ourot jxsra <rou dfviou tfoXspLyjtfwCi, these shall 
 make war with (against) the lamb. 
 
 With, in the sense of for, or, on the side of; as, perd rmg s/veu, 
 to take part with any one ; i. e. to be with him, 
 on his side. 
 
 Among ; as, jxsrct twv vsx^wv, among, (sharing the same place 
 with) the dead. 
 
 The same meaning of the preposition can easily be perceiv- 
 ed in such phrases as the following : viz. oj jj^r' J/jlou, my ; ol 
 jxst' aurou, Ms; {isrd Smaio#vvYig y justly ; fxsr' .avayx7]^ 3 necessa- 
 rily ; pisrd xoujou, seasonably, &c, 
 
 IT. WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 With the accusative it • seems to represent one thing follow- 
 ing after, or moving towards another before it, (as it were, in 
 order to form a junction with it). Hence its general significa- 
 tion with this case is after, either with respect to place or time ; 
 as, 
 
 • Mht' fluteoug ^Xd~, he came after them. 
 
 SfArc^ov ri fxsrd jxstfyjxgji'av, a te/e a/ifer mid-day. 
 
 In accordance with this it is used to signify 
 
 Next to, or next after ; as, jxst 1 dfwjmova flqXVfcm** nestf <z/?er the 
 valiant son of Peleus ; ov pjXw pj,dXiGVa fASTa ffc, 
 whom I love the most next to you. 
 
 To, towards ; as, psr' dixv^ovag AMui*fya$ §Sv^ he went to the! 
 good Ethiopians ; i. e. he went seeking afte? \ 
 
§ 180* Ms7a 5 WITH 1THE DATIVE* 243 
 
 them, they being before him as the object sought 
 after. 
 
 After, i. e. with a view to bring ; as, *?xo/xsv vsxgovg (xsra, we 
 have come after (it order to fetch) the dead bo- 
 dies. 
 
 Between ; as, Bi'SXov fjusrd x B ~g as sIXim^, having taken the 
 book into or between his hands, (viz. forming one 
 of a series in which one thing comes after ano- 
 ther). 
 
 In ; as, fxsra xkifivv, in a crowd, (as above). 
 
 Note. In the Attic writers it is joined with fyipa in the accusative, in 
 such expressions as the following; jsB* f&iptv, in the day-time; ficrd rpt- 
 ttj* fipipaz'fOii the third day j ovts vvktos, ovre ped* ypipav, neither by night nor 
 by day. 
 
 III. WITH THE DATIVE. 
 
 With the dative it is used by the poets only, and when so 
 used is nearly allied in signification to 2uv or 'Ev, and may be 
 rendered in, with, among ; as, 
 
 syrs ^ (frsgotfriv M-sra x s $' tv s ne ne ^ tne lightning in or between 
 
 his hands. 
 vpoLivs jxsra cpfsc/v, he planned in his mind. 
 yoLirat <5 5 s|Jwovto [X£<ra ifmfis dvgfji-oio, his locks were agitated 
 
 by the blast, (were kept floating with the blast). 
 •perd 8$ rgirowoi<ft avatftfsv, and he now reigned among the third 
 
 (scil. men of the third) generation. 
 
 In composition it signifies : 
 
 1. Participation ; as, ^STOLkap&avsiv rwv xiv&Jvwv, to participate 
 
 in dangers, (i. e. to take or share dangers with 
 another). 
 
 2. Change 5 as, fjisra(Ww, I change my opinion ; i. e. I think 
 
 after having previously thought. 
 
 -3, Reciprocity; as, f*s«-ayysXo£, a -messenger betiveen two 
 parties. 
 
 4, With verbs governing the accusative by the force of /xsrd, 
 it retains its usual signification with the accu- 
 sative, as above; as, f*£ra#s|uwrs<r<>ai, to send 
 after ox for any one ; Sotpiav fj,s<rj'svai, to seek after 
 wisdom. 
 
244 n«|a y WITH THE ACCUSATIVE, § ISL 
 
 § 181. Uot S a. GENITIVE, DATIVE, ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 This preposition primarily regards one thing as placed along- 
 side of another, and with regard to this position indicates mo- 
 tion from it, close to it, or towards it, according to the case with 
 which it is joined* 
 
 WITH THE GENITIVE. 
 
 Its common signification is from? (i. e. from beside) ; as, 
 "Ore tfaj' ^f*wv cwrjjsis, when you departed /row us. 
 Ilaf a tou irarfog ^rajiXaSov, they received/ram their father. 
 
 With this its various other significations harmonize ; as, 
 Of; as, % #a£a toutwv suvokjc, the kindness of (proceeding from) 
 
 these persons* 
 By ; as, xarijyofsiVai tfafdt <rww 'Iou5aJwv, he is accused by the 
 
 Jews, (i. e. the accusation proceeding from the 
 
 Jews), 
 With; as, Tfojtfoifc xcci oitfag' aurou, Jesus and those with, him,, 
 
 (i. e. from beside him). 
 Near ; as, #a£a m o<rapwv <rs tfaeeiai, the cheeks near (from be- 
 side) the temples. 
 From among, above, or in comparison with ; as, itysi $V oyxov* 
 
 *Agyog 'EXXrjvwv irajes, Argos has something to* 
 
 boast above the Grecians. 
 
 WITH THE DATIVE. 
 
 Its common signification is at, with r near, among, connected 
 with the idea of continuance \ as, #a£a v*)u<r/v, close at or beside 
 the ships* 
 
 'AtfqaaXs's k<ri \eysn *af v^Tv t it is not dangerous to speak 
 
 among you. 
 Aenrvtirs ituf fyxiv, sup with us. 
 HagoL /xvyjcVSjftfw, among the suitors. 
 
 'leva* tfaja <r& TiflWaq^gvsi, to go fcesfigfe (to be with) Tissa- 
 phernes. 
 
 WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 Its general signification is motion beside, or to beside, express- 
 ed by to, beyond, beside ; as, 
 
 'AXXot g'Xdwv *aja rav fiaa^v, but coming to the judge. 
 
§ 182. IlSf^ WITH THE GENITIVE, &C. 245 
 
 Haf aurigv tyjv BaSuXwva SsT «agi$vou 9 it is necessary to pass 
 beyond (i. e. to go along side of and beyond) Baby- 
 lon. 
 
 Ilajd to f*si£axiov sxad^sro, he sat down beside the young 
 man. 
 
 In its various other applications with this case, its primary 
 meaning may easily be traced ; thus, 
 
 Through ; as, iraf o'Xov rov 6fov, through one's whole life, (i. e. 
 moving parallel with or along the course of). 
 
 Against ; as, sjflst tfa^dt t^v s/^vtjv, he retains against the terms 
 of peace, (i. e. beside them, passing by them). 
 
 On account of ; as, tfa^a «Jv fyxsrijav a^s'Xsiav, on account of 
 your negligence, (to be laid to, put along side of 
 as its cause). 
 
 In comparison with ; as, tfajot ra aXXa £wa, in comparison with 
 other animals ; i. e. brought beside for compari- 
 son. 
 
 Obs. In the following phrases the force of the preposition 
 may readily be perceived ; viz. tfXrj^v tfctPtx stX-j^v sxar^ov, 
 each a stroke passing a stroke ; i. e. each a stroke alternately ; 
 o tag ijfAgjov nvgerog, the tertian ague, the fever passing one day 
 and recurring the next ; #a£a prijva,- each alternate month, passing 
 one month and recurring the next ; tfajdc tyuifiv, unnatural, con- 
 trary to nature ; tag' wjav, unseasonably ; tfa^dc tfoXu, 5?/ jfar ; 
 i. e./ar beyond, when followed by the accusative ; but followed 
 by 'the genitive, far short of; as, tfctja tfoXu «z% sXcr^oc, far from 
 hope; taiga TotfoOrov, by so much j craj' -oXiyov, 6?/ little; iragoL 
 £»xfov, nearly ; tag oXiycv, [wxgoy, &«c. tfwslb^ai, to think little 
 of: flrapa ffc^va t^Vov, €yery third month ; tag fyus'fav, eta'/y, et'ery 
 
 In composition it retains its general meaning. In accord- 
 ance with this it sometimes expresses 'defect ; as, rfaga€X&rw, I 
 see imperfectly : near equality ; as, flrajo'/xoios, near/y alike. 
 
 § 1S2. HijJ. GENITIVE, DATIVE, AND ACCUSA- 
 TIVE. 
 
 This preposition has nearly the same general meaning with 
 d'jj.91 ; viz. rowmf, rown^ about; the chief difference seems to be, that 
 &ixyi denotes a closer union between the embracing and embrac- 
 ed object than irefi does. It is also used sometimes secondarily , 
 in a sense in which a/x<pi is not used, as will appear below. 
 They are, however^ put with the same cases ; are often put in- 
 
 21* 
 
246 It$gi> WITH THE DATIVE* § 182. 
 
 differently the one for the other ; and hence the same explana* 
 tions will apply to the different uses of this preposition which 
 were given of the examples under dpcpi ; thus, 
 
 WITH THE GENITIVE, 
 
 The general meaning of round about is connected with the 
 idea of origin, cause } <kc. expressed by the genitive of the noun 
 governed. In its primary sense it is hardly ever with this case 
 applied to place. In a secondary sense it is used as follows ; 
 to signify. 
 
 About, i. e. of, or concerning ; as, e fi£ ol pi* irefi wjag jma^ovro, 
 thus these fought about the ship, (the ship being 
 the occasion and object about which they fought). 
 So vs ft twos Xsyeiv, to speak of or concerning any 
 one. 
 With ; as, fwjisv fjpw misTv <*egi -rdySfe, I have nothing to do 
 
 with (i. e. about or concerning) this man. 
 For, i. e. about, in defence of; as, vstf irargiSog iiay^sff&ai, to 
 fight for (as it were, round about 7 in defence of ? 
 and from a regard to the claims of) one's coun- 
 try. 
 Above or before, viz. denoting eminence or superiority ; as, «$fi 
 tfavrwv l'|x|jLgvai aXXwv, to be above (superior to) 
 all others, (probably as that which surrounds is 
 greater than that which is surrounded). So the 
 phrase *sfi tfavros, above alL This usage is al- 
 most peculiar to Homer. 
 
 Note. Willi such genitives as iroXXov, piKpov, vXtterov, oUivos, &c. it h 
 used to express estimation, valuation ; as, rotaoBai rcpl ~e\\ov. to value 
 highly ; rjyeladai irepl fxixpov, to think little of, (i. e. to act or to think about 
 a thing, and from a regard to the great or small advantage conceived 
 to proceed from it.) 
 
 WITH THE DATIVE. 
 
 Besides the primary meaning of rfsfi, there is also, when 
 followed by the dative, the idea of rest or continuance ; as, 
 yjruva crsgi 4?4$tit<fa <ps'g5iv, to wear a coat of mail (close) around 
 (and remaining upon) his breast. 
 
 In a secondary sense, as follows : 
 For, i. e. concerning, on account of; as, iregi xatfy) tfo'Xsj SsSiir 
 
 vai, to be (and continue) in fear for (about) the 
 
 whole city. 
 From; as, irc^i 96&J, from fear, (i. e. remaining, as it were, 
 
 round about, and influenced by fear.) 
 
§ 182. Hsfl, WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 247 
 
 WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 To the general idea of round or about ) it adds that of approach 
 to or iendency towards, as in afx<p< ; thus, nefis'aVijtfs f/iv crav <ro 
 ffrjarsu/xa flrigi <njv tf oXiv, he placed the whole army around the 
 city. To this primary meaning of the word with the accu- 
 sative, the secondary meanings may generally be referred; 
 thus, 
 
 Concerning, or towards ; as, o*ovra< ya£ <rov$ &%agi<frw£ xal irsgi 
 6sov$ av jxaXitfra dpek&g s-^siv, ya - 1 * s £* 7 ovsa »? xa * 
 flrargi^a, xa; cpiXovg, for they think that the un- 
 grateful must be particularly negligent, both 
 concerning (towards) the gods, and parents, and 
 country, and friends. 
 About, i. e. near to, advancing towards ; as, itegi <rourov$ <ro\}$ 
 Xfovous, about (near to and verging towards) this 
 time ; irspi cfifl^iXious, about (not precisely but 
 nearly) three thousand. 
 About, i. e. with regard to, and may be rendered in, of, against ) 
 &c. according to the connexion ; as, flfoviggos *sgi 
 <n, wicked in (with regard to) any thing ; sga- 
 papravsiv *fcjj nva, to offend against (in regard 
 to) any one ] #fefi <r^\sysiv, to speak of (about) 
 any thing ; ifsgl <n slvat or s^siv, to be occupied 
 about any thing ; see diupi with the ace. Note, 
 Also, for particular usage in construction with 
 proper names, see references there made. 
 Obs. From the similarity between dpepi and vrsgi, they are 
 sometimes used together, apparently as a tautology, but really 
 to encrease the force of the expression ; as we would say round 
 and round-, i. e. every where around ; or, as is really contained 
 in the common expression round about ; thus, dpyi *$$ xjtjv^v, 
 every where around the fountain. 
 
 In composition, 1st. It generally retains the sense of round 
 about, with its kindred shades of meaning ; as, tfejigaXXw, I 
 throw around ; srsgiaif Iw* I take away what is round about ; crf- 
 gwtgyugow, I silver over ; tfsgrei'o&r, I view round, i. e. I contemplate. 
 2d. With many words it strengthens the signification ; as, <irs- 
 gisjyos, performing an action with great care and diligence, (being 
 round it, as it were, on all sides, leaving nothing undone y #£- 
 giaXy^, deeply afflicted ; tfSPiovtfia, abundance, dec. 
 
248 Il£o, WITH THE GENITIVE. § 183- 
 
 § 183. n^o. GENITIVE. 
 
 This word properly signifies placed before, priority in point of 
 place, but does not, like dvW, imply opposition or comparison. Its 
 primary and general meaning is before ; as, tfgo tfug wv, before the 
 doors ; hence it is used to signify 
 
 1. Before, in the presence of; as, tf£o rou SaefiXiwf, ifi/frrd (in pre- 
 
 sence of) the king ; hence 
 
 a. At the command of ; as, A&kium irfo avaxrog, to labour at 
 
 the command of the king ; i, e. before the king 
 commanding. 
 
 b. through ; as, irgb <po€ou, through fear ; i. e. as it were, before 
 
 fear, in the presence of it ; as a motive or cause. 
 
 c. For, in defence of ; as, *rgo rwv iSiuv fxa^srai, he fights for 
 
 (i. e. placed before to defend) his own. 
 
 d. For, for the advantage of; as, .nrgb cpiXou tfoisiv, to do for a 
 
 friend, (as it were, before, or in presence of,) and 
 with a view to his interest ; tgb tfou5o£ GuvsTv, to 
 die for his child, (for his interest, so as to^ save 
 him fromMeath) ; hence instead of 
 
 2, Before, in respect of time ; as, *j6 tg£ atoX^ou, before the war. 
 3- Before, in advance of in respect of value or the possession of 
 
 any quality; hence the idea of preference ; as, 
 AToX^aov it go sig^v^g aigs'srai, he chooses war 1 before 
 (or in preference to) peace; 'Exsivw #go tovto-j 
 sxgwvro, they used the former raMer Maw, in pre- 
 ference to, (and hence instead of) the latter ; #go 
 aXXwv, more Maw others. 
 
 In composition it retains its u sual signification ; as, 
 
 ^piriXaioVj a vestibule or porch ; i. e. #<?/bre the door or gate. 
 
 irg&QviMSy zealous, eager, i. e. before; as if impelled by strong 
 desire. 
 
 tf|8^<r)£o/x«J 3 1 fight fo/bre (i. e. another) ; also,/br, or in defence 
 of, another. 
 
 ^o^sjiwrw, I send before. 
 
 With verbs which imply motion either in the agent or ob- 
 ject, it often signifies forth or forward; as, 
 irgo&yu, I lead/orM, i. e. so as to be before. 
 tffos'^xojw, I go or come forth, or forward. 
 TfoxaXgo/Aai, I call/orM, I challenge or* provoke. 
 
 In composition, with the prepositions dtfo, 5ia, and rrsgi : it 
 
§ 184. Tifog, WITH THE GENITIVE. 249 
 
 adds to them the force of its own signification, and the com- 
 pound is used as an adverb ; as, 
 
 dtfoxfojfar of; i. e. away /ram before an object : at a distance. 
 
 Staxfo, through and through, completely through, so as to be 
 before. 
 
 &r**£o, on before, more forward, on to the end. 
 
 § 184. n^. GENITIVE, DATIVE, ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 This preposition properly signifies transition or passage in ge- 
 neral, and of course always depends upon the case with which 
 it is put for its appropriate rendering ; thus, 
 
 WITH THE GENITIVE. 
 
 It indicates transition or passage from, and is properly ren- 
 dered from, by, denoting the agent ; as, 
 
 #g os av<$|o£ fa for' ySixjipsvri, she perceived that she was injured 
 by (the injury proceeding/rom) her husband. 
 
 To this general meaning corresponds its various applications 
 
 with the genitive ; thus, 
 
 Belonging to, or the property of ; as, rffog avSgbg tfovpou itfri, it is 
 the part of (i. e. it proceeds from) a wise man. 
 
 Of ; as, *i% dufAou, of (i. e. proceeding from) his free will, cor- 
 dially.^ 
 
 On the side of; as, sfvai tfgog <rw%, to be on any one's side, (as if 
 proceeding from, as an agent, to act for or to 
 the advantage of.) Hence the common expres- 
 sions tff o£ tfar^os, on the father 1 s side, proceeding 
 from, or depending on a father ; irfog f^rgos, on 
 the mother's side ; o) tfos aiparoc;, relations, those 
 proceeding from, depending on, blood ; also tf J o£ 
 tivos efvai, to be an advantage to any one. 
 
 By, viz. in oaths and supplications, as if from before, in the 
 presence of; as, xcu as *%og <rou tfou rg'xvou xai dswv 
 ixvoupai, and I conjure you by (as if from before, 
 in the presence of, or from a regard for) your 
 son, and by the gods, 
 fore : as, fiaPTvf 01 gWwv irgog rs Qs&v fxaxagwv, let them be wit- 
 nesses from before (in the presence of) the happy 
 Gods. 
 Obs. Like M, so vghs sometimes takes the genitive when it 
 
250 HfoS, WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. § 184. 
 
 signifies to or towards ; but yet, so that the motive or exciting 
 cause of approach proceeds from the object moved towards ; 
 as, igstpvye yufxv^ irgog cwv "EXX'/jvwv, she fled naked to the 
 Greeks, (viz. influenced by the protection proceeding from 
 them.) 
 
 WITH THE DATIVE. 
 
 It represents a thing as already brought to, or placed before 
 another, so as to continue and communicate with it. and its 
 common signification is close to, near ; as, 
 
 'Atftfioesirglg <ro7g tipoig outfai, the shields being close to the 
 
 shoulders. 
 Bw/x£ cr£o£ 6eoSpr)Tu irirvsT, he falls near the altar built by the 
 
 Gods! 
 Other varities of meaning referable to this, are the following ; 
 viz. 
 
 Besides^ in addition to ; as, tfgls.rovroi^ in addition to these things 
 (i. e. brought to^ joined to, and remaining with) . 
 Before, i. e. remaining before ; as, tfgog roTg x^irafe, with or be- 
 fore the judges. 
 Occupied or busy with ; as, yiWdai itglg roTg %g&yp&(fi } to be 
 occupied ■ with business, (i. e. to be close to, and 
 remain with.) 
 
 WITH THE ACCUSATIVE, 
 
 It indicates motion towards, and may generally be rendered 
 to or towards, against ; as, 
 
 tol oVXoc tfgos 7}^ag xo/xitfaTS, bring the arms to us. 
 s^wgouv itglg 7r\v 2uxtjv oi 'Adijvaibi, the Athenians went against 
 Syca (i. e. towards Syca in a hostile manner.) 
 
 This general meaning may readily be traced in other appli- 
 cations of the term ; thus, 
 
 According to ; as, ou tfgos <roi)$ 6p8rigto>$ Xo'you£, not according to 
 your words (not coming before your words as a 
 pattern.) 
 
 With ; as, tixortsTafc Sri tfgbg l\wg au<n>u£, consider with your- 
 selves (bringing the subject to yourselves.) 
 
 In comparison of ; as, grgig to psyzbog rr t g Kakswg, in comparison 
 with the size of the city (bringing it to the city 
 to compare with it.) 
 
 Obs. With the accusative also, it is used in adverbial phra- 
 ses, in all of which its general meaning, as illustrated, above^ is 
 
§ 185. 2&N WITH THE DATIVE. 251 
 
 manifest; as, nrglg XH IV ) on acc °unl of; tfjo^Xo'/ov, with regard 
 to the matter ; rfpQ$ to €s'XTi<j'Tov,ybr the best ; tfgcg ov<5sv, on no ac- 
 count ; <7rgo£ ravTdy on this account, accordingly, &c. 
 
 In Composition it follows its usual signification, and inti- 
 mates v 
 
 1. Motion to ; as, tfgotfxaXeojxai, I call to me, tffoaVXsw, / sail 
 
 towards. 
 
 2. Addition ; as, ^ oc5»5wjxi, I give besides or iw addition to. 
 
 3. Against ; as, tfjooVraiw, I stumble against. 
 
 4. Close to, as, *£ otfdWXXw, I jt?w£ on a garment making it fit 
 
 closely round the body. 
 
 § 185. 2iv. THE DATIVE, 
 
 This preposition conveys the idea of one thing closely con- 
 nected with another, so as in some sense to form one with it. 
 In this it is distinguished from jx&rct, which expresses a looser 
 connexion, signifying merely in company with. Its primary 
 and prevailing signification is with, together with ; as, (3atfi'ksv£ 
 tfuv tw tfrgarsufjiari, the king with his army. It may be va- 
 riously rendered in different connexions ; thus, 
 According to ; as, tfuv rw vo'jxw, according to (with the) law, 
 Beside ; as, tfuv tfatfi rovroig, besides (together with) all these. 
 With the assistance of; as, cuv 0sw rfs^aCw, iwVA God's assis- 
 tance I will endeavour. 
 At, During ; as, tfuv <rw fciVvsiv, a* supper ; tfuv <rw ^i^rv, ctf tfAe 
 ^«26 0/", or during the drinking ; i. e. at the same 
 . time with it. 
 To ; as, rtogsitftipai <fvv r£ dcywvi, I will go to (i. e. so as to be 
 
 with and engaged in) the contest. 
 On the side of; as, tfuv toIs "EXXyjCj, on the side of (with, in the 
 same interest with) the Greeks. 
 Like others, it is frequently rendered by a mode of expression 
 different from the Greek ; as, oi <fuv aurw, those with him, i. e. his 
 companions ; so, tfuv xotfjxw, elegantly ; tfuv (poSti, timidly ; tfvv t£ 
 X£o'vcj, in time. 
 
 In composition its primary force is generally manifest, yet it 
 is modified according to the nature of the word with which it is 
 qompounded, so as to express 
 
 1. ^Concurrence in action ; as ftjfHravg'u, I labour along with 
 (another). 
 
252 "TffSf, WITH THE GENITIVE. §186. 
 
 2. Association ; as, tfiSvsijxi, I associate with. 
 
 3. Combination ; as, tfvfjurXg'xw, I entwine, or interweave. 
 
 4. Collection ; as, (fviwigu, I bring together, I collect. 
 
 5. Completion or fulfilment ; as, Cufx-jrXijjow, I fill up, I com- 
 
 plete. 
 
 6. Collision ; as, tfujxtfXrjfltfw, I dash together ; Cu/jiSaXXw, I 
 
 bring together in hostility. 
 
 7. Sometimes it strengthens the meaning of the verb ; as, tfuy- 
 
 xoVrw, I break to pieces. 
 2uv is frequently understood, especially after Sfxa, and per- 
 haps also, before the dative of the instrument. 
 
 § 186. f T«r!{. GENITIVE AND ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 The primary signification of this preposition is over or above* 
 and it intimates that one thing is higher than, or over another, in 
 respect of place ; and hence also, figuratively, in respect of pow- 
 er, authority, protection, &c. 
 
 WITH THE GENITIVE. 
 
 With the genitive it intimates that the relation expressed by 
 the preposition, whether literal or figurative, has its origin or 
 cause in some way in the word thus governed. With respect 
 to place, it signifies above, i. e. in a state of rest ; over, i. e. in a 
 state of motion ; as, 
 
 $4»ou b*eg ji*"fi high above the earth (in respect of, reckoning 
 from.) 
 
 5 JjXios unrig Tjfxwv xou. rwv oVsyCv tfofeuo/xsvos, the sun advanc- 
 ing over us and our habitations, (these being 
 points from which, or in relation to which his 
 course is estimated, and hence the genitive.) 
 
 Used figuratively it has various significations, in all of which 
 
 the primary idea is manifest, as follows : 
 
 For, viz. in defence of ; as, forsf tfou jxajfojxai, I fight for you 
 (i. e. as it were fighting over you for your protec- 
 tion, and from regard to 'you. ) e O Geog i*lg 
 fyxwv sfai, God is for us ; i. e. over us, as a pro- 
 tector, and from a regard to our safety. 
 
 For, viz. in the place of ; as, v*e.g Cou SiaxweT, he serves in room 
 of thee ; i. e. coming over and occupying the 
 place left by you, and, that either from a regard j 
 to your interest or by your authority. So 
 
 I 
 
§ 186. '¥«-££, WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 253 
 
 5frjar*iysiv fasf uj*wv Tr /% ^ 'Ad/^c, to be general for 
 you in Asia ; i. e. in your stead, or in your defence 
 or behalf, and from a regard to your interest or 
 authority ; tosg fyxwv d<7rs'6av$, he died for us, viz. 
 in our stead, and from regard to our benefit. 
 
 For, viz. on account of; as, Ssdwoj vifsg <nvo£, to fear for (or, 
 on account of) any one's safety, (i. e. to place 
 one's self in thought, as it were, over another 
 watching for his safety, and from regard to his 
 welfare.) 
 
 By, for the sake of ; as, A/otto^' forsg Maxajwv, I pray by the 
 Gods, (as it were, bending in supplication over 
 their altars. 
 
 Of, concerning ; as, <r<x Xs/o/xsvot virsf* IxaflVwv, the' things that 
 are mentioned concerning each ; i. e. over each 
 as the subject and motive of the things spoken ; 
 or perhaps concerning, and in defence of each ; 
 in this sense it is nearly allied in meaning to 
 
 WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 With the accusative, the primary meaning of the word is 
 maintained, but not being combined with the idea of origin, 
 &c. as it is before the genitive, it is more simple and less varied 
 in its use, the word in the accusative being merely the object 
 I of the relation. Hence it is rendered over beyond ; as, v<xsp rbv 
 <5o|ulov ^itfTs'outfi, they throw over the house ; sX^wv <5' fasg <r' 'Acfoo- 
 I <7rov, having gone beyond iEsopus, viz. that which is beyond 
 another, being in perspective higher : or, more probably, be- 
 cause to reach that which is beyond, we in idea pass over that 
 i which intervenes. 
 
 The following varieties of its use in figurative language may 
 
 [ be noticed, viz. 
 
 Abore or beyond, i. e. exceeding ; as, u«rsf av^w^ov idW, it is 
 
 above man; i. e. is above, so as not to be within 
 
 the compass of his power ; <ra u#£g *j ( aac; ovdsv 
 
 tffos ripcis, the things above us, (i. e. beyond our 
 
 control) are nothing to us. 
 
 Above, i. e. more than, 1st. In respect of time ; as, vireg ra faga- 
 
 Tsutfifjua srr h beyond the years of military service ; 
 
 Bu<7rsj tov xai£ov, beyond the time, unseasonably. 
 2d. In respect of number ; as, vtsg rstfasgyxovra 
 avfyac;, more than forty men. 3d. Of quantity ; 
 as, utfsf fy/itfv, above the half. 4th. In respect of 
 
 22 
 
254 'TflTO, WITH THE GENITIVE. § 187, 
 
 authority ; as, oux loV* Sov'Kog vireg tov xvgiov auroiJj 
 the servant is not above his lord. 
 Against ; as, vnsg f/ftfov, against destiny ; i. e. over or more than 
 fate decreed. 
 
 In composition it retains its general signification of over, 
 above, for ; thus, u^rsgs^siv, to hold over ; ^s^aysdSai, to fight 
 for something ; inrsga-'yogevsw, to harangue in favour of any one ; 
 virsgaXiog, beyond the sea. Hence also it augments the force of 
 the simple word ; as, vtfsgaytx&oc:, eminently good, i, e. more than 
 simply good ; vtfegaTdsrfdai, to be excessively ashamed, i. e. more 
 than simply ashamed^ 
 
 i 
 
 § 187. "XVo. GENITIVE, DATIVE, ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 The radical meaning of this preposition is under] but' subject 
 to certain modifications of meaning according to the case with 
 which it is joined, and also according to the . nature of the ob j 
 jects related. 
 
 WITH THE GENITIVE. 
 
 It represents a thing under in respect of another, and gene- 
 rally in such a way as to be protected by it, subjected to it, or as 
 the object of some influence or agency proceeding from it ; as, 
 
 'Ttfo yjovog, under the earth. 
 
 Aurov W ovaTog syys'i vugs, he wounded him with a spear un- 
 der (in respect of) the ear. 
 
 This general meaning of under modified as above by the 
 case, may easily be perceived in its various uses with this case 
 as, 
 With ; as ? ibfaSaivfrm u#o Xa^a6wv, coming down with torch- 
 
 es ; i. e. directed by the light proceeding from. 
 By ; as, rvtfrstfQai viro <nvos, to be struck by some one (affected 
 
 by the blow proceeding from). In this way it i| 
 
 generally used with the passive verbs to poiir 
 
 out the agent. 
 By means of; as, iko x^^mog, by means of a herald, (by the el 
 
 feet produced by) ; vvo jtxatfriywv, by meam Oj 
 
 whips, by the influence proceeding from thei 
 
 use. 
 For, on account of; as, u<p' *}<Jovfc Saicgueiv, td Veep for (uftde; 
 
 the influence of) joy* 
 
§ 187. 'Ttfo, WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 255 
 
 WITH THE DATIVE. 
 
 With this case the meaning is simply under, completely under. 
 connected with the idea of continuance ; as, 
 
 Ta xWvou tsxv' I^cjv vfo tfrsgoTg, having its young under its 
 
 wings. 
 Kfu<p<H yaj uat' daVi^, for he was hid wwcter a shield, (i. e. 
 
 was defended by.) 
 
 Hence it is used metaphorically to express subjection under ; 
 as, 
 
 iisro tivi shea, to be or remain under one's authority. 
 too iiocpuTaruj Xsifovi rs^a^svog, brought up wwofer the most 
 wise Chiron. 
 
 From these it varies but little in meaning with this case ; 
 thus, 
 
 By ; as, too xtyuxi, by a herald ; too jxagrutfi, &y witnesses, i. e. 
 under the operation of. 
 'ErsexXsous Qavovrog aSe\(pov X s l $ IIoXuvsixo?, Eteocles being 
 slain by (under) the hand of his brother Poly- 
 nices ; too wxt'i, by (i. e. under) night. 
 
 WITH THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 \ 
 
 With the accusative it expresses the idea of an object in 
 1 motion, proceeding under, or coming up ta the under part of 
 j another, and is commonly rendered under, but with this modifi- 
 cation of the meaning of the word ; as, 
 
 IlPoSara too roc ^u/xara tfPorfyyiisvoL, the sheep being driven 
 
 under the fortifications. 
 'Tffo t^v yfyv Hvui, to go under the earth. 
 
 The other applications of the word vary but little from the 
 i primary meaning ; thus,. 
 
 : To ; as, too *Ikiov yXGs, he came to (under the walls of ) Troy. 
 i Behind ; as, xa; jx/v xareLKgtorst too r*jy &6puv, and he conceals 
 himself behind (having gone under the conceal- 
 ment of) the door. 
 About ; as, fan rov ofdfov, about (or under) day -break. 
 On the eve of; as, too cqv s^tjvtjv, on the eve of peace, (just 
 entering, as it were, under, and feeling the in- 
 fluence of.) 
 Obs. Before the genitive it is often suppressed by ellipsis, 
 especially after passive verbs ; as, yrToitfQui (too) rwv tfufxpoguv, 
 to be overcome by misfortunes 
 
256 OF CONJUNCTIONS. § 188, 
 
 In composition it retains its usual signification. Some- 
 times, however, it imports 
 
 1 . Diminution ; as, utfoygXw, J smile ; ucro^s^co, J moisten a lit- 
 
 tie ; CffoXsuxos, whitish ; forg£u0£o$, reddish, some- 
 what red. » 
 
 2. Privacy ; as, utfotyw, I withdraw privately \ 
 
 3. Beginning ; as, usropocucrxw, 1 begin to shine. 
 
 § 188. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 A Conjunction is an indeclinable part of speech^ 
 which serves to connect words and sentences 
 together. 
 
 Conjunctions, according to their different meanings, are di- 
 vided into different classes, of which the following may be 
 noticed ; viz. 
 
 1 . Connective ; as, xcu, <rs, and ; in poetry, r t 8s, lSs 9 ^fjiv, and ; 
 
 ycal Ss, also, &c. 
 
 2. Disjunctive ; as, *), ^tgi ; in poetry, ^s ; and sometimes ^youv^ 
 
 fjtfou, or. 
 
 3. Concessive ; as, xav, xaiirsg, g; xou, although. 
 
 4. Adversative ; as, dtXXoc, £s, d<ra£, Jw£ ; yg, #£ &as£ ; jjiv, dXX<x 
 
 /xsv, 6w/, /rw/y, indeed ; juusVoi, ye£, &c. 
 
 5. Causatives, which assign a reason for something previously 
 
 said; as, ycL^for ; ha, Sri, oVwg, 6'<pfa, Maf ; w^ 
 waVs, /te, 50 Matf ; ouvsxa, (in poetry) because ; 
 siVsj , siwce indeed ; Bxsi, since, after that. 
 6 Conclusive, or such as are used in drawing a conclusion, or 
 inference from something previously said ; as, 
 ocga, ouv, therefore ; Sio, 6*o*7rs^, wherefore ; Sr h 
 then, truly ; toivuv vu or vuv, therefore ; wyagovv, 
 (emphatic) w her ef ore; ob'xouv, not therefore. 
 
 7. Conditional ; as, el, ctv, lav, ?jv, in poetry, xg or xgv, a/ a/xg, 
 
 «/*; siffS£, if indeed. 
 
 8. Expletive ; as, yg\ tfg v f , to/, |a, 0g\ vu, cou, #w, a£, &c. 
 
 Some remarks on the signification and use of adverbial and 
 conjunctive particles, will be found after Syntax of the Cor> 
 junction. 
 
I 257 
 
 PART II, . 
 
 § 189. SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax is the arrangement or combination of 
 words in sentences or phrases, agreeably to es- 
 tablished usage, or the received rules of Concord 
 and Government. 
 
 A Sentence is a combination of two or more words express- 
 ing any thought of the mind ; as, / write ; He studies grammar. 
 
 Sentences are of two kinds ; Simple, and Complex. 
 
 A sentence is called Simple, when it contains only one sub- 
 ject, concerning which but one thing is affirmed or denied ; as, 
 He reads ; They are good scholars ; You must not be negligent., 
 It is called Complex when it contains two or more simple sen- 
 tences combined ; as, You and I must study ; He both reads and 
 writes ; There is nothing so difficult but it may be accomplished by 
 proper application, 
 
 § 190 OF SIMPLE SENTENCES, 
 
 Every simple sentence ox proposition consists of two parts ; the 
 Subject and the Predicate. 
 
 1. The Subject is that, concerning which any thing is -de- 
 clared, and is either the nominative to a verb, or in the accusa- 
 tive before the infinitive. 
 
 Note. The subject of a verb may eonsist of two or more nouns con- 
 iccted by a conjunction ; and if the predicate can be asserted of them 
 )nly a? united, the sentence is still simple; as, " two and three make five " 
 5ut if the predicate can be asserted of each of them separately, the sen- 
 ence is complex ; as, three and Jive are uneven numbers* 
 
 2. The Predicate is that which is declared respecting the 
 subject ; and is either contained in the verb itself, as, John 
 eads, or, it follows the verb to be, or some other verb of similar 
 mport, which in this case is called the Copula ; as, Time is 
 hort. If it be an active verb, it must have an object, expressed 
 >r implied, on which the action predicated of the subject termi- 
 lates : as, John reads Homer. 
 
 22* 
 
258 or THE PARTS OF SYNTX. § 191, 192, 
 
 On these two parts of a sentence all the others which may 
 be added for amplification depend ; thus, an inordinate desire of 
 admiration, often produces a contemptible levity of deportment. 
 In this simple sentence, the subject, " desire", is amplified and 
 characterised by the other words in the first clause, and the pre- 
 dicate, "produces" by the remaining words in the second. 
 
 § 191. OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 Complex sentences consist of two or more simple sentences 
 connected together, each of which forms a clause or member 
 of the complex sentence. 
 
 When a complex sentence is so framed that the meaning is 
 suspended till the whole be finished, it is called & period; other- 
 wise the sentence is said to be loose. 
 
 Obs. On the readiness with which a complex sentence can 
 be resolved into the simple ones contained in it, and a simple 
 sentence be resolved into its constituent parts, distinguishing 
 the subject and predicate from words and clauses connected 
 with each for modifying their meaning, the quick perception of 
 an author's meaning, and the facility of translating from one 
 language into another, greatly depend. Every sentence, whe- 
 ther simple or compound, is constructed according to certain 
 rules, usually denominated Rules of Syntax ; an accurate and 
 familiar acquaintance with which must be studied by every 
 one who would acquire the knowledge of a foreign language, 
 or even of his own. 
 
 § 192. OF THE PARTS OF SYNTAX. 
 
 The parts of Syntax are commonly reckoned 
 two ; Concord and Government. 
 
 1. Concord is the agreement of one word with 
 another in case, gender, number, ox person. 
 
 2. Government is the power which one word 
 has over another in determining its state. 
 
§ 193, 194, 195. or substantives. 259 
 
 § 193. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX, 
 
 1. In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative 
 (or subject) expressed or understood. 
 
 2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must 
 have a substantive expressed or understood with which it 
 agrees. 
 
 3. Every nominative has its own verb expressed or under- 
 stood. 
 
 4. Every verb (except in the infinitive and participles) has 
 its own nominative expressed or understood. 
 
 5. The genitive expresses possession, origin, &c, and is 
 governed by a noun, a verb, a preposition, or an adverb ; or it is 
 placed as the case absolute with the participle. 
 
 6. The dative expresses acquisition, or tendency towards ; and 
 is governed by adjectives, verbs, and prepositions. It also ex- 
 
 il presses the cause, manner, or instrument. 
 
 7. The accusative expresses the immediate or direct object, 
 i and is governed by an active verb or preposition. 
 
 8. The infinitive mood is governed by a verb, an adjective, or 
 adverbial particle. 
 
 § 194. OF CONCORD. 
 
 Concord is fourfold ; viz. 
 
 1. Of a substantive with a substantive. 
 
 2. Of an adjective with a substantive. 
 
 3. Of a relative with its antecedent. 
 
 4. Of a verb with its nominative (or subject). 
 
 § 195. I. OF A SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUB- 
 STANTIVE. 
 
 In Syntax the personal and relative pronouns, and some- 
 times adjectives, as also the infinitive mood or part of a sen- 
 tence, are used as substantives, and as such come under all 
 the rules for the construction of substantives. 
 
260 SUBSTANTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. §195. 
 
 Rule I. Substantives signifying the same per- 
 son or thing agree in case ; as, 
 
 nauXo£ dtfo(f<ro'ko$, Paul an apostle. 
 
 0scy xf it*!, to God the judge, 
 
 ©sa y\cx.vx£jiH£ 'A^vrj, the blue-eyed goddess Minerva. 
 
 A substantive signifying the same thing with another, is 
 said to be in apposition with it, and is added to express some 
 attribute, description, or appellative belonging to it ; as is manifest 
 in the above examples. 
 
 Ob$. I. One of the substantives is sometimes understood; 
 as, ■•'.".'■■ 
 
 'AtfVuayrjs 6 Kuagaj ou> (sup. iios^Astyages the son of Cyax- 
 ares. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes the substantive in apposition is to be 
 translated as x if connected with the other by the particle ws, as ; 
 thus, 
 
 (pegovrat Ss oi'xofov (fvrov /uusv 7 afrov, they brought from home bread 
 as food. 
 
 Obs 3. When the one substantive is predicated of the other, 
 they are connected by a substantive verb, a verb of gesture, or 
 a "passive verb of naming ; hence the Rule § 218, III. 
 
 Note 1. The predicate after the verb may be a pronoun, adjeetitw, or 
 participle, agreeing with the substantive before it according to Rule U. 
 § 196. 
 
 Note. 2. In this construction fyw in the sense of eI^i, and ukovw in the 
 sense of to be called, have a nominative after them ; as, l^ 1 ^x°h ^ e 
 quiet ; qvk aKova-ofxai kclkos, I shall not be called wicked. 
 
 Obs. 4. The possessive pronoun, being equivalent in signifi- 
 cation to the genitive of the substantive pronoun from which it 
 is formed, requires a substantive in apposition with it to be put 
 in the genitive ; as, 
 
 Aa^j s/xos fy xvvuiriSos, he was the brother-in-law of me a shame- 
 less woman. 
 
 In like manner the pronoun au<ro£ is used in the genitive with 
 the possessive pronoun in any case ; thus, 
 
 vwtcsj ov \i)(os ccurwv, our own bed. 
 
 <r& ipersga aurwv, your own property. 
 
 <r>jv $$iregav aurwv, (scil. X^f av )> their own country. 
 
 Obs. 5. On the same principle, possessive adjectives, formed 
 from proper names, being equivalent to the genitive of their 
 primitives, have a noun in apposition in the genitive ; as, 
 
§ 196. ADJECTIVE WITH A SUESTANT1VE. 261 
 
 Nsfoogij) tfaf a vyjt IL\ikv\ys\ih$ fiatfihriog, near the ship of Nes- 
 tor , a king born at Pylos. 
 
 'AfyvotTog wv, atoXsws ty}$ ^syi^TY\g i being a citizen of Athens^ a 
 very large city. 
 
 So in Latin, mea ipsius culpa, my own fault. 
 
 To this rule the following are exceptions : 
 
 Exc. 1. Sometimes the latter of two substantives signifying 
 the same thing is put in the genitive ; as, 
 
 #oXj£ 'A07ivwv, (for 'AdSjvai), the city of Athens. 
 
 Exc. 2. A substantive put in the same case with another, to 
 Hmit its signification, is not in apposition, but is used as an adjec- 
 tive ; as, e EXXa£ <pwv^, the Greek language. So in English, 
 sea-water, a gold ring, &c. 
 
 § 196. II. OF AN ADJECTIVE WITH A SUB- 
 STANTIVE. 
 
 Rule II. An adjective agrees with its substan- 
 tive in gender, number, and case ; as, 
 
 Xf*|tfTo£ dvrjg Itfn xoivov ctyadov, (x?^ a )> & good man is a com- 
 mon good. 
 
 Obs. 1. This rule is applicable to the article, adjective pro- 
 nouns, and participles, which for convenience may be denomi- 
 nated adjective* words. 
 
 Obs. 2. Other words are sometimes used as adjectives, and 
 consequently fall under this rule ; viz. 
 
 (1.) A substantive which limits the signification of a more 
 general term, see Rule I. Exc. 2. 
 
 (2.) A participle denoting the possession of the object includ- 
 ed in the adjective ; as, aaXXiflVov i<f<ri avSgi tfXourouvflri jtyiavovri, 
 it is highly becoming a man possessing riches and health ; i. e. 
 a rich and healthy man, for crXoutfiw vyisT. On the contrary, an 
 adjective with &if*i is used instead of the corresponding tense of 
 the kindred verb ; thus, s^agvog gtfn for JgagvsfVai, he denies. 
 
 (3.) a. Adverbs preceded by the article which agrees with 
 the substantive are used as adjectives j as, o psra%v to«jto£, the 
 intervening space ; a\ rfs'kag xw/xai, the neighbouring villages ; r\ 
 avcj *6Xi£, the upper city. § 208. VI. 4. 
 
 b. On the contrary, some adjectives are used in the sense of 
 adverbs to express a circumstance of time, place, order, man « 
 
262 ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. § 197, 
 
 ner ; ex. gr. They fell (ayx^™ 01 ) near eac ^ other, for &yyn 
 aXXyjXwv. Jupiter went (x^s) yesterday, for x^'s* — acpixtro 
 SsvrsgaTog — rgiraTog, &c. he came on the second — third day ; for 
 the adverbial phrase rjj dev<riga-?-rf) rgka fypiga. 
 
 (4.) The place of the adjective is sometimes supplied by a 
 substantive governed by a preposition ; as ))5ov^ f*sroc $6gr\g (for 
 hSogog,) exalted pleasure ; 6 psr y svxXs'iag ^avoLTog, (for suxXsifc) a 
 glorious death. 
 
 (5.) A substantive governing another in the genitive, is often 
 put instead of an adjective agreeing with it, to express the 
 quality more strongly ; as, fiaQog yy\g, depth of earth, instead of 
 j3oL&e7cL y% deep earth So v\ vrsgirffcToL rfg xtyiws, abundant grace ; 
 7j dtfracfia tov tfXourou, inconstant riches. (See also § 197, Obs. 7.) 
 
 § 197, OBSBEVATIONS ON THE CONCORD OF THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Obs. 1. Several adjectives may agree with the same substan- 
 tive, even without a conjunction ; as, slg tfoXiv oixoujxg'vqv, sidai- 
 iu>m xai jxeyaXqv, to a city populous, flourishing, and large. But 
 <ttoXu£ with another adjective expressing praise or blame, has 
 always the conjunction ; as, # oXX<x <rs xal xaxd sXsys, he said 
 many bad things. 
 
 Obs. 2. Two or more substantives singular (unless taken 
 separately) have an adjective plural. 
 
 Exc. 1. Not unfrequently, however, the adjective agrees 
 with one of the substantives, and is understood to^he rest; as, 
 alsl yap roi sgis rs <p(Xvj tfoXs^oiVs ^ayaiTS, contention to thee is 
 always delightful, and wars and battles. 
 
 Note 1. If all the substantives be of the same gender, the ad- 
 jective will be of that gender. If of different genders, the adjec- 
 tive generally agrees in gender with the masculine rather than 
 the feminine, and with the feminine rather than the neuter. 
 But if the substantives signify things without life, the adjective 
 is commonly put in the neuter plural. 
 
 Obs. 3. When the substantive to which the adjective refers 
 may be 'easily supplied, it is frequently omitted, and the ad- 
 jective assuming its gender, number, and case, is used as a sub- 
 stantive ; thus, 6 'Afyvouog, the Athenian ; o! Sixouoi, the righteous ; 
 oi xaxoi the wicked. 
 
 Note. Adjectives in ixog are used in the neuter with the arti- 
 cle and without a substantive in two different senses. 
 
§ 197. ADJECTIVE WITH A SUBSTANTIVE. 263 
 
 1. In the singular they express generally a whole ; as, ro 
 ■roXmxov, the citizens ; to itf-rnxov, the cavalry. 
 
 2. In the plural they signify any circumstance which can 
 be determined by the context ; as, <ra T^wixot, Thucyd : the Tro- 
 jan war ; to, 'EXXijvixa, the Grecian history, 
 
 Obs. 4. The adjective, especially when used as a predicate 
 without a substantive, is often put in the neuter gender, xffrP-^i 
 vmyp.cL, £&ov, &c. being understood ; as, y\ irarfig <piX<rarov (xtfr r 
 j*a) fipo-oTg, their country is (a thing) very dear to men ; <pjXo- 
 ^wov stfn oivGgwiros (sc. £wov), man is (an animal) fond of life ; 
 oufe'v and fjwjtJiv are often used in the same way ; as, <rd (pi'Xwv 6* 
 ov84v, the assistance Of friends is nothing (scil. in adversity) . 
 
 Note 1. This construction is common when the adjective, as a predi- 
 cate, refers to the infinitive mood or part of a sentence ; and sometimes, 
 especially if it be a verbal adjective; it is put in the plural ; as, 
 
 XaMrav rb -o.ulv, rbbl KsXevoai paliov, to do is hard, but to command is more 
 
 easy. 
 aovvard fan dirocpvyeiv, it is impossible to escape. 
 
 Note 2. But when the infinitive mood has an accusative before it. a 
 different construction is often used ; ex. gr. the sentence fjp> ahiav rov- 
 tov 6Uai6v fall %x £lv i & i s J UBi & a t he should have the blame, may be ex- 
 pressed thus ; txjv ahiav ovros fiUaids fan s%£iv ; i. e. the accusative before 
 the infinitive is put in the nominative, and the adjective agrees with it. 
 
 Note '3. And sometimes when the infinitive has not an accusative be- 
 fore it, the accusative after the infinitive of the active verb is changed 
 into the nominative, and the adjective made to agree with it; thus. rf]v 
 jiwpedv %dpiros cUaiov fan Tvy%dveiv. it is jusl to obtain a token of favour, 
 may be changed into $ Suped ^aoirog cUaid fan Tvy%dveiv. 
 
 Note 4. Both these modes of construction are especially common with 
 the verbal adjectives in t6g and rhs; thus, ov aj>l w£pio;rr«z i arl f] 'EXAac 
 znoWvjiivtj, or ov <j(pi Ttepio-iTTfav rf\v f EAAd<5a aT:oX\vjj.ivr}v, Greece being in dan- 
 ger is not lo be neglected by them ; more properly however, in the latter 
 construction, rr,v r 2AAa<5a is not the accusative before the infinitive, but is 
 governed directly by Tzspioir-eov. See § 235. Obs. 2. R. II. 
 
 Note 5. Proper names in the singular are often accompanied by the 
 adjectives Trpwroj, -nag, and others in the neuter plural, as predicates or in 
 apposition ; as, Ad^^v Aiyivvriav rd Trpwra, Lampon. the chief of theJEgi- 
 netas ; Tcdvra bn ?}v toZ<ji BapuAcmWi Zunvpos, Zopyros was everything id 
 the Babylonians. 
 
 Note 6. So also the demonstrative pronouns in the neuter singular 
 refer to nouns of any gender which do not express a person. And in 
 the neuter plural, to persons as well as things, and to the singular as 
 Well as to the plural ; as, -rrepl dvhpiag, fa\ Tr6cno av airov (dvSpias) Sf^aco cri- 
 'peadai; concerning manly fortitude, for how much would you consent to 
 be deprived of it ? toIs els ravra i^ajxaprdvovai, who offead against these ; 
 scil. tovs naidas tov$ iavr&y, Kal tus yvvaltcas, their wives ana children, 
 
 Obs. 5. An adjective is often put in a different gender or 
 number from the substantive with which H is connected, tacit- 
 ly referring to its meaning rather than td its form ) or to sojf.e 
 
264 adjective With a substantive. § 197* 
 
 other word synonymous with it, or implied in it ; as, x'fiov xaX- 
 XiVrrj, a most beautiful girl ; w ayads 4*up$, ^ brave soul. Again , 
 M Go, teach all nations (tfavra I'^vrj) baptizing them" (aureus) 
 referring to the meaning of sdvq. 
 
 So also .X7j<rdj£iov flruj siriysgovrag, A band of thieves bringing fire. 
 to dsfov aCrous, 2%e gWs themselves. 
 
 Note 1. On the same principle a collective noun in the singular may 
 have an adjective in the plural, and in the gender of the individuals 
 which form the collection expressed hy the noun ; thus, (3ov\ri fa-u^la* 
 tlxtv—ohK Ayvoovvtes, the council kept peaceable — not being ignorant. So 
 also the relative, § 213. Obs. 2. Exc. I. and the Article, § 207. Ex. 1 and 
 2. So in Latin, maxima pars ab equitibus in flu men acti sunt, 
 
 Note 2. The adjective sometimes refers not to a substantive express- 
 ed, or to one synonymous with it, but to a. substantive implied in, or sug- 
 gested by, some other word in the sentence ; as, 
 
 r tytov altos 6 i k a <r w, ko\ [ji* ovrivd fijai. 
 
 *A\\ov tnnfh-fiZtiv Aavawv 'I 6 ft a yap earai. Iliad, xp. 561. 
 
 J myself will judge, and I think that no one of the Greeks will find 
 fault, for my judgment will be just. Where y l$e?a in the feminine referf 
 to SUrfy included in or suggested by the word SiKdcia. 
 
 Note 3. So also the third personal pronoun, or avrbg used instead of 
 it '. as, ovk iSovKtro 6e apa ans'^Bdveadai rovroig, 7rpdg ovg 5 i s A iy £ r o teat 6id 
 toUto, aiviypaT&fois avrovg irapd^tro koX n\ayiovg f he was not indeed willing to 
 render himself odious to those to whom he addressed his discourses, and 
 therefore he made them (his discourses) obscure and ambiguous. Elian. 
 In this sentence, the pronoun avrovg, as well as the adjectives aivtyuaT&citg 
 and v\ayiovg, refer to 6ia\6yovg implied in the word SieXiyero. 
 
 Obs. 6. But with respect to the sense, or to any other word, 
 the following exceptions to the general rule frequently occur ; 
 viz. 
 
 (1.) The Attic writers, sometimes in the dual number, join 
 a masculine adjective with a feminine noun ; as, tfuvsxf otto's re 
 <ru X*~g s i h e a ^ so clapped his hands ; <rou<rw <rw '/jju^'fa, these two 
 days. 
 
 (2.) An adjective masculine in the superlative degree is 
 sometimes joined to a feminine noun to encrease the force of 
 the superlative ; as, 
 
 ai xo'fai f^sXavrarci, very black pupils. 
 
 ATjrw'ayavwTarov Jyelvaro, she gave birth to Latona, preemi- 
 nently cheerful. 
 
 (3i) A masculine adjective is joined with a feminine noun 
 when the plural is used for the singular, and when a chorus of 
 women speak of themselves ; thus, Medea says of herself, xo.l 
 yaf 7j<5ix7]f/^vo* Hiyrjtfo/m^a, xgeHffpvm vixupivoi, though injured, / 
 will bi silent, yielding to superior powers. 
 
§ 197. ADJECTIVE WITH A. SUBSTANTIVE. 265 
 
 (4.) In general, an adjective in the masculine gender may 
 always be joined with a noun denoting a female, if the atten- 
 tion is drawn to the idea of a person without regard to the sex. 
 (5.) A substantive signifying two, if pat in the dual, may 
 have an adjective plural ; and, vice versa, if put in the plural, 
 may have an adjective dual ; as, 
 
 cpiXag xsgi X s ^ 5 /3aXwjxsv, let us embrace. 
 
 duo p£aCfLa<ra s^of/ivw dXXqXoiv, two successive chas7ns. 
 
 (6.) The adjectives houfrog, aXXog in the singular, are often 
 put with substantives in the plural, to intimate that the objects 
 expressed by them are spoken of individually and distributively ; 
 as, Zsvg Sidwtfi avSgcMfiv 6Vws s^sXtjo'iv skckttuj, Jupiter gives to 
 every man as he pleases ; literally, to men as it pleases him, to 
 each. So in Latin, Quisque pro se queruntur. Liv. 
 
 (7.) A participle connecting a subject and predicate, instead 
 of agreeing with the subject as it usually does, sometimes 
 agrees by attraction with the noun with which it stands in the 
 predicate : as, ' he usually let go, rovs i^sy^ra sfrj/xaf TTjxoVas — 
 lisyi(fr r /]v 6s ouffav (for oVras) §Xa£r]v tfo'Xsw.c, the greatest offenders 
 being {or who are) the greatest injury to the state.'' 
 
 (8.) Plural adjectives, while they agree with their substan- 
 tives in gender and number, sometimes govern them in the 
 genitive case ; as, 
 
 oi ircikoLM twv flroirjrwv, the ancient poets. 
 roTg KoXhoTg avdjwffwvj to many men. 
 
 Note. This construction is also sometimes found among the Attic 
 writers in the singular ; as, SiarpiSuv rbv voXhbv tov %p6vov (for %p6vov). 
 spending much time. All the examples of the genitive under this excep- 
 * tion, however, may be accounted for by supposing that the adjectives 
 have in them the force of a partitive, and so govern the genitive ac- 
 cording to another rule. 
 
 Obs. 7. The adjective, instead of agreeing with its substan- 
 
 ! , tive, is often put in the neuter gender, having the meaning of 
 
 an abstract noun, and governs its substantive in the genitive. 
 
 This is done in ordel* to fix the attention more upon the quality 
 
 than upon the subject ; thus, instead of 6 xgntfrk feog, the good 
 
 God, we may say to ^gnjffTov toy Asgv, the goodness of God; 
 
 ^ 7j Xonrtg fy^sfa, or to Xoitqv t% r^sgag. The abstract noun is 
 
 , used in the same way, § 196. Obs. 2. (5.) 
 
 Note. The adjective thus used is often found without a noun in the 
 i genitive ; as, ™ \ol-ov, the rest. 
 
 Obs. 8. Two adjectives are frequently joined together, one 
 
 23 
 
266 OF THE COMPARATIVE. § 198, 
 
 of which, by expressing negatively the sense of the other, ren- 
 ders it more emphatic ; as, yvwra x' oux d/vwra fi-oi, literally, 
 known and not unknown to me, i. e. well known. 
 
 Obs. 9. Instead of being joined with the substantive in the 
 ordinary way, in order to express greater particularity, the ad- 
 jective is joined to the substantive by the relative and the verb 
 sifAi ; thus, 
 
 civ ^ oaVis afitfros for av?j£ agitfros, ^c 6es£ maw. 
 
 tffoxgn/as oiVsg aXxjjxwrotroi (for ^ous ocXxi^wtoctovs,) having 
 chosen the bravest. 
 
 Note In like manner the adjective is sometimes joined with olog and 
 bcos, for which construction see § 206. 
 
 05s. 10. The construction of verbals in ro's and tsos, as far 
 as it belongs to the rules for Concord, has been noticed Obs. 
 4. Note 4. Their construction, in connexion with the oblique 
 cases, will be considered § 235. Obs 2. Rule I. and II. 
 
 § 198. CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE COM- 
 PARATIVE. 
 
 Obs. 1. The comparative compares two things or proposi- 
 tions with each other. If the substantives compared be joined 
 by yjj than, they are commonly put in the same case j as, ajsio- 
 Civ rftKSP tyTv dvSgotfiv w|xiX?]<ra, I have associated with men braver 
 than you. Or. if a verb can be supplied, the substantive after %' 
 may be in the nominative ; as, <ro7$ wwre'gws *j s/w (scil. s</Xi] 
 •rrapajvw, I encourage those younger than I am. 
 
 Note 1. The conjunction $ is very often omitted, especially after the 
 nominative or accusative, in which case the latter substanstive is put iii 
 the genitive ; as, /*«{&> \6yov, greater than can be expressed ; Kpeiocov lAwi- 
 dos, better than expectation § 226. 
 
 A T o£e2. Yet sometimes jj, and sometimes the preposition ?rpo or avW, is 
 placed before the genitive, and in translating may be considered redun- 
 dant. 
 
 Obs. 2. When a subject is compared with something ex- 
 pressed by the infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, y is follow- 
 ed by that infinitive with or without h$ or uxfre ; as, <ra julsv olxrfia. 
 ^v u,s£w xco«x, vj tifas dvaxXaisiv, my domestic calamities are greater 
 than that I should weep ; i. e. are so great that 1 cannot weep ; vo'tfij- 
 f^a f^sT^ov y\ <p£^siv, a malady too great to bear. Or, the pronoun 
 ouVos in the genitive without >}, follows the comparative, and 
 the clause containing the explanation of the pronoun is sub- 
 
§ 198. OF THE COMPARATIVE, 267 
 
 joined, preceded by % ; as, <n y<xg ccv ysvowo toutoj xaivorsjov, >} 
 Maxstov dv?ip xoLTCLtfoksp&v r^v e EXXa<Sa ; wAa£ can be more strange 
 than this, than a Macedonian loaning against Greece ? Or the 
 pronoun may be omitted. See same passage in Dem. xard 
 ^iXXiV^ou. 
 
 Note. 1. The positive is sometimes used in a comparative sense, and 
 is followed by the infinitive without rj, and generally without tiers; as ? 
 
 dXiyoc crvpBaXuv, too few to fight ; xl/v^pov wots XovcaaOai, too Cold to bathe. 
 
 Note. 2. Sometimes that with which a comparison is made is implied 
 in the adverbial phrase consisting of Kara or rpS?, followed by a noun 
 in the accusative; as, Kpeirruv rig n KaTdavdpwirov, a person more majestic 
 than human. 
 
 Note 3. As the genitive after the comparative is governed by the pre- 
 position Trpo or avrt understood, (Obs. 1. Note 2.) so the object with 
 which another is compared may be governed in different cases by 
 the prepositions hi, zapd, or ~pbg, signifying " in comparison with;" as, 
 oh yap n ffrvyepfi iiri yaaripL Kvvrepov aWo.for nothing is more importunate than 
 ^i. e. in comparison with) a hungry belly. 
 
 Obs. 3. The comparative is often made by joining j^aXXov 
 with the positive of the adjective, and sometimes, for the sake 
 of greater emphasis, even with the comparative ; as, /xaXXov 
 o\£iCiTSgog y more happy, 
 
 Note 1. The proposition after fiaWov, being negative in its sense, is some- 
 times rendered more emphatic by inserting the negative oh after % which 
 must be omitted in translating; thus, paWov n oh, rather than, or much 
 rather than. 
 
 Note 2. On the principle that a comparison made by pSXKov, it\hv, and 
 also by the comparative words hepos, a\Xog, &c imply an opposition, they 
 are sometimes followed by d>Aa in the sense of %; as, 6 -n6\^og ob% #rAwv 
 rb 7rA£ov. aXXii Sandvrjg, a war not more of weapons than of money. 
 
 Note 3. If the positive is followed by a word indicating a comparison, 
 as ^, 7?£-£.o, the adverbs paWov, -\iov, or some other, corresponding to the 
 sense, may be considered as understood; as, fyttaj 6iKaiov £%eiv to erepov 
 Kipag, rj~£p 'AOrjvaiovg, it is just that we (rather) than the Athenians, should 
 have the past of honour. 
 
 Note 4 The neuter gender, both singular and plural, of nXsmv, fxtiwv, 
 and some others, is frequently joined as an epithet with substantives of 
 any gender, number, or case; as, 'i-mrovg ph afsi oh pelov (for (xsiovg), Skt^v 
 gid)v. he will bring not fewer than twenty thousand horse. 
 
 Obs. 4. When one quality is predicated of a subject in a 
 higher degree than another, the adjectives expressing these 
 qualities are both put in the comparative, connected by the par- 
 ticle y ; as, 
 
 ffXoutfi&JTSfos r] tfoqjwrePo?, more rich than wise. 
 
 s*ror/ja'a «ra^-jTSga vj tfocpwrsga, I acted with more precipitation 
 
 than prudence. 
 
 Note 1. A person or thing is compared with itself under different cir- 
 cumstances, by subjoining the reciprocal pronoun in the genitive to the 
 
26S OF THE SUPERLATIVE. § 199. 
 
 comparative degree, accompanied almost uniformly by the pronoun 
 avrbg', as, h &£ Ne7\o± tovtov top %p6vov avrbg Iuvtov j)£ei noWfy hiroScio-Tcpos if 
 tov dipw> the Nile at this t>me (winter) flows with a much lower stream 
 than itaelfin the time of summer. Similar to this are such expressions 
 as Snrhjvios iyiveTo avrbg ioivrov, as great again as he was. 
 
 Note 2. A comparison between two comparatives in different propo- 
 sitions is indicated by the words frrif), To<jovr(a ) connecting them together. 
 See § 206, Obs. 5, and § 252. R. xxxvi. 
 
 Obs. 5. a. The comparative degree is sometimes used in 
 the sense of the superlative ; as, /SsXr i'ou£ rwv tfoXirwv vofxi^siv, 
 to consider them the best of the citizens. 
 
 b. Sometimes it is used independently of comparison, or, at 
 least, when the comparison is not apparent. In such cases it 
 may be rendered by such expressions as " somewhat" " rather" 
 " altogether" " too ;" as, Sxatrt-s'jw olxsopsv, we live at a very con- 
 siderable distance. 
 
 § 199. CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE 
 SUPERLATIVE. 
 
 The superlative degree intimates that the substantive with 
 which it is joined possesses the quality expressed by the adjec- 
 tive, either in the highest degree when compared with others, 
 or, without comparison, as possessing it in a very high degree ; 
 thus, avdfwtfwv x£a-?iaVoc, means the bravest of men ; avGgwiros 
 TcgoLritfros, means a very brave man. 
 
 Obs. 1 . When the class of objects with which a person or 
 thing is compared is expressed, the word expressing it is usu- 
 ally put in the genitive plural, and the superlative takes the 
 number and case of the individual or thing compared, but the 
 gender of the word which it governs in the genitive plural ; as, 
 Sr/.aiQrarog Ksvraujwv, the most just of the Centaurs ; ovguvog yditf- 
 tov (not yStfros) twv dsa^otTwVj Heaven the most pleasing of 
 spectacles. 
 
 Exc. Sometimes the genitive does not mark the class of 
 objects to which the substantive, accompanied by the superla- 
 lative, belongs, but the class of the subjeet of the verb ; thus, 
 A«hWs£ ouXorarov g-f(^w|UL-a s^outfi Travrwv dvdfawrwv, of all men the, 
 ^Ethiopians (of Lybyce) have the softest hair. 
 
 Obs. 2. When the superlative is accompanied, not by the 
 genitive plural of a class of objects, but by the genitive of the 
 reflexive pronoun, it expresses the highest degree of the quality 
 to which the person or thing qualified bv the adjective usually 
 
§ 200. OF THE ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 269 
 
 attains ; as, ol^ty\ aurog lwur% iirl rgiaxotfia Ixcps'fSi, at its very 
 best it produces about three hundred fold, (Herod.) ; aurog aikou 
 Tuy^ocvcj fisXrtfrog wv, he happens to be at his very best. 
 
 Obs. 3. a. Certain particles and adverbial words are often 
 added to the superlative to strengthen its signification. Among 
 these are ttoXXco, iiaxfy, tfoXu, tfoc^owroXu ; also, ^Xs/tfrov, /xaXicVa. 
 In the Ionic poets o^a, i'fjo^a, &sya ; as, <7roXX£5 dtftos'flVarov, 
 much the weakest ; oy£ aPttfrog, eminently the best. 
 
 b. The particles ug, 6Vws, 0V1, ^, are often joined to the su- 
 perlative, sometimes with, and sometimes without, such words 
 as (Suva-Toy, o/ov, i'w, s£ duv0qj.1v, &c. signifying ability, possibility, 
 as the Latin ^wam, quarn potest; thus, w£ ra^iflVa, as quickly as 
 possible ; on xXsTtfrov Xf' vov ' fl5 ^'^ ^ e ^ 5 P oss ^ e > &g <5uvavov 
 (3s\Ti(fToi 9 the best possible. 
 
 c. These particles joined with the positive give it the force 
 of the superlative ; as, w£ xoCkug sg (Wva/xiv for w£ xaXkitfrcn 5uva- 
 
 TOV. 
 
 ^. The numeral sis, joined with a word qualified by a super- 
 lative, also encreases its force : as, sig ocv^p (3-s\ri(frog, a man of 
 all others the best. 
 
 e. The adverb ou or oux, prefixed to a negative adjective in 
 the superlative degree, reverses its signification ; as, ov-% ijxKfra, 
 equivalent to jUiaXitf<ra 7 by all means ; ctv^ ov-% 6 xaxicro^, i. e, 
 dvrjP 6 apitfrog, the best man. 
 
 Obs. 4. When a proportion is stated between two related 
 propositions in a sentence, each of which contains a compara- 
 tive or a superlative, they are connected by the words rotfouVw, 
 otfw : thus, otfw xal psyttfra syxXr^aroi, sypibsv, rotfouVw nrgotfYjxst 
 rfiidig Dux '/jxjtfVa s/Vffv, z£ becomes us most to speak by so much as 
 we have the greatest charges to answer. 
 
 a. But when the proposition with orfw stands last, cctfouVw is 
 understood ; thus the same sentence may be expressed tf£o<rr r 
 xz\ r^oig ov-% rjxitfra siVsiv, oVco xou ixsyufru iyxXrj^ara s^ofxsv. 
 
 b. These connecting words are sometimes omitted, and the 
 two propositions contracted into one ; as, Bgw/ifoa, xgaritfra, 
 the shorter the better. 
 
 §200. CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE AD- 
 JECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Rule. Adjective pronouns agree with their substantives, ex- 
 pressed or understood, in gender, number, and case ; as, 
 (fog mrrtfi thy father ; obrog av^j£, this man. 
 23* 
 
270 OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 201, 202. 
 
 Obs. 1. Most of the adjective pronouns (and the adjectives 
 *&$ and atfag) stand commonly before the article or afterjhe 
 substantive; as, rotkwv tgjv dv<$gwv, of these men; 6 dv^£ ouro£, 
 fte marc ; 5*xtjv Sriw tow-ttjv, Ae suffered this punishment. 
 
 §201. OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE auTog. 
 
 This pronoun has three significations : 
 
 I. In apposition with a personal pronoun, or with a noun, if 
 placed after it, or before its article, it signifies himself herself 
 itself themselves ; as, cturov <rov SatfiXga xrsivai sSouXsto, Ae wished 
 to slay the king himself 
 
 Obs. When it stands as the nominative to a verb, the pro- 
 noun with which it may be considered as in apposition is gene- 
 rally understood. 
 
 II. It is used instead of the third personal pronoun in the ob- 
 lique cases ; but in this signification it can stand only after 
 other words in the same clause ; as, s'5wxsv auroTg ro irvg, he gave 
 them fire, 
 
 III. When it has the article immediately before it, it signifies 
 (£ the same ;" 6 avrhg dv^, the same man. 
 
 Obs. 1. auTcs is sometimes used for ovrog and hzmg ; as, 
 w£ 8' ouVo; syovti <tf% ttutfov$ as the latter are to the former, so, 
 &c. Aristotle, Gr. Maj. vol. I. 292. And also with the ordinal 
 numbers in such expressions as rfe^itTog auros, he the fifth ; 
 i. e. he, with four others. 
 
 Obs. 2. The final vowel of the article is frequently elided 
 before the initial vowel of ocikos, and the r joined with it. The 
 contraction thus formed is distinguished from certain cases of 
 ovrog, by having the smooth breathing ( ' ) over the v ; thus, 
 vd <xu<nx, contracted, is written ravrd. 
 
 § 202. OF TEE OTHER DEMONSTRATIVE PRO- 
 NOUNS. 
 
 These are outoc, this, and bt&Twig, that ; instead of which the ar- 
 ticle o, $j, to, and sometimes, though seldom, the relative o£, »}, 6', 
 (§ 209, II. 2. and Note 1.) with the particles f/iv and Si joined 
 to them, are used in a demonstrative sense, particularly in the 
 distinction and division of subjects ; thus, <rov f/iv iriiia, rov Ss oS, 
 this one he honoured, that one not ; ag f/iv ctvaif wv, slg ag Ss <rou$ 
 
§ 202. OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 271 
 
 tpvyaSxg xarayw, destroying some, (viz. of the cities of Greece) 
 and reinstating the exiles in others. In this sense also, the 
 article, followed by the indeclinable word <5s?va, is frequently 
 used. 
 
 Obs. 1. The demonstrative pronouns, (when not in apposi- 
 tion, see Obs. 4.) are used only when they refer to a noun or 
 pronoun in the proposition going before. 
 
 Obs. 2. When two persons or things are spoken of, olros, o 
 julsv, oc jxsv, this, refer to the latter ; ixsmg, 6 8s, o$ 8s, that, to the 
 former. 
 
 Obs. 3. When the demonstrative pronoun stands alone, or 
 joined to another word with the verb elpi, as the antecedent to 
 a relative in a subsequent clause, the two propositions are- 
 contracted into one by omitting the verb in the first clause and 
 the relative in the second ; the words in the first clause assum- 
 ing the case of the relative. The idiom of our language, how- 
 ever, requires the sentence to be translated in the uncontracted 
 form ; thus, Ns'tfrof ' sfsio, ovriva rourov aysi, enquire at Nestor 
 who this man is whom he conducts ; for otfns ourog stfnv ov ay si ; 
 II. X. 611. — oi'av s"X}5volv ty}vSs stpv&as, what a viper this is which 
 thou hast produced; for oi'a s-^iSva %8s ifoh $v Scpvrfas. (See 
 also § 212. Obs. 2. 4. Note 3.) 
 
 Obs. 4. The demonstrative is frequently used in apposition 
 with a noun or pronoun, or a part of a sentence, in the same 
 proposition. This is done, 1. for the sake of emphasis, or, at 
 the beginning of a sentence, to call the attention more particu- 
 larly to what is to be said ; as, ti <5' sxslm cpojfxsv, rocs irsu&is <rs 
 mi ipuTrufsig, what shall I say as to these things, question and 
 interrogation i Long. «n #o<r' stf<nv auro, »j agsri), what is virtue ? 
 In such cases the pronoun is commonly in the neuter gender. 
 2. If the parts of a sentence immediately related, be separated 
 from each other by intervening clauses, the pronoun being in- 
 troduced in the one part in apposition with the other, brings them 
 
 as it were together ; dXXa 6sovs ys <rovs dsl ovras xoti — - 
 
 roCrovs <po§ou,wsvoi (uuvjts dtfsSis im\8sv xwrfirfrz, but the gods who are 
 eternal, and whose power and inspection extend over all things, 
 and who preserve the harmony and order of the universe free 
 from decay or defect, the greatness and beauty of which is in- 
 explicable fearing these, do nothing wicked. 
 
 Note 1. Sometimes it is put in apposition with the relative, as in the 
 following sentence, which also contains an example of apposition with 
 a distant noun, which noun is again repeated with the pronoun ; Aa* 
 
 pt'os $ov\6jxzvos 'lvtidv ttot a f*bv, (85 KpoKoSeiXovg detirspos oZtos irorapvv 
 sdvruv TTapi%ETaiS) r ov r ov riv n or a p6v tl&ivai rjj h daXavaav initio!, &C. 
 
 
272 OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. § 202. 
 
 Darius being desirous to know in what part the Indus, which is the se- 
 cond river that produces crocodiles, runs into the sea. 
 
 Note 2. In all cases of apposition the demonstrative pronoun is 
 strictly redundant in respect of construction, and should be omitted in 
 the translation. 
 
 (3.) When that with which the pronoun stands in apposi- 
 tion is a sentence, or part of a sentence, the pronoun is put in 
 the neuter gender, and sometimes (but not always) is connect- 
 ed with it by the conjunction 0V1 or kg ; thus, aXX' oT5s touto 
 xocXw? sxsTvog, o<n ra&Va psv stf<nv atfavra tol %wf (a, <yXa <rou tfoXs- 
 f/.ou, xsipsvu sv fjdstfw, but he knew (this) well, that all these 
 places are openly before the combatants as the prizes of war. 
 
 Note, The sentence is sometimes so arranged that the clause with 
 on stands first, and is succeeded by the pronoun in apposition ; as, 5n 6* 
 eix* Krepa, tout' Xafxsv, but we knew (this) that he had wings. 
 
 Obs. 5. The demonstrative pronouns are frequently used in 
 the sense of other parts of speech ; as, 
 
 1st. Being used to point out a person or thing as in a certain 
 place, frequently they have the sense of the adverbs " here" 
 " there" or the less common but expressive words, " yon" " yon- 
 der :" as, 6ai|xwv oSs <r\g Xsux^v a.Mm tfoffy-suojiXevos, some god 
 carried yonder through the bright sether ; Tig cror' af dtfvrig oSs 
 tfogQpsvsi. what star sails there ? 
 
 2d. a. ouVo£, with xal before it, is used .in the latter clause of 
 a sentence in an adverbial or conjunctive sense, to call the at- 
 tention more particularly to the circumstance which it intro- 
 duces, and may be rendered " and that" " and truly" u indeed" 
 " although" &c. as the sense may require ; as, olroi yo.g fxoUvoi 
 'Iwvtjv oux ayoiitfi 'Atfotroufia, x a i ovtoi xara cpovou riva (fx^iv, 
 and these alone of the lonians do not celebrate the Apatouria, 
 and that under pretext of a certain murder ; i. e. and these did 
 so under pretext, &c. rW.»xo£ xai <r avrri$ vsxgug, sing \sysi 
 ToUvo^a tscpgixe, if any one mentioned the name of a woman, 
 although (i. e. and that woman being) dead, he shuddered. 
 
 b. But when the pronoun is less definite, not referring to any 
 particular substantive in the preceding clause, but to something 
 expressed in it, it is put in the neuter plural, and may general- 
 ly be rendered cc especially" " although" &c. ; as, 2u 8e fxo* £o- 
 xsTg ou tf^otfi^siv rov vouv rovroig, xai r a v r a (focpog wv, but you 
 do not seem to me to give your attention to these things, al- 
 though being wise. Expressions of this kind are doubtless el- 
 liptical, rfoi £g or some such word being understood, and may 
 be rendered " and these things you do." Indeed, it is sometimes 
 expressed thus, in Dem. pro Phor. After reproaching Apollo- 
 
§ 203. OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN. 273 
 
 dorus with his dissolute conduct, he adds, xai tolutol ^uvafxa 
 syyv tfoisTg, and these things you do, having a wife ; which, with- 
 out rfoisTg, might be rendered " though having a wife. 11 
 
 Yet sometimes these words seem to have no dependence on 
 any part of the sentence, but are thrown in to call the atten- 
 tion to a special circumstance. 
 
 c. The demonstrative pronoun is often joined with adverbs 
 of time and place to define these circumstances with greater 
 emphasis or precision ; as, tol vuv Tads, just now ; tout sxsT, at 
 that very time. 
 
 3d. The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used instead 
 of the personal pronouns lyU and tfu, and, in speaking, when 
 thus used, were probably accompanied with action, so as clear- 
 ly to point out the person intended. When used instead of 
 the 2d person, they most commonly express contempt. The 
 expression outo$ slpi is equivalent to the Latin en adsum, Lo ! 
 here am L 
 
 § 203. OF THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN. 
 
 ris, ti, with the grave accent, is an indefinite pronoun, and 
 when added to a substantive it corresponds to the English 
 words a, an, a certain one, any one, and shews that it is used in- 
 definitely ; as, Tig dv^f, a man, any man, some man. To this in- 
 definite use of the word its apparent variety of significations 
 may in general be traced. Among these the following may 
 be noticed : 
 
 1st. a. With a noun it is used collectively in the sense of 
 many ; as, 0f wtfxwv Tig xoltol xufxa— fy^s, many a fish bounding 
 through the wave ; i. e. any fish, fish indefinitely, or many a fish. 
 
 b. Also, in a general sense distributively, to designate some 
 me, any one, each one, or every one of a number ; as, xa/ Tig 
 mxiijv dvcwr Xa<ra<r0M, and let every one- build his own house. He- 
 rod. 
 
 c. Hence the word to which Tig refers is often in the plural ; 
 is, lav Tig (pavsfog yivv)Tai xXsVrwv fj Xwtfo(Wwv — TouToig*6avaTog 
 S*riv r t £yjjx»a, if any one is proved to be a thief or a robber, the 
 ninishm'ent /br these is death. 
 
 i 2d. a. With adjectives of quality, quantity, and magnitude, 
 {specially when they stand without a substantive expressed, 
 >r in the predicate, it serves to temper the expression by assert- 
 ng the existence of the quality in a less positive and unlimited 
 nanner, such as may be expressed by the English words some- 
 
274 OF THE INTERROGATIVE rig. § 204< 
 
 what, in some degree, rather ; as, SutrQarig rig 6 roitog qjaiWai, the 
 place appears somewhat difficult to be passed ; syw <ng wg loixs 
 <Wf/,a(%, I am, it seems, rather hard to learn. 
 
 b. With numerals it signifies " nearly" " about" " some," &c. 
 as, .(Ss'xo, <nvsg, 0&ow2 to ; especially the Attic a<rra is thus used, 
 
 c. In a similar manner it is frequently used with adverbs ; 
 as, (fysSov ri, pretty nearly, perhaps ; tfoXu ri, considerably ; ouSs'v 
 ti, neatf to nothing, scarcely. 
 
 3d. Without an additional adjective rig has the sense of emi- 
 nent, distinguished ; as, sv-^srai rig sTvai, he boasts himself to be ; 
 some great one. 
 
 4th. In the neuter gender it is also sometimes nearly redun- 
 dant, being introduced apparently for the sake of sound. In 
 such cases it is to be considered in the accusative governed by 
 xara, and seems to strengthen the expression ; as, ovrs n fxav« 
 rig swv, not being at all a prophet ; iisya ri xal dsoV^tfiov rs^vovg- 
 y*]f*a, a work evidently great and divine. 
 
 5th. Like the demonstrative pronoun it is used instead of 
 iyd and tfu, as we use the expression il a person, one" but still 
 with the verb in the third person ; as, iroT rig r^srai, whither 
 shall I turn myself; dhtfsi rig (Sixrjv, you shall be punished. 
 
 § 204. OF THE INTERROGATIVE rig. 
 
 Obs. 1. The interrogative rig, ri, is used in asking a direct! 
 question ; as, rig sVoi'*)<rs, wAo did it ? Though sometimes used! 
 in the indirect interrogation, ocfng is more common ; as, #aufxa^| 
 rig (or more frequently 6Wig) sVoiyjCs, I wonder wAo did hi 
 Sometimes it is accompanied by the article 6 rig, who, to tft 
 what, ti&rig is also used interrogatively when a person to whom 
 a direct question is put repeats it before answering it ; as, tfu 51 
 si rig avSgwv ; pWig g/j*' s^w ; Msrwv, z^Ao «re yow ? wAo am / ? 
 •ftteton. 
 
 Obs. 2. <n as a predicate, with Itfri following, is sometime© I 
 accompanied by the subject in the plural ; as, 0aufjia£w ri #oc y 
 2(TTi ravra, I wonder t#/W Mese things are. 
 
 Obs. 3. <n is often put for Sia ri, what ? on what account i 
 why ? and is sometimes preceded by ttws ? i| 
 
 06s. 4. rig is often used independently of the rest of the pro { 
 position, being governed by some such word as xara under-) 
 stood, and may be rendered ' in what ? as to what V as, <rwv rm 
 tfopwv irfitfryiJAvsg, in what sort of wisdom are they expert. 
 
 Obs. 5. ri, preceded by ctXXo and followed by *j, is general! ji 
 
§205. 
 
 OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 275 
 
 nothing more than the sign of interrogation, and is sufficiently 
 expressed in English by translating the sentence in which it 
 stands negatively in the form of a question ; as, d\\6 d ft Xsf. 
 vstoj poi xivMvwv 6 lisiyKfrog ; what else than (or, do not) the great 
 est dangers remain to me ? gXXbri ^ *s£< ^XsiVtou <ro/>j • f<, V(?tt 
 wo/ consider it of the greatest importance ? 
 
 Ofc. 6. Almost in the same way are used the interrogative 
 words t. <Js ; J M * w ^ ? i i yo^—ti ^ ; /or wArf unless ? k ri • 
 flow /^g, &c. 5 
 
 § 205. OF THE POSSESSIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 < Rule. The Possessive Pronouns agree with their substan- 
 tives in gender, number, and case; as, i <rfcwr} fi your fa. 
 
 Obs. 1. The possessive pronoun is in signification equivalent 
 ;o the genitive of the pronoun from which it is derived and 
 arnile, like the adjective, it agrees with its substantive in g-en- 
 ler, number, and case, yet other words at the same time often 
 •egard it as the genitive of the personal pronoun. Hence the 
 ollowmg modes of expression : to (Tov ^6vou dtywa, equivalent 
 ;o to (Tou fxovou SitpHui, the gift of thee alone. •Aptywv* «r a ™5c 
 's iisya xXiog $8*. faov auTou. Where s^ov agrees with xXg'os in 
 Ihe accusative, and yet is coupled with tfbw-j 6c in the ^enitive 
 ind is followed by utrov as if agreeing with it as the substitute 
 ;,)f sjaou. (See also § 221. Obs. 2.) 
 
 i Obs. 2. The same rule extends to adjectives which signify 
 possession ; as, si Ss ps SsT yvvaixstag ti agsrifc otfai v{Jv sv yijPs/a 
 ifovrai, ^(rtSjvai, if I must also say something concerning the 
 
 irtue of those women who are from this time to live in widow- 
 hood ; where yvwnsiag is equivalent to the genitive twv yuvcci- 
 
 av, to which oVai refers. 
 
 OS*. 3, The possessive pronoun most commonly is alto- 
 gether omitted m ideas that always stand in necessary con- 
 exion ; us, father, son, friend, master, hand, foot, &c. and its 
 'lace is supplied by the article alone, 
 
276 ON RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS, &C. § 206. 
 
 § 206, On the related Adjective toords olog> o<ro£, tjXixos, &c. 
 
 05s. 1. The adjective oTog always stands related torofosor 
 <roiovro$ before it expressed or understood, (in the same manner 
 as talis qualis in Latin,) implying a comparison of equality. 
 Thus, Dem. Olynth. I. As for the rest, they are thieves and 
 flatterers, and roiovrovg &v$g6)irovg oi'ou£ ^sdu^svrag og-%s7(j&at toi- 
 atlra oTa iyu v.Uv dxvw dvojuuxtfou, such men as, when intoxicated, to 
 dance such dances as I dare not name. 
 
 Obs. 2. roTog or roiovrog, however, is most commonly under- 
 stood, and oTo£ is translated with some variety according to the 
 connexion in which it stands. The most of the cases in which 
 o/W is used for <roiov<rog olog, may be reduced to three; viz. 1st. 
 when it stands, before a substantive ; 2d. before an adjective ; and 
 3d. before a verb. 
 
 1st. a. Before a substantive, olog elegantly takes the case 
 in which its antecedent roiowog would be, if expressed, and 
 changes the substantive before which it stands into the same 
 case by attraction ; thus, oux stfnv dvdgi oi'w ^uxpoltsi •^,s£5e<fGai i 
 to lie is jiot befitting such a man as Socrates is, for ovx sdri dvSgi 
 <tomt(jJ olog 2wx^aT7]c: g<r<nv ^suSsaQoa. Again, p(afi£o|u.svov oi'w ijti 
 dvdgi, gratifying such a man as thou art, for dvtigi <r&ic5Vw oTog cv 
 
 b. In some instances the noun after oUg is not attracted into 
 the same case with it ; as, <rwv (rotouruiv) oS'ttvflref airbg ovtwv, 
 they being swcA as ^e. 
 
 c. When the substantive to which olog refers is obvious from 
 the connexion, it is frequently omitted, as in the preceding ex- 
 ample. 
 
 d. Sometimes olog, with the clause in which it occurs, is ap- 
 parently unconnected with the sentence. In such cases the 
 connexion is to be formed by supplying kg or" on ; as, ipaxdgi- 
 £ov <n}v fxyj-r^a (6Vi) oiwv tsxvwv ixvpiirSj they blessed the mother 
 (because) she gave birth to such children. 
 
 Of a similar nature are the Homeric expressions oT dyogsustg 
 — oV so^yag, i. e. oVi oP, &c. because you say — because you do 
 such things. 
 
 e. The construction is the same when oToc, or the substantive 
 to which it belongs, is in the nominative, or is governed by a 
 preposition ; as, d^rfeg ajovrug vsvQog (oVi roiovrog) olog uvroiig 6 
 Mwog Siscpvysv, being truly grieved because such a thunny fish as 
 this escaped them. Lucian.^ &\iri%ovrs$ vdyxy dvoXsecQai £g oTa 
 xaxa Jjxov, i. e. wC ig <roiav<ra o/a xaxa, expecting total destruction i 
 
§ 206. OF RELATED ADJECTIVE WORDS, &C. 277 
 
 since they were come into such calamities as these. In this way 
 that difficult sentence in Thucydides is easily explained, xcti julo'v>j 
 (scil. 'A^vaiwv flroXi^) ovrs rw iroXs^iiu idskbovrt dyavuxryi&iv syst, 
 v$ 9 oi'wv xcLxoiraQsT, i. e. w£ uto toio'jtuv oi'wv jfttfij;, and we are now 
 the only state which does not excite indignation in an invading 
 enemy, because {or since) they suffer from such a brave people as 
 we are. 
 
 N. B. — In all constructions of this kind the idea will be rea- 
 dily perceived by considering olog as put for 6V1 or dg roiovrog. 
 See numerous examples in L. Bos. Ellipses, Gr. 271. Vige- 
 rus, Ch. 3. § 8—9. 
 
 2d. a. Before an adjective it may be resolved by supplying 
 the infinitive eivcu ; as, s) f/iv yag rig dvyg sv uvroTg stfn olog spirsi- 
 gog rfoXspov, if any one among them is skilful in war, Dem. O. 
 1 2. for Toiovrog olog e/vcti syursigog, is such as to be skilful, &c. ; oTog 
 agitfTog, the best, for roiovrog olog eivou agitfrog, such as to be the best, 
 &c. 
 
 b. olog is frequently, however, joined with an adjective in the 
 form of an exclamation or interrogation, apparently without 
 | reference to the usual antecedent ; as, olog psyag, olog yakstfog, 
 how great ! hoio difficult I Thus Lysias, olog ^iyag xal Sewog 
 xivowog riyuvitfQrij how great and terrible danger was risked, (scil. 
 for the liberty of Greece.) If this and similar sentences, how- 
 ever, are thrown into the assertive form, they readily admit of 
 the same resolution as the others; thus, danger such as to be 
 > great and terrible was risked. 
 
 3d. a. Joined with the verb el^i expressed or understood, 
 and followed by an infinitive, it signifies C( I am of such a kind 
 as, or such as ;" and, according to the connexion in which it 
 stands, may mean " I am able" u I am wont " " / am ready, or 
 .willing" roiovrog being^ always understood as an antecedent 
 word ; thus, ou yag fv olog aero iravrhg xsgSyvcu, (i. e. roiovrog olog), 
 he was not (such) as to make gain from every thing. 
 
 b. The abbreviated expressions oTog s/fAi, and olog r' sl(xi, are 
 very common, and usually, but not always, observe this dis- 
 tinction ; viz. that the former signifies " / am wont" the latter, 
 r I am able, I can" and is equivalent to Suva^M ; as, olog rs sljxi 
 tovto roielv, I can do this. 
 
 c. In the neuter it is used impersonally ; as, oTov ri £<fn, it is 
 vossible. 
 
 d. Sometimes the verb slpi is also omitted; as, Jj Swcuro 
 ixovsiv ix toij w oiWs(gfvai), or whether he could hear from not 
 being able to hear formerly . 
 
 24 
 
278 OF THE ARTICLE. § 207, 208. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the same manner <ro~og or roiovrog stands related 
 to oTog following it ^expressed or understood ; as, oux ocv ofjuXv 
 tfaijx* toioUtw, (scil. oTog airbs itfri,) I would have no intercourse 
 with such a man, (scil. as he is). 
 
 Obs. 4. The neuters oTov and ola, either alone or combined 
 with various particles, and used in a conjunctive or adverbial 
 sense, are, no doubt, elliptical expressions similar to those no- 
 ticed above, though it may be difficult to resolve many of them 
 in a satisfactory manner. The ordinary meaning of these 
 words will be found in the Lexicons. 
 
 Obs. 5. The observations which have been made on the con- 
 struction of the related adjectives roTog or <roiotJ<ro£ — olog, are 
 applicable, almost without exception, to ritfog or rotiovrog — o<fog ; 
 observing that the former relates to the quality of objects, the 
 latter to their number or quantity. The same also may be said 
 of TTikixo g — %khog, of such an age or size. 
 
 § 207. OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 Rule. The article agrees with its substantive in gender, 
 number, and case ; as, 6 dv?jf, the man ; r\ yuv^, the woman; to 
 ly\\^a y the thing. 
 
 Exc. 1. In gender. The masculine article is often put with 
 a feminine noun in the dual number ; as, <rw yuvcux£, the two wo- 
 men. 
 
 Exc. 2. In number. The article may be pat in the plural 
 when it refers to two or more nouns in the singular; as, #5 
 'Adrjvcti^ <rs xow C/ Hgr) ? Minerva and Juno. 
 
 § 208. CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE AR- 
 TICLE. 
 
 A noun which expresses an object indefinitely is without the 
 article ; as, §i§Xo£, a book ; i. e. any book whatever ; or if an 
 indefinite object is to be distinctly pointed out as an individual^ 
 the pronoun rig is put with it ; as, yuvr? r\g 6'gviv sf/Sj a certain 
 woman had a hen. 
 
 But in general the article is prefixed to all nouns not used 
 indefinitely; as, 
 
 I. It is prefixed to nouns which express a definite object ; as, 
 6 €i€Xos, the bock ; i , e. $ome particular, knoxon % or specified book. 
 
§ 208. OF THE ARTICLE. #79 
 
 A noun may be rendered definite in various ways ; as, 
 
 1. By distinction or notoriety, such as the names of the Deity ; 
 the great objects of nature, such as the sun, moon, stars, sea, 
 earth, heaven ; or any object which is well known or greatly 
 distinguished ; as, 6 <iroi r o<r?is, the poet, sc. Homer, 
 
 2. By previous mention either of the same or of a synony- 
 mous term ; as, i he was educated iy ns£tfwv vo/xoi£, ouVoi 6£ <5oxo0^ 
 tfi oi v o |* o i agyjtfbai, in the laws of the Persians, and these laws 
 seem,' &c. 
 
 3. By implication in the context ; as, c he, having treacherously 
 surrendered Nymphaeum to the enemy, became a fugitive, not 
 waiting. <n$v tigititv, the trial, viz. which was the natural conse- 
 quence of his treachery. 
 
 4. By description in the context limiting the noun to a sin- 
 gle object ; as, v\ kafiyxri T I?)tfoij XfioVoiJ, the covenant of Jesus 
 Christ. 
 
 5. By being of such a nature as to exist only singly, or of 
 which only one can be the subject of discourse ; e. g. when in 
 speaking of the body, we say y\ xstpctkri, to oVo^a, &c. the head, 
 the mouth, &c. 
 
 6. When a word or phrase is added for description, definition, 
 or limitation ; as, v\ &ivo<n>js y sv toTs Xo'yoi£, vehemence in lan- 
 guage ; or with a demonstrative or possessive pronoun ; as, 
 ouro£ 6 dv^f, this man ; 6 Cos vioV, thy son. 
 
 II. The article is prefixed to nouns when they denote the 
 whole species ; as, 6 oiv&gMog iffti dvqros, man is mortal. 
 
 III. The article is generally prefixed to abstract nouns. It is 
 so : 1st. When the noun is used in its most abstract sense ; as, 
 $1 ddixia v.ou r\ axoXatfict yksyi&rov <rwv oVwv xaxov §<fri, injustice and 
 intemperance (i. e. universally and of every kind) are the greatest 
 of evils. 2d. When it is personified ; as, *H xctxia utfoXaSoutfa 
 fhrSj malice interrupting said. 3d. When it has a reference of 
 any kind expressed or understood ; as, <n?v dX^siav <xspI toutojv, 
 the truth {not generally but) concerning these things. 
 
 IV. The subject of a proposition is generally found with the 
 article, and the predicate without it ; as, atixlg syivstf v\ xof/j, the 
 maiden became a wineskin. The only exceptions to this rule 
 are the following : 
 
 1. The subject is without the article when it expresses a ge- 
 neral idea ; as, tfoWwv jgofjjxarav fxsVf ov av££ojtfos, ww&« (generally, 
 no definite person) is the measure of every thing. 
 
 2. The predicate has the article if it be a definite object, of 
 which it is affirmed that it belongs to the general and indefi- 
 nite, or to the particular and definite idea of the subject ; as. 
 
280 OF THE ARTICLE. § 208. 
 
 s/f >jvv] Itin Tayadov, peace {generally, no particular or definite peace) 
 is the abstract good ; rourl to x^aviov y\ 'EXevq itfriv, this skull is 
 the Helen, (sc. whom thou seekest). 
 
 3. The predicate has the article in a convertible proposition ; 
 as, ifoi 8s 6 Hog 6 vous, Goo? is the mind, or, fAe mind is God. 
 
 V. Proper names generally have the article, though there 
 are many exceptions. 
 
 VI. The article is generally placed before appellatives, and 
 all words and phrases which are placed after a substantive, for 
 the purpose of definition or description, giving them the force of 
 adjectives, (see § 196, Obs. 2.). These are: 1. A substantive 
 in apposition. 2. An adjective. 3. A participle. 4. An ad- 
 verb. 5. A preposition with its case ; thus, 
 
 1. Before a substantive in apposition, or an appellative added 
 to a proper name for farther explanation ; as, 
 
 2wx£ocry]£ 6 <p»Xotfopo£, Socrates the philosopher. 
 
 teuccfag*j£ 6 tov Atfrvayovg tfcug, Cyaxares the son ofAstyages. 
 UiTTaxog o MirvkymTog,, Pittacus of JMitylene. 
 
 Note. Likewise after verbs of naming ; as, avaica\ovvT£s rbv evepyh^v 
 rbv avdpa tov ayaddv, calling him aloud their benefactor and an excellent 
 man. 
 
 Exc. Sometimes, however, they are found without the arti- 
 cle ; as, e H£o<Wos t A'kixagw<r<fsvg i Herodotus of Halicarnassus. 
 
 2. Before adjectives placed after their substantives ; as, <ro~$ vo- 
 fioig To7g dg)(a7ois ygrfibcM, to use the ancient laws ; itfcpguyitfQrire 
 tw tfySujxari Tr t g iieayyekias t£j ayiw, ye were sealed with thai 
 holy spirit of promise. 
 
 3. Before participles ; in which case the article may be trans- 
 lated as a relative, and the participle by the indicative mood 
 of its own tense ; as, eftfi o'i XsyovTSg, there are who say ; dM tov 
 I fiv, xal 6 yjv, xal 6 s^d^svog, from him who is, and who ivas, and 
 who is to come. " It is difficult to find men — rov$ s0sX^tfov<ra$ 
 fjLgvsiv — who will be willing to remain." 
 
 4. It is prefixed to adverbs, giving them the sense of adjec- 
 tives, (§ 196. Obs. 2. (3.)), which more precisely define the noun 
 to which they are joined ; as, r\ avw jSatfiXs/a, the celestial king- 
 dom. 
 
 5. To a preposition with its case, giving it also the force of an 
 adjective ; as, r\ Seivdrris r\ h To7g \6yoig, vehemence in language; 
 <rv)$ Atfiag f*S£t$ -/j irfog trag dvuroXag, the eastern part of Asia. 
 
 Note. The article prefixed to an adverb or to a preposition with its 
 case, may always be resolved by supplying a participle and rendering I 
 asjn No. 3. Thus, # a*>w fiaaiktia is equivalent to ftacikiia rj dVo) ovcaj tht j 
 
§ 208. OF THE ARTICLE. 281 
 
 kingdom which is above. In like manner the examples in No. 5. may- 
 be resolved ; thus, fj Setvdrtjs % iv roXg \6yois oZaa, the vehemence which is in 
 language ; rrjs Adas ptpis h *r$s rds dvaroXds ovaa, the part of Asia which is 
 towards the east, 
 
 VII. Without a preceding substantive to be defined or des- 
 cribed, as in VI, the article is placed before adjectives, partici- 
 ples, adverbs, and adverbial particles and phrases, and before a 
 preposition and its case, giving them the force of substantives ; 
 thus, 
 
 Before Adjectives ; as, oi Avtjto/, " mortals ;" oi xaxo/, " the wick- 
 ed ;" to avaitf^yjTov, " carelessness ; fi (See § 197. Obs. 3, and 7.) 
 Before Participles ; oi xokaxsvovrsg^" flatterers 9 n " those who fiat- 
 ter ;" oi (piXotfop ovvrsg, "philosophers, those who philosophize." 
 Before Adverbs, and adverbial particles and phrases ; as, y aufiov 
 (sc. r^s^oi)^ u Jhe morrow" " the day ivhich is on the morrow ;" 
 sup. outfa. — to MTitfw (sc. |xS£o$) u behind" u that which is after ; n 
 to t», '" the substance j" to tfoiov, " the quality ;" to tfotfov, " the quan- 
 tity ;" to oj?, " the manner in which ;"' to iik tj, u the reason why j" 
 &c. Arist. Before a Preposition with its case, particularly ajx- 
 <p/ and ifsgi ; as, o! irsgi (piXotfoqjipcv, " Philosophers ;" c) Ksfi 6t}£olv 3 
 |{ hunters " 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes, however, it indicates something pecu- 
 liar to, or distinguishing the person, place, or thing, expressed 
 by the noun which it governs ; as, to irsfi Aa/x^axov, the affair 
 at Lampsacus ; Taa/xcp/ tfoXsj/iOv, what belongs to the ivar. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes it is merely a circumlocution for the 
 noun itself; as, roc irsgl Tr t v a^agriav for >j &j*ajTia. 
 
 06s. 3. Of this kind of construction, though with some pe? 
 culiarity of meaning, are the phrases oi d|x<p/, and oi its pi, with 
 a proper name ; they signify, 
 
 1st. The person himself; as, oi Apql JXgiapw kolI Ilav0oov, Pn- 
 am and Panthous. II. y. 146. 
 
 2d. The followers of the person named ; as, oi tfggi A^iSu^ov, 
 the companions of Archidamus. 
 
 3d. The person named, and his companions and followers ; as, 
 bi ajjwpi Ileifl'iVTgaTov, Pisistratus and his troops ; oi #££* Ks'x^otfa, 
 Cecrops and his assessors in judgment. 
 
 Note. 1. The substantive to be supplied in the plural, whether faaipot, 
 TTpariwrai, &c. as well as the exact import of the whole phrase in any 
 particular place, can be ascertained only from the context, or from what 
 Is known of the person mentioned. 
 
 Note. 2. Most of the examples in N°. VII. may be resolved by supply^ 
 ng a participle, where necessary, as directed in VI. N°. 5, Note; thus, 
 I ~zpl Bfipavt sc. llvT^ those who are about hunting ; i. e. hunters, &c. 
 
 VIII. The article, used absolutely in the accusative, and go? 
 
 24* 
 
282 OF THE ARTICLE. § 208 
 
 verned by xctToL understood, with every part of speech except a 
 conjunction, is used adverbially ; as, to xs<p<xXaiov, summarily ; to 
 *o\v,for the most part ; to auTo, in the same manner ; to vuv siva/, 
 for the present ; to Xsyo^svov, as tfAey saj/ ; to ff£o(rt)sv, Je/bre ; to 
 octo toMs, #/!ter Mis. 
 
 Note. Constructions of this kind may sometimes be resolved by means 
 of the participle, as in VI. 3, 4. 5. 
 
 IX. The article in the neuter gender is often prefixed to the 
 infinitive mood, (§ 265.) giving it the sense and the construc- 
 tion of the Latin gerund, or of a verbal noun, through all the 
 cases in the singular except the vocative ; as, tou (piho&otpuv to 
 £Vs/v, enquiry is the business of philosophy. 
 
 Obs. 1. The accusative before the infinitive, qualifying 
 words, or even entire sentences, may stand between the article 
 and its infinitive ; as, vireg tou jj^svoc twv #oXjtwv fiiaite £avaTw 
 dtfo^tfxsiv, that no one of the citizens might perish by a violent death ; 
 literally, "for the sake of no one, &c. perishing ." § 265. II. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes the article is omitted before the infinitive 
 in the nominative and accusative, and also in the genitive when 
 governed by a verb. 
 
 X. In the neuter gender, and in any case which the con- 
 struction requires, the article is placed, 
 
 1. Before entire propositions, which, as one whole, like sub- 
 stantives, depend on some word in the sentence into which 
 they are introduced; as, itfri 6s rovruv rgkr\ Jiacpefa, to, w£ 
 axatru toutwv jiMjar/tfaiTo <xv tj$, moreover, there is in these a third 
 difference, viz. the manner in which one should imitate each of 
 these objects. 
 
 2. Before a quotation which is construed as a substantive in 
 a sentence in which it stands ; as, ix Si toutwv ogfi&g av s^oj to 
 11 sgyov <5' oufisv omoog, &c." but according to these views the. 
 sentiment, 6t labour is no dishonour" &c. would be correct. If 
 the quotation contain more than one sentence, the article is 
 commonly put in the plural. 
 
 3. Before single w r ords quoted or designated in a sentence ; 
 as, to <5' v^sTg orav 5<Vw, t^v #o'Xiv Xs^w, when I say you, I mean 
 the state. But in nouns the article is commonly in the gender 
 of the noun ; as, to ovo^a 6 AToyg, the name Hades. 
 
 Note. In almost all constructions of this kind, the word 1™$ or fapa 
 may be considered as understood with the article, and the sentence, quo- 
 tation, or word, as in apposition with it; and hence it may generally be 
 translated as above, tc to wit :" 
 
 XL The article is frequently expressed, having its substan- 
 
§ 208, OF THE ARTICLE. 283 
 
 tive understood ; as, (in addition to the examples above in VI. 
 and VII.) 
 
 1 . When a noun which has just preceded is to be repeated, 
 it is repeated by using its article without the substantive ; as, 
 r) fjusr^ia y\ 0Sw o^ouXsi'a, apSTgog <5e 7) (sc. 5ouXsia) Tofe c/v0£wtfo/<r, 
 the service which we pay to the deity is just and proper, but 
 that which we pay to men is not so. 
 
 2. Before a collective noun with its article in the genitive ; 
 as, ol -tou Syj^ov (sc. <xv$j6jtfor), the common people. 
 
 3. When the speaker is doubtful how to express his mean- 
 ing, the article is used without a substantive, and the import 
 of the substantive to be supplied is explained ; as, y twv EXXr r 
 v6jv, e'fce xgv xaxiav, shs ayvoiav sltfBTv, the (fault) of the Greeks ) 
 whether it should be termed. wickedness or ignorance. 
 
 4. In certain phrases in common use, when the noun can 
 readily be supplied. These nouns principally are, y% yvw^rj, 
 Tjjubs'^a, o5o^ mhg, &c. ; as, sis rfv swutwv (ySjv), into their own land ; 
 h ij^Yj (sc. yvwpbv)) wxa, my opinion prevails ; rr)v sv&etav (6£o'v), 
 right on ; 'A&rvayyg o Kuotgoc^ou, Astyages the son of Cyaxares ; 
 or, when in swearing, the name of the Deity is omitted through 
 reverence ; as, jxdi to'v (A(a), by Jupiter. So j^a t^v, vr) tov, 
 &c. : or, 
 
 5. It is put in the neuter gender with the genitive of another 
 substantive, (x^ a ^fay^a* &c. being understood) ; and, 1st. 
 In the singular it signifies what a person has done, is wont to do, 
 or has befallen him ; as, xai to» tJoxw jxoi to tou 'iSuxsiou iWou cre- 
 rfovdivai, I seem to be in Me same situation with the horse of Iby- 
 cus. 2d. In the plural it signifies every thing that concerns, 
 arises from, or belongs to, that which the substantive expresses ; 
 as, toc p/Xwv <5' ov6sv, the assistance of friends is nothing; Ss7 cps- 
 \Hiv toc tqv dswv, we must bear the visitation of the Gods. Or, 3d. 
 
 In the singular or plural it is merely a periphrasis of the sub- 
 stantive, (as to or T<x T^g o^yyjs for yj &%yr\) ; and an adjec- 
 tive or participle, joined with the periphrasis, will take the case 
 of the article and the gender and number of the substantive, 
 i. e. will agree with it as if expressed without a periphrasis ; 
 as. to, twv (Siaxovwv to uf/.ov Jv tf/xixjcji i^sgsi sroiou|xsvoi, Me messengers 
 considering what concerns me of little consequence. 
 
 Aitfe. In the same manner the possessive pronouns are put with the 
 article for the personal pronouns ; as, to ifxhepov for vptis ; — Tapd for 
 
 iyu> ; — to ifibv for tfxi. 
 
 XII. The article prefixed to an adjective, whether used as 
 m adjective or in the sense of a substantive, often changes its 
 
284 THE ARTICLE AS A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. § 209. 
 
 aXXoi, others ; 01 aXXoi, the others, the rest. 
 
 aXkr}, other ; fy aWy 'EXXas, the rest of Greece. 
 
 tfoXkoi, many ; 01 roXXo/, generally the greater number, 
 
 the multitude. 
 
 orXgfous, more ; oi crXsi'ous, the most, 
 
 avrog, himself; 6 ccutos, the same, 
 
 tfoivrsg, all ; oi tf ocvtss, (after numerals) in all. 
 
 oX/y©*. few ; oi oXiyoi, the few t the Oligarchs. 
 
 Note. To which may be added that ttS? or a?™? in the singular, with 
 the article prefixed to the adjective or to its substantive, signifies the 
 whole of any thing ; without the article it denotes every individual of a 
 class. The same remark applies to b\os. When its substantive refers 
 to any thing definite it has the article, otherwise not ; as, bXrjv r^v xdAtv, 
 the whole city ; kviavrov 8\ov } a whole year. 
 
 XIII. Hence the article in Greek is used in many cases in 
 which it cannot be used in English , and consequently must be 
 omitted in translating ; as, 
 
 1. With proper names ; as, 6 Kvgos, Cyrus. 
 
 2. With demonstrative or possessive pronouns ; as, 15s o av- 
 0£w#o£, this man ; 6 dig vidg, thy son. 
 
 3. Sometimes with the interrogative pronouns tfo~og, Tig] as, 
 to, <zo~a rauru ; of ivhat kind are these ? to ti : what ? 
 
 4. With such words as sxatfrog, Sslva ; as, 6 Sstftfirvig hcafrYig 
 Ty\g olxiag, the master of every house. Also with tojoutos with- 
 out a substantive. 
 
 
 § 209, THE ARTICLE AS A DEMONSTRATIVE 
 PRONOUN. 
 
 L The article being used to point out some object in a defi- 
 nite manner, is allied in signification to the demonstrative pro- 
 noun, and is not unfrequently used instead of it by the Ionic 
 and Doric writers ; as, 6 yag psyi&rog avroTg wyywizx for ovrog 
 7<xf, &c. for he happened to be the greatest among them ; tpb 
 tou (sc. X^ vou )' before this (time) ; tov xoli tov, to xoli to, this and 
 that, the one and the other. 
 
 II. It is used also by the Attic writers in the following cases : 
 ^ 1st. Before the relatives cfc, 6'tfoi, oToi ; as, tu&stv tous oi ovfasg 
 outos, to hate those whom he hates. 
 
 2d. Very often before jxsv and 6s (§ 202.) in the division and 
 distinction of subjects, the article with juiv standing with the 
 first member and with it in the parts that follow ; thus, 6 /xs'v, — 
 
§ 209. THE ARTICLE AS A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN. 285 
 
 o 5s, this — that, the one — the other ; as, tqv p£v eri^a, tov 5' ov, he 
 honours this one, that one not ; twv flVfowiwrwv ol fjtiv £xu/3suov, 01 
 Ss IV*vov, ol 8£ iyu/xva^ovro, of the soldiers, some played at dice, 
 some drank, some exercised themselves. 
 
 Note 1. The relative pronoun 5$, 77, 3, ({ 202.) sometimes called the 
 post-positive article, is sometimes used with fxev and Si in the same man- 
 ner ; as, a$ ph (sc. tt6\si s 'EWrjviSas) avaiptiiv, ds as Se toi/j <f>vydSa$ Kardywv, 
 destroying some of the cities of Greece, and reinstating the exiles in 
 others. 
 
 Note 2. When the opposition or distinction is not between substan- 
 tives, but between adjectives, verbs, or entire propositions, the article 
 with niv and Si is put in the neuter in the sense of partly ; as, vdjioioi Si 
 rd fiiv KprjTiKolcn, ra SI KapiKolcri ^peon/rat, they use partly the Cretan 
 laws, and partly the Carian. 
 
 Note 3, When the article is governed by a preposition, fxiv and Si 
 come immediately after it, and before the article from which they may 
 be separated by intervening words; as,iv /ilv cpa Toljo'f ovpfovovptv, 
 iv'Sk rols ov\ with some indeed we agree, with others not. 
 
 Note 4. One of the particles is often understood ; as, $tvSus, al S y 
 aXrjd&ls ovk elalv jjtiovat, are not some pleasures false, and others true ? 
 
 Note 5. Instead of one or both the articles, or with them, the name 
 itself is often put : sometimes another word ; as, faoXi/uov — MirvXyvatoi 
 re ical 'A.Qjjvcuoij ol fxev airaiTiovvrsg rrjv xwprjv 'Adqvaiot 6*e t &c. the Mityleneans 
 and Athenians entered into along war, theirs* demanding restitution of 
 the territory, but the Athenians scil. rejecting their claim. So olpiv — 
 Ivlql Si, olfjiiv — aXXoi Si, or erepoi. Si, <fec. 
 
 Note 6. The articles and other words marking opposition and dis- 
 tinction may be in different cases under a different government. 
 
 Note 7. In narration, h, §, t3, is often used only once in a sentence, 
 viz. with Se in reference to an object already named ; as, 6 Se fat, but he 
 said ; tt\v Si aitoxupfjcai, but that she went away. 
 
 III. In the phrase lv <ro7g, commonly used with superlatives 
 of all genders, and with the superlative adverbs tfpodfa, f^aXa, 
 cavii, &c. the article seems to be used for rourotg, and is equi- 
 valent in meaning to the words omnium longe, multo, used with 
 Latin superlatives ; as, h roTg <fig&™, first of all, i, e. first among 
 these ; sv tojs itksTtfrai, most of all, &c. 
 
 IV. The oblique cases of the article are used absolutely as 
 demonstrative pronouns ; as, t£), for this reason ; tjj, here, in 
 this place, or there, in that place ; to', on this account, &c. These 
 are also frequently used as adverbs, (See § 202, Obs, 5. 1st.) 
 
286 POSITION OF THE ARTICLE. § 210, 211. 
 
 § 210. THE ARTICLE AS RELATIVE AND PER- 
 SONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 The Ionic and Doric writers, and the Attic tragedians, fre- 
 quently use the article as a relative instead of fe, *j-, o ; as, <rov 
 'A^iXXsa (psuyw, tov IMv aKf^uvo^ai, I flee from Achilles whom 
 I am ashamed to see. Sometimes it has the sense of the per- 
 sonal pronoun ; as, to f/iv irsGatf'ro, it (the child) was buried. 
 
 §211. POSITION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 1. The Article is very often divided from its substantive, not 
 only by the adjective, as,, 6 juugyag f3a,<fi\svs, the great king, but 
 also by other words which qualify its substantive ; as, i^s^vriro 
 <rr}S iv poLvicL 5ice<r£i§5j£, he remembered the time passed in insanity ; 
 *} tfj /v aggat auTov ags<rr} } the virtue exhibited- by him before he 
 reigned. 
 
 Rem. Every designation or qualification which is joined to 
 a noun, whether expressed by a participle, an adjective, an ad- 
 verb, or a preposition with its case, is placed either before the 
 noun or after it. If before, it is placed between the noun and 
 its article, as in the above examples. If after the substantive, 
 (which it frequently is for the sake of greater emphasis and 
 precision) the article is usually repeated with the designation, 
 and always if it be a participle ; as, slpi o tfoifwgv 6 xaXos, / am 
 the good shepherd ; <ra$ riSovag Qypsvs <ra$ pera 5&%vi$ } he sought af- 
 ter honourable enjoyments. 
 
 2. When the qualifications of the substantive, which ar& 
 interposed between it and its article, begin with an article, two 
 or even three articles may thus stand together ; as, o <rdc <r*j£ 
 croXswg tf gay para nrgfarw, he who does the business of the state. 
 
 Note. The genitive, however, stands very frequently before the ar- 
 ticle and the noun ; as, avvtuaXcvz koI lirirewv Kal rreZ&v rovs fiytpovas, he call- 
 ed together the leaders both of the cavalry and infantry. 
 
 3. The article is sometimes doubled ; as, roc tsi^yj ra laurwv 
 «ra jxaxja dksrsXsVav, they completed their long walls. Also in 
 such expressions as, rctXXa ray aba, the other good things ; <ro 
 rauro, the same ; to ts 0ars|ov xai to rauro, both the other and this 
 same. 
 
 4. Sometimes, especially in Ionic writers, the article is sepa- 
 
§ 212, 213. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 2S7 
 
 rated from its noun by the word which governs it, sometimes 
 by some- other word, and sometimes by an independent propo- 
 sition. 
 
 5. When the adjective without an article stands before the 
 article of its substantive, the object is thereby distinguished, not 
 from others, but from itself under other qualifications ; as, ySerQ 
 §#/ tfAo'jtfioj; *o7g <nro\iVai£, He rejoiced (not in the rich citizens, 
 but) in the citizens being rich ; or, inasmuch as they were rich. 
 
 § 212. OMISSIONS OF THE ARTICLE. 
 
 In addition to the instances already noticed, it maybe stated, 
 farther, that the article is omitted among other instances : 
 
 1. With substantives in -ixy\. 
 
 2. With words introduced for the first time, or whose exist- 
 ence could not yet be assumed.. (See § 208, I. 2.) 
 
 3. Proper names generally, and sometimes other substan- 
 tives, when explained or defined by another ; as, 2wx£<xt7]s 6 $jX6- 
 Co<po£, Socrates the Philosopher. 
 
 4. When two or more attributes, joined by a copulative con- 
 junction, are assumed of the same person or thing, the article is 
 inserted before the first and omitted before the rest ; as, 6 tfufx- 
 €ouXo£ xa* ^tw£ Jyw, I the adviser and orator ; rig 6 rfj stoXsj Xs- 
 ywv, xa* ygoupwv, xai irgarrw, &c. any one who speaks, and 
 writes, and acts for the state ; also, when the conjunction is 
 omitted. 
 
 5. It is often wanting after prepositions ; as, xaroi xqKw, the 
 city (athens) ; xar' dyo^av, the forum. 
 
 6. In enumerations, when several nouns are coupled to- 
 gether by conjunctions expressed or understood, all of them fre- 
 quently are without the article ; as, xa/ x s, f'> xa ' *$'\ xa; cpuvfj, 
 with my hand, with my foot, and with my voice. 
 
 7. It is for the most part omitted with the ordinal numbers. 
 
 § 213. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 
 
 Rule III. Tne relative agrees with its antece- 
 dent in gender, number, and person ; as, 
 
 avdqeg oleic ovtai, men who shall know. 
 
288 OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. § 213. 
 
 Obs. 1. The antecedent is the substantive, or something 
 equivalent to a substantive, in a preceding clause to which the 
 relative, as its substitute, refers, or with which it agrees, being 
 repeated with it in its own clause. 
 
 Note 1. Sometimes, as in Latin, the relative and its clause 
 is placed before the antecedent and its clause ; as, a s^w, <rov- 
 Toig ^fS^ai, those things which I have, I use. This order is em- 
 ployed when the principal or emphatic idea of the sentence is 
 contained in the relative clause. 
 
 Note. 2. The neuter '6 at the beginning of a proposition, sometimes 
 refers to a succeeding clause, and may be rendered " with respect to 
 that which," or " on account of which," &c. ; as, '6 <5' i£?Wa? fyus, «&? rovs plv 
 <pi\ovs fiaXiara tZ iroielv bwdptBa, &c. with regard however to that on account of 
 which thou enviest us, that we are able to shew the greatest kindness to 
 our friends, &c. ; here 8 refers to the succeeding proposition &$ rovs, &c. 
 Sometimes it is placed at the beginning of the proposition to which it 
 refers. 
 
 Note. 3. Sometimes at the beginning of a sentence it stands for rovro d, 
 referring to a proposition immediately following, introduced by ydp, m 
 Sri, irreidrj zl, &C. ; as, 8 St irdvrm' lAtyicrov TeKfxfjpiov &s IlaatW, &C, but that 
 which is the greatest proof of all is that Pasion, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. Strictly speaking, the relative does not agree with 
 the antecedent, but with the same word agafn expressed or un- 
 derstood after the relative, and with which, like the adjective, it 
 agrees in gender, number, and case. When the antecedent is 
 not expressed in the relative clause, the relative is its representa- 
 tive or substitute, and consequently is in the same person ; thus, 
 <n?v 'EXsu$S£iav tyvsg (sXsvQsgia) nrfog su5ai/xoviav a/si, Qrigsus, he 
 sought after liberty which (liberty) conducts to happiness. In 
 this sentence the relative agrees, not strictly and immediately 
 with its antecedent iXsvfegiav, but with the same word under* 
 stood in the nominative^ and the subject of the verb aysi ; thus 
 also, o iWos ov (SWov) sT^s, the horse which (horse) he had ; the 
 relative ov agreeing immediately with /Wov understood after it 
 
 This general principle readily explains the varieties that oc- 
 cur in the construction of the relative with its antecedent, occa- 
 sioned by the variety of ways in which the ellipsis is made and 
 may be supplied ; thus, 
 
 (1.) Generally, the word to which the relative refers is ex- 
 pressed in the antecedent clause, and not expressed but under- 
 stood with the relative ; as, ovrog fart 6 o\vr\g ov sids$ ; i. e. ov bivSga 
 sfSzg, this is the man whom you saw ; i. e. which man you saw. 
 
 (2.) Sometimes it is understood in the antecedent clause, and 
 expressed with the relative ; as, o5Vo£ fart ov euhf av^a, i. e. 
 rivijf 6<fn, this is the man whom you saw ; oux !<r<nv ijvrtva oux 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
§ 213. OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 289 
 
 office which office he hath not held. 
 
 (3.) Sometimes, when greater precision is required, or it be- 
 comes proper in order to prevent obscurity, it is expressed in 
 both; in the antecedent clause, most commonly by a pronoun 
 in its stead; as, -V) v yo\§ xa<r' o'ixovg sXicp', oV sis Tfoiav IVXsi 
 * a f d s v o v, — t ccvrj] ysyrfs, to Inch virgin he left at home when 
 he sailed for Troy, in her he rejoiced. 
 
 (4.) When it can be done without obscurity, the word to 
 which the relative refers is understood in both clauses ; as, bSg <5' 
 av yvwtfi rourwv <n d<Jjxovv-T«£, <n/xwf o£v<rai, i^Aom they discover 
 transgressing in any of these things they punish. 
 
 Note 1. This construction is used when the antecedent is taken in a 
 general sense, or is a word which may be easily supplied from the con- 
 text. Both occur in the above example. The meaning is, " theypimisk 
 all the men whom they discover" he. 
 
 Note 2. It frequently happens that, when apparent obscurity is occa- 
 sioned by the omission of the antecedent in both clauses, it is removed 
 by placing the antecedent after them in apposition with the relative, 
 sometimes with, and sometimes without, the article ; as, dAV ors £rj rbv 
 iicave, — os jiiv hiypad'as Kwirj (3d\e, (paiSijxos Ata?, but when he came to him 
 who, having written it, cast it into the helmet, illustrious Ajax. Some- 
 times a different word, or even an infinitive or part of a sentence, is put 
 in apposition for explanation ; as, 6-ep TpocSf.%eTo -oiijGeiv avrbv, hri ttiv 'A/<- 
 <pho\iv — ava6rja£cdai : that he should do that which he expected 3 to go up 
 against Atnphipolis. 
 
 Note 3. The antecedent and relative clauses are sometimes in this 
 construction contracted into one, the relative taking the case of the 
 antecedent understood, (Obs. 3, Exc. 1.); as, avv ols ^dXicrra tpiXtis for 
 avv rovrois ovs {xdXtaTa (pi\e7sj with those whom you love most (See the 
 same kind of construction, § 202, Obs. 3.) 
 
 Exc. The relative is sometimes found in a different gender 
 
 or number from the antecedent, agreeing with some noun of 
 
 . similar signification understood, or with one which expresses 
 
 the meaning of the antecedent, rather than with the antecedent 
 
 itself, as in the following examples : 
 
 1. davovrwv ts'xvwv ovs (scil. rfcuSas for rixva.) *A8gBUftas 
 ifyays, 
 
 Their children having died whom Adrastus led. 
 
 2. AravTwv av^w^rwv og xs tf£u avra sX&r}, 
 Of every man who shall come against you. 
 
 3. b*sg o\tfa4v\s M3XX at, S o g 5wtfsi Siiajp Z v xarigas sxtsivs, 
 She shall be punished for all Greece whose fathers she 
 
 slew. 
 
 4. Qqtfavgotfoibs a v y\ j, o 8 g 8q xai itfaivsT to flrX5j0os, 
 A man increasing in wealth, whom even the multitude 
 
 applaud. 
 
 25 
 
 
290 OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. § 213, 
 
 In the first example a synonymous word is substituted to 
 agree with ov$ instead of rs'xvoc. In the second, the plural ante- 
 cedent is followed by a. relative in the singular, to intimate that 
 in the relative clause the men are spoken of individually. In 
 the third example, the relative £jv has reference to the meaning 
 of 'EXkadog, rather than to the word itself; i. e. to the men of 
 Greece. And in the fourth example, the antecedent avfy is fol- 
 lowed by a relative in the plural, because in the sentence it is 
 the kind of men spoken of, and not an individual, definite or in- 
 definite, of the class that is stated to " receive applause from 
 the multitude." 
 
 Obs. 3. The case of the relative, like a substantive, depends 
 upon its connexion with the other words in its own clause, ac- 
 cording to the rules for the government of cases ; i. e. if in the 
 nominative, it is the subject of the verb in its own clause : if -in 
 any other case, it must be governed by some word in its own 
 clause. 
 
 Exc. I. The relative is sometimes attracted into the case of 
 its antecedent; as, Ex. 1st. eu <tgo<f(psgs<rou <ro7g cpi'hois olg 
 h/z\ for ous s%5i, he treats well the friends ivhom he has. 
 
 2d. iiero.§idus au<rc5 tou tfirou.outfsg (for 6Wsf ) auros s'xsic, 
 thou impartest to him the food which thou thyself hast. 
 
 3d. fjLSfjuv?]|uusvo£ £jv sV^ags for <rwv. crgayjxotrcjv a ^.aSfo being 
 mindful of what he had done. 
 
 Note 1. The role of attraction seems to have its foundation alto- 
 gether in euphony ; and hence, generally, attractions will be found only 
 where they improve the euphony of the sentence. In the first of the 
 above examples, the relative is attracted from the accusative into the 
 dative by <pi\ois ; in the 2d. into the genitive by cltov ; and in the 3d. in- 
 to the genitive by -npay^drtav understood. 
 
 Note 2. This holds also when the antecedent is understood in the ante- \ 
 cedent clause, and expressed with the relative in the relative clause ; con- 
 sequently the above examples may be expressed thus, 
 
 1. zv TtpoGfpipcrai oig £%ei <j)i\oig. 
 
 2. neradidibs clvtCo ovnep avrbg s%£is oirov. 
 
 3. [i£[jivvi*£vos d)v STtpa^e Trpayixdruv. 
 
 Exc. II. The antecedent is sometimes, though very seldom, 
 attracted into the case of the relative ; as, aXXou <5' (sc. oivd^g) 
 ov drjv oiSa tsu <xv xXurd tsu^soc &jw, I know no other person whose 
 renowned armour I could put on. II. 2. 192. Here tsu 3 the re- 
 lative, is properly governed in the genitive by rsi^a, and the 
 antecedent aXXou is attracted by it from the accusative in which 
 it would be governed by o75a. 
 
 Obs. 4. When two relative clauses refer to one antecedent, 
 the relative is sometimes understood in the latter, though in a j 
 
§ 214, 215. THE RELATIVE, &C. 291 
 
 different case from the relative expressed in the former clause ; 
 as, avw^/ Si jjwv yapietfQoLi <r£] oVsw <re tfar^g x^Xsrai, xai dvdavst 
 avrfj, i. e. xal o£ av^avsi aikfi, but order her to marry whomsoever 
 her father orders, and (to ho) is agreeable to herself. 
 
 §214. OTHER WORDS USED AS RELATIVES. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the Ionic and some other writers, especially Ho- 
 mer and Herodotus, the article 6, ?j, to, is very frequently used 
 as a relative. (See § 209.) 
 
 Obs. 2. oaVtsis used as a relative, but differs in its application 
 inasmuch as it applies to an object in general, and of course is 
 preceded by a plural' noun, a noun of multitude, or any word 
 expressing an indefinite number, as tfas, ou<5s/£, &c. ; thus, av- 
 dgwsroyg rivvuvrai oris x* stffof xov o^otfcfTj, they punish every owe 2'jAo 
 swears falsely. 
 
 2Vbte 1. Like the relative 6? (Obs. 1. Note) it often precedes its pro- 
 per antecedent, and may be translated whoever when the relative clause 
 is translated first ; as. Bens a%£ Tas inopivas dyfKas koI 6ovs, Sic. elm -ov~u, 
 and vjhoever had herds following him, and cattle, &.c. he told him. 
 
 Note 2. Sons (and also 5s av) is used after -nas only in the singular 
 number, 5aoi in the plural; thus, nds Sens, every one ; -k&vtzs Scot, all who. 
 
 Note 3. Joined with olv S/froTs] and agreeing with its substantive, it 
 signifies, "any one whatever" *' whoever." 
 
 §215. THE RELATIVE IN THE SENSE OF 
 OTHER WORDS. 
 
 1. The relative, as in Latin, js sometimes used instead of the 
 demonstrative pronoun; as, olg tfatfi rovg axgoafrag dvy/uptfatfag, 
 by all which things forcibly arresting the attention of his hear- 
 ers ; o£ xai ifej this and that person indeterminately. Likewise 
 with f/isv and &•, (as the article) to express opposition or dis- 
 tinction. (§ 209. II. 2. Note 1.) 
 
 , 2. The relative is put in the sense of wtfrs in the phrase i<p* 
 woto, elhptically for hei toutw wtf<r£, on condition that ; and is fol- 
 lowed sometimes by the infinitive mood, and sometimes by the fu- 
 ture indicative. Likewise for fitfrs or &g after 3 ouVw, &Ss, rtjXixouTos, 
 i toiouto^, followed hy a verb not in the infinitive mood ; as, oiSsig 
 av yevoiro ourw£ aSapavrivog og av fiiSivsisv, no one would be so 
 hardened as to continue ; literally, " who would continue" 
 
 3. If is put for particles of time ; as, f^x?^ °^> (followed by 
 a verb) until that ; instead of fiixg'S ixeivov <rou x^ vou ? ^ 
 
292 THE RELATIVE, &C. § 215. 
 
 ^ 4. In the sense of on, that or because, after ouVos ; as, tout' 
 ouv auYo sVaived'ov (Jixaiotfuv^, o auTY\ oY auT^v tov g^ovTa ovivvja'ij 
 for this same reason praise justice, because (or inasmuch as) it in 
 itself is profitable to him who has it. See also § 213. Obs. 1. 
 Note 2. 
 
 In the same manner, in the expressions &vrl toutou ou and dv- 
 ti t.oi3twv c35v, "/or ^is reason tfAfltf," ou and &v, attracted into the 
 case of their antecedent, are evidently put in the sense of oVi ; 
 as, e%s7 tccv %<xgiv a yuvcl dv ti t ?j v w v Cj v tov xwf ov g^s-^g, ^ 
 woman shall have a recompence /or Mzs reason, that she nour- 
 ished the boy. Hence also without the demonstrative pronoun 
 in the same sense ; thus, dv0' oVou, avtf d3v, " because" 
 
 5. The relative in the plural in all its cases, with sa¥i before 
 it (its accent being thrown back), is used for, or rather is the 
 anginal form of, the adjective I'vioi, -ai, -a, some, (gtfTi) being 
 sometimes written svi ; as, *EXXot(5os Itfriy a x w f' a f° r zwux^fay 
 some places of Greece ; dirh twv sv SixsXfa flro'Xswv gflriv £jv for 
 iviwjfrom some of the cities in Sicily. ^ 
 
 In this construction the relative is sometimes found in the 
 singular ; as, I <S t i 5 ' o g t j g xoa xaTsX^(p^, and owe was also 
 taken. Sometimes, both in the singular and plural, it is fol- 
 lowed by t/V, agreeing with it in gender, number, and case ; 
 as, IVti oVtis, some one ; etfri oiVivgg; some. Instead of stfW, ski 
 is sometimes used before the nominative plural, and the past 
 tense, ?v and ^tfocv, are occasionally met with. 
 
 6. In dependent propositions it frequently has the sense of 
 the interrogative Tig, who ? what ? as, <n?sgi dgsrfs o stfriv syw fjdsv 
 oux of<$a, concerning virtue, I know not what it is. Also some- 
 times for Tig in the direct interrogation ; as, Sv 8s Jvsm ravroo 
 irgotfyvsyicoL tq Xoyw for <n'vwv §s ; &c. for what reasons have I 
 brought forward these things in my discourse ? 
 
 7. In certain cases it is used adverbially, some word being 
 understood ; thus, ou, where ; jj, where, as far as, how, in what 
 manner. These, too, as in No. 5, are frequently preceded by 
 gtfTi, the two words being used as an adverb ; as, I'-oWy ou or gv- 
 da, in many places ; stfriv-yl, in a certain place, in a certain degree. 
 So also s'otiv i'va or oVou, there is when, i. e. many times ; Stow org, 
 sometimes ; stf«v ouv oVwg, it is possible ; oux goViv oVcog, }y wo 
 means, in no case. In interrogatives ; as, stfnv oVwg ; is it pos- 
 sible ? 
 
§ 216, 217. OF THE NOMINATIVE. 293 
 
 § 216. OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 
 
 The nominative is used, 
 
 1 . To express the subject of a proposition. 
 
 2. In apposition with another substantive in the nominative, 
 or predicated of it, see § 195 ; and 
 
 3. Absolutely ; or without dependence on any word in the 
 sentence ; § 271 , Obs. 3. as, 
 
 For the army being very nume- 
 rous, it will not be in the 
 power of every state to ac- 
 commodate them. 
 Or, without a participle ; as, 6 M«ud% ouVo£, ovx o'/tJotj^sv ri 
 fiyovsv aura, this Moses, we know not what has become of him. 
 
 4. In exclamations ; as, w oWraXaiva syu ! O wretched me. 
 
 The subject of a verb is expressed in the nominative, and 
 when it denotes 
 
 1 . The person speaking, it is said to be in the first person ; or 
 
 2. The person or object spoken to, it is in the second person ; or 
 
 3. The person or thing spoken of, it is in the third person. 
 
 Note. The thing spoken of may be an individual, expressed by a sub- 
 stantive noun or pronoun ; or it may be an idea expressed by an infini- 
 tive mood or part of a sentence, which, in construction, is therefore 
 considered equivalent to a substantive, and stands as the nominative to 
 the verb. 
 
 ircufvis itfTcef #6Xsw£ vrfoSsg- 
 atfte (au-r/jv). 
 
 § 217. OF A VERB WITH ITS NOMINATIVE. 
 
 The construction of the verb with its subject 
 or nominative is expressed generally by the fol- 
 lowing rules and observations ; viz. 
 
 Rule IV. A verb agrees with its nominative 
 in number and person ; as, 
 
 6 KvQoq iniXevGe, Cyrus ordered. 
 
 Izyovoi (scil. av&Q&)7toi,y Men say. 
 
 Obs. 1. The nominative of the first and second persons is 
 generally omitted, being obvious from the termipation of the 
 verb. It is also frequently understood in the third person, 
 when it may be readily supplied from the context. 
 
 25* 
 
294 OP THE NOMINATIVE. § 218 
 
 Obs. 2. The nominative or subject thus omitted, may be in 
 apposition with something else expressed ; as, 6 $£ Maiag s% 
 " ArXavrog 5iaxovoufxat auTofs, and I the son of Maia the daughter 
 of Atlas wait on them. 
 
 Obs. 3. The subject is also omitted when the verb expresses 
 an action usually performed by said subject ; as, (TocXtfi^g* or 
 <j\wai'vsi, the trumpeter gives a signal. This usage also prevails 
 where we supply it 1 and means an operation of nature or cir- 
 cumstances ; as, Ssi, it rains; irgotfviika'mi, announces itself ] (as 
 in the air) ; g^Xwtfs 8s, and so it shewed itself. 
 
 Obs. 4. Impersonal verbs, i. e. verbs that belong to no subject 
 or person, are different from the foregoing. The true subject of 
 such verbs is, not something understood and left in obscurity, 
 as in the preceding examples, but the action to which they re- 
 fer, whether expressed by an infinitive or another dependent 
 clause. The peculiarity of these verbs is, that their subject is 
 not a noun nor any thing used as a noun (as the infinitive with 
 the article would be) ; thus, ggeorf fXora^vai, It is lawful for 
 me to depart. The true subject of sgsflr* here is the action ex- 
 pressed by arfiivai, But if the expression be changed thus, to 
 cMrts'vcu g£stfri jxof, the going away is lawful to me, then to cwrig. 
 vat is equivalent to a nouri, and s%s<fn ceases to be impersonal. 
 The verbs of this kind are 8s7, -%£% 8oxsT r &c. § 120. 
 
 ■Obs. 5. When the nominative stands without the verb, 
 some part of sfvai is commonly to be supplied ; as, c/ EXXtjv J^w, 
 I am a Greek ; ra twv cplXwv xotva, the property of friends is 
 common. 
 
 § 218. SPECIAL RULES AND OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 I. OF AGREEMENT IN NUMBER. 
 
 Rule I. Neuter nouns in the plural have a 
 verb in the singular; as, t&a rqexei, animals run. 
 
 Obs. 1. This construction is more common with the Attic 
 than with the Ionic and Doric writers. But with all there are 
 many exceptions, especially when the neuter plural signifies I 
 persons or animals ; as, ro^aSs Uyy\ goV^owguov, so many nations 
 went to war. Homer joins a singular and a plural verb with 
 the same nominative. Odyss. /x. 43. So Xen. Mem. cursor. 
 cU g <p ?j v a v a viiTv Ta$ tieag *% vvjcto£ g> <p a v i £ g i, the stars 
 shone forth which shew to us the hours of the night. 
 
 Obs. 2. Sometimes, also, masculine and feminine nouns in 
 
§ 218. OP THE NOMINATIVE. 295 
 
 the dual and plural have a verb in the singular ; as, ov* ttfriv 
 omvss cwre'xovra/, there are none who abstain ; d^siVai o/x<pai pts- 
 Xiwv, the voice of melody sounds. 
 
 Rule 2. a. Two or more substantives singular, (unless 
 taken separately,) have the verb in the plural ; as, alSug 8i xou 
 9o§os s^cpuToi sTtfi dvQgutfu),fear and shame are natural to man. 
 
 h. But if taken separately, the verb must be in the singular ; 
 as, Co; ydtf sS(mcs vixtjv Zsu$ xolI 'AtfoXXwv, Jupiter andJlpollo gave 
 you the victory. 
 
 - Exc. To both parts of this rule, however, and especially to 
 the first, there are not a few exceptions ; for it often happens 
 that when two or more nouns have a common verb, it agrees 
 with one of them, and most commonly the one next it. Also, 
 if the two nouns are of similar signification, they are in con- 
 struction considered as one, and the verb follows in the singu- 
 lar ; as, 2o; 5' iiei roX^arw xagSiri xal 0u/aq£, let your heart and soul 
 dare. 
 
 Obs. 1. A substantive in the singular, connected with other 
 words as the subject of a verb conveying the idea of plurality, 
 Iras the verb in the plural ; as, e Ps'a rfagaXaSoutfa xai tous Kogi5§av- 
 j <ra£ tfsj itfoXourfiv, Rhea, having taken with her also the Corybantes, 
 wandered about. So in Latin ; as, Juba cum Labieno capti in 
 jpotestatem Caesaris venissent. 
 
 Rule 3. a. A noun of multitude expressing many as one 
 whole, has a verb in the singular ; as, tfffou5fl s£s<ro Xaos, with 
 haste the people sat down. II. B. 99. 
 
 b. But when it expresses many as individuals^ it has the 
 verb in the plural ; as, ^wr^tfav.aurov.Stfav <ro *rX5j0o£, all themul- 
 titude asked him. , 
 
 Note. To both parts of this rule there are also exceptions, and, in some 
 cases, it seems indifferent whether the verb be in the singular or plural; , 
 sometimes both are joined with the same nominative ; ai,' oirovijj Ify™ 
 ,Xabs iptjrvOev 6k Kadi$pa$ (for ipyrtidwav), the peoph sat doivn in haste and 
 kept their seats. 
 
 Obs. 1. Sometimes with a plural nominative the word 
 i'xatfros, aXXos, &c. is joined in the same case ; but in the singular 
 number to intimate that all expressed by the plural noun are 
 spoken of individually ; and hence, though more rarely, the 
 verb is sometimes in the singular, agreeing with the distribu- 
 tive word, though its proper subject or nominative be plural. 
 
 1. As, gjxsvov (plural) £v <ry SwOtou <nxgi 2xa<fro£, they remained 
 each man in his rank. 
 
 2. aXXos #go£ aXXov Xfyovcs?, speaking one to one person, ano- 
 ther to another. See also § 197. Obs. 6. (6). 
 
296 OF THE NOMINATIVE. § 21§» 
 
 3. 6k5s tffoo'fl'w Ttoig tfsrsrai xal d/xivsi oltfi <rix$(f<fi, they every one 
 iyforioard and defend their young. II. tf. 264. 
 
 Rule 4. A dual nominative may have a plural verb ; as, 
 ajUKpw skeyov, both spake. 
 
 Rule 5. A plural nominative may have a verb in the dual, 
 if only two persons or things are spoken of ; as, 
 
 aurcj pctgrvgoi g'oVwv, let these two themselves be witnesses. 
 
 w£ <T oVs ^si/xa^oi tfora|xo/ <fu/x§<x\Xs<rov 6'§f ijxov S5.wf , as when 
 ft(?0 wintry torrents urge on their mighty flood. 
 
 II. OF AGREEMENT IN PERSON. 
 
 Rule 6. When a verb has for its nominative two or more 
 words of different persons, it takes the first person rather than 
 the second, and the second rather than the third; as, 
 
 iyd xal tfu s/Vojxsv, you and I spoke. 
 
 <ru os xal 6 tils tfofts ^xsrov, thou and thy husband came. 
 
 Obs. There are, however, many exceptions to this rule. 
 
 III. OF THE NOMINATIVE AFTER THE VERB. 
 
 Rule 7. Any verb may have the same case after it as be- 
 fore it when both words refer to the same thing, (§ 195, Obse 
 3.) ; as, 
 
 u/xs/g iaVs to <pw£ <rou x6o>ou, ye are the light of the world. 
 
 Note. This rule likewise applies to the infinitive mood, whether its 
 subject be in the nominative or accusative. See § 267. 
 
 Obs. Verbs which have a nominative both before and after 
 them, sometimes agree in number with the latter or predi- 
 cate instead of the subject ; as, ^<fav 8s faaSm oxrd to iistraifflm 
 •aurs'wv, the space between them was eight stadia. 
 
[ 297 ] 
 
 SECOND PART OF SYNTAX. 
 
 § 219. OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Government is when one word requires ano- 
 ther which follows it or depends upon it, to be 
 put in a certain case, mood, or tense. 
 
 OF THE GOVERNMENT OF CASES, 
 
 The construction of the oblique cases de- 
 >ends, in general, upon the following principles ; 
 dz. 
 
 1. The Genitive expresses thaXfrom which any thing proceeds , 
 >r by which it is possessed, and it usually depends upon a noun 
 r preposition expressed or understood. 
 
 2. The Pative expresses that to which any thing is acquired, 
 r which is the end of any action ; in which sense it may fol- 
 )w any adjective verb or preposition that is suitable to its na- 
 jre. 
 
 It also expresses the cause or instrument by means of which 
 ny thing is done, and in this sense always depends upon a 
 reposition expressed or understood. From this use of the 
 ise, perhaps, it is that sometimes, though very seldom, it de- 
 otes that from which a thing is taken, or which is the cause 
 f our receiving it ; as, 
 
 Qsiutfn Ssxto Sstfug, he took the cup from Themis.. 
 
 3. The Accusative, denoting the general object of an action, 
 ceives the force of an active verb or of a preposition ; or, as 
 e .subject of an infinitive mood, it may stand after a verb of 
 ly kind by which the infinitive is governed. 
 
 Obs. 1. The action of a verb may be considered in reference 
 ther 
 
 1. To its immediate object ; i. e. that on which its action is 
 
 Sediately exerted, and which is always governed in the ac- 
 tive ; as, SiSovai l/xaurov, to give myself; or 
 
 2. To a remote object ; i. e. one which is not acted upon by 
 e verb, but is merely that to which the action tends, or by 
 hich it is acquired, or from respect to which it is exerted, or of 
 
298 OF THE GENITIVE. § 220 
 
 which it takes part ; and hence it is put in the genitive or da- 
 tive after the accusative with an active verb, or without an accu- 
 sative after a neuter verb ; as, 
 
 Gen. atctkarrsiv nvoi votfou, to free any one from disease. 
 
 D&t. SiSovcu i/xaurov <nj tfoXs/, to give myself to the state. 
 
 In these examples the immediate object of the active verb is 
 in the accusative followed by the remote object, the one in the 
 genitive and the other in the dative. 
 
 Gen. cpsj&tf^ai twv ^'<pwv, to spare (i. e. to be sparing of) 
 
 the kids. 
 . Dat. (3or\QsTv dj itwrgiSi, to aid (i. e. to render assistance 
 
 to) my country. 
 
 In these examples the verbs are neuter, and have no imme- 
 diate object ; but their meaning refers to £ji<pwv and tfwgidt as 
 their remote objects. Yet, though the verbs are considered as 
 neuter in Greek, owing to the different genius of the language 
 they may be rendered by verbs considered active in English 
 as appears in the translation. Indeed, the distinction betweer 
 the immediate and remote object is but little observed in o\ii 
 language ; and hence many verbs which are neuter in Greeb 
 are in English considered as active. 
 
 Obs. 2. Though the object of an active verb is always in the- 
 accusative, yet the accusative after a verb is not always its im- 
 mediate object. When a verb is followed by two accusative^ 
 one is the immediate and the other its remote object. 
 
 Obs. 3. With respect to the remote object, it matters but lit 
 tie whether, with some, we consider its case as depending on, 
 the verb; or, with others, on some preposition or' other wore 
 understood. 
 
 Almost all the varieties and apparent anomalies of govern 
 ment may be reduced to these principles by supplying plaii 
 and common ellipses ; still considering that the case following 
 will be regulated by the prominent idea in the mind of th 
 speaker, and the manner in which he regards it. 
 
 § 22a OF THE GENITIVE. 
 
 The Genitive is in extensive use in the Greek language, hv 
 ing used in many cases in which the ablative is used in Latir, 
 
 Its primary, as well as its general and leading idea, is thaij 
 of origin or cause, expressed in English by the prepositions < 
 
§ 220. OF THE GENITIVE. 299 
 
 and from ; and this idea may be traced without much difficulty 
 through air the varieties of construction by which it is modi- 
 fied. 
 
 The numerous and diversified uses of this case are reduced 
 by Matthiae to the following heads : 
 
 I. In Greek, words of all kinds may be followed by other 
 words in the genitive when the latter class limits and shews 
 in what respect the meaning of the former is to be taken. 
 When used for this purpose, they may usually be rendered by 
 such phrases as " with respect to" " in respect of;" thus, 
 
 (1.) With verbs ; as, ws #o<5wv s'/p^ov, as fast as they could run, 
 i. e. as they had themselves with respect to their feet; xak&g 
 s^siv pi6ij£, to have one's self well with respect to intoxication ; 
 dcp&Wstf&ai sXiriSog, to be deceived with respect to hope ; xcvrsa- 
 ya rr t g xz<poChv\g, I am broken with respect to my head, i. e. I have 
 i brokBn my head. 
 
 (2.) With adjectives ; tfuy^vw^wv <rwv dvGgwirivuiv a/xafr^aTwv, 
 forgiving with respect to human errors ; syyvg *% <7ro>iw£, near 
 with respect to the city ; yv\ #Xsia xaxwv, a land full of (i. e. with 
 respect to) evils ; fxs*'£wv tfocr^os, greater than (i. e. with respect to) 
 his father. 
 
 Obs. To this principle, then, may be referred the construction 
 of the genitive 
 
 1 . With all words which represent a situation or operation 
 of the mind, which is directed to an object, but without affect- 
 ing it : such as verbs signifying to remember, to forget, to neglect, 
 &c. ; and objectives signifying experienced, ignorant, desirous, &c. 
 
 2. With all words which indicate fulness, to be full, defect, 
 emptiness, &c. Under this head fall adjectives signifying /w//, 
 rich, empty, deprived of, &c. ; and adverbs denoting abundance, 
 want, sufficiency, &c. 
 
 3. To this principle must be referred the construction of the 
 genitive with the comparative degree, § 226 : with all words de- 
 noting superiority, inferiority, and where a comparison is made 
 with respect to the value of a thing ; as, agios rourov, worthy of 
 this, i. e. equal in value ivith.respect to this ; or where the idea 
 of difference is involved. 
 
 4. When that with respect to which a thing is done may al- 
 so be considered the cause of its being done, the word express- 
 ing it is often put in the genitive, and may be rendered " on ac- 
 eount of;" as, (pQoveTv <rivi <f o 9 1 a g, to envy one on account of wis- 
 dom. Hence it is used with verbs signifying to accuse or crimi- 
 nate, to pray, to begin } &c. ; and also without another word in ex- 
 clamations. 
 
300 OP THE GENITIVE. § 220. 
 
 II. The genitive in Greek is put to express the relation of a 
 whole to its parts ; i. e. it is put partitively. Hence it is put with 
 verbs of all kinds, even with those that govern the accusative 
 when the action does not refer to the whole, but to a part ; as, 
 otfrSjtfaj xf swv, to roast some of the flesh ; iy& of<5a rwv s/xwv r\Ku 
 xiwtwv, I know some of those of my age. Hence, also, it is put 
 with verbs which signify to share, to participate, &c. 
 
 On this principle is founded the construction of the genitive 
 of the part affected, after verbs signifying " to take" " to seize" 
 "to touch" &c. Hence, also, it is put with the superlative degree 
 to express the class" of which that one, or those marked by the 
 superlative, form a part. 
 
 III. The genitive is used to mark the origin or cause from 
 which any thing proceeds ; and hence, the person or thing to 
 which any thing belongs, whether it be a property or quality ', 
 habit, duty, &c. Hence, also, verbs govern the genitive which 
 express feelings and operations of the mind which are the re- 
 sult of external impressions, or when they denote motions and 
 actions in bodies which are the effects of the operation of other 
 bodies. Thus, verbs which express the sensations of hearing, 
 tasting, touching, &c. as well as those which signify to admire ) 
 to care for, to desire, &c. are followed by the genitive of the ob- 
 ject heard, tasted, touched, admired, or cared for, because it is. 
 viewed as the source, origin, or cause, of these sensations and 
 operations. Hence, also, the common rules, that " verbs denot- 
 ing possession, property, or duty, Sec. govern the genitive ;" that 
 " the material of which any thing is made is put in the geni- 
 tive '" and that "one substantive governs another in the genitive" 
 
 " IV. The genitive is also governed by certain prepositions, 
 and by verbs compounded with prepositions; that is to say, 
 when the prepositions may be separated from the verb and 
 placed before the genitive without altering the sense. 
 
 V. The genitive is used to determine place and. time in an- 
 swer to the questions " where ?" "when?" &c. Hence the 
 adverbs ou, <xov, <kou, where; which are, in fact, old genitives, 
 and refer to part of place or time in general. 
 
 Obs. To the general principles contained in these five heads 
 may all cases be referred which occur under all the following 
 rules for the genitive case, as it is governed, 
 
 I. By substantives ; II. By adjectives ; III. By 
 verbs; IV. By adverbs; V. By prepositions; 
 VI. As used elliptically to express certain cir- 
 cumstances of time, place, manner, &c. 
 
§ 221. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. 301 
 
 § 221, I. OF THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY 
 SUBSTANTIVES. 
 
 Rule V. One substantive governs another 
 signifying a different thing in the genitive ; as, 
 
 e O 3swv tfar?^, The father of the Gods. 
 
 aval; a'^wv, King of men. 
 
 This rule is founded on the general principle mentioned 
 § 220. III. 
 
 Obs. 1. The latter substantive generally expresses the class 
 or kind to which the former belongs, or some relation of origin, 
 muse, possession, or property ; and the rule extends to pro- 
 nouns, and to all words used as substantives. 
 
 Obs. 2. The personal pronoun governed in the genitive by 
 i substantive, is often used it the sense of the possessive pro- 
 loun ; as, o ^ar^ jxou instead of 6 s.aos «^a7^, my father. This 
 Construction, which is common with the pronouns of the 1st. 
 jind 2d. person, is almost always used with the third, the pos- 
 ! iessives of the third person (og, tfcpsrsgog) being but little used. 
 ; But if emphasis be required, the possessive alone can be used, to 
 jvhich, however, is sometimes added a genitive by a sort of ap- 
 losition ; as, Siagirafyvtfi roc s/jba, <rou xaxoSxiiiovog, they plunder 
 he property of me, the miserable. (§ 195. Obs. 4, and § 205.) 
 
 Obs. 3. The noun governing the genitive is frequently un- 
 erstood ; as, 
 
 (1.) After the article, such words as uior, l^ro^, hyarr^ 
 ic. ; as, MiXr/o^yjs o Kijxwvos (sup. uio's), Miltiades, the son of 
 4mm ; <rot g% t^yjs (sup. Su^ara), the gifts of fortune. 
 (2.) Oncog or 6wpia after a preposition ; as, h tfarfos, (sup, 
 
 r"/xa) to the house of her father ; sl$ S5ov (sup. do/xov), to Hades ; 
 a<5ou (sup. 6o(xcj). in Hades. 
 (3.) After the verbs e/fw, yivo/xai, iflraf^w, &c. see § 227. Rem. 
 
 BOJs. 4. When the noun in the genitive signifies a person, it 
 ay often be taken in an active or passive sense ; thus, y yvwcfig 
 iu 0aou, the knowledge of God. In this sentence, God may 
 "ther be the subject or the object of the knowledge spo- 
 [ 3n of, i. e. the phrase may denote our knowledge of God or 
 \ .3 knowledge of us ; tfodos uJou, generally, (not the regret of thy 
 , . <n, viz. which he has, but) regret for thy son; dvSfos eSpivsia 
 x mSS) good- will towards such a man. 
 Rem. 1. This passive sense of the genitive is more com- 
 
 26 
 
302 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY SUBSTANTIVES. § 221. 
 
 mon when the governing 1 noun is derived from a verb which 
 usually governs the dative, and when the substantive is in one 
 sense the cause, and in another the object, of that which is ex- 
 pressed by the other ; as, vsgrsgwv Sugripara, offerings (not of 
 but) toy, the dead ; evy^outok IlaXkaSog^ prayers to Pallas ; >j fo5v 
 nXarais'wv stfiflV^arsfa, the march against the Platceans. 
 
 Rem. 2. Nouns thus derived, however, are more frequently 
 followed by the dative ; as, r\ Mouoicov Sotfis dvdj uffoitfiv, the gifts 
 of the Muses to men ; sometimes by the preposition slg with 
 the accusative ; as, dswv slg avftgurfovg 8&<fig a gift of the Gods 
 to men. § 234. 
 
 Obs. 5. Many substantives derived from words w r hich govern 
 the genitive, are often followed by a genitive governed by the 
 force of the primitive contained in the derivative ; thus, ^XsuAtl 
 tog tfovou, § 223, free from labour ; hence iXsv&egiot. tfo'vou, free- 
 dom from labour; xgarsTv ^<5ovwv, § 231, to be superior to plea- 
 sures ; hence, iyxgarsia ^5ovwv, mastery over or moderation in 
 pleasures ; dx^ctrsia ?j5ovwv, subjection to or want of moderation in 
 pleasures ; i-mou^fxa q% %i6vo£, protection against the snow, 
 
 Obs. 6. Sometimes the genitive after a substantive is go- 
 verned not so properly by the substantive as by a preposition 
 understood. These generally express the material of which a 
 thing is made, or the author or source from which it proceeds, 
 § 247. Obs. 3. ; as, cW<pavos (sg) dv^juuwv, a crown of flowers ; 
 p^aXxou ayakiia (scil. sx) a helmet of brass ; itsvbog (d?ro) (Johjxovwv, 
 grief sent from the Gods ; ('far') 'H^as dXarsra;, wanderings caus- 
 ed by Juno. 
 
 Note. In this way, perhaps, the examples, Obs. 5. may be resolved; 
 
 as, i\svdepia aitb x6vov. 
 
 Obs. 7. A noun in the genitive, after another of the same 
 kind, denotes either the highest pre-eminence or the lowest in- 
 feriority ; as, (3ac[i\s7 j3a<fikiuv, to the king of kings ; 5oOXo£ | 
 5ouXwv, a slave of slaves. 
 
 Obs. 8. A substantive governing the genitive is put for an ad- 
 jective; as, fiadog ffig. (§ 196. Obs. 2. (5.)) Sometimes the 
 substantive governed in the genitive is put for the adjectiye ; as, 
 ag^a iWwv Nitfaiwv, a chariot drawn by Nisosan horses ; XmSfc 
 jfiovos tfrsgug, a snow-white wing. This is probably an ellipsis 
 of the construction § 196. Obs. 2. (4.) 
 
 Obs. 9. Sometimes one substantive governs two different 
 genitives in different relations ; as, vtfsSws rwv 'Iwvwv <njv 7?yep- 
 vfyv tou #f os AageTov tfoXe'/xou, he assumed the leading of the 
 Ionians in the war against Darius ; <rwv oixsiuv irgQitifhotxitfsis r.ou 
 yhgwtp the insults 0/* relations to old age. 
 
§ 222, SPECIAL RULES. 303 
 
 Obs. 10. The Attics use a noun in the genitive, preceded 
 by a neuter article, for the noun itself; as, to <nfc tu^s for r h 
 t^XA) fortune ; <rdt rwv gccjgafwv cwnoVa saV* for ol §a£§afo/, the bar- 
 barians are not to be trusted. 
 
 Obs. 1 1 . Instead of the genitive, a noun with a preposition 
 is frequently found ; as, dru^'a r\ veegl <rou 6/ou, the evils o/* /*/!?, 
 for ari^ia Ij'ou. 
 
 Ofo. 12. The dative, or, instead of it, the accusative, with 
 Big or xcwu expressed or understood, is often used for the geni- 
 tive, or more properly where the genitive would be used in 
 other languages : as, r£j 'Av5^ai t aov» 6 rapos, the tomb of Jin- 
 dromon. 
 
 . Rem. In strict language, no case can be said properly to be 
 used for another ; when it appears to be so, its government is 
 to be accounted for on a different principle. See § 236. Obs. 1. 
 
 § 222. SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 Rule 1. An adjective or article in the neuter 
 gender without a substantive governs the geni- 
 ' tive ; as, 
 
 to tfoXXov <rr ( $ rf<rf ariyjs, the greatest part of the army, 
 ret rr)$ rj5)pjs, the gifts of fortune. 
 
 Obs. The adjective in the neuter gender is either itself con* 
 sidered as a substantive, (§ 197. Obs. 7.) or as having a sub- 
 stantive understood, which is properly the governing word. 
 
 Rule 2. A substantive added to another to 
 express a quality or circumstance belonging to 
 it, is put in the genitive ; as, 
 
 dvr)g jxsyaX'/js dgs<rr t s } a man of great virtue. 
 
 Obs. 1. The substantive in the genitive has commonly an 
 adjective with it, as in the example above, but sometimes not ; 
 as, #6Xs|xo£ ovk oVXwv dXXa <5atfav7]£ } a war, not of weapons, but 
 of money. But 
 
 Obs. 2. The substantive expressing the quality or circum- 
 stance of another, is more commonly put in the accusative go- 
 verned by xara or Sid. ; as, dvVj£ cVou&xfos tov <rfoVov, a man of 
 ingenuous disposition* 
 
304 I|. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 223. 
 
 § 223. II. OF THE GENITIVE AS GOVERNED 
 BY ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Rule VI. Verbal adjectives, and such as sig- 
 nify an affection or operation of the mind, go- 
 vern the genitive ; as, 
 
 dv0£wtfwv ^X^wv, hurtful to men. 
 s^ftSigos [Aoutfix^s, skilled in music. 
 
 Ob$. 1. The principle on which this rule is founded is con- 
 tained in § 220. I. & Obs. 1. But others suppose that the • 
 foundation of the principle, as well as of the rule, is to be 
 sought in the ellipsis of a preposition, such as rfsgl, which is 
 sometimes expressed ; as, vrsgi <rwv ts^vwv stfiov^wv, skilled in 
 the arts. However plausible this supposition may be, it mili- 
 tates strongly against it that we have the same rule in Latin 
 in which there is no preposition that governs the genitive. The 
 stronger probability is, that the rule in both languages is to be 
 referred to the same general principle already referred to. 
 
 Obs. 2. Under this rule are comprehended, 
 
 (1.) Adjectives denoting action or capacity, which are de- 
 rived from verbs or corresponding to them, especially -those in 
 "Tog, -ixogj and -*jpio$. 
 
 (2.) Many adjectives compounded with a privative (§ 167. 
 1. (1.)) : as, Mstxk^i koli dvyxoog owravrwv, ivithout seeing ox hear- 
 ing of any thing. 
 
 (3.) Participles used in an adjective sense, especially among 
 the poets ; as, tfS(pi»yfi»svos asO\u\i, free from troubles; ofwvwv 
 s!5wj£, skilful in augury. 
 
 Note. These, however, are often followed by the accusative ; as, 
 
 situs adenicna, skilled in wickedness. 
 
 (4.) Adjectives expressing a state or operation of mind : as, 
 desire, aversion, care, knowledge, ignorance, memory, f or getfulness, 
 profusion, parsimony, and the like. 
 
 (5.) Adjectives derived from, or of a similar signification 
 with verbs which govern the genitive; as, sVIxou£o£ -]*(>x ov $> 
 tfxorou, serviceable against cold, darkness, &c< 
 
§ 224, 225, GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES 305 
 
 §224. 
 
 Rule VIL Adjectives signifying plenty or want, 
 &c. govern the genitive ; as, 
 
 fj.20Vo£ &opu§qv, full of confusion. 
 sgv\ikos dvSgftv, destitute of men. 
 For the principle of this rule, see § 220. L and Obs. 2, 
 Obs. Under this rule are comprehended, 
 
 1.. Adjectives of fulness, plenty, and want; value, dignity, loorth, 
 and the contrary. 
 
 2. Adjectives expressive of power, eminence, superiority, and 
 their opposites ; also, of participation, diversity, separation, pecu- 
 liarity, or property, and the like. 
 
 3. Adjectives followed by the genitive of the cause ; as, a0Xio£ 
 <rr)g rxi-fflSj miserable on account of fortune. 
 
 Note. Adjectives of plenty and want sometimes govern the dative \ 
 
 I as, d(pvsidg nrj^ois, abounding in fruits. 
 
 225. 
 
 Rule VIII. Partitives, and words placed parti- 
 lively, comparatives, superlatives, interrogatives, 
 indefinites, and some numerals, govern the geni- 
 tive plural ; as, 
 
 1. twv avflfwtfwv g! i&sv ifocpoi, o! So ou, of the men some were 
 
 wise, others not. 
 ' 2. o'ivaXoLioi <rwv nchirpw, the ancient poets. 
 
 ' 3. sv <rwv tfXoiwv, one of the ships. 
 
 4. crjwros 'A^vatwv, the first of the Athenians. 
 
 5. 6 vcw-7S£o£ twv a5sX(pwv, the younger of the bro* 
 
 thers. 
 
 6. eyjutros (3<x<fi\sCuv most hated of kings. 
 
 For the principle of this rule, see § 220. II. It has also 
 been supposed that the genitive under this rule is properly go- 
 verned by h or 6wh. The same remark made § 223, Obs. 1, 
 is also applicable here, and for the same reason, viz. that the 
 same rule holds in Latin which has no preposition governing 
 the genitive. 
 
 Obs. 1. All words are denominated partitives which express 
 
 26* 
 
306 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. § 225* 
 
 a part of any number or class of objects, the whole being ex- 
 pressed by the noun following it in the genitive. The words 
 used partitively are for the most part, 1st. The article with 
 juiv or 8e, as ex. 1st. or in the sense of the relative with a partici- 
 ple following'; as, ol xaroLCpuyavres aikwv, those of them who fled. 
 2d. Adjectives , viz. such as express a part of some whole, as 
 ex. 2d. numeral adjectives, cardinal and ordinal, as ex. 3d. and 
 4th. comparatives, as ex. 5th. superlatives, as ex. 6th. 3d. 
 Pronouns, viz. interrogatives ; as, rig i3|xwv ; which of you 1 in- 
 definites ; as, Tig ufxwv, some one of you ; otfris v^Zv, whichsoever 
 of you. Distributives ; as, ^jawv sxaoVos, each of us. 
 
 Obs. 2. The genitive after the partitive is sometimes govern- 
 ed by the preposition ix or ig ; as, || ottfatfojv ^ xaXXfoVrj, *Ae 
 mssZ beautiful of all. And sometimes, instead of the genitive, 
 there is found a preposition with another case ; as, xaXXftfry] 
 h rcLtg yuvaig;, fairest among women ; so in Latin justissimus in 
 Teucris. 
 
 Obs. 3. Instead of the genitive, the case of the partitive is 
 sometimes used ; as, rovg (pi'Xous tovg f/iv ditsxrsivs, S0?we of his 
 friends he slew. 
 
 Obs. 4. The partitives rfc and sTg are sometimes omitted ; 
 as, <pgjw tfot GVoX^v twv xaXXltfrwy (sc. fju'av), I bring you a s;en/ 
 excellent robe ; y&eke twv juusvovtwv sfvoci (sc. s%), he desired to be 
 one of those who remained. On this principle is explained such 
 phrases as stfn rwv klitygm (sc. slg) for ifci ctkxfog, he is base, 
 (literally "one of the base.") 
 
 Obs. 5. Partitives agree in gender with the substantives 
 which follow in the genitive. When two substantives follow 
 in the genitive, the partitives, &c. commonly agree with the 
 former, but sometimes with the latter. 
 
 Obs. 6. Collective nouns are governed by partitives in the 
 genitive singular. 
 
 Obs. 7. Adjectives in the positive/am, but conveying a su- 
 perlative sense, on the principle of this rule govern the genitive 
 plural ; as, s'So^os cravrwv, the most excellent of all ; 87a Gsauv, 
 goddess of goddesses, (i. e. supreme goddess) ; 8 fa yuvaixwv, 
 most excellent of women. Also nouns compounded with a in a 
 privative sense ; as, a^aXxos &frri#gv, unarmed with brazen 
 shields. 
 
 Obs. 8. On a similar principle an adjective in the genitive 
 plural sometimes accompanies substantives of all kinds, in order 
 to mark the class to which the person or thing mentioned be- 
 longs ; as, r^o)(hg rwv xsgafxsixwv, a wheel of the class of the earth- 
 en, i. e. an earthen wheel ; tfiXsxvg <rwv vuvirvi'yixtjv, an axe of 
 those belonging to ship-builders. 
 
§ 226, GENITIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 30? 
 
 § 226. 
 
 Rule IX. The Comparative degree governs 
 the genitive ; as, 
 
 yXuxiwv fjbs'Xiros, sweeter than honey, 
 
 xgsfarfwv oiWiffAou <p0ovo$, envy is better than pity. 
 
 The principle of this rule is stated § 220. I. and Obs. 3. 
 There is not the same objection to the usual explanation of this 
 rule by supplying the preposition rfgo or dvri that is stated 
 § 223. Obs. I. Yet the analogy of the cases already referred 
 to are opposed to this explanation, and seem to render it more 
 proper to refer to the general principle above stated. At the 
 same time it must be noticed, that after the comparative de- 
 gree the genitive, is sometimes governed by one of these prepo- 
 sitions expressed ; as, oTtfn v\ tvgavvig tff o sXsu^i'yjs %v afftfatfro- 
 Tigov, to whom tyrranny was more agreeable than liberty ; but 
 this will not decide in favour of explaining the construction un- 
 der this rule by supplying the preposition, any more than it did 
 in the other, § 225. Obs. 2. 
 
 Obs. 1. The conjunction % (than) is almost always omitted 
 before the genitive ; it occurs, however, in a few sentences ; as, 
 <pwva yXuxejwrsga \ f/,sXw?jjw, a voice sweeter than honeycomb. 
 So Virgil, " graviora quam monte Sichaei ." The genitives «rou- 
 tou and ou, governed by a comparative, are often followed by 
 an explanation with v\ ; as, oux bfrj rovSs itaidl xaXXiov ysjag fj 
 noLrgog iddXov xdyaQov #s<puxsvai, there is no greater honour 
 to children than this, to be descended from a brave and virtuous fa- 
 ther, 
 
 Obs. 2. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence being equi- 
 valent to a noun (§ 265. 1, and II.), is sometimes governed in 
 the genitive by a comparative ; as, <ro cpuXagai t' ayaGa rou 
 X7v\<fk(t6ai xaXstforsjov sav/, to preserve property is more difficult 
 than to gain it. 
 
 Obs. 3. Words which imply a comparison govern the geni- 
 tive on the same principle ; these are 
 
 (1.) Such words as express difference ; as, tfsgitfcros, 8efosgog } 
 vtfrsgos ; also, 5ia(pofo£, sVsgos, aXXos, dXXoibs, dXXor£io£. 
 
 (2.) Multiplicative numbers ; as, (WXatfios, *j i<jrXatfio£ ; as, 
 oiffXatfiov Se7 axousiv tou Xsysiv, one should hear twice as much as 
 he speaks. 
 
30S GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 227. 
 
 § 227. III. OF THE GENITIVE GOVERNED BY 
 VERBS. 
 
 Rule X, The person or thing to which any 
 thing belongs, is put in the genitive after ufil yi- 
 vofiai vTt&Qxeo ; as, 
 
 ifal <rou §a<ftXs'wff, it belongs to the king, 
 
 slvai iaurou, to be his own (master.) 
 
 couxaXwffgroXsfAsrv.ro alacrity is necessary to fight well; 
 i6i\siv sVc/, i. e. belongs to it. 
 
 Rem. For the principle of this rule, see § 220. III. Consis- 
 tently with this, in constructions of this kind, a substantive may 
 be considered as understood, which is the governing word. 
 
 Obs. 1. Yet here also we "have the genitive governed di- 
 rectly by a preposition expressed, indicating that from which 
 the quality, &c. proceeds ; as, oux ifai <zfos croXswff, it is not pro- 
 per for the state ; i. e. it is not a thing proceeding from the state. 
 On this principle are to be explained such sentences as the fol- 
 lowing ; oux ayu^ai tout' dvtJ^off a£/0Vs'off, I do not approve this 
 in a prince ; i. e. tfgbg av<5foff, &c. from a prince; coOVo stfaivw 
 'Ay^tfiXaou, I commend this in Agesilaus ; touto fiifjwpovrai f^a- 
 Xiara ^fi,5v, this they blame chiefly in us. 
 
 Obs. 2. Some verbs govern the genitive by the force of a 
 noun implied in them ; thus, <ruf avvsusiv is equivalent to cujawoff 
 sTvou ; and hence irvgawsvs Ko£i'v0ou, he was king of Corinth ) 
 is equivalent to rugawog ^v, &c. 
 
 Rule XL Verbs expressing the operation of 
 the senses, govern the genitive ; as, 
 
 KKv&i ixsvj hear me. 
 
 f/rtj fAou atfrou, touch me not. 
 
 Exc. 1. Verbs of seeing govern the accusative; as, <£>sov 
 tyovroLi, they shall see God. 
 
 Exc. 2. In the Attic dialect all verbs of sense govern the 
 accusative ; and sometimes, though very rarely, in the other 
 dialects ; as, ojxoutfa <pwv7jv, I heard a voice ; oyXay^va sVatfavro, 
 they tasted the entrails. 
 
 Obs. 1. The principle on which verbs under this rule, and 
 some of those that follow, govern the genitive, is that the word 
 in the genitive, following the verb, is viewed as the origin or 
 cause) in some way or other, of the sensation, or of the act or 
 
§ 228. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 309 
 
 state expressed by the verb. § 220. III. Thus, in the opera- 
 tion of the senses, the sensation is supposed to proceed from, 
 or to be caused by, the object impressing the senses, which is 
 therefore put in the genitive as the case which expresses ori- 
 gin or cause ; but as the Greeks accounted differently for the 
 phenomena of vision, a different construction is used in express- 
 ing it. In this the eye was not viewed as passive, and receiv- 
 ing the impression from the object seen, but as directing its own 
 action to it ; hence the verb was viewed as active, and was 
 followed by the accusative. 
 
 Obs. 2. When other verbs of sensation govern the accusa- 
 tive (as among the Attics, &c. Exc. 2.), or when other verbs 
 enumerated among those governing the genitive are followed 
 by an accusative, it must be owing to a difference in the man- 
 ner of conceiving of the action, tn such a case the subject of 
 the verb is not viewed as acting from an impulse received from % 
 or originating ivitk, an external object, but as exerting its own 
 action upon it. This view of the principles of construction 
 will enable us to account for some verbs at one time governing 
 the genitive, and at another being followed by an accusative or 
 dative, without any apparent difference in the circumstances to 
 authorize such a change. 
 
 Od$. 3. If, after verbs winch usually govern the genitive, 
 the genitive is governed by a preposition interposed, the prepo- 
 sition generally corresponds to the idea of origin or cause, &c 
 expressed by the genitive (as A<iro, tfg&s, and the like); and 
 thus, instead of militating against the principles stated above, 
 it adds its own force to that of the genitive, giving emphasis 
 and distinction to the sentence. But to suppose from this that 
 when the genitive follows a verb it is always governed by a 
 substantive or preposition understood, besides being wholly un- 
 necessary on the principles already stated, serves only to de- 
 stroy the original and characteristic simplicity of the language, 
 and to render its construction perplexed and intricate. 
 
 §228. 
 
 Rule XII. Verbs signifying an operation of 
 
 he mind, govern the genitive ; as, 
 
 daufjboo^w tfou, 1" admire you. 
 
 dpe'ksig twv cpi'Xwv, you neglect your friends. 
 
 Verbs which come under this rule govern the genitive on the 
 
310 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 229. 
 
 principles stated § 220. I. and Obs. 1. also III. It applies 
 generally .to verbs which signify 
 
 1. To pity , to spare, to care for, or neglect ; as, itfifxeXsib'daf, x^&tf- 
 
 Qcu, <pgovri£siv, akeyi^stv, u^s'heTv, oXtyogsTv. 
 
 2, To remember or forget ; as, fM/cca^oei, fAv^ovsusn/, Xavdavs<r#ai, 
 
 &c. with their compounds. But these frequently govern 
 the accusative. 
 
 3, To consider, to refect, to perceive or understand ; "these also 
 
 govern the accusative, § 227. Obs. 2. 
 
 4. To admire, to aim a/, to desire or to foa^e, to revere or to de- 
 
 Obs. Many of these verbs taken actively (i. e. signifying to 
 cause the operation of mind they express) govern the accusa- 
 tive of the person with the genitive of the object ; as, iks'iw™,- 
 (fiv s irctrgog, he put him in mind of his father; sysvtfag jas su<5ai- 
 fjiovta^ you have caused me to taste of happiness. Verbs thus used 
 are sometimes denominated causatives or incentives, and hence 
 the 
 
 Rule. Causatives govern the accusative of 
 the person with the genitive of the thing. 
 
 § 229. 
 
 Rule XIII. Active verbs govern the genitive 
 when they refer to a part only, and not to the 
 vjhole of the object ; as, 
 
 !W <rou v§a<rog, he drank of the zoater. 
 
 This construction depends on the principle stated § 220. II. 
 or we may consider the expression elliptical, and supply some 
 such word as (*>sgot 9 a part, or ri, some, as the direct object of 
 the verb, and which governs the genitive according to Rules 
 V and VIII. 
 
 To this rule belong more especially such verbs as signify 
 
 1 . To share, participate, or impart, which with the genitive of 
 
 the thing frequently govern the dative of the person to 
 whom it is imparted ; as, 
 psraSiSwiu <r& adsXcpti twv ^frj- I share the property with my 
 fAaruv, brother. 
 
 2. To receive, obtain, or enjoy ; as, <nfj% eXa^s, he gained ho* 
 
 now ; iw Xa§wf/<sv cr^oX^, if we get leisure. 
 
§230. GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 311 
 
 Note 1. Verbs of similar signification, used impersonally with the 
 genitive, govern also the dative of the person, § 239. Obs. 1. 
 
 Note 2. Aa/x6avojuat, ftsr^a), K^povofxiia^ \ayxdvu), rvyxdvu), sometimes 
 govern the accusative of the thing ; Kapirdoixai always. Kk^ovo^iui with 
 the accusative of the thing, governs also the genitive of the person from 
 whom it is received ; as, iK\ij^ov6jxr}as rov rarpoj rd KTfipara, he inherited 
 his possessions from his father ; sometimes it governs the genitive of 
 loth. 
 
 3. Verbs signifying to take, to seize, and their contraries ; to 
 touch or to carry, especially in the middle voice with the accu- 
 sative of the whole, govern the genitive of the part affected; as, 
 sXaSovro t$j£ £wv?]£ rov 'O^ovr^v, they seized Orontes by the girdle. 
 
 Note. But iLtQUcQai, to let go, governs only the genitive ; so also a<pU<r- 
 Oai, to let go; but when it signifies to throw, it governs the accusative. 
 -npoUaOai governs sometimes the genitive and sometimes the accusative. 
 Also !;\;o/*ai, in the sense of to hang upon, io he joined to, or succeed; as* 
 \ipvri 6* e^srai rov (T^y.aTos, a lake extends to the sepulchre. 
 
 §230. 
 
 Rule XIV. Verbs of plenty or want, filling [or 
 depriving, separation or distance? govern the geni- 
 tive ; as, 
 
 sutf o psT x^&^uv, he abounds in riches. 
 
 X£ugVj vY}y]tfa(fQu \y\a, let him fill his ship %oith gold. 
 SsTtfQcu x^fjiarwv, to be in ivant of money. 
 
 For the general principle on which this rule depends, see 
 § 220. I. and Obs. 2. 
 
 Obs. 1. Cinder this rule may be comprehended verbs which 
 express the general idea of separation, or which signify 
 
 1. To beg or entreat; as, dhpai tfou, I beg of you. 
 
 2. To bereave or deprive ; as, dVsgs'w, difotfrsgiu. 
 
 3. To deliver, loose, or set free ; as, sXsudsfo'w, Xuw, ckcc- 
 Xatftfw. 
 
 4. To escape ; as, ixysvyu, aXutfxw. 
 
 5. To keep off to hinder, or prevent, to desist; as, xwXu'w, 
 sgriTSuw, e'x^ (scil. Tjvdc Tivog) s'igyopui, &c« 
 
 6. To differ from, to be distant, to abstain ; as, fts^w, atfs'x w » 
 <5iaXa<rrw, Siacpigu, anrs-xp^ai. But some verbs of differ- 
 ing govern also the dative ; as, diacpsgu tfoi, I differ 
 from you. 
 
 7. To separate, to repel, or drive away ; as, x°i { T W > < ^ ,0 ? i T w j 
 - dfAuvw, dXaXxw, ayffigw, &wxw, &c. 
 
312 GENITIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 23L 
 
 8. To make way for, or retire from, to resign; as, s?xw, 
 
 9. To err, to cause to err ; as, utfotfXavaofjuxi, a^oruy^avojxaij 
 afjuagravw, tfXavaw. 
 
 10. To cease, to cawse to cease ; as, tfauw, tfauo/^ai, X->jyu ? &c. 
 
 11. To deceive, frustrate, or disappoint; as, ^sufojuuai, flraj'w, 
 tf9<xXXofxa/, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. Many of these verbs are active ; and, with the geni- 
 tive of the remote object, govern the accusative of the direct 
 object ; thus, under N°. 3. tfs <rou<5' iXevfegZ cpovou, I clear you of 
 this murder ; atpougeTtfAai, to deprive, sometimes governs the accu- 
 sative and genitive, sometimes two accusatives, and sometimes 
 the accusative and dative. 
 
 Obs. 3. The genitive after these verbs, whether active or 
 neuter, is sometimes governed by a preposition intervening, the 
 effect of which is to give emphasis to the expression ; as, sXsu- 
 tisp&tfag <ri)v 'EXXot&x dctfo cwv M>j<5wv, having liberated Greece 
 from the Medes. § 227. Obs. 3. 
 
 § 231. 
 
 Rule XV. Verbs of ruling, presiding over, ex- 
 celling, and the contrary, govern the genitive ; as, 
 
 tfoXXwv i'dvwv &PX Slv > t° ru ^ e over f^omj nations. 
 
 twv tffayixowwv s<iri(fra<rs7v, to have the superintendance of 
 
 affairs. 
 
 This rule is also dependent on the principle stated § 220. I. 
 see Obs. 3. 
 
 Obs. 1. The verbs which come under this rule are those 
 which signify 
 
 1. To ride ; as, %X W > x £«»vw, 5s<firi%u 9 <5uvaoVsi/w, igovda^w, 
 
 2. To reign ; as, <ru£ otvvsuw, §aCjXsuw, avatftfw. 
 
 3. To lead ; as, tye o/juai, t^/aovsuw, fapurriysu. 
 
 4. To preside over ; as, iirtfroLrs w. 
 
 5. To survive, or to #e o#er; as, tfegiei&i. 
 
 6. To surpass, or ezce/; as, *|wteow, iks£?aivw, ffg£j£aXXw, 
 Siayigu, tfSfiyivofxai. 
 
 7. To oeg-fn, i. e. to be first, to lead the way ; as, agxcpai > 
 so af x w ) ^^fX w ) *a™px w * 
 
§ 232, 233. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 313 
 
 8. The contrary are such as signify to be ruled ) led, pre- 
 sided over, &c. ; to obey, to be inferior to, to be worsted, or 
 overcome. 
 
 Obs. 2. Many verbs under this rule sometimes govern the 
 dative ; as, dvatfa'k), (fyjxa/vw, x£ariaj, ^ysojxai,- ^ysjaovs^w, #fx w * 
 And sometimes the accusative. 
 
 § 232. 
 
 Rule XVI. Verbs of buying, selling, estimat- 
 ing, &c. govern the genitive of the price ; as, 
 
 wvyjtfafjwjv roDVo rfivrs 5^a^fxwv, I bought this for Jive drachma. 
 dgioSrai Sw'hrig rijuSjg, he is esteemed worthy of efcw- 
 
 Me honour. 
 
 The genitive in this construction is properly governed by 
 dvTi understood, sometimes expressed. The price is sometimes 
 put in the dative with the preposition iw, and sometimes in the 
 accusative with the preposition tff o£. 
 
 N. B. — For the construction of the genitive with the accu- 
 sative, see § 241 ; also, for the genitive governed by adverbs, 
 see § 255, 256 : by prepositions, § 259 ; and as used to express 
 certain circumstances, § 247, 248, and from § 251 to 254. 
 
 § 233. CONSTRUCTION OF THE DATIVE. 
 
 The dative has, in general, two significations : 
 
 1. It is used to express the remote object to which any quality 
 or action, or any state or condition of things tends, or to which 
 they refer ; which tendency is usually expressed in English by 
 the words to or for. As thus used it corresponds to the dative 
 in Latin, and is subject to nearly the same rules. 
 
 2. It is used to express that with which any thing is connect- 
 ed as an accompaniment, cause, instrument, manner, means, or end. 
 This connexion is usually expressed in English by such words 
 as with, by, from, in, for, or on account of Used in this way, it 
 corresponds to the ablative in Latin, both in meaning and con- 
 struction. 
 
 27 
 
314 THE DATIVE GOVERNED, BY ADJECTIVES. § 234, 235. 
 
 § 234. OF THE DATIVE AFTER SUBSTAN- 
 TIVES. 
 
 Rule XVII. Substantives derived from verbs 
 which govern the dative, sometimes govern the 
 dative also ; as, 
 
 fy rou Qsov Sdtfig u/xiv, the gift of God to you. 
 
 7} h Tco ^oX^w rofs cpi\oi$ /3o^£ja, the assistance to friends in 
 
 war. 
 ££ ivTiXoyicnv roTg £iW*X°'£) f° r tne contradiction of 
 
 your allies. 
 Because <5i(5w^», Borfsu, and dvnXsyw, govern the dative. 
 
 So also, ®r$a\dw avu%, king of Thebes. 
 
 * 
 
 Obs. 1 . The. dative often follows a substantive in the sense 
 of the genitive, for which construction with examples, see § 
 236. Obs. 1. 
 
 Obs. 2. The dative sometimes depends on an adjective and 
 substantive joined together, but chiefly on account of the ad- 
 jective ; as*, xXsivov docXos irargi, illustrious offspring to the father. 
 
 Obs. 3. The dative sometimes follows a substantive, not, 
 however, as implying possession, but where the idea of adapta- 
 tion or design is implied ; as, x s S^ lv *w°$9 labour for the hands ; 
 i. e. adapted for, designed for. 
 
 Obs. 4. The dative is also put with substantives to express 
 the idea of companionship, being governed probably by <ruv or 
 6f/,o(ws understood ; as, (tfu) vireuQvvos sTroTs akXoig, you are re- 
 sponsible as well as (or equally with) the rest. 
 
 § 235. OF THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY .ADJEC- 
 TIVES. 
 
 Rule XVIII. * Adjectives signifying profit or 
 disprofit, likeness or unlikeness, govern the da- 
 tive 5 as, 
 
 d(p£XXijwo£ <ry tfo'Xsi, profitable to the state, 
 opotog r£j tfarf/, like his father. 
 
 The dative after such adjectives expresses the object to 
 which the quality expressed by the adjective refers ; and hence 
 
§ 235. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY ADJECTIVES. 315 
 
 ail adjectives in which such a reference is involved, are follow- 
 ed by the dative of the object to which they relate. In this 
 class, besides those mentioned in the rule, may be reckoned, 
 
 1st. Adjectives signifying usefulness, friendliness, equality, suita- 
 bleness, resemblance, ease, fitness, agreement, and the like, 
 with their contraries. Hence, 6 otu<ro£, the same, and some- 
 times si£, one, and roiovrog, suck, are followed by the da- 
 tive ; as, <rci oturd (raurd) tfda^w tfoj, I suffer the same 
 things with you. (So in Latin, lnvitum qui servat idem 
 facit occidenti. Hor. He who preserves a man againsi 
 his will, acts the same part with the man who kills him). og 
 i,aor fjitag syivsr' h fxarago^, who was of the same (of one) 
 mother with me ; "koy ovg ^w — roiou<rou£ Xs'ysiv, to speak such 
 words as he would* 
 Exc. Adjectives signifying likeness, equality, &c. are some- 
 times followed by the object of comparison, not in the dative, but 
 in the same case with the adjective, and connected with it by the 
 conjunction xai ; as, oiro's ys o \6yog spor/e Soxst civ o^oiog sTvui 
 xai vgorsgog (instead of sfaou tw tffors'fw), this argument would 
 seem to me to be like the former. So also the nominative is 
 used after the adverbs xard, <raurd, 6/xg/gj£, 't<fug ; as, ovx Woiug 
 iesiroirixa<fi xai ''Ofiygog, like Homer ; xarci Taurd ovrog ^M(Ts xoli 
 xiddga, just as a harp. These constructions are probably to be 
 resolved thus, ou<ro£ ys 6 Xoyog xai Kgorsgog doxsT, &c. ovrog xai 
 xiQaga rf)(yfiz, &c. 
 
 2. Adjectives compounded with (fvv, o 4 a&S, and fisra, signifying 
 
 with; as, (fwrgovog, o/xofos, /xsraiVios, «vj\ &c. ; yet some- 
 times these govern the genitive. 
 
 3. Some adjectives derived from verbs which govern the da- 
 
 tive, govern the dative also ; as, dxoXov&og axoXoudvjmos, 
 SiaSo^og. 
 
 Obs. 1. There are many adjectives which govern either tfte 
 genitive or dative ; as, o^oiog, like ; iVo^, equal; o/xwvu/xos, of the 
 same name ; ofxo<7fdr£ic£, of the same father ; o/xofx?)rf io$, of the 
 same mother ; tfuvrgo<pog, educated together ; tfuvy^s, familiar ; 
 ItfrJ'^otfog, of the same force ; xoivoV, common; cxkobtfiog, dpvsio's, 
 rich ; slVof o£, abundant ; svdsrjg, poor ; evo^o^, vtoSixog, v<irsu$ivos y 
 exposed, obnoxious ; olxsTog, familiar ; uviog, to be sold ; SovXog, a 
 slave ; £Xsu0S£o£, free ; as, ojxoios tou it argog, or <r^ tfargi, like his 
 father ; 6fxwvu/xo£ <rou irargog, or rw vargi, of the same name -with 
 his father: 
 
 Obs. 2. It has been observed, § 84. Obs. 1. that the verbal 
 adjectives in -ros and -rsog have a passive signification corres- 
 
316 THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 236. 
 
 ponding nearly to the Latin verbals in -bills and -dus. Their 
 construction, when thus used, is also similar ; and hence the 
 following 
 
 Rule I. Verbals in -rog and -reog, signifying 
 passively, govern the dative of the doer ; as, 
 
 «-outo ov ^rov £<fri /aoj, this is not Jit to be spoken by me. 
 $) itoXig wcpeX^rs'a <foi stf<n, the city ought to be served by thee. 
 
 Rem. The dative, however, in this construction, when it is 
 general in its nature, is commonly omitted ; as, ti/xtjts'oc stfr/v *? 
 d^rjj virtue must be honoured, (viz. fyxiv, by us.) 
 
 Rule II. The neuter verbal in -rzov, in the 
 sense of the Latin gerund, with the dative of the 
 doer, governs also the case of the verb from 
 which it is derived ; as, 
 
 tfaura cravra ww^rfov ,uoi, all these things must I do. 
 roTg fxsv vit 'aj^outf i vo^oig jgjpjdMov, xuivovg 5s slxy jxog Qs<rsov } we 
 shoidd use the present laws, and not rashly enact new 
 
 ONES. 
 
 Rem. The doer is sometimes put in the accusative, in which 
 case the necessity involved in the verbal is much weaker than 
 in the ordinary construction ; as, ou 5ouXsursov roig vovv I'^ovra^ 
 <ro7g y.ux&g qppvovtfi, the prudent ought not to obey the unwise; 
 i*i(fxstftr£ov <ra (xsv auro'v, rot §s yvyofixa (for au<rw, yuvawci), some 
 things are to be looked to by him:, some by his wife. Both are 
 united by Plato, Rep. 5. ouxouv xoli fyxlv vsuoVgov — ihnityvrus. 
 
 §236. OF THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 
 
 Rule XIX, The verbs dfil, yiwfteu, and vtkxq- 
 #co, signifying "to be," -or "to belong to," are 
 followed by the dative of the possessor ; as, 
 
 ittri (xoi ^fy/jiara, possessions are (belong) to me, i. e. / have 
 
 possessions. 
 Ts'XXw tfcuSsg yjcav xaXoi xdyadoi, good children were to' Tel- 
 
 luSj i. e. Tellus had good children. 
 
 Obs. 1. On the principle of this rule may be explained the 
 numerous instances^ both in Greek and Latin, in which the 
 
§ 236. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 317 
 
 dative signifying possession is used with another substantive 
 apparently for the genitive. Thus, TsXXw oi itaTSsg is equiva- 
 lent to TsXXou 01 tfaTdeg, the children of Tellus ; bat the prin- 
 ciple of construction is different. In the latter expression, the 
 genitive is immediately governed by the other substantive, oi 
 tfaJSeg, by Rule V., and signifies the children proceeding from, 
 and belonging to, Tellus. In the former, the dative is not go- 
 verned by the substantive, but depends on some part of the 
 substantive verb understood ; thus, Ts'XXw o! irarfss (oi owsg), 
 Tello filii {qui sunt), the children which are to (belonging, or 
 added to) Tellus ; or, without a periphrasis, " the children of Tel- 
 lus" In this manner may be resolved all such expressions as 
 Ititfs Si oi, his eyes ; ^vyarr^ <rs of, her daughter ; ty Av$gai^o\i 
 o ra<po£, the sepulchre of Andrsemon, &c. 
 
 Rem. 1. This mode of expression with the dative is so near- 
 ly synonymous with the more common construction with the 
 genitive, that it appears often to have been a matter of indif- 
 ference which of them was used ; so much so, that a sentence 
 sometimes begins with the one construction and ends with the 
 other ; thus, i\ fx Tv 6s xoltsxK6l^6yi cpi'Xov ^Vo£ 6 s i <f a v <r guv cpQ6y- 
 yovrsSaguv; literally, the heart to us dreading his growling 
 voice was broken down. In this sentence Ssitfavrwv refers to 
 tjixTv as if it were %twv in the genitive. In the following sen- 
 tence the order is reversed ; r 5j $ <5' aurou X-Jto cpiXov ^Vo£ tf^jxa- 
 radvayvGV(f7},her heart was moved when she recognized the 
 tokens. Here avayvoutfTj in the dative, refers to *% in the geni- 
 tive, as if it had been <rrj. 
 
 Rem. 2. In other instances in which the dative follows a 
 substantive apparently for the genitive, the idea of tendency to- 
 wards, or of acquisition or addition, expressed in English by the 
 prepositions to or for,' is generally apparent ; as, tfurgt <nf*wfov 
 <povov, an avenger of your father's murder ; plainly an avenger 
 of murder to ox for your father. Indeed, the idea of possession, 
 one of the meanings of the genitive, and of acquisition, the pro- 
 per idea expressed by the dative, are so nearly allied as to ren* 
 der the use of the one case for the other not unnatural. 
 
 Obs. 2, When of two nouns in the dative the one expresses 
 a part of or something belonging to the other, the latter may be 
 rendered as the genitive, and the construction explained as in 
 Obs. 1 ; yet it- may be often better to consider them in apposi- 
 tion, both depending on the same governing word — the one 
 term being added to limit or define more precisely the more ge* 
 jxeral idea contained in the other ; thus, in the sentence oux 
 'AyajA^vovj fyvSavs Qu^ti ; the dative 'Aya|msfxvovj may be con* 
 
 27* 
 
318 THE DATIVE GOVERNED Bt VEkBS. § 236. 
 
 sidered as regularly governed by Jjv<Savg (§ 237. II. 1.), and 
 6'j^q added in apposition, more particularly defining the part af- 
 fected ; he did not please Agamemnon : viz. his mind (his feel- 
 ings.) So also the following examples : 
 
 xoV/xov ov tf (p i v wtfatfsv Zsvg y £ v s i, an ornament which Jupi- 
 ter gave to them, viz. their race. 
 
 ixagrvgssi §£ jxoi rvj yvw^rj, (the oracle) bears witness/or 
 me, i. e.for my opinion. 
 
 In the following sentence, instead of the second dative, we 
 have the accusative with xoltol : viz. r\5s 5s (xot xard 6v pov 
 api<frr\ cpaivsro /3ouX-/j, but this counsel seemed best to me in res- 
 pect of my feelings ; i. e. this counsel pleased me most. 
 
 Rem. The correctness of this view of the construction is also 
 rendered more probable from the fact, that the same apparent 
 tautology is used when the word to be limited or defined is 
 connected with words which govern the accusative ; as, <r\ Ss 
 tfs ygsvccg hsro tfitrflog, what grief has invaded your mind. 
 Where, instead of saying that as is the accusative used for the 
 genitive Cou according to one mode of resolution, or that cpgsvag 
 is governed by xa<rdt understood according to another, it appears 
 better to consider rfs as the general direct object, and q>g£va$ as 
 in apposition, defining more precisely the part affected as in the 
 above examples ; thus, " what grief has come upon you : viz. 
 your mind" So in other instances j as, 
 
 Tfwa$ <5I <rfof/.o£ iityfKv&s yvTa sxaaVov, trembling came upon 
 the Trojans, every one, in their limbs. 
 
 tov ys XiV htfrioL Bufws dyyvwg, the noble soul left him : vizi 
 his body ; igivsw ca/xvs vsovg ogirrixag, he cut the wild fig- 
 tree, its young boughs. 
 
 Obs. 3. The dative of some participles and adjectives is 
 joined with the dative after the third person of slpl or y/vo/xcu, 
 for the verb itself; these are such as /3ouXo/x&vo£, fySopsvog, a-%- 
 dojxsvos, *fotf5s^o|ULSvo^ axwv, atf/xevos, 6m. ; as, si <foi SouXof/ivw 
 stfri, for si SquXjj, if you are willing ; oids au<r& axov<n yjv, nor was 
 he unwilling ; ^ofxgvwtfiv tjiuv oi Xoyoi ysyomtft, we were pleased 
 with your discourse. This construction has been imitated in 
 Latin ; thus, Tacit. Agr. 18. quibus bellum volentibus erat, 
 who were inclined for war. So Sallust. Jug. 100. 
 
 Rem. Somewhat similar to this is the construction of the 
 dative with the partieiple or adjective expressive of some feel- 
 ing or emotion, after verbs signifying to come ; as, . 
 
 fajxhy 5 1 i/xoi ^Xde, he came to me delighted (scil. with his 
 coming) ; i. e. I am delighted that he is come. 
 
§ 237. THE DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. 319 
 
 urodouvTi *rj ou(pavY]£, /Aow contest to me earnestly wishing it ; i. e. 
 I earnestly wished that thou wouldst come. 
 
 Obs. 4. To this rule also belongs the construction of such 
 phrases as rt <foi xcti spot (scil. xoivov sfai) ; what have I to do 
 with thee ? (literally, what common thing is there to you and 
 me ?) 
 
 § 237. 
 
 Rule XX. All words govern the dativ6 of 
 the object to which their action is directed ; as, 
 
 su^ovro deoTg, they prayed to the Gods. 
 
 dvaS'ksiretv riw, to look up to any one. 
 
 'A0>jV7) ytf^ag avsV^ov, they lifted up their hands to Minerva. 
 This rule may be considered as general, applying to all cases 
 in which a verb expressing action is followed by the dative, the 
 action not being exerted upon, but simply directed to the object 
 expressed in the dative. Hence, if the verb is active, it will 
 govern also its immediate object in the accusative (§ 243.) ; if 
 neuter, it will be followed by the dative only. More particu- 
 larly to this rule belong 
 
 I. Verbs expressing action, compounded with 1*7, itghg, sfc, 
 dva, &c. These prepositions serve to mark more precisely the 
 direction of the action, or state of action to an object. 
 
 Obs. 1. These verbs sometimes govern the accusative by the 
 force of the preposition with which they are compounded ; as, 
 ixecfrgaTSvtfe tfoXw, he waged war against the city, § 260. 
 
 Obs. 2. Hence the dative in this construction generally is 
 equivalent to the preposition sfe, *£o$, stt, &c. with the accu- 
 sative. Further, to this rule belong 
 
 II. Verbs which signify, 
 
 1. To profit or hurt; to please or displease; to reverence or to 
 yield. 
 
 2. To favour or assist ; and the contrary, to pray to, or entreat. 
 
 3. To command, ezhorU or address; to obey or disobey ; to serve 
 or resist. 
 
 4. To fit or accommodate ; to use and resemble. 
 
 5. To give to, or to trust ; to approach, to meet, or to follow. 
 
 6. To reproach with, to censure, to reprimand or rebuke, to be an- 
 gry with, 
 
320 DATIVE GOVERNED BY VERBS. § 238. 
 
 Excep. 6Vw or Sh^ai, I ask, governs the genitive ; and Xitf- 
 tfo/jww and Xiravsuw always the accusative. 
 
 Obs. Many of these verbs sometimes govern the dative and 
 sometimes the accusative, according as their action is viewed by 
 the writer as directed to., or exerted upon, the object. In the for- 
 mer case they are viewed as neuter or intransitive verbs : in 
 the latter, as active or transitive. § 73. Obs. 2. 
 
 § 238. 
 
 Rule XXL Verbs implying connexion or com- 
 panionship, govern the dative ; as, 
 
 ofjuXsFv rm, to associate with any one. 
 
 in this construction the dative is considered as corresponding 
 to the ablative in Latin. (§ 233. 2.) To this rule belong, 
 
 1. Verbs compounded with tfuv, fyxou, ^srot, (with) ; as ? 
 
 (fv^fiv rivi, to live with any one. 
 
 2. Verbs after which tfuv, 6^ou, psra, may be supplied consist- 
 
 ently with the sense, such as those which signify 
 
 (1.) To follow (with), to converse, to mix, to be reconciled, 
 
 to dtv ell (with). 
 (2.) To contend, or strive with or against, &c. 
 
 ,Obs. i. Verbs signifying " to contend, 11 &c. in one point of 
 view may come under the principle of Rule XX, and hence 
 are sometimes followed by an accusative with irgos ; but then 
 they signify more properly " to attack. 11 
 
 Obs. 2. If a dative of the manner or instrument (§ 249.) fol- 
 low the verb fAiyvufAi, to mix, instead of the dative of the per- 
 son associated with, the genitive is used, governed by the word 
 in the dative ; as, 
 
 Moaol Aibs sv (piXorrir i y4iysT(fa, -Maia being embraced 
 by Jupiter* 
 
 Note. To the principle of this rule may be referred the construction 
 of the dative, expressing re-petition or succession ; as, dveWa OviWrj, storm 
 upon storm ; ftWov <5' av aXXw npoaiSois, ' you might see one and then ano- 
 ther,' (scil. rushing to the region of Pluto.) 
 
 For the dative, construed with the passive voice, see § 245, 
 
§ 239. CONSTRUCTION OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 321 
 
 § 239. CONSTRUCTION OF IMPERSONAL 
 VERBS. 
 
 Rule XXII. Impersonal verbs govern the da- 
 tive ; as, 
 
 ggs<r<ri fAoi, it is lawful for me. 
 
 e5o%s avrti, it seemed proper to him (he determined). 
 
 Obs. 1. Rule, del, iHeiTcei, diacpsqu, \ii%%mi, 
 ptleii ivdexzTca, and 7ZQoo?]xei, with their com- 
 pounds, govern the dative of a person with the 
 genitive of a thing ; as, 
 
 SsT tfoXXwv cfoi, you have need of muck, 
 
 pirstfTi pot toutou, / take part in that. 
 
 ri &s irgotfri'KSi spot Kojivfl/wv, what are the Corinthians to me* 
 
 For the principle of this rule, as it respects the genitive, see 
 § 229. Note 1. 
 
 Rem. 1. The dative of the person is frequently omitted. 
 
 Rem. 2. The nominative agreeing with the impersonal is 
 frequently used instead of the genitive ; as, Siacpigsi <n tfoi <rou>o 
 or toutou, how does this concern you ? 
 
 IExc. I. del and xQfl frequently take the accu- 
 sative of the person with the genitive of the 
 thing; as, 
 
 k yiig tfwv ps SsT Astftfitiparw, for 1 do not want your oracles. 
 ou5s <n Cs j(gji ravTYig dLygotfiwis, you have no need of this folly. 
 
 Obs. From analogy the derivative substantives x£ s &i Xi SiU > 
 'plot, are often construed with the accusative and genitive ; as, 
 id os pcjsw yiyvSTou au-r^ 5 I have need of it : rig X$ Si0L ^ fa™, 
 )hat need have you of me? 
 
 Exc. II. xQfl> rtQ£rt*h an ^ d^h it behoveth, govern 
 
 he accusative with the infinitive ; as, 
 
 rll 
 
 XSV {fans) toindtttQM Hv s/^vyjv, we ought to make 
 
 peace. 
 I tfopwrggoug yoig SsT /3porwv slmi Gsovg, It behoves those who 
 
 are wiser than men 
 
 to be gods. 
 
322 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. § 240 
 
 Obs 2. The dative is used in certain phrases in which 
 appears to depend on an impersonal or some other verb under-j 
 stood ; viz. 
 
 (1). After us to shew that a proposition is affirmed, not a* 
 generally true, but only with respect to a certain person ; as, 
 D fxaxfocv us yljovn flrgou<fraX*]s 6S6v, you have travelled a lon£ 
 way /or an old man ; scil. us (paivsrai yegovn, long, as * 
 appears to an old man. 
 iicsksP sTyevrnTos us M?vri, but since thou art noble m appear 
 ance ; i. e. us s/xatfai fcrri Mow, as a person having seei 
 you may suppose. 
 (2) To express the opinion or judgment of a person with c 
 without us ; as, <r' syu riw<ta rofc <pjovofortv ifi, 1 have done nc 
 nour to you according to the judgment of the wise; i. e. us df» 
 «£, &c as it appears to those who are wise. Hence the con 
 mon phrase, IE* fttt, or % Y *»» ( scil fcr )> ™^ *> ™ 
 judgment. 
 
 For the dative governed by adverbs, see § 256. 
 
 § 240. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE 
 
 The accusative in Greek, as in other languages, is used ; 
 express the immediate object of an active verb, that on whic 
 its action is exerted, and which is affected by it ; as, Xa^<*< 
 ojv itf^Jo, I take the shield. When used to express, tlj 
 remote object of a verb, as it often is, or after verbs which a 
 properly neuter, it is governed by a preposition understood. 
 
 Rule XXIII. A verb signifying actively, jgj 
 verns the accusative ; as, 
 
 yvw& tfsauTov, know thyself . 
 
 Tjgtfoc^ov tyjv rfoXiv, they plundered the city. 
 
 'Ayadov AvSgot. npcfc, thou honourest a good man. 
 
 Obs. 1. Several verbs in Greek are used in an active ser 
 
 (i e are followed by an accusative as their immediate objec 
 
 which in Latin are considered as neuter and followed by soi 
 
 other case. These are chiefly the following ; viz. 
 
 1st «rsMw; as, *sMsivnv&, to persuade any one. 
 
 2d. vZMu ; as, fig^eiv <nva, to insult any one. Sometir* 
 
 si's Tiva. 
 3d, a&xe'w ; as, d&xsiv ma, to »n/i«re, or do injustice to ij 
 
 one. 
 
§ 240. CONSTRUCTION OF THE ACCUSATIVE. 323 
 
 4th. Several verbs which signify to assist, to profit, to injure • 
 as, w-peX&j, ov^i, svsgysrsu, §Xa4r™, and with these verbs the 
 adverbs more, very, are expressed by the accusative neuter of 
 the adjectives tfXs/wv, (xsyag, viz. irXsov, ptyu. 
 
 c ^ The verbs ^ si ^ a h rfvTOjxs/gojuwxi, TifAwfg'ojxai ; as, ct^sj- 
 fc£:Tte nva, to remunerate any one; TifiugeTtiddi Tim. 
 
 Abte. Some of these verbs govern other cases, but then they gene- 
 rally convey a different idea; thus, Z><pe\uv rcva, to assist any one .%<*,- 
 hiiv tivi, to be useful to any one, r 
 
 Obs.2. Many verbs are followed by an accusative, not of 
 the object on which the action is exerted, but to which it has 
 m immediate reference. In this case the verbs are properly 
 leuter, and the accusative is governed by the force of a prepo- 
 sition in composition with the verb, or understood after it 
 These are such as the following ; viz, 
 
 1st. tgotxvviu ; as, vgotowsTv Tim, tobow the knee to any one, 
 
 to adore. 
 2d. Sopxpogiu ; as, &guf ofsfi Tiva, to be a spear sman to any 
 
 one. 
 3d. faiTPovsm ; as, Smgurtisiv Tim, to be a tutor or guardian 
 
 to any one. 
 
 I 4th. Xavdavw; Xavdavsivnva, to escape the notice of ] or 
 
 to remain unknown to, 
 any one. 
 5th. <pdavw ; as, yQdvsiv Tim, to come before, prevent, or 
 
 , :. anticipate any one, 
 
 6th. stfiXs/Vw ; as, £tfiXsiVeiv nvd 9 to be wanting to, or to 
 
 fail any one. 
 7th. diroSiSgcKfxw] &s,d<xo5i5ga<fxsiv Tim, to run away from any 
 
 I , , one - 
 
 8th. a-TTo^a^o^ai : as, diropd'xs<f6oLi Tiva, to ward off any one. 
 o/avu^i and irfiogxiw ; as, o^vuvon 
 
 or imogxsn Tiva, to swear by any one. 
 
 9th. To these may be added many neuter verbs expressing 
 
 3me emotion or feeling ; as, to be ashamed of or afraid of any 
 
 m ; to compassionate any one, &c. &c, which are followed by the 
 
 ccusative of the object; thus, oliSovvtoli Tovg a^ovras. they res- 
 
 \xted the rulers; Tig av tclSs y^tasv, who would rejoice at these 
 
 \mgs ; dXyeTv ti, to be grieved at any thing ; 6a$sTv ti, to take 
 
 wage with respect to any thing. The accusative in such cases 
 
 iay be governed by a preposition understood ; as, l*i, *m, 
 
 «-« ; or by the participle of an active verb to be supplied ; as, 
 
 wv dxo^v, &c. seeing, hearing. 
 
324 CONSTRUCTION OP THE ACCUSATIVE. § 240. 
 
 Note. Instead of the accusative, many of these verbs are often follow- 
 ed by a genitive or dative, according to the rules for these cases. 
 
 Obs. 3. Rule. A neuter verb used in an ac- 
 tive sense, governs the accusative ; as, 
 
 tfoXs^sn/ ttoXs/aov, to wage war. 
 
 This is done 
 
 1st. When the accusative is a substantive of a similar signi- 
 fication with the word that governs it ; as, £yj Si'ov SjoWrov, he 
 lives a very agreeable life. 
 
 Note. To this principle of construction may be referred such phrases 
 as <ppovelv [i£ya (scil. ^pdi/^a), to be proud ; aQdvara fiiv (j>p6vei (sc. tppov/jfiaTa), 
 think as becometh an immortal. 
 
 2d. When they only signify to cause that state or feeling 
 which they express in a neuter sense ; as, jjgsv /si'fa, he caused 
 the hand to move forward, i. e. he stretched out the hand ; a\ rfriyai 
 liovtfi yaXoL xui julsXi, the fountains caused milk and honey to 
 flow ; i. e. the fountains flowed with milk and honey. So Virgil ; 
 
 " Et durse quercus sudabunt roscida mella." 
 Rem. 1. The accusative is often governed by an active verb or 
 participle understood ; as, Cs <H — q% Ssdgaxsvai ra8s (sc. sfw«rw) 5 
 but thee, (I ask) dost thou confess thou didst these things ? 6 <5s 
 ttjv irogtyvgiSa (sc. s'x wv )> the man with (having) the purple robe. 
 Rem. 2. In this way the words ovojxa, S-^os, tfXSjdos, su£o£, and 
 others are frequently construed in the accusative ; as, fairodgo- 
 fjuoff <fra5io\) to #X<x<ros (sc. §%im)) a race course (having) the 
 breadth of a stadium. 
 
 Rem 3. In like manner the accusative, apparently in appo- 
 sition with an entire proposition, or placed in the beginning of 
 a sentence to express the leading idea, may be considered as de- 
 pending on some preposition or verb understood ; as, 'EXsv^v 
 xtuvw|xsv MsvsXsw Xutf'qv tf ixjav, let us slay Helen (sc. sfe? in or- 
 der to ; or, ffoiouvrss, causing) bitter grief to Menelaus ; wHyx. 
 <k — &\> Ttw (i. e. tfsgi or xcwa fMfWga), as to your mother — let 
 her return. 
 
 OF VERBS WHICH GOVERN TWO CASES. 
 
 Many active verbs, together with the accusa- 
 tive of the direct object, govern also another 
 word to which the action has an indirect or re- 
 
§ 241. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE, &C. 325 
 
 mote reference, in- the genitive, dative, or accusa- 
 tive, as the nature of that reference may require. 
 
 §241. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE 
 AND GENITIVE. 
 
 As a general principle it may be noticed that most active 
 verbs which govern. the genitive govern also the accusative of 
 the direct object. § 228. Obs. § 229. 2. Note 2 and 3. § 
 230. Obs. 2. § 239. Exc. I. This is more fully exemplified 
 in the following Rules. 
 
 XXIV. Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquit- 
 ting, and the like, govern the accusative of the 
 person with the genitive of the crime ; as, 
 
 J/Gjxofxai (fi 5siXf<*£, I accuse you of cowardice. 
 foroXiw Cs rrjg ahiag, I acquit you of this blame. 
 
 The genitive after verbs of accusing, is often governed by a 
 preposition or some other word interposed, by which the ex- 
 pression is rendered more emphatic ; as, 
 
 iy^a^cnTo (jxa) tovtuv aurwv s'vsxa, he accused me of these same 
 
 things. 
 Siuxu <fs iregt davarou, I accuse thee of a capital 
 
 crime. * 
 
 tpsuysiv In? aiVia <povou,_. to be accused of murder. 
 
 Obs. 1. Verbs of accusing, &c. are such as £*rifgjp,j yfapojuuxi 
 5»wxw, £irai<riaojxai, to accuse or criminate ; cpsvyw, to be accused, or 
 to defend ; a/fgw, to gain one's suit ; aXwjxi, to lose one's suit ; di- 
 xa£w, to judge; Xay^avw, to commence a suit; itfiXapSavopcu and 
 avriXafjiilavo^ai, to blame, &c. a-ToXuw, dpr/jfxi, cwro^pfgo/juxj, &c. 
 /a acquit. 
 
 Obs. 2. Verbs of this signification compounded with xara 
 take the person in the genitive, and the crime or punishment 
 in the accusative ; as, xarriyog ouCi CoG" oVatfiv, Mey charge sedition 
 against you. Sometimes the crime or punishment is also in the 
 genitive ; as, xara/ivwo'xw tfou davarou or 0ava<rov : but the punish- 
 ment seldom with any word except davarou, and the crime only 
 after xarrjyofsw ; as, tfa^avo.uwv aurou xar^oj siv. 
 
 O&s. 3. Verbs of accusing sometimes govern the dative ; 
 as, s^xctXw tfoi #£ ofltfotfiav, / flccwse Me€ 0/* treason. 
 
 28 
 
826 VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE, <&C. § 242, 243. 
 
 '§ 242. 
 
 Rule XXV. Verbs of hearing, enquiring, learn- 
 ing, &c. govern the genitive of the person with 
 the accusative of the thing ; as, 
 
 ^xoutfs <rou dyyiXou <rocu<ra, he heard these things from the 
 
 messenger. 
 tfvv&avstfQai ri T/vor, to hear any thing from any one. 
 
 The genitive under this rule is probably governed by a pre- 
 position understood ; as, a^o, ix. 
 
 § 243. VERBS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE 
 AND DATIVE. 
 
 Any active verb may govern the accusative and dative when, 
 together with the immediate object of the action, it is followed 
 by the person or thing in relation to which it was exerted. The 
 more common constructions of this kind are comprehended un- 
 der the following rule : viz. 
 
 Rule XXVI. Verbs of comparing, giving, de- 
 claring, promising, and taking away, govern the ac- 
 cusative and dative ; as, 
 
 btf\<fyyiQ\t.(*A tfoi Sixa rakoLVTcCy I 'promise you ten talents. 
 Xoiyov d^uvai <ro7g aKkoig, to avert the plague from others. 
 
 Obs. 1 . After verbs of promising, declaring, and the like, -the 
 promise or declaration, forming part of a sentence and some- 
 times a number of sentences, often stands as the accusative 
 with the dative of the person ; as, 
 
 'AXs§av5fo£ dwrstfrsiXs roTg EXX^tfi Gehy aurov ^qHtfafltfai, Alex- 
 ander ordered the Greeks to vote him a god ; sits fj,oi <ri 
 aurcf] xfaj), tell me what you would do with him. 
 
 Obs. 2. Instead of the dative of the person the accusative 
 with *g os is often used, and sometimes without it, 
 
§ 244. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES. 327 
 
 § 244. VERBS GOVERNING TWO ACCUSATIVES, 
 
 Many verbs have the accusative not only of the nearer and 
 more immediate object of the action, but also of the more remote 
 object ; i. e. the person or thing to which the action with its im- 
 mediate object passes, usually preceded in English by the pre- 
 position to ; hence, 
 
 Rule XXVII. Verbs of ashing and teaching, 
 clothing, 'concealing, depriving ; speaking or doing 
 well or ill, and some others, govern two accusa- 
 tives, the one of a person the other of a thing*; 
 as, x 
 
 0*j§aiQu$ x^/* am ffctftoVi th e V sought money from the 
 
 Thebans. 
 8i5cLfaov&i >rovg nraiSag tfwpfotfuMjv, they teach their youths probity 
 ri tfoiytfu aurov ; what shall I do to him ? 
 
 Obs. 1. The immediate object of verbs which signify " to do" 
 Qr u to speak," is the action done or the word spoken ; the remote 
 object is the person or thing to which it is done or spoken ; 
 thus, . " 
 
 tfoisfr dyoi^a (scil. sf ya) <nva, to do good to any one. 
 Xsysiv-xaxa (sc. sV^) <nva, to speak evil of any one. 
 
 Instead of these adjectives with verbs of this signification, 
 the adverbs sZ and xax&$ are ^frequently joined ; thus, xaxwg 
 tfoisiv <nya, to do a person evil ; sv Xs'ysiv <nva, to speak well of a 
 person. Sometimes these words are in composition with the 
 verb ; as, suXoyaiv xaxoXoysn/ ; svsgysreTv xaotovgysw — in which 
 the accusative becomes the direct object, and is governed by 
 the compound active verb ; thus, xaxougyeJv riva, to maltreat a 
 person. 
 
 On the same principle several verbs, such as Xoi(5of so^ai, Xu- 
 fAaivojubai, &c. which are usually followed by a dative, frequently 
 take an accusative. 
 
 Obs. 2. When a verb admits of either of the words that fol- 
 low it as its immediate object, they are both put in the accusa- 
 tive ; thus, ivovsiv rwoL «rov x iT & m ) i0 clothe a person with a tunic, 
 and, to put a tunic on a persm, convey the same idea. 
 
 Obs, 3. An Active verb, besides the accusative of the imme- 
 diate object, may be followed by the accusative of a noun of 
 similar signification with itself; as, 8v Zsfc <piX« tfavroiV 91X0- 
 
328 CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. § 245. 
 
 <tv\tol, whom Jupiter loves with great affection ; ivixritfe rovg §af- 
 €a£ou£ <n}v sv Mafa^wvi ^a^v, Ae conquered the barbarians in the 
 battle of Marathon. 
 
 Obs. 4. When tfoisfafci, with a substantive derived from an 
 active verb, is used as a circumlocution for the verb itself, it will 
 of course be followed by two accusatives; thus, iroieTtfGou t^v 
 /xa^tfiv for /xav^avsiv .; tfoisfadai r^v agtfayyv for ajtfa^siv : as, 
 CxsJt] xou dvSgarfoSai agrfuyriv tfoj^tfa/xsvos, plundering the furniture 
 and slaves ; sc. making plunder of &c. 
 
 OZ>s. 5. Verbs which signify to call or warn?, to make, to 
 choose, besides the accusative of the person, may be followed by 
 the accusative of an adjective or substantive being the predi- 
 cate which the verb affirms of its immediate object. In this 
 construction the verb sTvai is frequently interposed ; thus, -tfocpitf- 
 <r^v ovofAa^outfj tov av5fa, or rov avdga. sfrai, they call the man a phi- 
 losopher. 
 
 Obs. 6. The accusative neuter of pronouns and adjectives 
 is often admitted in this construction, as well as with verbs 
 which govern the genitive or dative, when the accusative of 
 the substantive could not be used ; as, 
 
 tout 6 lis riSixYicfs, he has injured me in this. 
 <ri xjw/xai aikw, for what may I use it ? 
 
 Obs. 7. Instead of the second accusative, many verbs under 
 this rule frequently take the genitive or dative ; and, on the 
 other hand, some verbs which are usually followed by an accu- 
 sative with the genitive or dative, sometimes take the double 
 accusative ; thus, o$ Syj ffoXXdt xux 9 av&ghtfoicfi (for av^wtfous) 
 5gj£7$j, who verily inflicted many evils on men ; &tfo<f<rsgs7v <nva <r<x 
 yjij^ma, and rwv^q|xa<rwv J to deprive a person of his goods. 
 
 § 245. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES WITH THE 
 PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 The passive voice is usually followed by a genitive of the 
 doer, governed by the prepositions utto, £*, tuga, irgos, and conse- 
 quently, the government of the case falls under the rules for 
 prepositions ; as, fw? v*xw viro tov xuxov, be not overcome of evil 
 Sometimes, though very seldom, it follows the preposition in 
 the dative ; as, utfo cfargairuis 8ioixs7<f6cu, to be governed by vice- 
 roys. But instead of this, and equivalent to it, the dative with- 
 out a preposition is common ; hence the two following rules. 
 

 § 245. CONSTRUCTION OF CASES. 329 
 
 Rule XXVIII. Passive verbs frequently go- 
 vern the dative of the doer ; as, 
 
 irfgcvrrsro airo~s ra *% tfoXsw^, the affairs of the city were con- 
 ducted by them. 
 *stfoir\<rai jam, It has been done by me. 
 
 Note. This construction most commonly takes place with the perfect 
 passive, and the dative is equivalent to the genitive with hxbt which is 
 in common use ; as also rpbs, and sometimes napa, U or ef, and drd. 
 
 Obs. On the same principle, the verbal adjectives in ro's and 
 rs'os, having a passive signification, govern the dative of the 
 doer. See § 235, Obs. 2. 
 
 Rule XXIX. When a verb in the active voice 
 governs two cases, in the passive it retains the 
 latter case ; as, 
 
 Kowriyof sopai xXotf%, I am accused of theft. 
 
 i§o&7\ poi ntoitfa sgoutf/a, all power is given to me, 
 
 fjLouflta^v fjiiv utfo Aafjwrf ou tfaiSsvistg, being taught music by 
 
 Lampron. 
 
 Obs. 1. Any passive verb may be followed by an accusative 
 of similar signification with itself, on the principle laid down § 
 244. Obs. 3. ; as, <nk<rsraj nrXyyas tfoXXas, he is struck with many 
 blows. 
 
 Obs. 2. When a verb in the active voice governs the accu- 
 sative with the dative of a person, the passive frequently retains 
 the former case, the latter being used as the subject of the 
 verb. Thus, the same idea may be expressed in three different 
 ways ; viz. 
 
 1st. With the active voice ; as, 
 
 6 Svj^og itfifosvtfs AvKovgyu t^v <z% tfoXswg iffif/iXsiav, 
 The people committed the care of the city to Lycurgus. 
 
 2d. By the passive voice with the latter case ; as, 
 
 Auxotfgyw srfi(fr$vQyi utfo You <5>jfjkou ^ rris tfoXsws iirtiLskeia, 
 The management of the city was entrusted to Lycur- 
 gus. 
 
 3d. By the passive voice with the former case, according to 
 the Obs. ; as. 
 
 28* 
 
330 CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. § 246. 
 
 Avxovgyog ttjv 9% mXsug sVff/*sXsiav utfo tou <Wj|xou sVitf- 
 
 Lycurgus was entrusted with the management of the 
 
 city by the people. 
 The following are examples of this construction ; 
 
 of stffrsrgajtxfAs'vof ttjv cpuXax^jv, those entrusted with the 
 
 watch ; for of£ tj cpuXocx^ imir gatfro. 
 t^v <5' ix. %sffwv oc^a^o|xaf, she is torn from my hands[; 
 
 •for fy <$' sx x Sl fov agtfa^srai. 
 
 Hence, also, such phrases as the following : Al&iov'ss tfag5ccXs- 
 ag gva/xfAgvoi, the Ethiopians girded with panthers' skins ; %simi 
 SsXtov gyysygaj*|x-gvt]v fov^jxocTa, he leaves a tablet inscribed 
 with writings; because in the active voice it would have 
 been svowrrsiv AWfoVstfi nra^Saksag — ^yyja(psiv fjuv^fjiaTa 5s'Xtw. 
 The accusative, in almost all such cases, may be explained by 
 supplying xara. This construction is imitated in Latin in 
 such expressions as u inscripti nomina regum flores," flowers 
 inscribed with the names of kings. 
 
 Obs. 3. On the same principle the part affected (§ 229. 3.) is 
 often put in the accusative after the passive voice ; thus, in- 
 stead of to rgocu^a jxou sVifcjraf, my wound is bound up, the geni- 
 tive is changed into the nominative to the verb, and the nomi- 
 native or part affected into the accusative ; thus, (s/w) sVi&'o- 
 pai to r^aufxa, / am bound up as to my wound ; U^o^7\6svg ixsigsro 
 to rj **«£, literally, Prometheus was torn out as to his liver ; i. e. his 
 liver tvas torn out. See also § 248. Obs. 1. 
 
 Obs. 4. When the passive is used in a middle sense, (§ 78. 
 Obs. 2 and 4.), it often becomes active, and may -be followed by 
 an accusative in the same manner as an active verb ; as, 
 
 #ot£S(3'xsu(x<j'fjtivoi tfavTa sVXsov, having provided every thing, 
 
 they sailed. 
 ^|v.ijvVaj .tfops/ocv, they refused a conveyance. 
 
 § 246. CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 
 
 Words and phrases are often thrown in between the parts ol 
 a sentence in an adverbial manner, to express some circtjm 
 stance connected with the idea of the simple sentence, and 
 which do not depend for their case on any word in the sentence 
 o which they belong, but on a preposition or adverb, or othei 
 word understood ; thus, 
 
 JgeXauvei <S r a 0{A o u g Sv o elg 'Itftfovg, xoii ivravfa gfASivsv y f/, i\ 
 
§ 247. I. REMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN, &C 331 
 
 gas rgsTgy he advanced two days' journey to Issus } 
 and remained there three days. 
 fi.syaXij (ftfovSjj iravra I^ottsto, every thing was done 
 
 WITH GREAT HASTE. 
 
 Under the general name of circumstances may be included 
 words which indicate 
 
 1. The remote cause or origin, &c. § 247. 
 
 2. A particular qualification or direction of a general ex- 
 pression. § 248. 
 
 3. Cause, manner, or instrument. § 249. 
 
 4. Place. § 250. 
 
 5. Time. § 251. 
 
 6. Measure. § 252. 
 
 7. Price. § 253. 
 
 S. Exclamation. § 254. 
 
 § 247. I. THE REMOTE CAUSE OR ORIGIN, &c. 
 
 Rule XXX. The cause, source, or origin, and 
 part affected, are put in the genitive ; as, 
 
 fjtox&gibs tyis ru-xyg, happy from his fortune. 
 
 <pi\s7 auTov s% agst5j£, he loves him on account of his virtue. 
 
 Xuxov xgarsTv cjtwv, to take a wolf by the ears. 
 
 Obs. 1 . Instead of the genitive the accusative is often used, 
 governed by xarot, <5ia, &c, understood. 
 
 Obs. 2. The circumstance of cause expressed by the geni- 
 tive differs from that expressed by the dative, in that the geni- 
 tive expresses the remote or moving cause ; the dative, the im- 
 mediate or effective cause. 
 
 Obs. 3. The material of which a thing is made is expressed 
 in the genitive ; as, tf^s&ai Apdsjwv, rafts made of skins. See 
 § 221. Obs. 6. 
 
 Note. The genitive' of the material is considered by some Gramma- 
 rians as depending on U or airb understood ; and an argument in favour 
 of this ellipsis is drawn from the circumstance of h or cbrd being some- 
 times expressed. In all such passages the preposition seems to contain 
 a more direct reference to the material than could be done by the com- 
 mon construction, especially if a passive participle be likewise used ; 
 as, Z5pa !£ aSdnavrog lttiroiriinivrj^ a seat made of adamant. Sometimes the 
 dative is used for the genitive when the material of which any thing is 
 made may be considered also as the means by which it is made ; as, a l 
 july yty tcipaeavi r£revj(aTat 9 al 6 y iXtyavrt, some were made of horn, some of 
 . ivory.' Od. r. 563. 
 
332 II. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. § 248. 
 
 § 248. II. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 
 
 A particular qualification of a general expression, made in 
 English by the phrase u in respect of " "with regard to" is ex« 
 pressed by the genitive and dative ; or, more briefly, as follows : 
 
 Rule XXXI. Respect wherein is expressed in 
 
 the genitive, § 220. I. ; as, 
 
 iyyvrura auYw ?ljxi yivovs, I am very near him in respect oj 
 
 kin. 
 8oL<fv$ Sivfiguv, thick with trees. 
 
 irXytfioi dX^Xwv, near (in respect of) each other. 
 
 The genitive is thus used, 
 
 1. After syei, in the sense of to be (se habere) , with such adverbs 
 
 as sy, ofe, oVws, #&£, oS<rw£, xocXws, &c. ; as, 
 
 tfouStiOLS ouVw£ sx^h ne i s $° in respect of learning. 
 xaXofe s-%siv psQvig, to be pretty drunk. 
 
 *ixw is used in the same way ; as, Ts'XXos tou §iou su 'Jjxwv, 
 Te//ws being well advanced in {respect of) life. 
 
 2. After other verbs ; as, 
 
 itfsiysiddon a£*]o£, £0 be in haste with respect to the 
 
 battle. 
 
 3. After adjectives ; as, 
 
 oiicaig a^svwv tfaiSuv^ childless with respect to sons. 
 4* With adverbs ; as, 
 
 #f oVw dgsrYis Avfasiv, to carry it far with respect to vir- 
 tue. 
 
 5. With substantives ; as, 
 
 dyysXfa *% Xfou, the relation concerning Chios. 
 
 6. With entire propositions ; as, 
 
 si tf a<rgo£ vg'jxgi tiv' w£av rou xaXw£ tigkfifcn SoxsTv, if he pos- 
 sesses any care of his father, in respect of his appear- 
 ing to prosper. 
 
 Obs. I. Respect wherein is also put in the accusative govern- 
 ed by xard understood • viz. when the idea expressed by a 
 verb or adjective is to be more accurately determined by an ad- 
 ditional circumstance ; as, <rov <5<xxtuXov dXyw. I am pained in my 
 
§ 248. II. CIRCUMSTANCES OF LIMITATION. 333 
 
 finger ; x s £ s, ' wv °^ ^f* ^ °^ P? 5 ' 1 ^? inferior neither in body nor 
 mind ; tfoSctg fytvg 'A^iXXsfe, Achilles swift of foot. 
 
 Note 1. This is the construction so often imitated by the Latin poets ; 
 thus, 
 
 Os humerosque deo siinilis. 
 
 Note 2. The accusative in this construction is in signification adver- 
 bial, and hence is frequently used as an adverb ; thus, .apxfr, above all, 
 originally; Td%og, quickly ; re\og, finally; rnv nptirriv, at first, &c; Kara 
 being understood. So also such expressions as rb kvavriov, on the contra- 
 ry ; to \eydfisvov, according to the proverb, &c. 
 
 Obs. 2. The dative is used in a sense nearly similar, to ex- 
 press that with respect to which a thing is affirmed to be or take 
 place. The extensive use of this construction in Greek may 
 be illustrated by the following examples : 
 
 1. afios rjv dotvotrou <ry tfoXsj, he was worthy of death, with respect 
 
 to the state ; i. e. he was guilty of a capital crime 
 against the state. 
 
 2. xod Sr\ ps&isv ^aXstfoib ^oXoio T v\ X s f/, a -% w, and now they laid 
 
 aside their grievous anger against {with respect to) Telema- 
 ohus ; so sywyi Xfatfo/xai 'A % * X X 5j J psQepsv %6Xov, I will 
 pray him to lay aside his anger against Achilles. 
 
 3. to f/iv I|w0sv arfroflsvu) tfwfAa oux dyav Qsgixov ^v, the surface of 
 
 the body was not very hot when one touched it, (with respect to 
 one touching it.) 
 
 4. 'EtfiSapvog sfoi tfoXtg Iv 5s|ja itfrfXsovri tov 'Iov/ov xoXtfov, 
 
 Epidamnus is a city on the right hand as you enter (with 
 respect to one entering) the Ionian bay. 
 
 5. SvwSsxdrvi §s o) fag xeipsvGj, the twelfth day since he lay 
 
 (to him lying.) 
 
 6. 'Hgaxksi /m*sv dr\ octa auro* Alyvrfnoi cpatfi s/vai srsn Is "Ajuuatftv, 
 
 the Egyptians themselves tell how many years passed from Her- 
 cules (or, since the death of Hercules) to Jlmasis. 
 
 7. n^riv dgvvpsvoi MsvsXocw, looking for the advantage (or pleasure) 
 
 of Menelaus. 
 3. o{x*]tfa/xgvoi 6so7(fi } dancing in honour of the gods. 
 
 Rem. Respect wherein is also sometimes expressed in the da- 
 live governed by iv understood" ; as, 
 
 tfocf/ rw/iSj swift of foot. 
 
334 III. CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRUMENT. § 249 
 
 § 249. III. THE CAUSE, MANNER, AND INSTRU= 
 
 MENT. 
 
 Rule XXXII. The caw, manner 9 and instru- 
 ment are put in the dative ; as, 
 
 cpoSu) sirgoLTTov, I did it from fear, 
 
 sysvsro rtyde too TgoVw, it happened in this manner, 
 itara&tfsiv |&S5w, to strike loith a stick. 
 
 Obs, 1. The cause or motive may be considered as interna 
 or external. The internal cause represents the act as proceeding 
 from some particular state or disposition of the subject or qua 
 lity residing in it,- and contains the answer to the question frm 
 what ? or whence ? and consequently may generally be render 
 edfrom : suvoia-y' au5w, 1 speak from good- will. The externa 
 cause represents the action as caused by. something without th 
 agent, and may generally be rendered " for," " on account of 
 sometimes " according to," "in consequence of ;" as, x$P' acfi 
 &raif6fi.svo£, elated with, or in consequence ofrkhes ; AsovrJvwv m 
 rovcitfsijfor, i. e. in order to the re-establishment of the heontine, 
 the motive being derived from the end; 0auf*a£w tjj dtfoxksict' 
 |aou tw tfuXwv, / am astonished at the shutting up of my gates. 
 
 Obs. 2. In this construction, the dative expresses the ne£rc 
 or immediate cause, the more remote being usually expresse 
 by the genitive, or by Sia with the accusative, (§ 247. Obs. * 
 2.); as, dti&evs ia Cw^arwy Sid t^v -tfiroSsiav titfsxugovv, they (th 
 Lacedemonians) gave way, from the weakness of their bodies ii 
 duced by want of provisions. 
 
 Obs. 3. The dative of the cause is probably governed I 
 the preposition dlfwpj, nrsfi, or inel understood. Sometimes the 
 are expressed ; but whether witH or without a preposition, tl 
 whole expression is adverbial in its nature ; and hence, disr 
 garding its case, a neuter adjective or pronoun is sometime 
 put in the ^same constru'ction with it, in the accusative ; as, 
 tivos piyct %v to tfwjjba yvrfsi, rj TfoqjjJ, rj dtf/»<pbVsfa, if the body of 
 person was large naturally, or by nourishment, or both. 
 
 Obs. 4. The dative of the manner is governed by iv or d 
 understood, and may be considered as adverbial. Hence, -pi 
 haps, verbs of punishing are followed by the punishment in t 
 dative ; as, fyiuovv <nva 0av6ww, cpvyji, &c. to punish any one w\ 
 death, with banishment, &c, 
 
 Obs. 5. The dative of the instrument or mean may be 
 person ; as, roT$ itag oitav ira/^i^ev, he built the wall by means 
 
§ 250. IV. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 335 
 
 those who were present. It is also put with substantives ; as, xi- 
 v^tfc/s ry <r&)iiscun y moHons made with the body. 
 
 Note .Hence the construction of rigifa with the dative ; that which 
 we wot being considered as an instrument. On the same principle the 
 dative is put after other verbs which imply the idea of using; «*i»af- 
 ptadai tois vpdaOsv ^oXoyvfxivois, to infer from what was granted: i. e. to use 
 as proojs the things formerly granted. 
 
 Obs. 6. The mean or instrument is also expressed by 6t* 
 
 with the genitive. The proper distinction is, that the dative 
 
 marks the near, or immediate instrument, &a with the genitive 
 
 the more remote ; as^u^f&dc rourwv oliv ^y&v«v aMavdl 
 
 * f*s^a,. *Ae sow/ with which by means of these (the eyes and 
 
 -ears) as organs we perceive. 
 
 ^Obs. 7. Instead of the dative, the prepositions iv, ck-o, &«,- 
 tfuv T with their cases are sometimes used. 
 
 §250. IV. CIRCUMSTANCES OF PLACE. 
 
 i The circumstances of place respect motion to, or from, or 
 through a place,- and motion or rest in a place ; in all of which the 
 vGreek writers generally use a proper name with a preposition ■ 
 
 thus, 
 
 eg ' A% wv, /row Athens. 
 
 sis Bfir avv/av, to Britain. - 
 
 iv IIuXw, w Pj//os. 
 
 5/a 7% tfo'Xsws, through the city. 
 Obs. 1. The preposition is sometimes omitted, viz.. 
 1st. • The place where is often put in the dative without a 
 preposition ; as, Majadwvi, at Marathon. So also the genitive, 
 governed by &gi or *sgi understood ; as, "Agyas, at Argos. 
 i 2d. The preposition is often omitted before common nouns ; 
 as, sgx&f 6oy xXitfiV, they two came to the tent. 
 J Obs. 2. The genitive after sis, to a place, or iv, in a place, is 
 governed by a substantive understood ; as, sis $ou (sc. <5o>ov), 
 1 Hades ; iv "Agysos (sc. rfoXsi), at Argos. 
 :■ 055. 3. The terminations -h and -tfi, added to a noun, de- 
 mote at a place ; as, dygMi, in the country ; Q^tfi, at Thebes ; 
 ps and -<fe, to a place; as, 'A%atfos, to" Athens'; xXi<f»jv5s, to 
 Me tent; 4sv and -0s, from a place; as, xXtf«]0sv dvsj'Xs<ro £yx°£i 
 ie fooA. a spear from the tent. 
 
336 VI. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. § 251, 252. 
 
 § 251. V. CIRCUMSTANCES OF TIME. 
 
 Rule XXXIII. Time when is put in the da- 
 tive ; time how long, in the accusative ; as, 
 
 when ; %*££& *f iV$ on the third day. 
 
 how long ; rgeTg bXovg fxSjvas tfagi^eivsv, he remained three 
 
 whole months. 
 
 Obs. 1. When the reference is to a fixed time aZ wAzc^ a 
 thing took place, the dative is used as in the rule ; but if the 
 idea of duration is implied, it is put in the accusative ; as, Tag 
 7jfjbs£a£ xai rag vvxrag, by day and by night : sometimes in the 
 genitive ; as, sxaxwrfs §r*j 'Hf axX^jsiTj <rwv rfgorig wv stswv, Hercu- 
 les distressed us informer years. 
 
 Obs. 2. Time Aow /o^g*, may respect the time during which, 
 since which, or after which some event took place. The first is 
 put in the accusative as above ; the second is more commonly 
 expressed in the genitive ; as, atoXXou au<rou£ ou^ swjaxa xfovou, 
 I Aave W0Z seen them for a long time ; the third, generally in the 
 dative ; as, ou tfoXXafe fysgoug vtfrsgov, not many days after. But 
 sometimes in the genitive, when protracted and indefinite ; as, 
 ixsTtfe oux dtpixveTrai ir&v (xu^iuv, he comes not thither in ten thou- 
 sand years.. In this, however, there is some variety. 
 
 § 252. VI. CIRCUMSTANCES OF MEASURE. 
 
 The circumstances of measure respect magnitude, distance., 
 and the measure of excess, as follows : 
 
 Rule XXXiV. The measure of magnitude is 
 put in the genitive ; as, 
 
 kvSgiag dvhdsxu, tfoj^wv, a statue of twelve cubits. 
 
 Rule XXXV. The measure of distance is put! 
 in the accusative, sometimes in the dative; as, 
 
 "Etpetfog a-rts-xsi <rf iwv faiguv 6<5ov or 66£j, Ephesus is distant threi 
 
 day J journey. 
 
 isxoLfsvrs nr^sig C-^w^ to 3l«| f the water rose fifteen 
 
 cubits. 
 
 Obs. When measure of magnitude or distance is found in the 
 
§ 253, 254. OF EXCLAMATION. 337 
 
 nominative after a substantive verb, or in the accusative after 
 an infinitive, the construction is according to § 218. III. 
 
 Rule XXXVI. The measure of excess is put 
 in the dative after the comparative degree ,- as, 
 
 JwiauTw ifgs&SvrSPog, older by a year. 
 
 Obs. Hence the expressions tfoXXw, oXiyco /^a^s", & c - with 
 the comparative. It is, however, sometimes put in the accu- 
 sative; as, tfoXv f*e!£uv, much greater; ffoXXov a^sivwv, muck 
 better. 
 
 § 253. VII. CIRCUMSTANCE OF PRICE. 
 
 Rule XXXVII. The price of a thing is put in 
 the genitive ; as, 
 
 Sog tqvto Sgayj^s, give this for a drachma. 
 
 Obs. The price is put sometimes in the dative, with the pre- 
 position sti expressed or understood ; as, ifti ^jtfdco psyoCkuj, for 
 a great reward. Sometimes in the accusative ; as, tfiirgatfxsi 
 q xctxhg tfocvra fgog AgyugiiPi the wicked sells all things for silver* 
 
 §254. VIII. EXCLAMATION. 
 
 Rule XXXVIII. Exclamations of praise, in- 
 dignation, compassion, &c. are put in the genitive, 
 sometimes in the accusative ; as, 
 
 <j% avouSsiag, O the impudence ! 
 (psu tov dv5f oV, Jllas ! the man. 
 w lp& fe'Xaiov, O wretched me ! 
 
 Obs. Sometimes with the genitive there is an addition of 
 the nominative ; as, o'//xoi twv fyQv iyd xaxwv, ah I my miseries. 
 
 29 
 
338 ADVERBS HAVING THE § 255, 256, 
 
 § 255. CONSTRUCTION OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs are joined to adjectives, verbs, and other adverbs, to 
 express some circumstance, quality, or manner of their signifi- 
 cation. 
 
 Many adverbs in Greek have the force of prepositions in 
 Latin and English. These are often joined with substantives, 
 as will appear in the following rules. They are also some- 
 times used as substantives or adjectives ; as, dnro tots, from that 
 time ; 6 ?|w avQpwiros, the outward man. § 196. Obs. 2. (3). a. 
 
 Rule XXXIX. Derivative adverbs commonly 
 govern the case of their primitives ; as, 
 
 d|iw£ *j[x£5v, in a manner worthy of us. 
 
 paXtfca tfavrwv, most of all. 
 
 6|xoiw£ roTg aXKoig, in a manner similar to the rest. 
 
 <jragsx v?ja, without the ship. 
 
 In this last example the adverb is sometimes omitted. 
 
 §256. ADVERBS HAVING THE FORCE OF PRE- 
 POSITIONS. 
 
 Adverbs having the force of prepositions govern the same 
 case with the prepositions which, in meaning, they resemble ; 
 thus, o^ou, a^a, together, having the force of <n)v, govern the da- 
 tive, svexa, on account of resembling &a, governs the genitive. 
 This general principle authorizes the two following rules : 
 
 Rule XL. Some adverbs of time, place, and 
 quantity, likewise of number, order, and exception^ 
 govern the genitive ; as, 
 
 iLygt <*% tf^sgov Tj^'fas, to this Jay. 
 ov yris slpi ; iv here am I? 
 
 Obs. 1. To these may be added adverbs of cause, comparison, 
 distinction, concealment, separation, or exclamation ; and also nouns 
 ■used adverbially, as XH lv ) fa*W % ^vwatiov, &c. ; as, 8ixw ^oTa/xwv, 
 like rivers. 
 
 The adverbs which come under this rule are the following . 
 avsv, wreg) <5i'xa, X"£ is i without ; avnxgu, avnxjfe, dtfavnxgu, against, 
 opposite; axf'j fMXf'i to \ even to; Svsxa, svexsv, on account of; iy. 
 
§ 256. FORCE OF PREPOSITIONS. 339 
 
 J"jS, tfX^tffov, cc/X'j atftfov, near • ixrocr, ef?tf, IWorfdsVj without ; h- 
 <rc,s } stfu, si'tfw, £Wo<rdfcv, within ; ^Xvjv, Ta^sxTo*:, except, but ; jas- 
 raZv, among ; o^iVw, omdtev, behind ; *g6(f68v } before; iregav £ni- 
 xsiva, beyond, &c 
 
 Exc. 1. ay^i and aXis sometimes govern the dative. 
 Exe. 2. a-Xtjv, except, has sometimes the nominative after it ; 
 as, 
 
 tfX?jv oj twv tfal^av (MatfxaXoj, except the teachers of the boys. 
 
 A T oie. Adverbs of the final cause are frequently omitted; as, eypaipa 
 rovde, I wrote for this reason, sup. event. 
 
 06s. 2. Adverbs of time, place, &c. are frequently changed 
 by the poets into adjectives, § 196. Obs. 2. (3.) b. ; as. oi'fls <ra- 
 VTjfAEfioi fAoXtfJi 0sov iXatfxovro, he propitiated the god with song 
 the ivhole day. 
 
 Certain adverbs are joined sometimes with one case and 
 sometimes with another, as follows : 
 
 1st. ajUUjULiya, dfipiySn^ 9 syyvg, syyvfisv, iragsyy\j$, tfuveyyvs, sgvfc, 
 e$s%r)$ } (fx s $W) (f'xeSoQsvj aikoer^s&v, are put with the geni- 
 tive 01* DATIVE. 
 
 2d. ay^i, ay^o^ij ixtfo^wv, atXt^/ov, JflriVjoCdsv, oftener with the 
 
 GENITIVE. 
 
 3d. dvottfaXiv, g/jwraXiv, oftener with the dative. 
 
 4th. elVw, pirtpa, iragsx or *ra£e£, Argpig, with the genitive or 
 
 ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 6th. SeiJge, with the dative or accusative. 
 
 6th. a^fi, axpSi ^XS l i V**X£% w ^ tn t ^ le genitive, dative, or 
 
 ACCUSATIVE. 
 
 Rule XLl. Adverbs of accompanying govern 
 the dative ; as, 
 
 [ ajxct <rf, rj.ag^a, at day -break. 
 
 Rule XLII. Adverbs of swearing govern the 
 accusative ; as, 
 
 v/j A/a, &y Jupiter ; fxa <ro<Ss tfxsVrf ov, by this sceptre. 
 
 Obs. 1. In sentences of this kind ,aa commonly denies, un- 
 less joined with vai ; and \r\ affirms, unless joined with a nega- 
 tive. 
 
 Obs. 2. Adverbs of shewing are put with the nominative ; 
 as ; 
 
 iSou o av^wtfo^, behold the man. 
 
 Ub i\ wrrjg fxou xa/ ol d.Ss'Kcpoi fxou, behold my mother and 
 
 my brethren* 
 
340 OF NEGATIVES, § 257. 
 
 § 257. OF NEGATIVES. 
 
 The Greek language has two simple negatives, ou and \i*% 
 from which all the compound negative terms are formed, and 
 to which, in their use and manner of construction, they are si- 
 milar. Between these two negatives and their respective com- 
 pounds there is a total difference of use, the foundation of which 
 is as follows : 
 
 1. ou is the direct and independent negative, which expresses 
 n positive denial without reference to any thing else; as, oux 
 iQe\u, 1 will not ; oux aya&dv stiri, it is not good ; ovSelg tfotgSjv, no 
 one was present. A direct negation of this kind can never be 
 expressed by ^ or its compounds. 
 
 2. jixr/, on the other hand, is uniformly a dependent negative. 
 It is therefore used in all propositions in which the negative is 
 represented, not as a fact, but as something dependent on the 
 conception, as a condition, supposition, &c. ; and hence it is used 
 in the manner following : 
 
 1st. After the conditional conjunctions si, lav, ^v, oVav, Itf£i5av 3 
 §'w£, av ; and those which intimate an end, design, motive ; 
 as, iva, ws, 6Vw£, waVs. 
 
 2d. Without any such particle, ^ expresses design, wish, pray* 
 er, prohibition, in cases in which the Latins use ne. 
 Rem. 1. When it expresses a wish, it has always the opta- 
 
 tative ; as, p>y ysvoiro, may it not be. 
 
 Rem. 2. In negative prayers and prohibitions it is joined 
 
 most commonly with the imperative of the present and the sub- 
 
 junctive of the aorist ; as, jx?j fxs /3<xXXs, or py f*s /3aX^, do not 
 
 strike me. 
 
 3d. Mr\ is put w T ith verbs which signify to fear, to warn, and 
 
 the like (as ne in Latin), where a positive expression is used 
 
 in English ; as, 5s<$oixw \jA\ <n yivr\ra\, vereor ne quid acci- 
 
 dat, J am afraid lest something happen. 
 
 Rem. Sometimes the verb expressing the fear or warning is 
 
 understood before the sentence depending on it ; as, w touto 
 
 aXXws §x% (scil. Sidoixa) I fear lest this be otherwise. 
 
 4th. In like manner, after verbs which contain a denial, it is 
 frequently put with the infinitive ; as, acraute rourov ^ 
 tfaf js'vai, I forbid this man to enter ; ^7), is thus used after 
 such verbs as signify to prohibit, to deny, to prevent or restrain f . 
 to be cautious, to disbelieve, to cease, to refrain, and the like. 
 
 5th. My is often used only as an emphatic particle of interroga* 
 
5 ZOO. DOUBLE HJSUAnvjsa. "- 
 
 tion, without any negative signification; as, f*4 <5oxeiVoi 
 toCVo sTvon sv^s;, does this seem to thee foolish ? 
 
 Rem. The negation ou, in a similar situation, would indicate 
 the expectation of an affirmative answer to the question ; thus, 
 cJ <W, dec. does not this seem to thee foolish ? On the other 
 hand, m commonly indicates the expectation of a negative an- 
 swer. 
 
 3. A negative placed between the article and its noun, con- 
 verts it into a sort of compound negative term ; as, % ou &ocXu- 
 <r«g <rwv yscpujwv, the not destroying of the bridges ; y m fa*»f«S 
 Me inexperience. 
 
 Rem. In the same manner it is used with certain verbs ; 
 thus, ou cpijfw, J deny j contradict ; oux saw, I forbid; ov X bntioyvt*- 
 fiwxi, Jrg/wse ; thus, ou* spatfav toOVo sjvoi does not signify • they 
 did not say that this was/ but, ' tfcjf rfewicrf that this was, or, 
 1 they said this was not? 
 
 § 258. DOUBLE NEGATIVES. 
 
 When to a proposition already negative, and also to verbs 
 which signify to deny, to contradict, to hinder or oppose, and the 
 like, other qualifications of a general nature are to be attached ; 
 such as ever, any body, any where, dec. ; it is usual to do this by 
 compounds of the same negative. Hence the following rules : 
 
 Rule XLIII. Two or more negatives joined 
 to the same verb, strengthen the negation; as, 
 
 oux Irfofytfs to&Vo otfopoS ou&fe, nobody ever did this. 
 Note. Consequently, in translating such propositions into English, 
 only one negative can be used. 
 
 Rule XLLV. But two or more negatives 
 joined to different verbs, destroy the negation, and 
 are equivalent to an affirmative ; as, 
 
 ou Suvrtfxsda fX'/j XaXeiv we cannot but speak. 
 
 aCSelg Sfry ou yeXatfsrai, there is nobody who will not laugh, i. e. 
 
 " every body will laugh f tiri being 
 understood with ovSsig. 
 
 Obs' I- Indeed, so common is the ellipsis of Isfrl in this ex- 
 predion, that it is lost sight of, and the antecedent oMe*, which 
 should be its nominative, is often attracted into the case of the 
 
 29* 
 
342 prepositions. § 259. 
 
 relative which follows ; as, ovSsvl oVw ovx apsVxsi, there is nobody 
 whom it does not please, for ovdslg orw, &c. ; ou&'va ovriva ou 
 xaTgxXautfsv, he caused every one to weep, for ovSslg sV<n'v oVnva, &c 
 M there is no one whom he did not cause to weep." 
 
 Obs. 2. It is also proper to observe the use of the negative 
 in such sentences as the following : xal ou raOVa juiv ygacpsi 6 
 4?i\i<ir<Kos <ro7$ 5' ff/ois ou.<iroie7, Philip does not write these things 
 and not perform them ; i. e. think not that Philip writes these 
 things and does not execute them ; where the first ou does not 
 affect the verb yfapsi, but the two propositions together. It de- 
 nies an assertion which might be thus expressed ; ygacpei jxsv 
 ou iroisl Ss } he writes but does not execute. So also ou Syj <rwv 
 fjiv Jfjkp&syptov k&wi <n its gas rfs sgyatiias tou 5 1 dvdf w-irivou €iou ovx 
 etfVi, " ft cflrawa/ Je that there is some object in the labours of the 
 artist, but none in the life of man." 
 
 Note. In phrases of this kind, the two propositions as here, are usu- 
 ally, distinguished by fxsv and <5f; and the second is negative. 
 
 Obs. 3. To the negation of the whole is joined, in the same 
 sentence, the negation of the parts ; as, 
 
 ou Svvurai outs \sysw outs rfQis'iv, he can neither speak nor act. 
 
 Obs. 4. Mvj ou is only a stronger expression of /j^, as ou \iy\ 
 is of ou. But py ou, after verbs signifying to fear, to warn, &e. 
 as above (§ 257, 2. 3d.), render the idea negative ; as, SsSoixa 
 fjuoQ ou tj ygvoflrai, I am afraid lest something may not happen. 
 
 §259. PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Prepositions are used to express the relation in which one 
 thing stands to another. For the primary and various derived 
 meanings of prepositions in different constructions, see § 170 
 to § 187. The influence they exert over the words with 
 which they are joined, as far as it respects their case, is regu- 
 lated by the following rules : 
 
 Rule XLV. hm f anb, &% or it, and rc^o, go- 
 vern the genitive only ; as, 
 
 c(p0aXjxo$ ctv<ri Q^daX/jiou, an eye for an eye. 
 
 Rule XLVI. iv and ovv govern the dative. 
 Rule XLVII. tig (or ag) and avd govern the 
 accusative. 
 
§ 260. PREPOSITION IN COMPOSITION. 343 
 
 Obs. dva, among the poets, also governs the dative. 
 
 Rule XLV1IL dux, xatra, fierce, vjizq, govern 
 the genitive or accusative, 
 
 Obs. jut-sra, among the poets, also governs the dative of a 
 plural noun, or a noun of multitude ; as, /xstoc r| iraroitfi avatfefsv. 
 
 Rule XLIX. auxpi, tzeqi, tni, naqa, nqbg^ and 
 vtco, govern the genitive, dative, or accusative. 
 
 Note. For examples under these rules, as well as for the meaning of 
 the prepositions as modified by the case with which they are joined, 
 see § 170, &c. as above. 
 
 
 OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 Obs. 1, Prepositions are often used as adverbs, their case 
 being understood. This is the case especially with h in the 
 Ionic, and irgog in the Attic, Hence, in the Ionic writers they 
 are often put twice, once adverbially without a case, and again 
 with a case or in composition with a verb. 
 
 Obs. 2. Prepositions are sometimes separated from their 
 case ; as, sv ya£ <f£ rrj vux-W tolvtti avuipo^cu. In Attic this takes 
 place according to rule, with the conjunctions pisv, 8$ l yaj , ouv ; 
 jas, sv fjtiv yag Sigrjvjij eg psv ouv rag 'Abtyug ; and with tf^os with 
 the genitive when it signifies per. 
 
 Obs. 3. Prepositions, also, are often put after their case by 
 the Ionic and Doric writers and the Attic poets ; as, vswv dura 
 xui xXitfiawv. In the Attic prose waiters it takes place only in 
 <xe£ with the genitive. 
 
 Obs. 4. When a preposition should stand twice with two 
 different nouns, it is often put only once by the poets, and that 
 too w T ith the second noun ; as, % ahlg r\ sVi yrfa Horn, by sea ox 
 land. 
 
 Obs. 5. A preposition is frequently understood. 
 
 § 260. PREPOSITION IN COMPOSITION. 
 
 Rule L. A preposition in composition some- 
 times governs the same case as when it stands 
 by itself ; as, 
 
 igrikQe rfg oixiag, he went out from the house. 
 Obs, 1. This is done when the preposition can be separated 
 
344 OP THE INDICATITE MOOD. §26lT 
 
 from the verb and joined with the substantive, without altering 
 the sense. 
 
 Obs. 2. In Homer, Herodotus, and other old writers, the 
 preposition is frequently found separated by one or more words 
 from that with which it may be considered in composition ; as, 
 $fAJv cttfo Xoi/ov djxuvai, Horn. cwro jutiv tfeaurov ftXstfas for '/jjmn/ dtfo- 
 fjwvai Xoi/ov ; (fsavrov (asv dirCiXs^ag. Grammarians, however, 
 consider the preposition in such cases as used adverbially, 
 and not properly in composition ; and that instances of the 
 proper tmesis are very rare, especially in the Attic prose wri- 
 ters. 
 
 Obs. 3. Instead of the preposition compounded with the 
 verb, the preposition alone in the sense of the verb is sometimes 
 used if no ambiguity is occasioned ; thus, svi is used for tWri, 
 it is lawful; <irsgi for vsgistfn, it is superfluous ; otva for dvatfrSjdi, 
 arise ; veaga. for vroLgetn, he is present ; the accent being thrown 
 back from the last to the first syllable, § 171, Note. 
 
 SYNTAX OF THE VERB. 
 
 § 261. OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD, 
 
 The indicative mood is used in Greek when any thing is to 
 be represented as actually existing or happening, and as a thing 
 independent of the thought and ideas of the speaker. Hence 
 it is often used where, both in Latin and English, the subjunc- 
 tive would be used. It is used, 
 
 1. After negative propositions with the relative. 
 
 2. In indirect interrogations. 
 
 3. In quoting the language of another after or/, &g, &c. 
 
 4. In conditional propositions after si, implying a supposition 
 
 in the statement, but a certainty in the fact ; i. e. its 
 being neither contingent nor future ; as, si ifai jSwjxoi, 
 b}<?} xdi Qsoi, if there are altars, there are also Gods. Or, 
 when the condition and consequence are both past ac- 
 tions ; as, olih av irgoiXeyev, si jx^ ivr'Hfrsvtfsv akrfisudsiv, he 
 would not have foretold it unless he had believed it would I 
 prove true. This is agreeable to the ordinary construc- 
 tion in Latin. 
 
 Obs. 1. The indicative is put with av in the conclusion. 
 
§ 262, 263. subjunctive and optative moods. 845 
 
 when it is put with si in the condition, when it refers to the pre- 
 sent time ; as, el <n s/^sv, iSiSov av, " if he had any thing he 
 would give it." Here, however, a denial of the condition ia 
 always understood ; thus, " but he has not." 
 
 Obs. 2. The indicative is sometimes used in suppositions 
 where, in other languages, the subjunctive would be put ; as, 
 rshfixa rfi tffj QvyctTgi, xai /x' a^wXcO's, suppose that I had been 
 slain by thy daughter, and that she had made an end of me. 
 
 § 262. IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 The imperative in Greek, is used as in other languages, in 
 addresses, entreaties, commands., &c. The pronouns (being 
 the nominative) are omitted, except where emphasis or distinc- 
 tion is required. In the use of this mood the following peculi- 
 arities of construction may be observed ; viz. 
 
 1. The second person sometimes stands for the third ; as, 
 dXXdt (puXarrs rfa$ r/£, but let each one watch. 
 
 tfe\u$ <n$ 70/, let some neighbour go. 
 
 2. As in English, the plural is sometimes used for the singu- 
 lar. 
 
 3. In prohibitions with <x»i, the present imperative is most 
 commonly used. If the aorist is used, w must be put with the 
 subjunctive. 
 
 4. The imperative after o?<f&' or/, o/tfd' o, ofoiP &, seems to be 
 used elliptically, and to have arisen from a transposition of the 
 imperative ; as, o/W w£ cro/vjtfov ; knowest thou what thou hast 
 to do ? 
 
 5. Sometimes the imperative is used for the future, and more 
 frequently the future for the imperative, especially with a nega- 
 tion interrogatively. 
 
 § 263. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 
 
 The subjunctive and optative moods represent an action, not 
 i as actually existing, but rather as dependent upon, and con- 
 nected with, the ideas and feelings of the speaker. The sub- 
 junctive represents this dependence as present ; the optative 
 represents it as past ) (§ 79. 2. first and second), Hence the fok 
 lowing general rule ; 
 
346 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. § 263. 
 
 Rule LI. The subjunctive is used, in depend- 
 ent clauses, in connexion with the primary tenses, 
 (§ 80. Obs. 3.) ; the optative is joined with the 
 secondary or historical tenses ; as, 
 
 craj si/Lti i'va Mw, J am present that I may see. 
 
 irafiv i'va i'5oijuti, J was present that I might see. 
 
 On this general principle the whole construction of these 
 moods depends, as may be illustrated by the following obser- 
 vations: 
 
 Obs. 1. These moods are used after conjunctions whose 
 use is to introduce a subordinate or dependent clause, in which 
 actual existence is not definitely expressed ; as, i'va, o'pja, 6Vw£, 
 ws; thus, sds\sig opj ' auros syffis /££<*£ ; do you wish that you 
 yourself may have a reward ? w j/.' igs$%e (faursgos wg xs vsv]ai y 
 provoke me not that you may return the safer. This sentence, 
 which contains the direct address (oratio directa) of Agamem- 
 non to Chryses, has the subjunctive after ws in connexion with 
 the present £&egi%e< When this is afterwards related as a past 
 event, in the style of the indirect address (oratio obliqua), the 
 subjunctive is changed into the optative ; thus, aVjs'vai hfksvs 
 xai i^Yi sfs$/£siv i'va a&s o'/xaSs s'X0oi, he commanded him to de- 
 fart and not provoke him that he might return safe. 
 
 Note. When a person relates what was said by another, without quot- 
 ing his language, the optative is used, as the reference must be to what is 
 past; thus, "and that at one moment you might hear them announcing*' 
 tcaKtivos tvrhs eJrj truXwV tea} prjdev f^ot0' ipte7g rroirjirai " that he (Philip) WttS 
 
 within the pass of Thermopyla, and that you had nothing to do" 
 
 Rem. 1. When a. past event is related in the present time] the 
 verb in the dependent clause may still be in the optative ; and 
 in like manner, after the historical tenses, the subjunctive is 
 used when the event, though past, yet continues in its effects 
 and operation to and through the present time. Thus, in the 
 address of Minerva to Diomede, " I removed the mist from your 
 eyes that you may distinguish (opja yivhtfxifis) a deity from a 
 man in the field of battle." Here, however, there may be a 
 change of reference, i. e. the subjunctive yivuffsajs may refer, not 
 to the time of the removal, but to the time of the address, as if j 
 she had said, " I removed the mist from your eyes that you 
 may from this time forward distinguish" &c. Such changes 
 of reference are not uncommon in all languages. 
 
 Rem. 2. It was noticed, § 79, 2. Obs. that the future indica* 
 tive is used in a subjunctive sense. Accordingly it is oftea 
 
§ 263. SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. 347 
 
 found in a dependent clause, especially after kwg ; as, " Cyrus 
 deliberates ( oVws juwots hi sWai ) that he may wo longer be sub- 
 ject to bis brother/' but, if possible (^atf/XgucTsi), "may reign in 
 his stead." 
 
 Obs. 2. After adverbs of time, when the precise point of 
 time is not determined but left indefinite, the subjunctive and 
 optative are used. These are stt/jv, estskJAv, orctv, oVo-rav, refer- 
 ring indefinitely to the present, and so followed by the subjunc- 
 tive, hsi, itfSiJjYi, Sis, ottors, refer indefinitely to the past, and 
 are followed by the optative ; as, " Menelaus entertained him 
 when (from time to time) he came from Crete," oWs K^rijitev 
 i'xoiro. Here oVors K^rri&sv hero would mean, when he actu- 
 ally came from Crete. The primary part of the sentence, then, 
 may be considered as understood, as, when it happened ', that he 
 came from Crete. 
 
 Obs. 3. In like manner they are used after the relative o$ 
 SflVip, and particles used indefinitely, when a thing is expressed 
 in an indefinite manner ; in this case, also, the primary part of 
 the sentence may be understood ; as, SiesttQs 6Voi av ng %\yrirau 9 
 follow where (it is possible that) any one may lead the way. But 
 whomsoever of the common people (it happened that) he saiv, 
 Uoi, or, found, icpeugoi. 
 
 Obs. 4. Both the subjunctive and optative are used without 
 being preceded by another verb, and so apparently in independ- 
 ent clauses. In all such instances, however, there is an ellip- 
 j sis of the verb on which they depend. 
 
 I. The subjunctive is thus used, 
 1st. To command in the first person ; as, i'wjxsv, let us go ; i. e. 
 
 it is necessary that we go ; and so of others. 
 2d. In forbidding, with fwj or its compounds in the aorist, not 
 
 in the present ; as, p) o^ofl^s, swear not. 
 3d. In deliberating with one's self; as, itoi Tfowrw^aj, whither 
 
 shall I turn ; siVwfjtgv yj <S\y wjxsv, shall ive speak or be si~ 
 1 11 .' lent. 
 
 II. The optative is thus used, 
 
 1st. To express a wish or prayer ; as, tovto ^ ysvoiro, O that 
 this might not be. In this case s'/de, si, &$, <xug y av, are 
 often used with the optative. 
 
 2d. In connexion with otv to express doubt, conjecture, bare pos- 
 sibility ; and in volitions, to express, not a fixed resolu- 
 tion, but only an inclination to a thing ; as, rwsg av sfs? 
 vop£i£, they were perhaps (or, it is probable that they were) 
 shepherds ; ifihas av dsatfal^v, I would gladly see them. 
 
348 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE MOODS. § 263, 
 
 3d. To express a definite assertion with politeness or modesty ; 
 as, oupc fyxst oi3<T av rfeoi Ssvgo, he has not come, and will not 
 come back ; i. e. I rather think it was his purpose that he 
 would not come back. 
 
 4th, Sometimes it is used for the imperative to convey a com- 
 mand or request in milder terms ; as, x^£ 0l S ^ v g,/(J ' w » V ou 
 may go in, i. e. go in. 
 
 5th. It is sometimes used for the indicative to give an air of in- 
 determinateness to the circumstances of an action which 
 is determinate in itself; as, twv vswv ag xaraSvtfsiav, the ships 
 which they may or might have sunk ; i. e. which they have 
 sunk. 
 
 6th. It is also used in a potential sense to denote powder or vo- 
 lition ; as, ovx av ds ^.slvsiag aurov ; could you not withstand 
 him ? eQeXfysisv av ; would he be willing ? 
 Obs. 5. The use of the indicative in conditional propositions 
 
 has been noticed § 261. 4. The subjunctive and optative are 
 
 also used in conditional propositions, as follows : 
 
 1. Uncertainty in the condition, with an actual result, if the 
 condition is expressed by say with the subjunctive ; as, £av n 
 I^wjxsv Swtfojuosv, if ive have any thing we will give it. The re- 
 sult in this case will be in the indicative future or the impera- 
 tive. 
 
 2. A mere hypothetical supposition with a determinate re- 
 sult, puts the condition in the optative with el, and the result in 
 the indicative ; as, "if these things should seem (Soxoir)) to be 
 very aggravated crimes, none of them are chargeable on me." 
 On the contrary, an actual case supposed in the condition with 
 a hypothetical result, would require the first in the indicative 
 with si, and the last in the optative. 
 
 3. When the case is altogether hypothetical, the condition 
 is expressed by the optative with si, and the result by the op- 
 tative with av ; as, si rig ravra rtgarroi, \hiya fx 1 av wpsX^tfos, if 
 any one should do this he would greatly assist me. 
 
 Sometimes the subjunctive with lav or av is put in the con- 
 dition, instead of the optative. 
 
 Note* All conditional propositions in Greek may be turned into the 
 infinitive or participle with av ; as, 
 
 ofovrai avafxdxeaOcu av t o-v/ifid^ouj " they think they might retrieve their 
 irpo(r\d6ovTts, fortune in war by obtaining allies**' 
 
§ 264, 265. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 349 
 
 § 264. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 
 
 The infinitive mood expresses the meaning of the verb in a 
 general and unlimited manner, without the distinctions of num- 
 ber or person. § 79. 4. In construction it may be considered 
 under the four following divisions : viz. as a verbal noun ; as 
 following a verb or adjective without a subject ; as having a 
 subject before it ; or, as used absolutely after certain particles.. 
 
 § 265. I. OF THE INFINITIVE AS A VERBAL 
 
 NOUN. 
 
 The infinitive mood may be considered as an indeclinable 
 verbal substantive, expressing the state of being, action, or 
 passion of the verb, but still retaining, in this substantive state, 
 the power of governing belonging to the verb. Hence, not on- 
 ly the simple infinitive, but the whole portion of the sentence 
 to which it belongs, may be declined through all the cases with 
 the neuter article, and stand in almost every variety of con- 
 struction in which a substantive can be placed. It is therefore 
 subject to the same rules of construction as the substantive. 
 With the article preceding, it corresponds to the gerunds in La- 
 tin, and without the article, often to the supines, and may be 
 thus declined: 
 
 Nom. to XsysiVj to speak or speaking. 
 
 Gen. rov XsySiv, of speaking. 
 
 Dat. tcj Xsysw, to speaking. 
 
 Ace. to Xsysiv, speaking. 
 The following sentences will serve to illustrate the substan- 
 | tive use of this mood. 
 
 I. Examples in which the infinitive with the article, but with- 
 out a subject , is used as a substantive. 
 
 Nom. ^o pwj <p»X5]tfGM ^aXetfov, not to love is hard. 
 
 Gen. and Nom. £x tou opov ylve<ron to l^av ; love is produced from 
 
 sight. 
 Nom. and Dat. to (piXsiv dLxaigwg '/tfov ifai t£) iMtfeTv, to love un- 
 reasonably is equal to hating. 
 Obs. 1. The article is often wanting in the nominative and 
 accusative when governed by a verb, and sometimes also in 
 the genitive ; as, 
 
 30 
 
350 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. § 265, 
 
 croctfiv fyxiv xadtavsTv o<pei\s<rai, dying is due to all of us ; i. e. 
 
 " we all must die." 
 
 Obs. 2. The want of the article after a preposition is morei 
 harsh, though this construction sometimes occurs. 
 
 Obs. 3. The infinitive with the article is sometimes put in 
 the accusative instead of the genitive ; as, rsv^srm to ^r\ jjavsiv, 
 for tou i^Yj 0avs?v, she will obtain that she die not ; lyd a'inos to <ri 
 d<troxgiva.<r6ai 9 for toG tfs, &c, I am the cause of your having been 
 separated. 
 
 II. In the following examples the infinitive after the article 
 is preceded by its subject or agent in the accusative (§ 267. ), 
 and the whole clause is used as a noun in different cases ; as, 
 Nom. to tous dv0£w<rou£ (XjuuagTavsiv ovSsv dau/juxflrov (eflV/), that 
 
 men should err is nothing wonderful. 
 Gen. vireg tov imdsvct atfoQvr)(fxeiv 7 that no one might perish. 
 Dat. i'va aflria'TWfl'i tcJ] J/xs fsruwidQcu u<7ro feijxo'vwv, that they might 
 
 disbelieve my having been honour •edby the Gods ; sv tw sXitefv 
 
 auTov, o^ his coming, 
 Ace. exjiva to fM7 tfaXiv s'Xdsjv, I have determined wo/ ta eowe 
 
 III. The following are examples of the infinitive, as the 
 Latin Gerunds : viz. 
 
 Gen. g'vsxa tou Xeysw, cawsa dicendi,for the sake of speaking. 
 Dat. iv TwXsys/v, dicendo, in speaking. 
 Ace tfgos to Xsysiv, #^ dicendum, to speaking. 
 
 IV. The following may be considered as examples of the in- 
 finitive, as the supines in Latin ; viz, 
 
 ^X0s ^TTJo'ai, venit qusesitum, Ae c«me to seek. 
 
 qSv dxousiv, suave auditu, agreeable to hear or to be heard. 
 
 a/fyiaros 6<p05jvai, turpissimum visu, ?rao$* shameful to be seen. 
 
 Note 1. In the construction of the infinitive with the article, there 
 may be an ellipsis of the word xf%a or npaypa, to which the article pro- 
 perly belongs ; thus, to /nv ra /xsydXa vwqv rovs ^f'Xovj, his surpassing his 
 frieids in conferring great favours, is equivalent to to %9W a a^rbv ra pt- 
 yoXa, Sec. This circumstance, namely, that he surpassed, &c. ; rovro £e ho'ui 
 U rov %aX£7rdf eJvai, this he accomplished from his being severe; i. e. h 
 rov xpfifxaTos, avrbg %a\eirb$ eivai,from the circumstance that he was severe. 
 
 Note. 2. Sometimes the neuter article is placed before the infinitive 
 when it is not used as a verbal noun, but seems to be added to give em- 
 phasis to the expression ; as, to Sp$v ovk ydiXvorav, they were not willing 
 to do it ; or as it might be rendered, this they did not wish, the doinq 
 vfit. 
 
§ 266. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 351 
 
 § 266. II. OF THE INFINITIVE WITHOUT A 
 SUBJECT. 
 
 Rule LII. One verb governs another in the 
 infinitive ; as, 
 
 rj^oLTo 'ksysiv, he began to say. 
 
 Rule LIII. The infinitive mood is governed 
 by adjectives denoting fitness, ability, capacity, 
 and the contrary ; as, 
 
 Ssivig Asysiv, powerful in speaking. 
 ccgiog daufxoufa/, worthy to be admired. 
 
 Also after substantives ; as, 
 
 ^outffav ysWto, power to become. 
 
 General principles respecting the construction of the Infinitive under 
 
 this rule. 
 
 The leading verb or adjective on which another verb de- 
 pends, may be considered 
 
 I. As expressing a complete and independent idea of itself, 
 or together with the words with which it stands connected, as 
 in the expressions " I read," " I exhort you to study." In this 
 case the verb immediately depending on the leading verb or 
 clause, is not put in the infinitive, but in the subjunctive or op- 
 tative, connected by the conjunctions i'va, o<p£a, oVws, &c. 
 (§263.); as, ^ fivers, ha ^ x^j^tc, judge not, that ye be not 
 judged; ntagaivQ Co/ paQstv ^gocfxjxara ha, <fo<pu)TSgog yevr h I ex- 
 hort you to the study of literature, that you may be more wise ; or, 
 
 II. It may be considered as expressing an imperfect idea, 
 and requiring the addition of one or more words to complete the 
 sense; thus the words "I pray" " I persuade" " I will" are 
 felt to be incomplete, and require an addition which expresses 
 for what I pray, to ivhat I persuade, and what I will. Now, 
 
 1 . When that to which such an imperfect verb or adjective 
 directly and immediately refers is something expressed by a 
 verb, that verb is put in the infinitive mood without a conjunc- 
 tion ; as, 
 
 Ui'kzi ypcupsiv, he wishes to write. 
 
 agitfrog dxovrf^siv, very excellent at darting. 
 
 Sloped tfou eXdsJv, I beg of you to come. 
 
 IxwXutfgv pe 7£<x(peiVj he hindered me from writing. 
 
352 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE, § 266. 
 
 To this class of verbs belong those which signify to say, to 
 announce, to mean, to think, to hope, and the like. 
 
 Exc. Verbs signifying to say, and those in which this idea 
 is implied, are often followed by on or ofe, with a finite mood ; 
 as, Xsyovcfi tov srcugov rsdvavai, or "hsyov&i on (or &g,) 6 iraTgog 
 rifoyxs, they say that our companion is dead. 
 
 Rem. Sometimes both modes of expression are united in the 
 same sentence; as, soV/ \6yog wg Usg%r\g sxo^i^sro ig 
 rrjV 'Ac/tjv tfXwovrct Si ju-jv a v s fx o v 2 r f u fx o v i q v u tf o X a § s fv. 
 Sometimes a sentence begins with the one form and ends with 
 the other ; as, Xs'^outfi S' ^{hag, w£ dxivSvvov §iov ^oojuugv, ^Aey say 
 that we live a life free from danger ; as if it had been intended to 
 say, Xsyoutfi <J' fyxcfe axiv5uvov §iov £viv. 
 
 0#s. 1 . The infinitive is sometimes placed after various other 
 verbs, to express the object, or design, or consequence of that 
 which they affirm ; in which case waVs may generally be 
 supplied before the infinitive ; as, eyuv oSs tfavTct ^pLgatfy^sTv, i. e. 
 wtfrs vavra tfetgao^siv, I am here (so as) to furnish all things ; 
 rixopsv (fitffs) fiavQavsiv, we have come (so as) to learn, 
 
 Obs. 2. A verb denoting an incidental object not directly in 
 view, is put in the infinitive with woVs ; as, piXon^o'raros %v &<frs 
 tfavTOL utfofAsIvai, he was very ambitious so as to undergo every 
 thing. This construction takes place especially after adjec- 
 tives of comparison, and toCouto^, roiovrog, oflrws. 
 
 Obs. 3. The infinitive is sometimes put after verbs and ad- 
 jectives which indicate some state or quality, in order to ex- 
 press the respect in which that state or quality obtains, and 
 would be expressed in Latin by the supine or gerund in -do % 
 and in English by the substantive ; as, 
 
 w£ iSsiv s(poLivsTQ $ as it appeared to the sight. 
 
 Ssisiv avsjuwitfiv 6f*oibj, like the winds in running, 
 
 oidi #£cu(peaW /5sV0a/, nor did he appear to the sight. 
 
 Obs. 4. The infinitive active is used very frequently in 
 Greek in the sense of the latter supine, or infinitive passive in 
 
 Latin ; as, 
 
 avrig |orwv (puXaatfsiVj a man is more easy to be guarded 
 
 against. 
 pa§ia< rfoisTv, things easy to be done: 
 
 2. That to which an imperfect verb refers as necessary to 
 complete the sense, may be a person or thing (and that either 
 the subject or the object of a verb), qualified by some farther 
 
§ 267. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 353 
 
 description. In this case the verb containing this qualification 
 is put in the participle ; as, o^w <rs yjoupovra, / see you wri- 
 ting. For the construction of the participle as thus used, see 
 § 270. IV. 
 
 .§ 267. III. THE INFINITIVE WITH A SUBJECT. 
 
 Rule L1V. The infinitive mood has its sub- 
 ject or agent before it in the accusative when it 
 is different from the subject of the preceding verb ; 
 
 as, 
 
 c/ §£otou£ cpgoveTv Xsyoutfi, why do they say that men are icise 7 
 
 Also, when the infinitive is used absolutely (i. e. instead of a 
 noun) without being governed by a preceding verb ; for exam- 
 ples see § 265. II. 
 
 JExc. A few instances are to be found of the nominative in- 
 stead of the accusative, probably the effect of attraction ; as, 
 ZopoxXTjs i'(pyj avrog j^sv ohvg SsT iroisTv^ 'EvPiiriSqg S zoioi slcfi, Sopho- 
 cles said that he represented men such as they should be ; Eu- 
 ripides, as they are. 
 
 Obs. 1. If the subject of the infinitive be the same with the 
 object of the preceding verb, it may either be in the accusative 
 according to the rule, or stand before the infinitive in the case 
 governed by the preceding verb ; thus, 
 
 v / - ~ ~ > I command you to do this. 
 
 xsksvu <fs rouro tfojsrv, y J 
 
 In either case there is an ellipsis ; — in the first form, of (fs, 
 the immediate subject of the infinitive ; and in the second, of 
 Co*, the remote object of the preceding verb. Both these modes 
 of construction are common, and sometimes they are intermix* 
 ed in the same sentence ; thus, Lysias, Ssopai fyxwv <ra Sixaia 
 -^(piVaCdai, svdufjtiouf/ivous oVi, x. c. X. I beg of you to determine 
 justly considering that, &c. Here u/xwv stands before the infi- 
 nitive governed in the genitive by Siopou, and yet iv&vpovphovs 
 follows in the accusative, evidently agreeing with 5p.ofe the sub. 
 ject of the infinitive understood. It might have been, with 
 equal propriety, put in the genitive, The following sentence 
 affords an example of both : 
 
 30* 
 
354 CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. § 26Y. 
 
 ■ sfjuoi 5s toV av rfokv xigSiov sit\ 
 
 'Hg xsvauTtj) o\s<f6ai suxXsiws tff o tfoXvjog. II. %. 109 — 1 12. 
 
 " It would have been better for me either to have returned, 
 having slain (ace.) Achilles in combat, or that I myself 
 (dat.) had fallen gloriously before the city. 
 
 Obs. 2. When used in the passive the subject of the infini- 
 tive is changed into the subject of the preceding verb, or it re- 
 mains unchanged in the accusative, the passive verb being used 
 impersonally ; as, 
 
 l7 £ ™ fj° s ) vaWfe, KapJSitu,, 
 
 Xeysrat Kufov ) ' 
 
 Cyrus is said to have been } f , .. , rC.***™-* ' 
 t/- j ^u «. r* } the son of Cambyses. 
 
 It is said that Cyrus was J J 
 
 Note. These different modes of expression are equally common. 
 The same observation is true of the verb 8oku ; thus, SokeX avrdg ttvai 1 he 
 seems to be ; or, SoksX avrbv dvcu, it seems that he is. The following sen- 
 tence unites the two, kcu prjv fiyyshrai ye h ^X^ i ff X v P^ y £ Y ov ^ vaL Ka * ^oWovg 
 reQv&vai, and indeed it was said that the battle was obstinate, and that ma- 
 ny died. 
 
 Rule LV« If the subject of the infinitive be 
 the same with the subject of the preceding verb, 
 
 it is put by attraction in the same case ; as, 
 
 s<pi} ^fvoi ffopxtyybs, he said that he was a general 
 
 Obs. 1. In this construction the subject of the infinitive is 
 generally omitted, except when it is emphatic ; as, sopy ocu<ro£ 
 eTwi fagcvrtiyog, oux hsivovg, he said that he himself was a gene- 
 ral, that they loere not generals. This construction is imitated in 
 
 Latin ; thus, sensit medios delapsus in hostes. 
 
 Exc. The subject of the infinitive is found sometimes in the 
 accusative, when it signifies the same thing with the nomina- 
 tive of the preceding verb ; as, Xiyei saurov Hregov ysyovs'vai,'he 
 said that he was become another. 
 
 Rule LVI. The infinitive mood of substan- 
 tive and neuter verbs, and passive verbs of nam- 
 ing, has the same case after it as before it ; as, 
 
 Nom. tyi) (a&rog) sfvcu (fagarijyos, he said that he was a ge- 
 neral. 
 
§ 268. CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE. 355 
 
 Gen. xarsyvwxoTwv rjdy\ pY\xhi xgsKjtfovwv s/vai, having learned 
 
 that they are no longer superior. 
 Dat. itf rj^Tv i<f<ri to iireixstfi sfvai, it depends upon ourselves 
 
 to be reasonable. 
 Ace. IXsys Jxsivous sfvai dv5£atfo5as, he said that they were 
 
 slaves. 
 
 Note I. This rule is only a particular application of the rule § 195, 
 Obs. 3. and as there, so here, the word after the infinitive may be a sub- 
 stantive, a pronoun, an adjective, or a participle, agreeing with the 
 word before it. Hence, 
 
 Note 2. This rule holds good whether the word preceding the infini- 
 tive be its own proper subject, or (that being omitted, Rule LV. Obs. l.) f 
 the subject or the object of the preceding verb. 
 
 Obs. 1. Whatever case is required before the infinitive by 
 the preceding rules, it continues the same though preceded by 
 kg or woVs, or a preposition, because the preposition affects not 
 the subject of the infinitive, but belongs to the infinitive itself or 
 to the whole clause ; thus, 
 
 ovdsig rrfKixovTog gtfrw rfaff ufwv, ~&1<rs tous vo^ou^ tfaga£o\g ^ 
 Sovvai SixviVy 
 
 Let no one be so great among you that breaking the laws he 
 can go unpunished. 
 
 v/pwxjTavov oia to fXTj tfo(poi sjvai, 
 
 They erred because they were not wise. 
 
 § 268. IV. THE INFINITIVE USED ABSO- 
 LUTELY. 
 
 Rule L VII. The infinitive is often put abso- 
 lutely with the particles a>g (ware), itqiv, a#(H, 
 fiexQij &c before it ; as, 
 
 tig ISsTv avdf w#ov, when the man saw. 
 
 *f jv dflroflavsiv to rfauSiov, before the child died. 
 
 kg fxixf ov psyaku shoufou, to compare small with great* 
 
 Obs. 1 . gj£j with the infinitive, is frequently used to limit a 
 proposition in the sense of " as far as." Thus, 
 kg g/ii su fiiSfw/vjtfflai, as far as I recollect distinctly. 
 Cog yi f*,oi 5gxs?v, as it seems to me. 
 
 Obs. 2. kg is frequently omitted ; hence such expressions 
 as the following : ou tfoXXw Xoyw sjVsjv, in few words ; pixgw 
 Sstv, to/fe is wanting) almost ; tfoXXou <5s?V, twwcA is wanting. 
 
356 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. § 269. 
 
 Obs. 3. The infinitive is often used for the imperative mood, 
 o£a, SXsVs, tfxotfsT, &c. being understood ; as, x a ' l £ Biv 1* ST( * X a '~ 
 govrwv, xkaisiv jLfcSrd xXaiovrwv, rejoice with them that do rejoice, 
 and weep with them that weep. Sometimes, also, for the opta- 
 tive, 5os, ds'Xw, or sK^ofAcci, being understood ; as, w Zeu sxyhe<fQa.i 
 (xo* 'A^vou'ous <n<fa&Qui 9 O Jupiter, m#i/ ^ fe granted to me to 
 punish the Athenians. 
 
 Obs. 4. The infinitive sTvai is sometimes absolute and re- 
 dundant, both with and without the article ; viz. 
 
 1st After adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions; thus, ixw* 
 s/vaj for Jxojv, willing ; as, 
 
 sxwv av s/vai touto rfoirjtfaipi, I would willingly do this. 
 
 So the phrases, 
 
 to tfuf/^av g/vai, generally. 
 
 <fe y' sfvai, wz% respect to you. 
 
 to ^sv rrjiisgoy sfvai, ^-rf«y dtf /e#s£. 
 
 xarot touto s/vai, wVA respect to this. 
 
 to vuv sfva/, fttfitf. 
 
 to s# 5 feffivous sfvai, as/izr as depends on them. 
 
 2d. After verbs of calling, choosing, making, &c. ; as r 
 
 <fo$itfrr\v ovojxa^outfi ys tov cLvSga sivat, They call the man a 
 
 philosopher. 
 oi 8s tfu/xjxa^ov fxiv £/'Xovto e/vai, they chose him as an ally. 
 
 § 269. OF THE PARTICIPLE. § 83. 
 
 The participle, inform and declension, resembles the adjective ; 
 in signification it retains the meaning of the verb. In construc- 
 tion it resembles both ; i. e. like the adjective, it agrees with a 
 substantive in gender, and number, and case, § 196 ; and 
 also governs the case of its own verb. In these respects it 
 corresponds to the participles in Latin, and, like them, is subject 
 to the two following rules, which are only particular applica- 
 tions of Rules already given. 
 
 Rule I. Participles, like adjectives, agree with 
 their substantives in gender, number, and case. 
 
§ 270. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 357 
 
 Rule II. Participles govern the case of their 
 own verbs ; as, 
 
 oi tfoXs'/xjoi to Xoyi'ov slSorsg, the enemies knowing the oracle, 
 rour.w epou Ssopsvov, I being in want of these things. 
 
 In nothing, perhaps, is the Greek language more happy, or 
 possesses a more decided advantage over the Latin, than in 
 the use of the participles. Having a participle in all the lead- 
 ing tenses, active, passive, and middle, it is capable of expressing 
 briefly and perspicuously by a single word what must be ex- 
 pressed in the other, for want of this advantage, by a circumlo- 
 cution ; thus, ru^u$, having struck, must, for want of a past 
 participle active, in Latin be rendered " cum verberaverat" In 
 like manner, for want of a present participle passive, Tv^r6^svog t 
 being struck, must be rendered, inter vapulandum, or, dum verbe- 
 retur. On this account, as may be supposed, the use of the 
 participle is much more extensive in Greek than in Latin ; and 
 also, when both languages have the same participle, the former 
 employs it much more frequently than the latter, and in con- 
 structions entirely different. All that is important in the con- 
 struction of the participle may be summed up in the following : 
 
 § 270. RULES AND OBSERVATIONS ON THE 
 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 
 
 I. Every actioA/which admits of being con- 
 sidered as only accompanying another, which is the 
 main action, the Greeks generally express by the 
 participle. In this case the participle agrees 
 with the subject of the leading verb, in order, 
 
 1 . Simply to connect the accompanying with the 
 main action in the same subject; as, 
 
 'AXX' dvcKfravTsg xara^piVatfds %, but standing up now, 
 condemn me ; or, you may now stand up and condemn me. 
 tfags'Xdwv Tig foliar w, let any one come forward and shew. 
 
 In order to combine the accompanying with 
 the main action, as the cause, means, or manner 
 of accomplishing it; and may generally be 
 
358 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. § 270. 
 
 translated by the ablative gerund in Latin; 
 thus, it intimates the cause ; as, 
 
 ti tfoi^tfas xarsyvwds 0ava<rov ; for having done what (quid fa- 
 ciendo) was he condemned to die ? 
 
 The means ; susjysrwv avrovg Ixqrqtfafjwjv, I gained them by kind- 
 ness (benefaciendo) ; X^o/xsvoi £w<riv, they live by 
 plunder. 
 
 The manner ; as, cpeuyuv ixysuyeij he escapes by flight ; toXjx^- 
 tfas s/V5jXfls, Ae wera2 in boldly. 
 
 Note. The participle thus used agrees with the agent in any case ; e» g. 
 in the dative ; as, a toT$ avOp&Ttois eSwicav ot dsoi fxadovai SiaKpiveiv, which the 
 Gods have put it in the power of men to find out by study ; the accusative; 
 
 as, a £%e<rTiv api6 n^aavras rj fxerp^aavras t) arrjaavras etiivat, which We may 
 
 know by counting, by measuring, or by weighing. 
 
 3, It limits a general expression, by shewing that 
 action in respect of which the assertion is made : 
 as, 
 
 aSixsTrs tfoXifjtou oigxpvres, ye do wrong in beginning the 
 war; su tfoiqifag Ayixopsvog, thou hast done well in 
 having come. 
 
 Obs. Verbs which signify any emotion of the mind, such 
 as, to rejoice, to be indignant) ashamed^ vexed, to repent, &c. take 
 the verb expressing the cause of the emotion in the participle, 
 agreeing with its subject ; as, 
 
 Jjiojxai jxsv tf' siVj<5wv, I am rejoiced at seeing you. 
 
 X&f iv itfdi Jciv dira&r)S, consider it a kindness that you are un 
 
 punished. 
 ovSetfore tfoi iisra^sK^si si ito^avrt, you will never repent oj 
 having done a kindness. 
 
 II. A farther description of any person or thing 
 mentioned in a sentence, and which is made ir 
 English by means of a verb introduced by t 
 relative, or by the particles as, because, after that 
 so that) although, &c. is made in Greek by the 
 participle agreeing with the word whose qualifi 
 cation it is ; as, 
 
 £*rs<fxgflrrofjwiv <rov iraifov votfouvra may signify, according tj 
 the context, " I visited my comrade who tvas sick" o| 
 when, or because he was sick. 
 
 i 
 
§ 270. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 359 
 
 T 9 f/<syaXw QoufiXsT ov tfargiov itfriv dvSgog axgoaJ&cu \ir\ tfjotf- 
 xuv^tfavToc:, it is not the hereditary custom of the great 
 king to hear a person who does not (or, if he do not) fall 
 down before him. 
 
 111. When the article stands before the parti- 
 ciple, referring to some word alrea'dy mentioned 
 or easily supplied, it may be rendered by the 
 relative, and the participle by the indicative ; as, 
 
 o s££oa£vo£, he that cometh. § 208, VI. 3. 
 
 Note, The participle, with the article before it, is frequently equiva- 
 lent to a noun designating the doer of the action expressed by the verb ; 
 as, ol ypa-^dnevoi ScoKpar^v, the accusers of Socrates. There is, however, 
 this difference ; the participle expresses the doer in a state of action, the 
 substantive does not ; thus, 6 oovXos is a man in the condition of a slave ; 
 h dovXsvwv is one at the time referred to performing the part of a slave. 
 
 IV. PARTICIPLE FOR THE INFINITIVE. 
 
 It has already been observed, § 266. II. 2. that when the 
 immediate object to which an imperfect verb refers as necessary 
 to complete the sense, is a person or a thing qualified by some 
 farther description, the verb containing it is put in the partici- 
 ple, which in Latin would be put in the infinitive mood, or in 
 the subjunctive with ut; thus, 
 
 o£w tfs y^oupcvra, 1 see you writing. In Latin, video te scri- 
 bere, or, video te ut scribas. 
 
 As thus used, it is subject to the following general 
 
 Rule. The participle agrees with the word to 
 which it refers as its subject in gender, number, 
 and case. 
 
 Rem. The subject of the participle used as the infinitive, 
 • may either be the subject or object of the preceding verb. 
 
 1st. Examples in which the subject of the participle is the 
 same with the subject of the preceding verb. 
 
 Nom. ou tfavtfo^ai ygatpuv, I will not cease to write. 
 Nom. sgsX'/iXs/x-Tai r^ag dxaruv, he is convicted of having de- 
 ceived us. 
 Ace. Xlyoucri auTov |X£(XVY]<r0a» tfoiyjCavra, they say that he re- 
 members having done it. 
 
 2d. Examples in which the subject of the participle is the 
 same with the object of the preceding verb. 
 
360 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. § 270. 
 
 Gen. TjdQovro Si o\ iroXXo/ <*e<pewy6ro$ 'Avrwvfou, the people per- 
 ceived that Antony had fled. 
 
 Dat. f^jfeVors fjusrgjuueX^d's fjtoj Ciy^aavTi, (p^sy|afxsvw Ss tfoXXa- 
 xig, it has never repented me that I kept silence, but 
 often that I spoke. 
 
 Ace. Cct(pw£ xot<nf|xa0ov cpa^axa aurov u/xiv Jy^savra, I plainly 
 perceived /Aatf he had infused poison for you. 
 
 Note 1. If the verb is accompanied by a reflected pronoun, the par- 
 ticiple may agree either with the pronoun or with the nominative to the 
 verb ; as, 
 
 cvvoiSa ifxavTip afxapTavuv, or a[iapTdvovTi, I am conscious of doing icrong. 
 
 iavrdv oiSsls h[xo\oys,T KaKovpyos wv, or kcl~ nobody confesses that he him- 
 Kovpyov dvra, self is wicked. 
 
 Note 2. The participle wv is sometimes omitted, and only the adjective 
 belonging to it expressed; as, 
 
 ads Xadi (sc. wv), know that you are safe. 
 
 Obs. 1. The verbs after which the participle is thus used to 
 complete the sense, are, 
 
 1st. Verbs of sense ; as, to see, to hear, &c. 
 
 2d, Verbs denoting any act ox feeling of the mind; as, " to know, 
 perceive, discern, consider, observe, experience, shew, recollect, 
 forget" &c, which are also followed by 6V». 
 
 3d. Verbs signifying " to overlook, to permit to happen, to perse- 
 vere, bear, endure, to be pleased or contented with ; also, to 
 cease, and to cause to cease. 
 
 Note 1. apxofxat and fardpx® are constructed with the participle when 
 they signify to do for the first time, and sometimes after verbs to say, and 
 the like ; though in such a case the infinitive is generally used. § 266. 
 II. 1. 
 
 Note 2. Likewise adjectives denoting clearness, with the verb tlpi ; 
 as, drj\o s it GVKo<pdvT(x>v, you are clearly a sycophant. 
 
 Obs. 2. Instead of the participle with the above-mentioned 
 verbs, the infinitive is sometimes used ; but, generally, in con- 
 sequence of a change of meaning in the governing verb ; thus, 
 yiyvwtfxs/v, signifying to perceive, is followed by the participle ; 
 signifying to learn, it is followed by the infinitive ; yet, some- 
 times it seems indifferent which construction is used. Thus, 
 gufjupofov idTi vavrci wgaj^vai, or Tcwra f;u/x<pofa tdn rfgaytfivra. 
 
 Obs. 3. Verbs of motion are accompanied regularly by a 
 future participle, to express the design or object of the verb indi- 
 cated in English by the phrase " in order to f as, 
 
 <Te yi &5<xf wv wjjjwjfAai, I have hastened forward in order to 
 teach thee. 
 
§ 270. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 361 
 
 Note. 1. Sometimes the present participle is used in this way; as 
 
 rtfxnei pe (pipovra. he sent me to carry. ' 
 
 Note. 2. The future participle after faxonat is only a circumlocution 
 for the future tense ; as, 'ipxp^ai fypdcuv, for &pdaw, I will speak ; Ip^o^at 
 a-rodavov[i£iH>s, Isliall die ; or, lam about to die. 
 
 V. A participle joined with Jtav&avco, (p&avw, 
 Tvyxavco, also with verbs which express a con- 
 tinuance ; as, diaxtkm^ diayivofiai,, dbuya), &c. in 
 any tense, is rendered by the indicative of that 
 tense; and the verb is rendered as an adverb; 
 thus, 
 
 Xctv^avw, with the participle denotes, 1st. that something is 
 done unperceived by others ; as, rau<ra tfor/jtfac; s'Xadsv 
 virsxyvyuv, having done these things he escaped unper- 
 ceived. 2d. That something is done unperceived by the 
 subject itself (i. e. unawares), at least till it has hap- 
 pened ; as tov (povsa Xavdavsi, he unconsciously feeds his 
 murderer. 
 
 p^avw ; as, scpArp a(psXwv } J took it away just before. 
 
 tu/x^ vw i & s j swxev dUnwv, he happenedtobe going away, 
 
 SiareXsu ; as, diarsXsT tfafwv, he is continually present. 
 
 fiiayiyvo^ou ; as, Siaysyiv^iiai tfoiwv, I have always done. 
 
 Note. 1. The participle wv is wanting with adjectives; as, rvy^dva 
 <a\rf (sc. ovua), she happens tobebeautiful ; and sometimes without them ; 
 as, aypoiciv rvyxdvu (sc. wv), he happens to be in thefields. 
 
 Note. 2. tpddvw, with a negative, may be rendered "scarcely" "no 
 sooner, &c. ; as, ovk tyOrjcav -vQojjievoi, they no sooner heard. 
 
 Note. 3. <pOdvw is sometimes followed by the infinitive instead of the 
 participle; as, -novngh av <pQdaut TeXevrrjffai rptv, &c, a wretched man would 
 rather die than. he. 
 
 Obs. 1. In the same sense these verbs stand sometimes in 
 the participle with other finite verbs ; as, 
 
 dtfo rsiyjog otXro Xa0wv, he sprung unobserved from the walL 
 rivtfzp ru/^avwv U7rs(r^6jju7]v, which I happened to promise, 
 
 VI. A participle with the verbs dpi, vuuq%ta 9 
 yivofiai, £/eo, and rfxoi, is often put as a circumlo- 
 cution for the verb to which it belongs ; thus, 
 
 <*£ obS§y]xorss ?tfavj for fpt&SvpcGrte&j they had gone forward. 
 dUrsxTaxwg itfri tov av0£wtfov, for dvfrraxs, he has killed the 
 
 man. 
 yyjfjuag fjpifc for iyn^as ) have you married? 
 31 
 
362 CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. § 270, 
 
 daujxatfas s^w, for <rs0auf/,axa, / have admired. 
 pKfovvrss yryvovra/, for jjwa'oua'j, ^y /toe. 
 
 Note 1. The verbs ei/*$ 3 Wp^w, &c. in such sentences as the above, 
 seem to resemble auxiliary verbs in modern languages ; yet, on a close 
 examination, many of them will be found to convey the idea intend- 
 ed with a precision and emphasis which the simple verb alone could 
 not express. Thus, in the examples with %o, the verb conveys the 
 idea of possession, the participle shews the way in which it was obtain- 
 ed. Also, by means of these verbs the ideas of commencement, con- 
 tinuance, &c. may be superadded. 
 
 Note 2. Instead of a simple verb signifying " to go away," the verb 
 ofyojuai is frequently joined with a participle ; the former to express the 
 idea of departure, the latter to connect with it the idea of the manner^ 
 both of which may generally be rendered by a simple verb ; thus, 
 
 cpx^r airoTrrdpsvos, he departed flying * i. e. he flew away. 
 
 $X £T0 tywyuy, he departed fleeing, he escaped. 
 
 &XOVTO cLTTodiovres, they ran away. 
 
 or^erai dav&v, he died. 
 
 Note 3. Homer uses Salvia in the same manner ; as, Srj <f>£vy<av, 6rj alpaca. 
 
 VII. The participle, in definitions of time, is often joined with 
 the adverbs audxa, eu%, ■f/.srag'O, ajxa, the last with the dative ; 
 as, 
 
 w£ aMxct yevofisvos, as soon as he was born. 
 
 ysvofxsvoi svQvg, soon after our birth. 
 
 jxSTagu ofufltfcdv, during the digging. 
 
 a\hOL tcj iWw touto tfoi^ccvri, as the horse did this. 
 ajxa <rty ?£* sv&vs dgXPflivu, on the first commencement of 
 
 spring. 
 
 VIII. The participles of some verbs, when joined with other 
 verbs, appear to be used in an adverbial sense ; or, at least, to 
 denote a circumstance which in our language is better express- 
 ed by an adverb ; as, 
 
 1. agx^svos, alone, or with a genitive, " in the beginning ;" as, 
 
 cwrs£ xai clgxW sv °S S ^ GV ) which things I also said in the 
 
 beginning. 
 
 But with dtfo, followed by the genitive, "primarily" " especial- 
 hj" u first ;" as, ofo/xai rovg tfoXXous dnto G^ottfuixa^ou dfga/jus'voufj 
 &c. I think that many, and especially Thrasymachus, <&c. 
 
 2. TsXsurftv, " lastly ;" as, xou tsXsutwv 8q (paif*sv av, and last- 
 ly I would say. 
 
 3. SiolKwuv x?°' vov ) a ft er some time. 
 
 4. <psgwv and ccywv. 
 
 1st. With verbs to give, to place, are redundant; as^s'fwv 
 <5wxs, he gave ; sQfys (ps'gwv, he placed. Also &x wv w ^ n tne 
 
§ 270. CONSTRUCTION OF THE PARTICIPLE. 363 
 
 interrogation ri ; as, rl xwirra^sig I'^wv ; why do you lurk ? 
 rt 6v]Tff. §iTgi£eig l^wv ; why do you loiter ? Sometimes with- 
 out the interrogative ; as, (pXuagsis *X WV ) thou playest the 
 fool. 
 
 2d. With verbs of motion, <ps£wv is joined by the Attics to ex- 
 press zeal and vehemence, readiness, quickness, tendency to ; 
 &c. ; as, <ps£ouCa svs'SaXs vql 91X117, she drove wftfA vehemence 
 on a friendly ship. 
 
 3d. With their cases they are equivalent to the Latin " cum" 
 with; as, rjxsv oiyuv (or s'x wv )? Si(f")(iKiovg o^^^j ne came 
 ttf^A two thousand infantry ; vjxw cps'^wv, I come bringing 
 (i. e. I bring) with me. 
 
 5. dvu(fag fl " quick ; n as, aviiCavrs Sfoerov, having hastened 
 bind ; i. e. bind quickly. 
 
 6.^ The participles of verbs signifying " to go, to come, to take" 
 &c. are often joined to other verbs, apparently without adding 
 any thing to their meaning. In such cases they may either 
 be omitted in translating, or be rendered by the finite verb in 
 the same tense and mood with the other verb, connected with 
 it by the conjunction " and f as, 
 
 ^<xy0av' sX0wv, having come learn ; i. e. learn ; or, 
 
 come and learn. 
 iX0wv sdidatfxov, I came and taught. 
 
 si ot,lgY}<foi^ /wv, If I would go and destroy. 
 
 tfu 5 } ouv XMw xo^ov XaSwv, take a stone and strike him. 
 <pigsv deigag, he took up and carried. See I. 
 
 7. A finite verb and its participle are sometimes put toge- 
 ther ; in which case the participle is not necessary to the sense ; 
 thus, 
 
 av xTyitfoLfievoi xrTjtfaijuisda, we would acquire. 
 
 Hol&iv Uvtss, they went. 
 
 &<p'/j Xsywv, or \sysi (pag, he said, he says. 
 
 8. For the dative of the participle, with a personal pronoun 
 after the verb ifri, see § 236, Obs. 3. ; thus, si <?oj SouXofAe'vw 
 iff if if you please, 
 
364 THE CASE ABSOLUTE. § 271. 
 
 § 271. THE CASE ABSOLUTE. 
 
 Rule LVIII. A substantive with a participle 
 whose case depends on no other word, is put in 
 the genitive absolute ; as, 
 
 Gsov 5i5ovro£, outJsv when God gives, envy 
 iVjjvsi <p0ovo£, avails nothing. 
 
 Obs. 1. The genitive is said to be absolute in this construc- 
 tion, because it is neither governed by, nor is dependent on, 
 any word expressed or understood in the sentence with which 
 it is connected, and might be separated from it without affect- 
 ing its construction. Yet, strictly speaking, it is not really abso- 
 lute in such a sense as to be without government, or that there 
 is no more reason for its being in the genitive than in any other 
 case ; for the absolute clause will generally be found to express 
 a circumstance of time, and so may come under XXXIIL Obs. 
 2. § 251 ; as, 
 
 Kufou Satffreiovrtg, in the reign of Cyrus, sc. hi 
 
 Qeayvqg tfw£s<rai ©swv dsXovrwv, Theagnes is safe, from the 
 
 Gods willing it. 
 
 Hence, 
 
 Rem. 1. The participles of s7/xf, y/vo/xai, and some others, 
 are frequently omitted ; as, s^ou \tfav$ % sc. ovtfvig, I being alone. 
 
 Rem. 2. The infinitive mood or part of a sentence is used 
 absolutely with the participle as if it were a noun; as, iruf 
 <xvs7v roOs raufous, fwdoXoy^dsWos, that bulls breathe fire, being cir- 
 culated as a story. 
 
 Obs. 2. The dative absolute is used to express the fixed 
 time, (see § 251, Obs. 1.); as, iregi'i&vn Ss rq Iviavry, after the 
 year had elapsed ; and also when the subject of the participle 
 may be considered as that in reference to which the action of the 
 verb takes place. 
 
 Obs. 3. The nominative and accusative are sometimes 
 used absolutely. These instances, however, probably arise from 
 an omission of some words, which, being supplied, complete 
 the construction ; as, 
 
 dvoigoLvves <rov cfii^arog-'nri^ovs, tfccXiv yivsrm <ro <irvg $ when they 
 have opened the pores of the body, there is again fire ; 
 i. e. &s avoigavrs£ cirfi, &c. 
 
 raura ysvo/xeva, these things being done ; i. e. jxera ravra, &c. 
 
§ 272. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 365 
 
 Obs. 4. The participles of impersonal verbs, and other verbs 
 used impersonally, are put absolutely in the nominative or accu- 
 sative neuter ; as, l|ov, it being permitted ; Ssov, it being necessary ; 
 ^oxoUv, since it seems proper ; thus, 
 
 &a ri (xsvsis s|ov cwrigvai ; why dost thou remain, it being in 
 thy power to depart ? 
 
 Obs. 5. The construction with the participle is very often 
 preceded by the particles ufos, are, ola, dy, oTov, when a reason 
 of something done by another is expressed ; as, 
 
 icfiutfa ws rfcLVTag iifivTctg, or tfctvrwv sidoruv, he held his peace 
 because all knew. 
 
 Note 1. This construction is used both when the participle is in the 
 case of the preceding subject; as, &$ oh^l avvSpdaovaa vovQsrels r&fo, you 
 mention these things icith the intention of not assisting me. And when 
 it is in the case absolute, as in the above example ; the genitive and ac- 
 cusative being nearly equally common after these particles. The fol- 
 lowing sentence contains an example of both: ILp6^evov hiXevare napayi- 
 v sad xi &s i~l lisiaiSag 6ov\6jj.£vos crrpaTEvsaQai. w? ir pay para nap£%6vT(j)v YleiaiSuiV 
 tjj iavrov x^P a - ne gave orders that Proxenos should be .present, as he 
 wished to lead his army against the Pisidians on account of their exciting 
 disturbance in his territory. 
 
 Note 2. The future participle particularly, is used in this manner 
 after cfij, to express intention or design ; as, \ 'Adrivaloi -naptaKtvd^ovTo tx$ 
 -xoXefArjaovTss, the Athenians prepared to make war. § 270. IV. Obs. 3. 
 
 § 272. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 Conjunctions serve to connect words and sentences together ; 
 this connexion is of two kinds : 
 
 I. Of the parts of a sentence which are complete of thenv 
 selves and independent of each other. These are connected by 
 conjunctions, simply connective ox disjunctive, § 188. 1,2; and 
 the parts thus connected hava a similar construction ; hence 
 
 Rule LIX. Connective and disjunctive con- 
 junctions couple the same cases, moods, and ten^ 
 ses ; as, 
 
 xai o fxsv vcwrty *a/' h P^Yjg both his father and mother had 
 STSTs'KBvT7}xs(fav ) died. 
 
 Obs. To this rule there are many exceptions as it respects the 
 tenses of verbs ; see an example § 81. 3. Obs. 2. 
 
 II. But the parts of a compound sentence are often variously 
 
 31* 
 
366 CONSTRUCTION OP CONJUNCTIONS. § 273. 
 
 related, and have a certain dependence upon each other, the 
 nature of which is indicated by the conjunction employed and 
 the mood of the verb with which it is joined. The general 
 principles of this connexion are expressed in the following 
 
 rules : 
 
 Rule LX. Conjunctions which do not imply 
 doubt or contingency, are for the most part join- 
 ed with the indicative mood (§ 261) ; as, 
 
 oux av ffjosXsysv si fj^ }<te\<S- he would not have foretold it 
 rsvtfsv afctfieito&v, unless he had believed it would 
 
 prove true. 
 
 Rule LXL Conjunctions which imply doubt 
 
 or contingency, or which do not regard any thing 
 
 as actually existing, are for the most part joined 
 
 with the subjunctive and optative moods (§ 263.) ; 
 
 as, 
 
 A rtg aif Wiv /xoi &Qir h if any one should give me the choice. 
 
 Obs. As the meaning of a conjunction varies in different 
 connexions, the same conjunction is often found with different 
 moods. On this subject no very definite or satisfactory rules 
 can be given. In addition to what has been already observed 
 in § 261 — 263, the following table will shew the moods with 
 which certain conjunctions and adverbial particles are more 
 usually connected. 
 
 § 273. CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBIAL CONJUNCTIONS; 
 WHICH GOVERN THE 
 
 INDICATIVE, 
 
 A/'ds, site, I wish before the 
 
 Past tenses. 
 Avrixa, as soon as. 
 *A%p & f^'x?'? as far as° 
 
 " after* 
 
 'Eire*, \ 
 
 r 'Iva, where. 
 
 "Iva, that, Imp. Fut. Aor, 
 
 KouVs£, although. 
 
 MsVf a, until. 
 
 M*j, lest, Past. 
 
 "Otfou, when. 
 
 0<p£a, whilst. 
 
 OPTATIVE. 
 
 A7ds, s«de, I wish s Pr. and 
 
 Fut. 
 Interrog. Particles, with av. 
 
 IIw£ av 7 how. 
 
§ 273. CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 367 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 Av, Jav, yjv, if 
 EiVej, although. 
 'Etfav, itfsiSav, since. 
 "Ewe av, until. . 
 
 ''Opfa,- } ' to ' Pr ' and Fut 
 
 Kav, although. 
 c/ 0#gjs av, $a*. 
 "0<rav, w^ew. 
 c/ Op£a, wMs/, Pr. 
 Ilf/v av, before. 
 'OS av, /to. 
 
 INDICATIVE AND OPTATIVE. 
 
 On, ?to. | *Otfus, how j that. 
 
 INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, AND SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 A X?'> &XS l > witfi 
 
 EJ, # 
 
 M^ forbidding. 
 
 OtfOTS, 1 
 
 "OtfoVav, v wforc. 
 "Ore, j 
 
 INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE, 
 AND INFINITIVE. 
 
 Av, xs, Potential. 
 "Ew£ } as tog as. 
 Mrjtfore, lest. 
 
 
 INDICATIVE, OPTATIVE, AND INFINITIVE. 
 
 I c/ f2<frs, so that. 
 
 'EffSi^, \ • 
 
 serace. 
 
 OPTATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE, 
 'Etfgav, after, | &H to. 
 
 Conjunctions Postpositive are yd(), juiv, <5e, re, 
 
 These are Prepositive and Postpositive, av, apa, 
 dij, tv«. 
 
 The rest are Prepositive. 
 
368 
 
 USE OF VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 §274. 
 
 CORRESPONDING PARTICLES. 
 
 'ErfSiSav, token, — TTjvixaGra, 
 
 then. 
 *Hi, as far,— r afar), so far. 
 HjUda*, when ) — -tots, then. 
 'Hju-sv, when, — r}8s, then. 
 Hjtxos, when, — rr^xog, then. 
 e Hvixa, when, — rr\\Ua, then. 
 "I<fov,just, — xai, as. 
 KaM^rsf, as, — outw, so. 
 Msv, indeed, — Ss, but. 
 Msv, both, — Ss, and. 
 e OfJt,oiov, like,- — waVs, as. 
 'O/xoiw^, like, — utfirsg, «s. 
 Otfou, to here, — ixsT, there. 
 Qtf4vx\, as often, — rotfauxt, so 
 
 Tlagog, before,— tffiv, Ma/. 
 Ilf/v, before, — fy that. 
 TIgiv, before, — irgtv, that. 
 tlgoTSPov, before, — tffiv, that. 
 Tots, then, — ^ts, when. 
 Tots, then, — -oVav, when. 
 Tots, then, — sVsu5av, when. 
 Tots, then. — iplxa, when. 
 *Qg, as, — outw, so. 
 ^flg, as, — wtfauTws, thus. 
 'no's/, as, — outw, so. 
 "Otfos, where, — JvraMa, there. 
 ^Oirov, where,— -Mol, there. 
 Ourojg, so, — &g 9 as. 
 ' Qtfftsg, as, — ouVw, so. 
 "fkftfsg, as, — xat, so. 
 r/ n<frrs£, as, — wtfauTws, thus. 
 
 often. 
 Ov, tohere, — hsl, there. 
 
 Obs. 1. Some of these may be inverted thus : 
 6Vs— TOTS j wg — oi!rw£, &c. 
 
 One of the Corresponding Particles is frequently omitted, as 
 ou5sv £\t t£j f3iq <rcf)(i<fra yygatfxsi &$ y xty l $» Soc. 
 
 § 274. ON THE SIGNIFICATION AND USE OF 
 
 VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS AND 
 
 ADVERBIAL PARTICLES. 
 
 av (Poetice xs or xsv), according to Professor Dunbar, is derived 
 from aw, the same as taw, to give, grant, or allow ; and 
 that the primary meaning of the particle thus derived is 
 granted or alloxoed, which can be readily traced in all the 
 variety of expression in which it is employed. This par- 
 ticle is used 
 
 1 . In the sense of lav, if of which in this sense it is proba- , 
 bly only an abbreviated form. Thus used, it expresses a con- 
 dition, and may begin a sentence ; as, av &slg bskj), if {granted) 
 God will. In all its other applications av can stand only after 
 other words in its clause. 
 
 2. It is used with indefinites, adding to them the force of the 
 Latin -cunque, -soever ; as, oVt/£ av, whoever, or whosoever. 
 
 3. It is used most generally to limit the verb to which it be- 
 
§ 274. OF VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS. 369 
 
 longs, and partly or entirely takes from that verb its direct af- 
 firmative power. 
 
 With the indicative imperfect, pluperfect, and aorists, it is 
 rendered by should, would ; should have, would have, &c. § 261. 
 4, and Obs, 1. ; and also to express ability, and rendered by 
 could or could have, ft is sometimes joined to the future, and 
 seems to soften the decisiveness of the statement ; as, 6 8s xsv 
 xs^oXwrfsra* &'v xsv S'xwjxaj,. and he will perhaps be angry to whom 
 I go. It is but very seldom found with the indicative present ; 
 a few instances, however, have been produced from Aristo- 
 phanes and Plutus. 
 
 With the subjunctive it is never joined, unless accompa- 
 nied with certain other words, such as og f o'Cos, otfrig, Itforsgog, 
 ov, owou, i'va, &c. &c. except when used in the sense of £av as 
 above. (1.) 
 
 It is used with the optative of all the tenses except the fu- 
 ture, as in § 263. 3. 
 
 With the iNFiifixivE and participles it gives a contingent 
 signification (commonly in the future), which may be resolved 
 by changing the verb or participle into the optative with av ; 
 as, o/Wai avafxa^s^a/ av, they think that they could retrieve 
 themselves ; raXXa tfjwtfw, tfoXX' av fyw skefv, I omit the rest, 
 though I have much to say. 
 
 4. It is used in positive statements with different moods to 
 give an expression of hesitation or modesty to the assertion ; 
 as 1 ^g av |xo/ Soxtj, as it seems (would seem) to me ; oux av of<5a, I 
 (should) hardly know. 
 
 5. av is frequently repeated, either on account of its" stand- 
 ing at a great distance from the verb, or to give emphasis to the 
 
 condition suggested by it; (JVasdv Xsyoijiu av, having 
 
 stationed myself — I would say ; tf&g 8s y* av xaXws X£yo»s 
 
 av ; how can you, how can you say, &c. ? 
 
 6. av is sometimes used to intimate that the verb in the pre- 
 ceding clause is to be repeated ; as, si Stj <rq tfocpwrsgog <pa/V 
 sTvoli rouTGJ av (sc. cpaiTjv sTvoli <fo$i><rsgog), if I thought to be more 
 wise in any thing, it would be in this. 
 
 agti. an interrogative word, signifies " is it that ?" and is always 
 placed at the beginning of the clause ; but 
 
 of a, denoting inference or conclusion, always stands after some 
 word in its clause ; its proper signification is " of course" 
 11 in the nature of things," and is commonly rendered there- 
 fore, consequently ; it is used in the successive steps of a 
 train of reasoning — in making a transition to what fol- 
 lows in the order of time or events, or in the progress of 
 
370 OF VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS. § 274. 
 
 thought. With si or £av it expresses conjecture ; as, si 
 <x£a Suvqvtui, if indeed (i. e. in the course of things) they 
 can. 
 
 au, again, on the other side, vice versa, farther, then, too. 
 
 yu-gifor, always follows other words like the Latin enim, which 
 it resembles in signification. It is used to assign a reason 
 for what is said. Very often, however, that of which it 
 assigns the cause is merely implied or hinted at, and must 
 be supplied to shew the force of yag. It will frequently 
 be found to refer to such expressions understood ; as, Yes, 
 No, no wonder , I believe, &c. 
 
 yi (enclitic) is a particle of limitation, and signifies at leasts 
 certainly, however, indeed, and is used to single, out an indi- 
 vidual object from a number ; as, el ^r) o'Xov fASfog- yz, if not 
 the whole at least a part ; syw ys, I" indeed, I at least. In 
 most combinations it can be rendered mto English only by 
 giving greater emphasis to the word with which it is con- 
 nected. 
 
 $7, a particle of affirmation, signifies truly, really, without doubt. 
 It is used in affirmative answers ; as, 5^Xov Sri, it is cer- 
 tainly manifest. It is used ironically, especially after ws ; 
 and after relative and comparative words it is usually em- 
 phatical. With ntov joined to it (Sfaov), it signifies certainly, 
 viz., and sometimes perhaps. It differs from f/^v and ys, 
 also affirmative words, in this, that 6r\ strongly asserts a 
 thing as already established ; |u^v goes on to press the 
 assertion without relaxing as to what has preceded ; while 
 ye asserts with limitation, yielding as to the past, or other 
 things, but insisting upon this. 
 
 £r], from rjSri, as an adverb, signifies now ; joined with vuv, this 
 very moment ; as, vuv ySr] /xa^rsov, we must fight this mo- 
 ment. With verbs in the preterite, it denotes just now. 
 As a conjunction, it is used, 1. In exhorting ; as, Xsys §r], 
 come now, read ; 2. In questions, it indicates the earnest- 
 ness of the speaker, and his desire of an immediate an- 
 swer ; as, to, <xo7a Sri <r<xu-ra ; what now are these ? 3- In ex- 
 pressing admiration when joined with tfoVs ; as, ri S^ors 
 toutwv, why now these ; 4. In commencing a subject ; as, 
 r Q§s Sr] tfxo<7rojfjLSv auro, now let us consider it in this way ; 
 5. In marking the successive stages of thought as they 
 rise one above another. In each of these it signifies now 
 truly, until at the last it signifies finally. 
 
 %ol\ and <rs have the same significations, in . reference to each 
 other, as et and que. When rs precedes xai, the former 
 signifies not only ; the latter, but also ; ts xa*, and also, con- 
 
§ 274. OF VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS. 371 
 
 nects more closely than simple xal ; xal — xat, both — and ; 
 as well — as ; aXkug re xai, especially. 
 pa and vy\ are particles of obtestation, always governing the 
 accusative of the object sworn by ; vy is always affirma- 
 tive ; fjidc, alone, is negative, but is nevertheless attached 
 both to affirmative and negative obtestations ; as, vai pa 
 A/a, and ou pa Ala. 
 (*sv and 8s are two particles referring to each other ; they are 
 used to distinguish, and at the same time to connect } the 
 different clauses of a sentence together. Thus used, pev is 
 generally placed in the first clause of a paragraph, and 8s 
 in each of the succeeding ones. Hence, whenever we 
 find jxg'v in the first member of a sentence, the thought ne- 
 cessarily turns to an opposite member with 5s. Sometimes, 
 however, after psv the expected 8s does not actually fol- 
 low ; i. e. when the opposition is so clear that 8s is not 
 necessary to point it out, or when some other word, such 
 as aKka, drag, &c. supplies its place. In like manner 8s 
 is often used without being preceded by psv, referring to 
 something conceived in the mind but not expressed ; or, 
 without such reference, it is used simply to connect the 
 parts of a sentence less closely than by psv — 84, or other 
 conjunctions. In apposition, they are generally rendered 
 indeed — but ; 8s, however, does not alw r ays mark apposi- 
 tion, but often mere consecution, and may be rendered by 
 and, or any word which the nature of the connexion may 
 require, or it may even be omitted. 
 
 The distributive use of piv and 8s with the article, rela- 
 tive pronoun, &c, has been noticed § 202, and 209. II. 2d. 
 ouv, wherefore, is used, 1st. In drawing an ultimate conclusion 
 in the view of all that has been said before ; in this it dif- 
 fers from a|a, which is used in successive steps in the pro- 
 cess of reasoning. 2. It commences a chapter or para- 
 graph, with some reference to what has preceded. 3. It 
 continues or resumes a subject after a digression. 4. In- 
 troduces a transition to some new subject ; and lastly, has 
 an affirmative force, particularly in replies ; as, yiyvsrat 
 ou v ouVws, it is certainly so ; hence the compounds 
 ouxouv and jjlwv, for py ouv. The former is properly a negative 
 inference ; as, " it is not therefore ;" though sometimes it 
 it loses its negative character, and denotes " therefore $ n 
 puv is used interrogatively, " is it not therefore VJ 
 <x$p (enclitic) ; is nearly allied to ys, and is used to express the 
 idea with more emphasis than it would possess without it ; 
 joined with a participle, it is commonly rendered although. 
 
372 OP VARIOUS CONJUNCTIONS. § 274. 
 
 With a relative it adds the force of the English ever ; as, 
 owrsf, whatever ; ooVsj, whoever, &c. 
 tfou signifies, 1. where; 2. w hither ; #ou, as an enclitic, signifies 
 am/ wAere, somewhere ; but is often used in speaking of 
 things with some degree of uncertainty and caution; as, 
 probably , perhaps , z/* / mistake not. 
 *&$ is an adverb of manner, used, 1. interrogatively; as, crw£ 
 oux agio's stfr/ toutou, how can he but be worthy of this ? 
 when not used interrogatively, it signifies " in some certain 
 manner j" emphatically, sometimes it is used indetermi- 
 nately, to signify in some manner or other. 
 toi (enclitic), rarely standing alone, except in poetry, is in its 
 nature assertive, and signifies truly, certainly, at least, indeed. 
 It is, however, most commonly joined with other particles ; 
 as, fjksvroi, &5<roi— tJfyroi ; toi is properly the old dative 
 case, equivalent to to, and is sometimes still put for the 
 dative. 
 
 Obs. Some of these, and many other particles, are used in 
 Greek when we can give no exact translation of them. But their 
 force is easily perceivable in the structure of the sentence. We 
 endeavour by emphasis in speaking, to supply the place of that 
 marked precision which the Greek particles convey both to the 
 eye and to the ear. None of them can be called expletives, 
 although they are frequently repeated or synonymous ones 
 used, to give energy to expression and harmony to sound. 
 
 For a complete view of the particles of the Greek language 
 in their various combinations, see Hoogeveen's Doctrina Parti- 
 cularum. 
 
§ 27.3. PROSODY/ 
 
 Prosody, in its common acceptation, treats of 
 the quantity of syllables in the construction of 
 verses. In the ancient Grammarians jtQoaoidia 
 applies to accent. 
 
 I. GEXERAL RULES. 
 
 1. The vowels i 9 o, are naturally short; as, 
 
 Xiyofiiv. 
 
 2. rj, ca, are naturally long ; as, 
 
 AfftG). 
 
 3. a j i, i;, are doubtful; as,aww. 
 
 4. Diphthongs and contracted syllables are 
 long ; as, ixiii, ocpjegj contr. ocplg. 
 
 §276. POSITION, 
 
 SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 Rule I. A short or doubtful vowel, before two 
 consonants or a double letter, is almost always 
 long j as, 
 
 This rule holds good in Epic poetry, except in proper names 
 and in words which could not be used in any other situation in 
 the verse. In dramatic writers observe the following excep- 
 tions : 
 
 Exc. A short or doubtful vowel before a mute 
 and a liquid is common ; as, UtiTQoxkoq, or 7/d- 
 
 * In the Prosody the accents are omitted, as they often interfere with 
 the mark for the quantity. 
 
 32 
 
374 prosody. § 277. 
 
 Obs. 1 . A short vowel before a mute and a liquid is gene- 
 rally short. But before a middle mute (£, y, 6)1 followed by g 
 m tragedy, is mostly long ; and followed by X, p, v, is almost 
 always long, both in tragedy and comedy. 
 
 Obs. 2. A short vowel before two liquids is always long, 
 and sometimes before a single liquid, which in this case should 
 be pronounced as if double ; thus, sXa£s, pronounced s'XXa€e. 
 
 Note 1. A short vowel in the end of a word before p in the beginning 
 of the word following, is long in the dramatic poets ; as, ipl pinov. 
 
 Note 2. We sometimes find a short syllable before two consonants 
 (both mutes), but this is rare and should not be imitated. 
 
 § 277. II. ONE VOWEL BEFORE ANOTHER. 
 
 Rule II. One vowel before another is short, 
 unless lengthened by poetic license 5 as, nolv di- 
 xog. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 1. a is long in the penult of nouns in -awv, -aovos; as, 
 
 Ma^awv, Ma^aovo^. And sometimes when the 
 genitive ends in wvo$ ; as, no<rsi<5otwv, notfsj&xwvos. 
 in feminine proper names in dig ; thus, Qajg. 
 
 2. i is long in the penult of nouns in -iwv, -iovog, and some- 
 
 times -luvog ; as, fifrwv, Qgiovog or ftfrwvos ; except 
 
 in the penult of verbs in /w j as, rrw : but the 
 
 Attic tragic writers have r« ; 
 
 3. 1 is common in the penult of nouns in 1a and iVj ; as, 
 
 xaXra and xctXra. 
 
 4. v is common in the penult of verbs in uw ; as, jV^vw or 
 
 Rule III. Long vowels and diphthongs are 
 mostly short at the end of words when the next 
 word begins with a vowel; as, 
 
 Obs. 1 A vowel in the end of a word, before a word begin- 
 ning with a vowel, does not suffer elision, as in Latin, unless an 
 apostrophe is substituted, § 5. III. 
 
 Obs. 2. Two vowels, forming two syllables, frequently in 
 
§ 278, 279. prosody. 375 
 
 poetry coalesce into one ; as, xgvdsu, H- *• JM>j where s'w form 
 a short syllable. This frequently takes place though the vow- 
 els be in different words ; as, r\ ovx aXr$, II. s. 349. § 284. 2. 
 
 §278 HE. aUANTITY OF THE DOUBTFUL VOW- 
 ELS IN. FIRST AND MIDDLE SYLLABLES. 
 
 Rule IV. A doubtful vowel before a simple 
 consonant is short ; as, uaitoq. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 1. a is long in nouns in -a 4 awv, '-avwf, -a£o£; as, tfs<Joca>wv, 
 dyavwf, {xutfajos. 
 
 in numerals in -o(Xio£ ; as, <5iaxoCjo£. 
 
 in derivatives from verbs in -aw pure and -faw ; 
 
 thus, dviaj-osfrom dvidw ; idLtfipog from /dojxai : xara- 
 g aro$ from xa-raf dof/.ai ; 0sar7]£ and ^safxa from dsdo- 
 fjua* ; irsgoL&itios from tf£gaw ■ ffgatfis from (iritfgatfxu 
 for) flrjdw. 
 
 2. ■ i is long in the penult of nouns in iv$ i<nj, mtjs, jt/£ ; 
 
 thus, 5rvrj, A(pgo<5r<n], tfoXr<n5£, #oXr<ns. 
 
 — in the penult of verbs in i£w, ivw ; thus, <rgr§w, 
 
 tffvw ; so also xrvsw, 6rvsw 3 &c. 
 
 3. u is long in verbals. in uf/«a, u,uo£, u<r/jg, u<ro£, urwg* as, 
 
 Xufxa, xu|aog, gvrwg. 
 — — — in pronouns ; as, *0|xsi£. 
 — ■ in the penult of verbs in uvw, ugw, ir^w, vfxi ; as 
 
 ffXovw, xugw, Sfux^j < r )D ^'? ^suyvo/xi. 
 in adverbs in u^ov ; as, §pTgu(5ov. 
 
 § 279. IV. QUANTITY OF THE DOUBTFUL 
 VOWELS IN FINAL SYLLABLES. 
 
 Rule V. a, h v, in the end of a word are 
 short ; as, uovad^ (leti, ylvxv. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 1 . A in the end of a word is long, viz. 
 
 — In nouns in sa } 5a, 0a ; as, dsa, Ar\5d : Magda ; exc. 
 dxavda*. 
 
376 prosody. § 279. 
 
 — In the dual number ; as, tfgoq^rd, fxoutfd. 
 
 — In polysyllables in aia ; as, 2sX*ivaia. 
 in s;a, derived from verbs in evu ; as, 
 
 SouXsid, ^atfiXsid, from <5ouXsuw, §a<TiXsuw. But €acfi- 
 Xsid, a queen, has the final a short. 
 
 — In ia ; as, xaXid, except verbals in rgia ; as, ^aXrgid ; 
 
 and (5id, juwd, «7roTVia. • 
 
 — In the vocative of nouns in <xg of the Let declension ; 
 
 as, Awsi a from Aivsjas. 
 
 — In feminines from adjectives in o£ ; as, 6/juoifc, ^srsgd. 
 
 — In nouns in fa not preceded by a diphthong ; as, r^s- 
 
 fa, %?jfa. Except dyxugd, yg(pufd, Ksgxufd, oXufd, 
 tfxoXwrsvrSgfi, tfcpug a, ravayfd, and compounds of fj.s- 
 <rf co ; as, yeupsrga, . 
 
 — In poetic vocatives ; as, IlaXXd for IlaXXas. 
 2. * final is long in the names of letters ; as, err. 
 
 .3. u final is long in the names of letters ; as, fMJ, vo. 
 
 in verbs in u/w ; as, &po. 
 
 : in y*STa%v and yjo. 
 
 Rule VI. A doubtful vowel in the final sylla- 
 ble, followed by a simple consonant, is short ; 
 as, fieXav, Xa^Tiag. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS, 
 av. 
 
 1. -av is long in masculines ; as, Tirdv ; and tfdv when not 
 
 in composition. 
 in accusatives when their nominatives are 
 
 long ; as, 'Awsjdv from 'Aivsias. 
 - — in adverbs ; as, dj/dv." 
 
 H- 
 
 2. -a j in xdf and ^ag is long; in yag it is either loiig or 
 
 short. 
 
 as. 
 
 3. -a^ is long in nouns of the first declension ; as, Aiveiag 
 
 |X0Utfd£. 
 
 in words having -av<ros in the genitive ; as, 
 
 ru%]>ds, Tu-s^avros. 
 also in ^dg^ i[iag, xg dg. 
 
§ 279c PROSODY. 
 
 377 
 
 IV. 
 
 4. -iv is long in nouns in iv which have ivog in the genitive ; 
 as, l^jy^rv, gyyiMvos* 
 
 — ' in nouns which have two terminations in the 
 
 nominative ; as, ckxtXv or ocx<n£. 
 — also in fjf/»rv,'fi|xrv. 
 
 is* 
 
 5. -is is long in monosyllables ; as, Xrs ; but the indefinite 
 rig is- common. 
 
 in nouns which have two terminations in the 
 
 nominative ; as, axrrs, axrrv. 
 
 in feminine dissyllables in -is, -»&)£, or -tfos ; as, 
 
 xpm&Si Waldos ; ofvrs, igviQos ; except atfirig, $£$, ^a- 
 gfs, and a few others. 
 
 in polysyllables preceded by two short sylla- 
 bles ; as, irXoxafxis* 
 
 6. uv is long in nouns which have uvos in the genitive ; as, 
 fxoffa'Civ, /xotftfuvos. 
 
 in nouns which have two terminations in the 
 
 nominative ; as, (pojxus or pojxuv. 
 
 ■ — in accusatives from vg in the nominative ; as, 
 oqjjov from op£u£. 
 ■ - — in the ultimate of verbs in u/jii ; as, s<puv from 
 
 <pUfM. 
 
 . in vuv, now ; but in vuv, enclitic, it is short 
 
 uf in the end of a word is always long •; as, jxaf rtfj. 
 
 7. us is long in monosyllables ; as, fA0£. 
 
 in nouns which have two terminations in the 
 
 ■ nominative ; as, <po£xU£, <po£xuv. 
 
 in nominatives which have vvros or os pure u| 
 
 the genitive ; as, &«xvCg, feixvuvrog ; otpfU£, ocpgvas. 
 
 in xwjxos, xwf/.u0o$ ; and 
 
 _ — f — _. in the last syllable of verbs in vpi ; as, l<pu£. 
 
 32* 
 
378 prosody. § 280, 281. 
 
 § 280. V. QUANTITY OF DOUBTFUL VOWELS 
 IN THE INCREMENT OF NOUNS. 
 
 Rule V1L The quantity of the nominative re- 
 mains in the oblique cases ; thus, Tixav, Tixti- 
 vog ; wri/Alg, xviiuldog. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS. 
 
 1. ogin the nominative shortens the crement; as, f*aj<r0f, 
 f/bafrufo£. 
 
 2. A vowel, long by position, in the nominative shortens the 
 crement in the oblique cases ; as, auX<x| , auXaxo^. But nouns 
 in -a| after a vowel have the crement long ; as, vsag, vsaxog. 
 
 Likewise 0wf af , isg a|, xvw<5ag, xoj <$afj, Xa^a^, oiaf;, £ag, tfug- 
 <pag, <peua|, with many words in j^, itfos, and ig, iyo£ or ixos ; to 
 which add ygv-^, yu-^, and generally Bs§fu£, <5oi5ug, og<ruij, tfav- 
 
 3. o£ pure in the genitive, from a long syllable in the nomi- 
 native, varies the crement .; as, <5f0£, d^og or SgGog. 
 
 4. The dative plural, after a syncope, has the penult short ; 
 .as, tfa^dtfj, av^dtfi. 
 
 § 281. VI. QUANTITY OF DOUBTFUL VOWELS 
 IN THE INFLEXION OF VERBS. 
 
 The doubtful vowels, a, i, u, are short in verbs, unless it be 
 otherwise specified in the Rules. 
 
 Rule VIII. a and v before oa in participles, 
 and always before ol in verbs, are long ; as, <cv- 
 yaoa, duxvvccc, rttvyacu, duxvvoi. (§ 6. 6. (o.)) 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 Rule IX. The first future in aow, iow, vow, 
 from aco after a vowel, or from Qaoo, uo, lQco, vw, 
 lengthen the penult; as, 
 
§ 281. prosody. 379 
 
 But the first future in aao), low, vow, from a£co, 
 i£(t)j vCco, shorten the penult ; as, 
 
 Rule X. Liquid verbs shorten the penult in 
 the first future ; as, xqTvco, xqjVS. 
 
 Rule XL The second future shortens the pe- 
 nult ; as, Tfcwco, tduvD ; gxuvco, (jpdvco. 
 
 THE OTHER TENSES. 
 
 Rule XII. The doubtful vowels have the same 
 quantity in the derivative tenses as in their prima- 
 nj.(§ 150). 
 
 Pres. xpivu — sx^rvov, xfrvojxai, sxfrvofMjv. 
 
 1 fut. x^rvw — xsxjrxa, exsxgixsiv, xgrvou/xai, x^r^tfOjaai, sx^r- 
 
 ^/jv, xsxjrfjuai, gxsxgrjjt/yjv. 
 
 2 fut. tu-ttw — srutfov, ru^oufxai, g<rutfo|JW]v, rsrutfa, srsrCtfSiv, 
 
 Exc. 1. But the first aorist, active and middle, of liquid verbs 
 has the penult long ; as, fixjrva, gx^rva^v. (§ 149. III. Exc.) 
 
 Exc. 2. The penult, long by position in the first future, is 
 short in the perfect ; as, ru-^w, rsrupa. 
 
 Exc. 3. Some verbs have the penult long in the perfect mid- 
 dle. The initial i and u, in the augmented tenses and moods, 
 are long ; as, rxofxai, 'rxo^v. 
 
 The rules under this section may be more briefly expressed, 
 according to the principles of analysis laid down § 85. et seq. 
 as follows : 
 
 I. Verbs in aw pure, or in jaw, ioj, idw, anduw, have the final 
 vowel of the first root long, unless followed by a vowel ; if fol- 
 lowed by a vowel, it comes under R. II. 
 
 II. The final syllable of the second root is always shorty un- 
 less made long by position. 
 
 III. The first root of liquid verbs is shortened in the 1st fu- 
 ture, § 129. II. 
 
 SPECIAL RULES FOR VERBS IN (*•!• 
 
 Rule XIII. The proper reduplication is short, 
 unless made long by position ; as, ti6rjfiL. The 
 
380 prosody. § 282, 283. 
 
 improper reduplication is common ; as/tijp or 
 
 Rule XIV. a, not before -ca or -cr*, is every 
 where short; as, tov^iiev, lOrtire. 
 
 Rule XV. v is long in polysyllables, only in 
 the singular of the indicative active ; every where 
 else it is short ; as, deMvvfu, duuvvtcD) deMvufiaii 
 &c. 
 
 In dissyllables it is every where long ; as, 5ufju, 5utov, <5ufAai, 
 
 §282. VII. DERIVAVION AND COMPOSITION. 
 
 Rule XVI. Derivatives follow the quantity of 
 their primitives ; and compounds that of the 
 simple words of which they are composed ; as, 
 
 <ri>7]- — arrffco^, ofAoTrfjuoi, Tr/xavwf , &c. 
 r<pi — Lpiysvsja, Icpixkris, I<pj<ro£, &c. 
 Xao£— Aaofxs5ov, MsvsXao£, &c. 
 XtJw, Xotfw— Autfav^os, Xutfjxaxos, &c. 
 oia§, oidxog — olaxocfr^o^^ ojaxovo[JU)£,&C. 
 
 ? gfs or |rv— grvTjXa^sw, «roXXugrvo£, &c. 
 
 Rule XVII. a privative before two short syl- 
 lables is frequently long ; as £xcc^arog. 
 
 Also tfuv in composition is sometimes long ; as, tfoviyj^. 
 
 § 283. VIII. DIALECTS. 
 
 ATTIC. 
 
 Rule XV1IL The Attics lengthen a in the 
 accusative of nouns in evq ; as, gaalevq, ace, 
 gadded, contrary to Rule V. 
 
 Also, i instead of a, s, o ; as, <rau*f for ruvrct ; o<5r for h8s t 
 
§ 234. prosody. 381 
 
 The Paragogic i in pronouns (the dative plural excepted) 
 and in adverbs, is long ; as, ourocrr, vuvf, Dat. pi. rouroioT. 
 
 IONIC. 
 
 1, The Comparative. in iov shortens the neuter; the At- 
 tics lengthen it ; as, xaXXrov, I. xaXXrov, A. 
 
 2, In adjectives of time i is long ; as, otfrigivog. 
 
 3, In verbs the Ionic a, <S\ not following it, is short; as,. 
 sarou for Tjvroci. 
 
 DORIC AND -EOLIC. 
 
 1. The Doric a is long ; the iEolic is short ; as, Aivsia, D, 
 for .Aivsiou ; iwora, iE. for ifffl-o'njs, &c. 
 
 § 284. IX. POETIC LICENSE. 
 
 1. The last syllable of a verse is common, except in Iambic, 
 Trochaic, Anapaestic, and Greater Ionic. 
 
 2. The 2j£eugi£ unites two syllables into one ; as, 
 
 w i 1 I I * . 
 
 Xgutfew ava tfX7j#<r£w xai 6\i&<f$ro tfav<ra£ A^aious, 
 
 I — 1 ' I I I 
 
 H Xadsr' r\ oux svor\(fev aatfaro os fieya dvpu, 
 
 I — II I I 
 
 H fxs xsXeai <fx s ° l 7) *sjaav fjusya Xair^a daXaatfTj^. 
 
 3. The *#ms makes a short syllable in the end of a word 
 
 I I I" - "_ '"■' I *' • "i 
 
 long : as, Aioojos <rs juioi so'o'i <piX£ sxug£ osivo£ <rs 
 
 i l II l 
 
 'Itftfous 5' AurofAS&wra 0ow$ £suyvujjt-sv avarys. . 
 
 ./Vote 1. The firsts means the elevation of the voice, which, in Hex- 
 ameter verse, is always on the first syllable of a foot. 
 
 JVote 2. A short syllable is sometimes, and but very rarely, lengthened 
 at the end of a foot; thus, 
 
 ii til 
 
 T/y tf tin (xtv Topyia SXoevpums €GTZ<f>avu)To. 
 
 Besides these deviations from the usual rules of quantity, 
 the Poets, 
 
 L Lengthened a syllable^ 1. By doubling or inserting a conso- 
 nant; as, s<S<5sitfs for eSeitfe: a<7r<roX*£ for d#oXi£. 2, By chang- 
 ing a vowel into a diphthong ; as, Sevopcu for dso/xcci. 3. By 
 Metathesis ; as, Stfgadov for rtfagdov. 
 
382 prosody. § 285. 
 
 II. Shortened a syllable, By rejecting one vowel of a diph- 
 thong ; as, £Xov for siXov. 
 
 III. Increased the number of syllables, 1. By resolving a 
 diphthong; as, ai)r&j for ocurw. 2. By inserting or adding a 
 letter or syllable ; as, aatf^sros for axf^srog ; ^sXiog for tfhiog ; 
 &7)<p» for Cnj/ 
 
 IV. Lessened the number of syllables, 1. By aphseresis ; as, 
 vsgds for fivs^g. ' 2. By syncope ; as, sygsro for eyeigsro. 3. By 
 apocope and apostrophe ; as, 5w for <5w/xa ; jxuji' for fjwfia. 
 
 Other varieties will be learned by practice. Many conjectures 
 have been made with regard to the ancient orthography, and 
 the principles of versification as depending upon it. But the 
 best of them deserve. the credit of ingenuity alone ; for, as they 
 rest on no unquestionable authority, they are of little or no use. 
 
 § 285. OF FEET. 
 
 A foot in metre is composed of two or more syllables strictly 
 regulated by time ; and is either simple or compound. Of the 
 simple feet, four are of two, and eight of three syllables. There 
 are sixteen compound feet, each of four syllables, as follows ; 
 
 Simple feet of tivo syllables. 
 
 Pyrrichius — >-* \ $&$$., 
 
 Spondeus — — - 00f/*w. 
 
 Iambus ' \^ — 0swv. 
 
 Trocheeus — ■ — - tfw/xa. 
 
 Simple feet of three syllables. 
 
 Tribrachys *-* — ■-—- rfoXsf/,o£. 
 
 Molossus — .■•*->■ — ■ • ^vypXyf. 
 
 Dactylus. — v>. •^-; (xa.£ru£o£. 
 
 Anapeestus ^ — — . .otfXrtfw. 
 
 Bachius *— ' - — — ArSXirifc. 
 
 Antibachius — — ^ SsTKvtpi. 
 
 Amphibrachys •— - — • -^ „ Trdi? j*r. 
 
 Amphimacer — ^ — tfsrxvurw. 
 
§ 286. PROSODY. 
 
 Campound feet of four syllables. 
 
 383 
 
 Choriambus 
 Antispastus 
 Ionic a majore 
 
 a minore 
 
 First Peeon 
 
 Second ■ 
 
 Third 
 
 Fourth 
 
 First Epitrite 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 — ^* *-? — (fficpgotfvvin 
 >-' — * — aiLagTrjfioL 
 
 w v -^ «7fXsovsx<nj£ 
 
 — *-* ^ *■< aflVf oXoyog 
 .'>•> — w w ava§ro£ 
 
 ^ ^ — *-* avaSyJiba, 
 
 w w ,w 0S oySV7J£ 
 
 i a trochee and an 
 
 ^ iambus. 
 
 £ an iambus and a 
 
 I trochee. 
 
 { a spondee and a 
 
 £ pyrrich. 
 
 £ a pyrrich and a 
 
 \ spondee. 
 
 X a trochee ahd a 
 
 £ pyrrich. 
 
 J an iambus and a 
 
 \ pyrrich.. 
 
 i a pyrrich and a 
 
 / trochee. 
 
 an 
 
 iambus, 
 an iambus and a 
 spondee. 
 
 . w av<fco<p5vT*fc $ a tr °chee and a 
 
 I spondee. 
 
 _ w — soportSvifc J a spondee and 
 < • an iambus. 
 
 Fourth 
 
 Proceleusmaticus 
 
 w-* Xw§w<r>j£a 
 
 and 
 
 a trochee. 
 • <7roXs>ros two pyrrichs. 
 
 Dispondeus — Cuv^ouXsug'w two spondees. 
 
 Diiambus >-< — ^-* — ZnatfTwryjg two iambi. 
 Ditrochaeus — <-r outfTU^Tf^a two trochees. 
 
 § 286. OF METRE. 
 
 Metre, in its general sense, means an arrangement of sylla- 
 bles and feet in verse, according to certain rules ; and in this 
 sense applies, not only to an entire verse, but to part of a verse 
 or to any number of verses. A metre, in a specific sense, means 
 a combination of two feet (sometimes called a syzygy), and 
 sometimes one foot only. 
 
 Note. The distinction between rhythm and metre is this : — the former 
 refers to the time only, in regard to which two short syllables are equi- 
 valent to one long ; the latter refers both to the time and the order of the 
 syllables. The rhythm of an anapaest and dactyl is the same ; the metre 
 
384 prosody. §287. 
 
 different. The term rhythm, however, is also understood in a more 
 comprehensive sense, and is applied to the harmonious construction 
 and enunciation of feet and words in connexion ; thus, aline has rhythm 
 when it contains tiny number of metres of equal time, without regard to 
 their order. Metre requires a certain number of metres, and these ar- 
 ranged in a certain order. Thus, in this line, 
 
 Panditur interea domus omnipotentis Olympi, 
 there is both rhythm (as it contains six metres of equal value in respect 
 of time) and metre, as these metres are arranged according to the 
 canon for Hexameter heroic verse, which requires a dactyle in the 
 5th, and a spondee in the 6th place. Change the order thus, 
 
 Omnipotentis Olympi panditur interea domus, 
 
 and the rhythm remains as perfect as before, but the metre is destroy- 
 ed ; it is no longer a Hexameter heroic line. 
 
 § 287. OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF METRE. 
 
 1. Metre, in the general sense, is divided into nine species : 
 
 1. Iambic. 4. Dactylic. 7. Ionic a majore. 
 
 2. Trochaic 5. Choriambic. 8. Ionic a minore. 
 
 3. Anapaestic. 6. Antispastic. 9. Pseonic or Cretic. 
 
 These names are derived from the feet which prevail in them. 
 It is supposed that each species was originally composed of 
 those feet only from which it is named ; but that others, equal 
 in time, were afterwards admitted under certain restrictions. 
 
 It often happens that two species, totally dissimilar, are united 
 in the same verse, which is then termed Asynartetes. When 
 the irregularity is great, and it cannot be reduced to any regu- 
 lar form, it is called Polyschematistic or anomalous. 
 
 Note. The invention or frequent use of any species of metre by a 
 particular poet, or its being used in some particular civil or religious cere- 
 mony, or appropriated to some particular subject or sentiment, has been 
 the occasion of certain kinds of verse receiving other names than those 
 specified above. Thus, we have the Asclepiadean, Grlyconian^ Alcaic, 
 Sapphic, and others; named from the poets, Asclepiades, Glycon, Alcaus, 
 Sappho, Phalacus, Sotades, Archilochvs, Alcman, Pherecrates, Anacreon, 
 Aristophanes, &c. So also the Prosodiacus (from npdaoSos), so called from 
 being used in the approach to the altars on solemn festivals ; and the 
 Parcemiacus, a kind of verse much used in the writing of proverbs, (?ra- 
 
 In the iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, a metre consists 
 of two feet ; in the others, of one only. 
 
 2. A verse or metre is farther characterized by the number 
 of metres (in the specific meaning of the term) which it con- 
 tains, as follows : 
 
 i 
 
§288. prosody. 385 
 
 A verse containing one Metre is called Monometer, 
 
 two Metres Dimeter. 
 
 three Metres Trimeter. 
 
 four Metres Tetrameter. 
 
 five Metres Pentameter. 
 
 six Metres Hexameter. 
 
 seven Metres Heptameter. 
 
 3. A verse may be complete, having precisely the number 
 of metres which the canon requires ; or it may be deficient in 
 the last metre ; or it may be redundant. To express this, a verse 
 is farther characterized as follows : viz. 
 1. Acatalectic, when complete. 
 2 i Catalectic, if wanting one syllable. 
 
 ( Brachycatalectic, if wanting two syllables or one 
 whole foot, 
 3. Hypercatalectic, when there is one or two syllables at 
 the end more than the verse requires ; thus, 
 
 yy Xswv Sgaxovrug ug. iEsch. Lept. Theb. 
 
 is denominated " trochaic dimeter catalectic ;" the first 
 term referring to the species, the second to the number of metres, 
 and the third to the apothesis or ending. 
 
 Note. The two last terms, viz. that designating the number of me- 
 tres and that which refers to the ending, are sometimes reduced to one ; 
 thus, when a verse of a given species consists of two feet and a half, it 
 is called Penthemimer ; of three and a half, Hephthemimer (five half feet, 
 seven half feet) ; and when it consists of one metre and a half, it is call- 
 ed Hemiholius. 
 
 The respective situation of each foot in a verse is called its 
 place (sedes). 
 
 The rules or canons of the different kinds of metre are brief- 
 ly as follows : ' 
 
 §288. I. IAMBIC METRE. Table, § 299. I. 
 
 An iambic verse admits in the first, third, and fifth place, an 
 iambus or a spondee. 
 
 In the second, fourth, and sixth, an iambus only. 
 
 Variation 1. The iambus in the odd places may be resolved 
 into a tribrach. The spondee, into a dactyl or an anapaest. 
 
 Variation 2. The iambus in the even places (except the 
 
 33 
 
386 prosody. § 289, 290. 
 
 last) may be resolved into a tribrach. An anapaest is substi- 
 tuted for it in the case of a proper name only. v 
 
 Observe, however, 1st. that a dactyl should be avoided in 
 the fifth place ; and, 2d. that resolved feet should not concur. 
 
 Of this verse there are three kinds, dimeters, trimeters (called 
 also senarian, each line having six feet), and tetrameters* 
 
 § 289. II. TROCHAIC METRE. Table, § 299. II. 
 
 A trochaic verse admits in the odd places a trochee only ; in 
 the even places, a troihee or a spondee. 
 
 The trochee may in any place be resolved into a tribrach, 
 and the spondee into a dactyl or anapaest. 
 
 A dactyl in the odd places occurs only in the case of a pro- 
 per name. 
 
 Trochaic verses are mostly catalectic. A system of them 
 generally consists of catalectic tetrameters ; sometimes of dime- 
 ters, catalectic and acatalectic intermixed. 
 
 In tetrameters the second metre should always end a word. 
 
 Explanation of the Table,. § 299. II. 
 
 In this verse each metre is alike. If from the trimeter ex- 
 hibited in the table the first and second metre be taken away 2 
 the remainder is a table of the monometer, which is always 
 hypercatalectic or acatalectic. If the first is taken away, th$ 
 remainder will be a table of the dimeter ; and if a metre be pre- 
 fixed, it will be a table of the tetrameter, which is always ca- 
 talectic. 
 
 § 290. III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. Table, § 299. Ill 
 
 An anapaestic verse, without any restriction of places, ad- 
 mits either an anapcest, spondee, or dactyl. 
 
 Exc. 1. The dimeter catalectic, called parsemiacus, requires 
 an anapaest in the last place but one ; and is incorrect when a 
 spondee is found there. 
 
 Exc. 2. In some instances the proper foot is resolved into 
 the proceleusmatic. 
 
 Anapaestic verses are sometimes intermixed with other spe. 
 cies, but are oftener in a detached system by themselves. 
 
§ 291. prosody. 387 
 
 A system is chiefly composed of dimeters under the follow- 
 ing circumstances : 
 
 1. When each foot, or at least each metre (syzygy), ends a 
 word. 
 
 2. When the last verse but one of the system is monometer 
 acatalectic, and the last, dimeter catalectic, with an anapaest in 
 the second metre. 
 
 In a system, this peculiar property : is to be observed, that the 
 last syllable of each verse is not common (as in other species), 
 but has its quantity subject to the same restrictions as if the 
 foot to which it belongs occurred in any other place of the verse. 
 
 A series, therefore, of anapaestic verses, consisting of one or 
 more sentences, is to be constructed as if each sentence was 
 only a single verse. • 
 
 Note. The monometer acatalectic is called an anapcestic base. This 
 is sometimes dispensed with in a system ; in the paremiacus, rarely. 
 
 To this metre belong the JLristophmaic, being catalectic te- 
 trameters ; and the proceleusmatic, consisting of feet isochronal 
 to an anapaest, and, for the most part, ending with it. 
 
 Explanation of the Table, § 299. III. 
 
 The table is dimeter. The removal of the first metre leaves 
 it monometer, (which is called an anapaestic base) ; by prefix- 
 ing one metre, it becomes trimeter ; and by prefixing two, it 
 becomes tetrameter, which is always catalectic. 
 
 § 291. IV. DACTYLIC METRE. Table, § 299. IV. 
 
 A dactylic verse is- composed solely of dactyls and spondees. 
 In this species one foot constitutes a metre. 
 
 The common heroic is hexameter acatalectic, having a dactyl 
 in the fifth place and a spondee in the sixth. 
 
 Sometimes in a solemn, majestic, or mournful description, a 
 spondee takes the place of the dactyl- in the fifth foot ; from 
 which circumstance such lines are called spondaic. 
 
 The elegiac pentameter consists of five feet. The first 
 and second may be either a dactyl or a spondee at pleasure ; the 
 third must always be a spondee ; the fourth and fifth anapaests. 
 
 Though an heroic verse is confined to a smaller number of 
 admissible feet than an iambic verse, several licences are allow- 
 ed which are not used in the latter, 
 
388 prosody. § 292, 293. 
 
 The most considerable are : 
 
 1. The lengthening 1 of a short final syllable in certain cases, 
 
 viz. at the csesural pause, and where its emphasis is in- 
 creased by its beginning a foot. 
 
 2. The hiatus, or the concurrence of two vowels, in contigu- 
 
 ous words. 
 
 That irregular sort of dactylics which Hephaestion calls 
 JEolics, admits, in the first metre, any foot of two syllables ; the 
 rest must be all dactyls, except where the verse is catalectic^ and 
 then the catalectic part must be part of a dactyl. 
 
 A second sort of dactylics, called by the same author Loga- 
 cedics, require a trochaic syzygy at the end, all the other feet 
 being dactyls. 
 
 § 292. V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. Table, § 299, V. 
 
 The construction of an ordinary choriambic verse is very 
 very simple. Each metre, except the last, is a choriambus % and 
 the last may be an iambic syzygy, entire or catalectic. 
 
 The iambic syzygy (two iambic feet) is sometimes found at 
 the beginning, and, in long verses, in other places ; but this 
 happens less frequently. 
 
 • If any other foot of four syllables is joined with a choriam- 
 bus, the verse is then more properly called epichoriambic. Of 
 this there is a very great variety, and they sometimes end with 
 an amphibrach, sometimes with a bachius. 
 
 § 293. VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. Table, § 299. VI. 
 
 An antispastic verse, in its most usual and correct form,. is 
 constructed as follows : 
 
 In th^ first place, beside the proper foot, is admitted any foot 
 of four syllables ending like an antispastus in the two last syl- 
 lables ; i. e, either >-- ^, — -, ^ ^ — ^, 
 
 In the intermediate places only an antispastus* 
 In the last, an iambic syzygy, complete or catalectic, or an 
 incomplete antispastus. 
 
 There is scarce any limit to the varieties in this species. 
 The following are the most usual : 
 
§ 294. prosody. 389 
 
 1. In short verses, the proper foot frequently vanishes, and 
 the verse consists of one of the above-mentioned feet and an 
 iambic syzygy. 
 
 2. All the epitrites, except the second, are occasionally sub- 
 stituted in the several places of the verse, particularly the fourth 
 epitrite in the second. 
 
 3. If an antispastus begins the verse, and three syllables 
 remain, whatever those syllables are, the verse is antispastic ; 
 because they may be considered as a portion of some of the ad- 
 missible feet, or of some of them resolved. 
 
 4. In long verses, an iambic syzygy sometimes occurs in 
 the second place, and then the third place admits the same va- 
 rieties as the firs t. 
 
 An antispastus. with an additional syllable, is called Dock- 
 miac. 
 
 An antispastus, followed by an iambic syzygy , is called 
 Glyconian. 
 
 Two antispasti, with an iambic syzygy, is called JLsclepia« 
 dean. 
 
 Antispastic dim. catalectic, is called Pherecratian, 
 
 § 294, VII. IONIC METRE A MAJORE, Table, 
 § 299. VII. 
 
 An Ionic verse admits a trochaic syzygy promiscuously with 
 its proper foot. The verse never ends with the proper foot com- 
 plete, but either with the trochaic syzygy or the proper foot 
 incomplete. The varieties of this metre are numerous, among 
 which observe the following : 
 
 Var. 1. The second paeon is sometimes found in the first 
 place. And 
 
 Var. 2. A molossus ( ) in an even intermediate place 
 
 with a trochaic syzygy following. 
 
 Var. 3. The second pceon is occasionally joined to a second or 
 third epitrite, so that the two feet together are equal in time to 
 two Ionic feet. This is called an Avaxkcttfig ; the defect in time 
 of the preceding foot being, in this case, supplied by the redun* 
 dant time of the subsequent ; and the verse so disposed is called 
 AvaxXwfjL3vo£. 
 
 Var. 4. Resolutions of the long syllable into two short ones 
 are allowed in all possible varieties, 
 
 If the three remaining poeons, or the second paeon in any- 
 place but the first, without an Avax\atfi£. Or, 
 
 33* 
 
390 prosody. § 295, 296. 
 
 If an iambic syzygy or third epitrite — a choriambus, or any 
 of the discordant feet of four syllables, be found in the same 
 verse with an Ionic foot, the verse is then termed Epi4onic. 
 
 
 § 295. VIII. IONIC METRE A MINORE. 
 Table, §299. VIII. 
 
 An Ionic verse a minor e is often entirely composed of its own 
 proper feet. It admits, however, an iambic syzygy promis- 
 cuously, and begins sometimes with the third pceon followed by 
 one of the epitrites for an AvcocXatf^. 
 
 A molossus sometimes occurs in the beginning of the verse, 
 and also in the odd places with an iambic syzygy preceding. 
 
 In the intermediate places a second or third paeon is pre- 
 fixed to a second epitrifc ; and this construction is called Ava- 
 xXoitfig as before. 
 
 Resolutions of the long syllables are allowed in this as in 
 the other Ionic metre. 
 
 An Epionic verse a minor e is constituted by intermixing 
 with the Ionic foot a double trochee, second epitrzte } or paeon with- 
 out an AvaxXao'is. 
 
 PROSODIAC VERSE. 
 
 When a choriambus precedes or follows an Ionic foot of either 
 kind, the name Epionic is suppressed, and the verse called Pro- 
 sodiacus. And, in general, 
 
 This name is applied to a verse consisting of an alternate 
 mixture of choriambic and Ionic feet, or of their respective re- 
 presentatives. 
 
 N. B. The two species of Ionic are not to be intermixed in 
 the same verse. 
 
 § 296. PHONIC METRE. Table, § 299. IX, 
 
 A paeonic verse requires all the admissible feet to have the 
 same rhythm with its proper foot ; i. e. to consist of five times, 
 or be equal to five short syllables. 
 
 The first and fourth paeon are mostly used, but not in the 
 same verse. 
 
 The construction of this verse is most perfect when each 
 
§ 297, 298. prosody. 391 
 
 metre ends with the several words of the verse as was before 
 remarked of the anapaestic metre. 
 
 To this head may be referred those verses which are called 
 by some authors Bachiac and Cretic verses. 
 
 § 297. OF THE C^SURAL PAUSE. 
 
 Besides the division of the verse into metres and feet, there 
 is another division, into two parts only, owing to the natural 
 intermission of the voice in reading it, .and relevant to the 
 rhythmical effect. This is called the pause, which necessa- 
 rily ends with a word ; and its distance from the beginning is 
 generally, though not invariably, determined by the length of 
 the verse. 
 
 Heroic verses and trimeter iambics are esteemed most har- 
 monious when the ) pause falls upon the first syllable of the third 
 foot. This is the penthemimeral caesura. When it falls upon 
 the first syllable of the fourth, it is called the hephthemimeral 
 In iambic and trochaic tetrameters its place is at the end of the 
 second metre. These rules are more observed by the Roman 
 than by the Greek poets, In anapaestic verses and pseonic, no 
 place is assigned to the pause ; because, since the metres (if 
 rightly constructed) end with a word, the effect of a pause will 
 be produced at the end of each metre. The same may be ob- 
 served of the Ionic a minore* 
 
 § 298. COMPOUND METRES 
 
 Besides the preceding nine species of metre, the compositions 
 and modifications of these are very numerous. Of these ob- 
 serve the following : 
 
 1 . A long syllable is sometimes inserted between the parts 
 of a verse consisting of similar metres. 
 
 2. In some species the portions of an admissible foot of four 
 syllables are separated by the intermediate metres. 
 
 3. It happens not unfrequently that two species, totally dis- 
 similar , are united in the same verse ; which is then denomi- 
 nated ASYNARTETES J as, 
 
 1. Dactyl. Tetram. + Troch. HemihoL 
 
 2. Iambic Penth. + Troch. Hemihol. 
 
392 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §299. 
 
 3. Dactyl. Dim. -f- Troch. Monom. or Logaaedrc. 
 
 4. Iambic syzygy + Troch. Syzygy, and vice versa. 
 This last is called Periodicus. 
 
 4. When a verse is so irregular as to contain in it some glar- 
 ing violation of the preceding rules, it is called Polyschema- 
 tistic or anomalous ; thus, 
 
 To this title may be referred, 
 
 1 . A verse otherwise iambic, having a spondee in the se- 
 cond or fourth place. 
 
 2. An iambus in a trochaic verse, &c. &e. 
 
 These rules are exemplified in the following tables. 
 
 § 299. 
 
 Table of Feet allowed in the different kinds of 
 Metre. 
 
 Metres 
 Feet. 
 
 I. IAMBIC. § 288. 
 
 DIMETER. 
 L II. 
 
 Metres I. 
 
 1 2 3 4 
 
 
 •— — 
 
 —< — 
 
 **< — 
 
 — 
 
 
 — — w 
 
 
 
 
 TRIMETER OR SENARIAN. 
 
 II. III. 
 
 
 Ft. 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 w — 
 
 w — 
 
 W 
 
 ^ — 
 
 ~*\ — 
 
 w — 
 
 _ ___ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *-- — 
 
 v^ W 
 
 
 — w ^ 
 
 
 
 — ' — 
 
 * >^-* — ' 
 
 
 
 
 ww — 
 
 "—^ — 
 
§ 299. 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 293 
 
 II. TROCHAIC. § 289. 
 
 Metres I. 
 
 TRIMETER. 
 II. 
 
 HI/ 
 
 Ft. 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 — w 
 
 — w 
 
 — — 
 
 — — 
 
 — — 
 
 — — ' 
 
 
 — — — 
 
 
 — ^^ 
 
 
 :r 
 
 III. ANAPAESTIC METRE. §290. 
 
 DIMETER. 
 
 Metres I. II. 
 
 IV. DACTYLIC. § 291. 
 
 DIMETER. 
 
 I. IL 
 
 pure. 
 
 h. a 
 
 > impure. 
 Adonic. 
 
 Called also Choriambic Mon. H. C. 
 
 I. 
 
 TRIMETER. 
 II. III. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — ■ 
 
 
 
 — ^^^^- 
 
 A. C. 
 
 
 H.C. 
 
 H. C, 
 A. C. 
 
 B.C. 
 
 P.N. 
 
 Feet 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 rarely 
 
 — ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 ~mc 
 a. c 
 
 C: 
 
394 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §299. 
 
 Metres I. 
 
 TETRAMETER. 
 
 II. III. IV. 
 
 AC. 
 
 iEoLlc. 
 
 M. I 
 
 II. 
 
 PENTAMETER. 
 
 III. IV. 
 
 I A. C 
 
 EC. 
 
 jEolic. 
 
 HEXAMETER. 
 
 M. I. 
 
 II. 
 
 III. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 — w w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >»_• \^y 
 
 
 
 
 
 CC" 
 
 -ww 
 
 — WW 
 
 — '— • Nw/ 
 
 v-^ ^— ' 
 
 — WW 
 
 
 
 -— I 
 
 
 pure, 
 impure 
 
 Heroic 
 
 ELEGIAC PENTAMETER. 
 
 Metres I. II. III. IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 LOGA.EDICS. 
 
 called also Choriambic Dim. Cat. 
 
 Alcaic (the most common) 
 
 ) Lega 
 y aedici 
 
 Lega- 
 sedics 
 
§299. 
 
 PROSODT, 
 
 395 
 
 V. CHORIAMBIC METRE. § 292, 
 
 M. I. 
 
 II. 
 
 TRIMETER. 
 III. 
 
 Cat. 
 
 pure A. C. seldom occurs. 
 I impure do. in which also other feet 
 ► are intermixed, as the Peeons 
 i and Epitrites. 
 
 Monometer is the same as Dact. Dim. Dimeter, removes 
 the first Metre and Tetrameter, prefixes a Metre, and is al- 
 ways Catalectic. 
 
 VI. ANTISPASTIC METRE. § 293. 
 
 An Antispastic metre 
 Iambus. Trochee. 
 
 
 
 r- 
 
 pure { — 
 
 Metres 
 
 In the varieties of this verse any of the sim- 
 ple feet under the Iambus may precede any of 
 those under the Trochee. Dimeters, Trime- 
 ters, and Tetrameters, are formed as direct- 
 ed § 293, and are Cat. A. C. and H. C. 
 
 The Dochmiac dimeter and trimeter is form- 
 ed by repeating the Doch. mon. The Doch. 
 also sometimes precedes, and sometimes follows, 
 the Antispastus. 
 
 ANTISPASTIC VARIETIES. 
 II. 
 
 
 '< 
 
 Any form of 1 
 an Antispas- 
 tic metre. J 
 
 Cat. Pherecratic. 
 A. C. Glyconic. 
 
 H. O. Sapphic. 
 
 A. C. Glyconic Polyschema- 
 tistic. 
 
396 
 
 PROSODY. 
 
 §299. 
 
 VII. IONIC METRE, a majore, § 294. 
 Metres I. 
 
 TRIMETER. 
 II. III. 
 
 pure 
 
 
 — Cat. 
 
 
 as above. 
 
 as above and 
 
 ► A. C. 
 
 allthepeeons 
 Dimeter may be formed by joining I. and III. 
 
 VARIETIES OF THE IONIC A MAJORE. 
 
 — w — ^ Alcaic. 
 
 zzz} 
 
 ■ir=; 
 
 ~,or— " > Prosodiacus. 
 
 Ionic a majore tetram. B. C. is called Sotadic. 
 
 VIII. IONIC METRE, a minore, §295. 
 
 DIMETER. 
 
 Metres I. II. 
 
 TETRAMETER 
 
 "S 
 
 C. 
 AC. 
 
 is formed by joining a 
 Dim. Cat. to a Dim. 
 A. C. A Molossus 
 
 ( ) in the odd 
 
 places must always be 
 preceded by an iambic 
 
 The Ionic a minore, preceded or followed by a choriambus, 
 is another form of Prosodiacus. For the Epi-Ionic, see § 294, 
 
 IX. PiEONIC OR CRITIC METRE, § 296. 
 
 A Paonic metre. Dimeter, Trimeter, & Tetrameter, 
 
 — w w ^ ^ are formed by a repetition of the 
 
 w — ^ >— w metre ; a resolution of — into 
 
 ^ ^ — w or — -w — ^ ^ is common. 
 
§ 300, 301. accents. 397 
 
 § 300. SCANNING. 
 
 To those who are accustomed to the scanning of the Latin 
 poets, the ordinary hexameter and regular systems of the 
 Greek poets will present no difficulty. After a little exercise in 
 these, the best praxis is furnished by the Choruses in the Dra- 
 matic writers* and the odes of Pindar ; as almost every line fur- 
 nishes a different kind of verse, and the student is compelled to 
 make himself thoroughly acquainted both with the rules of 
 quantity and of metre in order to discover it. 
 
 In scanning, for example, the Proodus in the Medea of Euri- 
 pides, beginning at the 131st line, after ascertaining the quan- 
 tity of each syllable, and comparing the whole line with the i 
 preceding tables, they will be as follows : i 
 
 131 Anapaestic Dim. A. C. , 
 
 132 Dactylic Trim. do. 
 
 133 Anapaestic Dim. do. 
 
 134 Dactylic Trim. H. C. 
 
 135 Paeonic Dim. Ac. 
 
 136 Antispastic Dim. Ac. 
 
 137 Dactylic Dim. Ac. pure. 
 
 138 Antispastic Dim. Ac. 
 
 Preceding in the same way with the second Olympic ode of ; 
 Pindar, it will be as follows : l 
 
 1. Periodicus, or circulating dimeter. 
 
 2. Ionic Dim. Cat. 
 
 3. Paeonic Dim. H. C. 
 
 4. Choriambic Dim. Cat. 
 
 5. Iambic Dim. Brachy CataJeetie. 
 
 6. Dochmiac — and so on of the others. 
 
 Note. In the choruses of the dramatic writers, and the odes of Pindar, 
 each line of the antiatrophe is the same kind of verse, and often, though 
 not always, the same order of syllables with the corresponding line of 
 the preceding strophe. 
 
 §301. ACCENTS. 
 
 In the proper modulation of speech, it is necessary that one 
 syllable in every word should be distinguished by a tone or ele- 
 vation of the voice. On this syllable the accent is marked irj 
 the Greek language. This elevation of voice does not length- 
 en the time of the syllable ; so that accent and quantity are con- i 
 sidered by the best critics as perfectly distinct, but by no means 
 
 34 
 
398 accents. § 30L 
 
 inconsistent with each other. These can be of no use to us 
 now, as far as regards the pronunciation of the language, how- 
 ever useful in this respect they -may have been to those by 
 whom it was spoken. Still, however, the study of these is use- 
 ful in two repects ; they serve to distinguish between words 
 which are spelled alike but have different significations. This 
 difference was doubtless marked in the language as originally 
 spoken by a different intonation, which, by the different marks 
 called accents, it was intended to convey to the eye. Thus,' in 
 English, the words desert, and desert', though spelled with the 
 same letters, differ both in sound and meaning ; and this is 
 marked by the accent. So in Greek, o'(xw£ and 6p.w£, spelled 
 with the same letters, differ in meaning ; and the difference of 
 the accent would doubtless lead the Greek to express this by a 
 difference of tone which is now lost. Scapula has given a list 
 of more than four hundred words which are thus distinguished. 
 The accents also indicate, in many cases, the quantity of one 
 or more syllables of a word. 
 
 . The accents in form are three ; the acute ('), grave ( y ), and 
 circumflex (" ). Strictly speaking, however, there is in reality 
 but one accent, the acute, which is placed over a vowel to mark 
 the emphatic syllable. When the accent ismarked on a diph- 
 thong, it is placed over the -subjunctive vowel ; as, £ad Casus. 
 
 The accent is placed over one of the last three syllables. only 3 
 and words are denominated accordingly 
 
 Oxyions, when accented on the final syllable ; as, dso£. 
 Paroxytons, when accented on the penult ; as, dvQgfoirov* 
 Proparozytons, when accented on the antepenult; as, av$^og. 
 The two last kinds are called harytons, because the final syl- 
 lable is not accented ; for every syllable that is not accented, is 
 called grave ^Gagvs) ; but the grave accent is never marked, as 
 such, upon a syllable.- 
 
 In the structure of a sentence, when any oxyton is followed 
 by another word in continued discourse, the grave is used in- 
 stead of the acute ; as, 6sog fyifiv : but the word is still consider- 
 ed an oxyton. 
 
 When two syllables, the first of which is accented, are con- 
 tracted into one, the circumflex is used to denote that an acute 
 or accented syllable, and a grave or unaccented, are united ; as, 
 cpiXs'w, as if, <p*Xs'w, cpiXw ; (pikinm, cpiXoijuoi. Hence, if there be 
 no accent on the first of the syllables to be contracted, there 
 will be no circumflex on the contraction ; thus, (piXsoi^v, <piXoi- 
 
 It is evident, also, that as the accent must be upon one of the 
 
§302. accents. 399 
 
 last three syllables, the circumflex must be upon one of the last 
 two ; and words are denominated accordingly, 
 
 Perispomenons, when the last syllable is circumflexed ; as, 
 <piX£S from <piX|«. 
 
 Properispomenons, when the penult is circumflexed ; as, cpiXou- 
 p,sv for (piheoiisv. 
 
 N. B. Of many words, both the uncontracted and contract- 
 ed forms are in use ; but of others, the contracted form only re- 
 mains, and we must conjecture from analogy what the uncon- 
 tracted was ; as, saj^ov, %gx ov 5 * ov j °^ v - This reasoning from 
 analogy, however, proceeds on the assumption that all syllables 
 having the circumflex were originally two, now united by con- 
 traction. Whether this was so or not cannot be satisfactorily 
 ascertained ; nor, if it could, would the knowledge be of much 
 value, as the rules for the accentuation of words would still con- 
 tinue the same. 
 
 § 302. PLACE OF THE ACCENT IN THE NOMI- 
 NATIVE, &c. 
 
 No rule can be given for ascertaining the proper place of the 
 accent in the nominative of nouns and adjectives ; this is best 
 learned from practice and the use of a good Lexicon. The fol 
 lowing observations, however, may be of use : 
 
 1. The article, pronouns, and prepositions, have the place o 
 the accent marked in their inflexion in the grammar. 
 
 2/ In verbs, it is thrown as far back as possible, except sip. 
 and <p*M*i. 
 
 3. The following have the acute accent on the last syllable 
 and are therefore oxytons : viz. 
 
 1. All monosyllables which are not contracted ; as, ^sif, og 
 When they have suffered contraction, they take the cireum 
 flex ; as, y\ (7^)? <P^£> (cpaog). So also a?, vuv, ouv, vg, Sgvg 
 pwfe, vaus, ovg, <jru7g,.irvg, most or all of which are contractions. 
 
 2. All nouns in evg ; as, (3a<fi'ksvg. 
 
 3. All verbals in tijj ; as, xafax7?Jf . 
 
 4. Verbals in rv\g^ as, ^a^rjr^ ; but those from verbs in (ii 
 on the penult ; as, bi<rv\g. 
 
 5. Verbals in m and fAos (from the perfect passive) ; as 
 yia/jufi,'/?, (ffta^^og. 
 
 6. Verbals in Tog, from the 3d singular perfect passive ; as 
 roirfiog ; except some compounds ; as, utfodtxrog. 
 
400 ACCENTS. § 302. 
 
 7. Verbals in q and a from the perfect middle ; as, tfroX*?, 
 
 8. Diminutives, patronymics, and other derivative nouns in 
 i g ; as, xs^a/xfc, /3acTjXj£. 
 
 9. Compounds of tfo/iw, ayw, (psjw, ou£os, ijyov ; as, rfai&xyw- 
 70^, &apo£a, *uXsjoV, o/x^ifjuosgyfe, (but tfaga and tfHgi throw back 
 the accent; as, TSfi'sfyog). 
 
 10. Adjectives in *]£ not contracted ; as, aXi?0fo. 
 
 11. Compound adjectives in »&,; as, si3<pufe; except com- 
 pounds of 7)Qog and af xsw ; as, xaxo^g, iroSagxrig. 
 
 12. Adjectives in vg } -eia, -u ; as, ^fe, ^sfa, *j5u. 
 
 13. Adjectives in fos ; as, ajfyjo's- 
 
 14. Adjectives in *xos, from verbals in *o$ ; as, tfoiyjnxo's from 
 
 15. The adverbial terminations 1 and 5ov; as, diesi, ofAodu- 
 
 jtAOt5oV, 
 
 Accent on the Penult. 
 
 4. The following have the accent on the penult : 
 
 1. Diminutives in itfxos, iXo£, iwv ; as, vsavitfxos, #ai&Vx>i, vau- 
 riXo£, jxwgiwv. 
 
 2. Nouns in siov, denoting a place ; as, Auxsfbv. 
 
 3. Nouns in uvtj j as, (Jixaiootfvyi. 
 
 4. Nouns in ia, if derived from Adjectives in o£ ; as, <piXfa. 
 If derived from substantives, the accent varies ; as, tfrgalia from 
 (frgOLTog. 
 
 5. Nouns in s/a derived from verbs in suw ; as, fiatfikeia from 
 
 6. Almost all nouns denoting national relation ; as, TwfMxibs 
 
 7. Verbals in <rw£ ; as, |?jtw£, xt^tw£ . 
 
 8. Adjectives in sig-stftfa-sv ; as, XH lSi $ % 
 
 9. Adjectives in w5>]£ ; as, Xj0w5tj£. 
 
 10. Verbal adjectives in sog ; as, y^autfrios. 
 
 11. Comparatives in iwv ; as, /3sX<n'wv. 
 
 12. Adverbs of quantity in axjg; as, rgitfaxis, tfoXXaxsg. 
 18. Adverbs in &jv ; as, tfuXX?j/3<Jy]v. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 5. Compound words in many instances, especially in adverbs, 
 retain the accent on the syllable where it stood in the simple ; 
 as, aikoqji, oug avodsv. In the following cases, however, the ac- 
 cent is drawn back to the antepenult, 
 
§ 303, 304. accents. 401 
 
 1. Words compounded of particles, a, sv, Sv$, Si, ojao, dfi, 
 avri, tsgi, tfaga, utfo, &c. ; as, a<ri<f1o$ from ffitrto's, dtyvxos from 
 
 2. Words compounded of two adjectives ; as, 91X00*0905 ; of 
 two substantives ; as, vauxXi^os ; of adjectives and substan- 
 tives : as (piXofrogyog. 
 
 § 303. GENERAL RULES. 
 
 I. 
 
 If the final syllable is long, the penult has the acute accent ; 
 thus, oLvtyhrfov, (Jo'jtfa, (dual) oyswg, n^Xs'iafew, <rutf<rw, <n)ir<rs<fQw. 
 
 Obs. The Attic terminations swv and sco£, in the 2d and 3d 
 declensions, and the Ionic sw in the first > are considered as form- 
 ing' one syllable ; as, dvwysw v, tfoXswc. 
 
 n. 
 
 If the final syllable be short, then 
 
 1. In dissyllables the penult, if short, has the acute accent ; 
 as, .rirttre ; if long, the circumflex; as, x s H a ) 5outfa, (sing.) 
 
 2. In polysyllables the antepenult has the acute ; thus, avd^w- 
 #05, oivQgwifoi) T\>ntT0[kSv ) <rw<rofJ»ai. . 
 
 Obs, 1. The diphthongs 01 and a\ final, and syllables long 
 by position only, are considered short in accentuation ; thus, 
 auXafj, auXaxo£. 
 
 G6s. 2. These rules apply to the inflexions of nouns, and to 
 all the parts of verbs except as in the following. 
 
 § 304. SPECIAL RULES. 
 
 I. IN THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 1. The first declension has the circumflex on the ultimate of 
 the genitive plural ; thus, .aoutfwv, from fxoutfa. 
 
 Exc. The feminine of baryton adjectives in o£ follows the 
 first general rule ; ay/wv from ayios, (not ayiwv) ; gs'vwv, from 
 %evos : also, xf/jGVwv, ^Xouvwv, fari<fiuv, 
 
 2. Oxytons of theirs/ and second declensions circumflect the 
 last syllable in the genitive and dative ; thus, nf*^ rt^s, rij*jj, 
 «"i«.7Jv, tjjxwv ; xaXoc, xaXou, xaXo/ x , xaXofe. 
 
 34* 
 
402 ACCENTS. § 304. 
 
 3. In the third declension the acute accent on the last sylla- 
 ble of the nominative is transferred to the penult in the oblique 
 cases; thus, tfwr^f, flW$j£o£, tfw^gwv, (R. I.) ; tfa<n^, flrcw sgos ; 
 rjiocg, rgiaSog. 
 
 Exc. 1. The final syllable of vocatives in su and oi change 
 the acute into the circumflex ; as, ftxtfiXsus, SatfiXsu ; xXwtfw, 
 xXwdof. ■ 
 
 Exc. 2. M?j<n)f and duya«njf, though barytons, accent the 
 penult ; as, pyirigog. 
 
 Exc. 3. Genitives and datives of two syllables, have the cir- 
 cumflex on the final syllable long, and the acute on the final 
 syllable short ; as, /xtjvos, fjuyjvi, fj^votv, f/^vwv, fMjtfi, cfowv, 5utf/. 
 But r»s and participles follow the general rule ; as, rivwv, 0svto$, 
 outfi ; also, SaSuv, dawwv, dwwv, xgocrwv, crai6wv, Tfwwv, wvrwv, 
 9wrwv, (of lights) tfccv-rwv, tfoicfi. 
 
 Also, syncopated nouns and yuv^, except the dat. pi. ; as, 
 
 Also, a short vowel of the genitive from a long vowel in the 
 nominative, throws back the accent in the vocative ; thus, av^f , 
 avegog, avzg ; &3<SaifAwv, su&xj/xovo£, si5<5ai/xov. Except when the 
 penult is long not by position ; as, Ma^ocov, 2a£<7r>j5ov. 
 
 II. IN VERBS. 
 
 1. Monosyllables, being long, are circumflexed ; as, w, sTg, 
 (p%, St) for g§*]. 
 
 2. A long syllable after the characteristic is circumflexed, 
 1st In the active and middle voice, in the first future of liquid 
 
 verbs ; and in the second future of all verbs. 
 2d. In the passive voice, in the subjunctive of the aorists, and in 
 the subjunctive of the present of verbs in jxi ; thus, otctspw, 
 tftfsgsTg, tftfsgsw, (firsgZv, flVsjoufMii — <jww, <j-woiJfASv, rutfoffM, 
 rvrfov^cu — <ru(pc}w — ru<n%— ndw — <n0w(xai. 
 
 Exc. Except when the last syllable ends in -*]v ; as, Tutfroi- 
 t*jv, (see 1st gen. rule). 
 
 3. The third person of the optative in oi and on has the acute 
 accent on the penult ; as, TSrucpoi, dgitf ai. 
 
 Except in the futures mentioned rule 2d. 
 
 4. The imperatives iXdl, sjVs, eigi, 18s, Xa?s, have the acute 
 accent on the final syllable. 
 
 But the imperative circumflects the last syllable in the 2d 
 pers. sing, in the second aorist middle ; thus, *wou. Except 
 
§ 305, 306, accents. 403 
 
 5. The infinitive of the second aorist active circumflects the 
 final syllable ; thus, rvirsTv, viz, as if contracted from rurfejuusvai, 
 TUTg/Xgy, rutfs'sv, <ru#sfv. 
 
 The infinitive of the first aorist active — of the second aorist 
 middle — of both aorists passive — of all the perfects— and of 
 the active voice of verbs in fju, have the accent on the penult ; 
 viz. the circumflex on the long penult, and the acute on the 
 short ; thus, xflvaj, JXcttfai, dbtoutfoa — Tvtfs&Qai- — rucp^vai, rutfSjvai 
 — TSTVtpivai, rsrvrfsvoLi, rSTvqQou, irs^iX^^ai — iaVavai. 
 
 6. The participles of the second aorist active, of the present 
 active of verbs in jxi, and all ending in -ws or -s/£, have the acute 
 accent on the final syllable ; thus, rutfwv, ioVas, SiSovg, <rsru<pws, 
 
 The participles of the perfect passive have the acute accent 
 on the penult ; as, rsru^usvog. 
 
 Except when abbreviated ; as, Siypsvcg for SeSsyiiivog. 
 
 7. Ei/xi, I am, and <p?]jx/ v , / say, have the acute accent on the 
 final syllable of the indicative, (except the 2d sing.) ; thus, £<f- 
 t/, (paCi'. 
 
 Obs. When itfn is emphatical, or forms the copula between 
 the subject and its predicate, it throws back the accent ; thus, 
 avdeutfog stin gwov, man is an animal; s&ri av^wtfos ri <$' I'cjVi. 
 This is commonly, though improperly, classed under enclitics. 
 
 § 305. IN CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 1. Words accented on the last syllable, when that is lost by 
 apostrophe, throw the accent back ; as, Ssiva. — Ssiv' sVq, 
 
 Exc. 1. ctXXdt and the prepositions are excepted, which lose 
 their accent. 
 
 Exc. 2. Prepositions placed after their cases (ava and Sm 
 excepted) throw back the accent ; thus, irsgi — ^vxyg irsgi. 
 
 § 306. proclitics or atonics; 
 
 The following ten words, when written by themselves or be- 
 fore another word, have no accent, but seem to rest upon and 
 form, as it were, part of the word following j viz. the articles, o, 
 h, oi, ai ; the prepositions sv, s&, (fe), h, (sg) ; the conjunctions 
 ff, w£ ; and the negative adverb eu, (oux, ou^). 
 
 But these words have the accent when it is thrown back up- 
 
404 
 
 ACCENTS. § 307. 
 
 on them from an enclitic following ; as, elys, in the end of a 
 sentence ; as, it&s yaf ov ; why not ? after the word on which 
 they rest ; as, Qebg &g, like a God ; xaxwv I'g, in consequence of 
 evils. Also the article, used as a personal pronoun, often has 
 the accent ; as, o yag %\de> 
 
 § 307. ENCLITICS. 
 
 Enclitics (from iyxkivw) are so denominated, because, like 
 the Latin que, they lean or rest their accent upon the preceding 
 word as forming a part of it, and have no emphasis on them- 
 selves. They are 
 
 1. f^ou, fjisu, jxq/, jui, — tfou, Csu, cW, tfs,— ^-ou, oF, ?, — fw'v, v/v, (rtp/v, 
 — (fywe, (ftps, (fcpsag, (ftpiV/, tf<p£cjv 7 and the indefinite <ns, in all 
 cases and dialects. 
 
 2. E/fAi and <p>3^i x in the indicative present, except in the 2d 
 person sing. 
 
 3. ITij, tfou, tfw, #&£, tfodsv, -tots, not interrogative. 
 
 4. Ts, ?s, xs, xsv, vuv, #££ |dt, to/. 
 
 RULES. 
 
 I. Enclitics throw back their accent on the last syllable of 
 the preceding word when its antepenult has the acute accent, 
 or its penult, the circumflex ; as, av&gwitog sffn — ?X^/xoi, cTw.aa- 
 jaou oSfi. - 
 
 Note 1. In this case the acute accent is always used, though the en- 
 clitic may have a circumflex. 
 
 Note 2. When the precedisg word ends in a double consonant, and 
 will not easily coalesce with the enclitic following, ihe accent remains 
 unchanged ; as } bfxrj\i^ [aov. 
 
 II. If the preceding word has any accent on the final sylla- 
 ble or the acute accent on the penult, the monosyllable enclitic 
 loses its accent ; as, ayatag /xs dvyg <ng } rutfTw tie. But the dis- 
 syllable retains it ; as, \oyog tivos, xaXoV stf<n, e Ef y^g sVW, not 
 
 So also when the preceding word has suffered an apostro- 
 phe ; as 5 rfoKkoi <$' s/V/v. 
 
 Obs. The principle of these rules is, that no two successive 
 syllables in the same word can be accented ; and that a circum- 
 flexed syllable is equivalent to one acuted, followed by another 
 unaccented. 
 
§ 307. ON THE ORIGIN AND DIALECTS, &C. 405 
 
 III. If several enclitics follow each other, the last only is 
 without the accent, the accent of each being thrown back on 
 the word which precedes it ; as, si — si rfe <nvot <pn]tfi (xoi. 
 
 IV. The enclitic pronouns retain their accent after preposi- 
 tions, and after svsxa and *j ; as, 6iol <fs. 
 
 V. All the enclitics retain their accent when they are empha- 
 tic, and when they begin a clause. 
 
 VI. 'Etfri accents its first syllable when it begins a sentence 
 or is emphatical, or follows dXX', si, oux, us or tout' ; as, oux Itfn. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS 
 
 0^ /Ae Origin and Dialects of the 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE. 
 
 The origin of particular languages, like that of different na- 
 tions, is involved in great obscurity. They both must have 
 attained to a considerable degree of importance in the world, 
 before any care was taken to record their progress ; and the 
 principal information that can then be expected, must be deriv- 
 ed from internal evidence and oral tradition. 
 
 Nor is it less difficult to trace the changes which a language 
 undergoes in its various dialects. The successive mixture of 
 new colonists with the original inhabitants of a country, — the 
 introduction of new arts, sciences, and customs, — and the ca- 
 price of fashion,-- are continually making alterations ; until 
 the language of former days becomes almost unintelligible to 
 those who profess to speak the tongue of their fathers. 
 
 We need not be surprised, therefore, that it should be im- 
 possible to ascertain the sources from which the Greek lan- 
 guage proceeded ; or to mark the exact limits of its dialects, 
 in their form, extent, or duration. Nothing, indeed, can be more 
 vain -than attempting to communicate a thorough knowledge 
 of any dialect by written rules. For we know by experience, 
 that the different dialects of a living language are very much 
 blended with each other ; and that they undergo the same 
 changes as languages in general. 
 
 All that we can do is to mark their most prominent features 
 and peculiarities ; and this is quite sufficient for the purpose of 
 
406 ON THE ORIGIN AND DIALECTS §"307. 
 
 learning to read a separate dialect. Practice and observation 
 must accomplish the rest. Such is the object of the following 
 remarks. The learner will find the principal varieties of the 
 dialects, in declension and conjugation, introduced in the notes 
 on their respective places of the grammar. 
 
 A great number of Greek words appear to be formed from 
 the imitation of sounds produced by inanimate objects, or the 
 inarticulate expressions of the human voice, or that of other 
 animals. Thus, from the sounds #Xa, gi^r, 5outf,— tfX^atfw, / 
 strike ; £iWw, I cast ; 8ovitsu : I make a loud noise .--—from xga — 
 xfa£w, / crash ; x^auy^, clamor : — from ax^~~^X°S> gwtfs &xP° s i 
 a burden. 
 
 Some writers conceive that a large proportion of the Greek 
 language may be traced to the following words, called duads^ 
 from their consisting of two letters each ; viz. aw, I breathe ; 
 Iw, J exist ; 5'w, / send ; ow> J hear ; ii«, I pour. But these ap- 
 pear to be refinements of later periods, and unknown when the 
 language was in its infancy. 
 
 The internal evidence of derivation concurs with the testi- 
 mony of writers, in general, to prove that the Greek language 
 came originally from the east. 
 
 The Scythians, or Pelasgi, moving gradually westward, ap- 
 pear to have formed settlements in the northern regions of 
 Greece, afterwards called Macedonia. From hence they ex- 
 tended towards the south and west; occupying also Italy, 
 Sicily, and the adjacent islands. Of their language, as it dif- 
 fered from the parent Hebrew, we can say very little with cer- 
 tainty; but the resemblance of many Greek and Hebrew 
 words leaves no room to doubt of the derivation. 
 
 From the best information, it appears that the most ancient 
 dialect of Greek, which, of course, bore the strongest resem- 
 blance to the Scythian original, was the 
 
 (1.) ^EOLIC. 
 
 This dialect was spoken by the inland and western inhabit- 
 ants of Greece, and extended to Peloponnesus, Sicily, and 
 Italy. A settlement of iEolians being formed in Asia Minor, 
 the iEolic dialect was spoken there also ; and it was used in 
 Lesbos f and other islands in the Archipelago. Our informa- 
 tion, as to its nature, is derived chiefly from grammarians, who 
 represent it as a rough, strong dialect, delighting in such com- 
 binations of sounds as /3f6£ov, for £o'5ov, a rose ; wftfs, for wfs, ht 
 excited; oVffara, for ojjjj.a<ra, eyes ; <t*i$w 9 for oVeigw, I sow. 
 
§ 307. OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. 407 
 
 No works remain in this dialect, except some fragments of 
 Alcaeus and Sappho. 
 
 Connected with the iEolic was the 
 
 (2.) DORIC, 
 
 which, by degrees, prevailed very much in the south of Greece 
 and the adjacent countries. 
 
 This is a broad, strong sounding dialect, delighting, particu- 
 larly, in the vowel alpha ; as, jxayados, for psysGog, greatness ; 
 T^a^w, for *"f£'x w j I run ; <pot{Att, for (priori, fame ; qrgaros, for crfw- 
 to£, first ; fjboutfav, for fxoutfwv, of muses. But sometimes smaller 
 sounds were used ; as, aksvpai, for aXoiJ^ai, I will leap ; <tiWoh 
 <fa, for TWTOutfa, striking. 
 
 This was the favourite dialect of pastoral poets. In it are 
 
 composed the Idylliums of Theocritus, Bion, and Moschus. 
 
 t From the variety in their orthography, it would appear that 
 
 every one spelled the words according to their sound on his own 
 
 ear : so that it is useless to attempt establishing a standard for it. 
 
 Archimedes also uses this dialect, but not so broad as the 
 poets ; and the Timaeus of Plato is written in Doric. It occurs 
 frequently also, in the odes of Pindar, and the choral songs of 
 the Greek dramatic writers, to which it gives an air of vene- 
 rable antiquity. 
 
 While the iEolic and Doric occupied the west and south of 
 Greece, a more soft and polished dialect, the 
 
 (3.) IONIC, 
 
 began to prevail in the eastern parts of Grsecia Propria. This 
 district was, originally, called Ionia ; and colonies from it set- 
 tling on the opposite coast of Asia Minor carried with them their 
 dialect, and the name of their country. It was here in particu- 
 lar that the Ionic was softened, from the broad, strong primi- 
 tive tongue, into that smooth, flowing language in which 
 Herodotus composed his history. 
 
 Its distinguishing characteristics are, the concourse of vow- 
 els ; the prevailing use of the vowel eta, and a preference of 
 smooth to aspirated sounds ; as, kuvrto), for sau<rou, of himself ; 
 ffeXTjvanr), for (feXtyri the moon ; fqi&of, for |<x<5*o^, easy ; <p»Xir„ fcr 
 (piXia, friendship ; r^Xioio, for ^Xiou, of the sun ; c«ra»£oufj^i, for 
 d^aijoufxai, / deprive. But the latter occurs frequently in Doiic 
 also : and, sometimes, a is used instead of s, as, Ta/xvw, for tsjavc*. • 
 
 Besides Herodotus, Hippocrates wrote in the Ionic dialect : 
 and it was evidently very prevalent in the time of Homer, He- 
 siod, and the other ancient poets. The language of their time 
 
408 ON THE ORIGIN AND DIALECTS* &C. § 307. 
 
 appears to have been something between the ancient JEolic and 
 the latter Ionic ; but by no means a mixture of contemporary 
 dialects. 
 
 After the departure of the colonies to Ionia, in Asia Minor, the 
 name of their original country was changed into Attica, and their 
 language gradually altered into the last general dialect, the 
 
 (4.) ATTIC. 
 
 At first this dialect differed very little from the Ionic ; and 
 even when it assumed a very different form, in after ages, it 
 still retained many peculiarities of the primitive tongue:' as, 
 &4$v, for S^av, to thirst ; fatfjjs, or /V<a% 7 for Itftfefc, knights. 
 Athens was the theatre of popular orators, and its dialect was 
 well calculated to make a strong impression on the ear. Its 
 characteristics are, a love for contractions, and an abundance 
 of hard and aspirated sounds ; as cpiXdtj for (piXs'w, I love ; ^(5sjv, 
 for s/5aiv, or sUqimv, I" knew ; |uv, for tfuv, with ; SaXowra, for 
 SaXatftfa, the sea ; a^v, for af (frjv, male ; r^s^ov, for tf^sf ov, to* 
 day. 
 
 The gradual changes from the Ionic have been distinguish- 
 ed by the names of Old, Middle, and New Attic ;^and writers 
 classed accordingly ; thus, 
 
 Old. Middle. New. 
 
 iEschylus, Aristophanes, Xenophon. 
 
 Sophocles, Plato. Aristotle. 
 
 Euripides, Demosthenes, and 
 
 Thucydides, &c. the other orators. 
 
 Many other dialects prevailed, but as they furnished no 
 works of any importance, they are not worth being noticed. 
 
 After the time of Alexander the literature of Greece declined. 
 A mixed language came into use, comprising not only the pe- 
 culiarities of several Grecian dialects, but a number of words 
 from Latin and other languages. This is the dialect of the 
 Septuagint and New Testament. Still, however, some later 
 authors wrote in the Attic dialect with considerable purity ; 
 such are Lucian, Longinus, and others. 
 
 For an enumeration of the minutise in each dialect, see the 
 Appendix to Scapula's Lexicon, or that to the Clavis Home- 
 
 1**4102^ 
 
 THE END. 
 

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