■ 
 
ILLUSTRATED HISTORY, 
 
 COMPRISING IN A CONDENSED FORM A 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 —A— 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 OF THE WESTERN CONTINENT, 
 
 AND THE CHIEF OBJECTS OF INTEREST ON 
 
 THE EASTERN CONTINENT, 
 
 INCLUDING A HISTORICAL AND DESCEIPTVE SKETCH OF 
 
 THE HOLY LAND. 
 
 BY 
 
 W. S. CLARK. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY STEREOSCOPIC VIEWS, 
 
 BUBLI8HBD BT 
 
 E. & H. T. ANTHONY, NEW YORK. 
 
 "UBLISHEB BY 
 
 J. H. CLARK & CO., 
 
 ROCKFORD, ILLINOIS. 
 
 ROCKFORD REGISTER STEAM PRINTING HOUSE. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This work has been prepared for the purpose of bringing 
 within the reach of all, the important matter of History and 
 Geography in a condensed form, and illustrated in such a man- 
 ner as to make clear and lasting impressions on the mind of the 
 Scholar, and serve as an incentive to study. This study has 
 been sadly neglected, not because of its unimportance, but from 
 the long, dry, and tedious manner in which it has been presented. 
 The wood cuts which usually accompany Histories, generally give 
 a very imperect idea of the scene intended to be represented. 
 
 Accompanying this work are Stereoscopic Views taken from 
 the object itself, showing nature and art as they actually exist, 
 and as they would appear if seen with the naked eye. 
 
 INSTRUCTIONS. 
 
 This History, Stereoscope, and Views, will be furnished in 
 Sets. The Views that are sent to a Township differ, and by 
 changing, from time to time, each district can have the benefit 
 of the whole number. In the back part of the Book will be 
 found a list of headings, giving the page and division of the 
 catalogue under which will be found the title and number corres- 
 ponding with that on the View. When a view is furnished that 
 is not embodied in the catalogue, figures will be set on the face 
 side of the View, denoting the page in the History, except when 
 a sufficient description is printed on the back of the view. 
 
 The History can be used with great success with but a single 
 copy in the School, by giving each scholar in the class so much 
 time for the study. When more are required they can be 
 obtained of Agents, or by ordering. 
 
 All orders in the Northwest must be sent to 
 
 JAS. H. CLARK & CO., 
 
 Hockford, Illinois. 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, Jan. A. D. 1870, by Hart & Clark, in tlie Office of the 
 Clerk of the District Court of the U. S., for the Northern District of Illinois. 
 
 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 
 PART I. 
 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 I. 
 
 Discovery of America, 
 
 1 
 
 II. 
 
 Colonial History of the New England States, 
 
 7 
 
 III. 
 
 " " " Middle States, 
 
 21 
 
 IV. 
 
 " " " Southern States, 
 
 27 
 
 V. 
 
 Causes of the Revolution, - 
 
 45 
 
 VI. 
 
 The War for Independence, ... - 
 
 49 
 
 VII. 
 
 The Administrations, - 
 
 58 
 
 VIII. 
 
 The Civil War, 
 
 72 
 
 IX. 
 
 Close of the Civil War, 
 
 92 
 
 X. 
 
 North American Indians, - 
 
 96 
 
 XI. 
 
 Declaration of Independence, - 
 
 107 
 
 XII. 
 
 Constitution of the United States, 
 
 112 
 
 
 Amendments to the Constitution, - 
 
 125 
 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation, - 
 
 131 
 
 
 PART II. 
 
 
 CHAP. 
 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 I. 
 
 Geographical History of the New England States, 
 
 139 
 
 II. 
 
 " " " Middle States, - 
 
 173 
 
 III. 
 
 " " " Southern States. 
 
 221 
 
 IV. 
 
 " " " Western States, - 
 
 249 
 
 V. 
 
 " " " Territories, 
 
 305 
 
 VI. 
 
 " " " of British America, 
 
 312 
 
 VII. 
 
 " " " " Mexico, 
 
 316 
 
 VIII. 
 
 " " " " Central America, 
 
 325 
 
IV CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE. 
 
 IX. Geographical History of the West Indies, - - 328 
 
 X. " " " South America, - 333 
 
 PART III. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE. 
 
 I. Geographical History of the Brit. Isles, England, 343 
 
 " " * " " " Scotland, 348 
 
 " " " " " Ireland, 352 
 
 II. " " of France, - - 355 
 
 III. " " Switzerland, - - 359 
 
 IV. " " Austria, - - 367 
 
 " Prussia, - - - 369 
 
 " " Germany, - - 371 
 
 " Russia, - - - 372 
 
 V. " " Italy, --- 374 
 
 " " the Papal States, - 381 
 
 VI. " " China, - - - 386 
 
 Japan, - - - 389 
 VII. Historical and descriptive sketch of Palestine and 
 
 adjacent Countries, ----- 390 
 
 Geographical History of Sinai, - 409 
 
 " " Greece, 409 
 
 Egypt, - - - 411 
 
 Catalogue of Views, 413 
 
 List of Headings, - 439 
 
HISTORY 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 The United States consists of thirty-six States and ten Terri- 
 tories. This country is bounded by the great lakes and the 
 British possessions on the north, the Atlantic ocean on the east, 
 the gulf of Mexico and Mexico on the south, and the Pacific 
 ocean on the west. 
 
 The American continent, or New "World, as it is sometimes 
 called, was discovered by Christopher Columbus, in the year 
 1492. Columbus was a native of Genoa — born about 1435. 
 His father was a wool-comber, but gave his son advantages of 
 education, particularly in geography, mathematics, and astron- 
 omy, for which he early displayed a decided taste. When he 
 was fourteen years of age he went to sea. A few years later, 
 while in the service of a kinsman who commanded a small Genoese 
 squadron, and taking part in an engagement with some Venetian 
 vessels off the coast of Portugal, his ship caught fire, and he 
 leaped into the waves and barely saved his life by swimming 
 ashore. He was attracted to Lisbon by the fame that Portugal 
 had won by her maritime enterprise, where he married the daugh- 
 ter of an eminent navigator, the access to whose charts and 
 journals awakened within him an ardent desire for discovery. 
 
Z DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 From this time to 1477 we find hira engaged in various voyages 
 to the Canaries, the Azores, Madeira, and the coasts of Guinea 
 and Iceland. 
 
 The geographical researches of Columbus convinced him that 
 the earth was round, and that there must necessarily be land in 
 the western hemisphere to counterbalance the eastern continent. 
 The maps to be obtained in his day gave but little information 
 respecting the extent of Asia. He imagined that it extended 
 much further east than it really did, or that the coast was lined 
 with large islands extending within a few hundred leagues of 
 Europe. Pieces of wood, strangely carved, had been picked up 
 by sailors in the unknown ocean. Upon one island were found 
 the bodies of two men totally different in appearance from the 
 natives of Europe and Africa. These circumstances confirmed 
 him in his belief, and he sought means of testing its truth. In 
 order to carry out his project effectually he must have men and 
 ships. His first proposals were made to the senate of his native 
 city, but were rejected. His next application was to John II. 
 of Portugal ; who, after drawing out his plan, treacherously sent 
 a vessel on the proposed course under another commander, but 
 happily gained nothing by his baseness. Columbus then sent his 
 brother Bartholomew to Henry VII. of England, but he was 
 captured by pirates, and it was years before he reached London. 
 Being unsuccessful in Portugal, in 1484 Columbus went to Spain, 
 where for a time he supported himself and son by making charts 
 and maps. " At last he succeeded in procuring an interview with 
 Ferdinand, king of Aragon. This cautious monarch, after list- 
 ening to his projects, submitted them to the learned men of the 
 university of Salamanca, by whom they were once more con- 
 demned." After several years Columbus finally obtained an 
 interview with Isabella, the wife of Ferdinand, and queen of 
 Castile and Leon. To enable him to appear at court she sent 
 him about seventy dollars, with which he purchased a mule and 
 suitable clothing. The queen was moved by his arguments, but 
 was unwilling to furnish the required aid. More disheartened 
 than ever, Columbus was on the point of abandoning Spain, when 
 at last, by the advice of wise counsellors, Isabella determined to 
 
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 3 
 
 embark in the enterprise, even if she had to pledge her jewels 
 in order to procure the necessary funds. Columbus was com- 
 missioned as High Admiral and Viceroy of all the countries he 
 might discover, and went to Palos to fit out the expedition. 
 
 There was great difficulty in finding sailors for such a voyage, 
 but with the aid of the queen three small vessels, none of them 
 being over one hundred tons burden, and ninety men were 
 obtained. The Santa Maria, which bore the flag of Columbus, 
 was the only one that had a deck. The Pinta and Nina were 
 commanded by two brothers by the name of Pinyon. They 
 provided themselves with provisions enough to last one year. 
 The whole expense of the outfit was only £4,000. 
 
 This little fleet sailed from Palos August 3, 1492. A full 
 sense of the dangers they might encounter seized on the sailors 
 when land faded from their sight, and their fears were gradually 
 increased, till, on the expiration of twenty days without seeing 
 any signs of land, they began to talk of throwing Columbus 
 overboard and returning home. " The variation of the compass 
 had not yet been discovered, and their alarm was greatly height- 
 ened when they observed that the magnetic needle no longer 
 pointed directly north. It was a trying hour for Columbus, but 
 his great mind was equal to the crisis. Explaining the varia- 
 tions of the compass in a manner satisfactory to his followers, 
 though not to himself, he used every means to induce them to 
 prosecute the voyage, now picturing to their minds the riches 
 they would obtain, and now threatening them with the anger of 
 their sovereign. At last both officers and men insisted on return- 
 ing, and Columbus was obliged to promise that unless land 
 appeared within three days he would comply with their demand. 
 The shallowness of the water, the numerous birds of the air, the 
 grass and weeds floating by, a branch that was picked up with 
 berries still fresh upon it, all made him sure that he could give 
 this promise with safety." On the evening of October 11th, the 
 sails were furled, and a close watch kept. About ten o'clock a 
 moving light was discovered by Columbus and several others, 
 and at two in the morning a shout from the Pinta proclaimed 
 the discovery of land, and at daybreak was displayed to the 
 
4 DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 overjoyed adventurers a scene of strange beauty. The land was 
 covered with the forests and gay foliage and blossoms of a tropi- 
 cal clime. The natives thronged from the woods and gazed with 
 wonder and astonishment at the ships, which, with their white 
 sails, they regarded as huge birds hovering over the sea. " Colum- 
 bus was the first to touch the newly discovered shore. Richly 
 attired and with drawn sword, he landed. Kneeling on the sand 
 he kissed the earth and returned thanks to God. When he had 
 taken formal possession of the country in the name of the king 
 and queen of Spain, his followers rendered him homage as vice- 
 roy, and the inhabitants, regarding the Spaniards as a superior 
 race, prostrated themselves at his feet." The land first reached 
 was one of the Bahama islands, to which Columbus gave the 
 name of San Salvador, by which name it is still known. 
 
 Having learned from the natives that gold was to be obtained 
 further to the south, they soon sailed in that direction and dis- 
 covered Cuba and Hayti. One of his vessels having been wrecked, 
 he left thirty-five of his men in Hayti, and on the 1st of January, 
 1493, embarked for Spain. A violent storm on the return 
 voyage threatened his frail vessels, and Columbus, fearing his 
 discoveries would be lost to the world, wrote an account of them 
 on parchment, which he secured in a cask and threw into the sea, 
 hoping that the winds and waves might cast it ashore. But he 
 was mercifully spared to make known personally his discoveries. 
 The shattered vessels finally entered the port of Palos in safety, 
 amid the acclamations of the people and the thunder of cannon. 
 Columbus presented himself before the king and queen and laid 
 before them the history of his discoveries, exhibited specimen 
 products of the new world, with the natives whom he had brought 
 with him, and in return was loaded with the highest honors. 
 
 On the 25th of September, 1493, Columbus started upon his 
 second voyage to the new world. This time he had a fleet of 
 seventeen vessels and one thousand five hundred men. On his 
 arrival at Hayti he found that his colony had been cut off. By 
 their injustice and cruelty to the natives they had provoked them 
 to summary vengeance. After providing for the erection of a 
 fort on this island, Columbus proceeded to explore the surrounding 
 
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 5 
 
 islands. Soon after completing this work he was delighted by 
 the arrival of his brother Bartholomew, whom he had not seen 
 for thirteen years, and who, on returning from his unsuccessful 
 mission to England, was sent by Isabella with supplies to the 
 new world. 
 
 The followers of Columbus, being disappointed in obtaining 
 gold, began to murmur and complain of his management of 
 affairs, the result of which was, an emissary of his enemies was 
 sent out to examine into it. Columbus returned to Spain and 
 plead his own cause before the throne. He established his inno- 
 cence and was received into favor. 
 
 In 1498 he made his third voyage, directing his course nearer 
 the equator than he had previously done. During this voyage 
 he discovered the island of Trinidad and the coast of South 
 America, near the mouth of the Orinoco river. In the current 
 from the mouth of this great river his fleet was for a time in 
 great danger. This led him to believe that so mighty a stream 
 must belong to a continent. On his return to his colony on the 
 island of Hayti he found Bovadilla, whom, at the instigation of 
 his enemies, the Spanish sovereign had vested with power to 
 examine into his conduct, and if needful to supersede him in 
 command. 
 
 Columbus was sent back to Spain in chains. The captain of 
 the vessel, grieved to see so great a discoverer treated in this 
 manner, offered to remove his chains. But Columbus, indignant 
 at the ingratitude of his country, would not allow them to be re- 
 moved, and ordered that they should be buried with him. Every 
 charge made against him he repelled, but his sovereign never had 
 the justice to restore him to his station, and when it became 
 necessary to remove Bovadilla on account of his mismanagement, 
 Ovando was appointed his successor. 
 
 Though feeling deeply this ingratitude, and also the infirmities 
 of age, in 1502 Columbus set out on a fourth voyage. He still 
 entertained the belief that the land he had discovered formed a 
 part of Asia, which delusion he did not live to have dispelled. 
 The object of this last voyage was to discover a new passage to 
 India by sailing farther west. He explored the coast along the 
 
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 
 
 gulf of Darien. But at last, after a succession of disasters in 
 the attempt to reach Hayti, he was wrecked off the coast of 
 Jamaica, where, being nearly reduced to starvation and in danger 
 of attacks from the Indians, he saved himself and his followers 
 by an ingenious stratagem. From his knowledge of astronomy 
 he knew that an eclipse of the moon was to take place, and call- 
 ing the natives around him told them that the Great Spirit was 
 displeased with them on account of their treatment of the white 
 man, and that He would, that night, hide his face from them. 
 When the moon became dark they were convinced of the truth 
 of what he had said, and brought him supplies, and besought him 
 to pray to the Great Spirit to receive them into favor again. 
 After undergoing extraordinary hardships, Columbus finally 
 reached Hayti, and returned to Spain in the summer of 1504. 
 Queen Isabella had died a short time before, and the remaining 
 two years of the great discoverer's life were shrouded in gloom. 
 He died at Valladolid in the 71st year of his age. His chains 
 were put in his coffin as he requested, and his remains now rest 
 in the cathedral of Havana. 
 
 Encouraged by the success of Columbus, other Spanish navi- 
 gators had found their way to the new world. Among these was 
 Ojeda, in whose company was a well educated Florentine gentle- 
 man who published an interesting description of the lands he had 
 visited. His name was Americo Vespucci. His was the first 
 written account of the western continent, and as it left Columbus 
 out of view, the continent, instead of being called after its real 
 discoverer, was named from this Florentine, America. 
 
 The early inhabitants of this country were the North Ameri- 
 can Indians, but they, as a nation, have long since passed away, 
 although a remnant still lingers in some of the States and in the 
 Indian territory, and beyond the Rocky mountains. 
 
 The three oldest towns in the United States are St. Augustine, 
 in Florida, founded by the Spaniards in 1565 ; Jamestown, in 
 Virginia, founded by the English in 1607 ; and Plymouth, in 
 Massachusetts, in 1620, also by the English. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 In 1620, that portion of the western continent lying between 
 40 and 48° north latitude, extending from ocean to ocean, was 
 granted to a commercial company by James I. The first per- 
 manent settlement upon this extensive tract was made by the 
 Puritans, or " Pilgrim Fathers." 
 
 During the reign of the Roman Catholic Queen, Mary of 
 England, their ancestors had been driven to Holland. While 
 there they learned a different mode of worship, and were char- 
 acterized by a love of civil and religious liberty, and on their 
 return to England refused to become members of the established 
 church. After enduring persecution for upwards of fifty years, 
 they fled to Holland, where they had the liberty to worship God 
 as their consciences dictated. After an absence of eight years 
 they resolved to go to America. 
 
 In 1620 they returned to England, where they remained 
 about two weeks, when they set sail for America, in the Speed- 
 well. But this vessel was thought, by the commander, unfit for 
 so long a voyage, and they returned to port. 
 
 On the 6th of September, 1620, one hundred of the passen- 
 gers of the Speedwell entered the Mayflower, and began their 
 voyage across the stormy Atlantic. While on shipboard a body 
 of laws were drawn up, to which every man affixed his name. 
 
 It was the intention of the Pilgrims to land near the mouth 
 of the Hudson river, but after a long voyage of sixty-three days 
 they were landed on the barren coast of Massachusetts. " Tra- 
 dition says it was the foot of Mary Chilton, a young maiden of 
 
8 COLONIAL HISTORY OF THE 
 
 the band, that first pressed Forefathers' Rock, as it is still named 
 and honored by their descendants." 
 
 " The heavy night hung dark, 
 The hills and waters o'er, 
 When a band of exiles moored their bark 
 On the wild New England shore. 
 
 Aye, call it holy ground, 
 
 The soil where first they trod ! 
 
 They have left unstained what there they found, 
 
 Freedom to worship God. 1 " 
 
 Hardships and suffering awaited them in their new home. 
 The prospect before them was dreary in the extreme. Exposure 
 and privation, disease and famine prostrated half of their num- 
 ber before a single habitation was commenced. Among the first 
 deaths were those of John Carver their governor, and his wife 
 and child. In the spring only forty-six of their number were 
 living. As the weather became milder hope began to revive. 
 Game was plenty, they tilled the soil, friends in England soon 
 joined them, and the settlement of Plymouth became permanent. 
 
 During all this time they were kindly treated by the Indians, 
 the most savage of whom had been carried off by a pestilence 
 the previous year. The first Indian they met was Samoset, who 
 entered their village of huts with the cheering salutation : " Wel- 
 come, Englishmen"! He had learned to speak English from 
 previous voyagers. He informed the colonists that they might 
 occupy the land which they had settled. He was engaged as an 
 interpreter, and with his assistance and a few kindly presents, a 
 treaty was made with Massasoit, the chieftain of that region, 
 which was faithfully kept for more than fifty years. Through 
 Massasoit's influence a treaty was made with the Wampanoags, 
 who promised not to interfere with the settlements of the English. 
 
 During the ten years following the founding of the Plymouth 
 colony, various settlements were made around Massachusetts 
 Bay, at Charlestown, Cambridge, and Salem. Colonists were 
 enabled to emigrate to this country by means of English mer- 
 chants and noblemen forming themselves into companies, and 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 9 
 
 obtaining from the King grants to settle particular localities in 
 America. These grants were called charters, and granted to 
 the companies holding them certain rights and privileges of com- 
 merce and government. Ships were furnished and colonists 
 sent out by the companies to till the soil and procure fish and 
 furs, the profits on which articles it was expected would recom- 
 pense the company in England for the expense of sending 
 them out. 
 
 Several gentlemen of family and fortune, belonging to the 
 Massachusetts Bay Company, agreed themselves to go to New 
 England, provided they could carry their charter along with 
 them. This being granted, an independent provincial govern- 
 ment was formed, with John Winthrop as governor. This little 
 fleet of five vessels, on board of which were about three hundred 
 families, embarked for New England on the 8th of April, 1630, 
 and were safely anchored at Charlestown. The water being 
 brackish at this place, they were induced to settle on the south 
 side of Charles river. This new settlement was named Boston, 
 after a city in England, from which some of them had come. 
 During the ensuing winter a scarcity of provisions and the sever- 
 ity of the climate caused much intense suffering. Upwards of 
 two hundred men were laid in their graves. But the survivors 
 were not disheartened, and in the spring their affairs assumed a 
 more flourishing aspect ; the settlement grew rapidly. The in- 
 habitants were noted for their industry and honesty. Buildings^ 
 rose like magic under the united efforts of the mechanics and 
 masons ; vessels were built to traffic with other settlements on 
 the coast ; schools were founded, a printing press erected, a fort 
 was built, mills introduced, and a ferry was established between 
 Boston and Charlestown. 
 
 The next year after this colony was established, Mr. John 
 Eliot, the first missionary to the Indians, joined them. He 
 visited them in their wigwams, translated the Bible into their 
 language, taught them to read and to worship the true God. A 
 copy of the Bible as he translated it is still preserved, but only 
 
10 COLONIAL HISTORY OF THE 
 
 the title, " Up Biblum God," meaning the book of God, can 
 now be read. 
 
 Between the years 1630 and 1636, persecution in England 
 was again revived, driving many wise and able men to the colo- 
 nies. In 1635, three thousand emigrants landed at Boston, 
 among whom was Sir Henry Vane, an intimate friend of the 
 poet Milton. He was soon elected governor. 
 
 Although the Puritans had left England in order to secure 
 religious liberty, yet they were unwilling to grant the same priv- 
 ilege to others, and every one in the colony was obliged to attend 
 church, and to conform to their mode of worship, in order to 
 escape persecution. 
 
 Roger Williams, a minister of Salem, was the first to preach 
 liberty and toleration. He believed that every person had a 
 right to worship God as he saw fit, and to withhold this right 
 was bigotry in New England as well as in old England. He 
 had many warm friends and ardent supporters of the doctrine 
 which he advocated, but his views were as much in advance of 
 the majority as to bring on persecution. His enemies daily 
 increased, and he was finally banished from Massachusetts. For 
 fourteen weeks he wandered through the forest, in severe winter 
 weather, sheltered only by the rude wigwam of the Indian. In 
 the spring he was joined by five friends from Boston, and they, 
 together, founded Providence. The religious and political free- 
 dom allowed in this colony soon induced persecuted men of other 
 settlements to fly thither for refuge. Thus originated the first 
 settlement in Rhode Island. 
 
 The Chief of the Narragansetts became warmly attached to 
 Williams. To this attachment, and the christian spirit of Roger 
 Williams, his persecutors owed their preservation. The Narra- 
 gansetts were preparing to make war with the Boston colony, 
 and he, being made aware of the fact, interceded for his enemies, 
 and they were spared. 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 11 
 
 In 1639 Newport was founded on the southern extremity of 
 the Isle of Rhodes. Near the site of Newport is a curious stone 
 structure about twenty-four feet in hight, which is evidently of 
 great antiquity, as the Indians could give no information respect- 
 ing its origin. On the northern extremity of the island a settle- 
 ment was made called Portsmouth. The Providence and Rhode 
 Island settlements were separate until 1644, when they obtained 
 a charter, and were united under the name of the Providence 
 and Rhode Island plantations. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 The Connecticut, so called from its Indian name, which means 
 long river, was first explored by the Dutch, in 1614. They 
 soon established trading posts along the river, and might have 
 carried on a profitable trade with the natives if they had treated 
 them kindly and honorably. But such was not the case. An 
 Indian chief was imprisoned on board of a Dutch vessel, and a 
 ransom of one hundred and forty fathoms of wampum had to be 
 paid by his tribe to procure his release. 
 
 In 1630, the valley of the Connecticut was granted to the 
 Earl of Warwick, who transferred it to Lord Say-and-Seale and 
 Lord Brook. During the next six years a number of flourish- 
 ing villages had sprung up on the banks of the Connecticut, 
 among which were Windsor, Hartford, Saybrook and Weathers- 
 field. Two years later, New Haven, one of the loveliest cities 
 in all New England, was founded by John Davenport, Theodore 
 Eaton, and their followers. 
 
 For a time the Dutch endeavored to prevent the English from 
 settling this valley, which they claimed as their territory. They 
 purchased, from the Indians, the land in the vicinity of Hartford, 
 erected a fort and placed two cannon upon it. But the English 
 ascended the river and planted their colonies, and organized 
 their government. In April, 1636, the first court assembled at 
 Hartford. 
 
12 COLONIAL HISTOEY OF THE 
 
 The Indians becoming jealous of the power of the white men, 
 began to show signs of hostilities. They began by kidnapping 
 children, murdering families in the outskirts of Saybrook, and 
 capturing a trading vessel, plundering her and murdering the 
 captain. After these depredations, the Connecticut colonies 
 declared war, which they began with a band of ninety men, 
 twenty of which were from the Massachusetts colony. 
 
 The most hostile of the tribes were the Pequods, numbering 
 about two thousand warriors. Their principal village was 
 attacked by the English, on the 26th of May, just before sun- 
 rise. They approached cautiously, and the Indians relying on 
 their number, their bows and arrows, had set no sentry, and 
 were first made aware of the presence of their enemies by the 
 barking of a dog. In great confusion they rallied with bow and 
 arrow for the fight, and defended themselves with great bravery, 
 but a blazing brand was thrown among the mats with which one 
 of the wigwams was covered, and their village was soon in ashes. 
 The colonists formed a circle around the burning huts and slew 
 them without mercy, as they were driven into sight by the fire. 
 Only two of the English were lost, and about six hundred 
 Pequods, men, women, and children were slain. The next 
 morning about three hundred Pequods arrived from another 
 village. After a desperate battle two hundred of them surrend- 
 ered to the English. They were either sold into slavery or 
 incorporated into other friendly tribes, and the powerful Pequod 
 nation became extinct. The other hostile tribes were filled with 
 consternation and awe, and the colonies were left unmolested 
 for forty years. 
 
 After the first victory the Narragansetts had lent their aid to 
 the English ; but the latter were guilty of gross ingratitude to 
 the Narragansett chief, Miantonomah, for his services. Hostili- 
 ties being again renewed between the Narragansetts and Mohe- 
 gans, Miantonomah was captured. " Let him be delivered to 
 his old enemy, Uncuss," said the ungrateful men whom he had 
 assisted ; and the Mohegan chief, in the presence of two white 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 13 
 
 men tomahawked him, and cutting a piece of quivering flesh 
 from his victim's shoulder, ate it, declaring it the most delicious 
 morsel he had ever tasted. 
 
 Connecticut, now safe from the hostilities of the savage, grew 
 and prospered wonderfully. It was blessed with wise and God- 
 fearing governors. The Bible was adopted as a rule of public 
 action, and no one had a right to vote or hold public office who 
 was not a church member. 
 
 In 1639, a convention of the settlers of Hartford, Windsor 
 and Wethersfield, met at Hartford, and a written constitution, 
 containing very liberal provisions, was adopted. The governor 
 and legislative body were elected annually by the people. Laws 
 could be made and repealed only by the General Assembly. 
 Connecticut was governed by this constitution for more than one 
 hundred and fifty years. The New Haven colony soon followed 
 the wise example of the Connecticut colony, and Theophilus 
 Eaton was elected governor. The merchants of New Haven 
 endeavored to found a commercial colony, but heavy losses 
 induced them to abandon the project, and they turned their 
 attention to agriculture. 
 
 MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 The territory which now constitutes the States of Maine and 
 New Hampshire, was divided between Sir Ferdinand Gorges, 
 John Mason, and others. In 1623, the settlement of New Hamp- 
 shire was commenced at Dover and Portsmouth by the gentle- 
 men to whom the country had been granted. Mason became 
 sole proprietor of a large portion of the territory lying between 
 the Merrimac and Piscataqua. He named it New Hampshire, 
 and founded the city of Portsmouth. Other settlements were 
 made, and trading houses established along the coast as far 
 as Portland. These settlements formed a coalition with the 
 Massachusetts colony in 1641, and so continued till 1679, when 
 it became a royal province, with a governor and council appointed 
 by the king. In 1689, it renewed its connection with Massa- 
 chusetts. It was for a short time attached to New York. In 
 
14 COLONIAL HISTORY OF THE 
 
 1741, it became a separate province, and remained so until the 
 revolution. This territory was much harrassed by the Indians 
 during its early history. The town of Dover was reduced to 
 ashes, and many of the citizens massacred in 1689. A settle- 
 ment was made in Maine as early as 1607, at the present site of 
 Pippensburg, but it was not permanent. The New Hampshire 
 settlements extended themselves into Maine as early as 1625. 
 Ten years later a French armed vessel took possession of a 
 trading station on the Penobscot, and the colonists were obliged 
 to return to Plymouth. In 1652, Maine was annexed to Massa- 
 chusetts as far as the Kennebeck river. In 1712 Maine passed 
 into the hands of the English by the treaty of Utrecht. From 
 this time until 1820, its history is blended with that of Massa- 
 chusetts, to which it was attached. 
 
 THE UNION OF THE COLONIES. 
 
 The New England colonies began about this time to feel the 
 necessity of union. They were threatened by the Indians on 
 one side, and the Dutch and French on the other, which, with the 
 attempts in England to take away their charters, led them to 
 unite. This first confederation of New England colonies took 
 place in 1643. It lasted fifty years, and when broken up by the 
 loss of their charters, the colonists still cherished a desire for 
 union. The colonies forming this union were Plymouth, Mass- 
 achusetts Bay, New Haven, and Connecticut, under the name of 
 " The United Colonies of New England." At this time the popu- 
 lation numbered about twenty thousand, scattered through fifty 
 villages. Each colony retained the control of its own territory; 
 but all matters of common interest and questions of war and 
 peace were decided by a council consisting of two commissioners 
 from each. In times of war each colony was to furnish men and 
 money in proportion to its population. This confederacy may 
 be considered as the germ of the American union. 
 
 Rhode Island refusing to be included in the Plymouth colony 
 was not admitted to the confederation. 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 15 
 
 DOMESTIC LIFE, CHARACTER, AND LAWS OP THE PURITANS. 
 
 Their condition, of course, was materially the same as that of 
 the English people at that time. The use of chimneys was 
 becoming common, though opposed by some who thought smoke 
 improved their health and hardened the timbers of their houses. 
 Pewter dishes and spoons were taking the place of wooden ones. 
 Boards and unhewn logs were mostly used in building. Rye, 
 barley and oats were the principal food, and the taste of meat 
 was hardly known in thousands of families. The condition of 
 the people in Massachusetts was considerably better than this. 
 After the first few years of scarcity they lived more comfortably 
 and independently than the same class in the old world. 
 
 The Puritans of New England imbibed a strong aversion to 
 the manners and customs of those who had persecuted them. 
 They opposed the use of veils, wigs, silken hoods and scarfs, and 
 discountenanced all frivolous fashions in dress, and forbade the 
 observance of Christmas. Comparing themselves to the Israel- 
 ites of old, they tried to conform to the laws and habits of the 
 chosen people who fled from bondage in Egypt to an unknown 
 wilderness. Like them, their Sabbath began at the going down 
 of the sun on Saturday evening, and was observed with the 
 utmost strictness. Prayers and sermons were esteemed accord- 
 ing to their length, and the children and servants were regularly 
 catechised. 
 
 The laws condemned all wars that were not defensive, and 
 penalties were attached to gambling, intemperance, and other 
 immoralities. Interest on loaned money was forbidden, and 
 blasphemy and idolatry were punished with death. 
 
 Persecuted Christians, of their own faith, were supported for 
 a time at the public expense ; but priests, Jesuits and Quakers 
 shared the hatred of the Puritans, and were forbidden to set 
 foot within their limits. 
 
 The Quakers were first known as a religious body in England 
 in 1644. They were followers of George Fox. They believed 
 that God communicated directly with the spirits of men, and 
 considered all human interference in religious matters as wrong, 
 
16 COLONIAL HISTORY OF THE 
 
 and boldly proclaimed that "God was come to teach his people 
 himself." They practiced the utmost simplicity in dress and 
 language. They would neither bear arms nor take an oath. 
 They denounced ceremonies, pleasures and show, and abhorred 
 titles ; and generally addressed others by the appellation of 
 Friends. Anxious to propagate their religion, they had turned 
 their eyes to America, but here they met with persecution as 
 well as in England. The Puritans seemed to have forgotten 
 their own sufferings, and displayed the same persecuting spirit 
 from which they had themselves fled. If one of the Quakers 
 was found in their colonies he was to lose an ear, and if he re- 
 turned the other ear was forfeited, and for a third offense his 
 tongue was to be pierced with a red-hot iron. But they gloried 
 in their persecutions. Fines, whippings and tortures could not 
 keep them away. Finally the sentence of death was pronounced 
 on all that should appear the second time in the colonies. Three 
 men and one woman were victims of this cruel law. This law 
 was finally repealed, and the Quakers being whipped out of the 
 colony, the excitement gradually died away. 
 
 The Puritans were only carrying out the intolerant principles 
 that were being practiced in every Christian country. To Roger 
 Williams and Lord Baltimore belongs the honor of first rising 
 above the bigotry of the age. 
 
 KING PHILIP'S WAR. 
 
 The Puritans, during the long struggle between Charles I. and 
 his parliament, had sided against the king, and were therefore 
 treated with great liberality and favor when Cromwell assumed 
 the government. 
 
 In 1658 Cromwell died, and Charles II. was restored to the 
 throne of England. The first vessel that left for the colonies 
 after this event brought over three of the regicides, Goffe, 
 Whalley, and Dixwell. They found refuge in the house of Mr. 
 Russel, minister of Hadley, where they lived in profound con- 
 cealment. 
 
 The Massachusetts colonists were obliged to acknowledge the 
 authority of the new sovereign of England. A public address 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 17 
 
 was presented to his majesty, in which they appealed to him for 
 a continuation of their liberties, and pardon for having sided 
 against his father. The king confirmed their charter and par- 
 doned past offenses, but required the Puritans to extend the 
 right of voting to those who were not church members, to take 
 the oath of allegiance, and to tolerate the church of England. 
 
 Scarcely were these troubles ended when the colonists were 
 involved in a long and bloody war known as King Philip's war. 
 Philip was the younger of the two sons of Massasoit. He had 
 become hostile to the English on account of the death of his 
 brother, which he ascribed to them. Alexander had died of a 
 fever brought on by mortification at being arrested and impris- 
 oned by the English. Philip was the most powerful sachem of 
 the New England tribes, and determined to avenge the death of 
 his brother. The first hostile deed was the murder of nine men 
 at Swanzy, of the Plymouth colony. All the horrors of the 
 Pequod were renewed, and on a much larger scale. The mother 
 retired to rest to be awakened at midnight by the dreadful war- 
 whoop, to see her children cut down by the merciless tomahawk. 
 The family on their way to church were exposed to the attacks 
 of a cruel and cunning enemy. Goffe, the regicide, had been a 
 military commander. Looking from the window of his hiding 
 place, on a sabbath day, after the people were collected for pub- 
 lic worship, he saw a body of ambushed Indians stealing upon 
 them. He suddenly made his appearance before the gathering 
 worshippers, his white hair and beard and loose garments stream- 
 ing to the winds. " He gave the alarm and word of command, 
 and the men already armed, at once formed and bore down upon 
 the foe. After they had conquered they looked around for their 
 preserver, but he had vanished, and they fully believed an angel 
 was sent for their deliverance." 
 
 When this war ended twenty-five villages were in ruins and 
 one white family in every twenty had been burned out. But the 
 fate of the Indians during this struggle was more terrible than 
 that of the v whites. They often perished in their burning wig- 
 wams. Many were made prisoners and sold into slavery, some 
 
 2 
 
18 COLONIAL HISTORY OF THE 
 
 wandered away and joined other tribes, and when King Philip 
 was shot he was almost the last of his tribe. 
 
 In 1677 the charter struggle was again commenced. The 
 king declared that Massachusetts had no jurisdiction over the 
 provinces of Maine and New Hampshire. Maine was purchased 
 by a Boston merchant for about six thousand dollars, and thus 
 became a part of Massachusetts. 
 
 New Hampshire was made a royal province, and a governor 
 and council were appointed. The colonists were obliged to use 
 the liturgy of the English church and observe its fasts and fes- 
 tivals. King Charles II. also demanded that Massachusetts 
 should submit to laws passed in the English parliament, oppres- 
 sing the commerce of the infant colonies. Willing to yield 
 everything but their charter, they, by an act passed in their own 
 general court, bound themselves to obey the English laws of 
 trade. They would willingly and cheerfully give up Maine and 
 everything except the right of " government within themselves," 
 which their charter granted. This struggle was at its heigh 
 when Charles II. died, and the Roman Catholic James II. 
 ascended the throne. He declared there should be no free gov- 
 ernments in his dominions, and determined to take away from 
 the New England colonies their charters. Sir Edmond Andros 
 was chosen to carry this plan into effect, and was appointed 
 governor of the New England province. 
 
 On the 30th of December, 1686, Sir Edmond Andros landed at 
 Boston. He demanded the charters, and those of Massachusetts 
 and Rhode Island were surrendered. He then proceeded across 
 the country to Connecticut with an armed force, determined to 
 take away their liberty ; but the Connecticut people were not 
 wanting in shrewdness ; the charter was not immediately pre- 
 sented but the subject discussed until evening, when the lights 
 were suddenly put out, and during the darkness the charter was 
 carried off by William Wadsworth, and hid in the hollow of an 
 old oak tree. Being unable to obtain the charter, Andros 
 inquired for the records of the colony wrote under them the 
 Latin word "finis," which means the end. Sir ]£dmond began 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 19 
 
 his career with the most flattering professions of his regard to 
 the safety and happiness of the people, but " Nero concealed 
 his tyrannical disposition more years than Sir Edmond did 
 months." But the day of his power was soon over. In April, 
 1689, news reached the colonies that James II. had been driven 
 from the throne, and that Mary and William had been placed 
 upon it. All Boston was aroused ; companies marched through 
 the streets with drums and colors, and Governor Andros was 
 thrown into prison. Joy was universal throughout the colonies ; 
 the general court assembled ; the charter oak yielded its precious 
 treasure, and "finis " was erased from the records. 
 
 In 1688 the union of the Connecticut and Massachusetts col- 
 onies was broken up. Rhode Island and Connecticut were per- 
 mitted to keep their charters, but Massachusetts by a new char- 
 ter was made a royal province with a governor appointed by the 
 king. New Hampshire was separate from Massachusetts and 
 had also a royal governor. 
 
 The principal event in New England between the years 1689 
 and 1700 was a war carried on with the French and Indians. 
 When King William ascended the throne he was at war with 
 Louis XIV. of France. This was soon extended to the French 
 and English colonies in America. In conducting this war the 
 French called to their assistance the services of the Indians. 
 Nova Scotia was given up to the French, and peace was made 
 between the countries in 1697. 
 
 The first war of the eighteenth century was Queen Anne's 
 war. The cruelties practiced in King William's war were 
 repeated in this. The town of Deerfield, in Massachusetts, wa3 
 attacked in February, 1704, by a party of two hundred French 
 and one hundred and forty-two Indians. They concealed them- 
 selves in a pine forest until midnight ; then, with their fearful 
 warwhoop they fell upon the defenseless village. A dreadful 
 scene ensued ; the village was burned, forty-seven were killed 
 and one hundred and twelve carried into captivity. A treaty of 
 peace was made in 1713, called, from the place in Holland where 
 it was signed, the peace of Utrecht. For thirty years succeeding 
 
20 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 the close of Queen Anne's war the colonists enjoyed compar- 
 ative repose. 
 
 In 1774 France again declared hostility to England, and the 
 colonies prepared to commence the contest known in America as 
 King George's war. The principal event of this war in Amer- 
 ica was the capture of the fortress of Louisburg, on the island 
 of Cape Breton. This fortress had been constructed by the 
 French at an expense of five and a half millions of dollars. 
 
 In 1748 a treaty of peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, 
 in Germany, when it was agreed that all prisoners should be 
 released and all acquisitions of property or territory were to be 
 restored. But soon disputes about local boundaries began, and 
 it was not long before these two nations were involved in another 
 bloody struggle for dominion in the new world. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 21 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE MIDDLE STATES- 
 
 At the time of the early settlement of America nearly all the 
 nations of Europe were at war with each other on account of 
 different religious opinions. To escape persecution the English 
 Quaker, the French Huguenot, and many from the shores of the 
 Baltic and the banks of the Danube and Rhine sought refuge on 
 the banks of the Hudson and Delaware. 
 
 Henry Hudson, while exploring the eastern coast of America, 
 seeking for a north-west passage to India, sailed up the river 
 which now bears his name. His little ship, called the Half Moon, 
 was the first European sail ever borne upon its waters. 
 
 For fifteen years no regular attempt at settlement was made. 
 The island of Manhattan, consisting of twenty-two thousand 
 acres, was purchased in 1624 by the Dutch from the Indians, 
 for about twenty-four dollars. This island, called New Amster- 
 dam, contained a few Dutch cottages with thatched roofs and 
 wooden chimneys. It is now the wealthy and populous city of 
 New York. 
 
 The country claimed by the Dutch was called New Nether- 
 lands. To encourage emigration to New Netherlands, the 
 Dutch West India company offered every man who, in four 
 years, would plant a colony of fifty souls, a tract of land six- 
 teen miles in length, and as wide as they required, with the 
 privilege of governing all who settled upon it. Van Swiller was 
 appointed governor in 1633, and from the beginning had difficul- 
 ties with the English colonies on the Connecticut river. In 1638 
 he was succeeded in office by Sir William Kieft, who was a bold 
 and unprincipled man, and soon involved his colony in serious 
 troubles. The Indians, excited by the rum which they had 
 purchased from the Hollanders, committed various trespasses 
 which Kieft punished severely. An Indian warrior had been 
 made drunk and robbed, and, on returning to a sense of his 
 injuries, murdered two of the Dutch. About this time a band 
 of Indians, driven by the Mohawks, sought shelter with the 
 
22 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 Hackensacks, on the Hudson, and solicited the protection of the 
 Dutch. But Kieft could not be satisfied without a flow of blood. 
 He sent a party of his countrymen across the river in the night, 
 who fell upon the unsuspecting fugitives, and in the general 
 massacre, women and children, old and sick, shared the same 
 cruel fate. The fiery hatred and vengeance of all the surround- 
 ing tribes was aroused, and a desperate and bloody war was the 
 result. It was for a time feared that every Hollander would be 
 swept from the country. Roger Williams using his influence in 
 behalf of peace, hostilities were for a time suspended. But the 
 war was afterward renewed, and for two years the colony suffered 
 dreadfully. John Underhill was made captain of their forces. 
 He successfully beat back and defeated the Indians. The river 
 Indians were adopted into the Mohawk tribe, and a treaty of 
 peace was made with the Dutch. 
 
 Kieft was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, an eminent soldier, 
 and possessed of every requisite for an efficient governor. He 
 was kind and just in his treatment to the Indians ; settled bound- 
 ary disputes, granted the colony a more liberal system of trade, 
 and promoted its interests. But while he was removing all causes 
 for trouble with his neighbors, there was a power at work within 
 his own colony which caused him much anxiety and uneasiness. 
 The people had for a number of years shown an ardent desire 
 for greater freedom. Stuyvesant was an aristocrat and opposed 
 to democracy. He soon found himself at variance with his peo- 
 ple. At last, without the approbation of their governor, a gen- 
 eral assembly of two deputies from each village was convened 
 for the purpose of asserting the rights of the people. Taxation 
 was resisted, and a willingness expressed to bear English rule, if 
 they might enjoy English liberty. The change of government 
 was not long delayed. The whole territory of New Netherlands 
 had been granted by Charles II. of England, to his brother 
 James, Duke of York, and the name of New Amsterdam was 
 changed to New York, in honor of the Duke, and the name of 
 Albany was given to the settlement on the Hudson, called by the 
 Dutch Fort Orange. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 23 
 
 The people of New York soon perceived that a change of gov- 
 ernment did not bring with it the blessings they had hoped. In 
 the hope of having a representative government they were dis- 
 appointed, and the taxes to support the government were 
 increased. 
 
 War was declared between England and Holland in 1672. 
 Holland being successful, New York again passed into the hands 
 of the Dutch. This state of things, however, lasted but about 
 fifteen months, when New York was restored to the English, in 
 whose possession it remained until the time of the revolution. 
 All the Atlantic coast, now from Maine to Georgia, belonged to 
 the English. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 In 1623 the territory between the Hudson and the Delaware 
 was granted to Lords Berkeley and Carteret by the Duke of York. 
 Carteret's share consisted of the territory included in the state 
 of New Jersey. Elizabethtown, then consisting of four houses, 
 became the capital of the province. 
 
 At the end of ten years Berkeley sold his province to the 
 Friends, a large number of whom settled there the next year. 
 They purchased lands from the Indians, who thus expressed their 
 kind welcome and desire for peace : " You are brothers, and we 
 will live like brothers with you. We will have a broad path for 
 you and us to walk in. If an Englishman fall asleep in this 
 path, the Indian shall pass him by and say : He is an English- 
 man ; he is asleep ; let him alone. The path shall be plain ; 
 there shall not be in it a stump to hurt the feet." 
 
 East Jersey also fell into the possession of the Friends, being 
 purchased by William Penn and eleven of his brethren. They 
 obtained a charter and appointed Robert Barclay governor for 
 life. When the Duke of York ascended to the throne, he consid- 
 ered his contracts as duke not binding upon his honor as king. 
 Through the instrumentality of Andros he endeavored to annul 
 the American charters. He succeeded in subverting the govern- 
 ments of several, among which were the Jerseys. New Jersey 
 from this period presents but few items of interest up to the time 
 the independence of the colonies was declared, in 1776. 
 
24 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Pennsylvania is the only instance of an American colony 
 founded without bloodshed. It was intended to he an asylum for 
 the persecuted English Friends. 
 
 William Penn was the only son of an English admiral, who 
 had won distinction by his conquest of Jamaica, and brilliant 
 achievements during the war with Holland. He was born in 
 1644. While a student at Oxford, and at the age of sixteen, he 
 became interested in the doctrines of the Quakers, for which he 
 was expelled from the university. This displeased his father, 
 who beat him and turned him out of doors, but afterwards for- 
 gave him, and sent him to travel on the continent, in the hope 
 that by intercourse with the world his opinions would be changed. 
 At the age of twenty-two he was sent by his father to Ireland 
 on business, and while there became so impressed by the preach- 
 ing of Thomas Loe, the Quaker minister, that he joined their 
 society, and became so firm a convert that all his father's 
 reproaches, and even a second expulsion from home could not 
 change his faith. His firmness and gentleness afterward won 
 for him the admiration and forgiveness of his father. 
 
 During the next three years he was three times imprisoned for 
 his religion and pleading the cause of his brethren. At one time 
 a jury was starved two days and nights to compel them to con- 
 vict him. They insisted on returning a verdict of acquittal, for 
 which they were fined. 
 
 On his release from imprisonment, he, with several others of 
 his persuasion, embarked for Holland, distributed tracts and 
 preached to the people. On his return to England he found the 
 condition of the Friends as suffering as ever, and determined to 
 found a free and happy home for them in the new world. In 
 1681 he obtained a tract of land on the western bank of the 
 Delaware river, in payment of a claim against the government 
 for sixteen thousand pounds, left him by his father. The king 
 gave to this territory the name of Pennsylvania, " the woody 
 land of Penn." 
 
 Within the domain granted to Penn were some Swede and 
 Dutch settlements. These he had no desire to remove. He sent 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 25 
 
 them a copy of his grant, and a message informing them that he 
 had no intention of usurping their rights, but intended they 
 should be governed by their own laws. 
 
 The year before Penn was able to join his colony, he sent out 
 a number of emigrants with instructions for building a city. 
 He did not wish it to be a crowded city with the pure air and 
 light of heaven shut out, but to each house there was to be a 
 large garden attached, so that it might be a " faire greene coun- 
 try towne." 
 
 In November of the year 1682, Penn, with a hundred settlers, 
 sailed for the new world in the ship Welcome. During the long 
 voyage of nine weeks thirty of his companions died of small pox. 
 He was warmly welcomed on his arrival by the Friends who had 
 preceded him. He sailed up the Delaware, on the banks of 
 which he determined to found his city. The ground was pur- 
 chased from the Swedes. The city thus commenced was called 
 Philadelphia, or city of Brotherly Love. 
 
 Soon after this Penn made his famous treaty with the Indians. 
 They met under a large elm tree in what is now called Kensing- 
 ton. This tree was preserved until 1810 when it was blown down 
 during a severe storm. A monument, which has since been 
 erected, marks the place where it stood. Here, beside the Del- 
 aware, Penn met the chieftains. The old warriors took their 
 seats on the ground in the form of a half moon, while the 
 younger ones arranged themselves behind in a similar form. 
 Their new governor, who had inspired their confidence by means 
 of a few presents, occupied the central space before them. " We 
 meet," said he, "on the broad pathway of good faith and good 
 will. I will not call you children, for parents sometimes chide 
 their children too severely ; nor brothers only, for brothers 
 differ. The friendship between me and you I will not compare 
 to a chain, for that the rains might rust or the falling tree might 
 break. We are the same as if one man's body were divided into 
 two parts. We are one flesh and one blood." 
 
 The Indians trusted him and presented him with a belt of 
 wampum as an emblem of friendship. " We will live," said they, 
 " with William Penn and his children so long as the sun and 
 
26 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 moon shall endure." This treaty of peace between the English 
 Quaker and the red man of the forest was never violated. 
 While other white settlements suffered severely from Indian wars, 
 "not a drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian." 
 
 The government of Pennsylvania was republican. An assem- 
 bly, composed of six members from each county, was organized. 
 All sects were tolerated. Every freeman could vote and hold 
 office, who believed in God and abstained from work on the Sab- 
 bath. This peaceful colony grew and prospered. In 1683 Phil- 
 adelphia consisted of four cottages, but in two years the houses 
 numbered six hundred. It grew more in three years than New 
 York did in fifty. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 In 1631 the Dutch planted a feeble settlement near the present 
 site of Lewiston, but difficulties with the natives had excited 
 savage vengeance, and they exterminated the Dutch colony. 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, the monarch of Sweden, determined to 
 plant a colony in America, which should be an asylum for per- 
 secuted Christians. He died before his plans were carried out. 
 When his daughter, Christiana, succeeded to the throne, the 
 minister, Oxenstiern, accomplished the noble purpose which her 
 father had formed. A church and fort were built on the site of 
 Wilmington. The place was called Christiana, in honor of their 
 young queen. Their territory was named New Sweden. The 
 jealousy of the Dutch was aroused, and they resolved to expel 
 or subdue the Swedes. For a few years Delaware was in the 
 possession of the Dutch, although the inhabitants were Swedes. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 27 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 In England, during the reign of King James, the Puritans 
 were subjected to very severe penalties on account of their relig- 
 ious belief. But, although the king persecuted the Puritans for 
 non-conformity with the rites and views of the English church, 
 he, on the other hand, oppressed the Roman Catholics still more 
 severely ; and the Puritans also, as they became more numerous 
 and increased in influence, raised a fierce outcry against the 
 Romanists, persecuting them as far as they were able, even while 
 they were themselves suffering persecution at the hands of King 
 James and the supporters of the English church. The Roman 
 Catholics, being thus oppressed on both sides, turned, in their 
 distress, to America, which was, even at that early day, an asy- 
 lum for the oppressed. 
 
 George Calvert, one of the most influential of the Roman 
 Catholics, was a leading member of the London company, and 
 he also held the office of Secretary of State at the time of the 
 embarkation of the Pilgrims for America. For his services to 
 his country and sovereign, he was, in 1621, created an Irish peer, 
 with the title of Lord Baltimore. 
 
 In 1628, Lord Baltimore went to Virginia with the view of 
 establishing a Roman Catholic colony there, but he found the 
 Virginians hostile to the cause, opposing it as violently as the 
 king himself. He then went beyond the Potomac, where he 
 found a beautiful country which was as yet unoccupied. He 
 went back to England and applied for a charter to establish a 
 colony there. The charter was granted by Charles I. (who had 
 ascended the throne in 1625,) after the death of Lord Baltimore, 
 to his son Cecil, who had inherited his title and property. The 
 province was called Maryland, in honor of the Catholic queen, 
 Henrietta Maria. 
 
 The first company of emigrants, with Leonard Calvert, brother 
 of Cecil, as their governor, arrived in March, 1634. They 
 
28 COLONIAL HISTOKY OF 
 
 sailed up the Chesapeake and purchased a village of the Indians, 
 which they named St. Mary. By their honesty in paying for 
 their land, they secured the friendship of the Indians, and heing 
 well supplied with the necessaries of life, the colony prospered. 
 
 Some time previous to the establishment of this colony, Wil- 
 liam Clayborne had obtained a license from the king to traffic 
 with the Indians, and he, in company with others, had estab- 
 lished trading stations at different points along the Chesapeake. 
 Clayborne and his followers denied the authority of Lord Balti- 
 more, and collected on the eastern border of Maryland, resolved 
 to sustain their claims at all hazards. Their obstinacy caused 
 some trouble, but Baltimore sent a force against them, which, 
 after a severe skirmish, succeeded in making the insurgents 
 prisoners. Clayborne's property was confiscated, and he was 
 sent to England to answer to a charge of treason. 
 
 The first legislative assembly in Maryland was held at St. 
 Mary in 1635. At this time every freeman was entitled to a 
 voice in the enactment of laws, and it was not until 1639 that 
 a representative government was established. At first each 
 county chose as many representatives as it pleased, while the 
 proprietor appointed others, but afterwards the counties were 
 confined to four each, and the city of Annapolis was allowed two. 
 
 Although the Indians were at first amicably disposed towards 
 the Maryland colony, they afterwards became jealous of their 
 increasing power and began to harass them in many ways. 
 The whites at last determined to endure their encroachments no 
 longer, and declared war against them. This war lasted from 
 1642 to 1645, when peace was again restored. But now dis- 
 turbances came in another direction. During this same year, 
 William Clayborne, having been acquitted of the charge of trea- 
 son in England, returned to Maryland determined on revenge. 
 He infused a spirit of rebellion into some of the colonists, and 
 his party became so powerful that the governor was obliged to 
 flee into Virginia, where he remained a year and a half before 
 the rebellion was quelled, and he was permitted to resume his 
 office. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 29 
 
 The colony went on from this time with but little disturbance 
 until 1654, when Cromwell became Protector of England. By 
 this time the Protestants were greater in numbers and influence 
 than the Romanists in Maryland, and, instigated by Clayborne 
 they forgot the generosity of Baltimore in allowing them relig- 
 ious freedom, and passed a law withdrawing the protection of the 
 laws of Maryland from the Catholics. 
 
 At this the Catholics raised the standard of rebellion. A civil 
 war was begun which lasted, with occasional interruptions, until 
 1691, when an end was put to the disturbances by King William 
 III. who made Maryland a royal province, thus depriving Lord 
 Baltimore of his rights as proprietor. Maryland continued to 
 be a royal province until 1716, when the rights of Lord Balti- 
 more were again recognized, and the colony was restored to an 
 heir who had embraced the Protestant religion. The original 
 form of representative government was now again established, 
 and Maryland grew and prospered under wise governors until 
 the beginning of the revolutionary war. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 In 1584, after an unsuccessful attempt by Sir Humphrey Gil- 
 bert, an English nobleman, to explore the coast of America from 
 St. Johns, Newfoundland, southward, his step-brother, Sir Wal- 
 ter Raleigh, obtained a patent from Queen Elizabeth which 
 granted to him all lands which he might discover in America, 
 between the Delaware and Santee rivers. He sent out two men, 
 named Arthur Barlow and Philip Amidas, to explore the Amer- 
 ican coast. After taking possession of the country in the name 
 of Queen Elizabeth, they, in a few weeks, returned to England 
 with the most animated statements concerning the country. 
 Upon hearing their glowing descriptions, the queen pronounced 
 this one of the most illustrious events of her reign, and in remem- 
 brance of her unmarried state, she gave to the newly discovered A 
 region the name of Virginia. 
 
 Some time after this a strife ensued between England and 
 France respecting the possession of the new territory, which did 
 not end until 1604. The English then claimed a tract of country 
 
30 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 extending from Halifax, Nova Scotia, on the north, to Cape 
 Fear, North Carolina, on the south. A district, extending from 
 the mouth of the Potomac river to Cape Fear, was granted to 
 an association of merchants and noblemen, a majority of whom 
 were residents of London. This association was called the Lon- 
 don company. 
 
 The first company of emigrants to Virginia under the auspices 
 of the London company, left England in December, 1606, in 
 three vessels, commanded by Captain Christopher Newport. 
 The colonists numbered one hundred and five, but in all that 
 number there were but " twelve laborers and a few mechanics." 
 The remainder of them were dissolute and indolent men, not at 
 all fitted for an undertaking such as that in which they had 
 embarked. 
 
 These men left England with no charter permitting them to 
 govern themselves, but they were, on the contrary, to be gov- 
 erned by a council of seven from the company in England. In 
 lesser affairs they were to be ruled by a subordinate council 
 chosen from their number by the council at home. The colon- 
 ists were not to know until they reached their destination who 
 composed this subordinate council, for their names and instruc- 
 tions were placed in a sealed box which they were commanded 
 not to open until they reached Virginia. Thus, when, on board 
 the vessels, any disputes arose between the colonists, there was 
 no one who could check the disturbance and re-establish concord. 
 
 Upon arriving at the American coast, the vessels were driven 
 by a storm into Chesapeake Bay. They gave to the two capes, 
 at the entrance of the bay, the names of Charles and Henry, in 
 honor of the sons of King James. They soon entered the James 
 river, which they named in honor of the king, and about fifty 
 miles up the river they landed on the 23d of May, 1607, and 
 commenced the settlement which they called Jamestown. 
 
 According to the instructions contained in the sealed box 
 which the colonists brought to America with them, Edward Maria 
 Wingfield was their first governor. The colonists began to suf- 
 fer from want in a few weeks, as some of their provisions had 
 been spoiled while they were on their way, and the rest had been 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 31 
 
 consumed. They had not planted any grain upon their arrival, 
 and as the Indian tribes adjoining their settlement showed signs 
 of hostility, they were in a very deplorable condition. In addi- 
 tion to the famine and hostility of the Indians, the extreme 
 dampness of the climate, together with the insufferable warmth, 
 carried away a great many of them, so that at the close of the 
 summer but one half of their number were living. 
 
 At this time they discovered that their governor was living 
 bountifully on some private stores, and also making preparations 
 to leave the colony and flee to the West Indies. They imme- 
 diately deposed him, and chose Ratcliffe as his successor. Rat- 
 cliffe, however, proving inefficient, the settlers looked to Captain 
 John Smith, who was, in reality, the ablest man among them, 
 but whom they had before treated unkindly on account of envy. 
 
 Smith assumed the reins of government, and soon, by his in- 
 domitable energy, restored order in the colony, and compelled 
 the Indians to supply them with food. The autumn also brought 
 plentiful supplies of wild game, so that the colony again began 
 to prosper. 
 
 Smith, taking advantage of the prosperous condition of the 
 colony, started out with a few companions on a tour of explora- 
 tion. He ascended the Chickahominy river fifty miles, then, 
 leaving the boat, he, with two of his companions plunged into 
 the forest. They were soon surrounded by a band of Indians 
 who slew his companions and made him a captive. They exhib- 
 ited him in several of their settlements, and then took him 
 before Powhatan, the chief of their tribe. Here, a council of 
 warriors condemned him to death. In accordance with this 
 decision, he was led out to execution, his arms were pinioned 
 and his head was laid upon the stone. The clubs of the Indians 
 were raised to strike, when Pocahontas, the loved and only child 
 of Powhatan, threw herself upon the prisoner and entreated her 
 father not to slay him. The chief granted her prayer, and, by 
 this circumstance, the Indians were changed from enemies to 
 friends, as they believed him to be under the protection of some 
 powerful Manitou or guardian angel. 
 
32 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 They immediately made a treaty with him, and sent a guard 
 of twelve men to escort him back to Jamestown in safety. 
 
 Upon Smith's return he found every thing in disorder in the 
 colony. The colonists were an improvident and lazy set of men, 
 and their number was increased early in 1608. At this time, 
 Captain Newport, who had returned to England shortly after the 
 arrival of the first company of immigrants at Jamestown, arrived 
 with one hundred and twenty men. These men were as idle and 
 dissolute as those who had preceded them. Soon after their 
 arrival some glittering particles were discovered in the earth 
 near Jamestown which were mistaken for gold, and, in spite of 
 Smith's remonstrances, the colonists bestowed all their labor 
 upon it, and indulged in dreams of wealth. Smith soon became 
 disgusted with them, and, with a few men, went on another tour 
 of exploration. They sailed up the Chesapeake bay and Poto- 
 mac river in an open boat. They also traveled through the 
 forests, and made treaties with several Indian tribes. They 
 traveled three thousand miles in three months, and on their 
 return Smith constructed a very accurate map of the country. 
 
 When Smith returned from his second trip he was made pres- 
 ident of the council at Jamestown. He did all in his power to 
 turn the attention of the settlers from seeking gold to agricul- 
 ture. He met with success in a degree, but the colonists were 
 none of them accustomed to such labor, and he found it a hard 
 task to keep them from idleness. He wrote to the Supreme 
 Council in England, entreating them to " send but thirty car- 
 penters, husbandmen, gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, 
 and diggers of trees' roots, rather than a thousand " of such as 
 were then there. They were obliged to depend upon the Indians 
 for a greater portion of their food. 
 
 In June, 1609, the London company obtained a new charter, 
 giving them more extended advantages. By it, the Supreme 
 Council in England was furnished with the right to fill any 
 vacancies which might occur in its own body, and also to choose 
 a governor for Virginia. This governor was to be vested with 
 absolute power, having at his disposal the property and even the 
 lives of the colonists. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 33 
 
 Under the new charter the Supreme Council appointed Lord 
 Delaware governor of Virginia for life. Not being able to go 
 immediately to Virginia, he sent Captain Christopher Newport, 
 Sir George Somers, and Sir Thomas Gates, authorizing them to 
 govern the colony until his arrival. They left England on the 
 12th of June, 1609, with nine ships and over five hundred 
 emigrants. 
 
 When they had come near to the coast, the fleet was scattered 
 by a hurricane, and the vessel which contained the three com- 
 missioners was wrecked on the Bermuda islands. The majority 
 of the emigrants, however, reached Jamestown in safety. 
 
 The new settlers were as dissolute and improvident as the 
 others, and caused Smith considerable trouble. He, however, 
 ruled the settlement until the close of the year, when, having 
 met with a severe accident, he was obliged to return to England 
 for surgical attendance. 
 
 As soon as the colonists were freed from the control of Smith, 
 they returned to their old habits of idleness. Their supply of 
 food being soon consumed, they were in a deplorable condition, 
 and as Smith was the only man whom the Indians respected, 
 they would not supply the settlers any longer. On the contrary, 
 soon after his departure they began to evince signs of hostility, 
 and, reading their own fate in the growth and increasing power 
 of the whites, they formed a plan for exterminating them. This 
 plan, however, was defeated by Pocahontas, who remained 
 friendly to the English, and revealed it to them. 
 
 In June, 1610, one year from the time of their departure 
 from England, the commissioners, who had fitted up a vessel on 
 the island where they were wrecked, arrived at Jamestown. 
 But, instead of being met and welcomed by a flourishing colony, 
 as they had expected, they were received by a few starving 
 creatures ; for, of the five hundred left by Smith six months 
 before, only sixty were now living. They immediately resolved 
 to leave the town where they had suffered so much, and, had it 
 not been for the interference of Sir Thomas Gates, they would 
 have set fire to the settlement. They left the settlement in four 
 
 3 
 
: < Q0L0H1 vi. UBSOll QI 
 
 little vessels, and I more Wretched or dejected company than 
 
 those who Boated down tho James riw on tho ITih of dune. 
 
 1610, could not well bo imagined. On tho following morning, 
 when they had nearly reached tho mouth of tho river, their sor- 
 row Was turned into JO J OB mooting thoir now governor, Lord 
 
 with more immigrants and an abund- 
 ant supply of provisions. They immediately returned to Junes- 
 .. and that night tho air was rosonant with songs of praise to 
 tho liivor of all good. 
 
 Under tho wise administration of Lord Delaware, tho colony 
 prospered, but ho was obliged, on account of ill health, to return 
 to England in March of tho following year. Sir Thomas Gates 
 
 - then appoint r of ^ • _ nia, and ho arrivod dura g 
 
 tho month of September following, with six ships, three hundred 
 immigrants;, one hundred kino, and an abundant supply of provi- 
 sions. The settlers greeted him gladly, and under his govern- 
 ment the little colony flourished greatly. 
 
 A r was granted to the London company in 1612. 
 
 By it the power of the king over the council and colony 
 abrogated, and the Supreme Council in England was also abol- 
 ished. The whole company, as a body, made laws and elected 
 the colony. The settlers were contented, although 
 y had no voice in the government. They acquiesced in all 
 the measures taken and decisions made by the company, and 
 there were about a thousand English settlers in Virginia at tho 
 i 1618. 
 c since the departure of Smith tho Indians had been hos- 
 tile to the colonist* in V During the fore part of the 
 .- 1613, Pocahontas, who was dearly loved by her father, was 
 kidnapped by a - _ part] from the white settlement and 
 taken to Jamestown. T 9 ] rty s e her. hoping that Fow- 
 
 - m for her release, or at least eon- 
 f peace : but. on the contrary, he was oxasper- 
 ; .. and made immediate preparations for war. This threatened 
 evil was. boa erted by Pocahontas and a young English- 
 
 man by the name of John Rolfo. between whom a mutual attaeh- 
 t had sprung up. - was educated in the language 
 
THE SOUTHERN 
 
 and religion of the English, and in April, ' I 
 rite of baptism, and was joined in marri g ^fe. 
 
 Powhatan gave : to this union, ano (feat time 
 
 until his death he was a friend to the English. 
 
 The colony now began to prosper, and * great many 
 
 rle came from England an - : LinVirg .a. In this year 
 
 also, the people first held a repr the 
 
 intercession of George Yeardley, who was then governor, they 
 were granted a share in the enact: .aws for 
 
 On the 28th of Jane, in this ;■ -.- held the first represen- 
 
 tative assembly at Ja. Virginia was divided in* 
 
 boroughs, from each of which two representatives were chx - 
 These representatives were called bur^- the assembly 
 
 consisted of them together with the governor and his council. 
 After two years they obtained from the London core: I 
 
 written constitution, and at about the same time one hundred 
 and fifty young women cam-: to become wives to the 
 
 plar.- that now the settlers regarded this as their perma- 
 
 nent abode, and set to work in earr. 
 
 Powhatan continued to be the friend of the English until his 
 death, when his brother, Opechancanough, became chief of the 
 tribes. Opechancanough was hostile to the whites, and in 1622, 
 soon after he became chief, he set on foot a plot to annihilate 
 the white settlements. On the first of April, the settlements 
 farthest from Jamestown, were attacked, and great numbers of 
 the inhabitants slain. Jamestown and the settlements bordering 
 upon it, being warned by Chanco, a friendly Indian, were saved, 
 and those inhabitants of the towns which were attacked, who 
 were not massacred, fled to Jamestown. The colony which 
 numbered eighty settlements was reduced to eight within a few 
 days. 
 
 When the English were collected at Jamestown, they made 
 preparations for war. This war, which commenced immediately, 
 lasted, with occasional interruptions, until 1G46, when, Opechan- 
 canough having died in captivity, the Indians gave up their lands 
 and left the country. 
 
36 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 The London company having become very much increased in 
 numbers and influence, King James I. regarded their growing 
 power as hostile and injurious to his own, and so he sought to 
 dissolve the company. In this he succeeded. He took away 
 their charter and made Virginia a royal province. He appointed 
 George Yeardley governor, and twelve councilors to assist him 
 in the administration of the government. Both this monarch 
 and his son Charles I., who succeeded to the throne upon the 
 death of his father, April 6th, 1625, were very selfish, and ruled 
 the Virginia colony more for their own benefit than for that of 
 the settlers. 
 
 After Charles I. was beheaded, and during the time that Oli- 
 ver Cromwell ruled England as Protector, the Virginia planters 
 were allowed to govern themselves, and the colony prospered 
 remarkably, but at the death of Cromwell, in 1658, his son, to 
 whom he had left the government, not having the ability to rule 
 as his father had done, soon resigned his office, and the next year 
 after that, the line of Stuart kings was continued in the person 
 of Charles II, the son of Charles I. At his accession a power- 
 ful aristocracy arose in Virginia, formed by the rich planters. 
 This party, who were more numerous than the republicans, 
 attempted to deprive them of any part in the government. In 
 addition to this, King Charles II. made very tyrannical and 
 rigorous laws regarding their commercial transactions. These 
 laws required them to ship all goods to and from England in 
 English vessels ; they also forbade them to trade with any Euro- 
 pean power except England, and their traffic among themselves 
 was either excessively taxed or altogether forbidden. 
 
 In the year 1675, the Susquehannah Indians, a tribe of south- 
 ern Pennsylvania, invaded their northern border, and committed 
 many fearful ravages. Upon the refusal of Governor Berkeley 
 to give the people arms with which to protect themselves, they 
 resolved to arm themselves without his authority, and at the 
 earnest solicitation of his countrymen, Nathaniel Bacon, a young 
 republican, placed himself at their head. He was, at first, de- 
 clared a traitor by the governor, but, as he was supported by a 
 body of five hundred resolute patriots, Berkeley was compelled 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 37 
 
 to listen to the popular demand, and allow him a commission. 
 The republican assembly immediately confirmed this action of 
 the governor, and gave Bacon command over a thousand men. 
 Bacon advanced against the Indians without delay, but he had 
 no sooner left Jamestown than Governor Berkeley again declared 
 him guilty of treason, and with an army equal to that of Bacon 
 took possession of the settlement. When Bacon heard of this 
 action, he marched against Berkeley and compelled him to evac- 
 uate Jamestown. He marched into the town, confiscated the 
 property of Berkeley's followers, and proclaimed himself gov- 
 ernor. Soon afterward, however, he heard of the arrival of a 
 large body of troops which had been sent from England to sup- 
 press the insurrection, and, as he was not able to hold the town 
 against the united forces, he set it on fire. The whole town, 
 with the exception of the old church tower, was destroyed. 
 
 Jamestown was burned on the evening of September 30th, 
 1676, and Bacon marched to the York river, where he conceived 
 a plan to expel the governor's forces from the colony ; but before 
 it was carried into execution, he died from the effects of a dis- 
 ease contracted in the swamps about Jamestown. There being 
 no one of sufficient ability to lead his party after his death, they 
 were soon overpowered, and many of them were executed. 
 Berkeley ruled the colony tyrannically for a year, when he was 
 recalled, and another governor was sent from England. 
 
 During the rest of the reign of Charles II. and that of his 
 brother James II., the Virginians were very much oppressed by 
 the tyranny of governors appointed over them, but from the 
 revolution of 1688, which deposed James II., and enthroned 
 William and Mary, to the beginning of the French and Indian 
 war, the whole colony of Virginia thrived remarkably. 
 
 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 
 
 Almost at the commencement of the 18th century, the French 
 began to intrude upon the territory of the English. They 
 already possessed Louisiana and Canada, and continued to form 
 settlements west of Pennsylvania and Virginia. The English 
 endured their encroachments, until, in 1753, the French devised 
 
38 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 a scheme for constructing a line of forts from Canada to Louis- 
 iana, passing through the English colonies of Pennsylvania and 
 Virginia. Upon this the governor of Virginia sent a letter of 
 remonstrance to the commander of the French. George Wash- 
 ington, who was then but twenty-one years of age, was chosen 
 as the messenger. There was much danger connected with the 
 mission, and the route was an exceedingly difficult one, but a 
 better man to undertake it, than Washington, notwithstanding 
 his youth, could not have been chosen. 
 
 On the 31st of October, 1753, Washington, accompanied by 
 three or four attendants, started upon his perilous mission. 
 After enduring many hardships and privations, he, at last, 
 reached the headquarters of the French commander. He de- 
 livered his message, and after four days received a written reply. 
 He then returned to Virginia, where he arrived after an absence 
 of eleven weeks. 
 
 The answer of the French commander had been a refusal to 
 relinquish the claim of the French to the territory where they 
 had settled ; so the English made immediate preparations for war. 
 Upon attempting to build a fort at the point where the Ohio, 
 Alleghany, and Monongahela rivers meet, they were driven away 
 by a party of French soldiers, who finished the fort, and gave 
 it the name of Du Quesne. 
 
 In May, 1754, Washington surprised an advanced party of 
 the French at the Great Meadows, and gained a complete vic- 
 tory. The French commander was slain, and only fifteen of the 
 fifty under his command escaped. On account of a lack of men, 
 however, the English were obliged to withdraw their forces, so 
 that the French again occupied the Ohio valley. 
 
 In February, 1755, General Edward Braddock was sent from 
 England to take command of the provincial troops. He was 
 entirely unaccustomed to Indian warfare, and drilled his army 
 according to European tactics, notwithstanding Washington, 
 who had consented to attend him as aid-de-camp, repeatedly 
 attempted to advise him to act differently. He haughtily refused 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 39 
 
 to act upon the advice of Washington, believing that a lack of 
 bravery on the part of the colonists was the only cause of their 
 defeats. 
 
 After a long delay, Braddock commenced his march. When 
 near Fort Du Quesne, on the 9th of July, they were surprised 
 by a quick discharge of bullets and arrows from the adjoining 
 thickets. The English army was thrown into confusion, and, not 
 knowing where to fire, expended their ammunition by firing into 
 the air. General Braddock, after having three horses shot under 
 him, was mortally wounded. Washington, although fired at many 
 times, was not touched, so that the Indians regarded him with a 
 superstitious dread. 
 
 At the time of the expedition of Braddock against Fort Du 
 Quesne, two others were sent out. One of them was against 
 Niagara and Kingston, under Governor Shirley, and the other 
 against Crown Point, under General William Johnson, both of 
 which, though not as calamitous as that of Braddock, failed to 
 accomplish the end in view. 
 
 This war continued, each side alternately gaining advantages, 
 until 1760, when the French were subdued. Articles of peace, 
 however, were not signed until February 10th, 1763. 
 
 THE CAROLINAS. 
 
 Numerous attempts were made during the sixteenth century 
 to establish settlements in the region called, by the English, 
 South Virginia; the first of which was by the Huguenots, or 
 French Protestants, who had fled from persecution in their own 
 land. They gave to the country the name of Carolina, in honor 
 of the King of France, Charles IX., which name it still retains. 
 This attempt at settlement proved unsuccessful, as did also those 
 made by several expeditions afterwards fitted out by Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, and sent from England. The first permanent settle- 
 ments in that region were formed by dissatisfied and adventurous 
 colonists from the other American settlements and Barbadoes. 
 
 In the year 1663 Charles II., King of England, granted this 
 territory to eight noblemen, and the same country which, in 
 
40 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 1562, was named Carolina, in honor of the French king, now, 
 one hundred years afterward, received the same name in honor 
 of the King of England. 
 
 The Barbadoes planters came to Carolina in 1665, and estab- 
 lished a colony with Sir John Yeamans as governor. In honor 
 of Lord Clarendon, Prime Minister of England, and one of the 
 proprietors, this colony was called the Clarendon County Colony. 
 This colony was established in the northern part of Carolina, 
 and soon became known entirely as North Carolina. 
 
 In January, 1670, three vessels bearing emigrants, under the 
 command of Joseph West and William Sayle, were sent out 
 from England by the proprietors, for the purpose of establishing 
 another colony. After settling in two or three places, which 
 they afterwards abandoned, they finally founded a settlement 
 on the site of the present city of Charleston, in the year 1682. 
 
 As soon as permanent settlements had been founded in the 
 Carolinas, the proprietors conceived the plan of drawing up a 
 grand constitution for this country, which they confidently hoped 
 would far outstrip any government in Europe. They appointed 
 Lord Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the proprie- 
 tors, and John Locke, one of the most distinguished philosophers 
 of that time, to frame the instrument. It was finished in March, 
 1669, and was highly commended in Europe, but when taken to 
 Carolina and tested, it was found to be exceedingly unpractical. 
 The people would not receive it, but preferred laws of their own 
 making. After a long endeavor to render the grand scheme 
 practical in its workings, the proprietors gave up the attempt 
 and permitted the people to rule in their own way. Represent- 
 ative government was first established in 1672, in the southern 
 part of Carolina. This was called, in honor of Sir George 
 Carteret, one of the proprietors, the Carteret County Colony, 
 but it soon after received the name of South Carolina. 
 
 For a period of five or six years, beginning with the year 
 1680, great numbers of immigrants came and settled in the 
 Carolinas, comprising the persecuted, as well as the adventurous 
 from England, Scotland, and Ireland, the Huguenots from France, 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 41 
 
 and many of the Dutch from New York. The colonists were 
 industrious, and in both North and South Carolina many soon 
 became wealthy. The contest between the proprietors and 
 people lasted for twenty years, but the first legislative assembly 
 was convened in 1688. After that, during the remainder of the 
 seventeenth century, both the Carolinas prospered remarkably. 
 At the beginning of the seventeenth century, on account of a 
 war existing between England and Spain, the Spanish colony at 
 St. Augustine, Florida, disturbed the Carolina settlements. The 
 neighboring tribes of Indians also at times showed signs of 
 hostility, but the colonists held both their Spanish and Indian 
 foes in check, and were not long disturbed by them. In the year 
 1715, a powerful Indian confederacy was formed against the 
 whites. This confederacy numbered about six thousand men, 
 and, headed by the Yamassees and Tuscaroras, and instigated 
 by the Spaniards, they made many fearful ravages in the Caro- 
 linas. Energetic and wise measures were immediately taken by 
 Governor Craven ; the colonies were placed under martial law, 
 the white inhabitants and slaves were armed, and a strong force 
 went out against the Indians, who were soon overpowered, and 
 fled, part of the tribes to the south, and part to the north. 
 
 The people of the Carolinas were heavily taxed by the pro- 
 prietors, who also refused to aid them against their enemies, and 
 in 1719 the people of South Carolina called a convention and 
 sent a petition to the king to make South Carolina a royal prov- 
 ince. The petition was granted, the colony was purchased by 
 the king, who appointed a governor, and allowed the people to 
 choose their own representatives. Ten years later North Caro- 
 lina was also sold to the king. 
 
 By this arrangement, the people of neither colony derived 
 much benefit. The royal governors appointed over them were 
 generally weak, selfish, and tyrannical, as they had proved in 
 Virginia, Maryland and other colonies, and from this time until 
 the beginning of the Revolutionary War, North and South Caro- 
 lina, in common with other American colonies under royal rule, 
 were involved in contentions with their governors concerning 
 their rights and privileges. 
 
42 COLONIAL HISTORY OF 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 At the time that the Carolinas became royal provinces, the 
 whole country between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers was 
 uninhabited except by Indian tribes. At this time also, the 
 cruel laws against debtors were in full force in England, and 
 men of all classes who were unable to pay their debts were 
 thrown into prison. 
 
 Moved with pity for these unfortunate men, a band of phi- 
 lanthropists, at the head of whom was General James Edward 
 Oglethorpe, conceived the plan of establishing on the free soil 
 of America an asylum for those who were oppressed on account 
 of their poverty, and persecuted for their religious belief. This 
 plan was approved by Parliament, and sanctioned by the king, 
 and all who were in prison for debt were released on condition 
 that they would accompany the expedition. A charter was 
 granted to Oglethorpe and his associates, "in trust for the poor," 
 in the year 1732, to found a colony in the region between the 
 Savannah and Altamaha rivers, which was called Georgia, in 
 honor of King George II. 
 
 General Oglethorpe, with the first band of emigrants, num- 
 bering one hundred and twenty, sailed from England in Novem- 
 ber, 1732, and touched at Charleston in the following January. 
 From there he went to Port Royal, when, after landing the 
 greater portion of the settlers, he ascended the Savannah river 
 as far as Yamacraw bluff, where he laid the foundation of the 
 city of Savannah. 
 
 Treaties of peace were immediately made with the Indians of 
 the country, who appeared friendly, and sold their lands to the 
 new comers at a price satisfactory to both parties. Many immi- 
 grants came from different parts of Europe, on account of the 
 religious freedom in Georgia. A colony was founded by a pious 
 sect from Austria, called the Moravians, who had fled from 
 Roman Catholic persecution in their native country. They gave 
 the name of Ebenezer to their settlement, and lived happily in 
 the enjoyment of religious liberty. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 43 
 
 Governor Oglethorpe went back to England, and when he 
 returned, in 1736, he brought with him about three hundred 
 new settlers, among whom were one hundred and fifty Scotch 
 Highlanders, who were well versed in military tactics. These 
 Highlanders built a town on the Altamaha river, to which they 
 gave the name of Darien. John Wesley — the founder of the 
 denomination known as the Methodists — and his brother Charles 
 also came with Oglethorpe, as missionaries in Georgia and among 
 the Indians. Their labors were not crowned with very great 
 success, and they returned to England in 1738. The distin- 
 guished preacher, George Whitfield, who was then only twenty- 
 three years of age, came to Georgia at that time. He met with 
 greater success than Wesley had done, and his eloquence was so 
 great that vast multitudes were attracted to hear him preach 
 wherever he went. He founded an orphan asylum at Savannah, 
 which was supported by contributions received by him at various 
 places in England and America where he preached. During his 
 lifetime it was of great benefit to the colony, and flourished 
 under his powerful influence. At his death, however, which 
 occurred at Newburyport, Massachusetts in 1770, being deprived 
 of its sole support, it became extinct. 
 
 During the year 1739, England being at war with Spain, the 
 Spanish settlers of St. Augustine made several attacks upon the 
 Georgian settlements. Governor Oglethorpe had been expect- 
 ing this, and had established a firm friendship with the neigh- 
 boring Indian tribes. In 1740, having been appointed 
 commander-in-chief, he went with an army of over two thousand 
 men, consisting of English soldiers, Scotch Highlanders and 
 friendly Indians, to attack St. Augustine. In this attack, 
 however, he was unsuccessful, on account of sickness among his 
 troops, caused by the oppressive heat of the climate and im- 
 purity of the atmosphere, and he was obliged to return to 
 Savannah. 
 
 After Oglethorpe's departure, the Spaniards determined again 
 to attack the Georgian settlements. They accordingly fitted 
 out a fleet of thirty-six vessels, and in 1742 landed above the 
 town of St. Simon's with three thousand men. Oglethorpe, by 
 
44 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 a stratagem, decoyed them into a swamp where his men lay in 
 ambush. The Spaniards were surprised and completely routed. 
 They immediately retreated to their ships, and returned to St. 
 Augustine. 
 
 General Oglethorpe left Georgia in 1743, never again to 
 return, and went to England. He had been dearly loved by the 
 colonists, and his departure was greatly lamented. During 
 Oglethorpe's stay in Georgia he had firmly prohibited the intro- 
 duction of slavery in the colony ; but soon after his departure, 
 slaves were brought there and employed on the plantations. 
 
 The charter which had been obtained by Oglethorpe and his 
 colleagues was granted to them for twenty-one years. The 
 colony had proved extremely unprofitable to the trustees, and at 
 the end of the term of years named in the charter they willingly 
 gave up the instrument, and Georgia was from that time until 
 the beginning of the war of independence, a royal province. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 An act for taxing the American colonies was passed in the 
 English parliament March 22d, 1765. Heavy expenses had 
 been incurred by the English government for the protection of 
 the colonies during the French and Indian war ; and these, it 
 was claimed, should be repaid by the colonists. The Americans 
 would have been willing to have contributed their share, if they 
 had been allowed to send representatives to the English parlia- 
 ment ; but as they were not, they maintained that England had 
 no right to tax them without their consent. 
 
 By the provisions of the Stamp Act, a tax was imposed on 
 all paper used in business transactions. No deed, bond, note, 
 agreement, receipt, lease or contract was valid, without a stamp 
 costing from three pence to six pounds. Every newspaper was 
 also required to be stamped, and for every advertisement they 
 contained a duty of two shillings was imposed. 
 
 When the news of the Stamp Act reached America it caused 
 great excitement and indignation among the people. 
 
 Patrick Henry was the youngest member of the legislature of 
 Virginia. After waiting in vain for some of the older members 
 to oppose it, he tore a fly leaf from an old law book, and drew 
 up five resolution's,"* declaring that the sole right and power to 
 levy taxes was vested in the General Assembly, and to vest that 
 power in any other assembly was to destroy British, as well as 
 American freedom. He spoke eloquently in favor of his reso- 
 lutions ; " and in the midst of an impassioned harangue, ex- 
 claimed," " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and 
 George III." — "Treason! treason!" was shouted from every 
 part of the house — " may profit by their example. If this be 
 treason, make the most of it." 
 
 The act was to go into operation on the 1st of November, and 
 the excitement increased as the day approached. In Boston, 
 
46 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 handbills were posted up, warning those who should use or dis- 
 tribute stamped paper to take care of their lives and property. 
 The day was ushered in by the tolling of bells ; flags were hung 
 at half mast, and every sign of a funeral solemnity was dis- 
 played. In New York, ten boxes of stamps were destroyed by 
 the people. The business men of both these places resolved to 
 import nothing from England until the act was repealed. Domes- 
 tic manufactures were commenced in almost every family. 
 Homespun clothes were worn by the wealthiest as well as the 
 middling classes. 
 
 In Boston, " a paper was issued, bearing for its device, a 
 snake, on the head of which were the letters N. E. [New Eng- 
 land], while the body was divided into several pieces, marked 
 with the initials of the other colonies. The motto, join or die, 
 explained its meaning. In New Hampshire, on the morning of 
 the eventful day, the bells tolled, and the people assembled as 
 for a funeral procession. A coffin, bearing the name of Liberty 
 was borne to a grave on the shoulders of eight persons, to the 
 sound of minute guns. A funeral oration was pronounced, and 
 the coffin was lowered into the grave. Suddenly signs of life 
 appeared. It was raised to the surface, and now bore the in- 
 scription, Liberty revived. Enthusiastic shouts from the multi- 
 tude, and the triumphant sounds of drums and trumpets greeted 
 the resurrection." 
 
 The obnoxious Stamp Act was repealed in March, 1766 ; but 
 the parliament still maintained the right to tax the colonies. 
 
 Among other harsh measures resorted to by Great Britain 
 was the Mutiny Act, obliging the colonies to find quarters and 
 supplies for soldiers that were sent to keep them in order. 
 These troops were stationed at New York and Boston. The 
 people were exasperated against the troops, and finally blood 
 was shed in the streets of Boston. 
 
 A rope-maker got into difficulty with a soldier and struck him. 
 Out of this grew an affray between several soldiers and rope- 
 makers. A few evenings after this, about seven hundred citi- 
 zens assembled for the purpose of attacking the troops. The 
 
CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 47 
 
 soldiers fired upon the citizens, and killed three and dangerously 
 wounded several others. Then several thousand of the exasper- 
 ated citizens collected, and a terrible scene of blood would have 
 occurred, had not the governor assured the people that justice 
 should be vindicated. Captain Preston and his men were tried 
 for murder. Through the influence of John Adams and Josiah 
 Quincy, Preston and all his men were acquitted, except two, 
 who were found guilty of manslaughter. 
 
 Parliament still claimed the right to tax the colonies, and a 
 duty was laid on glass, lead, tea, etc. In 1770, all the taxes, 
 excepting the one on tea, were removed. 
 
 In 1773, several ships, laden with tea, entered the American 
 ports, but the people determined not to receive it. In Boston, 
 a party of men, disguised as Indians, marched to the wharf 
 where the ships were anchored, and threw three hundred and 
 forty-two chests of tea into the sea. The same feeling existed 
 in New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston. Ships that 
 entered these ports were obliged to return to England without 
 landing their cargoes. 
 
 The conduct of Boston produced a powerful sensation in the 
 British Parliament, and harsh measures were now adopted 
 toward this offending town. Parliament, by enactments, ordered 
 the port of Boston to be closed against all commercial transac- 
 tions, and the general court, the custom house, and other public 
 offices should be removed to Salem. 
 
 This Act was called the Boston Port Bill. All the American 
 colonies sympathized with the Bostonians. The merchants of 
 Salem offered their port to those of Boston. Rice and money 
 were sent them by the people of Georgia ; five hundred and 
 twenty-five bushels of wheat were sent from New York ; and 
 sympathizers in London presented one hundred and fifty thous- 
 and dollars for the poor of Boston. 
 
 In 1774 a Congress, composed of delegates from the thirteen 
 colonies, met at Philadelphia. It was composed of the wisest 
 and best men the colonies afforded. Among them were Wash- 
 ington, Patrick Henry and John Adams. Their meeting was 
 
48 CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION. 
 
 opened with prayer by the Rev. Mr. Duche, an Episcopalian 
 clergyman. Mr. Adams says, "he prayed fervently and in 
 language sublime and beautiful, for Congress, for the province 
 of Massachusetts Bay, and especially the town of Boston." 
 
 This Congress, which was convened the 5th of September, 
 remained in session until the 26th of October, when they ad- 
 journed to meet again the 10th of May, 1775. But before the 
 second Congress assembled the people had armed themselves to 
 protect their rights and establish their freedom. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 1775. 
 
 This war, generally known as the Revolutionary War, com- 
 menced with the skirmishes of Lexington and Concord, April 
 19th, 1775. Feeling that war was inevitable, hundreds of brave 
 men armed themselves. Their leaders were Greene, Stark, Put- 
 nam, and others who had learned war in the contests with the 
 French and Indians. 
 
 On the night of the 10th of May, an expedition from Connec- 
 ticut, commanded by Colonel Ethan Allen, reached Ticonderoga, 
 a strongly fortified place on Lake Champlain. Just as day was 
 breaking on the morning of the 11th, they marched upon the 
 fortress. The sentinel, too much frightened to give the alarm, 
 retreated, and the Americans captured the fortress without strik- 
 ing a blow. Allen entered the commander's quarters, and awaking 
 him, ordered him to surrender instantly. Seeing resistance was 
 useless, he obeyed, and the fort, with its muskets, guns and 
 ammunition, fell into the hands of the Americans. 
 
 Crown Point was also taken a short time after Ticonderoga. 
 
 June 17th, 1775, the battle of Bunker's Hill was fought. 
 The Americans fought with great bravery and drove the British 
 back as long as their ammunition held out, when they were 
 obliged to give up their fort. Many were lost on both sides. 
 Among those who were lost on the American side was Mr. 
 Warren, whose death was deeply felt by his countrymen. The 
 colonists were encouraged by the result of this battle, and the 
 enemy was convinced that the Americans were not so feeble as 
 they imagined. 
 
 In the midst of these excitements the second Continental Con- 
 gress convened at Philadelphia, and George Washington was 
 
 4 
 
50 THE WAR OP INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 appointed commander-in-chief of the army. He refused all pay, 
 except enough to defray his expenses. The army numbered 
 fourteen thousand, and there were but nine cartridges to each 
 soldier. 
 
 December 31st, 1775, General Arnold and General Mont- 
 gomery attacked the city of Quebec from different quarters. 
 Montgomery was shot ; the British surrounded them and the 
 division was forced to surrender. Arnold commanded the troops 
 that effected a retreat, and entrenched himself on the opposite 
 side of the river, a few miles below the town. With the unfor- 
 tunate attack on Quebec the first year of the war closed. 
 
 1776. 
 
 A heavy cannonade was opened upon Boston from the Amer- 
 ican batteries, on the 2d of March. General Howe, who had 
 succeeded General Gage, being alarmed for the safety of the city, 
 resolved to evacuate it, which he did on the 17th of March, and 
 embarked for Halifax. 
 
 On the 20th, Washington, at the head of his troops, marched 
 into the city with drums beating and banners waving, greeted 
 on every side with demonstrations of joy by the people. But 
 they were shocked when they beheld the ruined condition of 
 their beautiful town. Old South Church had been converted 
 into a riding school ; Faneuil Hall had been used for a theatre ; 
 wood had become so scarce that the pews of churches, the coun- 
 ters of stores, and even valuable libraries, had been used for fuel. 
 
 As soon as Washington had placed Boston in a state of secu- 
 rity, he repaired to New York. Before attempting New York, 
 Parker and Clinton were sent by the British to attack Charles- 
 ton. General Lee and Colonel Moultrie had erected a fort on 
 Sullivan's Island ; the engagement commenced on the 28th of 
 June. The British were repulsed, and sailed for New York. 
 The slaughter of the British was frightful ; the number of killed 
 and wounded amounted to two hundred and twenty-five ; of the 
 Americans, only two were killed, and twenty-two wounded. 
 
 About this time, the people recommended Congress to declare 
 the colonies absolved from allegiance to the crown, and Richard 
 
THE WAR OP INDEPENDENCE. 51 
 
 Henry Lee, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman and Robert 
 Livingston, were appointed a committee to draw up a Declara- 
 tion of Independence. Thomas Jefferson, the youngest member 
 of the committee, was chosen chairman, and to him was assigned 
 the task of preparing the important document. After being 
 discussed several days, and slightly amended, it was adopted by 
 Congress at two o'clock on the 4th of July, 1776. This act of 
 Congress did much to animate the hearts and support the people 
 during the disastrous military campaign that followed. 
 
 In July the British fleet left Halifax, and entering New York 
 harbor, the troops landed on Staten Island, where in a few days, 
 they were joined by Parker and Clinton from the south. 
 
 In August, the British and Hessians landed on Long Island 
 and attacked the American division posted at Brooklyn. The 
 Americans were defeated, and during the night effected a retreat 
 to New York, carrying with them every thing but their heavy 
 cannon. Leaving the city in the hands of the British, the 
 Americans continued their march to Harlem, where a skirmish 
 occurred in which they were partially victorious. They then 
 retreated to White Plains, where they encountered the British 
 and were defeated. 
 
 Washington now made preparation for the defense of Phila- 
 delphia. He had been pursued by the enemy, under Lord 
 Cornwallis, as far as the Delaware, but they were unable to cross 
 it for want of boats, and awaited the freezing of the river. Con- 
 gress had departed, and there were many loyalists in the town ; 
 this led them to think the city could be easily taken. Corn- 
 wallis returned to headquarters at New York, and his troops 
 were scattered in small divisions through New Jersey. 
 
 Washington determined to attack a body of Hessians stationed 
 at Trenton. Christmas night was chosen for his enterprise. 
 Knowing that they would pass the day in sports and drinking, 
 he resolved to take advantage of their condition. The surprise 
 was complete. Colonel Rahl, while trying to rally his panic- 
 stricken soldiers, fell mortally wounded, and the Hessians sur- 
 rendered to the Americans. 
 
52 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 1777. 
 
 The first battle of this year was fought at Princeton. 
 
 On new year's day Washington was at Trenton. Cornwallis 
 arrived about sunset and attempted to cross the river, but was 
 repulsed, and awaited the approach of day. The British army 
 being fresh and strong, the Americans feared the result of the 
 next day's encounter, and determined to leave their post during 
 the night and attack the British at Princeton. Their camp 
 fires were left burning to deceive the enemy on the opposite 
 side of the river. At Princeton the British were surprised and 
 defeated. Cornwallis, on awaking at Trenton, found the Amer- 
 ican camp fires still burning, but not a soldier, tent or cannon 
 was to be seen. He made a hasty march to Princeton, but did 
 not arrive in time to prevent the victory Washington had gained. 
 
 On the 11th of September the British crossed the Brandy- 
 wine, attacked and defeated the Americans, who retreated to 
 Chester, and then to Philadelphia, hoping to save that city ; but 
 in this they were disappointed, and on the 26th of September it 
 passed into the hands of the British. 
 
 Hearing that the enemy's force at Germantown was somewhat 
 weakened, an attack upon it was planned. They succeeded at 
 first in driving the British from their post, and for a time victory 
 seemed secure ; but some of the divisions failed to move to the 
 attack as ordered, and the Americans were obliged to retreat 
 with a considerable loss. 
 
 A British army under General Carleton, consisting of seven 
 thousand men, was stationed in Canada. Carleton was succeeded 
 in command by Burgoyne, who took possession of Fort Edward, 
 and, being greatly in want of military stores, dispatched Colonel 
 Baum, with a large force, to seize some that the Americans had 
 deposited at Bennington. The approach of Burgoyne on the 
 western frontier had caused a large force to be collected in New 
 Hampshire, under the command of Major Stark. This detach- 
 ment reached Bennington just in time to encounter Colonel 
 Baum's force. In the severe battle that was fought the Ameri- 
 cans were victorious. Baum, seven hundred prisoners and large 
 quantities of arms and ammunition were captured. 
 
THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 53 
 
 The battle of Stillwater, fought on the 19th of September, 
 in which the Americans were victorious, was one of the severest 
 battles of the war. 
 
 The next encounter took place on the 7th of October, in 
 which the British lost more than four hundred men, and the 
 Americans were again victorious. The situation of Burgoyne 
 was now desperate. The British held a council of war, in which 
 it was agreed that a surrender of Burgoyne and his troops 
 should be made to General Gates, and on the 17th of October 
 the ceremony of surrender took place. 
 
 1778. 
 
 After the surrender of Burgoyne, a treaty was made between 
 the Americans and the French, on February 6th, 1778, by which 
 the latter nation recognized the independence of the former, 
 and decided to help her fight for it. 
 
 A French fleet being expected in the Delaware, the British 
 general determined to evacuate Philadelphia and proceed to 
 New York. His movements being discovered by Washington, 
 he sent a division of his army, under General Lee, to pursue 
 them and give them battle. He overtook them at Monmouth 
 Court-house, but, being alarmed at the sudden attack of the 
 British, ordered a retreat. But Washington arrived just as the 
 retreat commenced ; he reprimanded Lee, and inspired the 
 soldiers with courage and led them against the foe. During the 
 night Clinton retreated towards New York, and the Americans 
 were masters of the field. 
 
 1779. 
 
 The British, wearied of their unsuccessful attempts to con- 
 quer the New England and Middle States, now turned their 
 attention to the south, where they knew the American forces 
 were weakest. Here they met with better success. Their first 
 conquest was Savannah ; then followed Sunbury and Augusta. 
 In fact, at the beginning of 1779 nearly all Georgia was in 
 their possession. The royal governor was restored, and a royal 
 province once more existed in the colonies. These victories 
 
54 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 encouraged the British, who now demanded the surrender of 
 Charleston. Governor Rutledge and General Lincoln animated 
 the people and soldiers to great exertions for the defense of the 
 city, and the enemy retreated without attacking the place. 
 Active operations in the south were suspended until the autumn 
 of this year. 
 
 But in the north the ravages of war were carried on. Ports- 
 mouth and Norfolk, in Virginia, Norfolk, Fairfield, New Haven 
 and other villages on Long Island Sound, were burned. The 
 next important victory was the capture of Stony Point. The 
 Americans entered the fort by means of the countersign, which 
 they obtained from a negro who was in the habit of selling fruit 
 in the garrison. After a short resistance, Colonel Johnson and 
 his garrison surrendered prisoners of war. The following report 
 was sent to the commander-in-chief: 
 
 " The fort and garrison, with Colonel Johnson, are ours ; our 
 officers and men behaved like men who are determined to be 
 free." 
 
 The Americans were unable to retain Stony Point, as the 
 British sent large reinforcements up the river. They, however, 
 removed the cannon and military stores and destroyed the fort. 
 
 The Americans, aided by Count D'Estaing, attacked the city 
 of Savannah, but they were unsuccessful, and the close of the 
 year found Georgia still under a royal governor. 
 
 1780. 
 
 In May, of 1780, the city of Charleston passed into the 
 hands of the British. After the surrender of General Lincoln, 
 he was succeeded by General Gates, who advanced through the 
 Carolinas and encountered the British at Camden, where a battle 
 was fought and the Americans again defeated with great loss. 
 The British, elated by their success, now pushed towards the 
 north, hoping to drive the enemy from Carolina. They advanced 
 as far as Charlotte, when, hearing that Major Ferguson had been 
 killed, and his eleven hundred troops made prisoners, Cornwallis 
 returned and took up his quarters at Winnsboro, South Carolina. 
 
THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 55 
 
 Although Charleston and Camden were in possession of the 
 British, the Americans were cheered by the brilliant exploits of 
 Marion, Sumpter and Lee. Marion so many times and in such 
 rapid succession cut off detachments of Cornwallis' army, that 
 Tarleton gave him the name of Swamp Fox. 
 
 Benedict Arnold was a bold soldier, but a bad and unprinci- 
 pled man. He had married a tory lady, and lived in such an 
 extravagant style as to awaken the suspicions of the Pennsylva- 
 nia Legislature. A court-martial was appointed to try him. 
 He was convicted of procuring public money by fraudulent 
 means, and sentenced to be reprimanded by the commander-in- 
 chief. This duty was performed by Washington with the utmost 
 delicacy, but Arnold felt the disgrace, and, his bad passions 
 being fully aroused, he agreed to place West Point in the hands 
 of the British for fifty thousand dollars and a brigadier's com- 
 mission in their army. Communications between the two armies 
 were carried on through Adjutant General Major Andre. Andre 
 was arrested and suffered death as a spy. Arnold escaped in 
 safety to the British lines. 
 
 Another year now drew to a close, and England had expended 
 vast treasures and much blood in endeavoring to subjugate the 
 colonies, without success. 
 
 1781. 
 
 The first battle in the campaign of this year was fought at 
 Cowpens. Victory was decided in favor of the Americans, and 
 the British were obliged to retreat, leaving behind them three 
 hundred killed or wounded, and over five hundred of their troops 
 prisoners. 
 
 General Greene gave battle to the British on the 15th of 
 March, at Guilford Court-house. After an engagement lasting 
 two hours, the Americans were obliged to retreat, but the enemy 
 had suffered too much to pursue them. Numerous encounters 
 between the two armies took place during the summer. Greene 
 was defeated at Camden, but other Generals had at the close of 
 the season succeeded in driving the British into the south-east 
 
56 THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 corner of the state. In the battle of Eutaw springs in Septem- 
 ber, the Americans were victorious. The British now abandoned 
 all their posts, and retreated to Charleston. The last battle of 
 the Revolution occurred at Yorktown. The allied armies, — 
 French and American — after compelling the British to abandon 
 their outworks, commenced a siege on the 28th of September. 
 On the 9th of October they opened a heavy cannonade on the 
 British works ; red hot balls were hurled among the English 
 shipping, causing several vessels to be burned. Cornwallis, per- 
 ceiving that all would be lost unless he could escape, attempted 
 to cross York river, but a sudden storm arose and dispersed the 
 boats, and they were compelled to put back, and the project was 
 abandoned. Hope now failed, and Cornwallis, on the 19th of 
 October, surrendered the posts at Yorktown and Gloucester, and 
 almost seven thousand soldiers and his shipping and seamen, to 
 General Washington and De Grasse. The terms of surrender 
 were the same as those the British had required of General 
 Lincoln at Charleston. 
 
 Negotiations for peace were commenced in the spring of 1782. 
 Before the close of the year the Southern cities were given up, 
 but New York remained in the hands of the British until fall of 
 the following year. The treaty of peace was signed September 
 3d, 1783, by commissioners who met at Paris. On the eighth 
 anniversary of the first battle of the Revolution, a cessation of 
 hostilities was proclaimed, and on the 3d of November following, 
 the army was disbanded. During the Revolution many naval 
 battles were also fought. The most important occurred off the 
 coast of England in 1779. During the course of the war the 
 Americans captured eight hundred and three vessels, with mer- 
 chandise, amounting to about eleven millions of dollars. 
 
 The darkest period of American history succeeded the Revo- 
 lution. A debt of forty millions of dollars had been contracted, 
 and Congress had no means of paying it. The articles of con- 
 federation formed a sufficient constitution of government during 
 the war, but were not adapted to the public wants of an inde- 
 pendent sovereignty. 
 
THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE. 57 
 
 In May, of the year 1787, a convention assembled at the 
 state house in Philadelphia. All the states were represented 
 except Rhode Island. George Washington was chosen to pre- 
 side, and, after long deliberation, the articles of confederation 
 were cast aside, and the national constitution, under which we now 
 live, was formed. After it had been signed by each member of 
 the convention, it was submitted to Congress, September 28th, 
 and that body sent copies of it to the several legislatures, that 
 it might be approved of by the people of each individual state. 
 Eleven of the states ratified it within a year, and it was adopted 
 the 4th of March, 1789. 
 
 George Washington, by the unanimous voice of the people, 
 became their first president, and John Adams was chosen vice 
 president. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION — 1789-1797. 
 
 On the 14th of April, Washington received an official an- 
 nouncement of his election as president of the United States, 
 under the new constitution. The ceremony of inauguration took 
 place at New York on the 13th of April. The oath of office 
 was administered by Chancellor Livingston. 
 
 At this time the condition of the country was a very trying 
 one. The Spanish authorities had prohibited the Americans 
 from navigating the Mississippi ; our ships in the Mediterranean 
 sea were attacked by pirates of the Barbary states, and many 
 an American citizen was condemned to slavery or an Algerine 
 dungeon ; and no treaty of commerce had been made with Eng- 
 land, nor had they sent a minister to our country. And in addi- 
 tion to these, the French endeavored to solicit the Americans to 
 aid them in their revolution. 
 
 Three executive departments were created. Mr. Jefferson 
 was secretary of state ; Mr. Hamilton of the treasury, and Gen- 
 eral Knox secretary of war. These officers comprised the pres- 
 ident's cabinet. The first difficulty to be encountered was the 
 payment of the public debt. 
 
 In 1791, on the recommendation of Hamilton, a United States 
 bank and national mint was established at Philadelphia. 
 
 Vermont was claimed by New York and New Hampshire until 
 1791, when it became independent, and was admitted into the 
 Union, the first addition to the thirteen original states. 
 
 Great opposition was made to the mode of raising money by 
 taxation. In western Pennsylvania it met with so much resist- 
 ance that Congress was obliged to send troops to put down the 
 rebellion. 
 
THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 59 
 
 The hostility of the Indians on the frontier was a constant 
 source of trouble. Three armies were, at different times, sent to 
 subdue them. A treaty of peace was made after the war had 
 continued five years, and our western country was left unmo- 
 lested by Indian hostility for many years. 
 
 In 1795, negotiations were entered into with the Barbary 
 powers, which protected our commerce, and by a treaty with 
 Spain, the same year, its claims upon our western territory were 
 abandoned, and the navigation of the Mississippi was thrown 
 open to us. The year 1795 witnessed the treaties with England. 
 Spain, Algiers, and the Indians. 
 
 In 1797, Washington's second term of office closed, and he 
 refused to be re-elected. 
 
 ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION — 1797-1801. 
 
 John Adams was the second president, and Thomas Jefferson 
 vice president. Adams adopted the national cabinet council, left 
 by Washington, as his own. 
 
 The recent treaty with England very nearly brought on a 
 war between France and America. The government of France 
 refused to receive the American embassadors. Preparations for 
 war were made, and General Washington was summoned to take 
 command of the armies. Hostilities commenced, and a vessel of 
 each nation was captured, but the army was not summoned to the 
 field. Three envoys were appointed to proceed to France and 
 negotiate for peace, but Napoleon Bonaparte had overthrown 
 the government, and had the control of affairs in his own hands. 
 He promptly received the United States embassadors, and en- 
 tered into a treaty with their nation. On the return of the 
 ministers the United States army was disbanded. 
 
 Washington died at his home, in Mount Vernon, on the 14th 
 of December, 1799, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. The 
 national grief was sincere ; the spirit of party was hushed, and 
 the nation mourned at the grave of the man who was " first in 
 war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen." 
 
60 THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 During the summer of 1800, the seat of government was re- 
 moved from Philadelphia. Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated 
 in the capitol at Washington. 
 
 jefferson's administration — 1801-1809. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson was inaugurated March 4th, 1801. The oath 
 of office was administered by Chief Justice Marshall. 
 
 In 1803, Louisiana having been ceded to France, our govern- 
 ment purchased it of Napoleon Bonaparte for fifteen millions of 
 dollars. Out of it two territories were formed, called the terri- 
 tory of New Orleans and the district of Louisiana. 
 
 The treaty with Algiers, in 1795, had provided that the Uni- 
 ted States should pay a sum of money annually for the protec- 
 tion of her commerce in the Mediterranean Sea, but the insolence 
 of the piratical powers became so unendurable that the govern- 
 ment determined to cease paying tribute to them. The Bashaw 
 then declared war, and our little navy, under Commodore Pre- 
 ble, was sent to the Mediterranean to humble the pirates. He 
 succeeded in bringing the Emperor of Morocco to terms, and 
 appeared before Tripoli with his squadron. One of his vessels — 
 the Philadelphia — grounded in the harbor of Tripoli ; she was 
 captured and her crew made slaves. 
 
 In February, of 1804, after the capture of the Philadelphia, 
 Lieutenant Decatur boarded her, killed the guard, set her on 
 fire, and escaped without losing a man. 
 
 Through the aid of the brother of the governor of Tripoli, 
 peace was secured the following year. For ten years longer, 
 however, our commerce suffered in the Mediterranean from the 
 pirates. In 1815, the final treaty of peace was made, the Bar- 
 bary powers compelled to pay for the injury they had done, and 
 to give up all claim to tribute from the United States. 
 
 The whole of Jefferson's second term was one of anxiety and 
 trial. In 1805, and the two following years, the American com- 
 merce suffered much from British aggressions. The United 
 States had maintained a strict neutrality in the wars that were 
 convulsing Europe, but the belligerents, in their anxiety to do 
 
THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 61 
 
 each other damage, adopted measures destructive to American 
 commerce. The British and French governments issued orders 
 forbidding the ships of neutrals to enter the ports of their respec- 
 tive enemies, and the American commerce dwindled to a domes- 
 tic coast trade. 
 
 MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION-1809-1817. 
 
 Jefferson was succeeded, March 4th, 1809, by James Madison. 
 The difficulties with Great Britain first engaged his attention. 
 Hopes of more friendly relations between France and England 
 were entertained, but they proved false. 
 
 During the year 1811, the Shawnee Indians, through the 
 agency of the British, threatened hostility against the western 
 settlements. General Harrison was sent against them, and de- 
 feated them in the battle of Tippecanoe, in the north-west part 
 of Indiana. This act of hostility, on the part of Great Britain, 
 together with aggressions on the commerce of the United States, 
 led Congress, on the 18th of June, 1812, to declare war with 
 Great Britain. 
 
 General Dearborn was appointed commander-in-chief of the 
 American forces. The first event of this war was disastrous to 
 the Americans. General Hull was ordered to invade Canada, 
 but was obliged to retreat to Detroit, which place he surren- 
 dered to the British without attempting to defend it. In the 
 following year Commodore Perry repaired this loss. On the 10th 
 of September he defeated and captured the British fleet on 
 Lake Erie. This victory gave them command of the lake, and 
 enabled them to recover Detroit. During the battle at Detroit, 
 the fierce Indian chief, Tecumseh, was killed. Early in this 
 year Toronto was captured by the Americans. On the 3d of 
 July, 1814, Fort Erie was captured. On the 4th, the British 
 were defeated at the battle of Chippewa, and on the 25th the 
 Americans were again victorious at Lundy's Lane. These vic- 
 tories drove the British from the Niagara frontier. 
 
 The American navy consisted of twenty ships, that of the 
 English one thousand and sixty. In August, 1812, the Con- 
 stitution captured the British Guerriere, and on the 29th of 
 
62 THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 December, of the same year, compelled the frigate Java to surren- 
 der. Commodore Decatur, commanding the United States, 
 captured the Macedonian. 
 
 The ravages of war were felt along the Atlantic coast during 
 the year 1813. Several towns were plundered and burned ; 
 large numbers of negroes were seized and sold in the West Indies, 
 and General Ross entered Washington city and burned the capi- 
 tol and president's house, and very nearly succeeded in making 
 the president and his cabinet prisoners. The battle of New 
 Orleans, in which the Americans were victorious, closed the war. 
 
 Commissioners met in Belgium, and a treaty of peace was 
 made, the terms of which were satisfactory to both parties. 
 
 MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION — 1817-1825. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1817, James Monroe was inaugurated 
 at Congress Hall. During the first year of Monroe's adminis- 
 tration a portion of the Mississippi territory was admitted into 
 the union as a state. 
 
 About this time a difficulty arose with the Seminole Indians, 
 outlaws from the Creek nation, and negroes who had fled from 
 their masters. Massacres became so frequent that the inhabi- 
 tants were obliged to flee from their homes for security. General 
 Jackson marched into Florida and soon defeated and dispersed 
 them. 
 
 In 1818, the Indians ceded to the government of the United 
 States all their lands west of the Tennessee river, in the states 
 of Kentucky and Tennessee. Alabama was admitted into the 
 union as a state, and the territory of Arkansas separated from 
 Missouri territory. During the year 1819, the Floridas were 
 ceded to the United States by Spain, and became a territory in 
 1821, and General Jackson was appointed governor. Maine 
 was admitted in March, 1820, and Missouri in August, 1821. 
 
 During the remainder of Monroe's administration, little of 
 general importance occurred, aside from the rapid progress of 
 the country. In the autumn of 1824, four candidates for the 
 presidency, representing the different sections of the union, were 
 
THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 6& 
 
 nominated. The choice being devolved upon the house of repre- 
 sentatives, John Quincy Adams was chosen president. 
 
 ADAMS' ADMINISTRATION — 1825-1829. 
 
 John Q. Adams became President March 4th, 1825. He 
 renewed a proposition which Monroe had made, to purchase the 
 land the Indians held east of the Mississippi. Some of the 
 tribes were unwilling to do this ; but in February all the terri- 
 tory in Georgia, except a thousand acres, was ceded to the 
 United States. 
 
 Internal improvement and domestic manufactures were the 
 principal subjects that engrossed the president's attention. 
 During Adams' administration more than five millions of dollars 
 had been distributed among the surviving revolutionary soldiers, 
 the national debt had been greatly diminished, and five millions 
 of dollars were in the treasury. 
 
 JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION — 1829-1837. 
 
 During this administration two Indian wars occurred. In 
 1832, Black Hawk, a powerful chief of the Sac Indians, together 
 with the Fox and Winnebago tribes, waged war on the Illinois 
 frontier. General Atkinson was sent against them, and, after 
 a few skirmishes, Black Hawk was captured and taken to Wash- 
 ington, and the Indians were driven beyond the Mississippi. 
 
 Towards the close of 1835 another Indian war, of a more 
 serious nature, arose. The Seminole Indians, led on by their 
 principal chief, Osceola, commenced a distressing warfare on the 
 frontier settlements of Florida. This war lasted seven years. 
 On one occasion Major Dode was surrounded by Indians, and 
 his command, consisting of one hundred men, were cruelly mas- 
 sacred ; four escaped alive, but afterwards died of their wounds. 
 A treaty of peace was not concluded until Osceola died in prison, 
 at Fort Moultrie, in 1842. 
 
 Jackson was possessed of strong passions, an iron will and an 
 uncorrupt heart. He entered upon the duties of his office, 
 
64 THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 determined to guide the ship of state according to his concep- 
 tion of the constitution. The people were divided into two dis- 
 tinct classes. By one he was thoroughly loved, and by the 
 other intensely hated. His energetic administration gave gen- 
 eral satisfaction, and he was re-elected. He vetoed a bill passed 
 by Congress to renew the charter of the United States bank, in 
 1836. In 1833, he went so far as to direct the secretary of the 
 treasury to withdraw the government funds, and deposit them 
 in certain state banks. The secretary refused to do this, and 
 was dismissed from office. In October, 1833, the act was accom- 
 plished. Intense excitement prevailed throughout the country ; 
 numerous failures followed ; the president was censured by a 
 resolution of the senate, but, being supported by the house of 
 representatives, he persevered, and finally triumphed. The state 
 banks enlarged their operations, and commercial prosperity 
 revived. 
 
 Arkansas was admitted into the Union in June, 1836, and 
 Michigan, in January following. 
 
 van buren's administration — 1837-1841. 
 
 Van Buren was inaugurated March 4th, 1837. The great 
 apparent prosperity during the last year of Jackson's adminis- 
 tration, was succeeded by a revulsion in monetary affairs. The 
 mercantile failures in New York alone, amounted to more than 
 a hundred millions of dollars. In NeAV Orleans failures to the 
 amount of twenty-seven millions occurred within two days. 
 
 In 1837, a portion of the Canadas rose in rebellion against the 
 British, and determined to secure their independence. Individ- 
 uals and companies from the United States joined these rebels. 
 This displeased Great Britain, and it became necessary for the 
 president to issue a proclamation preventing further aggressive 
 movements. About this time the dispute concerning the bound- 
 ary between the state of Maine and the British possessions was 
 renewed, and the peaceful relations between Great Britain and 
 the United States were endangered. General Scott was sent to 
 the frontier, and harmony between the two countries was restored. 
 
THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 65 
 
 HARRISON'S AND TYLER'S ADMINISTRATION — 1841-1845. 
 
 William Henry Harrison, who succeeded Van Buren, was 
 inaugurated March 4th, 1841. His cabinet counselors were 
 wisely chosen. Daniel Webster was appointed secretary of 
 state. The only official act of importance performed by Harri- 
 son, was the issuing of a proclamation calling an extra session 
 of congress to legislate upon important matters connected with 
 the revenue and finances of the country. He died the 4th of 
 April, just one month after his inauguration. 
 
 On the 6th of April the oath of office was administered to 
 John Tyler. The extra session of congress, called by president 
 Harrison, occupied itself with the financial interests of the coun- 
 try. A general bankrupt law was enacted, which freed those 
 who had failed from their obligations, and enabled them to re- 
 commence business. The sub-treasury act was repealed. The 
 chief object sought to be obtained during this session was the 
 establishment of a national bank. Two bills providing for such 
 an institution passed both houses, but were vetoed by the presi- 
 dent, who was severely censured by the party who had elected 
 him. His cabinet all resigned, except Mr. Webster, who re- 
 tained his seat on account of public interests which would have 
 suffered by his withdrawal at this time. 
 
 The second year of Mr. Tyler's administration was signalized 
 by the return of the United States exploring expedition. This 
 expedition had been sent, four years before, by the United 
 States navy to explore the southern ocean. It was commanded 
 by Charles Wilkes. He made many important discoveries ; 
 among which was the Antarctic continent, along which he coasted 
 for a distance of seventeen hundred miles. 
 
 During this administration, difficulties in Rhode Island origi- 
 nated in attempts to abandon the old charter granted by Charles 
 II., under which the government had been administered one 
 hundred and eighty years, and adopt a state constitution of gov- 
 ernment. The disputes which arose concerning the manner in 
 which their government should be altered, assumed a serious 
 aspect. The state was on the verge of civil war, and national 
 
 5 
 
66 THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 troops were sent to restore quiet and order. A free constitu- 
 tion was framed, and went into operation in May, 1843. 
 
 Florida was admitted into the union in 1845, and Iowa in 1846. 
 
 Towards the close of Tyler's administration the country was 
 much agitated concerning the admission of the republic of Texas 
 as a state of the union. By the north it was strongly opposed, 
 because it would increase the political strength of slavery, and 
 lead to a war with Mexico. 
 
 polk'r administration — 1845-1849. 
 
 James K. Polk entered the presidential mansion, as its occu- 
 pant, March 4th, 1845. May 29th, 1844, the news of his nomi- 
 nation was transmitted from Baltimore to Washington by the 
 magnetic telegraph, " being the first dispatch ever so commu- 
 nicated." 
 
 On the 4th of July, 1845, Texas became one of the United 
 States. Its admission into the union, as had been predicted, 
 caused a war between Mexico and the United States. Although 
 the independence of the state of Texas had been acknowledged 
 by the United States, England and France, a portion of its terri- 
 tory was claimed by Mexico. American vessels were plundered 
 in the Gulf of Mexico, and the property of American merchants 
 confiscated to the amount of six millions of dollars. These 
 aggressions continued, and the president ordered General Zachary 
 Taylor, with his troops, to the Rio Grande. The boundary 
 between Texas and Mexico was still unsettled. The territory 
 between the Rio Grande and the Nueces was claimed by both 
 parties. 
 
 While war was gathering in the south-west, difficulties arose 
 between the governments of the United States and Great Britain, 
 concerning the boundary between the two countries on the north- 
 west, which was finally settled by a treaty of peace in June, 
 1846, the boundary being fixed at forty-nine degrees north 
 latitude. 
 
 Hostilities commenced on the part of the Mexicans on the 
 26th of April, 1846, when a reconnoitering party, under Cap- 
 tain Thornton, was killed or captured by the Mexicans. 
 
THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 67 
 
 Taylor's army, consisting of fifteen hundred men, was called 
 " the Army of Occupation." On the 8th of May, as he was 
 advancing to Fort Brown, he encountered six thousand Mexi- 
 cans, under General Arista. In the severe conflict which ensued, 
 the Mexicans were defeated, with a loss of nearly five hundred 
 in killed and wounded. The Americans lost fifty-three. The 
 next day a shorter, but bloodier battle occurred between the 
 same armies at Resaca de la Palma. The Mexicans were again 
 defeated, with a loss of one thousand, while the Americans lost 
 but one hundred and ten. Congress declared that war had 
 begun, and Taylor was ordered to invade Mexico, advancing 
 from Matamoras towards Monterey. His first division was com- 
 manded by General Worth. They encountered and defeated 
 two armies, raised to oppose them, one at Monterey, on the 24th 
 of September, under General Ampudia, and another at Buena 
 Vista, February 23d, under Santa Anna. 
 
 Santa Anna approached Buena Vista with twenty thousand 
 men, and ordered General Taylor, with his five thousand troops, 
 to surrender, which he politely refused to do, and made ready 
 for an encounter he felt would be the most trying in which he 
 had yet engaged. The Mexicans commenced the battle at sun- 
 rise on the 23d. This bloody conflict lasted until night, when 
 the Mexicans withdrew, leaving their dead and wounded behind 
 them. The Mexicans lost two thousand, and the Americans two 
 hundred and sixty-seven. 
 
 On the 29th of March, 1847, General Scott compelled the city 
 of Vera Cruz and the castle of San Juan d' Ulloa to surrender. 
 He defeated the enemy in the great battle of Cerro Gordo, and 
 entering the valley of Mexico, he won the victories of Contreras, 
 Churubusco, Molino del Rey, Chapultepec, and on the 14th of 
 September, entered the capital in triumph, and planted the 
 American flag on the national palace. 
 
 In August of 1846, General Kearney, commander of the 
 army of the west, had taken possession of New Mexico, and 
 started for California to aid Colonel Fremont and Commodores 
 Sloat and Stockton, in the conquest of that country. 
 
68 THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 The Americans being every where victorious, the Mexican 
 congress sued for peace. On the 2d of February, 1848, a treaty 
 of peace was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo. Including this peace, 
 Mexico ceded to the United States New Mexico and California, 
 for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars. 
 
 Wisconsin was admitted into the union in May, 1848. 
 
 General Taylor's brilliant victories in Mexico rendered him 
 so popular that he was nominated for president of the United 
 States. He was elected by a large majority, with Millard Jill- 
 more as vice president. 
 
 Taylor's and fillmore's administration — 1849-1853. 
 
 The 4th of March occurring on Sunday, the oath of office was 
 administered on the 5th. The first object which claimed the 
 attention of the new president was California. After the dis- 
 covery of gold, its population increased so rapidly, that in 1849 
 the people took measures for its admission into the union. A 
 constitution was adopted which prohibited slavery. Intense ex- 
 citement existed throughout the whole country. Part of the 
 state was south of the dividing line established by the Missouri 
 compromise, and senators from the south declared the prohibi- 
 tion of slavery there would cause a dissolution of the union. 
 
 In the midst of this excitement the senate was deprived of one 
 of its most effective orators, by the death of John C. Calhoun. 
 
 He died at Washington, on the 31st of March, 1850. On the 
 9th of July following, the country, a second time, suffered be- 
 reavement, in the loss of its chief magistrate. The disease, 
 which terminated his life, was similar to the cholera. He was 
 succeeded by Vice President Fillmore. The former cabinet re- 
 signed, and Daniel Webster was appointed secretary of state. 
 
 The first important measure adopted by Mr. Fillmore was the 
 Compromise act. After the requirements of the act had been 
 thoroughly discussed in congress, Mr. Fillmore gladly affixed his 
 signature to the bill, and California was admitted into the union 
 as a free state. 
 
 During this administration the territory of Washington was 
 formed out of the northern part of Oregon. 
 
the administrations. 69 
 
 pierce's administration — 1853-1857. 
 
 Franklin Pierce, the fourteenth president of the United States, 
 was inaugurated March 4th, 1853. 
 
 The most exciting question that arose during Pierce's term 
 related to the organization of a vast region in the interior of the 
 continent into two territories, to be called respectively Nebraska 
 and Kansas. The slavery agitation was revived again in all its 
 strength. The bill for organizing these territorial governments 
 passed both houses, and after receiving the signature of the 
 president, became a law. The question of slavery or freedom 
 was left to its occupants to decide, when they should seek admis- 
 sion into the union as states. 
 
 BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION — 1857-1861. 
 
 March 4th, 1857, Franklin Pierce was succeeded by James 
 Buchanan, the democratic candidate. The two great political 
 parties, into which the people were divided, were the whigs and 
 democrats. But after the Missouri compromise was repealed a 
 new party was formed, styled republican. It was composed 
 chiefly of those who had formerly belonged to the whig party. 
 The republicans were opposed to the extension of slavery into 
 free territory ; and yet maintained that Congress had no right 
 to interfere with it in the slave states. The country was violently 
 agitated by the slavery question throughout Buchanan's term. 
 The excitement reached its highest pitch in October, 1859, when 
 John Brown, with fifteen white and five colored men, seized the 
 arsenal at Harper's Ferry, with the view of establishing the 
 freedom of the slaves by force of arms. Federal troops were 
 sent to suppress the insurrection. Thirteen of the invaders were 
 killed. Brown and the remainder were captured, tried, con- 
 victed of treason, and were executed December 2d, under the 
 laws of Virginia. The southern leaders attempted to implicate 
 the people of the north in this mad enterprise, and the bitter- 
 ness of feeling existing between them was greatly increased. 
 
 During the close of Buchanan's administration, preparations 
 were made for the rebellion which soon folloAved. Cobb, Thomp- 
 son, and Floyd, members of his cabinet, took an active part in 
 
70 THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 
 
 the secession of the slave states. Floyd, the secretary of war, 
 sent United States arms and munitions of war to the southern 
 states. 
 
 Lincoln's administration. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1861, Chief Justice Taney adminis- 
 tered the oath of office to Abraham Lincoln, the president elect 
 of the United States. The leaders of the democratic party in 
 the south claimed that Mr. Lincoln was the representative of the 
 so-called " abolitionists," who now expected, through him, to 
 abolish the institution of slavery from the United States. They, 
 therefore, made his election a pretext for attempting to dissolve 
 the union, and establish a southern confederacy with slavery as 
 its corner stone. 
 
 At the time agreed upon, the politicians in the several states 
 met in convention, and, without consulting the people, passed 
 the ordinance of secession from the United States. South Car- 
 olina took the lead on the 20th of December, 1860, in a conven- 
 tion at Charleston, and her action was imitated by the following 
 states, in order, namely : Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Geor- 
 gia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and 
 Tennessee. On the 4th of February a convention assembled at 
 Montgomery, Alabama, and established a " southern confeder- 
 acy," with the title of Confederate States of America. Jeffer- 
 son Davis, of Mississippi, was chosen president, and Alexander 
 H. Stephens, of Georgia, vice president of the "confederacy." 
 The conspirators immediately raised an army to sustain their 
 revolt, and seized all forts, arsenals, ships, arms, and other gov- 
 ernment property which they could lay hold of. 
 
 It had been the intention of the conspirators from the first to 
 take possession of Forts Sumter and Moultrie, in Charleston 
 harbor, especially Sumter, as it was the stronger. (See view 
 No. 3133.) Major Robert Anderson, who was stationed at that 
 point, suspected their design, and removed his garrison from 
 Fort Moultrie to Sumter. At this, the rebels were enraged, 
 and immediately determined to bombard the fort. They cut off 
 all communication between the garrison and its friends, and 
 
THE ADMINISTRATIONS. 71 
 
 demanded the surrender of the fort to the authorities of the state. 
 On the refusal of Anderson to surrender, General P. G. T. 
 Beauregard, who had raised a large army, prepared to seize the 
 fort. On the 12th of April, 1861, the fort was assaulted, and 
 its interior fired. Anderson held out as long as he was able, 
 but his supplies having become exhausted, "he evacuated the 
 fort on the 14th, carrying with him the garrison flag." 
 
 It was while the preparations for the attack upon Fort Sum- 
 ter were going on that president Lincoln was inaugurated. He 
 declared his intention to execute the laws of the country and 
 protect the property of its citizens. As soon as tidings of the 
 assault upon Sumter reached Washington, the president issued 
 a call for seventy-five thousand men, to serve for three months 
 in quelling the rebellion, and in less than twenty days nearly two 
 hundred thousand had volunteered, and about forty millions of 
 dollars had been subscribed by the loyal people of the north for 
 the purpose of carrying on the war. Then a contest was begun, 
 which, "in numbers engaged, territorial extent of operations, 
 and destructive engines used," is unparalleled in the history of 
 the world. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 1861. 
 
 The condition of the national army at the commencement of 
 the war was extremely unfavorable. It consisted of only sixteen 
 thousand men, the greater part of whom were on the western 
 border, holding the Indians in check, and at least one-half of 
 the entire land force of the United States was surrendered by 
 General Twiggs to the " authorities of Texas," one of the re- 
 volted states. The naval force consisted of but ninety vessels, 
 bearing twenty-four hundred guns and but seven thousand men. 
 These, however, at the beginning of the war were all in foreign 
 waters, with the exception of one steamship bearing twenty-five 
 guns, and a small relief ship of two guns. John B. Floyd, the 
 former secretary of war, had caused most of the arms to be 
 taken from the forts in the northern states to those in the slave 
 states. From this, it will be seen, that almost every instrument 
 which might have been employed for the protection of the gov- 
 ernment, had been put away from its control by the conspirators. 
 
 From the beginning, the conspirators had determined to gain 
 possession of the capital, and it was now in great danger of 
 being seized. As a movement preparatory to the seizure of 
 Washington, the navy yard at Gosport, and the arsenal and 
 armory at Harper's Ferry were attacked by the insurgents. 
 Not being able to hold them, the commander of the national 
 forces set fire to them, and evacuated Harper's Ferry on the 
 18th, and Gosport on the 21st of April. On the 19th of the 
 same month, the sixth Massachusetts regiment passed through 
 Baltimore on its way to Washington, and was attacked by a mob 
 of ten thousand men. Two of its number were killed, and 
 one mortally wounded. This was the first blood shed in the 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 73 
 
 great conflict. A monument to the memory of the two who fell 
 as the first victims of the rebellion, was erected in Lowell, Mass- 
 achusetts. (See view No. 6617.) 
 
 On account of the entensive preparations which the conspira- 
 tors had made, and the increasing strength of the conspiracy, 
 the president issued a call for over sixty-four thousand addi- 
 tional troops for the army and eighteen thousand for the navy 
 "to serve during the war." 
 
 Baltimore was seized by a detachment from the United States 
 forces under General Benjamin F. Butler, and troops after that 
 passed through the city without molestation. The city of Wash- 
 ington was occupied by a large body of national troops under 
 General Winfield Scott, and no more trouble was anticipated 
 from the rebels in that quarter. Up to the time that congress 
 assembled, July 4th, there had been, besides the three months 
 troops, two hundred and thirty thousand men enlisted, and on 
 the 10th congress appropriated five hundred millions of dollars 
 for defraying the expenses of the war, and authorized the presi- 
 dent to call for five hundred thousand more men. On the 20th 
 of the same month, the seat of the confederate government was 
 removed from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia. 
 
 On the 24th of May occurred the first entrance by loyal troops 
 into a rebellious state. Alexandria and Arlington Heights, in 
 Virginia, were seized by United States forces. The first com- 
 mander who entered Alexandria was Colonel E. E. Ellsworth, 
 at the head of his gallant New York Fire Zouaves. He was shot 
 on the same day by the proprietor of the " Marshall House," 
 in that city. (See views No. 2294 and No. 2295.) 
 
 The seat of war was soon extended as far west as Missouri, 
 but that state was rescued from the hands of the conspirators 
 by the energetic Captain Nathaniel Lyon, aided by his troops 
 and the loyal citizens. The first battle after the declaration of 
 war by the United States government, was fought on the 3d of 
 June at Philippi, Barbour county, Virginia. A body of nation- 
 al forces, commanded by Colonel B. F. Kelley, assaulted and 
 defeated a detachment of seventeen hundred confederate soldiers. 
 General Butler, who was in command at Fortress Monroe, 
 
74 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 learned that batteries had been planted on the creek at Big 
 Bethel by Colonel Magruder, a confederate officer, and he, on 
 the night of the 10th, sent Brigadier General Pierce, with two 
 columns from Fortress Monroe and Newport News, to seize 
 them. The two detachments, when they met, fired upon each 
 other, each supposing the other to be a hostile force. In this 
 disaster, the first officer of the regular army who fell a victim 
 to the rebellion, was killed. This was Lieutenant John T. Greble, 
 an artillery officer. 
 
 The next day Colonel Lewis Wallace, with his Indiana Zou- 
 aves, scattered a force of five hundred rebel troops at Romney, 
 Hampshire county, Virginia, and drove the confederate force, 
 which was stationed at Harper's Ferry, to Winchester. At 
 about this time a considerable force, commanded by General 
 George B. McClellan, entered West Virginia from the Ohio. 
 A detachment from this army, under Colonel W. S. Rosecrans, 
 defeated a body of three thousand confederate troops at Rich 
 Mountain, on the 11th of July. 
 
 At the time these military operations were being carried en, 
 the loyal people of Western Virginia were excited over the ordi- 
 nance of secession which had lately been passed at Richmond. 
 They refused their consent to that action, and representatives 
 from thirty-nine counties assembled in convention at Wheeling, 
 on the 11th of June. On the 17th they declared their inde- 
 pendence of the government of the state of Virginia, and on 
 the 20th the commonwealth of West Virginia was established, 
 with Frank H. Pierpont as Governor. 
 
 In July, a movement was set on foot for the capture of Rich- 
 mond, the confederate capital, and on the 18th of this month, 
 General Irwin McDowell, with about fifty thousand men, com- 
 prising the army around Washington, advanced from Fairfax 
 Court-house, Virginia, for the purpose of attacking the confed- 
 erates at Manassas Junction. It had been the design, if successful 
 at Manassas, to advance against Richmond, and take possession 
 of that city. The same day on which they left Fairfax Court- 
 house, they came upon a body of confederate troops at Black- 
 burn's Ford, near Centreville, where a sharp skirmish occurred. 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 75 
 
 No advantage was gained by either side, and at Bull Run, on 
 the 21st, the contest was renewed. (See views No. 2328 and 
 2329.) At this time a very severe battle was fought. The rebel 
 forces were under the command of Beauregard and other able 
 generals. At first the federal forces were triumphant ; but just 
 as the confederates were about to retreat, General Joseph E. 
 Johnston arrived with reinforcements. The confederates were 
 then rallied, and the federal forces were completely routed, and 
 fled toward Washington. The national loss at this battle was 
 over three thousand men. On the 22d, General McClellan 
 was invested with the command of the forces in the vicinity of 
 Washington, called " The Army of the Potomac;" and on the 
 31st, General Scott having resigned his position on account of 
 his failing health, General McClellan received the appointment 
 of general-in-chief of the armies of the union. 
 
 During the time that these military movements were in progress 
 in Virginia, the war was progressing in the west. A severe 
 contest occurred near Carthage, in Missouri, on the 5th of July. 
 The union forces were led by Colonel Franz Sigel, and the rebels 
 by the governor of Missouri, C. F. Jackson. Although the 
 forces under Jackson far outnumbered those of Sigel, the latter 
 conducted his retreat so ably that not one union soldier fell into 
 the hands of the enemy ; and, as the confederate loss was almost 
 four times that of the national, it was, substantially, a union 
 victory. On the 2d of August, an indecisive fight took place at 
 Day Spring, between the nationals, under General Lyon, and 
 the confederates, under General Ben McCulloch, which was 
 renewed on the 10th at Wilson's Creek, near Springfield. Mc- 
 Culloch 's force in this battle was about twenty- two thousand 
 strong, while that of Lyon, with the exception of a small 
 column under Sigel, consisted of only five thousand. General 
 Lyon was killed at nine o'clock in the morning. The victory, 
 which was very indecisive, was claimed by the rebels, although 
 their loss was more than double that of the federals. 
 
 During the summer of 1861 a large navy had been created, 
 and in the latter part of August an expedition was fitted out at 
 Fortress Monroe against Forts Hatteras and Clark, at the 
 
76 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 entrance of Pamlico Sound. This expedition, the military force 
 of which was under General Butler, and the naval under Com- 
 modore Stringham, proved remarkably successful. A great 
 many prisoners were taken, besides several vessels, heavy cannon, 
 and one thousand stand of small arms. 
 
 When the conspirators received tidings of the action of the 
 people of West Virginia, they resolved to compel them to sub- 
 mit to secession. Accordingly, three bodies of troops were sent 
 against them, commanded respectively by Colonel Robert E. 
 Lee, ex-Governor Henry A. Wise, and John B. Floyd, the 
 former secretary of war. The latter was met at Carnifex Ferry, 
 in West Virginia, by a federal force under General Rosecrans, 
 and, in a severe engagement of three days' duration, the rebels 
 were defeated. At about this time, also, the union troops at 
 Lexington, in Missouri, under Colonel James A. Mulligan, were 
 attacked by a confederate force under General Sterling Price. 
 The rebels gained possession of the town and held it until the 
 16th of October, when it was recaptured by a body of federal 
 cavalry led by Major Frank J. White. 
 
 On the 31st of October, a body of national troops, under 
 General Charles P. Stone, was defeated at Ball's Bluff, in Vir- 
 ginia, by a vastly superior confederate force under General 
 Evans, and on the 7th of November, one week later, another 
 victory was gained by the rebels at Belmont, Missouri. Their 
 forces, under the command of General Cheatham, were attacked 
 by General Ulysses S. Grant, at the head of a body of union 
 troops, and they were at first compelled to abandon their posi- 
 tion, but, having received re-enforcements from Columbus, Ken- 
 tucky, they rallied and drove the federal troops to their boats. 
 On the same day, however, Forts Beauregard and Walker, 
 guarding the Port Royal entrance, on the coast of South Caro- 
 lina, were captured by a union naval force under Rear-Admiral 
 Samuel F. Dupont. " This was a very important victory, for 
 it led to the permanent occupation, by government troops, of the 
 Sea Islands along the South Carolina coasts, between Charleston 
 and Savannah, so famous for the production of fine cotton." 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 77 
 
 This was the last important movement during this year, but the 
 hostile feeling which existed at the time of the bombardment of 
 Fort Sumter was now as strong as ever, and both armies made 
 extensive preparations for a vigorous campaign the coming season. 
 
 1862. 
 
 Hostilities were commenced this year by another joint military 
 and naval expedition from Fortress Monroe, under the command 
 of General Ambrose E. Burnside and Commodore L. M. Golds- 
 borough. The expedition set out from Hampton Roads on the 
 11th of January, and proceeded southward as far as Hatteras 
 Inlet, whence it turned and went back to Roanoke Island, in 
 Albemarle Sound, which it took, after a sharp contest, on the 
 8th of February, together with over three thousand stand of 
 arms, and a large number of prisoners. 
 
 While this expedition was in progress, on the 19th of Janu- 
 ary a severe battle was fought at Mill Spring, in the eastern 
 part of Kentucky, between union forces, commanded by General 
 George H. Thomas and General Schoepf, and confederates un- 
 der Generals George B. Crittenden and F. R. Zollicoffer. In 
 this battle the federal troops gained a decisive victory. The 
 rebel General Zollicoffer was shot by Colonel S. S. Fry, of the 
 4th Kentucky regiment. 
 
 Soon after this battle several other important victories were 
 successively won by the national forces. The first of these was 
 the capture of Fort Henry, on the Tennessee river, on the 6th 
 of February, by land troops, under General Grant, and a naval 
 force commanded by Commodore Andrew H. Foote. Grant, 
 then, with about fifteen thousand of his troops advanced to Fort 
 Donelson, on the Cumberland river, which was held by a large 
 garrison under the command of Generals John B. Floyd, Simon 
 B. Buckner, and Gideon J. Pillow. Being here joined by other 
 troops, which increased his force to about forty thousand strong, 
 Grant laid siege to the fort. After sustaining the siege for three 
 days, General Buckner, on the 16th of February, surrendered 
 the fort, together with over thirteen thousand men and valuable 
 spoils. Generals Floyd and Pillow deserted Buckner when they 
 
78 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 saw that the fort must be surrendered ; but the latter, more 
 honorable than they, remained, and suffered himself to be made 
 a prisoner with his soldiers. 
 
 On the 5th of March, a battle was commenced at Pea Ridge, 
 in western Arkansas, between federal troops under Generals 
 Samuel R. Curtis, Franz Sigel, and Jeff. 0. Davis, and confed- 
 erates under Generals Karl Van Porn, Sterling Price, and Ben 
 McCulloch, in which, after a throe days* contest, the union forces 
 •were victorious. The noted Texan, General Ben MeCulloch, 
 was killed in this battle. On the day this battle closed, " a new 
 kind of vessel, called a 'rani,' and named Virginia (late Mcrri- 
 mac), produced great havoc and consternation in Hampton 
 Roads." This vessel was plated with iron, and had been con- 
 structed by the confederates at Norfolk. On the same night, 
 however, a "floating battery," lately invented by Captain J. 
 Ericsson, a native of Sweden, made its appearance in Hampton 
 Heads. Like the Merrimcic, it was constructed chiefly of iron. 
 It was named the Monitor, and was commanded by Lieutenant 
 John 11. Warden. The next day it went out against the Merri- 
 mac, and, after a severe engagement, the •"Rebel Apollyon " 
 was so badly disabled that it retreated to Norfolk, leaving the 
 little Monitor in command of Hampton Roads. 
 
 At the beginning of this year, there were four armies in the 
 held, viz : The Army of the Potomac, the army at Fortress 
 Monroe, the army of Western Virginia, and the army in Ken- 
 tucky. An order had been issued by President Lincoln on the 
 27th o( January, for all the armies to move upon the enemy on 
 the 22d of February. We have seen that this order had been 
 obeyed by the armies at Fortress Monroe, and in Kentucky. 
 The Army of the Potomac, also, under General MeClellan, 
 advanced to Manassas, and the confederate force stationed there, 
 being less than one-fourth the number of the federal force, 
 retreated to Richmond: and. as was afterward known, the 
 national army might have advanced and taken possession of 
 Richmond without being very strongly resisted : but General 
 MeClellan had formed a plan of advance different from that 
 originally fixed upon, and on this account the army was delayed 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 79 
 
 until the 3d of April. On that day, General McClellan, at the 
 head of* the Army of the /'ofomae, left Fortress Monroe on an 
 expedition againsl Richmond. One month later, May 4th, 
 Ynrkto\vn. which was occupied by a rebel force under General 
 Magruder, and which McClellan was preparing to besiege, was 
 evaluated by the garrison stationed there, who fled toward Rich- 
 mond. The federal troops immediately entered the town, and on 
 the 5th a force was sent in pursuit of the fugitives. They were 
 overtaken on the same day at Williamsburg, and in a severe 
 engagement which ensued, the union troops were victorious. 
 On tie 9th, General John E. Wool, who was then in command 
 at Fortress Monroe, advanced with a body of troops against 
 Norfolk. The rebels at that place made no attempt to defend 
 it, but fled to Richmond, after having utterly destroyed the 
 famous ram Werrimac, leaving behind them about two hundred 
 cannon. On the 25th, a force of about four thousand men, 
 under General Nathaniel P. Banks, was defeated at Winchester, 
 in the Shenandoah valley, by a confederate force of fifteen 
 thousand, but made good their retreat. A great part of the 
 Potomac army crossed the Chickahominy river on the 22d, and 
 on the 29th captured Hanover Court-house from the rebels. 
 A severe engagement took place at Fair Oaks on the 31st of 
 May and 1st of June, between the rebels under General Joseph 
 E. Johnston, and a portion of the army of the Potomac, under 
 General Silas Casey. The rebel force was more than double 
 that of the nationals, but no advantage was gained by either 
 side, while each sustained a fearful loss. The army of the Poto- 
 mac changed its position in about three weeks from this time, 
 which led to a succession of battles during the last week of June, 
 the most important of which were the battles of Mcchanicsville, 
 June 25th ; Gaines' Mill, June 27 ; Peach Orchard Station, and 
 Savage's Station, June 29 ; Glendalc, or White Oak Swamp, 
 June 30, and Malvern Hill, July 1. 
 
 While these movements were in progress in Virginia, the other 
 branches of the army were not idle. On the 14th of March, 
 the expedition from Fortress Monroe, known as " Burnside's 
 expedition," captured Newborn, in North Carolina, and Grant 
 
80 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 was following up his victories at Forts Henry and Donelson, by 
 advancing further into the confederate territory, so that at the 
 beginning of April, he had ascended the Tennessee river almost 
 to the southern boundary of the state. On the 6th of the month, 
 his army was attacked before daylight by a strong rebel force 
 under General A. Sydney Johnston. This engagement took 
 place at Shiloh, near Pittsburgh Landing. The union troops 
 were scattered, and General Benjamin M. Prentiss, together 
 with twenty-five hundred men, was taken prisoner. During the 
 night, however, strong re-enforcements arrived under General 
 Don Carlos Buell, and, on the morning of the 7th, General 
 Grant renewed the contest, and, after a very severely fought 
 battle, gained a complete victory. On the same day, Island No. 
 10, a strongly fortified island in the Mississippi river, together 
 with the surrounding batteries on the shore, was surrendered to 
 Commodore Foote, after a twenty-three days' bombardment. 
 
 Four days after this, the national army gained control over 
 the entrance to Savannah river, by the surrender of Fort Pulaski, 
 at its mouth, to General David Hunter, and on the same day 
 Huntsville, in Alabama, was captured by a federal force under 
 General Ormsby M. Mitchel. On the 18th, General C. C. 
 Augur captured Fredericksburg, in Virginia, and on the 28th, 
 New Orleans, the most important and populous city of the con- 
 federacy, next to Baltimore, was taken by a naval force under 
 Commodores David G. Farragut and David D. Porter, and a 
 military force under General Butler. 
 
 Eight days after the capture of New Orleans, a naval force, 
 commanded by Colonel Charles Ellet, after a hard fought battle, 
 overpowered the confederates at Memphis, Tennessee, and the 
 city was surrendered to the nationals. Colonel Ellet was mor- 
 tally wounded, but Commodore Davis immediately assumed com- 
 mand, and took possession of the city. 
 
 The troops commanded by General John C. Fremont, Nathan- 
 iel P. Banks, and Irwin McDowell, were united into one force, 
 called the Army of Virginia, on the 25th of June, and General 
 John Pope was invested with the command. This army was 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 81 
 
 comparatively idle during the greater part of the month of July, 
 but in the latter part of this month the rebels advanced from 
 Richmond with the intention of making an attempt to seize 
 Washington. General Pope, with great difficulty, held them in 
 check until the 22d of August, when McClellan came to his 
 assistance. General McClellan was placed in command of all 
 the forces around Washington on the 1st of September. 
 
 On the 14th, a severe engagement occurred at South Moun- 
 tain, in Maryland, in which each army was commanded by its 
 General-in-Chief, George B. McClellan, on the national side, 
 and Robert E. Lee on the side of the confederates. The union 
 forces won the day, but the heroic General Jesse L. Reno was 
 among the slain. On the following day, Harper's Ferry, in 
 Virginia, together with over eleven thousand men, two hundred 
 wagons, seventy cannon, and thirteen thousand small arms, was 
 surrendered to the confederates, under General Thomas J. 
 (" Stonewall ") Jackson. (See views of Harper's Ferry.) 
 
 Two days after the surrender of Harper's Ferry, Generals 
 McClellan and Lee, each with a force of about one hundred 
 thousand men, met at Antietam Creek, in Maryland, and, in a 
 severe engagement, lasting from daylight till dark, the union 
 forces were victorious. The rebels lost about twenty thousand 
 men. The union General J. K. F. Mansfield was killed, and 
 Generals I. P. Rodman and Israel B. Richardson were mortally 
 wounded. General Lee retreated toward Richmond, but Mc- 
 Clellan made no attempt to pursue him, and the army of the 
 Potomac remained in Maryland until the 27th of October, when 
 General Burnside, with a portion of it, entered Virginia. The 
 rest of the army followed on the 31st, led by McClellan, who 
 was, on the 5th of November, superseded by General Burnside. 
 
 In August, Middle Kentucky was ravaged by bands of guer- 
 rillas, who were fighting for the confederate cause. The most 
 famous leader of these depredators was John Morgan, who, at 
 the head of a large band, committed many ravages. At about 
 the same time, the state of Kentucky was invaded by rebel troops 
 led by General E. Kirby Smith, who, on the 29th of August, 
 
 6 
 
82 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 defeated a federal force of infantry and cavalry, commanded by 
 Generals Manson and Cruft, near Richmond, in Kentucky, and 
 then advanced toward Cincinnati. General Wallace, who was 
 in command of northern Kentucky, was so well prepared to 
 receive the rebels when they approached, that they beat a hasty 
 retreat. A confederate force, under General Braxton Bragg, 
 also invaded Kentucky with the intention of seizing the city of 
 Louisville. That place, however, was well defended by General 
 Buell, and the attempt to capture it was given up. On the 8th 
 of October, Bragg was met and defeated near Perryville, in 
 Kentucky, by a federal force under the command of Generals 
 A. D. McCook, Lovell H. Rousseau, and Philip H. Sheridan, 
 and he soon after left the state. 
 
 Nothing of importance was done by the army of the Tennes- 
 see, after the battle of Shiloh, except the expulsion of the rebels 
 from Corinth on the 26th of May, by a body of troops under 
 General Henry W. Halleck, until October. On the 3d and 4th 
 of this month, the confederate Generals Van Dorn and Price 
 carried on an engagement with the force at Corinth. They 
 compelled the federal force to flee into the town the first day, 
 but, on the second day, after a severely contested battle, they 
 were badly worsted, and fled, leaving behind them fourteen flags, 
 and several stands of arms. 
 
 After Burnside had been placed in command of the army of 
 the Potomac, he advanced toward Fredericksburg, on the Rap- 
 pahannock. He halted opposite the city on the 17th of Novem- 
 ber, where the army lay encamped for almost a month. On the 
 13th of December, a portion of the army, led by Generals Joseph 
 Hooker, Edwin V. Sumner, and William B. Franklin, attacked 
 the rebel force at Fredericksburg, but they were defeated with 
 the loss of about eight thousand men. The army remained in- 
 active from that time until near the end of April, 1863. 
 
 During the year 1862, Pensacola, in Florida, had been cap- 
 tured by national forces, and several victories had been won by 
 the national arms in Texas and on the lower Mississippi. The 
 last important engagements of the year were an unsuccessful 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 83 
 
 attempt, by union troops, under General William T. Sherman, 
 to gain possession of Vicksburg, in Mississippi, on the 27th of 
 December, and a severely fought battle at Murfreesboro, in Ten- 
 nessee, between federal troops under General William S. Rose- 
 crans, and confederates, commanded by General Bragg. This 
 battle, which continued from the 29th of December, 1862, until 
 the 4th of January, 1863, was won by the union troops, but 
 with the loss of almost twelve thousand men. 
 
 While these contests on land and water were going on, the 
 government at Washington "was devising and executing measures 
 for the suppression of the great insurrection. Congress made 
 ample provisions for money and men ; the latter by draft, if not 
 otherwise obtained. Believing that a heavy blow at slavery had 
 become a military necessity, it authorized the president to pro- 
 claim the emancipation of the slaves. He did not do so imme- 
 diately ; but, by proclamation, September 22d, 1862, he assured 
 the confederates that, unless they should lay down their arms 
 within a hundred days, he should issue an edict which would 
 proclaim the freedom of all bondmen in territory wherein rebel- 
 lion existed." 
 
 1863. 
 
 As the confederates did not heed the warning of President 
 Lincoln, September 22d, 1862, he, on the 1st of January, 1863, 
 issued the famous Emancipation Proclamation, which proclaimed 
 liberty to all slaves in those states which were in rebellion against 
 the government. 
 
 The last session of the thirty-seventh congress closed on the 
 4th of March. " It had placed the entire resources of the coun- 
 try in the hands of the president, and adopted measures for the 
 increase and efficiency of the army." All the national forces 
 were ordered to their posts, and, in the early part of May, the 
 president ordered a draft of three hundred thousand men. This 
 measure met with considerable opposition ; and, in New York 
 city, on the day when the draft was commenced, a fearful riot 
 broke out among the laboring classes and rebel sympathizers, 
 which was not quelled until the end of three days. " The draft 
 
84 TIIE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 was enforced in twelve states," and "the government, sustained 
 by every right-minded citizen, went steadily on in its duty." 
 After the emancipation proclamation had been issued, thousands 
 of slaves came within the lines of the union army, and, at the 
 close of the year, sixty thousand colored troops were in the 
 service of the government. 
 
 On the 25th of January, General Burnside was relieved of 
 the command of the army of the Potomac, and General Hooker 
 appointed in his place. Near the close of April, General Hooker 
 crossed the Rappahannock, and, on the 2d, 3d and 4th of May, 
 he encountered a large rebel force, under General Lee, at 
 Chancellorsville. This was a severe contest, in which neither 
 party gained any advantage. Both sides sustained a heavy 
 loss, and among the rebel slain was the famous " Stonewall" 
 Jackson. 
 
 On the 28th of June, Hooker was superseded by General 
 George G. Meade. General Lee had advanced from Virginia, 
 through Maryland, into Pennsylvania, during the month of 
 June, and his presence in the latter state produced great terror 
 among the inhabitants. At length, on the 1st of July, he was 
 met at Gettysburg, in Adams county, by General Meade. (See 
 views Nos. 2384, '5, '6 and 7, and 2394, '5 and '6.) The first 
 engagement, on the morning of the 1st, was commanded, on the 
 federal side, by General John F. Reynolds, and on the side of 
 the confederates, by General D. H. Hill. General Reynolds 
 was slain (see view No. 2392). The battle raged, with inter- 
 ruptions, until the evening of the 3d, when the national forces 
 gained a complete victory. They captured three cannon, forty- 
 one banners, over twenty-eight thousand small arms, and nearly 
 fourteen thousand prisoners. 
 
 The confederates, followed by the army of the Potomac, re- 
 treated into -Virginia beyond the Rappahannock. Both armies 
 lay quiet until the 5th of October, when Lee again moved 
 northward, and destroyed the railroad between the Rapidan river 
 and Manassas Junction. Several skirmishes took place between 
 that time and the early part of November, when Meade drove 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 85 
 
 the rebel force back across the Rappahannock, and there en- 
 camped. Nothing more of importance was done by these armies 
 until the next year. 
 
 During the year 1863, the union troops in North Carolina, 
 under General J. G. Foster, after a series of engagements, 
 gained possession of all of eastern North Carolina north of the 
 Neuse river. The Department of the Gulf, also, under General 
 Banks, with headquarters at New Orleans, was active during 
 this year. In a vigorous raid between New Orleans and Alex- 
 andria, on the Red river, Banks captured twenty-two cannon 
 and two thousand prisoners, besides considerable public property 
 and several steamboats. In company with Admiral Farragut, 
 he captured Port Hudson, on the Mississippi, on the 8th of July. 
 General Banks reports his captures during this campaign to be 
 over ten thousand men "seventy-three guns, six thousand small 
 arms, beside three gunboats, eight other steamboats, and cotton, 
 cattle, &c, to an immense value." He also sent out a successful 
 expedition to Texas. 
 
 Admiral Dupont, on the 7th of April, attempted the capture 
 of Fort Sumter, but was unsuccessful, because he was not aided 
 by any land forces. General Quincy A. Gillmore was sent to 
 his assistance, and, " on the 23d of August, after a terrible 
 bombardment for seven days, Fort Sumter was reduced, it was 
 reported, to a 'shapeless and harmless mass of ruins.' ' (See 
 views of Fort Sumter.) 
 
 After Sherman's unsuccessful attack on Vicksburg, in Decem- 
 ber, 1862, he went with General John A. McClernand, who, 
 with the assistance of Admiral Porter, in January, 1863, took 
 possession of Arkansas Post, on the Arkansas river, together 
 with " five thousand prisoners, seventeen guns, three thousand 
 small arms, besides large quantities of munitions and commissary 
 stores." 
 
 General Grant, who was now at the head of the Army of the 
 Mississippi, began to lay plans for the capture of Vicksburg, a 
 post considered impregnable by the confederates. After several 
 unsuccessful attempts to pass around the city, he, on the 14th 
 of April, crossed the Mississippi and gained two battles near 
 
86 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 Port Gibson, south of Vicksburg, whence he advanced to the 
 rear of the city. He laid siege to the city on the 19th of May. 
 At first he had some trouble in retaining his position, for General 
 Joseph E. Johnston was in his rear with a large force. He 
 persevered, however, in the assault upon Vicksburg, and, on 
 the 4th of July, General John C. Pemberton, the officer in 
 command, surrendered the city to General Grant, and a force 
 was sent, under General Sherman, to hold Johnston in check. 
 
 General Grant gives, as the result of this campaign, " the 
 defeat of the enemy in five battles outside of Vicksburg ; the 
 occupation of Jackson, the capital of the state of Mississippi, 
 and the capture of Vicksburg and its garrisons and munitions 
 of war ; a loss to the enemy of thirty-seven thousand prisoners, 
 among whom were fifteen general officers ; at least ten thousand 
 killed and wounded, and among the killed Generals Tracy, 
 Tilghman and Green, and hundreds, perhaps thousands of strag- 
 glers, who can never be collected and reorganized. Arms and 
 munitions of war for an army of sixty thousand men have fallen 
 into our hands ; besides a large amount of other public property, 
 consisting of railroads, locomotives, cars, steamboats, cotton, 
 &c. ; and much was destroyed to prevent our capturing it." 
 This was the most brilliant and memorable campaign of the 
 war, and " the heaviest single blow ever given to the muscular 
 resources of the rebellion." 
 
 This victory, coming, as it did, on the day after that of Meade, 
 at Gettysburg, caused great rejoicing throughout the country. 
 
 After his victory at Murfreesboro, Tennessee (January 4), 
 General Rosecrans remained quiet until the 25th of June. At 
 that time, however, he again advanced against Bragg, compell- 
 ing him to retire as far as Chattanooga, on the Tennessee river, 
 in the southern part of the state. Rosecrans moved on, took 
 possession of Chattanooga, and, on the 19th of September, en- 
 countered the forces under Bragg, and re-enforcements from 
 Lee, under General James Longstreet, in the Chickamauga val- 
 ley. Rosecrans was compelled to retire to Chattanooga, where 
 he remained until Grant arrived with additional forces. That 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 87 
 
 commander, on the 19th of October, left General J. B. McPher- 
 son in command at Vicksburg, and went himself to take command 
 of the army of the Cumberland, at Chattanooga. He restored 
 communication with that place, and, being re-enforced by Sher- 
 man in November, he, on the 23d, commenced the memorable 
 battle of Lookout Mountain and Chattanooga. (See views of 
 Lookout Mountain). A force under General Hooker gained 
 possession of Lookout Mountain, and, on the 25th, the battle 
 terminated in favor of the national army. Bragg fled into 
 Georgia, and Longstreet went to Knoxville, in East Tennessee. 
 Here, on the 29th, he attacked a union force under General 
 Burnside, but, Sherman arriving with re-enforcements from 
 Grant's army, Longstreet fled back to the army under General 
 Lee, in Virginia. 
 
 During this year, the states of Missouri and Arkansas passed 
 into the hands of the national force in that department, and, on 
 the 26th of July, General John Morgan, the noted guerrilla, 
 surrendered a large force under his command, to General Shack- 
 leford, in Morgan county, Ohio. The navy had also been at 
 work. The rebel ram Atlanta was captured by the Weehawken, 
 of Dupont's fleet, under Captain John Rodgers, off* the coast of 
 Georgia, on the 17th of June. Farragut and Porter had also 
 won several victories on the Mississippi river and its tributaries. 
 At the close of this year, therefore, the people of the loyal north 
 had great cause for rejoicing, and the prospects for the speedy 
 success of the armies of the republic were greater than ever before. 
 
 1864. 
 
 On the 1st of February, of this year, President Lincoln again 
 ordered a draft for three hundred thousand men ; and, on the 
 15th of March, he issued a call for two hundred thousand more 
 volunteers for the army and navy. Preparations were made at 
 the beginning of the year for another attempt to gain possession 
 of Richmond. 
 
 On the 16th of January, fifteen miles of the track of the Vir- 
 ginia and Tennessee railroad, west of Lynchburg, were destroyed 
 
88 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 by a band of Union cavalry from the army of the Potomac, 
 under General W. W. Averill. 
 
 On the 3d of February, General Sherman left Vicksburg on 
 an invasion eastward. He was gone twenty-four days, and his 
 expedition was exceedingly successful. An invading force, under 
 General Truman Seymour, left Port Royal, in South Carolina, 
 on the 5th, and succeeded in making its way to Olustee, where, 
 on the 20th, it was defeated by a large confederate force, and 
 was compelled to fall back to Jacksonville. On the 13th of 
 March, General A. J. Smith, from the army at Vicksburg, 
 together with the fleet of Admiral Porter, captured Fort De 
 Russey, on the Red river. Then, in conjunction with General 
 Banks, they gained two victories — one at Cane river, on the 
 26th of March, and one at Pleasant Hill on the 9th of April. 
 
 At this time, General Steele, in command at Arkansas, in 
 endeavoring to join the Red river expedition, was attacked, and 
 lost two hundred wagons and two thousand men. On the 24th 
 of March, the rebel cavalry leader, General N. B. Forrest, cap- 
 tured Union City, in Tennessee, and on the 25th he plundered 
 Paducah, in Kentucky. On the 12th of April he took posses- 
 sion of Fort Pillow, in western Tennessee, on the Mississippi 
 river, where he instituted a general massacre upon colored troops 
 stationed there. 
 
 The armies of the east and west made preparations for a great 
 campaign at the beginning of the year. The army of the Poto- 
 mac, under General Meade, and the three armies of the west, 
 united under General Sherman, were all eager to meet the foe. 
 On account of his valuable services to the government, General 
 Grant, on the 9th of March, received a commission as Lieuten- 
 ant-General, and was appointed General-in-Chief of the national 
 forces. He took command of the army of the Potomac, with 
 his headquarters in the field, and, on the 3d of May, sent an 
 order to General Sherman to advance against the rebels in Geor- 
 gia, while he, with the Potomac army, should move upon Rich- 
 mond. He crossed the Rapidan and encountered the army of 
 Lee in the " Wilderness," near Chancellorsville, on the 5th of 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 89 
 
 May. The number of men engaged in this battle is estimated 
 at two hundred and fifty thousand men. After a severe contest 
 of three days, the confederate army retreated toward Richmond. 
 Grant followed Lee so closely that, in the early part of June, 
 the latter was close upon the outskirts of that city. A force 
 from Fortress Monroe, under General Butler, fortified itself on 
 the Appomattox river, and kept back Beauregard, who was 
 coming up from the Carolinas to the assistance of Lee. Grant 
 soon gained a position near Petersburg, and Lee went south of 
 the Appomattox for the purpose of defending Petersburg. 
 Grant commenced a siege immediately, and destroyed the rail- 
 way connections between Lee's position and Richmond at the 
 close of July, so that the safety of both the army and city were 
 imperiled. He gained several victories over Lee's army during 
 the months of July and August. On the 18th of August, he 
 seized the Weldon railway, the principal line of communication 
 between Lee and the southern part of the confederacy. Several 
 attempts were made by the rebels to recapture it, but in vain. 
 Grant, after having demolished it for a distance of twelve miles, 
 intrenched himself near by, and kept the army of Lee in con- 
 tinual terror. (See views of Atlanta, Georgia.) 
 
 After receiving Grant's order to march, Sherman, with his 
 vast army, left Chattanooga, and moved toward Atlanta, in 
 Georgia. He fought three heavy battles near there with the 
 confederate force, under General John B. Hood (who had super- 
 seded Johnson), and utterly defeated them each time. In the 
 second battle, July 22d, General McPherson was killed. Sher- 
 man sent out detachments of cavalry to cut off the railway com- 
 munications with the city, and closely besieged it until the 2d of 
 September, when Hood abandoned the place, and Sherman 
 entered in triumph. 
 
 While these operations were in progress in the United States, 
 a powerful rebel privateer, called the Alabama, under the com- 
 mand of Captain Raphael Scmmes, was producing great havoc 
 among American merchantmen in foreign waters. She carefully 
 avoided all vessels sent against her by the government, until 
 finally, on the 15th of June, the French government ordered 
 
90 THE CIVIL WAR. 
 
 her to leave their waters, and, in doing so, she encountered a 
 national vessel named the Kearsarge, commanded by Captain 
 John Winslow. The Alabama was sunk, but her commander 
 escaped in an English vessel. 
 
 In the early part of July, an invading force, under General 
 Jubal A. Early, left Lee's army for the purpose of seizing sup- 
 plies. General Lewis Wallace, with a force numbering about 
 one-third that of Early, met the latter at the Monocacy river. 
 He kept the confederates from Baltimore and Washington, but 
 was compelled by superior numbers to fall back, and Early 
 carried off a large amount of booty. On the 30th of the same 
 month, another force ascended through Maryland, into Pennsyl- 
 vania, as far as the village of Chambersburg, which they set on 
 fire. (See views Nos. 2018, 2019, and 2020.) They immedi- 
 ately returned, after gathering supplies in the Shenandoah val- 
 ley, closely pursued by a force from Grant's army, under Gen- 
 eral Sheridan. 
 
 On the 5th of August, a fleet under Admiral Farragut, and a 
 co-operating land force under General Gordon Granger, entered 
 Mobile. On the 8th, Fort Gaines, and on the 23d, Fort Morgan 
 were surrendered to Farragut. Both these forts were strong 
 posts at the entrance of Mobile Bay, and were well garrisoned. 
 
 In view of this and other victories, the president, on the 3d of 
 September, issued a proclamation recommending the next Sun- 
 day, September 11th, as a day of thanksgiving and prayer. 
 
 In the beginning of November, General Sherman sent General 
 George H. Thomas, with a considerable force, to Tennessee, 
 against Hood, and, on the 14th, he himself left Atlanta on a 
 march to the sea. He captured Milledgeville, the capital of the 
 state of Georgia, on the 29th, and continued his advance toward 
 Savannah, taking possession of that city on the 21st of Decem- 
 ber. General Hood coming up toward Nashville, he was met 
 at Franklin by a portion of Thomas' army, under General Scho- 
 field, on the 30th of November. Schofield was driven back to 
 Nashville, but, on the 15th of December, General Thomas ad- 
 vanced against Hood, and compelled him to flee into Alabama, 
 after suffering great losses. 
 
THE CIVIL WAR. 91 
 
 On the 8th of November, Abraham Lincoln was re-elected 
 president of the United States, and Andrew Johnson, of Tennes- 
 see, vice president, by the republican party. The democratic 
 candidate was General George B. McClellan. 
 
 1865. 
 
 After the capture of Savannah by General Sherman, he was 
 joined by the army in South Carolina, under General Foster. 
 He moved northward to Columbia, the capital of South Caro- 
 lina, which he captured on the 17th of February. Thence he 
 advanced to Goldsboro, in North Carolina, where, on the 22d of 
 March, he was joined by General Schofield, from Newbern, and 
 General Terry, who had captured Wilmington, on the Cape Fear 
 river, on the 15th of January, assisted by a naval force under 
 Admiral Porter. This united force held Johnston in check at 
 Raleigh, the capital of the state. 
 
 General Sheridan held command of the Shenandoah valley, 
 and, in the early part of March, he attacked General Early at 
 Charlottesville, and gained a great victory. He then destroyed 
 the railway communication between Richmond and Lynchburg, 
 and, at about the middle of March, he, with General Edward 0. 
 C. Ord, and the army of the James, joined General Grant before 
 Richmond. (See views of Richmond, Virginia.) 
 
 Lee now endeavored to escape from Richmond, and go to join 
 Johnston, in North Carolina, but, in this he was foiled by Grant, 
 who would not allow him to leave Richmond. After several 
 severely fought battles, in which Lee suffered a loss of over twenty 
 thousand men, he was, at length, obliged to sign terms of capitu- 
 lation. On the 9th of April, the main army of the confederates 
 was surrendered by their general-in-chief to General Grant, 
 and they were paroled as prisoners of war. This was " the 
 death blow to the rebellion." The " president," Jefferson Davis, 
 and the other ring-leaders of the conspiracy fled, and, on the 
 26th, General Johnston surrendered to General Sherman "on the 
 terms accorded to Lee." The inferior forces were speedily dis- 
 persed, and the war was substantially ended in May. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 President Lincoln went down to the front on the 24th of 
 March, 1865, and, at the time of the fall of Richmond, he was 
 at Grant's headquarters in City Point, Virginia. The next day, 
 April 4th, he went to Richmond, and held a levee in the de- 
 serted mansion of the late confederate "president." 
 
 On the 14th of April, four years after the evacuation of Fort 
 Sumter, General Anderson, together with a great many officers, 
 soldiers and civilians, celebrated this anniversary by raising over 
 the ruins the old flag which Anderson carried away with him at 
 the time of the evacuation. (See views Nos. 3137 to 3146, 
 inclusive.) 
 
 At this time the whole land was filled with rejoicing concern- 
 ing the surrender of Lee, and the probable speedy surrender of 
 Johnston, but, on the morning of the 15th of April, the joy was 
 turned into sorrow by the announcement that, on the previous 
 evening, the president had been stricken down by the hand of an 
 assassin. President Lincoln and General Grant had been invi- 
 ted to visit Ford's theatre on that evening, and it had been pub- 
 licly announced that they would be present. General Grant, on 
 that day, was suddenly called out of the city, but the president, 
 not willing to disappoint the public, went, with his wife and two 
 others. During the progress of the play, John Wilkes Booth, an 
 actor of some note, came into the box from behind, shot the 
 president, and, jumping on the stage, escaped through the back 
 door of the theatre. At the same time, Secretary Seward, who 
 was lying ill at his residence, was severely wounded by a man 
 who had entered the house ostensibly for the purpose of deliver- 
 ing a message from Mr. Seward's attending physician. A plot 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 93 
 
 had been concocted to murder the president, vice president, 
 General Grant, the cabinet officers, and other distinguished per- 
 sons, and the leaders of the " confederacy " were suspected of 
 forming it, in the hope that " in the midst of the confusion that 
 might ensue, their wicked cause might gain an advantage." 
 The plan, however, was unsuccessful. The president was the 
 only one killed. Secretary Seward recovered, and the men 
 appointed to assassinate the other intended victims, failed to 
 carry out their part of the plot. 
 
 Andrew Johnson was inaugurated president at ten o'clock on 
 the 15th of April, and " the government went steadily on in its 
 course." The remains of the martyred president were taken, 
 by the way of the most important cities of the United States, to 
 his former residence, Springfield, Illinois. Large crowds of 
 people accompanied the funeral procession in every city through 
 which it passed. In Philadelphia the body was seen by one 
 hundred and twenty thousand citizens, and in New York, both 
 to and from the City Hall, where the body was exhibited, the 
 mournful cortege was attended by an immense concourse. (See 
 views of the " funeral of President Lincoln, New York city.") 
 
 On the 26th of April, the day of the surrender of Johnston, 
 Booth and one of his accomplices, David C. Harrold, were found 
 in a barn near Port Royal, Virginia. Upon their refusal to 
 surrender themselves, the barn was set on fire. At this, Harrold 
 came out and gave himself up, but Booth, still refusing, was 
 shot by a sergeant named Corbett. 
 
 On the 10th of May, the fugitive president of the " Confed- 
 erate States" was captured by a portion of the fourth Michigan 
 cavalry, under Colonel B. D. Pritchard. They surprised his 
 party in their camp near Irwinsville, Georgia, and, while Davis 
 was attempting to escape in the disguise of a woman, he Avas 
 made a prisoner. He was taken to Washington to await his 
 trial on a charge of treason. 
 
 On the 7th of July, Harrold, and some others convicted of 
 complicity in the assassination conspiracy, were hung, and other 
 accomplices punished by banishment or imprisonment. 
 
y4 THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 
 
 On the 29th of May, 1866, the nation was again thrown into 
 mourning by the intelligence that the veteran General Scott had 
 died at West Point, New York, at the advanced age of eighty 
 years. 
 
 On the 22d of February, 1866, President Johnson made a 
 speech to a crowd that had assembled in front of his house, in 
 which he placed himself in opposition to the party who had 
 elected him, and, from that time until the close of his adminis- 
 tration, attempted to enforce a policy odious to the great mass 
 of the loyal people of the north, and in direct opposition to the 
 legislation of congress. From the date of his speech until the 
 adjournment of the thirty-ninth congress, March, 186T, out of 
 fifteen bills which had passed both houses of congress, ten were 
 vetoed by the president, six of which were passed over his head ; 
 one was a pocket veto, and four became laws without his 
 signature. 
 
 On the 6th of May, 1867, Jefferson Davis was admitted to 
 bail in the sum of one hundred thousand dollars. His bail bond 
 was signed by Horace Greeley, Augustus Schell, J. Minor 
 Botts, and several leading Richmond secessionists. 
 
 After two unsuccessful attempts, by members of the fortieth 
 congress, to impeach the president for "high crimes and misde- 
 meanors," one in June and the other in December, 1867, articles 
 of impeachment were finally drawn up in March, 1868. The 
 trial closed on the 6th of May. The members of the senate 
 constituted the jury. A vote of two-thirds of the members was 
 required to convict the president, and he was acquitted by a 
 vote of nineteen to thirty-five ; so he continued the occupant of 
 the presidential chair until the close of his term. 
 
 On the 3d of November, General Ulysses S. Grant was elected 
 president of the United States, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, 
 the speaker of the house of representatives, vice president. On 
 the 4th of March, 1869, Chief Justice Salmon P. Chase admin- 
 istered the oath of office to President Grant. 
 
 Now, with this battle-scarred chieftain at the helm of the ship 
 of [state, let us hope that the great work of reconstruction, 
 
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR. 95 
 
 which has been so successfully commenced, may be speedily 
 completed ; that the whole nation, from the lakes to the gulf, and 
 from ocean to ocean, may be united in advancing the best inter- 
 ests of the government ; and that our common country, by the 
 blessing of Almighty God, may henceforth, as heretofore, be an 
 asylum for the oppressed and persecuted of all lands, and con- 
 tinue, in all future time, to hold her proud position at the head 
 of the nations of the earth. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 The term Indian, as applied to the various nations and tribes 
 that inhabited the western continent at the time of its discovery 
 by the Spaniards, originated in the mistaken idea that the new- 
 ly-found continent formed a part of Asia. By some ethnologists 
 the American Indians are classed as a distinct variety of the 
 human race, and are as peculiar to the American continent as 
 its fauna and flora. Their history, previous to the settlements 
 made among them by the Europeans, is involved in obscurity. 
 But the supposition that they are not the descendants of Adam 
 and Eve is erroneous, as it is contrary to the Bible. 
 
 Other ethnologists refer their origin to the great Mongolian 
 family, who have found their way from Asia across Behring's 
 Strait. This Strait is only thirty-six miles wide, and during 
 severe winter seasons it is frozen over, forming an easy mode of 
 communication between the two continents ; or the passage 
 across may have been made in boats which have been driven 
 over by storms. 
 
 According to some historians, the Indians owe their origin to 
 the "lost tribes of Israel," who, we are told, "took counsel to 
 go forth into a farther country, where never mankind dwelt." 
 These tribes, it is thought by some, crossed over into America, 
 and are the progenitors of the Indian race. This theory is, 
 however, unsupported by acknowledged facts. 
 
 The era of their existence as a distinct nation probably dates 
 back to a short time subsequent to the dispersion at Babel, which 
 gave to each branch of the human family its language and indi- 
 viduality. At this time mankind penetrated beyond the Plains 
 of Shinar, and gradually spread over Northern Asia, where, by 
 adventure or accident, they reached the new continent. 
 
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 97 
 
 After the confusion of tongues, a large body of shepherds, 
 driving their flocks before them, moved to Egypt, made a con- 
 quest of the country, founded an empire under the name of the 
 Shepherd Kings, built large cities, and constructed the massive 
 pyramids on which their history is recorded in hieroglyphics. 
 Their tyranny became unendurable, and the Egyptians drove 
 them from their land. These defeated shepherds, it is thought 
 by some, crossed into America in the manner before described, 
 and it is probable they are the progenitors of the Indians who 
 inhabited Mexico. The mounds and ancient works, the ruins of 
 which still remain ; also the manner of interring their dead, cor- 
 responding with the Egyptians, confirm this opinion. 
 
 The character and language of the various tribes that peopled 
 our country, differed so materially from Mexican Indians, that 
 it is highly probable that they were descendants from a later 
 body of Asiatic adventurers than the latter. 
 
 The first settlers were somewhat advanced in civilization and 
 the mechanical arts. Remains of some of their structures are 
 still to be seen in various parts of our country. They were 
 probably driven from their settlements further to the south by 
 less civilized tribes, until the whole continent was peopled. 
 
 The traditions of the Indians do but little to lift the veil of 
 mystery that shrouds their origin. They entertain the idea that 
 they are an insulated race, distinct from other people, and had 
 their origin in the ground. Hence their name, Aborigines. 
 According to one tradition, they climbed from the interior to 
 the surface of the globe, by means of the roots of a large vine. 
 By another account, their ancestors, after living under ground 
 for ages, discovered the light of day through an aperture of a 
 cavern, and by almost superhuman efforts, emerged from their 
 subterranean prison. By another tradition, their fathers crossed 
 a tract of water to reach their present habitation. 
 
 The Indian tribes are classified in reference to their dialects, 
 into eight distinct families, of which the Algonquins is the 
 largest. This name was given them by the French. They 
 
 7 
 
98 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 occupied a great portion of the United States east of the Mis- 
 sissippi and north of North Carolina and Tennessee. It was 
 composed of several powerful tribes, and the number of its Avar- 
 riors exceeded those of all the other tribes together. 
 
 The Huron Iroquois tribes occupied the territory of Canada 
 south of the Ottawa river, and portions of the states of New 
 York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. To this family belonged the 
 Five Nations. They were joined by the Tuscaroras, making a 
 confederacy known as the Six Nations. The English obtained 
 their friendship and assistance during the French war. Chiefs 
 from each of these nations met the colonial representatives at a 
 congress assembled at Albany, where a plan of an American 
 union was presented by Benjamin Franklin. Hendric, the Mo- 
 hawk warrior, urged its acceptance. " We thank you," he said, 
 " for brightening the covenant chain. We will take this belt to 
 Onondaga, where our council fire always burns, and keep it so 
 securely that neither the thunderbolt nor the lightning shall 
 break it. Strengthen yourselves, and bring as many as you 
 can into this covenant chain." 
 
 The Dakotahs, or Sioux, were a large family west of the Mis- 
 sissippi ; hence but little was known about them by the early 
 settlers. 
 
 The Catawbas were a powerful family, inhabiting the interior 
 of South Carolina, but were vanquished and nearly exterminated 
 by the Iroquois. They assisted the people of South Carolina in 
 their wars with the Cherokees and other hostile tribes ; also 
 aided them during the revolution. When the civil war broke 
 out in 1861, the survivors of this nation, numbering less than 
 one hundred souls, occupied a small village on the Catawba river. 
 
 The Catawbas were joined on the west by the Cherokees, who 
 occupied the territory of the Blue Kidge and Alleghanies, one 
 of the most delightful places in the United States. They had 
 long and bloody wars with the Five Nations. They aided the 
 British during the revolution, and for a number of years there- 
 after the frontier of the Carolinas suffered from their ravages. 
 A treaty was made with them in 1791, and no more trouble 
 
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 99 
 
 ensued. In 1812, they assisted the United States in subjuga- 
 ting the Creeks, under their fierce chief, Tecumseh. They rap- 
 idly advanced in civilization, and schools and a printing press 
 were established, but they were obliged to seek a new home in 
 the wilderness. They now constitute the largest, most civilized, 
 and prosperous of the Indian tribes, notwithstanding the inju- 
 ries they suffered during the late civil war. They now number 
 about fifteen thousand souls. 
 
 The Uchees, a remnant of a once powerful tribe, were the 
 sixth of the Indian families. But little of their history is known. 
 They never occupied any other region than the northern part of 
 Georgia. They boasted that they were the descendants of the 
 most ancient inhabitants of the region in which they were found. 
 Their language differed from the other families in being more 
 harsh and guttural. 
 
 The Natchez occupied territory on the east bank of the Mis- 
 sissippi, in the vicinity of the city which bears their name. 
 Their early history is not known, but from a tradition which 
 they retained of having seen "warriors of fire" where they 
 formerly lived, which no doubt refers to Cortes' soldiers, we 
 may infer that they were connected with the Mexican Indians. 
 The Natchez were jealous of the French, whom they considered 
 as intruders, and determined to drive them from their country. 
 They were unsuccessful, and were nearly exterminated by their 
 enemy. Those who survived joined the Creek confederacy, and 
 their original language has become extinct. 
 
 The Mobilian family was composed of a group of tribes. 
 Their territory extended over the region between the Atlantic 
 and the Mississippi, bounded on the north by the Ohio river, 
 and on the south by the Gulf of Mexico. The most powerful 
 and important tribe of this family was the Creeks. Though 
 strong and warlike, considerable attention was given to agricul- 
 ture, and, when not engaged in war, they assisted the women in 
 cultivating the soil. They were a source of great annoyance to 
 the white settlers on the Georgia frontier, and during the revo- 
 lution they assisted the British. The Seminoles, a part of the 
 Creek confederacy, caused much trouble in Florida. They were 
 
100 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 finally subjugated in 1842, after which the greater portion of 
 the tribe moved beyond the Mississippi. The Choctaws and 
 Chickasaws are also members of the Mobilian family. The 
 Choctaws, when first discovered by the Europeans, were en- 
 gaged in agricultural pursuits, were possessed of quiet habits, 
 and never engaged in war, except for their defense. The brave 
 Chickasaws were the early friends of the English. They aided 
 the English during the revolution, but since that time have been 
 friendly with the United States. 
 
 Light is often shed upon the history of a people by a study of 
 their language. A great variety of dialects were used by the 
 Indians, bearing a general resemblance to each other, but suffi- 
 cient difference was discovered to group them into eight families. 
 Their language possesses a wild grandeur, and much less irregu- 
 larity than cultivated tongues. The simple child of nature, 
 unacquainted with art, science, commerce, and mechanical indus- 
 try, had need of but few words ; yet, as an intelligent being, 
 governed by passions and affections, he required some mode of 
 expressing his thoughts and feelings, and we find him in all parts 
 of the continent possessing a language suited to his condition. 
 None of the Indian languages were written, but an ingenious 
 Cherokee seeing the books used by missionaries, and learning 
 that the characters which they contained represented the sounds 
 used by them in speaking, without any knowledge of other lan- 
 guages, succeeded in making an alphabet for his own language, 
 consisting of eighty-five characters, representing syllables, of 
 which there are but eighty-five in their language. The Chero- 
 kee words are short, and it requires but little study to enable 
 one to read and write it with ease. 
 
 The Indians, though unable to write, like the Egyptians and 
 other ancient nations, conveyed their thoughts by pictures or 
 hieroglyphics, by which means they communicated with each 
 other. The Mexicans, at the time of Cortes' invasion, informed 
 their king of the arrival of the Spaniards and their ships, by 
 pieces of white linen, on which were painted objects resembling 
 vessels and men in Spanish garb. 
 
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 101 
 
 Hieroglyphics have been found on rocks and trees in different 
 parts of our country. These, with their oral traditions, are all 
 they possess of their past history. Figures abound in the In- 
 dian language, often rendering it sublime. " Many Indian chiefs 
 were as distinguished for their eloquence as for their courage. 
 Their delivery was animated, dignified and forcible ; their ges- 
 ticulation graceful and natural. Some of their speeches have 
 scarcely been surpassed by the greatest efforts of civilized 
 orators." 
 
 The relics of the Aborigines may be considered under two 
 classes. Those of recent origin, such as rude weapons and orna- 
 ments, and those of ancient origin, among which are ruins of 
 fortifications, fire places, weapons, utensils and ornaments of 
 copper, brass and silver, walls of cities, sculptured columns, and 
 catacombs containing mummies. In the Illinois salt works were 
 found the remains of a well and drain, also ashes and fragments 
 of pottery, and in other salt-springs have been found vessels 
 suitable for evaporating water. From discoveries made in the 
 copper mines of Lake Superior, it is probable they have been 
 worked before. In Ohio, a silver cup was discovered in a mound 
 which had been partially undermined by a stream. Isinglass 
 mirrors have been discovered many feet below the surface. 
 
 The number of mounds erected in North America is variously 
 estimated at from five to ten thousand. These are most numer- 
 ous in Mexico and Central America. They also abound in ruins 
 and remains of cities, temples, pyramids, and sculptured columns 
 which equal in grandeur and magnificence those of the old world. 
 (See views of Central America.) 
 
 The Mexicans and Peruvians were the only two of the many 
 nations that peopled this continent at the time it was first ex- 
 plored by the Spaniards, who had attained to any high degree 
 of civilization. 
 
 The Indians are characterized by a red or copper color, a 
 square head with a low, broad forehead, full face and prominent 
 cheek bones, their eyes dark and expressive, their hair black, 
 coarse, and straight ; their forms erect and well proportioned, 
 and their powers of endurance remarkable. 
 
102 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 The men were employed in war, hunting and fishing. When 
 engaged in the chase or war, the ground, without shelter, formed 
 their bed ; they had no protection except the fires they kindled 
 to prevent attacks from wild beasts. The women bore all the 
 burdens during journeys. They built the huts or wigwams in 
 which they lived, planted and gathered their crops, and dressed 
 skins for clothing. Manual labor was considered beneath a 
 warrior ; hence all menial labor was performed by the women. 
 
 Their wigwams were made of poles, covered with skins, mats, 
 or bark of trees. They were constructed with little labor, and 
 abandoned when a change of residence was desired. They were 
 generally found grouped together in villages. (See Indian 
 views.) 
 
 For a great portion of the year they subsisted on game, fish, 
 and roots. When these resources failed they resorted to maize 
 or Indian corn. Their money consisted of little tubes, made of 
 common clam shells ; they were fastened upon belts and called 
 wampum. 
 
 A regular union between husband and wife was universal 
 among all the tribes. The men had a right to as many wives as 
 they could support. The marriage tie generally lasted till death, 
 but by some, wives were taken and dismissed at pleasure. The 
 Indian warrior compelled his wife, or squaw, to do all the drudge- 
 ry, and often treated her with cruelty. For his children he 
 entertained a stronger affection. 
 
 Education among the Indians consisted chiefly in such train- 
 ing as would enable them to endure hardships, hunger and 
 fatigue ; they also practiced athletic exercises. The Indian boy, 
 at the age of eight years, was required to do without food and 
 drink for half a day. When he was twelve his face was black- 
 ened, and he was required to fast a whole day at a time. At 
 eighteen his face was blackened for the last time ; he was taken 
 into the woods and remained there without food as long as life 
 could be so supported. He was then taken home, praised for 
 his endurance, and henceforth considered himself a man. 
 
 Indian wars were usually carried on by small parties ; they 
 could not act in large bodies with much success, from a want of 
 
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 103 
 
 discipline. Their object was to surprise the enemy, and kill as 
 many as possible. Their honors were counted by the number of 
 scalps they obtained. They depended for food on the game they 
 might secure in the forest. Their weapons were bows and 
 arrows, tomahawks of stone, and scalping-knives of bone, until 
 the arrival of the Europeans, when they were made of iron. 
 
 A captive was taken to the village of his conquerors, where 
 he was obliged to " run the gauntlet " between two lines of the 
 savages, who beat him as he passed. He then was adopted into 
 the tribe or burned at the stake. 
 
 Each tribe, among the Indians, had its chief or sachem, who 
 generally excelled the rest of his tribe in cunning, bravery or 
 eloquence. They had no laws, and during peace the chiefs exer- 
 cised no authority. If a wrong was perpetrated, its punishment 
 was left to the party who suffered it, and not to the tribe. 
 
 Different modes of burial prevailed in different tribes. Some 
 bodies were buried in a sitting posture, some were laid on the 
 ground, and a little house, covered with bark, erected over them. 
 By some tribes bodies were deposited in rude coffins and placed 
 on a high scaffold. By others they were placed on the boughs 
 of trees, where they remained until, from decomposition, the 
 bones fell to the ground. The dead were buried with their bows 
 and arrows, tomahawks, saddles, food and tobacco. Sometimes 
 a favorite horse and dog were killed and interred with their 
 master ; in fact, every thing they value in life is buried with 
 them, so as to be ready for use on entering the spirit land. (See 
 views of Indian graves.) 
 
 The Indians of the present day preserve these customs. The 
 funeral service consists of a prayer to the Great Spirit, of which 
 the following is an example : " We are sorry to part with our 
 brother, who was a daring brave and a good Indian, and whose 
 lodge contained many scalps of his enemies. But we have 
 yielded to Thy will, and we commit him to Thy care. We have 
 outfitted him as Thou seest, for his journey ; and now we desire 
 Thee to lead him to the fair land beyond the setting sun, where 
 game is always plentiful, and bad Indians and white men never 
 come." 
 
104 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 The Indians believed in a God or " Great Spirit " whom they 
 worshiped, and to whom they prayed for courage and success in 
 war. It was a general belief among the different tribes that the 
 Deity possesses a human form. With their general idea of the 
 Deity and the creation various traditions were blended. Accord- 
 ing to the tradition of the Chippewas, a man was created and 
 placed on the earth during the summer season. He subsisted 
 on berries until winter, when he supported life by hunting. 
 Finding it difficult to walk through deep snow, he attempted to 
 make a snow-shoe. He succeeded, without difficulty, in making 
 the frame, but being unable to weave in the web, he abandoned 
 it. Every evening, on returning from hunting, he perceived that 
 the work was progressing. This he attributed to a bird which 
 he captured by strategem, and it immediately changed into a 
 beautiful woman. 
 
 The Indians believe in the existence of good and evil spirits ; 
 the former of whom endow certain persons with superior power. 
 These were called medicine men. If in case of disease a cure 
 was effected by one of them, he was thought to have gained a 
 victory over the evil spirit, and if unsuccessful it was through no 
 fault of the medicine man, and the blame was attached to the 
 evil spirit. 
 
 They imagined that the soul when freed from the body passed 
 over a dark river, into which the wicked were precipitated, where 
 they remained forever struggling among the waves, or were 
 borne to a place of torment. The good crossed in safety, and 
 hastened to the happy hunting grounds which abounded in the 
 choicest game. 
 
 A want of foresight is peculiar to the Indian race. This 
 deficiency in their character has been the cause of much distress. 
 They provide but little food at a time, and consequently when 
 no game is to be obtained they suffer greatly from want of food. 
 Among other prominent traits of character are caution and for- 
 titude. When among friends or enemies every word and action 
 is looked upon with suspicion, and, when undergoing the most 
 excruciating tortures at the hand of an enemy, their sufferings 
 are betrayed by neither sigh nor groan. 
 
THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 105 
 
 The Indians inhabiting the Indian territory at the present 
 time number about one hundred and fifty thousand. The United 
 States purchased the lands they occupied, and gives them others 
 ■within the new territory which the government has assigned 
 them, transports them, furnishes agricultural implements, plows 
 and fences a portion of their fields, erects school-houses and sup- 
 ports teachers in them the year through. (See views of govern- 
 ment school.) 
 
 A form of government in each tribe has been established sim- 
 ilar to the state governments. 
 
 The Choctaws inhabit the southern part of the territory, and 
 are engaged in the cultivation of corn, flax, hemp, tobacco, and 
 cotton. Their government is divided into four departments ; 
 legislative, executive, judicial and military. 
 
 The Chickasaws have amassed considerable wealth from the 
 sale of their lands east of the Mississippi, to the United States. 
 They have a fund of ten thousand dollars annually applied to 
 education. 
 
 The Cherokees take the lead in civilization. Their form of 
 government is similar to the Choctaws. They work the lead 
 mines, manufacture salt, and are also engaged in agriculture. 
 
 The Creeks, among which are about sixteen hundred Semi- 
 noles, are less advanced in civilization, and their form of gov- 
 ernment less perfect than the other tribes. 
 
 The emigrating tribes are the Senecas, Shawnees, Pottawato- 
 mies, Iowas, Weas, Piankashaws, Peorias, Kaskaskias, Ottawas, 
 Delawarcs, Kickapoos, Wyandots, Sacs and Foxes, all of which 
 are more or less civilized, and receive annuities from the gov- 
 ernment. 
 
 The native tribes residing in the Indian territory are the Paw- 
 nees, Sioux, Quapaws, Kansas, Otoes, Omahoes and Ponsars, 
 all of which are in a degraded condition. They receive annu- 
 ties from the United States. (See views of Sioux and Pawnees.) 
 
 The Camanches are a warlike tribe, living south of the Great 
 Platte. They follow the buifalo north in summer, and in winter 
 return with them to the plains of Texas. 
 
 North of the Great Platte arc fifteen or twenty small tribes. 
 
106 THE NORTH AMERICAN INDIANS. 
 
 In the vicinity of the Rocky Mountains are Shoshonees or 
 Snakes, Arapahoes, Crows and Blackfeet, the last two of which 
 are very warlike tribes. The Blackfeet stole a blanket, infected 
 with small pox, from the American Fur company, which caused 
 the disease to spread all through their tribe, and they were 
 reduced in number about two-thirds. 
 
 Such is the brief history of the Aboriginal nations that inhab- 
 ited our country, and annihilation seems to be their destiny. 
 " The great garden of the western world needed tillers, and 
 white men came. They have thoroughly changed the condition 
 of the land and the people. The light of civilization has re- 
 vealed, and industry developed, vast treasures in the soil, while, 
 before its radiance, the Aboriginals are rapidly melting like snow 
 in the sunbeams. A few generations will pass, and no represen- 
 tatives of the North American Indians will remain upon the 
 earth." 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE UNITED 
 STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary 
 for one people to dissolve the political bands which have con- 
 nected them with another, and to assume, among the powers of 
 the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of 
 nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to 
 the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the 
 causes which impel them to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all men are 
 created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with 
 certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty and 
 the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, govern- 
 ments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers 
 from the consent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of 
 government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of 
 the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new govern- 
 ment, laying its foundations on such principles, and organizing 
 its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to 
 effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate 
 that governments long established should not be changed for 
 light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath 
 shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are 
 sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to 
 which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses 
 and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a 
 design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, 
 it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide 
 new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient 
 
108 DECLAKATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which 
 constrains them to alter their former systems of government. 
 The history of the present king of Great Britain, is a history 
 of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object 
 the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To 
 prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and 
 necessary for the public good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate 
 and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operations 
 till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he 
 has utterly neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of 
 large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish 
 the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestima- 
 ble to them, and formidable to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, 
 uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public 
 records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance 
 with his measures. 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for oppos- 
 ing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the 
 people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to 
 cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, inca- 
 pable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for 
 their exercise ; the state remaining, in the meantime, exposed to 
 all the dangers of invasions from without, and convulsions 
 within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; 
 for that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of 
 foreigners ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration 
 hither, and raising the conditions of new appropriations of 
 lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing 
 his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 109 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the ten- 
 ure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their 
 salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither 
 swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their sub- 
 stance. 
 
 He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, 
 without the consent of our legislatures. 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent of, and 
 superior to, the civil power. 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction 
 foreign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws; 
 giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation ; 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for 
 any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of 
 these states ; 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 
 
 For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by 
 jury; 
 
 For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended 
 offenses ; 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighbor- 
 ing province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and 
 enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example 
 and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into 
 these colonies ; 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable 
 laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 
 
 For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
 invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his 
 protection, and waging war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our 
 towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. 
 
110 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 
 
 He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign merce- 
 naries, to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, 
 already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely 
 paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the 
 head of a civilized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the 
 high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the 
 executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves 
 by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeav- 
 orecl to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless 
 Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistin- 
 guished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for 
 redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have 
 been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose char- 
 acter is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is 
 unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British 
 brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts 
 by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over 
 us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emi- 
 gration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native 
 justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the 
 ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which 
 would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. 
 They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of con- 
 sanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity 
 which compels our separation, and hold them as we hold the 
 rest of mankind — enemies in war — in peace, friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of 
 America, in general congress assembled, appealing to the Su- 
 preme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, 
 do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of 
 these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united 
 colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. Ill 
 
 states ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British 
 crown, and that all political connection between them and the 
 state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and 
 that, as free and independent states, they have full power to 
 levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, 
 and do all other acts and things which independent states may 
 of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a 
 firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutual- 
 ly pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred 
 honor. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more 
 perfect Union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, 
 provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, 
 and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our pos- 
 terity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United 
 States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Section 1. All the legislative powers herein granted shall 
 be vested in a congress of the United States, which shall consist 
 of a senate and house of representatives. 
 
 Sec. 2. The house of representatives shall be composed of 
 members chosen every second year by the people of the several 
 states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifica- 
 tions requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
 state legislature. 
 
 No person shall be a representative who shall not have at- 
 tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a 
 citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be 
 an inhabitant of that state in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
 the several states which may be included within this union, ac- 
 cording to their respective numbers, which shall be determined 
 by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those 
 bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not 
 taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration 
 shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the 
 congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term 
 of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
 
CONSTITUTION. 113 
 
 number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
 thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative ; 
 and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New 
 Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, 
 Rhode Island and Providence plantations one, Connecticut five, 
 New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware 
 one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South 
 Carolina five, and Georgia three. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, 
 the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to 
 fill such vacancies. 
 
 The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and 
 other officers ; and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 Sec. 3. The senate of the United States shall be composed 
 of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, 
 for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 
 
 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
 the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into 
 three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall 
 be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second 
 class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class 
 at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be 
 chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resigna- 
 tion, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any 
 state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
 until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill 
 such vacancies. 
 
 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to 
 the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the 
 United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant 
 of that state for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 The vice president of the United States shall be president of 
 the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 
 
 The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a presi- 
 dent pro tempore, in the absence of the vice president, or when 
 he shall exercise the office of president of the United States. 
 
 8 
 
^114 CONSTITUTION OF THE 
 
 The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
 When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirma- 
 tion. When the president of the United States is tried, the 
 chief justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted 
 without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 
 
 Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
 than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and en- 
 joy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States ; 
 but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject 
 to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment, according to law. 
 
 Sec. 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections 
 for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state 
 by the legislature thereof ; but the congress may at any time by 
 law make or alter such regulations, except as the places of choos- 
 ing senators. 
 
 The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
 such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless 
 they shall by law appoint a different day. 
 
 Sec. 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, re- 
 turns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of 
 each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller 
 number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized 
 to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner 
 and under such penalties as each house may provide. 
 
 Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, pun- 
 ish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concur- 
 rence of two-thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
 time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in 
 their judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the 
 members of either house on any question shall, at the desire 
 of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without 
 the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor 
 to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be 
 sitting. 
 
UNITED STATES. 115 
 
 Sec. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a 
 compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and 
 paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all 
 cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privi- 
 liared from arrest during their attendance at the sessions of their 
 respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; 
 and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be 
 questioned in any other place. 
 
 No senator or representative shall, during the time for which 
 he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the author- 
 ity of the United States, which shall have been created, or the 
 emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such 
 time ; and no person holding any office under the United States 
 shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
 house of representatives ; but the senate may propose or con- 
 cur with amendments as on other bills. 
 
 Every bill which shall have passed the house of representa- 
 tives and the senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented 
 to the president of the United States. If he approve, he shall 
 sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that 
 house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the 
 objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider 
 it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall 
 agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- 
 tions,, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be recon- 
 sidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall 
 become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses 
 shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the 
 persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the 
 journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be 
 returned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) 
 after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a 
 law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress, 
 by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall 
 not be a law. 
 
11G CONSTITUTION OF THE 
 
 Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of 
 the senate and house of representatives may he necessary (ex- 
 cept on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the 
 president of the United States ; and before the same shall take 
 effect, shall be approved by him ; or, being disapproved by him, 
 shall be repassed by two-thirds of the senate and house of rep- 
 resentatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in 
 the case of a bill. 
 
 Sec. 8. The congress shall have power — 
 
 To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay 
 the debts and provide for the common defense and general wel- 
 fare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts and excises 
 shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 
 
 To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 
 
 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
 several states, and with the Indian tribes ; 
 
 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
 laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 
 
 To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin, 
 and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 
 
 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
 and current coin of the United States ; 
 
 To establish post offices and post roads ; 
 
 To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by secur- 
 ing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right 
 to their respective writings and discoveries ; 
 
 To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court ; 
 
 To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
 high seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 
 
 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
 rules concerning captures on land and water ; 
 
 To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money 
 to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 
 
 To provide and maintain a navy ; 
 
 To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
 and naval forces ; 
 
UNITED STATES. 117 
 
 To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
 the union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; 
 
 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
 and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the 
 service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively 
 the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training 
 the militia according to the discipline prescribed by congress ; 
 
 To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over 
 such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession 
 of particular states, and tne acceptance of congress, become the 
 seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise 
 like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the 
 legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erec- 
 tion of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, and other needful 
 buildings ; and 
 
 To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for car- 
 rying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
 vested by this constitution in the government of the United 
 States, or in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
 of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not 
 be prohibited by the congress prior to the year one thousand 
 eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on 
 such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
 
 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
 pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the pub- 
 lic safety may require it. 
 
 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 
 
 No capitation, or other direct tax, shall be laid, unless in pro- 
 portion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to 
 be taken. 
 
 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
 state. 
 
 No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
 or revenue to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor 
 shall vessels bound to or from one state, be obliged to enter, 
 clear, or pay duties in another. 
 
118 CONSTITUTION OF THE 
 
 No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence 
 of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement and 
 account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money 
 shall be published from time to time. 
 
 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; 
 And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them 
 shall, without the consent of the congress, accept of any present, 
 emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, 
 prince, or foreign state. 
 
 Sec. 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or 
 confederation ; grant letters of marque or reprisal ; coin money ; 
 emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a 
 tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post 
 facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant 
 any title of nobility. 
 
 No state shall, without the consent of the congress, lay any 
 imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be ab- 
 solutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net 
 produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports 
 or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United 
 States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and 
 control of the congress. 
 
 No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty 
 of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter 
 into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a 
 foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in 
 Such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a presi- 
 dent of the United States of America. He shall hold his office 
 during the term of four years, and, together with the vice-presi- 
 dent, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 
 
 Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 
 thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole 
 number of senators and representatives to which the state may 
 
UNITED STATES. 119 
 
 be entitled in the congress ; but no senator or representative, or 
 person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, 
 shall he appointed an elector. 
 
 [The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by 
 ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not be an in- 
 habitant of the same state with themselves. And they shall 
 make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of 
 votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and trans- 
 mit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, 
 directed to the president of the senate. The president of the 
 senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of repre- 
 sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall 
 be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole 
 number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one 
 who have such majority and have an equal number of votes, 
 then the house of representatives shall immediately choose by 
 ballot one of them for president ; and if no person have a ma- 
 jority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall 
 in like manner choose the president. But in choosing the presi- 
 dent, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from 
 each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall 
 consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, 
 and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. 
 In every case, after the choice of the president, the person 
 having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the 
 vice-president. But if there should remain two or more who 
 have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them by ballot 
 the vice-president].* 
 
 The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, 
 and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day 
 shall be the same throughout the United States. 
 
 No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the 
 United States, at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
 shall be eligible to the office of president ; neither shall any 
 
 * This clause is annulled. See amendments, article XII. 
 
120 CONSTITUTION OF THE 
 
 person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to 
 the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident 
 within the United States. 
 
 In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his 
 death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and 
 duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-pres- 
 ident, and the congress may by law provide for the case of re- 
 moval, death, resignation, or inability, both of the president and 
 vice-president, declaring what officer shall then act as president, 
 and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be 
 removed, or a president shall be elected. 
 
 The president shall, at stated times, receive for, his services a 
 compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
 during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he 
 shall not receive within that period any other emolument from 
 the United States, or any of them. 
 
 Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take 
 the following oath or affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or 
 affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the 
 United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, pro- 
 tect and defend the constitution of the United States." 
 
 Sec. 2. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the 
 army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the 
 several states, when called into the actual service of the United 
 States ; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal 
 officer in each of the executive departments, upon any subject 
 relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall 
 have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against 
 the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of 
 the senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators 
 present concur ; and he shall nominate, and, by and with the 
 advice and consent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, 
 other public ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, 
 and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments 
 are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be estab- 
 lished by law ; but the congress may by law vest the appointment 
 
UNITED STATES. 121 
 
 of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the president 
 alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 
 
 The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
 may happen during the recess of the senate, by granting com- 
 missions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the congress 
 information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their 
 consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and 
 expedient ; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both 
 houses, or either of them, and, in case of disagreement between 
 them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn 
 them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive am- 
 bassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
 the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the 
 officers of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 4. The president, vice-president and all civil officers of 
 the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment 
 for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and 
 misdemeanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be 
 vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the 
 congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The 
 judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their 
 offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive 
 for their services, a compensation, which shall not be diminished 
 during their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law 
 and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the 
 United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
 their authority ; — to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public 
 ministers, and consuls; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
 jurisdiction; — to controversies to which the United States shall 
 be a party ; — to controversies between two or more states ; — be- 
 tween a state and citizens of another state ; — between citizens 
 
122 CONSTITUTION OF THE 
 
 of different states ; — between citizens of the same state claim- 
 ing lands under grants of different states, and between a state, 
 or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 
 
 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
 consuls, and those in which a state shall be party, the supreme 
 court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases 
 before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate juris- 
 diction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under 
 such regulations as the congress shall make. 
 
 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
 be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the state where the 
 said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed 
 within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the 
 congress may by law have directed. 
 
 Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
 in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, 
 giving them aid and comfort. 
 
 No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testi- 
 mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession 
 in open court. 
 
 The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
 treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of 
 blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state 
 to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every 
 other state. And the congress may by general laws prescribe 
 the manner in which such acts, records and proceedings shall be 
 proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Sec 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all priv- 
 ileges and immunities of citizens of the several states. 
 
 A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other 
 crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, 
 shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from 
 which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having 
 jurisdiction of the crime. 
 
UNITED STATES. 123 
 
 No person held to service or labor in one state, under the 
 laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any 
 law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or 
 labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom 
 such service or labor may be due. 
 
 Sec. 3. New states may be admitted by the congress into 
 this union ; but no new state shall be formed or erected within 
 the jurisdiction of any other state ; nor any state be formed by 
 the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without 
 the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned, as well 
 as of the congress. 
 
 The congress shall have power to dispose of and make all 
 needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
 property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this 
 constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of 
 the United States, or of any particular state. 
 
 Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in 
 this union a republican form of government, and shall protect 
 each of them against invasion ; and, on application of the leg- 
 islature, or of the executive (when the legislature can not be 
 convened,) against domestic violence. 
 
 article v. 
 
 The congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem 
 it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, 
 on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the sev- 
 eral states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, 
 which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, 
 as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of 
 three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three- 
 fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may 
 be proposed by the congress ; Provided, that no amendment 
 which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hun- 
 dred and eight, shall in any manner affect the first and fourth 
 clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, 
 without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the 
 senate. 
 
124 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the 
 adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United 
 States, under this constitution, as under the confederation. 
 
 This constitution and the laws of the United States, which 
 shall be made in pursuance thereof ; and all treaties made, or 
 which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, 
 shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every 
 state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or 
 laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the 
 members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and 
 judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several 
 states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this 
 constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a 
 qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 
 
 article VII. 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be 
 sufficient for the establishment of this constitution between the 
 states so ratifying the same. 
 
 Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the states 
 present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our 
 Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the 
 independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In 
 witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
 President and Deputy from Virginia. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 JOHN LANGDON, NICHOLAS GILMAN. 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 NATHANIEL GORHAM, RUFUS KING. 
 
 Connecticut. 
 
 WILLIAM SAMUEL JOHNSON, ROGER SHERMAN. 
 
 New York. 
 
 ALEXANDER HAMILTON. 
 
 New Jersey. 
 
 WILLIAM LIVINGSTON, DAVID BREARLEY, 
 
 WILLIAM PATTERSON, JONATHAN DAYTON. 
 
BENJAMIN FKANKLIN, 
 ROBERT MOBKIS, 
 THOMAS F1TZSIMONS, 
 JAMES WILSON, 
 
 GEOBGE BEAD, 
 JOHN DICKINSON, 
 JACOB BBOOM. 
 
 JAMES M'HENRT, 
 DANIEL CARBOLL. 
 
 JOHN BLAIR, 
 
 WILLIAM BLOUNT, 
 HUGH WILLIAMSON. 
 
 JOHN RUTLEDGE, 
 CHARLES PINCKNET, 
 
 WILLIAM FEW, 
 
 Attest : 
 
 AMENDMENTS. 
 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 THOMAS MIFFLIN, 
 GEORGE CLYMEB, 
 JARED INGERSOLL, 
 GOUVERNEUR MORRIS. 
 
 Delaware. 
 
 GUNNING BEDFORD, Jb.. 
 RICHARD BASSE IT, 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 DANIEL OF ST. THOMAS JENIFER, 
 
 Virginia. 
 
 JAMES MADISON, Jr. 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 RICHARD DOBBS SPAIGHT, 
 
 125 
 
 South Carolina. 
 
 CHABLES COTESWORTH PINCKNET, 
 PIERCE BUTLER. 
 
 Cfeorgia. 
 
 ABRAHAM BALDWIN. 
 
 WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 
 
 AMENDMENTS 
 
 To the Constitution of the United States, ratified according to 
 the Provisions of the Fifth Article of the foregoing Consti- 
 tution. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
 religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging 
 the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the peo- 
 ple peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for 
 redress of grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a 
 free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall 
 not be infringed. 
 
126 CONSTITUTIONAL 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, 
 without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a 
 manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
 papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
 shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon 
 probable cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particu- 
 larly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or 
 things to be seized. 
 
 article v. 
 
 No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise 
 infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand 
 jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in 
 the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public 
 danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to 
 be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled 
 in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be 
 deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of 
 law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without 
 just compensation. 
 
 article VI. 
 
 In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
 to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state 
 and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
 district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
 informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be con- 
 fronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory 
 process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the 
 assistance of counsel for his defense. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
 exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be 
 
AMENDMENTS. 127 
 
 preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-exam- 
 ined in any court of the United States, than according to the 
 rules of common law. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. 
 
 Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines im- 
 posed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. 
 The enumeration in the constitution, of certain rights, shall 
 not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the 
 people. 
 
 ARTICLE X. 
 
 The powers not delegated to the United States by the consti- 
 tution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the 
 states respectively, or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XI. 
 
 The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
 to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
 against one of the United States by citizens of another state, or 
 by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 
 
 ARTICLE XII. 
 
 The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by 
 ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom, at least, 
 shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; 
 they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as presi- 
 dent, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as vice-presi- 
 dent, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for 
 as president, and of all persons voted for as vice-president, and 
 of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and 
 certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
 United States, directed to the president of the senate ; the 
 president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and 
 house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes 
 shall then be counted ; — the person having the greatest number 
 of votes for president, shall be the president, if such number be 
 a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if 
 
128 CONSTITUTIONAL 
 
 no person have such majority, then from the persons having the 
 highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted 
 for as president, the house of representatives shall choose imme- 
 diately, by ballot, the president. But in choosing the president, 
 the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each 
 state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
 of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a 
 majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And 
 if the house of representatives shall not choose a president 
 whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
 fourth day of March next following, then the vice-president 
 shall act as president, as in the case of the death or other con- 
 stitutional disability of the president. The person having the 
 greatest number of votes as vice-president, shall be the vice- 
 president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
 electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from 
 the two highest numbers on the list, the senate shall choose the 
 vice-president ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two- 
 thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the 
 whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person 
 constitutionally ineligible to the office of president shall be eligi- 
 ble to that of vice-president of the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE XIII. 
 
 Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except 
 as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been 
 duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place 
 subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce the article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV. 
 
 Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
 States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
 United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state 
 shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges 
 or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any 
 
AMENDMENTS. 129 
 
 state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without 
 due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdic- 
 tion the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the 
 several states according to their respective numbers, counting 
 the whole number of persons in each state, excluding Indians 
 not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the 
 choice of electors for president and vice president of the United 
 States, representatives in congress, the executive and judicial 
 officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is 
 denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty- 
 one years of age and citizens of the United States, or in any 
 way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other 
 crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in pro- 
 portion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the 
 whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such 
 state. 
 
 Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in 
 congress, or elector of president and vice president, or hold any 
 office, civil or military, under the United States or under any 
 state, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of 
 congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member 
 of any state legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of 
 any state, to support the constitution of the United States, shall 
 have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or 
 given aid and comfort to the enemies thereof. But congress 
 may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such dis- 
 ability. 
 
 Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States 
 authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pen- 
 sions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection and 
 rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United 
 States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation 
 incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United 
 States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; 
 but all such debts, obligations or claims shall be held illegal and 
 void. 
 
 9 
 
130 AMENDMENTS. 
 
 Sec. 5. The congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- 
 priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 
 
 article xv. 
 
 Section. 1. The right of the citizens of the United States 
 to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or 
 by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of 
 servitude. 
 
 Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this arti- 
 cle by appropriate legislation. 
 
 Twenty-one states have now (November 1st, 1869,) given 
 their sanction to the fifteenth amendment. Seven more are 
 required to make it a part of the constitution of the United 
 States. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATIONS 
 
 of September, 1862, and January, 1863. 
 
 " On the 22nd of September, 1862, Mr. Lincoln issued one 
 of the two most important proclamations ever penned by a pres- 
 ident of the United States : that which announced to the negroes 
 held as slaves in the rebellious states that on and after the first 
 day of the new year, they should be forever released from bond- 
 age. This great document, which was read with joy by the loyal 
 residents of the north, and which was a source of such infinite 
 happiness to the unfortunate class of beings who were to be 
 more particularly affected by its provisions, was as follows : 
 
 " I, Abraham Lincoln, president of the United States of 
 America, and commander-in-chief of the army and navy thereof, 
 do hereby proclaim and declare, that hereafter, as heretofore, 
 the war will be prosecuted for the object of practically restoring 
 the constitutional relation between the United States and the 
 people thereof in those states in which that relation is, or may 
 be, suspended or disturbed ; that it is my purpose upon the next 
 meeting of congress to again recommend the adoption of a prac- 
 tical measure tending pecuniary aid to the free acceptance or 
 rejection of all the slave states, so-called, the people whereof 
 may not then be in rebellion against the United States, and 
 which states may then have voluntarily adopted, or thereafter 
 may voluntarily adopt, the immediate or gradual abolishment of 
 slavery within their respective limits, and that the effort to col- 
 onize persons of African descent, with their consent, upon the 
 continent or elsewhere, with the previously obtained consent of 
 the government existing there, will be continued ; that on the 
 first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any 
 state, or any designated part of a state, the people whereof 
 
132 EMANCIPATION 
 
 shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be 
 then, thenceforward and forever, free, and the executive gov- 
 ernment of the United States, including the military and naval 
 authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of 
 such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, 
 or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual 
 freedom ; that the executive will, on the first day of January 
 aforesaid, by proclamation, designate the states and parts of 
 states, if any, in which the people thereof respectively shall then 
 be in rebellion against the United States ; and the fact that any 
 state, or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith 
 represented in the congress of the United States by members 
 chosen thereto, at elections wherein a majority of the qualified 
 voters of such state shall have participated, shall, in the absence 
 of strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evi- 
 dence that such state and the people thereof have not been in 
 rebellion against the United States. 
 
 " That attention is hereby called to an act of congress enti- 
 tled ' An act to make an additional article of war,' approved 
 March 13, 1862, and which act is in the words and figures fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 " ' Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives 
 of the United States of America, in Congress assembled, That 
 hereafter the following shall be promulgated as an additional 
 article of war for the government of the army of the United 
 States, and shall be observed and obeyed as such. 
 
 " ' Article — . All officers or persons of the military or naval 
 service of the United States, are prohibited from employing any 
 of the forces under their respective commands for the purpose 
 of returning fugitives from service or labor, Avho may have 
 escaped from any persons to whom such service or labor is 
 claimed to be due, and any officer who shall be found guilty by 
 a court martial of violating this article, shall be dismissed from 
 the service. 
 
 " ' Sec. 2. And be it further enacted, That this act shall take 
 effect from and after its passage.' 
 
PROCLAMATIONS. 133 
 
 " Also to the ninth and tenth sections of an act entitled, ' An 
 act to suppress insurrection, to punish treason and rebellion, to 
 seize and confiscate property of rebels, and for other purposes,' 
 approved July 17, 1862, and which sections are in the words 
 and figures following : 
 
 " ' Sec. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of per- 
 sons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the gov- 
 ernment of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid 
 or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge 
 within the lines of the army ; and all slaves captured from such 
 persons or deserted by them, and coming under the control of 
 the government of the United States, and all slaves of such per- 
 sons found on (or being within) any place occupied by rebel 
 forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, 
 shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of 
 their servitude and not again held as slaves. 
 
 "' Sec. 10. And be it further enacted, That no slave escap- 
 ing into any state, territory, or the district of Columbia, from 
 any of the states, shall be delivered up, or in any way impeded 
 or hindered of his liberty, except for crime, or some offense 
 against the laws, unless the person claiming said fugitive shall 
 first make oath that the person to whom the labor or service of 
 such fugitive is alleged to be due, is his lawful owner, and has 
 not been in arms against the United States in the present rebel- 
 lion, nor in any way given aid and comfort thereto ; and no 
 person engaged in the military or naval service of the United 
 States shall, under any pretence whatever, assume to decide on 
 the validity of the claim of any person to the service or labor of 
 any other person, or surrender up any such person to the claim- 
 ant, on pain of being dismissed from the service.' 
 
 " And I do hereby enjoin upon, and order all persons engaged 
 in the military and naval service of the United States to observe, 
 obey and enforce within their respective spheres of service the 
 act and sections above recited. 
 
 "And the executive will in due time recommend that all citi- 
 zens of the United States who shall have remained loyal thereto 
 
134 EMANCIPATION 
 
 throughout the rebellion, shall (upon the restoration of the con- 
 stitutional relation between the United States and their respec- 
 tive States and people, if the relation shall have been suspended 
 or disturbed) be compensated for all losses by acts of the United 
 States, including the loss of slaves. 
 
 " In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused 
 the seal of the United States to be affixed. 
 
 " Done at the city of Washington, this twenty-second day of 
 September, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred 
 and sixty-two, and of the independence of the United States 
 the eighty-seventh. 
 
 " By the President: " ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 "Wm. H. Seward, Secretary of State." 
 
 " Such a bold movement was necessarily distasteful to the 
 traitors, and while the southern journals pronounced it to be a 
 bid for the slaves to rise in insurrection, a bid which none but 
 a barbarian would devise, it was denounced in the Richmond 
 congress, and a resolution was there offered, exhorting the peo- 
 ple to slay every union soldier and raider found within their 
 borders, and offering a reward to every negro, who would, after 
 the first of January, 1863, kill a unionist. 
 
 " The other important proclamation was issued on the first of 
 January, 1863, and was worded as follows : 
 
 " Whereas, on the twenty-second day of September, in the 
 year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-two, a 
 proclamation was issued by the president of the United States, 
 containing among other things the following, to wit : 
 
 " That on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord 
 one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as 
 slaves within any state, or designated part of a state, the people 
 whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, 
 shall be then, thenceforth and forever free, and the executive 
 government of the United States, including the military and 
 naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the free- 
 dom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such 
 
PROCLAMATIONS. 135 
 
 persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their 
 actual freedom. 
 
 " That the executive will, on the first day of January afore- 
 said, by proclamation, designate the states and parts of states, 
 if any, in which the people therein respectively shall then be in 
 rebellion against the United States, and the fact that any state, 
 or the people thereof, shall on that day be in good faith repre- 
 sented in the congress of the United States by members chosen 
 thereto, at elections wherein a majority of the qualified voters 
 of such states shall have participated, shall, in the absence of 
 strong countervailing testimony, be deemed conclusive evidence 
 that such state and the people thereof are not then in rebellion 
 against the United States. 
 
 " Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, president of the United 
 States, by virtue of the power in me vested as commander-in- 
 chief of the army and navy of the United States in time of 
 actual armed rebellion against the authority and government 
 of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure 
 for suppressing said rebellion, do, on this first day of January, 
 in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty- 
 three, and in accordance with my purpose so to do, publicly 
 proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days from the 
 day of the first above-mentioned order, and designate, as the 
 states and parts of states wherein the people thereof respect- 
 ively are this day in rebellion against the United States, the 
 following to-wit : Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, except the par- 
 ishes of St. Bernard, Plaquemines, Jefferson, St. John, St. 
 Charles, St. James, Ascension, Assumption, Terre Bonne, La 
 fourche, St. Mary, St. Martin and Orleans, including the city of 
 New Orleans. Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, South 
 Carolina, North Carolina, and Virginia, except the forty-eight 
 counties designated as West Virginia, and also the counties of 
 Berkeley, Accomac, Northampton, Elizabeth City, York, Prin- 
 cess Ann, and Norfolk, including the cities of Norfolk and 
 Portsmouth, and which excepted parts are, for the present, left 
 precisely as if this proclamation were not issued. 
 
136 PROCLAMATIONS. 
 
 " And by virtue of the power and for the purpose aforesaid, I 
 do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said 
 designated states, and parts of states are, and henceforward shall 
 be free; and that the executive government of the United 
 States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will 
 recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons. 
 
 " And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free, 
 to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defense, 
 and I recommend to them, that in all cases, when allowed, they 
 labor faithfully for reasonable wages. 
 
 " And I further declare and make known that such persons of 
 suitable condition will be received into the armed service of the 
 United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other 
 places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. 
 
 " And upon this, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, 
 warranted by the constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke 
 the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious favor of 
 Almighty God. 
 
 " In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand and caused 
 the seal of the United States to be affixed. 
 
 " Done at the city of Washington, this first day of 
 January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight 
 [l. s.] hundred and sixty-three, and of the Independence of 
 the United States of America the eighty-seventh. 
 
 " By the President : " ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 
 
 " William H. Seward, Secretary of State." 
 
^>jL£un xx. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 OF TIIE 
 
 UNITED STATES. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 MAINE. 
 
 Maine, the most eastern of the United States, and by far the 
 largest of the New England States, lies between latitude 42° 
 57' and 47° 32' N., and longitude 66° 52' and 71° 6' W. It 
 is bounded on the north by Canada East ; on the south by the 
 Atlantic Ocean ; on the east by New Brunswick and Passama- 
 quoddy Bay ; and on the west by New Hampshire and Canada 
 East. Its greatest length from north to south is 303 miles ; 
 from east to west, 212 miles ; area, 31,766 square miles, or 
 20,330,240 acres. In 1860, only about one-eighth of this vast 
 territory, or about 2,704,133 acres, was under cultivation. 
 
 Maine, as a general thing, is hilly and mountainous, and has 
 its culminating point at Mount Katahdin, at an altitude of 
 5,385 feet. A broken range of mountains, supposed to be a 
 continuation of the White Mountains of New Hampshire, ex- 
 tends across the state in a north-easterly direction, and terminates 
 with Mars Hill, in Aroostook county, about one mile from the 
 eastern boundary of the state. This mountain chain forms the 
 water-shed between the basin of the St. Johns river and the 
 Atlantic ocean. ^Extensive quarries of granite, of the finest 
 quality, are found upon the coast ; and in the interior are meta- 
 morphic rocks and minerals. The coast line is very irregular, 
 being indented with numerous bays, which receive some of the 
 largest rivers of New England. Passamaquoddy, the largest 
 bay, is at the south-eastern extremity of the state. It is fifteen 
 miles long, and ten miles wide, and is entered by three passages. 
 The other principal indentations are Englishman's, Frenchman's, 
 Penobscot and Casco bays. The principal rivers are Penobscot, 
 Kennebec, Androscoggin and Saco. The Penobscot is the larg- 
 est, and is formed by the junction of the Seboois river with the 
 
140 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 West Branch. The extreme length of the river is above 300 
 miles, and it has a course, after its junction with the Seboois, of 
 135 miles. The western branch rises in the extreme western 
 part of the state, at the foot of the Green mountains, and in 
 its course drains the Chesuncook and Bamedumpok lakes. At 
 Bangor, 58 miles from the mouth of the river, vessels of the 
 largest size are received. The source of the Kennebec river is 
 Moosehead lake, which is about 1,000 feet above the level of the 
 sea. It has a length of 160 miles, and receives the waters of 
 the Dead and Sebasticook rivers. The Androscoggin river orig- 
 inates in Coos county, New Hampshire, in Umbagog lake, and, 
 after a very irregular course of about 150 miles, enters the Ken- 
 nebec, about 20 miles above the mouth of the latter river. The 
 Saco river rises among the White mountains, in the southern 
 part of Coos county, New Hampshire, and, after flowing in a 
 south-easterly direction, through Maine, enters the Atlantic in 
 York county. The St. John river separates Maine from Cana- 
 da East, and the St. Croix partially separates the same state 
 from New Brunswick. 
 
 No other state in the union contains so great a number of 
 beautiful lakes, as Maine. Of these, Moosehead, in a wild and 
 picturesque region, lying between the counties of Somerset and 
 Piscataquis, is the largest. It is 35 miles long and 10 miles 
 broad. There is a steamboat upon the lake, used to convey 
 lumber to the Kennebec river. The water is deep, and abounds 
 with fish, among which trout are conspicuous. Chesumcook 
 lake, 26 miles long and four miles broad, is merely an expansion 
 of the Penobscot river. Schoodic lakes are two beautiful sheets 
 of water in Washington county, drained by an affluent of the 
 St. Croix river. 
 
 On the south-eastern coast of the state are a number of 
 islands, of which the principal are Fox islands, and Grand Me- 
 nan and Mount Desert Islands. The latter, in Frenchman's 
 bay, is 15 miles long and 11 miles broad. The inhabitants, 
 numbering more than 200, are chiefly engaged in shipping and 
 fisheries. 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 141 
 
 Maine has extensive forests of pine, spruce, hemlock, and 
 maple, and it is estimated that one-third of the ships of America 
 are built in this state. The white and red oak abound in the 
 vicinity of the coast ; and in the districts at the headwaters of 
 the Kennebec and Penobscot, are' found the pine and spruce. 
 Butternut and white walnut are scarce, but maple, birch and 
 ash grow in abundance. The mineral productions of Maine are 
 not very extensive. Considerable iron is found upon the Aroos- 
 took river, and small quantities of copper and lead are found in 
 the vicinity of Dexter and Lubec. Large quantities of slate 
 are found between the Kennebec and St. Johns rivers. 
 
 The climate of Maine is extremely regular, the temperature 
 ranging from 30° below zero to 100° above. The soil in the 
 mountainous regions, and in districts bordering upon the south- 
 eastern coast, is poor, and wholly unadapted to cultivation. 
 The most fertile portions of the country comprise the basin of 
 the St. John's river, and the territory lying between the Kenne- 
 bec and Penobscot rivers. The staple products are corn, rye, 
 barley, buckwheat, beans, potatoes, oats and hay. Wheat is 
 produced, though in limited quantities. Hops and flax are also 
 cultivated, and large quantities of maple sugar are manufactured. 
 
 No other state in the union has as great a number of good 
 harbors, or affords such natural advantages for commerce, as 
 Maine. The length of the coast, in a direct line, is 278 miles. 
 Considering the irregularity of the coast, and following the same 
 in all its windings, the former length is increased three times. 
 The most of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic are safe for the 
 largest vessels, from ten to fifty miles from the ocean. Lumber, 
 which is produced by means of these rivers, is the chief export. 
 The lumber produced in 1860 was valued at $0,598,565. In 
 1863 the exports amounted to $7,016,342 ; imports $3,911,468. 
 The increase of exports of the latter year over 1862 was over 
 $1,500,000. 
 
 AUGUSTA 
 
 Is the capital, and Portland and Bangor the largest cities of 
 the state. Augusta is the seat of justice of Kennebec county, 
 
142 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 and is sixty miles north-east of Portland, on both sides of the 
 Kennebec, about forty-five miles from the mouth of that river. 
 The business portion of the city lies under an elevation, which 
 rises a short distance from the river. On the summit of this 
 elevation are a number of hotels, and a large portion of the city 
 residences. The state house, in the southern portion of the 
 city, is an imposing building, of light granite construction, in 
 front of which is a spacious park, containing ornamental trees 
 and flowers, and intersected with gravel walks. Augusta con- 
 tains twelve churches, ten hotels, six banks, several public 
 schools, and a female academy. A dam, five hundred and nine- 
 ty feet long, has been constructed across the river, in the north- 
 ern limits of the city, which greatly improves the navigation 
 above, and affords immense hydraulic power to the manufacto- 
 ries and foundries below. A passenger and railroad bridge 
 span the river, about one-fourth of a mile apart, the former 
 being five hundred and the latter nine hundred feet long. The 
 Portland and Kennebec railroad passes through Augusta, and 
 terminates at Waterville. Population in 1860, 7,609. 
 
 PORTLAND, 
 
 The capital of Cumberland county, is on the eastern side of 
 Casco bay, one hundred and five miles north-east of Boston, 
 two hundred and ninety-two miles south-east of Montreal, and 
 three hundred and seventeen miles in the same direction from 
 Quebec. It is the largest city of Maine, and is the southern 
 terminus of the Atlantic and St. Lawrence railroad. Its site is 
 a hilly peninsula, about three miles long, and averaging three- 
 fourths of a mile in breadth. The harbor, nearly surrounded 
 by land, is one of the finest in the world, being of sufficient 
 depth to receive the largest vessels, and guarded at its principal 
 entrance by several strong fortresses. Portland is finely laid off, 
 and contains a large number of handsome buildings, generally 
 constructed of brick. Congress street, extending from Mun- 
 joy's to Bramhill's, the former on the eastern, and the latter on 
 the western side of the peninsula, is the principal thoroughfare 
 of the city. 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 143 
 
 The most prominent public building of the city is the city hall, 
 erected in 1859. The building, of dark sandstone construction, 
 is surmounted by a lofty dome. The other principal buildings 
 are the custom house, mechanics' hall, a natural history building, 
 mercantile association and Maine charitable mechanics' associa- 
 tion buildings, and a large number of churches. Portland is 
 rich in commerce and manufactures. Her exports for the year 
 1864 amounted to $3,824,591 ; imports $3,018,063. The city 
 is extensively engaged in ship building, and contains manufac- 
 tories of locomotives, railway carriages, &c. Portland has an 
 abundant supply of pure water, and is lighted with gas. Popu- 
 lation in 1860, 26,342. j 
 
 BANGOR, 
 
 The capital of Penobscot county, is sixty-six miles north-east 
 of Augusta, and one hundred and twenty-six miles in the same 
 direction from Portland. It is on the right bank of the Penob- 
 scot, and on both sides of the Kenduskeig, which enters the 
 former river about sixty miles from the ocean. A bridge, one 
 thousand three hundred and twenty feet long, extends to Brewer, 
 on the opposite bank of the river, and a short distance below is 
 the Portland harbor, five hundred yards long, and deep enough, 
 at high water, to receive the largest ships. The city has a 
 pleasant location, commanding a fine view of the river and sur- 
 rounding country. Bangor has a large number of hotels, col- 
 leges, and churches. A first class hotel, called the Bangor 
 house, is probably inferior to none in the state. The city con- 
 tains four large foundries, four steam furniture manufactories, 
 a large number of steam sawing and planing mills, fifteen banks, 
 twelve churches, and a theological seminary. Bangor has rail- 
 way communications with Old Town, and cities on the Penobscot 
 and Kennebec railroad. Population in 1860, 16,407. 
 
 Main has six hundred miles of railroad, sixty-nine banks, and 
 four thousand five hundred public schools. The latter are sup- 
 ported by money arising from the sale of public lands, and a tax 
 of one-half of one per cent, on the capital of banks. The state 
 also contains three colleges, twelve hundred churches, and forty- 
 
144 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 nine periodical publications. The government consists of a gov- 
 ernor, senate, and house of representatives. Excepting crimin- 
 als and paupers, persons have the right of suffrage after residing 
 in the country three months. Maine sends six members to con- 
 gress, and is entitled to eight electoral votes for president. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 New Hampshire, one of the original thirteen United States, 
 and next to Maine, the largest of the New England states, lies 
 between latitude 42° 41' and 45° 11' N., and longitude 70° 40' 
 and 72° 28' W. It is bounded on the north by Canada East, 
 on the south by Massachusetts, on the east by Maine and the 
 Atlantic ocean, and on the west by Vermont and Canada East. 
 Its greatest length from north to south is one hundred and seven- 
 ty-six miles ; width, forty-five miles ; area, nine thousand two 
 hundred and eighty square miles, or five million nine hundred 
 and thirty-nine thousand two hundred acres. New Hampshire 
 is often called the " Granite State," on account of the abun- 
 dance of that mineral. From the magnificent scenery of the 
 White mountains, it is also styled the "Switzerland of America." 
 
 With the exception of a small district in the south-eastern 
 portion of the state, the country is hilly and mountainous. The 
 White mountains extend nearly across the state from north to 
 south. They commence near the head waters of the Aroostook 
 river, in Maine, and reach their culminating in Coos county, 
 New Hampshire. The base of the mountains is a broad plat- 
 teau, from sixteen to eighteen hundred feet high. The White 
 mountains are more admired by travelers, and attract a larger 
 number of tourists than any other natural objects in the United 
 States, excepting Niagara. The lofty mountains, wild valleys, 
 beautiful lakes, grand cascades and torrents, alike contribute 
 beauty and grandeur to this delightful region. Twenty bold 
 peaks, with deep, narrow gorges, rise abruptly to the hight of 
 five thousand feet. Mount Washington, the highest summit, and 
 culminating point of New England, is eighty -five miles north of 
 Concord, in Coos county, and has an altitude of six thousand 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 145 
 
 two hundred and eighty-five feet. The sides, which are remark- 
 ably steep, are covered for about three-fourths of the distance 
 from the base to the summit, with a thick growth of trees. The 
 upper part has a conical form, and is frequently enveloped in 
 mist and fog. Mount Adams, next in hight to Mount Washing- 
 ton, is in the same county, and has an altitude of five thousand 
 seven hundred and fifty-nine feet. Mount Jefferson, directly 
 north of Mount Washington, between the latter peak and Mount 
 Adams, has an altitude of five thousand six hundred and fifty- 
 seven feet. Mount Lafayette is a peak of the Franconia range, 
 in Grafton county, seventy-five miles north-west of Concord. 
 Hight, five thousand five hundred feet. Immediately across the 
 valley is Profile or Cannon mountain, which is covered with 
 dense forests, till you arrive in the vicinity of the summit. This 
 peak, though exceeded in hight by the surrounding mountains, 
 is none the less interesting. At the foot of this mountain, near 
 the Franconia notch, is the Profile house, a favorite resort of 
 tourists. 
 
 Other elevations of importance are Mount Madison, five thou- 
 sand four hundred and fifteen feet high, Mount Monroe, five 
 thousand three hundred and forty-nine feet high, and Mount 
 Franklin four thousand eight hundred and fifty feet high. (See 
 views of White mountains.) The principal elevations, indepen- 
 dent of the main chain, are the Kearsarge mountains, in Merri- 
 mac county, two thousand four hundred and sixty-eight feet 
 high, and the Blue hills, in the south-eastern portion of the state, 
 one thousand one hundred and fifty-one feet high. The upper 
 portions of the former consist of bare granite rock. 
 
 The most important rivers of New Hampshire are the Connec- 
 ticut and Merrimac. The Connecticut has its source in a small 
 sheet of water, a few miles north of Connecticut lake. The 
 Merrimac river, formed by the confluence of the Pemigewasset 
 and Winnipiseogee rivers, flows first in a southerly, and, after 
 entering Massachusetts, in a north-easterly direction, and reaches 
 the Atlantic near Newburyport. Winnipiseogee, the principal 
 lake in the state, is drained by the river of the same name. This 
 
 large and beautiful sheet of water, lying between Carroll and 
 
 10 
 
146 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 Belknap counties, is twenty-five miles long and ten miles wide. 
 Its multitude of islands, and irregular form, in connection with 
 the romantic beauty of the surrounding scenery, render it one of 
 the most pleasing places in the state. Its waters are very deep 
 and pure, and it is thought by some to rival Loch Lomond in 
 beauty. 
 
 The forest trees of New Hampshire are various. On the 
 mountain slopes are vast forests of pine, which sometimes grow 
 over two hundred feet high. The other principal trees are the 
 oak, maple, spruce, beech and hemlock. The climate of New 
 Hampshire resembles that of Maine, the summers being short, 
 and the winters long and severe. 
 
 Though there are some fertile districts, the state, as a general 
 thing, is not adapted to agricultural pursuits. In 1860 there 
 were two hundred and thirty-eight thousand nine hundred and 
 sixty-six bushels of wheat, and one million four hundred and 
 fourteen thousand six hundred and twenty-eight bushels of corn 
 produced. 
 
 Concord is the capital. Manchester and Portsmouth are the 
 principal towns. 
 
 CONCORD, 
 
 The capital of New Hampshire, and seat of justice of Merri- 
 mac county, is on the western bank of the Merrimac river, fifty- 
 nine miles north-west of Boston. The ground on which the city 
 is built is slightly elevated, and comprises a district two miles 
 long, and three-fourths of a mile broad. Main street, the prin- 
 cipal thoroughfare, extends through the entire length of the city 
 from north to south, and contains the business houses, hotels, 
 churches, etc. State street contains a Methodist general biblical 
 institute, and a huge state prison of granite construction. The 
 state house is a hewn granite edifice, one hundred and twenty- 
 six feet long, forty-nine feet wide, and two stories high, standing 
 in the center of a common, finely ornamented with maple and 
 elm trees. The falls in the Merrimac at Concord afford val- 
 uable water power to the foundries, mills, etc. The city con- 
 tains nine churches, four newspaper offices, eight banks, and a 
 state lunatic asylum. Population in 1860, 10,896. 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 147 
 
 MANCHESTER, 
 
 A town of Hillsborough county, and chief city of New Hamp- 
 shire, is on the eastern bank of the Merrimac river, eighteen 
 miles south-east of Concord, and fifty-nine miles north-west of 
 Boston. The city is finely laid off on an elevated plain ninety- 
 five feet above the river. The principal street is a mile and a 
 half long, and one hundred feet broad, and divides the city into 
 two nearly equal parts. The western portion of the city is 
 chiefly built of wood, and contains a number of handsome villas 
 and residences. The eastern portion, or the part bordering on 
 the river, is built almost wholly of brick, and contains the busi- 
 ness establishments, hotels, etc. The most important buildings 
 are the town house, the different churches and public schools,, 
 and the athenaeum. The latter, established in 1844, has a free 
 reading room, and a library of thirty-five hundred volumes.. 
 " The system of public instruction comprises a high school, two 
 grammar schools, an intermediate, six middle, and twelve pri- 
 mary schools, besides others not classed." The city is furnished 
 with gas by a company established in 1851, having a capital, 
 at the present time, amounting to about one hundred thousand 
 dollars. 
 
 Near Manchester the Merrimac has a descent of fifty feet, 
 called Amoskeag Falls, which, in connection with a dam a short 
 distance below, affords sufficient hydraulic power to run several 
 hundred thousand spindles. 
 
 The most important corporations of Manchester are the 
 Amoskeag manufacturing company, and the Stark mills, the 
 former employing twenty-five hundred persons, both male and 
 female, and producing daily sixty-five thousand yards of tickings, 
 drillings, sheetings, and pantaloon stuffs, and the latter twelve 
 hundred persons, and manufacturing daily thirty thousand yards 
 of sheetings, seventeen thousand yards of drilling, and upwards of 
 five thousand seamless bags. 
 
 The city contains twelve churches, ten newspaper publications, 
 five insurance companies, and four banks with a capital exceed- 
 ing five hundred thousand dollars. Population, 20,107. 
 
148 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 PORTSMOUTH, 
 
 A city and semi-capital of Rockingham county, is on the south- 
 ern bank of the Piscataqua river, three miles from its mouth, 
 and fifty-five miles north-east of Boston. The site of the city is 
 a slightly elevated peninsula, formed by the Piscataqua river. 
 It is connected by bridges with Grand island and Kittery, direct- 
 ly opposite in Maine. Prominent among the public buildings 
 are the state arsenal and athenaeum, the finest structures in the 
 city. The latter has a library of ten thousand choice volumes. 
 On an island facing the city is a United States navy yard, con- 
 taining "three immense ship houses, and a floating balance 
 dock, constructed at a cost of about eight hundred thousand 
 dollars." 
 
 Portsmouth is the only port of entry in the state. The harbor, 
 having an average depth of about fifty-five feet, lies between the 
 city and the sea, and is large enough to accommodate upwards 
 of two thousand vessels. The city contains nine churches, four 
 newspaper publications, five banks, a large number of manufac- 
 tories, and an excellent system of public schools. Population 
 in 1860, 9,335. 
 
 New Hampshire has forty-four cotton, sixty-one woollen, and 
 twenty-nine iron factories ; a large number of paper mills, fifty- 
 one banks, seven hundred churches, thirty-eight newspaper pub- 
 lications, and numerous and well conducted free schools. Pop- 
 ulation of the state in 1860, 326,073, of which 325,579 were 
 white, and 494 colored. 
 
 In New Hampshire the governor, senate, and house of repre- 
 sentatives are elected annually. The senate is composed of 
 twelve and the house of representatives of two hundred and 
 eighty-six members. The governor receives a salary of one 
 thousand dollars per annum. 
 
 VERMONT. 
 
 Vermont, one of the United States, and the first state admit- 
 ted after the adoption of the federal constitution, lies between 
 latitude 42 5 44' and 45° N., and longitude 71°33' and 73° 25' 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 149 
 
 W. It is one hundred and fifty miles long, and from forty to 
 eighty-five miles wide, including an area of ten thousand two 
 hundred and twelve square miles, or six millions five hundred 
 and thirty-five thousand six hundred and eighty acres. It is 
 bounded on the north by Canada East, on the south by Massa- 
 chusetts, on the east by the Connecticut river, which separates 
 Vermont from New Hampshire, and on the west by Lake Cham- 
 plain and New York. 
 
 The surface of the country is hilly and mountainous. The 
 Green mountains traverse the entire length of the state from 
 north to south. In the southern part of the state they form a 
 single chain, but at Northfield, twelve miles south of Montpelier, 
 a range branches off in a north-easterly direction, and forms the 
 boundary line between Canada East and the states of Maine 
 and New Hampshire. The highest peak is Mount Mansfield, 
 twenty-two miles north of Montpelier, having an altitude of four 
 thousand three hundred and fifty-nine feet. The other peaks 
 range from a hight of two thousand to five thousand feet, and 
 are all covered with vegetation, and cultivated to their summits. 
 
 The principal rivers of Vermont are the Missisque, Lamoille, 
 Winooski, Otter, and Passumpsic. The Missisque and Lamoille 
 rise among the mountains in Orleans county, and, after a course 
 of seventy-five and seventy miles, enter Lake Champlain, the 
 former in Missisque, and the latter in Chittenden county. The 
 Winooski river rises in Washington county, and flows into Lake 
 Champlain, five miles west of Burlington. At Winooski village, 
 near Burlington, the river has a fall of twenty feet. Lake Cham- 
 plain separates Vermont from New York, for over one hundred 
 miles. Its entire length is one hundred and thirty-five miles, 
 and it has a width varying from one to twelve miles. Its out- 
 line is very irregular, and its surface is diversified by numerous 
 beautiful islands. Its depth varies from fifty to three hundred 
 feet. Its waters are discharged into the St. Lawrence through 
 the Richelieu river. Vessels of the largest size navigate the 
 lake with perfect safety. It is connected with the Hudson river 
 by the Champlain canal, thus establishing uninterrupted water 
 
150 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 communication with the principal cities of New York. The lake 
 abounds with trout, salmon, pike, and other fish. 
 
 The Vermont side of the lake is extremely fertile, but on the 
 opposite shore the country is wild, rocky, and desolate. 
 
 Vermont shares Lake Memphremagog with Canada East. 
 This lake is about thirty miles long, and has a width varying 
 from one to five miles. About eight miles of its length is in 
 Orleans county, Vermont ; the remainder is in Canada. Its 
 waters are discharged through Magog outlet, into the St. Fran- 
 cis river, and from thence into St. Peter's lake, an expansion of 
 the St. Lawrence river. 
 
 Vermont, though subject to severe weather, is one of the 
 healthiest states in the union. The temperature ranges from 
 seventeen degrees below to ninety- two degrees above zero. The 
 country suifers from frost as early as the first of September, 
 though the weather does not become severe till December. 
 
 The best quality of iron ore is found along the western base 
 of the Green mountains, and considerable quantities of lead, 
 zinc and copper are found in different parts of the state. At 
 Rutland are rich quarries of statuary marble. Small quantities 
 of gold have also been discovered. A lump weighing ten and a 
 half ounces was discovered in Newfane, in 1826. At the towns 
 of Bridgewater, Stowe, and Plymouth this precious ore is found. 
 
 The soil of Vermont is a rich marl, and produces Indian corn, 
 oats, wheat, rye, potatoes, and hops in great abundance. The 
 mountainous district is covered with a heavy grass, affording 
 excellent pasturage for cattle. Among the forest trees are found 
 the hemlock, fir, spruce, oak, beech, sugar-maple, pine, hickory, 
 elm, butternut, birch, cedar, and basswood. Vermont has a 
 valuable lumber trade, and is extensively engaged in the manu- 
 facture of maple sugar. In 1860, there were two millions eight 
 hundred and twenty-three thousand one hundred and fifty-seven 
 acres of land under cultivation. 
 
 In manufactures, Vermont holds only a secondary rank among 
 the United States. The number of manufacturing establish- 
 ments in the state in 1850, engaged in mining and the mechani- 
 cal arts, numbered fourteen hundred and eighty-nine. 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 151 
 
 The commerce of Vermont is carried on by means of Lake 
 Champlain. Her imports for the year 1862, amounted to two 
 millions five hundred and sixty-seven thousand eight hundred 
 and ninety -two dollars ; exports, seven hundred and thirty-six 
 thousand six hundred and sixty-three dollars. 
 
 The state contains five hundred and fifty-six miles of railroad, 
 fifty woollen mills, ten cotton mills, five hundred and ninety-six 
 churches, one hundred and eighteen academies and high schools, 
 two thousand nine hundred and thirty-seven district free schools, 
 and thirty-six weekly and six daily newspapers. 
 
 Montpelier is the capital, and Burlington is the largest city. 
 
 MONTPELIEK, 
 
 The capital, is the seat of justice of Washington county, on 
 the right bank of the Onion river, two hundred miles north-west 
 of Boston, on the Boston and St. Lawrence railroad. 
 
 The most important building is the state house, a rich granite 
 edifice one hundred and fifty feet long, one hundred feet wide, 
 and surmounted by a dome, the top of which is one hundred feet 
 above the ground. Montpelier contains six churches, five news- 
 paper offices, three banks, an academy, and several other schools. 
 Population in 1860, 2,411. 
 
 BURLINGTON, 
 
 The metropolis of Vermont, and seat of justice of Chittenden 
 county, is on Burlington bay, forty miles north-east of Montpe- 
 lier. At the mouth of the bay, on Juniper island, is a light 
 house, erected by the United States government, and a break- 
 water to protect shipping. Burlington has excellent water com- 
 munication by means of Lake Champlain, and is on railroad 
 lines leading to important cities of New England and Canada. 
 The Vermont university is located in the eastern suburbs of the 
 the town, on an elevation, two hundred and eighty-one feet above 
 the level of the sea. This institution, consisting of four build- 
 ings, was founded in 1791. The city has four newspapers offices, 
 four banks, several churches, and seven thousand three hundred 
 and seventy-five tons of shipping. In 1860 the inhabitants 
 numbered 7,713. 
 
152 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 ST. JOHNSBURY, 
 
 An important town and capital of Caledonia county, Ver- 
 mont, is thirty-six miles north-east of Montpelier, and fifty miles 
 east of Burlington. It is on the western bank of the Passump- 
 sic river, which affords abundant water power for the mills and 
 manufactories in the town. It contains forty stores, and a man- 
 ufactory for Fairbanks' scales. It has also four foundries with 
 machine shops, two banks, and a number of churches. Popula- 
 tion 3,500. (See views of St. Johnsbury.) 
 
 St. Johnsbury Centre is two miles north of St. Johnsbury, on 
 the Passumpsic river, and Passumpsic river railroad. It contains 
 four churches, two carriage manufactories, and three mills. 
 Population 750. (See views of St. Johnsbury Centre.) 
 
 Waterford is a township of Caledonia county, about forty-five 
 miles north of Montpelier, intersected by the Connecticut river 
 and the Passumpsic river railroad. The surface is very uneven, 
 and is traversed by ridges of hills and cliffs. (See views of 
 Waterford.) 
 
 The population of Vermont has a steady, though not rapid 
 increase. In 1790 the inhabitants numbered only eighty-five 
 thousand four hundred and sixteen. In 1860 the state had a 
 population of three hundred and fifteen thousand and ninety- 
 eight, of which three hundred and fourteen thousand three hun- 
 dred and eighty-nine were white, and seven hundred and nine 
 colored. The government of the state is administered by a gov- 
 ernor, lieutenant governor, senate and house of representatives. 
 The senate consists of thirty and the house of representatives of 
 two hundred and thirty members. Vermont sends three mem- 
 bers to the national house of representatives, and is entitled to 
 five electoral votes for president. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Massachusetts, one of the thirteen original United States, lies 
 between latitude 41° 15' and 42° 53' N., and longitude 69° 56' 
 and 73° 32' W. It is bounded on the north by Vermont and 
 New Hampshire; on the south by Connecticut, Rhode Island, 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 153 
 
 Buzzard's Bay and Vineyard Sound ; on the east by Cape Cod 
 Bay, Massachusetts Bay, and the Atlantic Ocean ; and on the 
 west by New York. Its length from east to west is one hundred 
 and sixty miles ; from north to south, forty-seven to one hund- 
 red and ten miles ; area, seven thousand eight hundred square 
 miles, or four millions nine hundred and ninety-two thousand 
 acres. 
 
 In the western part of the state are the Green mountains, 
 and, scattered over the country, are solitary peaks, sometimes 
 attaining a great hight. Mounts Tom and Holyoke, on oppo- 
 site sides of the Connecticut river, in Hampden county, are 
 isolated peaks, having respective hights of twelve hundred and 
 fourteen and nine hundred and thirty feet. Mount Wachusett, 
 in Worcester county, two thousand and eighteen feet high, 
 commands a brilliant prospect. Saddle mountain, the culminai:- 
 ing point of the state, is in Berkshire county, and has an altitude 
 of three thousand eight hundred feet. The north-eastern por- 
 tion of the state is hilly, and the south-eastern low and sandy. 
 
 The western part of the state is remarkable for the variety 
 and beauty of its scenery. Berkshire county, in particular, de- 
 serves the attention of all lovers of the picturesque. It has an 
 area of one thousand square miles, and lies east of the Green 
 mountains, occupying the entire length of the state from north 
 to south. The surface is very uneven, and in some parts moun- 
 tainous. Saddle mountain, in the northern, and Bald Peak, in 
 the southern part of the county, are the principal elevations. 
 Monument mountain, in the township of Stockbridge, has a bold 
 and rocky summit, and a perpendicular ascent of over two hund- 
 red feet, from the valley below. (See views of Monument 
 mountain.) A deep ravine, of great wildness, in the same town- 
 ship, called the Ice Glen, contains ice during the whole year. 
 (See views of the Ice Glen.) Among the other remarkable 
 natural objects of Berkshire county, may be mentioned the Falls 
 of the Housatonic, near Dalton ; a rock in Marlborough, weigh- 
 ing nearly fifty tons, and so accurately balanced that it will 
 move, when slightly pressed ; Hanging mountain, rising perpen- 
 dicularly three hundred feet above the Farmington river ; and 
 
154 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 the Natural Bridge, on Hudson's brook, in North Adams. (See 
 views of Natural Bridge.) At this point, a fissure, fifty feet 
 deep and five hundred feet long, has been worn through solid 
 rock, forming a bridge forty-seven feet above the water. 
 
 The principal rivers of the state, are the Connecticut, Merri- 
 mac and Housatonic. The Merrimac has a course of forty 
 miles, in the state, and on its banks are the cities of Lowell, 
 Lawrence, Andover and Newburyport. The falls and rapids of 
 both this river and the Connecticut, render navigation difficult, 
 but afford immense water-power for the manufacturing cities 
 through which they pass. 
 
 The soil and climate of Massachusetts are unfavorable for 
 agriculture. The south-eastern portion of the state is low and 
 sandy, and salt marshes abound near the coast. The western 
 half is the most productive, and in the Connecticut and Housa- 
 tonic valleys there are extremely fertile districts. The staple 
 productions are, Indian corn, oats, potatoes, rye, buckwheat, 
 barley, fruits, hay, and maple sugar. In 1860, Massachusetts 
 produced one hundred and nineteen thousand seven hundred and 
 eighty-three bushels of wheat, two millions one hundred and fifty- 
 seven thousand and sixty-three bushels of corn, three millions 
 two hundred and thirty-three thousand one hundred and ninety- 
 eight pounds of tobacco, and three hundred and seventy-seven 
 thousand two hundred and sixty-seven pounds of wool. 
 
 In proportion to her size, Massachusetts holds the first rank 
 in the union as a manufacturing state. According to the man- 
 ufacturing statistics of 1860, there were eight thousand one 
 hundred and seventy-six establishments in the state, employing 
 a capital of one hundred and thirty-three millions of dollars. The 
 value of her manufactures for the same year amounted to two 
 hundred and sixty-six millions of dollars. There are also in the 
 state one hundred and fifty woollen mills, three hundred cotton 
 mills, thirteen carpet mills, and many iron foundries and nail 
 factories. The manufacture of boots and shoes alone amounts 
 to fifty millions of dollars a year. 
 
 In commercial importance, Massachusetts is second only to 
 New York. Her principal exports are her manufactures, rocks 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 155 
 
 and ice. She is largely engaged in fisheries, which give employ- 
 ment to over thirty thousand persons. Boston exports an aver- 
 age of one hundred thousand tons of ice yearly. Granite and 
 iron are the most important mineral products. Mines of lead 
 were worked as early as 1765, at Northampton. Coal is found 
 in limited quantities in the vicinity of Mansfield. 
 
 Boston is the capital, and largest city of the state. Other 
 important cities are Lowell, Cambridge, Roxbury, Charlestown 
 and Worcester. 
 
 BOSTON, 
 
 The capital, is one of the oldest towns in the union, and, next 
 to New York, is the most important commercial city in the 
 United States. It is the capital of Suffolk county, and is situ- 
 ated at the western extremity of Massachusetts bay, four hund- 
 red and sixty-four miles northeast of Washington, and about 
 one-half of that distance from New York. The city is divided 
 into three parts, viz : Boston Proper, or Old Boston, East Bos- 
 ton and South Boston. A very hilly and uneven peninsula, of 
 five hundred acres, forms the site of Boston Proper, which is 
 connected with Roxbury by a narrow isthmus, about a mile and 
 a quarter long. This isthmus was formerly, during rainy weath- 
 er, flooded with water, but it has recently been improved, and is 
 now traversed by several good roads. Boston is also connected 
 with the surrounding cities by a number of bridges, of which 
 the Charles river bridge, connecting the city with Charlestown ; 
 Old Cambridge bridge, two thousand seven hundred and fifty- 
 eight feet long, crossing the Charles river to Cambridge road ; 
 South Boston bridge, one thousand five hundred and fifty feet 
 long, leading to South Boston; and Canal bridge, connecting 
 Boston with Letchmere Point, now Cambridge, are the most 
 important. South Boston is on the southern side of the harbor, 
 between Boston Proper and Fort Independence. East Boston, 
 the terminus of the Grand Junction Railroad, occupies about 
 six hundred and sixty acres of the western portion of Noddle's 
 Island. 
 
 Originally, the streets of Boston were narrow and crooked ; 
 but much has recently been done to improve them. The most 
 
156 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 important streets are Tremont and Washington. Some of the 
 fashionable promenades are bordered with beautiful elms, some 
 of which are over a century old. The Boston Common, an in- 
 closure of fifty acres, in the western part of Old Boston, near 
 the Charles river, is one of the finest public parks in America. 
 It was formerly called " Tower's Field," and was used as a town 
 cow-pasture. In the center of the common is a pond, from 
 which spouts a large fountain, from fifty to sixty feet high. The 
 grounds are surrounded by an elegant and costly iron fence, 
 three hundred and sixty rods in length. Between the common 
 and the river is a botanic garden, covering twenty-five acres of 
 ground. 
 
 The state-house was built in 1798, and holds a conspicuous 
 place among the public buildings of the city. The building is 
 one hundred and seventy feet long, sixty-five feet wide, and is 
 surmounted by a dome thirty feet high, and one hundred and 
 twenty feet above the ground. On the entrance floor is a statue 
 of Washington, by Chaucer. Faneuil Hall, the " Cradle of 
 Liberty," as it is called, is an object of much interest, as being 
 the place where the orators, in the days of Hancock and Adams, 
 roused the people to resistance against British oppression. 
 
 The Quincy Market, erected at a cost of one hundred and 
 fifty thousand dollars, is five hundred feet long, fifty feet wide, 
 two stories high, and surmounted by a lofty dome. The City 
 Hall, erected in 1864 and 1865, is one of the handsomest build- 
 ings in the United States. It is constructed of granite, which 
 was brought from Concord, New Hampshire, and cost the city 
 nearly six hundred thousand dollars. The Merchant's Exchange, 
 on State street, is two hundred and fifty feet long, seventy-five 
 feet broad, and cost one hundred and seventy-five thousand dol- 
 lars. " The front is composed of Quincy granite, with four 
 pilasters, each a single stone forty-five feet high, and weighing 
 about fifty-five tons." In the Music Hall, on Winter street, is 
 the " Great Organ," the richest and most powerful instrument 
 of the kind ever constructed. It was built at Ludwigslust, 
 Germany, and cost sixty thousand dollars. It is sixty feet high, 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 157 
 
 forty-eight feet wide, twenty-four feet deep, has eighty-nine stops, 
 and about six thousand pipes. 
 
 Prominent among the Boston hotels, is the Tremont house, a 
 first-class hotel on Tremont street. The Winthrop house is also 
 a fine hotel, on Tremont street. The other principal hotels are 
 the Revere house, on Bowdoin square ; the American house, on 
 Hanover street ; and the Parker house. 
 
 Boston contains, also, a large number of libraries, the most 
 noted of which are the Boston Athenaeum, containing sixty 
 thousand volumes ; the Massachusetts Historical Society, having 
 twelve thousand volumes ; the American Academy of Arts and 
 Sciences, having fifteen thousand volumes ; the Mercantile Li- 
 brary Association, thirteen thousand five hundred volumes ; and 
 the State Library, having ten thousand volumes. The Public 
 Library building, erected in 1858, at a cost of three hundred 
 and sixty-three thousand six hundred and thirty-three dollars, 
 is directly opposite the Common, on Boylston street, and con- 
 tains ninety-five thousand volumes. 
 
 Boston supports an immense foreign and domestic commerce. 
 Of the three thousand and eleven vessels that entered the port 
 of Boston during the year ending June 30, 1863, eight hundred 
 and thirty-six were American, and two thousand one hundred 
 and seventy-five foreign. Boston receives an abundant supply 
 of fresh water from Lake Cochituate, twenty miles west of the 
 city. The water is received in an immense reservoir in Brook- 
 line, by means of a brick water-pipe, from whence it is conveyed 
 to different reservoirs throughout the city. Boston contains one 
 hundred churches, and the same number of periodical publica- 
 tions. Population, in 1860, one hundred and seventy-seven 
 thousand eight hundred and forty. (See views of Boston.) 
 
 LOWELL, 
 
 A city of Massachusetts, and, next to Boston, the largest in 
 the state, is at the junction of the Concord with the Merrimac 
 river, thirty miles north-west of Boston, and eight miles south 
 from the dividing line between New Hampshire and the state in 
 
158 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 which it is situated. Five railroads, establishing an uninter- 
 rupted line of communication with cities on the sea coast, and 
 in the interior, have their terminus at Lowell. The city is reg- 
 ularly laid off, and contains three handsome public parks, or 
 commons as they are more commonly called. The streets are 
 very direct, and intersect each other at right angles. 
 
 The principal public buildings are the court house and county 
 jail, the former erected in 1851, at a cost of one hundred thou- 
 sand dollars, the latter in 1855-56, at a cost of one hundred 
 and fifty thousand dollars. Other noted edifices are Mechanics' 
 building, Huntington hall, and Wentworth's, Carlton, and Ap- 
 pleton blocks. The chief libraries of the city are the Merchants' 
 association and city library, the former containing nine thousand 
 and the latter twelve hundred volumes. 
 
 At Lowell the Merrimac river has a perpendicular pitch of 
 thirty-three feet, called the Pawtucket falls, which affords im- 
 mense water power to this great manufacturing town. Thirteen 
 manufacturing companies in Lowell, in 1864, had in their pos- 
 session fifty-four mills, and employed a capital of thirteen mil- 
 lions eight hundred and fifty thousand dollars. Lowell has 
 thirty-two churches, forty-five primary, eight grammar, and one 
 high school, several private schools, seven banks, two insurance 
 companies, five newspaper offices, extensive manufactories of 
 of cotton and woollen goods, carpets, prints, etc., consuming 
 twenty-five millions pounds of cotton per annum ; eleven machine 
 shops, six carriage manufactories, four lumber dealing firms, 
 four sash, door, and blind factories, and three paper mills. 
 
 " The sixth Massachusetts regiment, principally from Lowell, 
 was the first to enter the field in response to the call of Presi- 
 dent Lincoln, April 15th, 1861, for seventy-five thousand volun- 
 teers. The regiment left Lowell on the 16th ; on the 19th was 
 attacked by a mob in Baltimore, and two of its members — Ladd 
 and Whitney — both of Lowell, were killed. A monument to 
 these first martyrs of the great American rebellion, has been 
 erected in a public square in the heart of the city." The popu- 
 lation of Lowell has been greatly increased by foreign emigra- 
 tion. Population in 1860, 36,827. 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 159 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, 
 
 An important city and semi-capital of Middlesex county, is on 
 the northern bank of the Charles river, three miles north-east of 
 Boston, with which city it is connected by water communication, 
 and by the old Cambridge and canal bridges. Cambridge is 
 finely laid off, the streets being broad, and shaded with lofty and 
 majestic elms, some of which are nearly one hundred years old. 
 
 Cambridge is one of the oldest towns in the union, and is the 
 seat of Harvard university. (See views of university.) This 
 institution, founded in 1648, is the most interesting object con- 
 nected with the town. It was named in honor of Rev. John 
 Harvard, who bequeathed to it a legacy of seven hundred 
 and eighty-one pounds. Its present fund exceeds one million 
 dollars. A law and theological school, and a medical college, 
 are connected with the university, and there is also a depart- 
 ment for those wishing to enter upon a scientific course, inde- 
 pendent of other branches. Of the twenty-one buildings 
 belonging to the university, twenty are in Cambridge, and one 
 in Grove street, Boston. Cambridge contains twenty churches, 
 six banks, several hotels, the county buildings, post office, and a 
 large number of manufactories. Population, 26,060. 
 
 ROXBURY, 
 
 Is an important town of Massachusetts, in Norfolk county, 
 three miles south-west of Boston, on the Boston and Providence 
 railroad. It is connected with Boston by several stage roads 
 crossing the "Boston Neck." The site of the city presents 
 every variety of surface, from the lofty hill, down to districts 
 nearly level with the sea. From the summit of many of these 
 hills, a good view can be obtained of the city of Boston, and 
 much of the surrounding scenery. Roxbury might justly be re- 
 garded as a suburb of Boston, being closely connected in wealth 
 and interest with that city. Many of the Boston business men 
 have beautiful residences in Roxbury. Roxbury has manufac- 
 tories of fire and steam engines, steam boilers, carpetings, fringe, 
 tassels, leather, etc. Population, 25,137. 
 
160 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 CHARLESTOWN, 
 
 A city of Middlesex county, is on the northern side of the 
 Charles river, directly opposite Boston. The peninsula on which 
 the city is built, formed by the confluence of the Mystic with 
 the Charles river, is, like most of the country in the vicinity, 
 rugged and hilly. Charlestown is connected with Boston and 
 Cambridge by the Prison Point bridge, which strikes the centre 
 of canal bridge, which connects the two former cities. The city 
 is finely built, having wide and shady streets, and many elegant 
 edifices. Main, Bunker Hill, and Medford, running north and 
 south, are the principal streets. The city contains four banks, 
 a huge state prison, with accommodations for five hundred con- 
 victs, and a United States navy yard, occupying eighty acres, 
 at the foot of Bunker Hill. The dry dock, built at a cost of 
 six hundred and seventy thousand dollars, is at the upper end 
 of the yard. It is three hundred and forty-one feet long, eighty 
 feet wide, thirty feet deep, and constructed of granite. 
 
 " The chief object of interest, however, to persons visiting 
 Charlestown, is the Bunker Hill monument, erected in commem- 
 oration of the first great battle fought between the British and 
 Americans. It stands on Breed's Hill, usually called Bunker 
 Hill, near the spot where the brave Warren fell. Its founda- 
 tions, which are fifty feet above the level of the sea, are enclosed 
 twelve feet under ground. The corner stone was laid by Mar- 
 quis de Lafayette, June 17th, 1825. The fifteenth anniversary of 
 the battle, June 17th, 1843, the completion of the monument 
 was celebrated, in the presence of the president of the United 
 States, many of the members of his cabinet, and a vast concourse 
 of citizens. It consists of a plain granite shaft, two hundred 
 and twenty feet high, thirty-one feet square at the base, and 
 fifteen feet at the top. Within is a winding stairway, by which 
 it is ascended to a chamber immediately under the apex, eleven 
 feet in diameter, containing four windows, which afford a mag- 
 nificent panoramic view of the surrounding country. In this 
 chamber are two of the four cannon which constituted the whole 
 train of field artillery possessed by the Americans at the com- 
 mencement of the war, in April, 1775. These two pieces are 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 161 
 
 named respectively Hancock and Adams." (See views of Bun- 
 ker Hill.) 
 
 Mystic lake, five miles from the city, supplies Charlestown with 
 a stream of pure, fresh water. Population in 1860, 25,063. 
 
 WORCESTER 
 
 Is the seat of justice of Worcester county, forty-five miles 
 south-west of Boston. It is on the northern bank of the Black- 
 stone river, partially environed with beautiful hills, and is inter- 
 sected by six important railways. Main street is the chief busi- 
 ness thoroughfare, and contains the court house, churches, and 
 all the important public buildings of the city. The American 
 antiquarian society building is eighty feet long, fifty feet wide, 
 contains thirty -five thousand volumes, and " plaster casts of 
 Michael Angelo's celebrated statues of Christ and Moses." 
 
 Worcester contains eighteen churches, seven banks, five news- 
 paper offices, six insurance companies, an excellent system of 
 schools, and a large number of rolling and woollen mills, found- 
 ries, etc. Population in 1860, 24,960. 
 
 In 1860 the population of Massachusetts was one million two 
 hundred and thirty-one thousand and sixty-six, of whom one 
 million two hundred and twenty-one thousand four hundred and 
 sixty-four were white, and nine thousand six hundred and two 
 were colored. The state contains one hundred and seventy-six 
 banks, sixteen hundred miles of railroad divided between fifty- 
 one companies, sixteen hundred and thirty-six churches, twenty- 
 two daily papers, two hundred and eighty-two periodical publi- 
 cations, four thousand four hundred and forty-four public schools, 
 seven hundred and fifty academies, four normal schools, five 
 colleges, and three lunatic asylums. 
 
 The governor of Massachusetts receives a salary of two thou- 
 sand five hundred dollars per annum. The senate is composed 
 of forty and the house of representatives of three hundred and 
 fifty-six members. Massachusetts is represented by eleven 
 members in the national house of representatives, and is entitled 
 
 to thirteen electoral votes for president. 
 
 11 
 
162 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Connecticut, one of the thirteen original United States, lies 
 between latitude 41° and 42° 3' N., and longitude 71° 55' and 
 73° 50' W. It is bounded on the north by Massachusetts, on 
 the south by Long Island sound, on the east by Rhode Island, 
 and on the west by New York. It greatest length from north 
 to south is sixty-eight miles, from east to west about ninety-three 
 miles, including an area of four thousand six hundred and seven- 
 ty-four square miles, or two millions nine hundred and ninety- 
 one thousand three hundred and sixty acres. 
 
 The surface of Connecticut is greatly diversified by mountains 
 and hills. The Green mountains, which extend nearly across 
 the state, reach no great hight, and would more properly be 
 denominated hills. Many subordinate ridges are found between 
 the Connecticut and Housatonic, and east of the former river are 
 elevations supposed to be a part of the White mountain chain. 
 On either side of the Connecticut, near its mouth, are walls of 
 trap rock, through which the river, at some early period, has 
 worn for itself a channel. 
 
 The principal rivers of Connecticut are the Housatonic, Con- 
 necticut, and Thames. The Housatonic rises in Berkshire 
 county, Massachusetts, and, after a southerly course of one 
 hundred and fifty miles, enters Long Island sound, fifteen miles 
 below Derby. The river has a fall of one thousand feet from 
 its source to its mouth, which, though derogatory to navigation, 
 affords valuable water power to the numerous manufacturing 
 towns upon its banks. The most beautiful descent of the river, 
 occurs between Falls village and Canaan, thirty-seven miles 
 north-east of New Haven. (See views of the Housatonic.) The 
 Connecticut river is safe for large vessels as far north as Middle- 
 town, and the Housatonic as far as Derby. The Thames traverses 
 the eastern portion of the state, and is navigable as far as Nor- 
 wich, fourteen miles from its mouth. 
 
 In regard to climate, Connecticut ranks among the foremost 
 of the United States. Her winters, like all of the New England 
 states, are generally severe, but her springs are earlier, and 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 163 
 
 summers, owing to her proximity to the sea, less subject to in- 
 tense heat. The soil, especially in the valleys of the Connecti- 
 cut, Housatonic, and Thames, is exceedingly fertile. The beau- 
 tiful valley of the Connecticut, called by the Indians " the 
 pleasant country," contains some of the oldest towns of the 
 United States. The western half of the state is devoted to 
 agriculture, the eastern chiefly to grazing and pasturage. The 
 staple productions are butter, cheese, wool, maize, oats, barley, 
 wheat, flax, hemp, and tobacco. Principal minerals, marble, 
 freestone, and iron. 
 
 The commerce and manufactures of Connecticut, though not 
 very large, are important. The value of the exports of the year 
 ending June 30th, 1861, amounted to four hundred and twenty- 
 one thousand three hundred and twenty dollars ; imports, seven 
 hundred and fifty-three thousand three hundred and nine dollars. 
 According to the manufacturing statistics of the same year, the 
 capital invested amounted to forty-five millions seven hundred 
 and seventy thousand dollars ; amount of the annual product, 
 eighty-three millions. 
 
 The capitals of the state are Hartford and New Haven. 
 Other important cities are Middletown, New London, and 
 Norwich. 
 
 NEW HAVEN, 
 
 A city and capital of a county of the same name, and semi- 
 capital of the state of Connecticut, is at the head of New Haven 
 bay, a branch of Long Island sound, seventy-six miles north- 
 east of New York, and one hundred miles south-west of Boston. 
 The city is on a level and undulating plain, sloping gently 
 back from the sea. The scenery which surrounds New Haven 
 is in the highest degree picturesque and beautiful. On every 
 side, except where it is bordered by the sea, the city is sur- 
 rounded by lofty hills, two of which, one upon either side of the 
 town, have a perpendicular ascent of nearly four hundred feet, 
 and are called from their position, east and west rocks. Chapel 
 street, the fashionable promenade of the city, extends in a north- 
 westerly direction from Mill river, through the entire length 
 of the city. 
 
164 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 In New Haven a neatness and regularity is observable, which 
 is rarely found in other cities. The city covers from six to seven 
 square miles, and is regularly laid off, the streets running in 
 parallel directions, and crossing each other at right angles. 
 Beautiful elms, lining the streets, and ornamenting public squares 
 and parks, are scattered throughout the city. From the great 
 abundance of these trees, New Haven is appropriately styled 
 the " City of Elms." In Temple street they are so numerous 
 and large that the rays of the sun seldom penetrate through the 
 mass of foliage to the walk beneath. A succession of beautiful 
 residences on Hill House avenue are almost entirely hid from 
 view by the profusion of foliage and flowers. A public square 
 of sixteen acres, called the " Green," is one of the finest parks 
 in the United States. Wooster and York are the other principal 
 squares, the former containing five acres, and lying in the eastern 
 part of the city. 
 
 New Haven is the seat of Yale college, which is, undoubtedly, 
 the greatest institution of its kind in the union. It was founded 
 in 1700, by ten farmers, who each donated a number of books 
 for its support ; and named in honor of Elihu Yale, who at his 
 death, left to the institution a large sum of money. A whole 
 block, immediately east of the public green, is occupied by the 
 college and its buildings. On the eastern side of the square are 
 five brick buildings, each four stories high, and containing study 
 rooms and sleeping apartments. In the same row are the chapel, 
 observatory, and lyceum. Farther back is the Trumbull gal- 
 lery, containing a choice collection of historical paintings. Near 
 the western end of the square is the library building, a hand- 
 some gothic structure one hundred and fifty feet long. 
 
 " Among the principal public edifices may be mentioned the 
 state house, standing in the western section of the green. It is 
 a large stuccoed building, modeled after the Parthenon, and 
 contains, besides the legislative halls, apartments for the supreme, 
 superior, and county courts." 
 
 " The new railroad depot, recently erected on Chapel street, 
 near State street, is a fine brick structure, with towers." The 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 165 
 
 other principal buildings are St. Paul's chapel and Trinity 
 church, both handsome stone buildings. 
 
 The harbor of New Haven is very shallow, rendering a near 
 approach to land both difficult and dangerous. To meet this 
 difficulty, a wharf has been built in the bay, which extends 
 nearly three thousand five hundred feet from the shore. The 
 city has four newspaper offices, five banks, with an aggregate 
 capital of two millions of dollars, and a savings institution, 
 having eight hundred and thirty-five thousand one hundred and 
 twelve dollars on deposit. Population in 1860, 39,268. (See 
 views of New Haven.) 
 
 HARTFORD, 
 
 Semi-capital, and, next to New Haven, the largest city of 
 Connecticut, is in Hartford county, on the western bank of the 
 Connecticut river, about one hundred and twenty-four miles 
 south-west of Boston, and thirty-six miles north-east of New 
 Haven. The city covers about two thousand acres of very un- 
 even ground, which is intersected by upwards of seven hundred 
 streets and alleys. Main street, two miles long, and containing 
 the most important business buildings, extends through the entire 
 length of the city from north to south, dividing it in two nearly 
 equal parts. State street, extending from Main street to the 
 river, contains a large number of wholesale establishments. 
 
 Brick and freestone are the chief building materials. The 
 court house, erected in 1792, is one of the finest buildings in the 
 city. This structure, of the Doric order, is one hundred and 
 fourteen feet long, seventy-six feet wide, fifty-four feet high, and 
 is surmounted by a lofty dome. Trinity college, in a richly 
 ornamented inclosure, one mile south of the state house, is one 
 of the finest educational establishments in the state. Wads- 
 worth athenaeum, devoted to science, literature, and the arts, 
 and having a library of five thousand volumes, is a turreted 
 gothic building of granite construction, "A gallery of paint- 
 ings, and other rooms devoted to the fine arts occupy the central 
 portion of the building." The American asylum for deaf and 
 dumb, founded in 1820, is a four story building, one hundred 
 
166 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 and thirty feet long, and fifty feet wide, attended by about two 
 hundred and thirty pupils. Hartford contains twelve banks, 
 twenty-four churches, seven newspaper offices, and seventeen 
 fire and life insurance companies. Population, 29,152. 
 
 MIDDLETOWN, 
 
 An important city of Connecticut, and semi-capital of Middle- 
 sex county, is twenty-four miles north-east of New Haven, at 
 the head of ship navigation on the Connecticut, and on the Air 
 Line railway extending from New York to Boston. It is pleas- 
 antly situated on the slope of a hill, on the western bank of the 
 river. Main street, the principal thoroughfare, comprises the 
 business portion of the town. The principal buildings are the 
 custom house, court house, and the Wesleyan university, the 
 latter occupying an eminence, and commanding an extensive 
 view of the valley of the Connecticut. 
 
 Middletown has a fine harbor, and enjoys important water 
 communications with cities on the river. The city contains four 
 banks, two savings institutions, and manufactories of hardware, 
 guns, leather, etc. Population in 1860, 5,182. 
 
 NEW LONDON, 
 
 An important city of Connecticut, and semi-capital of New 
 London county, is on the western bank of the Thames river, 
 about three miles from Long Island sound. The ground on 
 which the city is built was formerly covered with huge granite 
 rocks, in consequence of which the city was laid off with little 
 regard to regularity. Much has been done of late, however, to 
 overcome the original inequalities of the surface. In the western 
 suburbs of the city is a lofty hill, from the summit of which a 
 varied and extensive view can be obtained. 
 
 Prominent among the public buildings are the custom house, 
 an elegant granite structure, and court house. 
 
 New London is extensively engaged in commerce and fisheries, 
 and is also rich in manufactures. The harbor is three miles 
 long, and thirty feet deep, and is encircled on nearly every side 
 by lofty hills, and defended by two strong fortresses, only one 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 167 
 
 of which, however, is garrisoned. The receipts from the whale 
 fishery for the year 1852, were one million three hundred and 
 forty-nine thousand eight hundred and seventy-two dollars. 
 
 New London has ten churches, four newspaper offices, sixteen 
 public schools, five banks, with a capital of six hundred thousand 
 dollars, and a savings institution with seven hundred and six 
 thousand one hundred and forty-four dollars on deposit. Popu- 
 lation in 1860, 10,115. 
 
 NORWICH, 
 
 Beautifully situated at the head of the Thames river, is the 
 semi-capital of New London county, and, next to New Haven 
 and Hartford, is the largest city in Connecticut. 
 
 The Yantic and Shetucket rivers, which here unite to form 
 the Thames, have each falls and rapids which afford immense 
 hydraulic power to the foundries, mills, etc., of this manufactur- 
 ing city. The southern portion of the city occupies the slope of 
 a large hill, but to the north it stretches over an elevated and 
 extensive plain. Norwich contains the county buildings, an 
 excellent high school, and a large number of elegant and costly 
 private residences. About three hundred and fifty men are em- 
 ployed by the Norwich arms company in the manufacture of 
 government fire-arms. 
 
 Norwich forms communications with cities on the seaboard, 
 and in the interior by means of the Norwich and Worcester and 
 the New London northern railroads. The city contains seven- 
 teen churches, three newspaper offices, four insurance companies, 
 forty public schools, seven banks, three savings banks, and about 
 one hundred manufactories of cotton and woollen goods, paper, 
 machinery, etc. Population in 1860, 14,048. 
 
 NORWALK, 
 
 Is a city of Fairfield county, on both sides of the Norwalk 
 river, on the route of the New York and New Haven railroad, 
 forty-five miles north-east of New York, and thirty-one miles 
 south-west of New Haven. 
 
 Norwalk is noted for the manufacture of felt cloth, of which 
 two companies make over five hundred thousand yards per 
 
168 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 annum. The city contains nine churches, five banks, three 
 union school houses, one of which ranks among the finest educa- 
 tional establishments in the state, and two newspaper offices. 
 The Danbury and Norwalk and New York and New Haven 
 railroads form a junction at Norwalk, by means of which an 
 unbroken line of railway communication is established with all 
 important cities in the state. Vessels drawing six feet of water 
 ascend the river from Long Island sound as far as Norwalk. 
 Population in 1860, 7,582. (See views of Norwalk.) 
 
 In 1790 the population of Connecticut was two hundred and 
 thirty-eight thousand one hundred and forty-one ; in 1860, four 
 hundred and sixty thousand one hundred and forty-seven. This 
 small increase is, doubtless, owing to the fact that a large por- 
 tion of the population are yearly emigrating to other states. 
 
 Connecticut has seven hundred and sixty miles of railroad in 
 use. The state contains eight hundred and two churches, five 
 colleges, eighteen hundred and ten public schools, and one hun- 
 dred and ninety-five academies. The governor and lieutenant 
 governor are elected by universal suffrage, the former receiving 
 eleven hundred dollars and the latter three hundred dollars per 
 annum. The senate is composed of twenty-one and the house 
 of representatives of two hundred and fifteen members. Connec- 
 ticut is represented by four members in the national house of 
 representatives, and is entitled to six electoral votes for president. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 
 Rhode Island, the smallest of the United States, and the last 
 of the thirteen original states, lies between latitude 41° 18' and 
 42° N., and longitude 71° 8' and 71° 52' W. It is bounded 
 on the north and north-east by Massachusetts, on the south and 
 south-east by the Atlantic ocean and the Narragansett bay, on 
 the east by Massachusetts, and on the west by Connecticut. It 
 is forty-seven miles long, and thirty-seven miles broad, and in- 
 cludes an area of thirteen hundred and six square miles, or eight 
 hundred and thirty-five thousand eight hundred and forty acres. 
 
 Though the general character of the country is hilly and 
 rugged, there are level districts bordering upon the Atlantic 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. Jgp, 
 
 ocean and Narragansett bay. The most important elevations 
 are the Woonsocket hills in the northern, Mount Hope in the 
 western, and Hopkin's hill in the central part of the state. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Blackstone and Patuxet the 
 former rising in Massachusetts, and crossing the north-eastern 
 portion of Rhode Island, and both entering the Narragansett 
 bay The other rivers of the state, though small, are rapid, and 
 afford valuable water powers. The Narragansett bay is a beau- 
 tiful sheet of water, thirty miles long and twelve broad, and 
 containing numerous picturesque islands. Block island ten 
 miles from the coast, is eight miles long, and from two to five 
 miles broad. 
 
 The climate of Rhode Island resembles that of Connecticut 
 The soil of the state is not very fertile, more attention being 
 given to grazing than to tilling. Some of the adjoining islands 
 however are extremely productive. The chief productions are 
 wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, potatoes, buckwheat, beans, wool 
 butter, honey, wine, and flax. 
 
 Rhode Island is extensively engaged in manufactures. Ac- 
 cording to the manufacturing statistics of the year ending June 
 60 1861, the capital invested amounted to twenty-three millions 
 of dollars ; value of the annual product, forty-seven millions five 
 hundred thousand dollars. The commerce of Rhode Island is 
 chiefly confined to the neighboring states. Her exports for the 
 year 1861 amounted to two hundred and fifty-five thousand two 
 hundred and ninety-seven dollars; imports, five hundred and 
 torty-three thousand six hundred and fifty-two dollars. 
 
 Providence and Newport are the capitals and largest cities in 
 the state. Other important towns are Southfield and Warwick. 
 
 PROVIDENCE, 
 
 < The largest city and semi-capital of Rhode Island, and seat of 
 justice of Providence county, is situated on both sides of an arm 
 of he Narragansett bay, called Providence river, one hundred 
 and seventy-five miles north-east of New York, and forty-three 
 miles south-west of Boston. The ground on which the city is 
 built is very uneven, and rises on the eastern side, in a single 
 
170 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 instance, to a hight of two hundred and four feet. The greatest 
 elevation on the western side is seventy-eight feet. In conse- 
 quence of the irregularity of the surface, the city was laid off 
 with little regard to beauty or neatness. Much has recently 
 been done, however, to overcome the original defects, though 
 the city is not, as yet, a pattern of beauty or elegance. Several 
 bridges connect East and West Providence, one of which is over 
 one hundred and forty feet wide. 
 
 Prominent among the public buildings is the Arcada, on the 
 western side of the river, fronting on Broad street. This struc- 
 ture, two hundred and twenty-five feet long, eighty feet wide, 
 and three stories high, is built of granite, and in richness and 
 elegance surpasses every building in the city. " What Cheer " 
 is the name applied to a beautiful freestone edifice in Market 
 square. The other principal buildings are the custom house, 
 erected at a cost of two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, state 
 house, a fine brick structure, and the market house on Market 
 square, containing city government offices. The principal 
 churches are Grace and First Congregational, gothic edifices of 
 granite construction. 
 
 Providence contains the Butler hospital for the insane, which 
 is located on the right bank of the Seekonk river. It was estab- 
 lished in 1844, and called the Rhode Island hospital, but in 1851 
 it received its present name from Cyrus Butler, Esq., who con- 
 tributed forty thousand dollars to aid in the support of the insti- 
 tution. The Dexter asylum for the poor, one hundred and 
 seventy feet long, and three stories high, is on the eastern bank 
 of the river, in an enclosure of forty acres. The wall that en- 
 closes the building is ten feet high, and was constructed at a cost 
 of twenty thousand dollars. 
 
 On an eminence on the same side of the river is the Brown 
 university, established first at Warren, and removed to Provi- 
 dence in 1770. The Athenaeum, a costly stone structure, 
 founded in 1836, contains a free reading room, and a carefully 
 selected library of twenty-seven thousand six hundred and nine- 
 ty-five volumes. Near the centre of the city is a circular park 
 or promenade, eighty feet wide, enclosing a delightful sheet of 
 
NEW ENGLAND STATES. 171 
 
 water about one mile in circumference, which constitutes the 
 head waters of Narragansett bay. 
 
 Providence formerly carried on a large foreign trade, but her 
 commerce at the present time is chiefly domestic. The city con- 
 tains fifty-two churches, ten newspaper offices, twenty-seven 
 school buildings, forty-five banks, four steam fire engines, two 
 manufactories of wood screws, two musket manufactories, and 
 one hundred stationary steam engines, worked by three hundred 
 and ten steam boilers. Population of the city in 1865, 55,000. 
 
 NEWPORT, 
 
 Semi-capital of Rhode Island, and seat of justice of Newport 
 county, is on the western end of a large island of the same name 
 as the state to which it belongs, in the Narragansett bay, twenty- 
 eight miles south-east of Providence. 
 
 Newport has one of the finest harbors in the union, and, up to 
 the time of the revolutionary war, was second to none of the 
 New England cities in commercial wealth. During that war her 
 population was reduced more than one-half, and she has since 
 never been able to regain her former standing. The site of the 
 city is a beautiful rounded elevation, overlooking the harbor and 
 bay, and commanding a varied and extensive prospect. 
 
 The most important public buildings are the state house, an 
 imposing brick edifice, surmounted by a cupola, market house, 
 and custom house. Among the churches may be mentioned the 
 Synagogue and Friends' meeting house. The Redwood library, 
 established in 1788, contains fifteen thousand volumes, and an 
 apartment devoted to the fine arts. 
 
 Newport is a fashionable watering place, and during the sum- 
 mer months is much frequented by tourists, and made the home 
 of wealthy gentlemen, who have established beautiful country 
 seats in the vicinity. For those in quest of sea air and change 
 of scenery, Newport presents unrivaled attractions. A large 
 number of elegant and fashionable hotels have been erected for 
 the accommodation of visitors. Of these the Bellevue house and 
 Ocean house are the most important. The city contains fifteen 
 churches, two newspaper publications, an academy, an excellent 
 
172 NEW ENGLAND STATES. 
 
 system of public schools, ten banks, and manufactories of car- 
 riages, clocks, calicoes, muslins, etc. Population in 1860, 10,508. 
 
 In 1860, Rhode Island had one hundred and seventy-four 
 thousand six hundred and twenty inhabitants, of which one hun- 
 dred and seventy thousand six hundred and sixty-eight were 
 white, and three thousand nine hundred and fifty-two colored. 
 Rhode Island has fifty miles of railroad, three hundred and ten 
 churches, one college, four hundred and twenty-six public schools, 
 fifty-eight academies, three hundred and two libraries, and 
 twenty-six newspaper publications. 
 
 The governor receives for his services one thousand dollars, 
 and the lieutenant governor three hundred dollars per annum. 
 The senate consists of thirty-one and the house of representatives 
 of seventy-two members. In November, 1862, the state con- 
 tained twenty-one savings banks, in which was deposited nine 
 millions five hundred and sixty thousand four hundred and forty- 
 one dollars. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 New York, the largest of the Middle States, and the most 
 important and populous of the United States, is bounded on the 
 north by Canada ; on the south by Pennsylvania and New Jer- 
 sey ; on the east by Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut ; 
 on the south-east by Long Island Sound ; and on the west by 
 Canada, Pennsylvania and Lake Erie. Lakes Erie and Onta- 
 rio, and the St. Lawrence and Niagara rivers, separate the state 
 from Canada ; Lake Champlain, from Vermont ; and the Dela- 
 ware river, from Pennsylvania. It lies between latitude 40° 30' 
 and 45° N., and longitude 72° and 79° 55' W. Greatest length 
 of the state from north to south, three hundred and eight miles ; 
 from east to west, including Long Island, three hundred and 
 thirty-five miles ; area, forty-seven thousand square miles, or 
 thirty million and eight hundred thousand acres. 
 
 The eastern portion of the state is rugged and mountainous. 
 The Highlands, formed by the Schooley mountains, the eastern 
 ridge of the Alleghanies, are from five hundred to one thousand 
 five hundred feet high. These elevations are continued across 
 the south-eastern portion of the state, by the Taconic moun- 
 tains, which take the name of Green mountains, in Massachu- 
 setts and Connecticut. The Adirondacks, the most important 
 group, are in the north-eastern part of the state, and border upon 
 Lake Champlain. Mount Marcy has an altitude of five thous- 
 and four hundred and sixty-seven feet, and is the culminating 
 point of the state. Mount Anthony, in the wild region of Lake 
 Champlain, is five thousand feet high. The Catskill mountains 
 extend from Catskill, on the Hudson, to Utica, on a branch of 
 the Mohawk. These mountains abound with wild glens and 
 beautiful water-falls, and are one of the greatest resorts for 
 
174 U ■:as. 
 
 ••_•-..--■• delation at 
 
 '.' ' *t an el 
 
 I 
 
 !1 Fall, which is 
 
 ~ ; ~ - 
 
 • ; ' : . - 
 
 ( grand and imj An 
 
 rtained from 
 1 1 ■ - D 
 
 th< b< ttUtiful y;>lky 0jf tji' If :, in 
 
 >i,' .'f.i' ',f 'I. ■■■>>}. '- ' ' ri mountain ceptihle. 
 
 ' | kill mountains*) In the western and southern 
 ", t i , ' , < i ; ' f j ther< are no mountain ranges, the 
 - otifll i ral thing, i i tigged and billy. 
 
 'iiw principal riveri oi the state are the Hudson, and its 
 i,mm.i|,:.i branch, the Mohawk, the 0en< ee, and the sources of 
 id. Delaware and! u quehanna. The Hud on river has its source 
 in the mountainous district, In the northern part of the state, 
 ui'i gnters New Sforl bay In latitude 40° 12' N., and longitude 
 vi" r ::<»" w. 'lii. bead treami of this river are found at an 
 altitudi "i foui thou and feet, and are the outlets of numerous 
 
 " ni in, hi . • At. < « I « m r <. Palls, the river has a perpendicular 
 
 ■ I. ■"■•it .,i iii « v i' 'i Ct li affected by the tide as far as the 
 
 " id "i ill. Mohawk, one hundred and fifty miles from New 
 
 Y.ui ii width, 'i this point, varies from three hundred to 
 seven hundred yards and between Harverstraw and its mouth 
 H i often five milei broad Eta entire length, from its source to 
 Its mouth, ii three hundred miles, Justioe oan hardly be done 
 (<• the beauty : ">d grandeur of the scenery of this river. The 
 
 Hudson highlands, original jin the Sohooley mountains, oom- 
 
 iii, ii,-. aboul twenty milei from New Sfork, and extend in an 
 unbroken mass along the bank of the river for fifty-five miles, 
 'rii, v frequently rise fifteen hundred feel above the Hudson, in 
 p. 1 1„ ii.ii, ui n ,i scent, I'm the average bight is not bo great. 
 Oa the owtii, the highlands are known as palisades, which 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 175 
 
 • wall of trap-rook, rising to the hight of from 
 three hundred to five hundred feet Many of the hij 
 arc with the ruin- of fortifications, which wore erected 
 
 daring the revolutionary war. to prevent British ships Groin 
 
 • dii g the river. At Newburg, on the left hank of the 
 river, sixty-one miles from New York, was the headquarters oi 
 Washington during a critical period of the war. Mount Taurus, 
 an i levation among the Highlands, on the left hank o\' the river, 
 is forty miles north of New fork. Breakneck Hill is an emi- 
 nence in Putnam county, on the eastern hank of the Hudson, 
 at the northern entrance of the Highlands. It is one thousand 
 one hundred and eighty-seven feet high, and terminates in the 
 promontory of St. Anthony's Nose. Polypus Island, a short 
 distance north, is an elevated body of land, of OVal format inn, 
 near the middle of the river. Its principal tributaries are the 
 Walkill, entering near Kingston, and the Mohawk flowing into 
 it near Troy. In 1820, there were only twenty-two sailing ves- 
 sels on the river. The total number plying on its waters at the 
 present time, is supposed to exceed eight hundred. The Hud- 
 son river steamboats are among the finest, and fastest in the 
 world, being frequently over four hundred feet long, and fur- 
 nished with great luxury. The first successful experiment in 
 steamboat navigation, was made on the Hudson \>y Robert 
 Fulton, in 1807. The Hudson river was discovered by Henry 
 Hudson, an English navigator, in the service of the Dutch Mast 
 India company. It was at first called North river, to distinguish 
 it from the Delaware, which was then culled South river, but 
 it has Subsequently received the name of its discoverer. (See 
 
 views of the Hudson.) 
 
 The Mohawk river rises between Lewis and Oneida coun* 
 
 ties: receives the West Canada creek, its principal affluent, y^ur 
 teen miles ea^t of Utica, and enter- the Hud on after a COUT 6 
 
 of one hundred and sixty-five miles. On West Canada creek, 
 fifteen miles uorth-easl of Rome, arc Trenton falls, which 
 
 end three hundred and twelve feet in -i.x ca cade , 'I 
 
 falls occur in a narrow and deep ravine, about two milefl long, 
 
 with perpendicular walls of limestone on either side-, frequently 
 
176 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 rising to the hight of one hundred and ninety feet. They are 
 less remarkable for the volume of water, than for the wildness 
 and variety of the surrounding scenery. The highest fall has 
 a descent of one hundred feet. (See views of Trenton falls.) 
 
 At Little falls, the Mohawk has a descent of forty-five feet 
 in three-quarters of a mile, forming the celebrated Mill-dam 
 falls, which affords valuable water power to the village. At 
 Cohoes, about two miles from its confluence with the Hudson, 
 the river has a perpendicular descent of seventy feet. From 
 Rome to its mouth, the river is followed by the Hudson and 
 Erie canal. Rome, Utica, and Little Falls, are the chief towns 
 on its banks. (See views on the Mohawk river.) 
 
 The Genesee river has its source in the northern part of the 
 state of Pennsylvania, and, after a northerly course of one hund- 
 red and sixty miles, reaches lake Ontario a short distance north 
 of Rochester. Near the source of the river are three falls, sixty, 
 ninety, and one hundred and ten feet high ; and near its mouth 
 there are falls one hundred feet high. At Rochester the river 
 has a perpendicular pitch of ninety-seven feet, giving immense 
 water power to the factories and mills of that city. (See views 
 of Genesee falls.) 
 
 The chief branches of the Susquehanna in New York, are 
 the Chemung and Chenango ; of the Delaware, Oquago and 
 Popachton. The Ramapo river rises near Newburg in Orange 
 county, and flows in a south and south-east direction, through 
 Bergen and Passaic counties, New Jersey, and discharges its 
 waters into the Atlantic ocean, through the Pompton and Passaic 
 rivers. This river is more remarkable for the beauty and variety 
 of its scenery, than for any manufacturing or commercial worth. 
 It passes through one of the wildest and most picturesque valleys 
 in the state. Near its source a range of hills branches off from 
 the highlands, and follows the river for a considerable distance. 
 Along the Erie railway, which intersects the valley, are a num- 
 ber of beautiful villages, the principal of which, Ramapo and 
 Greenwood, have rolling mills and furnaces. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 177 
 
 NIAGARA RIVER AND FALLS. 
 
 The Niagara and St. Lawrence rivers form a portion of the 
 boundary between New York and Canada. In the former occur 
 the world renowned falls and rapids. The river takes its rise in 
 the eastern extremity of Lake Erie, and, after flowing about 
 thirty-four miles, empties into Lake Ontario. It is from half a 
 mile to three miles broad. It is deep, its sides level and its 
 course smooth until it reaches the rapids which extend three 
 miles immediately above the falls, the last half mile of which 
 surges and foams with terrific fury. 
 
 The cataract of Niagara is not the highest in the world, but 
 it is remarkable for forcing over the precipice a greater amount 
 of water than any other. The highest waterfall in the world is 
 the Yosemite, being over two thousand feet in hight. The falls 
 of Niagara have a descent of only about one hundred and seven- 
 ty feet, " but the immense body of water that rushes in an almost 
 undivided mass down this distance produces upon the beholder 
 the most intense wonder, and furnishes one of the most sublime 
 objects to be found in the world. Such is the mighty scale on 
 which this cataract is constructed that the beholder does not, at 
 first sight, comprehend its full grandeur, but by degrees it seems 
 to increase in size ; its awful front appears to rise higher, its 
 prodigious volume to expand, and its whole aspect to assume a 
 more fearful and sublime physiognomy." 
 
 The falls are twenty-three miles from Lake Erie. The river 
 is here divided by an island containing about seventy-five acres, 
 called Goat island, the extremity of which is perpendicular and 
 in a line with the precipice over which the water is precipitated. 
 In consequence of a bend in the river the greater volume of 
 water is sent down on the Canada side. On this side is there- 
 fore the greater cataract, which, from its form, has been named 
 Horse Shoe fall, but it no longer bears that name appropriately, 
 as the precipice has been, by the dropping and wearing away of 
 the rock, changed from a circular to a triangular form. On the 
 Canada side of of Goat island stands Terrapin tower, from the 
 
 12 
 
178 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 top of which is afforded a commanding view of the falls and river 
 below. The falls next the United States, and to the left of Goat 
 island, are called the American falls. 
 
 The process of wearing away goes on gradually. Six hun- 
 dred and seventy thousand tons of water are precipitated over 
 the falls into the gulf every minute. The upper layer of rock 
 is hard, but the strata beneath are soft and easily Avorn away by 
 the continued action of the water, and then the weight of water 
 causes large pieces of the crust to break off from time to time. 
 The rate of retrocession has been estimated to average from one 
 foot to one yard per year. The present rate is probably not 
 equal to what it was when the falls were near Lake Ontario, nor 
 what it will be as they approach Lake Erie, the rock in these 
 places being softer. Geologists think there is abundant proof 
 that the river between the falls and Queenstown flows in a dif- 
 ferent channel than it did formerly. Three miles below the falls 
 the contiguity of the bank is broken by a ravine filled with sand 
 and gravel. This being filled up when the continent was sub- 
 merged, the river was obliged to seek a new route, and has worn 
 away this gorge seven miles long and one hundred and fifty feet 
 deep. Some geologists have thought the erosion was made by 
 other agencies than the river, but the work which is constantly 
 going on there from year to year proves that it has only re- 
 quired time to complete this excavation. It has been supposed, 
 that should the falls ever recede to Lake Erie, a terrible inun- 
 dation of the region eastward would be the result. But De La 
 Beache has proved satisfactorily, that the only effect would be a 
 gradual draining of Lake Erie, with a slight increase of Niagara 
 river. 
 
 The hight of the Horse Shoe fall is not so great as that of the 
 American, yet it surpasses the latter in beauty. The concussion 
 of air caused by this immense cataract is so great that the win- 
 dows of a hotel, about three hundred yards distant from the 
 falls, are constantly in a tremulous motion. In cold weather the 
 spray freezes on the surrounding buildings, covering them with 
 sheets of ice. On the trees it is accumulated in such masses as 
 to bend them to the ground, and from the margin of the rocks 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 179 
 
 are suspended huge clusters of icicles, sometimes one hundred 
 feet in length, and massive ice mounds are also found which add 
 much to the grandeur of the scene. 
 
 The street between the Cataract and International hotels leadg 
 to the iron bridge over the rapids to Goat island. The bridge is 
 three hundred and sixty feet long, having four arches of ninety 
 feet span. It is twenty-seven feet wide, has a double carriage 
 way and two foot paths. To the left of Goat island is the Cen- 
 tre fall, which, in contrast with American fall, when seen at a 
 distance, seems like a mere ribbon of water, while its real breadth 
 is two hundred and forty feet. Knowing the actual, and obser- 
 ving the apparent width of this fall, serves to give the spectator 
 a more correct idea of the great size of the whole cataract. This 
 fall, situated at the right of the American, may be seen in the 
 views of the American fall from the Canada side. 
 
 The Suspension bridge is two miles below the falls, and at the 
 head of the rapids. Between the bridge and the falls the water 
 is perfectly calm and smooth. Below the bridge are two rapids, 
 caused by the narrowing of the bed of the river and the rocks at 
 the bottom. These rapids run at the rate of twenty-five miles 
 per hour, with breakers rising from ten to twenty feet. The 
 Suspension bridge is constructed of wire, and is considered by 
 some as great a curiosity as the falls themselves. It is eight 
 hundred feet long, twenty-four wide and about two hundred and 
 fifty above the river, and is supported by four cable wires nine 
 and a fourth inches in diameter. These cable wires are composed 
 of small wire twisted together. The force of the current under 
 the bridge is so great that a piece of lead, weighing two hundred 
 pounds, dropped from the bridge, was carried down stream the 
 length of the rope without sinking. At the extremity of the 
 first rapids is the whirlpool, caused by an abrupt turn in the 
 river. The rapids below the whirlpool are about one half mile 
 in extent. 
 
 Table Rock, on the Canada side, formerly afforded a good 
 view of the fall. It derived its name from its projecting over 
 the river in the form of a table. The rock has now fallen. A 
 
180 • THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 number of people were standing upon it just a few minutes before 
 it fell into the abyss below. Near this point is a staircase which 
 must be descended in order to pass under Horse Shoe fall to 
 Termination rock. One writer, who visited this rock, vowed 
 never again to encounter the blinding, hissing spray, the deafen- 
 ing roar of the falling waters, and the dread possibilities of a 
 second visit to that indescribable, awe-inspiring, terribly mag- 
 nificent, infernal region. 
 
 Lewiston, a flourishing village at the head of navigation on 
 the Niagara, is about half way between the falls and Lake On- 
 tario, and about five miles from the Suspension bridge. About 
 one mile above Lewiston, on the American side, the bluffs diverge 
 off from the river and terminate in what is called Lewiston moun- 
 tain, the top of which affords a grand and imposing view over- 
 looking the village of Lewiston and the valley and river below 
 to its junction with Lake Ontario. (See views of Niagara.) 
 
 New York abounds with beautiful lakes, among which may 
 be mentioned Cayuga, Oneida, Seneca, Chautauqua, Lake George, 
 and Long Lake. The former three are drained by the Oswego 
 river, which empties into lake Ontario. Cayuga lake is forty 
 miles long, and from one to four miles broad. The water is very 
 deep, and is seldom frozen. A steamboat plies from the northern 
 end of the lake, to Ithaca, at the southern. Oneida lake, eight- 
 een miles long, and from three to six miles wide, passes into 
 the Oswego, through Oneida river. Its waters abound with fish, 
 among which trout, salmon, salmon trout, pike and bass, are 
 conspicuous. Seneca lake is a beautiful sheet of water, forty 
 miles long, and from three to five miles wide, lying between 
 Tompkins and Seneca counties on the east, and Steuben and 
 Yates on the west. Chautauqua lake is a beautiful expanse of 
 water in Chautauqua county, eighteen miles long, and from one 
 to three miles broad, and drained by a branch of the Alleghany 
 river. Its name is derived from an Indian phrase, signifying a 
 "foggy place." 
 
 Lake George, also called Horicon, is a beautiful expanse of 
 water, between Warren and Washington counties, remarkable 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 181 
 
 for the transparency of its waters, and the grandeur of the sur- 
 rounding scenery. It is thirty-four miles long, and from one to 
 three and a half miles wide. It is four hundred feet deep in 
 some places, and contains over three hundred picturesque is- 
 lands. Few places in the United States can boast of more beau- 
 tiful natural scenery than that which surrounds Lake George. 
 The Narrows, or narrowest portion of the lake, commence 
 thirteen miles from the south-western shore, and are continued 
 from six to eight miles. One mile farther north is an island of 
 about twenty acres, called, from its position, Twelve Mile island. 
 At the entrance of the Narrows, on the western bank of the lake, 
 commence the Black mountains, which reach their greatest hight 
 at an altitude of twenty-two hundred feet. Rogers' Slide, an 
 immense rock, two hundred feet high, received its name from the 
 daring exploit of Major Rogers, who, during the French and 
 Indian war, being closely pursued by the Indians, slid down the 
 steep declivity, and reached the ice below without injury. In 
 the vicinity of the lake is the monument erected to the memory 
 of Colonel Ephraim Williams, who fell in the French war, on 
 the 8th of September, 1755. On the battle ground, near the 
 monument, is a collection of water called Bloody Pond. (See 
 views of Lake George.) 
 
 Fort Ticonderoga, near the mouth of the lake, is one hundred 
 feet above the water level. It is surrounded by water upon 
 three sides, and upon' a greater portion of the fourth by a deep 
 morass. The ruins of this fort are yet quite picturesque. (See 
 views of Fort Ticonderoga.) 
 
 Several important islands are found off the coast of New York, 
 the principal of which are Long, Staten, and Manhattan islands. 
 Long Island, separated from New York by a strait half a mile 
 wide, is one hundred and fifteen miles long and fifteen miles 
 broad. The soil is exceedingly rich, and extensively cultivated. 
 The Long Island railroad extends through the centre of the 
 island from Brooklyn to Greenport. Staten Island, in New 
 York bay, is fifteen miles long and from three to eight miles 
 broad, and constitutes the county of Richmond. Richmond hill 
 is a term applied to a beautiful elevation in the northern portion 
 
182 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 of the island, which has an elevation of over three hundred feet. 
 Manhattan Island is fifteen miles long and from one to three 
 miles wide, and is the site of New York city. 
 
 New York presents a great variety of climate. The severity 
 of the winters and the intense heat of the summers is greatly 
 modified in the western and south-eastern portions of the state 
 by the vicinity to the lakes and the sea coast. In the north the 
 winters are long and severe, and the summers, though short, are 
 excessively hot. New York, as a general thing, is very fertile. 
 Among the mountains and hills there are sterile districts, but on 
 the plains in the western portion of the state, and in the river 
 valleys, the soil is exceedingly rich, and in every way adapted 
 to agriculture. The chief products are oats, Irish potatoes, 
 grass seeds, fruits, hay, hops, maple sugar, butter, cheese, honey, 
 Indian corn, wheat, barley, beans, flax, buckwheat, sweet pota- 
 toes, and tobacco. According to the agricultural statistics of 
 1860, the amount of wheat produced in that year was eight mil- 
 lions six hundred and eighty-one thousand and one hundred 
 bushels ; amount of corn, twenty millions sixty-one thousand and 
 forty-eight bushels ; amount of wool, nine millions four hundred 
 and fifty-four thousand four hundred and seventy-three pounds. 
 The principal forest trees are oak, pine, tamarack, spruce, hem- 
 lock, larch, walnut, fir, chestnut, beech, butternut, elm, ash, and 
 sugar maple. 
 
 The manufactures of New York are very important. Accord- 
 ing to the census of 1860, the state contained twenty-two thou- 
 sand six hundred and twenty-four manufacturing establishments, 
 with a capital of one hundred and seventy-five millions four hun- 
 dred and forty-nine thousand two hundred and six dollars, and 
 an annual income of three hundred and seventy-nine millions six 
 hundred and twenty-three thousand five hundred and sixty dol- 
 lars. In commercial wealth New York takes the lead among all 
 the United States. According to the commercial statistics of 
 the year ending June 30, 1861, her exports amounted to one 
 hundred and fifty-eight millions six hundred and six thousand 
 five hundred and eighteen dollars ; imports, two hundred and 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 183 
 
 thirty-seven millions four hundred and two thousand seven hun- 
 dred and twenty-six dollars. 
 
 Albany is the capital of the state, and New York is the chief 
 city. The other principal cities are Brooklyn, Buffalo, Roches- 
 ter, Troy, Syracuse, Utica, Oswego, Kingston, Newburg, and 
 Elmira. 
 
 ALBANY, 
 
 The capital of the state, and seat of justice of Albany county, 
 is finely situated on the western bank of the Hudson, one hun- 
 dred and forty-five miles north of New York, and one hundred 
 and sixty-four miles north-west of Boston. The site of the city, 
 from being low and level on the shore, becomes rugged and un- 
 even as you advance from the river. State street, running from 
 the capitol to the river, is the most important promenade in the 
 city. Broadway, intersecting the former thoroughfare at right 
 angles, contains the greater portion of the business buildings. 
 
 The most important public buildings are the capitol, city hall, 
 and state hall. The former is an imposing stone edifice with 
 marble columns, one hundred and fifteen feet long, ninety feet 
 wide, and fifty feet high, surmounted by a lofty dome, support- 
 ing a wooden statue of the goddess Themis, " with a sword in 
 her right hand and a balance in her left." The city hall, sur- 
 mounted by an elegant dome, and state hall, are beautiful marble 
 buildings, on the eastern side of the capitol grounds. Connected 
 with the capitol is the state library, a substantial brick edifice, 
 containing upwards of seventy-five thousand volumes. The other 
 important libraries are the Young Men's association, containing 
 ten thousand, and the Albany institute having six thousand 
 volumes. 
 
 The educational establishments of Albany are a credit to the 
 city. The most important of these are the university, founded 
 in 1852, and the Albany academy, situated on the eastern side 
 of the capitol grounds, and attended by over four hundred pupils. 
 The state normal school, founded in 1844, has a library of one 
 thousand volumes. 
 
184 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 Albany is one of the greatest lumber markets in the world. 
 In 1863, the value of the lumber received in the city amounted 
 to seven millions of dollars. 
 
 Albany is the centre of a large number of railroads, by means 
 of which an uninterrupted line of communication is established 
 with all important cities in the state. The city contains fifty- 
 seven churches, seventeen newspaper offices, an excellent system 
 of public schools, belonging to which are libraries containing in 
 all eight thousand volumes, and fifteen banks. Population in 
 1860, 62,367. 
 
 NEW YORK, 
 
 The great metropolis of the United States, and, in connection 
 with the surrounding cities, which might properly be regarded 
 as suburbs, the third city in importance in the civilized world, 
 is situated on Manhattan island, in latitude 40° 42' 43" N., and 
 longitude 74° 3" W. Its site is formed by the confluence of 
 the East with the Hudson river, and is separated from the main- 
 land by the Harlem river and Spuyten Duyvel creek. The city 
 also comprises several adjacent islands, containing fortifications 
 and public institutions. The most densely populated portion of 
 the city occupies about four miles of the southern part of the 
 island. 
 
 In the New York harbor are twelve forts, mounting fifteen 
 hundred guns. The Narrows, at the entrance of the bay, are 
 one mile wide, and are defended by Fort Lafayette, in the water, 
 two hundred yards from the shore, and Fort Hamilton, on Long 
 Island. 
 
 The city of New York is very compactly built, and is regu- 
 larly laid off into one hundred and forty-one thousand four hund- 
 red and eighty-six lots. Broadway, the principal street, is four 
 miles long and five rods wide. It commences at the Battery, in 
 the south-western portion of the island, and extends, in a north- 
 easterly direction, to Grace church, where it bends to the north- 
 west, and passes through the newer portions of the city. Of the 
 many streets which cross Broadway at right angles, Chatham 
 street is the most important. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 185 
 
 Fifth avenue, the most fashionable promenade of the city, is 
 lined with massive hotels, stores, and public buildings, many of 
 which are built of marble, and contains, also, elegant private 
 residences and imposing churches. Rialto and Lombard streets 
 contain insurance and brokers' offices and banking houses, and 
 is the great financial district of the United States. Wall street, 
 running east from Broadway, is lined with a compact mass of 
 buildings, of marble, granite and sand-stone construction, and 
 contains the merchants' exchange and the old custom house. 
 
 One of the most prominent features of New York, is Central 
 Park, in the northern portion of the city. It is laid out in the 
 finest style of landscape gardening, and has cost the city over 
 fifteen millions of dollars. The park is from one to two miles 
 long, and nearly three-fourths of a mile wide. It formerly cov- 
 ered an area of about seven hundred and fifty acres, but a small 
 portion of this space is now occupied by the city. For a trav- 
 eler visiting New York, a more pleasing and attractive spot 
 could not be found, than this park. Its uneven surface, over 
 which are scattered masses of rock ; its broad and handsome 
 carriage roads, and winding gravel walks ; its labyrinth of orna- 
 mental trees, and profusion of flowers, all add to the beauty of 
 the place, and unite to render it one of the most pleasing and 
 delightful retreats in existence. Superior architectural and en- 
 gineering faculty have been employed in the construction of 
 various buildings, bridges, etc. Scattered over the grounds are 
 artificial sheets of water, containing beautiful fountains, and 
 crossed by rustic bridges. During the winter, the park is a 
 favorite resort for a multitude of skaters, of both sexes. A 
 substantial stone wall, six feet high, has recently been built 
 around the park. (See views of Central Park.) 
 
 The City Hall Park is a triangular enclosure of eleven acres, 
 beautifully adorned with shade trees, and containing the city 
 hall and other public buildings. Castle Garden, near the Bat- 
 tery, was formerly used as a place of public exhibitions, concerts 
 and fairs. 
 
 Prominent among the public buildings, is the city hall, two 
 hundred and sixteen feet long, one hundred and five feet wide, 
 
186 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 and sixty-five feet high. The sides and south front are of mar- 
 ble, and the north front is of red sand-stone. Annual art exhi- 
 bitions are given by the National Academy of Design, a handsome 
 edifice on the corner of Fourth avenue and Twenty-third street. 
 The United States Treasury, formerly the custom-house, is on the 
 corner of Wall and Nassau streets, and occupies the site of the 
 old federal hall, from the street gallery of which Washington 
 delivered his first inaugural address, and received the oath of 
 office, which was administered by Chancellor Livingston. The 
 building is two hundred feet long, ninety feet wide, and eighty 
 feet high. At each end is a portico, supported by eight immense 
 pillars. Edwin Booth's theatre is a handsome marble building, 
 recently erected on Twenty-third street, between Fifth and Sixth 
 avenues. The Bible house is a six story brick building, two 
 hundred and thirty-two feet long, and seventy-seven feet wide, 
 on the corner of Eighth street and Fourth avenue. The city 
 hospital is an immense building, of grey-stone construction, on 
 Broadway, one hundred and twenty-four feet long, fifty feet 
 wide, and three stories high, with accommodations for two hun- 
 dred patients. 
 
 New York contains numerous academies and schools, of both 
 public and private character. The New York University, found- 
 ed in 1831, is a beautiful white marble edifice, built in gothic 
 style, on Washington square. It is a four story building, one 
 hundred and eighty feet long, and one hundred feet wide. Con- 
 nected with the institution are apartments, devoted to law and 
 medicine. The General Theological Seminary, established in 
 1817, comprises two stone buildings, each one hundred and ten 
 by fifty feet, situated on West Twentieth street. The Free 
 Academy is a handsome gothic brick structure, founded in 1848, 
 and located on the corner of East Twenty-third street and Lex- 
 ington avenue. The entire cost of the building exceeded one 
 hundred and fifty-two thousand dollars. Columbia College, 
 known as King's College before the revolution, and the oldest 
 school in the city, was founded in 1754. Rutger's Female In- 
 stitute is a fine structure, on the corner of Fifth avenue and 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 187 
 
 Forty-second street, established in 1838. The New York Acad- 
 emy of Music, or Opera House, on the corner of Fourteenth 
 street and Irving place, contains seats for four thousand seven 
 hundred persons. The Cooper Institute, directly opposite the 
 Bible house, is a present to the city from Mr. Peter Cooper, who 
 appropriated nearly three hundred thousand dollars for its es- 
 tablishment. It is one hundred and ninety-three feet long, one 
 hundred and forty-three feet wide, five stories high, and has a 
 free reading room, picture gallery, art schools, etc. 
 
 The largest library in the city is the Astor, founded by John 
 Jacob Astor, who, at his death, bequeathed four hundred thous- 
 and dollars for that purpose. The Mercantile library, founded 
 in 1820, and recently removed to the Astor place, contains sixty 
 thousand volumes, and a large reading room. One of the largest 
 and most imposing buildings in New York is Stewart's store, an 
 elegant white marble building, occupying a whole block, and 
 being 152 feet on Broadway. Distributed throughout the build- 
 ing are nearly two thousand panes of glass, fifteen of which, in 
 the lower story, fronting on Broadway, are eleven by seven feet. 
 In the evening, the various departments of the store are lighted 
 up by four hundred gas-burners. 
 
 New York contains a large number of elegant and fashionable 
 hotels. The most important of these are the Fifth avenue, 
 Hoffman house, Astor house, St. James, and La Farge house. 
 The former two are opposite Madison square, six stories high, 
 and constructed of pure white marble. The Astor house is a 
 substantial building on Broadway, two hundred and one feet 
 long, one hundred and eighty-five feet wide, and six stories high. 
 It is built of Quincy granite, and contains three hundred and 
 twenty-six chambers. 
 
 In 1865, New York had three hundred and eleven churches, 
 of which Trinity, Grace, Calvary, Holy Communion, and St. 
 Paul's were the most conspicuous. Trinity church, built of red 
 sandstone, is on the corner of Broadway and Wall street. It is 
 gothic style, one hundred and eighty-nine feet long, eighty-four 
 feet wide, and has the highest spire in the United States. The 
 tower contains a rich chime of bells, and, including the spire, is 
 
188 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 two hundred and sixty-four feet high. Near where Broadway 
 bends to the north-west, stands Grace church, a handsome white 
 marble edifice, with a tower and spire, surmounted by a cross. 
 St. Paul's church is a handsome structure, immediately to the 
 right of the Astor house, on Broadway, having a lofty spire 
 rising from the rear end of the building. 
 
 Union square, on the corner of Broadway and Fourteenth 
 street, is an oval inclosure, containing a life-like and imposing 
 equestrian statue of Washington. The Worth monument, erected 
 in honor of General Worth, an able oflicer of the Mexican war, 
 who died in Texas, in May, 1849, is in Madison square, a trun- 
 cated triangular space, directly opposite the Hoffman house. 
 
 The streets of New York are traversed by twenty-four lines 
 of omnibuses and horse railways, five of which carried in one 
 year over thirty-two millions of passengers. 
 
 A river of pure soft water is received in the city by the 
 Croton aqueduct. This water is conveyed from the Croton 
 river, forty miles distant, through sixteen tunnels, and received 
 in reservoirs of sufficient magnitude to hold conjointly, one 
 billion and two hundred millions of gallons. New York employs 
 sixteen hundred police, with salaries varying from eight hundred 
 to five thousand dollars annually. A volunteer fire department 
 of four thousand two hundred and twenty-seven members, mans 
 fifty steam and hand engines, fifty-six hose carts, and seventeen 
 hooks and ladder trucks. 
 
 New York is extensively engaged in both foreign and domestic 
 commerce. Her matchless harbor is formed by the upper bay, 
 which, with its two arms, nearly surrounds the city. New York 
 is connected with Canada and the great lakes, by the Hudson 
 river and the Erie Canal; with the New England states, by 
 Long Island Sound ; has easy access to the Atlantic ocean, by 
 which it carries on a trade with nearly every maritime nation on 
 the earth. Elegant steamboats of great magnitude and speed, 
 form connections with the most important cities in the world. 
 The harbor is literally crowded with masts, bearing aloft flags 
 of every maritime nation on the globe. New York has twenty- 
 five ship-yards and manufactories of steam engines, machinery, 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 189 
 
 clothing, carriages and pianoforte factories, and contains twelve 
 large book-publishing establishments. In 1790, the population 
 of New York was 23,831 ; in 1860, 813,669. (See views of 
 New York.) 
 
 BROOKLYN. 
 
 Brooklyn, a city at the western end of Long Island, and the 
 capitol of King's county, is, next to New York and Philadelphia, 
 the largest city in the United States. It is separated from 
 New York by the East river, and is connected with that city 
 by numerous steam ferries, which cross every few minutes during 
 the day, and every half-hour during the night. 
 
 Brooklyn is regularly laid off, the streets being about sixty feet 
 wide, and crossing each other at right angles. Fulton, the most 
 important exception of the general directness of the streets, is 
 the principal thoroughfare of the city. The rapid growth of 
 Brooklyn is owing partially to the healthiness of the climate, 
 but chiefly to its proximity to the great metropolis. The most 
 beautiful private residences are erected by wealthy gentlemen, 
 and business men of New York. 
 
 The principal public buildings are the city hall, court-house, 
 and academy of music. The city hall, occupying a triangular 
 space on Fulton street, is a three story white marble edifice, 
 one hundred and sixty-two feet long, by one hundred and two 
 feet wide, and surmounted by a dome seventy-five feet high. 
 The court-house, built in Corinthian style, also on Fulton street, 
 was erected at a cost of five hundred and forty thousand dollars. 
 
 Brooklyn contains one hundred and twenty-one churches, the 
 finest of which are the Holy Trinity, Church of the Puritans, 
 Grace church, Church of the Restoration, and Plymouth church. 
 The Church of the Holy Trinity is a gothic brown stone structure 
 which cost nearly one hundred and fifty thousand dollars. The 
 Church of the Puritans, Grace church, and Church of the 
 Restoration, are also built in gothic style, the former of gray- 
 stone, and the latter of brown-stone. 
 
 In the south-eastern portion of the city, on the southern side 
 of Wallabout bay, is the national navy-yard, covering forty 
 
190 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 acres of ground, and enclosed by a high stone wall. "Within 
 the yard are tAvo ship-houses, where are built torpedo boats, war 
 sloops, and other vessels useful in naval warfare. The navy- 
 yard also contains workshops, officers' quarters, and a vast 
 amount of military stores. (See views of Brooklyn navy-yard.) 
 
 Brooklyn has several flourishing banks, various literary insti- 
 tutions, and numerous seminaries of education — an ample share, 
 in short, of all that characterizes a wealthy, populous, and 
 intelligent community. Population in 1865, 350,000. (See 
 views of Brooklyn.) 
 
 GREENWOOD CEMETERY. 
 
 One of the most attractive features of Brooklyn, is Green- 
 wood Cemetery, three miles south-east of Fulton ferry, on 
 Gowanus hights. In beauty of location and adornments of art, 
 Greenwood has no rival. A more beautiful spot for the great 
 necropolis of New York, could not have been easily selected. 
 From its verdant and breezy hills, a glowing and extensive pros- 
 pect of the surrounding country is gained. A good view is 
 obtained of Long Island, Staten Island, the matchless harbor of 
 New York, beyond which rise the lofty edifices, domes and 
 church spires of the metropolis. The grounds, beautifully laid 
 off, are traversed by broad and handsome carriage-ways and 
 multitudes of avenues, shady lanes, and winding gravel walks, 
 leading to artificial lakes and ponds. The avenues are variously 
 denominated, Alder, Aspen, Baltic, Bayside, Birch, Central, 
 Cypress, Dale, Erlgewood, Elm, etc. The length of the various 
 avenues, taken conjointly, and excluding the numerous foot- 
 paths, is sixteen miles. Among the hills, valleys, ridges, and 
 waters, occur the following characteristic and beautiful names : 
 Alpine Hill, Arbor Water, Battle Hill, Bayside Dell, Cedar 
 Dell, Cherry Hill, Crescent Water, Evergreen Ridge, Maple 
 Ridge, Fountain Hill, Ocean Bluff, Grassy Hill, Edge Hill, etc. 
 
 Greenwood Cemetery has been a chartered institution for 
 about thirty-one years. John Hanna, who died in September, 
 1840, was the first person interred in its limits. In 1844, 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 191 
 
 DeWitt Clinton, once governor of New York, and whose auto- 
 graph is carved in the soil of that state, from the Hudson river 
 to Lake Erie, was buried in Greenwood. The first bronze cast- 
 ing America ever produced, stands upon his tomb in Bayside 
 Dell. (See view.) The figure is an imposing representation 
 of the statesman, and is the Avork of the same skillful hand that 
 produced the equestrian statue of Washington in Union Square. 
 Other noted men, who repose in Greenwood, are James K. Pauld- 
 ing, author of Dutchman s Fireside, and other works of prose 
 and poetry, which will keep his name forever fresh in the mem- 
 ory of the people ; Dr. Samuel L. Mitchell, a distinguished 
 United States senator ; Dr. Valentine Mott, the celebrated sur- 
 geon ; and James Kent, the celebrated chancellor and writer of 
 the well-known commentaries on American law. An Alabamian 
 named Dixon H. Lewis, after a ramble in Greenwood, expressed 
 his desire to be buried there. He was styled the " stout mem- 
 ber" at congress, and actually required two seats in the halls of 
 that house for his accommodation. Generals 0. M. Mitchell 
 and George C. Strong, of the union, and General Garnet, of 
 the rebel army, are among the noted soldiers that repose in 
 Greenwood. In the poets' corner, are the remains of " Poor 
 McDonald Clarke," a poetical writer of eccentric fancies, who 
 flourished about forty years ago. The neat obelisk, which marks 
 his grave, is surrounded by a circular iron railing. A fine like- 
 ness of Clarke is sculptured on the face of the monument, and 
 below is the epitaph, written by himself: " Sacred to the mem- 
 ory of Poor McDonald Clarke." The monument adjoining 
 Clarke's, was erected to the memory of Dohum-mee, a young 
 Indian princess of the Sac tribe, who died while in New York, 
 whither she had come with a delegation of Sacs and Iowas. A 
 plain white monument marks her grave, on which the modest 
 legend, "Mrs. Eliza Gilbert, died January 17, 1861," would 
 fail to stimulate curiosity, or awaken interest. 
 
 Among the costly monuments of Greenwood, the one erected 
 to the memory of Charlotte Canda, is really the most important. 
 (See view.) Her death occurred on the evening of her sev- 
 enteenth birthday, and was occasioned by a fall from her 
 
192 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 carriage, as she was returning from a party. The fortune which 
 the bereaved father had intended as her dowry, was expended 
 on her tomb. Under the spire-flanked arch, is a picture of the 
 young girl, as she was dressed on the evening of the accident. 
 An oblong space in front of the statue, is surmounted by a bal- 
 ustrade, which forms an ornate porch to the monument. A 
 monumental slab, in the middle of this space, has at its head an 
 urn, with books and instruments of music and drawing. Upon 
 the esplanade fronting the statue, are two guardian angels gazing 
 upon her. 
 
 Another handsome monument is the one recently erected by 
 James Brown, in memory of several members of his family who 
 perished on board the ill-fated vessel, the Arctic. It is con- 
 structed of Italian marble and Aberdeen granite, is forty-six feet 
 high, and has four columns, surmounted with gables, upon which 
 are crockets, wrought in imitation of white lilies and twining ivy. 
 Upon the different sides of the monument are inscribed appro- 
 priate texts of scripture, and upon the groining of the arches 
 are four angels looking down on the sinking steamer, which is 
 most admirably represented in marble. Groups of coral, sea- 
 weed, and shells, are carved on the moulding of the pedestal, and 
 the entire monument, standing at the top of " the Tower," near 
 Landscape avenue, is delicately designed and executed. 
 
 The Pilot's monument, which stands on Battle hill, is a lofty 
 and slender shaft, erected to the memory of a gallant seaman. 
 The Firemen's monument, on Summit avenue, is a pyramidal 
 marble column, surmounted by a well executed figure of a fire- 
 man. The Sea Captain's monument, and monument of Henry 
 Buggies, and the tombs of Niblo, W. W. Grosbeck, and many 
 others, also attract general attention. 
 
 A chapel, for the purpose of conducting the funeral services 
 of foreigners and strangers, has been established in the cemetery. 
 After turning a certain corner of the city, the procession is 
 observable, when the tolling of the chapel bell announces its 
 approach. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 193 
 
 BUFFALO, 
 
 The third city in importance of New York, and seat of justice 
 of Erie county, is at the eastern end of Lake Erie, at the point 
 where it merges into the Niagara river, covering about the same 
 space on the river as on the lake. It is three hundred miles 
 west of Albany, four hundred miles north-west of New York, and 
 five hundred and thirty-eight miles north-east of Chicago, and is 
 the terminus of the New York and Erie and New York Central 
 railroads, and the Hudson and Erie canal. The site of the city, 
 bordering on the lake and river, is low and level, but before 
 reaching the western suburbs the ground rises to a hight of sixty 
 feet. Niagara street, the most important thoroughfare, is four 
 miles long, and extends nearly across the city from north to 
 south. In the western section of the city the streets are bor- 
 dered with magnificent shade trees, frequently of great magni- 
 tude, and contain many elegant and costly private residences. 
 Among the finest buildings may be mentioned the city hall, four 
 large markets, two court houses, and the city penitentiary. 
 
 The literary and educational institutions of Buffalo are impor- 
 tant. The Germans' Young Men's association, contains a free 
 reading room, and a library of over two thousand volumes. In 
 the Young Men's association buildings, costing about one hun- 
 dred and forty thousand dollars, is a well selected library of 
 twelve thousand volumes. The Buffalo female academy, on Del- 
 aware street, is one of the finest institutions of the kind in the 
 state. 
 
 Buffalo is extensively engaged in commerce. The total trade 
 for the year 1863, amounted to two hundred and fifty-six mil- 
 lions two hundred and fourteen thousand six hundred and four- 
 teen dollars. The city has seventy churches, eighteen news- 
 paper publications, a school for colored children, twenty-five 
 district schools, one high school, nine banks, seventy-five insur- 
 ance offices, twenty iron manufactories, extensively engaged in 
 the manufacture of steam boilers and engines, nails, car-axles, 
 anchors, etc., and a rolling mill, in which are nine heating and 
 sixteen puddling furnaces. 
 
 13 
 
194 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 The entire length of the streets in Buffalo is two hundred and 
 ninety-six miles, fifty-three miles of which were paved at a cost 
 of one million five hundred and forty-one thousand six hundred 
 and ninety-three dollars. Population in 1860, 81,131. 
 
 ROCHESTER, 
 
 One of the most important cities of New York, and seat of 
 justice of Monroe county, is on the Genesee river, about seven 
 miles from the point where that stream pours its waters into 
 Lake Ontario. It is on the route of the New York Central 
 railroad and Erie canal, the latter of which crosses the Genesee, 
 at this place, by a freestone aqueduct of nine arches, each fifty 
 feet span, and constructed at a cost of six hundred thousand 
 dollars. The city is two hundred and thirty miles west by north 
 of Albany, and sixty-eight miles north-east of Buffalo. It occu- 
 pies a plain of about five thousand five hundred acres, which is 
 intersected by well paved streets from sixty to eighty feet wide. 
 Marble, stone, and brick are the chief building materials. 
 
 The most important public buildings are the Arcade, city hall, 
 and court house, the two latter of which were constructed at a 
 cost of about seventy-five thousand dollars each. Among the 
 libraries may be mentioned the Rochester athenaeum, having 
 twelve thousand, and the free library ten thousand volumes. 
 The Rochester university is a brown stone edifice, completed in 
 1859. The building cost two hundred thousand dollars, and is 
 attended by upwards of one hundred and seventy-five students. 
 The chief hotels are Bracket, Waverly, National, and Congress 
 Hall. 
 
 The Genesee river, at Rochester, has a descent, in between 
 two and three miles, of two hundred and twenty-six feet, thus 
 establishing that immense hydraulic power to which the city owes 
 its manufacturing prosperity. Rochester has manufactories of 
 flour, paper, cotton, woollen, machinery, locomotives, etc. The 
 city has forty-five churches, fifteen newspaper offices, three col- 
 legiate institutes, a free academy, two commercial colleges, eigh- 
 teen public schools, several ladies' seminaries, two orphan asy- 
 lums, an industrial school, an insane asylum, and a city hospital. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 195 
 
 It contains, also, twenty- two mills, which produce, on an average, 
 seven thousand three hundred and twenty barrels of flour per 
 day. The Rochester gas company has twenty-nine miles of 
 gas pipe distributed over the city in various directions, which 
 keeps in lighting order upwards of one thousand public lamps. 
 Population in 1865, 60,000. (See views at Rochester.) 
 
 TROY, 
 
 A city of New York, and seat of justice of Rensselaer county, 
 is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Hudson, on both 
 sides of the river, one hundred and fifty-one miles above New 
 York. The site of the city is a fertile and undulating plain, 
 about three and one half miles long and one and one half miles 
 wide. Mounts Olympus and Ida, the former in the northern 
 and the latter in the southern suburbs of East Troy, are the only 
 important elevations in the city. River street, the most import- 
 ant thoroughfare, is lined with massive warehouses and fine 
 hotels, and follows the course of the river through nearly the 
 entire length of the city. 
 
 Prominent among the public buildings is the court house, a 
 fine marble building of the Doric order. Among the schools 
 may be mentioned the Troy female seminary, academy, and the 
 Renssalaer institute, the former attended by from two hundred 
 and seventy to three hundred pupils, and all containing valuable 
 libraries. The most important churches are St. John's, of brown 
 sandstone, St. Paul's, of blue limestone, and the Presbyterian of 
 brick, stuccoed in imitation of granite. Among the hotels, the 
 Troy house, Mansion house, Washington hall, Charles house, 
 and Union hall, are the most important. 
 
 The commerce of Troy is important. Large steamboats ascend 
 the river as far as this city, where they receive cargoes brought 
 hither by the Hudson and Erie and the Champlain canals. Troy 
 is connected with Philadelphia by a line of propellers and barges, 
 and with Boston by a line of sailing packets. The city contains 
 thirty churches, eight newspaper publications, fifteen banks, a 
 
196 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 large number of flour and paper mills, and cotton, woollen, and 
 leather factories, and malleable iron works. Population in 1860, 
 39,235. 
 
 SYKACUSE, 
 
 A thriving city of New York, and seat of justice of Onondaga 
 county, eighty miles west of Albany, and thirty-five miles south- 
 east of Oswego, is at the extreme southern end of a small lake 
 bearing the same name as the county in which it is situated. It 
 is the terminus of the Syracuse and Oswego, and Syracuse and 
 Binghampton railroads, and is on the route of the New York 
 Central railroad. The ground on which the city is built is gen- 
 erally level, and is intersected by broad, and, with but few excep- 
 tions, regular streets. The chief building materials are brick 
 and stone. 
 
 The most important buildings are the hotels and churches. 
 Among the former may be mentioned the Syracuse house, Voor- 
 hees house, and Globe hotel. There are twenty-three churches, 
 nineteen of which are Protestant, and four Roman Catholic. 
 The city contains two public halls of sufficient capacity to accom- 
 modate upwards of six thousand persons. It has also twelve large 
 public schools, twelve newspaper offices, and ten banks. 
 
 Syracuse has the greatest salt works in the United States. 
 The springs from which the salt is produced are owned by the 
 state. Those engaged in its manufacture receive a lease from 
 the state government, by which they are bound to pay a duty of 
 one cent on every bushel produced, and to use the water for no 
 other than saline purposes. The tax, formerly twelve and a half 
 cents per bushel, was afterward reduced to six, and finally to the 
 present rate. Syracuse has a number of flour mills and manu- 
 factories of machinery, steam engines, and leather. Population 
 in 1865, 33,000. 
 
 UTICA, 
 
 A finely built and prosperous city of Oneida county, on the 
 New York Central railroad, and on both sides of the Mohawk 
 river and the Erie canal, ninety-five miles west of Albany, and 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 107 
 
 three hundred and eighty-three miles north by east of Washing- 
 ton. It is connected with the St. Lawrence river by the Black 
 river railroad, and with Binghampton by the Chenango canal. 
 The ground on which the city is built is the site of old Fort 
 Schuyler, and is level with a single exception on the northern 
 side of the river. 
 
 Genesee street, the principal thoroughfare, contains the city 
 hall, a handsome Milwaukee brick building, other public build- 
 ings, and a large number of mercantile houses. The principal 
 hotels are the National house, Central house, and Bragg's hotel. 
 The city contains twenty-six churches, two fine academies, and 
 two public libraries. Utica is the seat of the state lunatic asy- 
 lum, occupying a number of stone buildings in the western part 
 of the city. Of the five hundred and fourteen patients in this 
 institution in 1863, two hundred and sixty-two were males, and 
 two hundred and fifty-two females. The city, also, contains 
 eight newspaper publications, besides a number of periodicals, 
 and is extensively engaged in the manufacture of railway car- 
 riages, and organs. Population in 1860, 22,529. 
 
 OSWEGO, 
 
 An important city of New York, and semi-capital of Oswego 
 county, is on the south-eastern shore of Lake Ontario, and is 
 the most important city of the United States on that body. The 
 city is on both sides of the Oswego river, which here enters the 
 lake. It is thirty-five miles north-east of Syracuse, and one 
 hundred and seventy miles west by north of Albany, and is the 
 northern terminus of the Syracuse and Oswego railroad. The 
 city is divided into two nearly equal parts by the river, which is 
 crossed by several substantial bridges. 
 
 Oswego is beautifully laid off, in a rich and fertile district, 
 and is intersected by streets frequently one hundred feet wide, 
 and crossing each other at right angles. The principal build- 
 ings are the city hall, custom house, and court house. The city 
 contains ten churches, two public libraries, five newspaper pub- 
 lications, a fine system of free schools, and five banks. 
 
198 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 The commerce of Oswego is rapidly increasing. The harbor, 
 formed by the mouth of the river, is one of the finest in the state. 
 A pier one thousand two hundred and fifty-nine feet long has 
 been built on the western bank of the river, and one two hun- 
 dred feet long on the eastern, and other improvements made at 
 the expense of the United States government. Population of 
 the city in 1860, 16,816. 
 
 KINGSTON 
 
 Is a city and seat of justice of Ulster county, situated on the 
 western bank of the Hudson river, at the terminus of the Dela- 
 ware and Hudson canal, fifty-five miles south of Albany, and 
 ninety miles north of New York. The city is connected with 
 Albany and New York by steamboats, and with the Hudson 
 river railroad by a steam ferry. It contains eight churches, 
 four banks, four newspaper offices, an excellent academy, and 
 has a large commerce in coal, stone, ice, lime, and cement. Pop- 
 ulation in 1860, 7,000. 
 
 NEWBURG, 
 
 A finely built city and semi-capital of Orange county, is beau- 
 tifully situated among the highlands, on the western bank of the 
 Hudson river, eighty-four miles south of Albany, and sixty-one 
 miles north of New York. The ground on which the city is 
 built has a continual rise as it recedes from the river, and in 
 the outskirts of the city is three hundred feet high. Fishkill, 
 directly opposite Newburg, is connected with the latter city by 
 a steam ferry. By means of a branch railroad to Chester, rail- 
 way communication is established between Newburg and all im- 
 portant cities on the Erie railway. Newburg has a large num- 
 ber of elegant villas, and beautiful parks and gardens. It con- 
 tains a number of foundries, tanneries, plaster mills, and manu- 
 factories of cotton, wool, machinery, etc. Large quantities of 
 grain, flour, and products of the dairy are exported. 
 
 Newburg contains a court house, twenty-three churches, four 
 newspaper offices, six banks, and numerous schools and acade- 
 mies. Railway carriages and steam engines are extensively 
 manufactured. It has forty-one thousand tons of shipping, and 
 carries on a large lumber trade. Population in 1860, 15,196. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 199 
 
 YONKERS 
 
 Is a beautiful town on the eastern bank of the Hudson river, 
 seventeen miles north of New York. The Hudson river railroad 
 passes through the town, which has also a number of steamboats, 
 establishing water communication with New York. It has ten 
 churches, several banks, four newspaper offices, and a number of 
 manufactories, mills, and foundries. It also contains male and 
 female schools, and academies. 
 
 Yonkers is a favorite summer resort for wealthy citizens of 
 New York and Brooklyn, who have established in and around the 
 town a number of splendid residences. Population in 1860, 
 11,848. (See views of Yonkers.) 
 
 WEST POINT. 
 
 West Point, the seat of the United States Military Academy, 
 is on the western bank of the Hudson river, in Cornwall town- 
 ship, Orange county, fifty-two miles north of New York. The 
 site of the academy is an elevated and nearly circular plain, 
 from one hundred and seventy to one hundred and ninety feet 
 high, and about one mile in circuit. This national military seat 
 was established in 1802, by forty cadet artillerists and ten engi- 
 neers, and is supported by the government. The tuition is free 
 — each pupil connected with the institution, however, being 
 obliged to serve the government eight years. The president is 
 allowed to send ten cadets to the academy, and each member of 
 congress, one ; the latter from the districts which they represent. 
 No person under sixteen or above twenty-one years of age, is 
 allowed to enter. In 1808, six years after the academy was 
 founded, the school numbered one hundred and fifty-six ; in 
 1812, two hundred and fifty, the latter being the largest num- 
 ber allowed in the academy at one time. The course of study 
 embraces four years : (1) Mathematics, engineering, fencing, 
 and bayonet exercises ; (2) French, mathematics, fencing, tac- 
 tics of infantry, cavalry and artillery ; (3) natural philosophy, 
 chemistry, drawing and riding; (4) military and civil engineer- 
 ing, mineralogy, geology, chemistry, law, literature, practical 
 military engineering, tactics. 
 
200 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 West Point is picturesquely situated among the Highlands, 
 on the summits of which are ruins of forts, where occurred many 
 important battles between the Americans and British, during 
 the revolutionary war. On one of these elevations, six hundred 
 feet high, is old Fort Putnam, " surrounded on three sides by 
 deep ravines and steep descents." Fortresses in the vicinity of 
 "West Point were captured by the British in 1777, but aban- 
 doned after the surrender of Burgoyne. Stronger forts were 
 then constructed by the Americans, which the traitor, Arnold, 
 bargained to betray — a plot foiled by the arrest of Major Andre. 
 (See views at West Point.) 
 
 ELMIRA 
 
 Is a city of Chemung county, on the northern side of the Che- 
 mung river, on the route of the Erie railroad, two hundred and 
 seventy-seven miles west by north of New York. It is connect- 
 ed by railroad with Philadelphia, Baltimore and Harrisburg, on 
 the south, and is the southern terminus of the Rochester and 
 Elmira railroad, which connects the Erie with the northern tier 
 of the Central railroad. It is on the route of the Erie railroad, 
 which crosses the Chemung at this place, and is connected with 
 Seneca lake by the Chemung canal. The city contains a court- 
 house, a fine ladies' college, fifteen churches, four newspaper 
 publications, five hotels, six banks, a piano manufactory, and a 
 number of boot manufactories. Population, in 1865, 14,000. 
 (See views at Elmira.) 
 
 LITTLE FALLS, 
 
 A thriving town of Herkimer county, is picturesquely situated 
 in a narrow and romantic valley, on both sides of the Mohawk 
 river, seventy-five miles north-west of Albany, and two hundred 
 and fifty miles in the same direction from New York. The falls 
 of the Mohawk at this place afford abundant water-power to 
 the foundries and mills on its banks. " The Erie canal here 
 passes, by a deep cut in the solid rock, through a picturesque 
 defile, two miles in extent." (See views of Erie canal.) The 
 elevations on either side of the canal frequently reach a great 
 hight, and greatly resemble the Palisades of the Hudson. A 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 201 
 
 mass of rugged rock, in the outskirts of the town, is called Pro- 
 file Rock. (See view of Profile Rock.) The town has eight 
 churches, two banks, and four newspaper offices. Population, 
 5,989. 
 
 SARATOGA SPRINGS 
 
 Is a fashionable watering place and summer resort in Sara- 
 toga county, in the eastern part of New York, thirty-eight miles 
 north of Albany, and one hundred and sixty-seven miles in the 
 same direction from New York. " Saratoga owes its celebrity 
 to its mineral springs, the surrounding scenery possessing few, 
 if any, extraordinary attractions." A single street, lined with 
 massive hotels, stores and elegant private residences, constitutes 
 the chief portion of the town. There are about twenty-three 
 springs, variously impregnated with iron, iodine, soda, magnesia, 
 etc., and all highly charged with carbonic acid. Empire and 
 Iodine springs have been but recently discovered. Congress, 
 the most important of the springs at the present time, was dis- 
 covered as early as 1792. The waters of High Rock spring, 
 discharged through a conical limestone rock, about five feet high, 
 are " strongly charged with carbonic acid gas." These waters 
 are prescribed in cases of chronic dyspepsia, diseases of the 
 liver, etc. Saratoga Springs is annually visited by from thirty 
 thousand to forty thousand pleasure-seekers and invalids, who 
 receive accommodations at a number of large and fashionable 
 hotels. Congress Hall, in the centre of a finely ornamented 
 enclosure, has a commodious piazza, across the entire front of 
 the building. Union Hall, though equaling the others in splen- 
 dor and elegance, is in a more retired spot. There are also in 
 the town several concert halls and opera houses, much frequent- 
 ed by the fashionable circle. Population of the town in 1860, 
 7,496. (See views of Saratoga Springs.) 
 
 OWEGO. 
 
 Owego is a finely built and prosperous town of Tioga county, 
 
 New York, at the confluence of the Owego creek with the north 
 
 branch of the Susquehanna river. The Owego creek is crossed 
 
 at this place by the New York and Erie railway, about two 
 
202 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 hundred and forty miles from New York. The Cayuga and 
 Susquehanna railroad connects Owego with Ithaca. The town 
 contains eight churches, three newspaper offices, a large number 
 of stores, three banks, male and female academies, and numer- 
 ous flour, plaster, cotton and woolen mills. Owego is extensively 
 engaged in the lumber trade. Incorporated as a town in 1827 ; 
 population, 5,000. (See views of Owego.) 
 
 STAPLETON EIGHTS, 
 
 A thriving town of Richmond county, New York, picturesque- 
 ly situated among the hights, on the north-eastern side of Staten 
 Island. It is seven miles south-west of New York, and five 
 miles in the same direction from Brooklyn. It contains several 
 churches, and some elegant private residences. It is, also, the 
 seat of a Seamen's Retreat, an immense three story building, 
 two hundred feet long, and fifty feet wide, erected at a cost of 
 one hundred thousand dollars. (See view of Stapleton Hights.) 
 
 PORT JERVIS, 
 
 A thriving town of Orange county, New York, on the Hudson 
 and Delaware canal and the Erie railroad, ninety-eight miles 
 north-west of New York. It has five churches, two banks, and 
 one engine house. Port Jervis is in a wild and picturesque re- 
 gion, surrounded by lofty elevations, the principal of which, 
 Kittatinny mountain, changes the course of the Delaware from 
 a south-westerly to a south-easterly direction. Population, 
 about 4,000. (See views at Port Jervis.) 
 
 In 1860, New York had two thousand seven hundred and one 
 miles of railroad, constructed at a cost of one hundred and 
 thirty-one millions three hundred and twenty thousand five hun- 
 dred and forty-two dollars. The Hudson and Erie canal, com- 
 menced in 1817, and completed in 1825, is three hundred and 
 sixty-four miles long, and cost the state about seven millions of 
 dollars. In regard to education, New York holds a prominent 
 position among the United States. In 1860, the state contained 
 seventeen colleges, attended by two thousand nine hundred and 
 seventy students. The Normal School, at Albany, is attended 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 203 
 
 by about two hundred and seventy-five students annually. The 
 People's College, at Havana, Schuyler county, has property 
 valued at one hundred thousand dollars, and is attended by for- 
 ty-five students. At Ithaca, is the Cornell University, named 
 in honor of Hon. E. Cornell, who donated five hundred thous- 
 and dollars to found the school, and the increase of a million 
 acres of land for its support. (See views of Cornell University.) 
 In 1860, New York contained three millions eight hundred 
 and eighty thousand seven hundred and thirty-five inhabitants, 
 of whom three millions eight hundred and thirty-one thousand 
 five hundred and ninety were white, forty-nine thousand and 
 four colored, and one hundred and forty-one Indians. There 
 are in the state five thousand and seventy-seven churches, eleven 
 thousand six hundred and twenty-one public schools, one thous- 
 and five hundred and twenty private schools, two hundred and 
 eight academies, seventeen colleges, and five hundred and fifty- 
 nine newspaper publications. The governor of New York re- 
 ceives four thousand dollars per annum for his services. The 
 senate consists of thirty-two, and the house of representatives 
 of one hundred and twenty-eight, members. New York sends 
 thirty one members to the national house of representatives, and 
 is entitled to thirty-three electoral votes for president. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 New Jersey, one of the middle states, and one of the thirteen 
 original United States, lies between latitude 38° 55' and 41° 
 21' N., and longitude 73° 58' and 75° 29' W. It is bounded 
 on the north by New York, on the south and south-east by the 
 Delaware bay and river, on the east by New York, separated by 
 the Hudson river, and the Atlantic ocean, and on the west by 
 Pennsylvania and Delaware. Its greatest length is one hun- 
 dred and sixty-seven miles ; greatest breadth, ninety-six miles ; 
 area, eight thousand three hundred and twenty square miles, 
 or five millions three hundred and twenty-four thousand eight 
 hundred acres. 
 
 New Jersey, as a general thing, is low and sandy. The north- 
 eastern portion of the state is traversed by a number of ridges, 
 
204 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 variously known as Blue, Schooley's, Romapo, and Second 
 mountains. One of the grandest features of New Jersey scenery 
 is the Palisades, a wall of trap-rock rising abruptly from the 
 Hudson, to the hight of five hundred feet. One of the south- 
 ern elevations of this ridge, is Bergen Hill, three miles west 
 of New York, in Hudson county. (See views of Bergen Hill.) 
 The Nevisink Hills, rising four hundred and fifty feet above an 
 inlet of Raritan bay, are crowned with a light house, and com- 
 mands an extensive and enchanting prospect. 
 
 The principal rivers, beside the Hudson and Delaware, are 
 the Raritan, Hackensack and Passaic rivers. The Raritan, 
 formed by the confluence of the north and south branches, in 
 Somerset county, pours into the Raritan bay, after a course of 
 thirty-three miles, about one-half of which distance is navigable 
 for steamboats. The Hackensack, rising in Rockland county, 
 New York, and emptying into Newark bay, New Jersey, is nav- 
 igable for sloops for fifteen miles from its mouth. The Passaic 
 river rises in Morris county, and, after a north-easterly course 
 of one hundred miles, enters Newark bay, thirteen miles from 
 Paterson. The scenery near the mouth of the river is highly 
 picturesque. At Paterson, the river has a perpendicular pitch 
 of fifty feet, and a total descent of seventy-two feet. During 
 certain seasons of the year, the volume of water precipitated is 
 small ; but the falls have at all times a wild and romantic aspect. 
 (See views of Passaic Falls.) In Warren county, there is a 
 beautiful mountain lake, about two miles in circuit, and found 
 at an elevation of one thousand four hundred feet. 
 
 The climate of New Jersey is mild, the soil north of the pine 
 plains fertile, and the country healthy, with the exception of the 
 malarious river bottoms. The northern part of the state is 
 adapted to both tilling and pasturage. The staple productions 
 are wheat, maize, oats, Irish and sweet potatoes, apples, peaches, 
 plums, etc. The state has about twenty-four thousand farms, 
 which produced in 1860, one million seven hundred and sixty- 
 three thousand one hundred and twenty-eight bushels of wheat ; 
 nine millions seven hundred and twenty-three thousand three 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 205 
 
 hundred and thirty-six bushels of corn, four millions five hun- 
 dred and thirty-nine thousand one hundred and thirty-two bush- 
 els of oats, one hundred and forty-nine thousand four hundred 
 and eighty-five pounds of tobacco, three hundred and forty-nine 
 thousand two hundred and fifty pounds of wool, and five hundred 
 and eight thousand seven hundred and twenty-six tons of hay. 
 
 Trenton is the capital. Other important cities are Newark, 
 Jersey City, Paterson, Camden, Elizabeth, New Brunswick, 
 and Hoboken. 
 
 TRENTON, 
 
 The capital of the state, and seat of justice of Mercer county, 
 is on the eastern bank of the Delaware river, fifty-seven miles 
 south-west of New York, and thirty miles north-east of Phila- 
 delphia. It is regularly laid off on somewhat uneven ground, 
 and is intersected by, with few exceptions, straight streets, in- 
 tersecting each other at right angles. Four railroads radiate 
 from the city, and the Delaware and Raritan canal passes 
 through the town. 
 
 Main street, the chief thoroughfare, contains the greater por- 
 tion of the business buildings. State street crosses Main street 
 at right angles, and contains the capitol, a handsome stone 
 structure one hundred feet long and sixty feet wide, and many 
 of the finest residences. Besides the capitol, the court house, a 
 brick building, with a Grecian portico, penitentiary and state 
 lunatic asylum are the principal buildings. Two bridges cross 
 the Delaware at this place, one about a mile below and the other 
 within the limits of the city. The latter is eleven hundred feet 
 long. Trenton contains twenty churches, three banks, four 
 paper mills, two rolling mills, and two wire factories. Popula- 
 tion in 1860, 17,228. 
 
 NEWARK, 
 
 The largest city of New Jersey, and seat of justice of Essex 
 county, is on the right bank of the Passaic river, twelve miles 
 east by south of New York, on the New Jersey railroad. The 
 site of the city is level, with the exception of an elevation ex- 
 tending entirely across the western suburbs of the city. Broad 
 
206 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 street, the principal thoroughfare, is two miles long, one hun- 
 dred and thirty-two feet wide, and borders upon three fine public 
 parks, shaded by beautiful elms. 
 
 The most important public buildings are the court house, a 
 rich brown stone structure, in the Egyptian style, on the corner 
 of Market and High streets, the custom house and post office r 
 occupying an immense stone building, erected at a cost of one 
 hundred and fifty thousand dollars, and the city hall. There 
 are many elegant churches in the city, of which the Methodist, 
 on Market street, the First Baptist, on Academy street, and the 
 Catholic, on Washington, High, Warren, and Lafayette streets, 
 are the most important. Newark contains seventy-five churches, 
 five banks, forty public schools, nine newspaper publications, 
 and five hundred and forty-seven manufacturing establishments, 
 producing annually twenty-five millions of dollars. Population 
 in 1860, 71,941. 
 
 JERSEY CITY, 
 
 Next to Newark, the largest city in New Jersey, is the seat 
 of justice of Hudson county, on the western bank of the Hud- 
 son river, directly opposite New York. Five railroads, viz : 
 Union, New Jersey, Morris and Essex, Easton, and Northern, 
 radiate from the city, establishing an unrivaled line of commu- 
 nication with every section of the state. The Morris canal, for 
 coal transport, extends from Jersey City to Easton, in Penn- 
 sylvania. 
 
 Jersey City is regularly laid off, with fine, broad streets, 
 lighted with gas. There^are about twenty churches in the city, 
 one of the finest of which formerly stood in Wall street, New 
 York, but was removed and built up stone by stone, on its pres- 
 ent site. Large and powerful steamboats, lighted with gas, ply 
 between New York and Jersey City, night and day. The city 
 receives a supply of water from the Passaic river, seven miles 
 distant, by means of water works, constructed at a cost of about 
 six hundred thousand dollars. The distributing reservoir is on 
 Bergen Hill, two miles from the city. The city has several 
 seminaries, a high school, two newspaper offices, two banks, and 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 207 
 
 a number of manufactories of machinery, locomotives, glass, 
 crucibles, etc. Population in 1860, 29,226. (See views of 
 Jersey City.) 
 
 PATERSON, 
 
 A city and seat of justice of Passaic county, New Jersey, is on 
 the southern bank of the Passaic river, seventeen miles north- 
 west of New York. It is on the line of the Union railroad, 
 which connects it with New York city, and, also, with Goshen, 
 on the Erie railway. The city is finely built, and is intersected 
 by broad and well paved streets, generally direct, and lighted 
 with gas. A short distance above Paterson, the Passaic river 
 has a fall of seventy-two feet, affording a valuable hydraulic 
 power, which has been greatly improved by the construction of 
 a dam and several canals. The city contains fifteen churches, 
 two newspaper offices, one bank, a number of large hotels, an 
 academy, twenty cotton mills, a number of manufactories of 
 locomotives, machinery, carriages, paper, etc., and an establish- 
 ment manufacturing five thousand and five hundred pounds of 
 silk monthly. Population in 1860, 19,506. (See views of 
 Paterson.) 
 
 CAMDEN, 
 
 A city of New Jersey, and capitol of Camden county, is 
 directly opposite Philadelphia, on the eastern bank of the Del- 
 aware river, thirty-two miles south-west of Trenton, and eighty- 
 seven miles from New York. The city is finely laid off on an 
 undulating plain, and contains a large number of elegant public 
 buildings, and handsome private residences. It is connected 
 with Philadelphia by steam ferries, and is the terminus of the 
 Cape May, West Jersey, and Milville railroads. The city con- 
 tains fifteen churches, three newspaper publications, a court 
 house, an insurance office, two saw-mills, two iron foundries, and 
 several ship yards. Population in 1865, 18,000. 
 
 ELIZABETH, 
 
 A city and seat of justice of Union county, New Jersey, is 
 fifteen miles south-west of New York, at the junction of the 
 
208 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 Central with the New Jersey railroad. The city was formerly 
 known as Elizabethtown, and was the capital of the state. It is 
 finely laid off, with broad and regular streets, on a plain con- 
 siderably elevated above the sea. It contains twenty churches, 
 two banks, an insurance office, three newspaper offices, a fine 
 system of schools, and a large number of manufactories. Popu- 
 lation in 1865, 13,500. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK, 
 
 A city and seat of justice of Middlesex county, New Jersey, 
 is on the right bank of the Raritan river, thirty miles south-west 
 of New York. It is on the line of the New Jersey railroad, 
 which crosses the Raritan at this place, and is the eastern ter- 
 minus of the Delaware and Raritan canal, a channel seventy- 
 five feet wide and seven feet deep, extending to Bordentown. 
 Rutger's college, a dark red free-stone structure, founded in 
 1770, is one of the finest buildings in the city. New Brunswick 
 contains fifteen churches, several female academies, a theological 
 seminary, five newspaper offices, and three banks. Population 
 in 1865, 13,500. 
 
 HOBOKEN, 
 
 A city, and port of entry of Hudson county, is on the western 
 bank of the Hudson river, one and one-half miles north of Jer- 
 sey City, and opposite New York, with which it is connected by 
 steam ferries. It has beautiful pleasure grounds, called " Ely- 
 sian Fields," is a great summer resort, and is rapidly becoming 
 an important town. It contains twelve churches, three newspa- 
 per publications, three banks, and twenty hotels. Two lines 
 of European steamboats depart from this port. Population in 
 1865, 12,500. (See views of Hoboken.) 
 
 In 1860, New Jersey contained six hundred and seventy-two 
 thousand and thirty five inhabitants, of whom six hundred and 
 forty-six thousand six hundred and ninety-nine were white, twen- 
 ty-five thousand three hundred and eighteen free colored, and 
 eighteen slaves. The state contains one thousand one hundred 
 and twenty-three churches, two hundred and fifty-one academies, 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 209 
 
 one thousand four hundred and ninety-six public schools, about 
 one hundred public libraries, containing four hundred and thir- 
 ty-three thousand three hundred and twenty-one volumes ; one 
 hundred newspaper publications, twenty-one cotton and forty- 
 one woollen factories, one hundred and nineteen iron foundries, 
 with extensive manufactories of machinery, locomotives, car- 
 riages, glass, boots, etc. The governor of the state receives one 
 thousand eight hundred dollars per annum for his services. The 
 senate consists of twenty, and the house of representatives of 
 sixty, members. New Jersey sends five members to the national 
 house of representatives, and is entitled to seven electoral votes 
 for president. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 Pennsylvania, one of the thirteen original, and, next to New 
 York, the most populous of the United States, lies between lat- 
 itude 99° 43' and 42° 15' N., and longitude 74° 75' and 80° 
 37' W. It is bounded on the north by New York and Lake 
 Erie ; on the south by Delaware, Maryland and West Vir- 
 ginia ; on the north-east by New York ; on the east by New 
 Jersey ; and on the west by Ohio and West Virginia. It is 
 three hundred and ten miles long, and one hundred and sixty 
 miles wide, including an area of forty-six thousand square miles, 
 or twenty-nine millions four hundred and forty thousand acres. 
 
 The Alleghany mountain range passes entirely across the 
 state from north to south, forming the water-shed between the 
 basin of the Ohio and the rivers which flow into the Atlantic 
 ocean. The Blue mountains, the eastern ridge of the Allegha- 
 nies, extend first in a north-easterly direction, about one-third 
 of the distance across the state, when they bend to the east- 
 north-east, and enter New Jersey. The Delaware river here 
 bursts through a deep and narrow gorge two miles long, and is 
 walled in by almost perpendicular precipices, one thousand six 
 hundred feet high, forming the Delaware Water Gap, one of 
 the most remarkable curiosities in the state. (See views of Del- 
 aware Water Gap.) Chestnut ridge, the most western range of 
 
 14 
 
210 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 the Alleghanies, and Laurel ridge, reach no great hight, but are 
 well defined mountain chains. The Broad mountains extend 
 from the center of Carbon county, through Schuylkill into Dau- 
 phin county. Broad Top mountain, a peak of the Alleghanies, 
 lies between Bedford and Huntington counties. This mountain 
 contains rich beds of coal, from three to eight feet thick. On 
 the summit of the mountain, is the Broad Top Mountain House, 
 a delightful summer retreat in the heart of the coal region. 
 (See views among the Alleghanies.) 
 
 The principal rivers, besides the Delaware, which forms the 
 eastern boundary, are the Susquehanna and its branches, the 
 Schuylkill and Lehigh, in the eastern part of the state, and Al- 
 leghany and Monongahela in the western part. The Susque- 
 hanna, formed by the confluence of the west with the north 
 branch, one mile above Sunbury, has a course of one hundred 
 and fifty miles, and empties into the northern extremity of Ches- 
 apeake bay. It contains a large number of picturesque islands, 
 and is obstructed by rapids, which, at high water, render navi- 
 gation difficult. The northern branch of the river originates in 
 Otsego lake, in Otsego county, New York, and has a winding 
 course of two hundred and fifty miles. The western branch 
 originates in Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and has a course 
 of two hundred miles. The Juniata river, formed by the con- 
 fluence of the Little Juniata with the Frankstown branch, is 
 one hundred and fifty miles long, and empties into the Susque- 
 hanna, twelve miles above Harrisburg. The Little Juniata rises 
 in Blair county, and is thirty miles long. The scenery along 
 the banks of the Juniata is in the highest degree grand and 
 beautiful. The mountains, on either side of the river, frequently 
 rise to the hight of one thousand five hundred feet. (See views 
 on the Juniata.) The Schuylkill river, signifying " hidden 
 creek," rises among the highlands in Schuyler county, and pours 
 into the Delaware, five miles below Philadelphia, after a course 
 of one hundred and twenty miles. The Lehigh river, originat- 
 ing in the lowlands of Luzerne and Pike counties, flows through 
 a picturesque and beautiful region, and enters the Delaware at 
 Easton, after a course of ninety miles. The Lackawaxen river, 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 211 
 
 rising in "Wayne county, passes through one of the wildest and 
 most picturesque regions in the state. It drains the Wallenpau- 
 pack creek, and enters the Delaware in Pike county. The Wal- 
 lenpaupack river, in a narrow, deep, and rocky channel, has a 
 beautiful descent in falls and cascades, which deserves the atten- 
 tion of all lovers of the picturesque. (See views of Wallenpau- 
 pack falls.) The Alleghany river rises in Potter county, Penn- 
 sylvania, flows north through Cattaraugus county, New York, 
 and bending south, again enters Pennsylvania, and unites with 
 the Monongahela, at Pittsburgh, forming the Ohio. The Mo- 
 nongahela river is formed by the junction of the West Fork and 
 Tygart's Valley rivers, in Marion county, West Virginia, and 
 has a length from this point of one hundred and fifty miles. 
 
 The iron and coal mines of Pennsylvania far surpass those of 
 any other state. The great anthracite and semi-anthracite 
 deposits of coal are east of the Alleghanies ; and west are the 
 great beds of bituminous coal, which largely supply the Missis- 
 sippi valley. In the latter districts are large deposits of petro- 
 leum. In the vicinity of Philadelphia are extensive quarries of 
 fine white marble. 
 
 The climate of the state is mild, and the soil fertile. The 
 staple productions are wheat, Indian corn, rye, oats, buckwheat, 
 potatoes, hemp, flax, tobacco, hay, fruits, etc. In 1860, Penn- 
 sylvania produced thirteen millions forty-five thousand two hun- 
 dred and thirty-one bushels of wheat, twenty-eight millions one 
 hundred and ninety-six thousand eight hundred and twenty-one 
 bushels of corn, twenty-seven millions three hundred and eighty- 
 seven thousand one hundred and forty-seven bushels of oats, and 
 three millions one hundred and eighty-one thousand five hundred 
 and eighty-six pounds of tobacco. According to the manufac- 
 turing statistics of 1860, the amount of capital invested Avas one 
 hundred and eighty-nine millions of dollars ; value of raw mate- 
 rial used, one hundred and forty-five millions and three hun- 
 dred thousand dollars ; value of the annual product, two hundred 
 and eighty-five millions and five hundred thousand dollars. 
 
 Harrisburg, the sixth city in size in the state, is the capita), 
 and Philadelphia is the largest city. Pittsburg, Alleghany 
 
212 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 city, Reading, and Lancaster city are the other most important 
 towns. 
 
 HARRISBURG, 
 
 Capital of Pennsylvania, and also of Dauphin county, is 
 pleasantly situated on the west bank of the Susquehanna river, 
 one hundred and ten miles north of Washington. The capitol, 
 occupying an elevation in the center of the city, and containing 
 a valuable library, and the court-house, are the principal public 
 buildings. The city has eighteen churches, six newspaper pub- 
 lications, ten public schools, a male and female seminary, four 
 banks, and a county prison. Population, in 1865, about 20,000. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 The chief city of Pennsylvania, and, next to New York, the 
 most populous in the United States, is on a peninsula formed 
 by the confluence of the Schuylkill with the Delaware river, one 
 hundred and thirty-six miles north-east of Washington, and 
 eighty-seven miles south-west of New York. The ground on 
 which the city is built, though generally level, is slightly elevated 
 towards the north. The original plan of its founder, William 
 Penn, though at the time followed to an extent, has, by succeed- 
 ing generations, been wholly disregarded. The ten chief streets 
 of the city extend from river to river, and are intersected at 
 right angles by upwards of twenty-five others. The streets vary 
 from fifty to one hundred and twenty-feet in width. The city 
 is divided into four nearly equal parts, by Broad street, running 
 north and south, and Market street, extending across the penin- 
 sula from east to west. At the intersection of the latter streets 
 is a fine public park, divided by these thoroughfares into four 
 sections. Each quarter of the city also contains a fine park. 
 
 The city is between five and six miles on the Delaware, two 
 and one half miles on the Schuylkill, and covers an area of ten 
 square miles. The narrowest portion of the peninsula is two 
 miles wide, and it is here that the most compact and business 
 portion of the city is found. Chestnut street, containing the 
 custom house and United States mint, Third street and Market 
 street are the chief business thoroughfares. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 213 
 
 Among the public buildings, the state house, a plain brick 
 edifice, in Independence square, on Chestnut street, demands 
 universal attention. It was in the east wing of this building 
 that congress convened and issued the declaration of indepen- 
 dence, July 4th, 1776 — a circumstance, which, connected as it 
 is with the birth of our nation, has rendered it a national object 
 of respect and interest. The east and west Avings are connected 
 by corridors, and the whole is surmounted by a dome, contain- 
 ing a town clock and an alarm bell. The custom house is a fine 
 edifice of the Doric order, one hundred and sixty feet long, 
 eighty-seven feet wide, and constructed at a cost of five hundred 
 thousand dollars. The United States mint, on Chestnut street, 
 is two hundred and twenty feet long, one hundred and twenty 
 feet wide, and cost two hundred thousand dollars. The mer-. 
 chants' exchange is a rich marble edifice, one hundred and four- 
 teen feet long, ninety-five feet wide, and containing, besides the 
 great hall of the exchange, insurance and other offices. The 
 Girard college buildings, constructed of white marble, surpass ia 
 beauty of architecture all other structures in the city. The 
 entire cost of the buildings, including the grounds, was upwards 
 of two millions of dollars, which sum was left the city by Stephen 
 Girard, a Philadelphia merchant. 
 
 Philadelphia has a large number of excellent hotels. Of these, 
 the Continental house, American house, and Washington house, 
 on Chestnut street, Union house on Arch, and Merchants' house 
 on Fourth street are the most important. 
 
 The Pennsylvania hospital, established in 1752, occupies a 
 square at the intersection of Pine, Eighth, Spruce and Ninth 
 streets. There are several buildings in this square belonging te 
 the institution, one of which, the chief structure, is two hundred 
 and eighty-two feet long, and all are constructed of brick. There 
 are in the city fifteen military hospitals, with accommodations 
 for upwards of fourteen thousand patients. 
 
 Among the principal libraries are the Philadelphia library, 
 and American philosophical society, founded by Benjamin Frank- 
 lin, the former containing eighty thousand, and the latter twenty 
 thousand volumes. 
 
214 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 Among the churches, the Catholic cathedral of St. Peter and 
 St. Paul, greatly surpasses in architectural beauty all others in 
 the city. This imposing edifice, constructed of red sandstone, 
 is in Logan square, fronting on Eighteenth street. In front are 
 four Corinthian columns, sixty feet high, with a tower at each 
 angle of one hundred and ten degrees, the whole surmounted by 
 a dome, the apex of which is two hundred and ten feet above 
 the ground. The other important churches are Christ's church, 
 St. Mark's church, a red sandstone structure, one hundred and 
 fifty feet long, ninety feet wide, and crowned with a lofty tower 
 and spire, Church of the Holy Trinity, Church of Calvary, and 
 Baptist church. 
 
 Among the educational establishments of the city may be 
 mentioned the Academy of the Episcopal church, Philadelphia 
 academy, and Theological seminary, the latter two of which are 
 Catholic institutions. There are also a girls' and a boys' high 
 school, the former of which, on Sargeant street, is under the 
 direction of a male principal and nine female assistants. The 
 latter, established in 1837, is on Broad street, and has an aver- 
 age attendance of four hundred and seventy students. This 
 building has a fine observatory, in which is a powerful telescope. 
 Connected with the institution are fourteen "professors, on sala- 
 ries of one thousand two hundred dollars each. 
 
 Philadelphia is supplied with water by the Fairmount water 
 works, located on the Schuylkill river, two miles north-east of 
 the state house. By means of a dam across the river, eight 
 wheels are turned, which work as many pumps. The water is 
 received in four large reservoirs, on an eminence near the river, 
 and from thence is conveyed through pipes to other reservoirs 
 in different parts of the city. 
 
 The city has three hundred and sixty-five churches, fifty peri- 
 odicals, forty weekly and twelve daily publications, sixty gram- 
 mar schools, three hundred schools of lower grade, twenty-five 
 banks, eight savings banks, five theatres, and a state peniten- 
 tiary. It has manufactories of iron, machinery, cotton and 
 
tSe middle states. 215 
 
 woollen goods, boots, shoes, furniture, etc., amounting annually 
 to one hundred and seventy-five millions of dollars. Population 
 in 1860, 565,531. (See views of Philadelphia.) 
 
 PITTSBURG, 
 
 An important city of Pennsylvania, and seat of justice of 
 Alleghany county, is at the confluence of the Alleghany and 
 Monongahela rivers, which here unite to form the Ohio, five 
 hundred and thirty-seven miles west of Philadelphia. Though 
 there are considerable elevations along the rivers and in the 
 western suburbs, the general character of the site of the city is 
 level. When the town was laid off, the streets were made to 
 follow the general direction of the rivers ; consequently the 
 cross-streets meet obliquely, a few blocks from the Monongahela. 
 The numerous factories and foundries of the city, send forth 
 columns of smoke, which fill the air for miles around, cover 
 the buildings with soot, and give the city a dreary aspect. 
 From this fact, Pittsburg has been appropriately styled the 
 Birmingham of America. Directly across the Alleghany river, 
 on the north, is Alleghany city, and on the opposite side of the 
 Monongahela, is Birmingham, both of which cities might justly 
 be regarded as extensions of Pittsburg. 
 
 Among the public buildings, the court house, on the summit 
 of an elevation in the western part of the city, holds a conspicu- 
 ous place. This building, constructed of stone, in the Doric 
 order, is one hundred and sixty-five feet long, one hundred feet 
 wide, and surmounted by a dome, which rises one hundred and 
 forty-eight feet above the ground. The custom house, recently 
 erected on the corner of Smithfield and Fifth streets, is a free- 
 stone structure of the Grecian order, constructed at a cost of one 
 hundred and fifteen thousand dollars. Among the other impor- 
 tant buildings may be mentioned the Monongahela house, one of 
 the finest hotels in the United States, the Catholic cathedral, an 
 imposing brick edifice, on the corner of Grant and Fifth streets, 
 surmounted by a lofty spire, and the Episcopal church of St. 
 Peter, on Grant street, directly opposite the court house. 
 
216 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 Pittsburg is situated among the richest deposits of iron and 
 bituminous coal in the United States. Sixty-five companies in 
 the city produce yearly one million six hundred thousand tons 
 of coal. There are in the city sixteen foundries, twenty-four 
 iron and steel manufactories, several rolling mills, six cotton 
 mills, and numerous manufactories of steam engines, boilers, 
 nails, files, etc. Population in 1860, 49,220. 
 
 ALLEGHANY, 
 
 A city of Pennsylvania, is on the Alleghany river, directly 
 opposite Pittsburg, with which it is closely connected in com- 
 mercial and social interest. Three fine bridges, and a suspen- 
 sion aqueduct, extend across the river between the two cities. 
 
 Among the important buildings, may be mentioned the western 
 penitentiary of Pennsylvania, a large stone building, constructed 
 in the ancient Norman style, on Ohio street, the western Penn- 
 sylvania hospital, an imposing brick edifice in the eastern part 
 of the city, and the house of industry, on Washington street. 
 
 Alleghany has fifteen churches, two theological seminaries, a 
 fine system of public schools, three national banks, one hundred 
 and twenty manufactories, and a large number of foundries. 
 
 READING, 
 
 An important city of Pennsylvania, and seat of justice of 
 Berks county, is on the east bank of the Schuylkill river, 
 fifty-two miles north-east of Philadelphia. The city is hand- 
 somely laid off on an undulating plain, and is intersected by wide 
 and regular streets. 
 
 Prominent among the public buildings is the court-house, hav- 
 ing a commanding situation, and adorned with a sandstone 
 portico. Among the churches, the Episcopal church, a beauti- 
 ful sandstone edifice, surmounted by a steeple two hundred feet 
 high, and the Germans' Lutheran church, are the most import- 
 ant. Reading is on the Philadelphia, Reading, and Pottsville 
 railroad, and is the terminus of the Lebanon Valley railroad. 
 
 The city has twenty-three churches, eight newspaper offices, 
 several public libraries, an academy, four banks, two rolling 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 217 
 
 mills, two flouring mills, a cotton mill, steam forges, and several 
 foundries. It is also extensively engaged in the manufacture of 
 machinery, steam engines, etc. Population in 1860, 23,162. 
 
 LANCASTER, 
 
 A finely built and important city of Pennsylvania, and seat 
 of justice of Lancaster county, is seventy miles west of Phila- 
 delphia, on the Pennsylvania Central railroad. The city is 
 regularly laid off, and is crossed by broad, and with few excep- 
 tions, direct streets. Wood and brick are the chief materials 
 used in building. 
 
 The most important public buildings are the court house and 
 county prison, both recently erected, the former in the Grecian 
 style, and each costing in the vicinity of one hundred and twen- 
 ty-five thousand dollars. The city contains a fine college, fifteen 
 churches, ten newspaper publications, two public libraries, four 
 banks, and manufactories of threshing machines, locomotives, 
 carriages, rifles, axes, etc. Population in 1860, 17,603. 
 
 In 1860, Pennsylvania had two millions nine hundred and six 
 thousand one hundred and fifteen inhabitants, of whom two mil- 
 lions eight hundred and forty-nine thousand two hundred and 
 sixty-six were white, and fifty-six thousand eight hundred and 
 forty-nine were colored. The state contains twenty-six colleges, 
 twenty state academies, three hundred and thirty-five public 
 schools, four thousand churches, about four hundred libraries, 
 eight schools of medicine, and three hundred and ten periodical 
 publications. The governor of Pennsylvania is elected for three 
 years, and receives a salary of three thousand dollars per annum. 
 The senate consists of thirty-three and the house of representa- 
 tives of one hundred members. In 1862 there was in the state 
 ninety-four banks, with an aggregate capital of twenty-five mil- 
 lions nine hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred and 
 fifty dollars. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 Delaware, one of the thirteen original states, the smallest of 
 the middle, and, next to Rhode Island, the smallest of the Uni- 
 ted States, lies between latitude 38° 28' and 39° 50' north, and 
 
218 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 longitude 75° and 75° 45' west. The eastern shore of the state 
 is washed by the Atlantic ocean and the Delaware river and bay, 
 the latter of which separates Delaware from New Jersey. Penn- 
 sylvania bounds the state on the north, and Maryland on the 
 south and west. Length of the state, ninety-six miles ; great- 
 est breadth, thirty-seven miles ; area, two thousand one hundred 
 and twenty square miles, or one million three hundred and fifty- 
 six thousand acres. 
 
 The surface of Delaware, as a general thing, is level, no ele- 
 vations being found of sufficient altitude to be called mountains. 
 The northern portion of the state is traversed by ranges of hills, 
 and in the western part is a marshy elevation, partaking of the 
 nature of a table land. The southern and central portions are 
 low and level. The soil in this section is poor, consisting of a 
 mixture of sand and clay. The most fertile districts occur in 
 the north, and on the Delaware river and bay. The chief pro- 
 ductions are Indian corn, wheat, rye, barley, buckwheat, hemp, 
 flax, hops, honey, butter, etc. 
 
 Besides the Delaware, the most important rivers are Brandy- 
 wine and Christiana, flowing into the Delaware river, Indian 
 river, flowing into the Atlantic ocean, and Nanticoke and Chop- 
 tank, flowing into the Chesapeake bay. The Delaware river 
 rises in New York, on the western slope of the Catskills, and, 
 after a course of three hundred miles, enters Delaware bay, an 
 arm of the Atlantic. The river is navigable for large vessels 
 as far as Philadelphia, and for steamboats to the head of tide- 
 water, at Trenton. 
 
 Delaware has six hundred and fifteen manufacturing estab- 
 lishments, employing a capital of five millions three hundred 
 sixty thousand dollars, and having an annual income of nine 
 millions nine hundred and twenty thousand dollars. The com- 
 merce of Delaware is small, the trade of her cities being monop- 
 olized by the more important ones of Philadelphia and Baltimore. 
 The chief exports are flour, grain, fruits, lumber, and sand. 
 
 Besides Dover, the capital, and Wilmington, the largest city, 
 the places of any importance are Milford, Newcastle, and 
 Smyrna. 
 
THE MIDDLE STATES. 219 
 
 DOVER, 
 
 The capital of the state, and also of Kent county, is on the 
 Jones river and Delaware railroad, fifty miles north of Wilming- 
 ton. It has a fine state house, four churches, and three large 
 hotels. Population, 1,289. 
 
 WILMINGTON, 
 
 Chief city of Delaware, is in Newcastle county, on the Chris- 
 tiana creek, twenty-eight miles south-west of Philadelphia. It 
 contains a custom house, twenty-three churches, a Catholic col- 
 lege, a fine library, four private and nine public schools, seven 
 banks, six large machine shops, and a number of iron foundries, 
 rolling and saw mills, and cotton factories. Population in 1860, 
 21,256. 
 
 MILFORD 
 
 Is a thriving town of Kent county, on the Mispillion creek, 
 twenty-one miles south-east of Dover. It contains five churches, 
 an academy, two banks, a newspaper office, a public library, and 
 a ship yard. Population, 1,763. 
 
 NEWCASTLE 
 
 Is a city and seat of justice of Newcastle county, on the 
 Delaware river, five miles south of Wilmington. It has eight 
 churches, a court house, a public library, a bank, and manufac- 
 tories of locomotives, machinery, etc. Population, 1,902. 
 
 SMYRNA 
 
 Is a thriving town of Kent county, thirty-six miles south of 
 Wilmington, containing manufactories of carriages, a newspaper 
 office and bank, five churches and three hotels. Population, 
 2,153. 
 
 In 1860, Delaware had one hundred and twelve thousand two 
 hundred and sixteen inhabitants, of whom ninety thousand five 
 hundred and eighty-nine were white, nineteen thousand eight 
 hundred and twenty-nine free colored, and one thousand seven 
 hundred and ninety-eight slaves. Delaware has two hundred 
 and twenty churches, one college, two hundred and fifty-six public 
 
220 THE MIDDLE STATES. 
 
 schools, forty academies, and one hundred and fourteen libra- 
 ries, containing eighty-eight thousand four hundred and seventy 
 volumes. The governor of Delaware is elected for four years, 
 on a salary of one thousand three hundred and thirty-three dol- 
 lars, and is not allowed to be re-elected. The senate consists of 
 nine, and the house of representatives of twenty-one, members. 
 Delaware sends one member to the national house of represen- 
 tatives, and is entitled to three electoral votes for president. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 Maryland is one of the thirteen original states, and the most 
 northern of the southern states of which it is the smallest. It 
 lies between latitude 38° and 39° 44' N., and between longitude 
 75° 10' and 79° 39' W. It is bounded on the north by Penn- 
 sylvania, on the east by Delaware and the Atlantic ocean, and 
 on the south and west by Virginia. 
 
 The outline of Maryland is very irregular. Its northern 
 boundary has an extent of one hundred and ninety miles, but 
 on the west side it contracts until its southern boundary is 
 scarcely half that extent. The coast line of this state, including 
 that of Chesapeake bay, is four hundred and eleven miles, with- 
 out which it is only thirty-three miles. 
 
 The eastern portion of this state is level and the soil sandy. 
 The mountainous portion is in the north-west part of the state, 
 between the Potomac river and the Pennsylvania line. This 
 section is crossed by several ridges of the Alleghanies. The 
 coal, copper and iron mines of Maryland are productive. 
 
 The Chesapeake bay extends into the state about one hundred 
 and twenty miles, varying in width from seven to ten miles. It 
 divides the state into two parts, known as the eastern and west- 
 ern shore. A number of navigable rivers empty into this bay, 
 the most important of which is the Potomac, being navigable for 
 large vessels as far as Alexandria. The others are the Susque- 
 hanna, Potoxent, Patapsco, Elk, Chester, Chopotank, Nanti- 
 coke, and Pocomoke, all of which are navigable for small vessels. 
 The falls of the Potomac are about fourteen miles above George- 
 town; the perpendicular hight is not very great, being only about 
 forty feet, but the beauty of the scene is hightened by the per- 
 pendicular cliffs on the Virginia side. 
 
222 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 The staple productions are tobacco, wheat, and Indian corn. 
 The forests are composed of a great variety of trees. 
 
 Maryland has a great amount of capital employed in various 
 manufactures, producing forty-one millions seven hundred and 
 thirty-five thousand one hundred and sixty dollars' worth of 
 goods annually. It is the sixth state in the United States in 
 commercial importance, being connected with Pennsylvania 
 and southern New York by the Susquehanna river ; with the 
 west by Ohio and Baltimore railroad and the Ohio and Chesa- 
 peake canal, and the north-east by the Delaware and Ohio canaL 
 
 Maryland possesses great facilities for internal as well as for- 
 eign commerce. 
 
 The chief cities are Baltimore, Cumberland, Fredric City and 
 Annapolis. 
 
 BALTIMORE, 
 
 The largest city of Maryland, has a population of two hundred 
 and twelve thousand four hundred and eighteen. It is situated 
 on the Patapsco river, about twelve miles from Chesapeake bay. 
 The site of Baltimore is probably more picturesque than any 
 other city in the union. It covers a number of eminences which 
 furnish a pleasing variety for the tourist. From Washington 
 monument, which is situated on a hill, a most beautiful panor- 
 ama is spread out before the beholder. Baltimore has been 
 called, from the number of its monuments, the " Monumental 
 City." The most imposing of these is the Washington monu- 
 ment, which has a base fifty feet square and twenty feet high, 
 supporting a column one hundred and seventy-six and a half 
 feet in hight, crowned by a statue of Washington sixteen feet 
 high. The summit of the monument is three hundred and 
 twelve feet above the level of the harbor. It is constructed of 
 white marble, and cost two hundred thousand dollars. Battle 
 monument is also a beautiful structure of white marble ; the 
 base is square and finely ornamented; on it rests a facial column 
 eighteen feet high, on the bands of which are inscribed the names 
 of those who were killed while defending the city from the attack 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 223 
 
 of the British in 1814. This column is surmounted by the God- 
 dess of Liberty, seven and a half feet high. The Merchants' 
 shot tower, the highest in the world, having an elevation of two 
 hundred and forty-six feet, is also an object of interest to tour- 
 ists. The Baltimore court house is a handsome structure two 
 stories high, sixty-five feet wide and one hundred and forty-five 
 feet long, constructed at a cost of one hundred and fifty thousand 
 dollars. The United States court house is a handsome edifice 
 built of granite. The Roman Catholic cathedral, a massive 
 granite structure, is the most imposing church edifice in Balti- 
 more. The total number of churches in the city is one hundred 
 and sixty-one. 
 
 Among the literary and educational institutions, are the Uni- 
 versity of Maryland, Logola college, Baltimore college, and the 
 Theological school. The athenaeum has a library of nineteen 
 thousand volumes. The Baltimore library has fifteen thousand 
 volumes. The Maryland historical society has a collection of 
 one thousand volumes, and in the gallery belonging to this 
 society, are annually held exhibitions of painting and sculpture. 
 There are about twenty-five newspaper publications, of which 
 eight are dailies. The benevolent institutions of Baltimore, are 
 the Maryland hospital for the insane, Mount Hope institution, 
 the Church Home and Infirmary, five orphan asylums, and an 
 alms-house. The state penitentiary, with the jail, occupies one 
 square. There are eighty-two public schools, including the 
 primaries, with an attendance of fifteen thousand six hundred and 
 sixty-one scholars. Baltimore supports a great number of hotels, 
 of which the city hotel, and Eutah house, are first-class. 
 
 Druid hill park encloses five hundred and forty-eight acres of 
 land, situated just beyond the northern limits of the city. In 
 Patterson's park are thirty-six acres, embracing the earthworks 
 thrown up for the defense of the city during the war of 1812. 
 Baltimore ranks among the first cities of the United States in 
 commercial importance. 
 
 CUMBERLAND, 
 
 The county seat of Alleghany county, is situated on the 
 Potomac river, and on the Ohio and Baltimore railroads, and 
 
224 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 about one hundred and eighty miles from Baltimore. It has a 
 population of 8,478. It contains the county buildings, three 
 banks, three printing offices, and a savings institution. 
 
 FREDRIC CITY, 
 
 Shire town of Fredric county, in wealth, population and com- 
 mercial importance, takes the third rank in the state. It has a 
 population of 8,142. It contains a handsome court-house, six 
 tanneries, three banks, a college, an academy, two printing 
 offices and eleven churches. 
 
 ANNAPOLIS, 
 
 The capital of Maryland, has a population of about 5,000. 
 It is situated on the Severns river, about two miles from Chesa- 
 peake bay. In Annapolis are six churches, a bank, market- 
 house, a fine state house, and two printing offices, from which 
 are issued three newspapers. 
 
 The governor of Maryland holds his office four years, and 
 has a salary of three thousand and six hundred dollars, with the 
 use of a furnished house. The house of representatives con- 
 sists of seventy-four members, and the senate of twenty-two. 
 These, with the governor, are elected by the people. 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 In 1790, Maryland and Virginia ceded one hundred square 
 miles, situated on both sides of the Potomac river, to the United 
 States. This tract was called the District of Columbia. It was 
 designed for the site of the capital of the Republic, and, accord- 
 ingly, a city was laid out and public buildings erected. The 
 name of the city thus founded was Washington, and in 1800, 
 the seat of government was removed thereto from Philadelphia. 
 During the war of 1812, the British entered the city, burned 
 the capitol, together with the library of congress, and the presi- 
 dential mansion. These were rebuilt on the Maryland side of 
 the Potomac, and the portion of the District on the Virginia 
 side was retroceded to that state. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 225 
 
 The District of Columbia is under the government of the 
 United States congress, in -which it has no representative, and is 
 allowed no vote for the president. Georgetown and Washington 
 are the only cities in the district. They are about two miles 
 apart, and are separated by Rock creek. 
 
 GEORGETOWN 
 
 Is beautifully situated on a range of hills, the most elevated 
 of which are called the Hights. (See views of Georgetown.) 
 These eminences, which are occupied by handsome villas, com- 
 mand a view of Washington, the Potomac, Oak Hill cemetery, 
 and an almost illimitable expanse of country. The Alexandria 
 branch of the Ohio and Chesapeake canal is carried across the 
 Potomac at Georgetown, by means of an enormous aqueduct 
 one thousand four hundred and forty-six feet long and thirty-six 
 feet above ordinary water level. 
 
 Georgetown is chiefly distinguished for its refined society and 
 great literary advantages. The most important institution is 
 the college, under the control of the Catholics, connected with 
 which is a female academy, under management of the nuns, 
 and a botanical garden. A United States hospital for soldiers 
 is erected here. Georgetown being the only port in the District 
 of Columbia, is important as a commercial town. It is situated 
 at the head of navigation upon the Potomac, about one hundred 
 and twenty-five miles from its mouth. Its trade in flour is sup- 
 plied by fifty mills. It is one of the greatest markets in the 
 United States for shad and herring, of which vast quantities are 
 caught in the Potomac and brought here for barreling. 
 
 WASHINGTON, 
 
 The political metropolis of the United States, is located 
 between the Potomac and a tributary call East Branch. The 
 Potomac, at Washington, is about a mile in width, and of suffi- 
 cient depth for the largest ships. 
 
 The principal edifices are the Capitol, White house, Treasury 
 building, Patent office, Post office, and Smithsonian institute. 
 The first of these, in point of interest and architectural merit, is 
 
 15 
 
226 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 the Capitol, containing the supreme court room and halls of the 
 national legislature. This building comprises the centre capitol 
 and extensions. The corner stone of the centre building was 
 laid by Washington in 1792. The extension was commenced by 
 President Fillmore in 1851. The center capitol, built of free- 
 stone, painted white, is three hundred and fifty-two feet long by 
 one hundred and twenty-one deep. The extensions, of pure 
 white marble, are each two hundred and thirty-eight by one 
 hundred and forty feet, connected by corridors forty-four feet 
 long. The whole building is seven hundred and thirty-seven 
 feet long, and covers three and a half acres of ground. (See 
 views of the Capitol.) In the centre of the building is a rotunda 
 ninety-six feet in diameter, surmounted by a dome of iron, on 
 which rests Crawford's bronze statue of Liberty. The western 
 front commands the finest view to be had in Washington, over- 
 looking all the principal public buildings, and the central and 
 western portions of the city. Groups of statuary by Persico 
 and Greenough are on the eastern central portico. On the right 
 of the entrance to the rotunda are placed the statues of War and 
 Civilization ; on the left of the entrance are the statues of Peace, 
 and Columbus and the Indian girl. In the rotunda is a statue 
 of Lincoln, and many historical paintings, among which are the 
 baptism of Pocahontas, the landing of Columbus, the surrender 
 of Cornwallis, General Washington resigning his commission at 
 Annapolis, the surrender of Burgoyne, the embarkation of the 
 Pilgrims, and others. In the dome of the capitol is an allegori- 
 cal painting by Brumide. (See view of painting.) South of 
 the rotunda is the old hall of representatives, now used for stat- 
 uary, and as a passage way to the new hall. Above the south 
 door is placed a statue of Liberty, supported by an eagle with 
 spread wings. Over the north entrance is a statue regarded as 
 one of the gems of the capitol. It is a figure representing His- 
 tory recording the events of the nation. The senate chamber is 
 in the northern and the house of representatives in the southern 
 extension of the capitol. They are both constructed of iron, 
 ornamented alike, and differ only in size. The ceiling of the 
 senators' retiring room is of Italian and the sides of gold veined 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 227 
 
 Tennessee marble. This room is more costly and beautifully 
 ornamented than the others. (See views of retiring room.) 
 The grounds around the capitol comprise about twenty-five acres, 
 but they are soon to be increased to fifty acres. East of the 
 capitol is a statue of Washington, by Greenough. (See view of 
 statue.) In front of the capitol, between Maryland and Penn- 
 sylvania avenues, a botanical garden is being laid out, in which 
 is a large collection of plants, secured by the South Sea and 
 Japanese exploring expeditions. 
 
 The Presidential Mansion or White House, built of yellow 
 free-stone, painted white, is about one and a half miles from the 
 capitol, having been placed at this distance on Washington's 
 suggestion, that the executive and legislative departments ought 
 to be far enough apart to insure separate hours of business for 
 each. It is two stories high, and has a front of one hundred 
 and seventy feet by eighty-six deep. (See views of White House.) 
 In the north lawn is a statue of Jefferson, and in Lafayette 
 square, across Pennsylvania avenue, is an equestrian statue of 
 Jackson, by Clark Mills, and in the circle near Georgetown is a 
 statue of Washington by the same artist. (See views of statuary.)- 
 
 The Treasury building, an immense edifice six hundred feet 
 long and two hundred feet wide, is devoted to the state and trea- 
 sury departments. (See views of Treasury building.) In this 
 edifice are about five hundred rooms, in one of which is an im- 
 mense printing and engraving establishment. 
 
 West of the president's house are the Navy and War depart- 
 ments and Pension office. They are large, plain brick buildings. 
 The Postoffice, one of the finest structures in the city, is situated 
 north of Pennsylvania avenue, about half way between the capi- 
 tol and the president's house. It is built of white marble, two 
 hundred and four feet long and one hundred and two feet wide, 
 and contains upwards of two hundred rooms. 
 
 The Patent office occupies a whole square, and in structure, 
 extent and elegance is not surpassed by any other building in 
 the city except the capitol. (See views of Patent office.) Here 
 may be found models of every invention or machine that ha3 
 been patented. 
 
228 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 A colossal monument to Washington has been commenced in 
 the proposed new park, between the president's house and the 
 Capitol, to be erected by contributions of the people, the plan of 
 which is an obelisk of white marble, at the base fifty-five feet 
 square, diminishing to twenty-five feet square at the hight of 
 five hundred feet. This stands on a pedestal seventeen feet high 
 which is to be used as a receptacle for relics. A block of native 
 wood or stone is furnished by each state, which is to be inserted 
 at each landing of the inside staircase. East of the monument, 
 and about half way between that and the capitol, situated on an 
 eminence in the new park now being laid out, stands the Smith- 
 sonian institute. (See views of Smithsonian institute.) This 
 imposing edifice, four hundred and fifty feet long and one hun- 
 dred and forty feet deep, is built of red sandstone in the Norman 
 style. James Smithson, an Englishman, left to the United 
 States five hundred and fifteen thousand one hundred and ninety- 
 six dollars, " to found at Washington an establishment for the 
 increase and diffusion of knowledge among men." With a part 
 of this fund and the accumulated interest the Smithsonian insti- 
 tute was founded. In this buildingare a museum for objects of 
 natural history, and a gallery for painting and statuary. It has a 
 library of forty thousand volumes, and one of the best supplied 
 labratories in the United States. Works on ethnology and the 
 antiquities have been published by this institution. The officers 
 are the President, Vice President, Chief Justice of the United 
 States, members of the cabinet, Commissioners of the Patent 
 office, the Mayor of Washington, and a board of Regents, who 
 elect a secretary, chancellor and executive committee. 
 
 One of the most creditable institutions of the United States 
 is the National Observatory, lying in latitude 38° 53' 39" N., 
 and longitude 77° 2' 48" W. from Greenwich. It is itself a 
 meridian, and longitude is often reckoned from this city. The 
 observatory occupies a commanding site on the Potomac, south- 
 west of the white house. Astronomical observations are con- 
 stantly made here, and chronometers for the use of the navy are 
 tested. The largest telescope is a fourteen feet reflector, there 
 are also a number of smaller ones. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 229 
 
 The Arsenal is on Green! eaf point, at the junction of the east 
 branch with the Potomac. The navy-yard, on the east branch, 
 covering about twenty acres, enclosed by a wall, is about mid- 
 way between the arsenal and capitol. This yard, one of the 
 most extensive in the union, employs four hundred hands in 
 the manufacture of anchors, boilers, steam engines, chain cables, 
 in foundries, etc. 
 
 The government asylum for the insane of the District of Co- 
 lumbia, the army and the navy is situated on the opposite side 
 of the east branch from the navy. About one mile east of the 
 capitol is the congressional burying ground, where have been 
 deposited some of the most eminent men of the nation. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 Virginia, one of the original states of the American confed- 
 eracy, lies between latitude 36° 30', and 40° 38' N., and between 
 longitude 75° 10' and 83° 30' W. It is bounded on the north 
 by Ohio, Pennsylvania and Maryland ; on the east by Mary- 
 land and the Atlantic ocean ; on the south by North Carolina 
 and Tennessee, and on the west by Kentucky and Ohio. 
 
 The state was settled in 1607, and being the first of the Eng- 
 lish colonies, was styled the " Ancient Dominion." The out- 
 line is irregular, the surface varied, and the state probably 
 embraces a greater extent of mountainous territory than any 
 other east of the Rocky mountains. White top, its highest 
 elevation, is six thousand feet above the level of the sea. The 
 principal productions are tobacco, wheat and corn. The inhab- 
 itants of Virginia were the first civilized people that were exten- 
 sively engaged in raising tobacco. 
 
 Virginia possesses facilities, which, if properly improved, 
 would render it one of the first manufacturing states in the 
 union, but like the rest of the southern states, less attention is 
 paid to the manufactures, than to agriculture. 
 
 The level and coast regions are hot, and subject to droughts 
 during the summer. The mountainous part of the state has a 
 salubrious temperature, with warm days and cool nights. 
 
230 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 Virginia abounds in picturesque scenery. The most noted 
 places are the Mineral Springs, Wyer's and Madison's caves, 
 the Chimneys, the Natural bridge, Natural tunnel, Buffalo knob, 
 and Hawk's nest. The Natural bridge spans a chasm ninety 
 feet broad. The upper is two hundred and forty, and the under 
 side two hundred feet above the water. The roads leading to 
 the bridge, are, during wet weather, often impassable, and when 
 best, the difficulties encountered in reaching the bridge are so 
 great that they have been compared to purgatory. The bridge 
 is in the form of an arch, through which, flows Creek river. 
 Thirty feet from the bottom, and directly under the arch, are 
 carved the letters G. W. These are the initials of George 
 Washington, Avho, when a boy, scaled the rocks to this hight, 
 and left his name indelibly traced on its surface. (See views of 
 Natural bridge.) The Hawk's nest is a perpendicular cliff, one 
 thousand feet above New river, on which it is situated. Through 
 the Natural tunnel, passes a stream under an arch seventy feet 
 in elevation, covered with a bed of earth twice that thickness. 
 
 RICHMOND, 
 
 The largest city and capital of the state, is situated on the 
 James river. It has a population of 37,1)10. The city is built 
 on several eminences, two of which are Richmond and Shokoe 
 hills, separated by Shokoe creek. Main street is the principal 
 business part of the city. The capitol is on Shokoe hill. Its 
 size and elevated position render it the most conspicuous object 
 in the city. The public square, in the center of which the 
 capitol stands, embraces about eight acres. In it is a marble 
 statue of Washington, around the center base of which are the 
 statues of Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, and Mason. The 
 city hall, at an angle of Capitol square, is a handsome and 
 costly building, constructed in the Doric style. The peniten- 
 tiary has a front three hundred feet by one hundred and ten 
 deep. It stands in the suburbs of the city, near the river. 
 Richmond contains a court-house and jail, a new custom-house, 
 two market-houses, a theater, a masonic hall, an orphan asylum, 
 three banks, and about thirty churches. The public press issues 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 231 
 
 seventeen papers and periodicals, several of which are dailies. 
 Among the educational institutions, are Richmond college, St. 
 Vincent's college, Sydney college, the Virginia historical and 
 philosophical society, and the medical department of Ham den. 
 The city was founded in 1742, and became the capital of the 
 state in 1780. During the rebellion it was the capital of the 
 southern confederacy, and was taken by General Grant, of the 
 union army, on the 2d of April, 1865, after a long siege. (See 
 views of Richmond.) 
 
 NORFOLK, 
 
 Next to Richmond, the most populous city of Virginia, is 
 situated on the north bank of Elizabeth river. It is one of the 
 most important commercial and naval stations in the United 
 States. The city hall, a structure eighty by sixty feet, has a 
 granite front, and a cupola one hundred and ten feet high. 
 Other conspicuous buildings, are the Norfolk military academy, 
 the Mechanics' and Ashard halls. Norfolk has three banks, two 
 reading rooms, nine seminaries, an orphan asylum, a hospital, 
 fourteen churches, one of which has a steeple two hundred feet 
 high, and several printing offices. The town was laid out in 
 1705, burned by the British in 1776, and incorporated as a city 
 in 1845. 
 
 PETERSBURG, 
 
 A flourishing town of Virginia, is on the south bank of the 
 Appomattox river. It has a population of eighteen thousand 
 two hundred and sixty-six. The city is well built, and contains 
 three banks, one woollen and several cotton factories, eight 
 churches, and has three newspaper publications. It was taken 
 by the union army in April, 1865. 
 
 ALEXANDRIA, 
 
 The county seat of Alexandria county, is pleasantly located 
 on the west bank of the Potomac river. It has a court house, 
 three banks, several excellent schools, two printing offices, and 
 twelve churches. It is connected with Georgetown by means of 
 a canal, and with Washington and Gordonsville by railroad. 
 
232 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 MOUNT VERNON 
 
 Is about eight miles below Alexandria, on the Potomac. It 
 is noted for being the residence and burial, place of George Wash- 
 ington. (See views of Mount Vernon.) 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA. 
 
 West Virginia was admitted into the union as a state in 1862. 
 It comprises about a third of the old state of Virginia. It lies 
 between the Alleghany mountains and the Ohio and Big Sandy 
 rivers. This state was separated from Virginia during the war 
 of secession. Its climate, soil and productions resemble those 
 of Kentucky and Ohio. Coal, iron, salt and petroleum exist in 
 large quantities. 
 
 WHEELING, 
 
 The capital of West Virginia, is on the Ohio river, and on 
 both sides of Wheeling creek. The site of the city is about six 
 hundred and thirty feet above the level of the sea. In popula- 
 tion, manufactures and trade, it is the chief city of the state. 
 
 Wheeling has a population of 22,500, and contains a hand- 
 some court house, custom house, four banks, three academies, 
 nineteen churches, and publishes four or five newspapers. The 
 river is here crossed by a beautiful suspension bridge, measur- 
 ing in length one thousand and ten feet. The towers are sixty 
 feet above the abutments, and one hundred and fifty-three feet 
 above low water mark. The bridge is supported by four cable 
 wires, each eight inches in diameter, and one thousand three hun- 
 dred and eighty feet long. This bridge was constructed at a 
 cost of two hundred and ten thousand dollars. 
 
 Inexhaustible beds of coal are found in the immediate vicin- 
 ity of Wheeling, furnishing fuel at a small expense to its nume- 
 rous manufactories. 
 
 The other principal places of West Virgfnii are Charlestown, 
 Parkersburg, Point Pleasant, and Harper's Ferry. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 233 
 
 CHARLESTOWN, 
 
 A handsome post village and county seat of Kanawha coun- 
 ty, situated on the Kanawha river, is noted for its salt works. 
 Its population numbers one thousand five hundred and twenty. 
 Twice each year the district court of the United States is held 
 at this place. The river at Charlestown is three hundred yards 
 wide, and navigable for steamers at all seasons of the year. 
 
 PARKERSBURG, 
 
 The shire town of Wood county, is neatly built and pleasantly 
 situated on the Ohio, at the mouth of the Little Kanawha. It 
 has a population of six hundred, and contains a court house, 
 four or five churches, a printing office, two national banks, and 
 several steam mills. In the vicinity of Parkersburg, wells of 
 coal oil abound. 
 
 POINT PLEASANT, 
 
 The seat of justice of Mason county, has a population of five 
 hundred and nineteen, a court house, and several stores. 
 
 harper's ferry 
 
 Is at the junction of the Potomac and Shenandoah rivers, 
 where the united waters break through the Blue Ridge. The 
 scenery in this vicinity is beautiful and picturesque. Thomas 
 Jefferson thought the " passage through the Blue Ridge one of 
 the most stupendous scenes in nature, and well worth a voyage 
 across the Atlantic to witness." The original name of this 
 place was the Shenandoah Falls. (See views of Harper's Ferry.) 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 North Carolina, one of the thirteen original states, libs be- 
 tween latitude 33° 53' and 36° 33' N., and between longitude 
 75° 25' and 84° 30' W. It is bounded on the north by Vir- 
 ginia, on the east by the Atlantic ocean, on the south by the 
 Atlantic ocean and South Carolina, and on the west by Tennes- 
 see. The east and south-east portions of the state are marshy, 
 
234 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 level and sandy, and abound in numerous shallow lakes, partic- 
 ularly between the Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. The level 
 region extends about sixty miles from the coast. The center is 
 hilly, and the western part mountainous. Through this part of 
 the state pass several ridges of the Alleghany system, the high- 
 est peaks of which are, Clingman's peak, six thousand nine 
 hundred and forty-one feet ; Grandmother mountain, two thous- 
 and five hundred feet; Grandfather mountain, five thousand 
 seven hundred and eighty-eight feet ; Roan mountain, six thous- 
 and two hundred and seventy feet ; and Mt. Mitchell, the most 
 elevated peak east of the Rocky mountains, six thousand seven 
 hundred and thirty-two feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 The principal minerals of North Carolina are gold, copper, 
 iron, and coal. The state is traversed by a number of rivers, 
 but the rapids and floating sand-bars of which prevent their 
 being navigable for large vessels. The most important produc- 
 tions are cotton, rice, tobacco, wheat and corn. The chief 
 exports are lumber and naval stores. 
 
 Attempts were made by Sir Walter Raleigh to settle North 
 Carolina in 1585, but they were unsuccessful. The first perma- 
 nent settlements were on the banks of the Roanoke and Chowa- 
 ra. These were attacked, in 1711, by the Tuscaroras, Creeks, 
 and other Indians, who massacred one hundred and twelve set- 
 tlers. The united forces of the Carolinas killed three hundred 
 savages, and completely routed them. 
 
 North Carolina was the first to propose a separation from 
 Great Britain, and took an active part in the revolution. 
 
 WILMINGTON, 
 
 The commercial metropolis and principal city of the state, is 
 situated on the Cape Fear river. It has a population of nine 
 thousand five hundred and fifty-two. Its business and popula- 
 tion have greatly increased since the completion of the Wilming- 
 ton and Raleigh railroad. The city has been recently connec- 
 ted with Manchester, in South Carolina. Communications with 
 Charleston and Fayetteville, are kept up by means of steam- 
 boats. In 1819 a great portion of the city was consumed by 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 235 
 
 fire. Wilmington was captured from the rebels in February, 
 1865, by the union army and navy. Many steam engines are 
 employed in the manufactories, among which are saw, planing 
 and rice mills, and distilleries. The city contains three banks, 
 and publishes three newspapers. 
 
 FAYETTEVILLE, 
 
 The county seat of Cumberland county, is situated at the 
 head of natural navigation, on the Cape Fear river. The town 
 is symmetrically laid out, with streets one hundred feet wide. 
 It has a population of four thousand seven hundred and ninety. 
 The arsenal of construction at Fayetteville is a large establish- 
 ment, embracing about fifty acres. Beside the county buildings, 
 there are in this place three banks, and three printing offices. 
 The city was captured by the federal troops in March, 1865. 
 
 BEAUFORT, 
 
 A port of entry, and shire town of Carteret county, has a 
 population of one thousand six hundred and ten. It is situated 
 on the Newport river, near its mouth ; it is accessible by steam- 
 ers, and has the finest harbor in the state, the entrance to which 
 is defended by Fort Macon. Beaufort contains the county 
 buildings, a number of seminaries, and one or two churches. 
 
 NEWBERN, 
 
 At the confluence of the Neuse and Trent, was formerly the 
 capital of the state. The river at this point, is about a mile 
 wide, and navigable for steamers for about eight months of the 
 year. It is the capital of Craven county, and contains the 
 county buildings, a number of churches, a theater, two banks, 
 and several printing offices. 
 
 RALEIGH, 
 
 The capital of the state, occupying an elevated and healthy 
 situation, has a population of four thousand seven hundred and 
 eighty. The capitol, in the center of union square, which occu- 
 pies the center of the city, is one of the most handsome state- 
 houses in the union. It is one hundred and sixty-six feet long, 
 
236 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 ninety-six feet wide, and cost upwards of five hundred thousand 
 dollars. It is a granite structure, surmounted by a dome, and 
 surrounded by massive pillars of the same material as the build- 
 ing. In the city is an institution for the deaf and dumb, an 
 insane asylum, a court house, two banks, several churches, a 
 market house and two newspaper publications. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 South Carolina, one of the original states of the American 
 confederacy, lies between latitude 32° and 35° 10' N., and 
 between longitude 78° 35' and 83° 30' W. It is bounded on 
 the north by North Carolina, on the east by the Atlantic ocean, 
 on the south by the Atlantic ocean and Georgia, and on the west 
 by Georgia. 
 
 This state is next to Maryland, the smallest of the Southern 
 states, but in proportion to its size one of the most populous and 
 wealthy. It is often called the Palmetto state on account of the 
 abundance of Palmetto trees growing within its borders. 
 
 The principal minerals are gold, iron and lead. The chief 
 rivers are the Santee, formed by the confluence of the Wateree 
 and Congaree, the Great Pedee and Little Pedee. Table moun- 
 tain, one of the most interesting objects in the state, has a per- 
 pendicular elevation of eleven hundred feet above the surround- 
 ing country, and is a noted summer resort. At the foot of the 
 mountain is a hotel. Caesar's Head derives its name from its 
 resembling the human head in shape. Glenn's and Limestone 
 springs are watering places of considerable note. The climate 
 and productions of South Carolina resemble those of southern 
 Europe. There is more rice raised in this than any other state 
 in the union. Large quantities of cotton are raised on the 
 islands bordering on the coast of this state. 
 
 CHARLESTON, 
 The largest and principal city of South Carolina, has a popu- 
 lation of forty thousand five hundred and twenty-two. The 
 ground on which it is built lies between the Ashley and Cooper 
 rivers. The city is symmetrically built, is about two miles in 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 237 
 
 length and one and a half in breadth. The harbor of Charles- 
 ton is defended by Forts Pinckney, Johnson, Moultrie and Sum- 
 ter. The light house in this harbor is one hundred and twenty- 
 five and a half feet high. The foundation of the city was laid 
 in 1672, and was incorporated as a city in 1783. 
 
 Among the educational and literary institutions of the city are 
 the state medical college, Charleston college, the literary and 
 philosophical society, the apprentices' association, the mercan- 
 tile library association, the city library, a high school, and 
 several common schools. The city contains an orphan asylum, 
 an almshouse, several first class hotels, thirty churches, a thea- 
 tre, two banks, and several insurance offices. 
 
 Charleston is a great commercial city. The principal exports 
 are cotton and rice. It exports more rice than any other city 
 in the union, and the exportation of cotton is rivaled only by 
 Mobile and New Orleans. 
 
 COLUMBIA, 
 
 The capital of South Carolina, is situated at the head of nav- 
 igation on the Congaree river. It streets are one hundred feet 
 wide and bordered with ornamental trees. 
 
 The South Carolina college is a brick structure three stories 
 high and two hundred and fifteen feet long. The capitol has 
 a front one hundred and seventy feet by sixty deep. The city 
 contains, besides these, a court house, insane asylum, three 
 banks, a market house, a number of churches, a theological 
 school, several seminaries and printing offices. 
 
 GEORGETOWN, 
 
 A port of entry, is finely located on the west coast of Wingan 
 bay. A short distance above the site of the town is the conflu- 
 ence of the Great Pedce, Black, and Waccamau rivers, the 
 united waters of which render the position advantageous for 
 trade. It has a population of one thousand seven hundred and 
 twenty, and contains several churches and seminaries, a court 
 house, a bank, and publishes two newspapers. 
 
238 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 CAMDEN, 
 
 A flourishing town of south Carolina, situated at the head of 
 navigation on the Wateree river, has a population of one thous- 
 and six hundred and twenty-one. It is surrounded by a fertile 
 district, in which large quantities of cotton, corn and peaches 
 are grown. In the town are an academy, library, bank, an arse- 
 nal and cotton factory. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Georgia, one of the thirteen original states, extends between 
 latitude 30° 21' 39" and 35° N., and between longitude 81° and 
 85° 53' 38" W. It is bounded on the north by Tennessee and 
 North Carolina, on the east by South Carolina and the Atlantic 
 ocean, on the south by Florida, and on the west by Alabama. 
 Every variety of surface is represented in this state ; alluvial 
 lands, swamps, undulating, rough, hilly and mountainous terri- 
 tory. The principal rivers are, Savannah, by which the state 
 is separated from South Carolina ; Chattahoochee, forming part 
 of the boundary between Georgia and Alabama ; and the Alta- 
 maha, formed by the confluence of the Oconee and Ocmulgee. 
 Owing to the great diversity of soil and climate, the productions 
 are of a great variety, embracing all those common to New 
 England, Middle and Western states. The principal minerals 
 are gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, marble and precious stones. 
 Among the objects of interest to those who appreciate the beau- 
 tiful and picturesque in nature, may be mentioned the falls of 
 Tallulah, the stream in which they occur passing through cliffs 
 from two to three hundred feet high, the Toccaso, Amicolah, 
 Towaligo, Eastateah and Stochoa falls, Nicojack, Willson's and 
 Nix's caves, Track Rock, and Pilot mountains. 
 
 SAVANNAH, 
 
 The largest and most important commercial city of Georgia, 
 is situated on the south-west bank of the Savannah river. The 
 city is laid out regularly, the streets wide, unpaved, and shaded 
 with India trees. At every alternate corner there is a public 
 square, usually in a circular or ellipse form. In these squares, 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 239 
 
 also, are India trees growing. Broad and Bay streets have a 
 carriage way on each side, and a grassy promenade in the 
 middle. 
 
 The principal public buildings are Oglethorpe and St. An- 
 drew's halls, the court house, jail, state arsenal, artillery armory, 
 theatre, lyceum, city exchange, Chatham academy and custom 
 house. Savannah has sixteen churches, a Hebrew synagogue, 
 a historical society, several reading rooms, numerous private 
 schools, a library of six thousand volumes, five banks, an orphan 
 asylum, hospital, infirmary, a seamen's friend society, a Hiber- 
 nian society, a free school, and publishes five daily newspapers. 
 (See views of Savannah.) 
 
 AUGUSTA, 
 
 A flourishing city of Georgia and county seat of Richmond 
 county, at the head of navigation on Savannah river, has a pop- 
 ulation of twelve thousand four hundred and ninety-three. 
 
 Among the important buildings are Richmond academy, a 
 medical college, the city hall, a hospital, arsenal, six banks, five 
 newspaper offices and fourteen churches. A bridge crossing the 
 river at this point connects Augusta with Hamburg, South 
 Carolina. 
 
 COLUMBUS, 
 
 A handsome city of Georgia and capital of Muscogee county, 
 is on the east bank of the Chattahoochee river. The city is laid 
 out in oblong blocks, in each of which there are eight square 
 lots. The city extends a mile and a half along the river with a 
 breadth of half a mile. It has a population of nine thousand 
 six hundred and twenty one, a court house, an orphan asylum, 
 several churches, excellent schools, and about one hundred and 
 fifty stores. 
 
 MILLEDGEVILLE, 
 
 The capital of Georgia, situated on the Oconee river, has a 
 population of two thousand four hundred and eighty. The city 
 contains a fine gothic state house, a penitentiary, a state arsenal, 
 a bank, an academy, five churches, and publishes five newspapers. 
 
240 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 ATLANTA 
 
 Is about seven miles from the Chattahoochee river, on a line 
 of railroad leading from Savannah to Chattanooga and Nash- 
 ville, Tennessee. It was laid out in 1845, since which time it 
 has increased in population and wealth until it is now one of the 
 most important cities in northern Georgia, and has a population 
 of nine thousand five hundred and fifty four. It was recaptured 
 from the rebels in September, 1864, by General Sherman. 
 
 FLORIDA. 
 
 Florida, the most southern state in the union, extends between 
 latitude 25° and 31° K, and between longitude 80° and 87° 
 44' W. It is bounded on the north by Georgia and Alabama, 
 on the east and south by the Atlantic ocean, and on the west by 
 the Gulf of Mexico and Alabama. 
 
 The surface is generally level, no portion being more than 
 three hundred feet above the level of the sea. The southern 
 part, called the everglades, is covered with water. This tract is 
 about one hundred and sixty miles long, by sixty broad. This 
 state has a greater extent of seacoast than any other in the 
 union. The principal rivers are the Appalachicola, Suwanee, 
 and St. Johns. About twelve miles from Tallahassee, a beautiful 
 lake is formed by a spring bursting from a vast depth. The 
 lake is remarkably transparent, and the water nearly as cold as 
 ice during the hottest weather. Some of these springs in which 
 the state abounds, have sufficient force to turn a mill. 
 
 PENSACOLA, 
 
 The county seat of Escambia county, is situated on the Pen- 
 sacola bay. The harbor of Pensacola is one of the safest in the 
 Gulf of Mexico, and is strongly fortified. It has a population 
 of two thousand eight hundred and seventy-six, and contains a 
 market-house, custom-house, several churches, three newspaper 
 offices, a United States naval station, and a marine hospital. 
 
 KEY WEST, 
 
 On Key West island, is the most populous city in the state. 
 It was first settled in 1822. It now has a population of two 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 241 
 
 thousand eight hundred and thirty-two. Its harbor is defended 
 by Fort Taylor. It has no regular communication with the 
 main land, except by steamers which enter its harbor once a 
 week from Charleston and Savannah. About thirty thousand 
 bushels of salt are made annually by solar evaporation. 
 
 ST. AUGUSTINE, 
 
 County seat of St. John's county, is situated in the eastern 
 part of the state, on the Atlantic ocean. It is one of the largest 
 places in the state and is the oldest city in the union. It was 
 founded in 1565 by the Spaniards, and is built on a plain only a 
 few feet above the level of the sea. The streets are narrow, 
 most of the houses two stories, the upper of which projects over 
 the street. The harbor is defended by Fort Marion, which is 
 more than a hundred years old. It was erected by the Span- 
 iards, and formerly called the Castle of St. Marcus. 
 
 The climate is mild, and the date-palm, the orange, olive and 
 lemon thrive in this locality. In the town are about five hun- 
 dred dwellings, one thousand nine hundred and fourteen inhabi- 
 tants, a United States land office, court house, a newspaper office, 
 three Protestant churches, and a Roman Catholic cathedral, the 
 oldest in America, supposed to be three hundred years old. 
 (See views of St. Augustine.) 
 
 ALABAMA. 
 
 Alabama extends between latitude 30° 10" and 35° N., and 
 between longitude 85° and 88° 30' west. It is bounded on the 
 north by Tennessee, on the east by Georgia, on the south by 
 Florida and the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west by Mississippi. 
 
 The Alleghany mountains terminate in the northern part of 
 this state. The centre is rough and hilly. The region along 
 the coast is level. The principal minerals are coal, iron, lead, 
 marble and limestone. The most important rivers are the Mo- 
 bile, Alabama, Tombigbee and Tennessee, all of which are navi- 
 gable for steamboats to some extent. 
 
 The climate and productions of Alabama closely resemble 
 those of the tropical regions. It is one of the leading cotton 
 
 16 
 
242 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 growing states. The other principal productions are corn, sweet 
 potatoes, rice and lumber. The state formerly belonged to 
 Georgia, and with it was included in the Mississippi territory. It 
 was admitted into the union as a state in 1819. 
 
 MOBILE, 
 
 The largest and most populous city of Alabama, is situated 
 on Mobile river, just above its entrance into the bay of the same 
 name. Mobile is second only to New Orleans in the exporta- 
 tion of cotton. It exports, besides the productions of Alabama, 
 a large portion of those of Mississippi. The streets of the city 
 are wide and ornamented with shade trees. Mobile contains 
 Spring Hill college, a marine hospital, two orphan asylums, a 
 theatre and several newspaper offices, banks, churches and acade- 
 mies. A custom house is being constructed at a cost of three 
 hundred thousand dollars. It has a population of twenty-nine 
 thousand two hundred and fifty-eight. 
 
 MONTGOMERY, 
 
 A flourishing city and capital of Alabama, is situated on the 
 Alabama river. It possesses greater facilities for communica- 
 tion with the surrounding country than any other city of the 
 southern states. The waters of the Alabama never freeze, and 
 are navigable for large steamboats all seasons of the year. The 
 capital was removed from Tuscaloosa to this place in 1847. The 
 city has a population of eight thousand eight hundred and forty- 
 three, and contains beside the state buildings a bank and several 
 newspaper offices. 
 
 TUSCALOOSA, 
 
 A flourishing town, situated on the Black Warrior river, was 
 formerly the capital of Alabama. It is one of the principal 
 towns of the state, and is noted for its active trade and literary 
 institutions. It contains the state university, the buildings of 
 which are pleasantly located about a half a mile from the river, 
 and cost about one hundred and fifty thousand dollars, the 
 state lunatic asylum, United States land office, a number of 
 churches and newspaper offices, and several academies. It has 
 a population of three thousand nine hundred and eighty-nine. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 243 
 
 HUNSTVILLE, 
 A beautiful and thriving town, county seat of Madison county, 
 Alabama, is on the Memphis and Charleston railroad. The court 
 house, a handsome brick building, cost upwards of forty-five 
 thousand dollars. The town has a population of three thousand 
 six hundred and eighty-four, and contains a bank, United States 
 land office, several churches, two female seminaries, one of which 
 cost twenty thousand dollars, and publishes three newspapers. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 Mississippi, the ninth in order of the southern states, extends 
 between latitude 30° 20' and 35° N., and between longitude 
 88° 12' and 91° 40' W. It is bounded on the north by Tennes- 
 see, on the east by Alabama, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico 
 and Louisiana, and on the west by Louisiana and Arkansas. 
 
 To this state belong a number of islands in the gulf, the prin- 
 cipal of which are Ship, Deer and Horn islands. Though there 
 are eighty-eight miles of sea coast, the state affords no good 
 harbors. The eastern and central parts of the state are elevated 
 table lands, descending toward the Mississippi river. The north- 
 ern and southern portions are undulating and rolling. The 
 principal rivers are the Mississippi, which forms the boundary 
 between this state and Arkansas and a part of Louisiana, the 
 Pearl, Black, Yazoo, and the Pascagoula. The chief produc- 
 tions are cotton, Indian corn, rice, sweet potatoes, sugar, peaches, 
 figs and oranges. 
 
 Mississippi was admitted into the union as a state in 1817, 
 from which it seceded in 1861, and joined the confederate states. 
 
 The principal cities are Natchez, Vicksburg, Jackson and 
 Columbus. 
 
 NATCHEZ, 
 
 The largest and most important city of the state, is built on a 
 bluff a hundred and fifty feet high which forms the bank of the 
 river. The city derived its name from a noted tribe of Indians 
 who peopled this part of the country. Natchez has thirteen 
 thousand five hundred and fifty-three inhabitants, and elegant 
 
244 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 mansions, to some of which are attached orange groves. The 
 city contains eight churches, a court house, jail, United States 
 marine hospital, orphan asylum, masonic hall, two daily papers, 
 numerous seminaries and flourishing public schools. It was 
 settled by the French in 1716, and burned by the Indians in 1729. 
 
 JACKSON, 
 
 A thriving town and capital of Mississippi, is situated on the 
 Pearl river. The town is built upon a plain, and symmetrically 
 laid out. It has a population of three thousand one hundred 
 and ninety-nine, and contains the state lunatic asylum, a United 
 States land office, several churches, the executive mansion and 
 a fine state house, constructed at a cost of more than half a 
 million of dollars. 
 
 VICKSBURG, 
 
 The capital of Warren county, is located on the Mississippi 
 river, and is of more commercial importance than any other city 
 between Natchez and Memphis. There are four thousand five 
 hundred and ninety-one inhabitants. It contains the county 
 buildings, several academies and five churches. It was captured 
 from the rebels by General Grant, after a long and obstinate 
 defense, on the 4th of July, 1863. 
 
 COLUMBUS, 
 
 A flourishing post-town and county seat of Lowndes county, 
 is on the Tombigbee river. It has a population of three thou- 
 sand three hundred and eight. It contains the county buildings, 
 a United States land office, newspaper office and several churches. 
 
 LOUISIANA. 
 
 Louisiana, one of the southern states, extends between lati- 
 tude 29° and 33° N., and between longitude 88° 50' and 94° 
 20' W. It is bounded on the north by Arkansas, on the east by 
 Mississippi, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico, and on the west 
 by Texas. A large part of the state is below high water level, 
 .and is protected from inundations by dykes, called levees. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 245 
 
 The staple productions are cotton and sugar cane, and of the 
 latter Louisiana produces about nine-tenths of the whole amount 
 raised in the union. Tobacco, rice, oranges, figs, peaches and 
 bananas are also raised in large quantities. 
 
 The natural advantages for internal commerce which this state 
 possesses are not rivaled by any other state or country on the 
 globe. Steamers run from the Gulf of Mexico to the falls of St. 
 Anthony on the Mississippi, to the foot of the Rocky mountains 
 on the Missouri, and to the eastward on the Ohio, Cumberland, 
 and Tennessee, carrying to her the production of fourteen states. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Mississippi, Red, and Washita. 
 The Mississippi, the largest river of North America and the 
 longest in the world, takes its rise in the northern part of Min- 
 nesota, in Itasca lake, flows in a south-easterly course and 
 empties into the Gulf of Mexico. It is two thousand nine hun- 
 dred and eighty-six miles in length. It is navigable for large 
 steamers to the falls of St. Anthony, a distance of two thousand 
 two hundred miles. This river separates Iowa, Missouri, Ar- 
 kansas, and a part of Minnesota and Louisiana on the west from 
 Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and the greater part of Wiscon- 
 sin and Mississippi on the east. The delta of the Mississippi has 
 formed most of the lower part of Louisiana, and has advanced 
 several leagues since the city of New Orleans has been built. 
 The delta is a hundred and fifty miles wide, and contains an area 
 of fourteen thousand square miles. 
 
 The chief cities are New Orleans, Baton Rouge, and Natch- 
 itoches. 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, 
 
 The great commercial metropolis of the south-west, is called 
 the Crescent city from its location on a bend of the Mississippi. 
 It exports more cotton than any other city in the world, and not 
 only the productions of Louisiana, but a considerable part of 
 those of the Mississippi valley. The population of the city num- 
 bers one hundred and sixty-eight thousand eight hundred and 
 twenty-three. The public buildings of New Orleans are among 
 the best and most extensive in the United States. The United 
 
246 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 States custom house is exceeded in size by no building in the 
 United States except the national capitol. The United States 
 branch mint is a massive structure two hundred and eighty-two 
 feet long and one hundred and eight feet wide and three stories 
 high. The Municipal hall is an elegant structure in the Grecian 
 style of architecture. Among other remarkable public buildings 
 are the Odd Fellows' hall, Merchants' exchange, the Charity 
 hospital, United States naval hospital, a Medical college, and 
 numerous schools. The city also contains about forty churches 
 and three Jewish synagogues. 
 
 On account of the marshy nature of the soil on which the city 
 is built, there are no cellars under the houses, and no excava- 
 tions for the interment of the dead can be made, and they are 
 deposited in tombs or ovens above ground. 
 
 New Orleans was settled in 1717 by the French, and named 
 in honor of the Duke of Orleans, regent of France during the 
 minority of Louis XV. 
 
 BATON ROUGE, 
 
 The capital of Louisiana, is situated on the Mississippi, about 
 one hundred and thirty miles above New Orleans. The site of 
 the city is a bluff elevated about twenty-five feet above high 
 water mark, and one of the healthiest towns in the southern 
 portion of the Mississippi valley. Baton Rouge became the cap- 
 ital of the state in 1847, since which time the population and 
 value of property has increased and business become more active. 
 The population of the city numbers five thousand four hundred 
 and twenty-eight. 
 
 TEXAS. 
 
 Texas, the largest state in the union, and the most south- 
 western of the southern states, formerly belonged to Mexico. 
 It extends between latitude 25° 50' and 36° 30' N., and between 
 longitude 93° 30' and 107° W. It is bounded on the north by 
 Kansas and the Indian territory, on the east by Arkansas and 
 Louisiana, on the south by the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico, and 
 on the west by Mexico and New Mexico. 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 247 
 
 This state embraces every variety of surface, mountains, val- 
 leys, hills, plains, table lands and deserts. Only about one half 
 of the state is settled. The western part is occupied by the In- 
 dians, and large herds of buffalo and wild horses roam over the 
 unsettled regions. Texas abounds in minerals, and being so 
 near the rich silver mines of Mexico and New Mexico may yet, 
 possibly, yield rich supplies of this metal. 
 
 The staple productions are cotton, corn, sugar, tobacco and 
 rice. Oranges, lemons, and other tropical fruits are grown with 
 much success in this state. Camels were at one time introduced 
 into this state for the purpose of traveling across the desert 
 between Texas and the Pacific ocean. 
 
 The towns of Texas are not large. Austin is the capital and 
 Galveston and Houston are the most important towns. San 
 Antonio is the oldest in the state. 
 
 AUSTIN, 
 
 The capital of Texas and county seat of Travis county, is 
 situated on the Colorado river. It has a population of three 
 thousand four hundred and ninety-six, and contains besides the 
 county and state buildings, several stores and printing offices. 
 It became the capital in 1844. 
 
 GALVESTON, 
 
 The most populous and principal commercial town of Texas 
 and capital of Galveston county, is pleasantly located on an 
 island of the same name. It has the best harbor in the state, 
 and one of the best on the Gulf of Mexico, carries on an active 
 trade and contains a town hall, several large hotels, eight 
 churches, a fine market house, and publishes several newspapers. 
 It has a population of seven thousand three hundred and seven, 
 and was first settled in 1837. 
 
 HOUSTON, 
 
 Shire town of Harris county, situated on Buffalo bayou, has a 
 population of four thousand eight hundred and forty-five. It is 
 the second town in commercial importance in the state, and the 
 principal shipping port for an extensive and very fertile section 
 
248 THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 
 of country. The city was at one time the capital of Texas. It 
 contains a machine shop, an iron foundry, a hat factory and 
 several newspaper offices. 
 
 SAN ANTONIO, 
 
 A flourishing post town of Bexar county, on the San Antonio 
 river, has a population of eight thousand two hundred and thirty- 
 five. It is a wealthy town, and contains many elegant residences, 
 a United States arsenal, several churches and seminaries, and 
 publishes two newspapers. 
 
 In this town is the Alamo fortress, renowned in the history of 
 the state, where a band of Texans defended themselves for two 
 weeks against a Mexican force of four thousand strong. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 OHIO. 
 
 The first white settlement in Ohio was made April 7th, 1788, 
 by a company from New England. In 1781 a territorial gov- 
 ernment was established over this region, called the territory 
 north-west of the Ohio river, from which, in 1802, the present 
 state of Ohio was separated. 
 
 The surface of the state, though not mountainous, is elevated 
 in some places ten thousand feet above the level of the sea, and 
 in other portions from six hundred to eight hundred feet. The 
 northern part of the state is drained by Lake Erie, the southern 
 by the Ohio river. The tributaries of the Ohio are much larger 
 than those of Lake Erie. The Ohio river forms the entire 
 southern boundary of the state, giving it access to the commerce 
 of the great Mississippi valley. Its principal tributaries in Ohio 
 are the Muskingum, Scioto, and Miami. These rivers vary in 
 length from one hundred and ten to two hundred miles. The 
 chief rivers of the northern slope are the Maumee, the Sandusky, 
 Huron and Cuyahoga. Lake Erie forms the northern and north- 
 eastern boundary of the state for about one hundred and fifty 
 miles. At the west end of the lake are the Maumee and San- 
 dusky bays, besides several small islands belonging to the state. 
 
 Large stones, called boulders, are found on the plains of Ohio, 
 and of several of the western states. These boulders are some- 
 times very large ; they differ in character from the rocks of the 
 surrounding country, and have evidently been brought from a 
 distance. They appear to have been transported from their 
 original resting place by the icebergs of an early sea, and dropped 
 at random as the ice melted. 
 
250 THE "WESTERN STATES. 
 
 At Bryan, in Williams county, there is a natural fountain, 
 supposed to proceed from a subterranean lake. The supply is 
 never affected by droughts or rain, and small fish are sometimes 
 thrown up. The celebrated white sulphur fountain is situated 
 on the Scioto, eighteen miles above Columbus. It rises from 
 the bed of the Scioto through solid rock. It was first discovered 
 in 1820, while boring for salt water. The operators had pierced 
 a hole about two and one half inches in diameter, through about 
 ninety feet of solid rock, when the auger suddenly fell two feet, 
 and there gushed up with great force a stream of strong white 
 sulphur water. The water, which is pure, is supposed to be 
 forced up by its own gas. It leaves on the ground, near the 
 spring, a heavy white deposit. 
 
 " The source of Cold creek is a beautiful and curious flooding 
 spring, rising from a level prairie at the village of Castalia. 
 This spring is about two hundred feet in diameter, and sixty feet 
 deep. The water is so pure that the smallest particle can be 
 seen at the bottom, and when the sun is in the meridian, all the 
 objects at the bottom, logs, stumps, etc., reflect the hues of the 
 rainbow, forming a view of great beauty. The constituents of 
 the water are lime, soda, magnesia, and iron, and it petrifies all 
 objects, such as grass, stumps, bushes, moss, etc., with which it 
 comes in contact. The stream courses about three miles through 
 the prairie, and empties into Lake Erie. The water is very cold, 
 but never freezes, and at its point of entrance into the lake, 
 prevents the formation of ice. Upon it are the well known Cas- 
 talia and Cold creek mills, the water wheels of which are imper- 
 ishable from decay, in consequence of their being incrusted by 
 petrifaction." 
 
 The climate in the southern part of the state is mild. The 
 summers are warm and regular, but subject at times to severe 
 drought. In the northern part of the state the winters are 
 probably as severe as in the same latitude on the Atlantic coast. 
 
 In agricultural products Ohio stands among the first. The 
 soil is fertile, especially on the river bottoms. Coal is abundant ; 
 it is found in twenty counties in the state. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 251 
 
 COLUMBUS, 
 The capital of Ohio, is situated on the east bank of the Scioto 
 river, ninety miles from its mouth. The surrounding country is 
 rich and populous. The site of Columbus is level ; the streets 
 are wide and laid out with great neatness and regularity. It 
 has many elegant public buildings, among which are a new state 
 house, the Ohio lunatic asylum, the institution for the blind, the 
 asylum for the deaf and dumb, and the Ohio penitentiary. The 
 city was laid out in 1812, and incorporated in 1816. Its popu- 
 lation in 1860 numbered eighteen thousand five hundred and 
 fifty-four. The other important places are Cincinnati, Cleve- 
 land, Dayton, Toledo, Zanesville, Sandusky, Chillicothe, Hamil- 
 ton, and Springfield. 
 
 CINCINNATI, 
 
 Called the Queen of the West, is the largest city in the state. 
 It is situated on the right bank of the Ohio river, one hundred 
 and twenty miles south-west of Columbus. It is situated near 
 the eastern extremity of a valley, about three miles in diameter, 
 surrounded by beautiful hills, some of which rise about four 
 hundred feet above the river. A lovely view of the city and 
 valley is obtained from the summit of these hills. 
 
 Cincinnati is remarkable for its rapid growth. It was first 
 settled in 1788. It seems to have been originally laid out with 
 great regularity. A large proportion of the entire valley is 
 already built up, and the central and business portion is com- 
 pactly and finely built with large warehouses, stores and handsome 
 dwellings ; but the outer portion is but partially built up, the 
 streets being irregular and the houses scattered. The streets are 
 wide, with sidewalks paved with brick and stone, and many of 
 them lined with shade trees. The city contains one hundred 
 and five churches, five colleges, three of which are medical, 
 eighteen common schools, two intermediate, and three high 
 schools. The charity institutions of the city are highly respect- 
 able. Under its control and support, are a house of refuge, an 
 infirmary, a dispensary, and a lunatic asylum. Its population 
 in 1864, was about one hundred and eighty-six thousand. 
 
252 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 CLEVELAND 
 
 Is situated on the southern shore of Lake Erie, at the mouth 
 of the Cuyahoga river, one hundred and thirty miles north-east 
 of Columbus, and two hundred and fifty-five miles from Cincin- 
 nati. It is one of the most beautiful towns in the union. Near- 
 ly all of the city is situated on a gravelly plain, elevated about 
 one hundred feet above the lake, of which it has a most com- 
 manding prospect. A public square of about ten acres occupies 
 the center of the town. The court-house and one or two 
 churches front on this square. In the center stands the statue 
 of Commodore Perry, the hero of the battle of Lake Erie. It 
 is the largest marble statue in the United States, and was erect- 
 ed by the citizens at a cost of eight thousand dollars. 
 
 The public schools of Cleveland rank among the first in the 
 country. It has twenty primary schools, twenty secondary, 
 twenty- three intermediate, nine grammar, and two high schools. 
 The high schools are handsome edifices of stone and brick. The 
 course of study prescribed fits the graduate to enter college 
 without further preparation. 
 
 Cleveland was settled in 1796, and incorporated in 1836. In 
 1860 the population was forty-three thousand four hundred and 
 seventeen. Since 1862, the population has rapidly increased, 
 and in 1865, it was not less than sixty thousand. 
 
 DAYTON 
 
 Is situated on the east bank of the great Miami river, at the 
 mouth of Mad river, sixty-seven miles west of Columbus, and 
 fifty-two miles from Cincinnati. The town is laid out with 
 streets one hundred feet wide, crossing each other at right angles. 
 The public buildings are fine, and the city also contains many 
 elegant private residences. The court-house, which cost the city 
 one hundred and seventy thousand dollars, is one of the finest 
 in the western states. The abundant water power which Dayton 
 possesses, is one of the chief elements of its prosperity. It is 
 extensively engaged in manufactures. In 1866 its population 
 was about thirty thousand. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 253 
 
 TOLEDO 
 
 Is situated at the western extremity of Lake Erie, on an ele- 
 vated plain on the left bank of the Maumee river, about four 
 miles from its mouth, one hundred and thirty-four miles north- 
 west of Columbus, and one hundred and twelve miles west of 
 Cleveland. At this point the river expands into a broad and 
 beautiful harbor, affording accommodations for the largest vessels 
 and steamers. The city stretches along the river for more than 
 a mile, and has two points at which business centres, called the 
 upper and lower landing. It was originally two distinct settle- 
 ments. At these two points the stores, warehouses and dwell- 
 ings are thickly crowded together, but between them it is rather 
 thinly settled. It was incorporated as a city in 1836. The 
 population in 1865 was between eighteen and twenty thousand. 
 
 ZANESVILLE 
 
 Is situated on the east bank, in a bend of the Muskingum 
 river, about sixty-five miles above its mouth, and fifty-four miles 
 east of Columbus. " The river seems once to have run nearly 
 in a right line, from which, however, it has gradually diverged 
 to the westward, forming a horse-shoe curve, and depositing, 
 through successive centuries, an alluvium of gravel, sand, etc., 
 of great depth, on which Zanesville now stands." In sweeping 
 around this curve, through the space of about one and three- 
 fourths miles, the river falls eight or ten feet, and, by the aid of 
 a dam, a fall of between sixteen and seventeen feet is obtained, 
 thus furnishing very extensive water-power. Steamboats ascend 
 from the Ohio to this point, and several of them make regular 
 passages between Zanesville and Cincinnati. The plan of the 
 town is regular, the streets are wide and adorned by many fine 
 buildings. The city contains fourteen churches, and a number 
 of well organized public schools. It was laid out in 1799. The 
 seat of state government was removed from Chillicothe to this 
 place in 1810, and about two years later transferred to Colum- 
 bus. In 1860, the population was nine thousand two hundred 
 and twenty-nine. 
 
254 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 SANDUSKY 
 
 Is situated on Sandusky bay, about one hundred and five 
 miles from Columbus, and sixty from Cleveland. The bay is 
 about twenty miles long and five or six miles wide, with an aver- 
 age depth of twelve feet, forming an excellent harbor, large 
 enough to admit with safety vessels of all sizes, during the se- 
 verest storms. The situation of the city is pleasant, rising 
 gradually from the bay, and commanding a fine view of the 
 harbor, thronged with steamboats and other vessels, taking in 
 and discharging cargoes. The city is built upon an inexhaust- 
 ible bed of the finest limestone, which is not only used for 
 building purposes, but forms an important article of export. 
 Sandusky contains many elegant churches, dwellings and ware- 
 houses. It was laid out in 1817, under the name of Portland. 
 In 1865, it had about fourteen thousand inhabitants. 
 
 CHILLICOTHE 
 
 Is situated on the west bank of the Scioto, forty-five miles 
 south of Columbus, and ninety-three miles from Cincinnati. 
 The site of the city is remarkably beautiful, on a plain elevated 
 about thirty feet above the river. The Scioto winds gracefully 
 around the north of this plain, and Paint creek flows on the 
 south. It is enclosed by verdant and cultivated hills, which 
 attain an altitude of about five hundred feet, forming the back- 
 ground of a landscape which can scarcely be surpassed in the 
 western states. The plan of the town is regular ; the streets 
 are wide, and adorned by many handsome buildings. It was 
 founded in 1796. In 1860 the population was seven thousand 
 six hundred and twenty-six. 
 
 HAMILTON 
 
 Is situated on both sides of the Miami, twenty-two miles north 
 of Cincinnati, and ninety miles south-west of Columbus. It is 
 neatly built, and has an elegant public square, on which stand 
 the county buildings. It was incorporated in 1853. Previous 
 to that time it included only the portion on the east side of the 
 river, that on the west being called Rossville. The population 
 is about seven thousand nine hundred and twenty-three. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 255 
 
 SPRINGFIELD 
 
 Is situated at the confluence of Mad river with Lagonda 
 creek, forty-three miles west of Columbus, and eighty-four miles 
 north-east of Cincinnati. It is considered, by many, the most 
 beautiful town in Ohio. It is surrounded by a handsome and 
 fertile country, and is noted for the morality and intelligence of 
 its inhabitants. 
 
 INDIANA. 
 
 Indiana was settled by the French in the early part of the 
 eighteenth century. Like other French settlements its popula- 
 tion did not increase very rapidly until the arrival of the Amer- 
 icans. The settlements remained without much accession to 
 their numbers for some time after the close of the American 
 revolution. In 1800, that portion of the United States which 
 now comprises the states of Indiana and Illinois became a terri- 
 torial government, and in 1816 Indiana became an independent 
 member of the confederacy. In 1811 the American settlements 
 were attacked by the Shawnee tribe, who committed great depre- 
 dations. The Indians, it is said, were incited by the British, who 
 furnished them with arms. General Harrison was sent against 
 them, and routed them completely at Tippecanoe, but with the 
 loss of two hundred of his own men. 
 
 Indiana has no mountains or great elevations, but portions 
 south of the White river are somewhat hilly and rugged. Nearly 
 all of the streams empty into the Ohio, showing a general incli- 
 nation of the surface in that direction. Most of the rivers have 
 rich alluvial bottoms of a few miles in width. The northern 
 part of the state is heavily timbered. Bordering on Lake Mich- 
 igan are some sand hills about two hundred feet in hight, behind 
 which is a region covered with pine. 
 
 The climate of Indiana is somewhat milder than on the Atlan- 
 tic coast, but subject to sudden changes. The soil is generally 
 good, and much of it, especially on the river bottoms, very fer- 
 tile. The country between the rivers is somewhat elevated, and 
 the soil, though good, is not quite as fertile as on the river 
 bottoms. 
 
256 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 Indiana has no foreign commerce, but Lake Michigan, bor- 
 dering on the north-western part of the state for about forty 
 miles, opens to it the trade of the great lakes, while the Ohio, 
 which forms the entire southern boundary of the state, gives it 
 access to the commerce of the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. 
 
 Wyandotte cave, in Crawford county, is said to rival in extent 
 and interest the celebrated Mammoth cave of Kentucky. In the 
 year 1850, new chambers and galleries were discovered, abound- 
 ing in stalactites and other calcareous concretions of great size 
 and splendor. Previous to that time it had only been explored 
 for about three miles. Epsom Salts cave is also quite celebrated. 
 It is situated in the side of a hill four hundred feet high. The 
 earth of the floor yields epsom salts, nitre, aluminous earth, and 
 gypsum. 
 
 INDIANAPOLIS, 
 
 The largest city, and capital of the state, is situated on the 
 west fork of White river, near the center of the state, one hun- 
 dred and nine miles north-west of Cincinnati. When this place 
 was selected for the capital of Indiana in 1820, the whole country 
 for forty miles in every direction, was covered with a dense forest. 
 In 1825, the seat of government was permanently established 
 at this place. It is a regularly built and beautiful city, with a 
 handsome state-house, court-house, jail, and state asylums for the 
 blind, deaf and dumb, and insane. The lunatic hospital was 
 established in 1848, and, in 1862 had two hundred and ninety- 
 eight patients. 
 
 New Albany, Evansville, Fort Wayne, Lafayette, Terre 
 Haute, Madison, Richmond, Laporte, Jeffersonville and Logans- 
 port, are also important places. 
 
 NEW ALBANY 
 
 Is situated on the right bank of the Ohio river, five miles 
 below Louisville, and one hundred and thirty-six miles below 
 Cincinnati. It is actively engaged in commerce. More steam- 
 boats are built at this place than any other town on the Ohio 
 river. In the year 1864, twenty-six steamboats were launched. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 257 
 
 The city is remarkable for its rapid growth. It was laid out 
 in 1813. It now has eighteen churches, a collegiate institute, 
 a Presbyterian theological seminary, four banks, and five large 
 public school houses. Its population in 1865 numbered about 
 eighteen thousand. 
 
 EVANSVILLE 
 
 Is situated on a high bank on the Ohio river, about two hun- 
 dred miles below Louisville. The course of the river is here so 
 winding that Evansville is not far from the center of the county. 
 It is the principal shipping port for the grain and pork of south- 
 western Indiana. The navigation of the Ohio is seldom obstructed 
 either by drought or ice below this place. 
 
 Evansville contains about thirty churches, a fine court house, 
 five banks, one theatre, and four public halls. Its population 
 numbers about eleven thousand five hundred. 
 
 FORT WAYNE 
 
 Is situated at the confluence of the St. Joseph's and St. Mary's 
 rivers, which form the Maumee, and on the Wabash and Erie 
 canal, one hundred and twelve miles north-east of Indianapolis. 
 It is a town of rapid growth, and one of the most important in 
 the state. The surrounding region is highly productive, and a 
 large portion of the land is under cultivation. The site of the 
 town is that of the old Twightwee village of the Miami tribe. 
 Fort Wayne was erected by order of General Wayne, in 1794, 
 and continued to be a military post until 1819. Its present 
 population is about twenty thousand. 
 
 LAFAYETTE 
 
 Is pleasantly situated on a gradually rising ground on the left 
 bank of the Wabash river, sixty-six miles north-west of Indian- 
 apolis. Its situation affords a delightful view of the river and 
 of the neighboring hills. It is a place of active trade, and one of 
 the principal grain markets in the state. It contains a large and 
 handsome court house which cost twenty thousand dollars, thir- 
 teen churches, some of which are large and handsome buildings, 
 four banks, two of which are national, two academies and four 
 
 17 
 
258 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 public schools, one of which is a fine structure, having recently 
 been completed at a cost of about twenty thousand dollars. Its 
 population in 1860 numbered nine thousand three hundred and 
 eighty-seven. 
 
 TERRE HAUTE 
 
 Is situated on the east bank of the Wabash river, seventy- 
 three miles south-west of Indianapolis. The situation of the city 
 is remarkably beautiful. The bank upon which the town is 
 built is elevated about sixty feet above the river. The streets 
 of the city are wide and bordered with numerous shade trees. 
 The opposite banks of the river are connected by a fine bridge, 
 over which the national road passes. Fort Harrison prairie, on 
 the west border of which the town stands, is very fertile, and 
 noted for its beautiful landscapes. The city contains a fine 
 court house, a town hall, three banks, a large academy, and 
 about twelve churches ; also the State Normal school, which is 
 one of the finest architectural structures in the state. Its pop- 
 ulation numbers about ten thousand six hundred. 
 
 MADISON 
 
 Is situated on the Ohio river, in a valley about three miles in 
 length, which is enclosed on the north by steep and rugged hills 
 about four hundred feet high. It is actively engaged in steam- 
 boat trade. The navigation of the river below this place is 
 usually open all winter. The city is handsomely laid out and 
 well built. It contains a fine court house, three public halls, 
 thirteen churches, a United States hospital, four banks, and 
 three large public schools. In 1865 its population was about 
 fourteen thousand. 
 
 RICHMOND 
 
 Is pleasantly situated on the east fork of Whitewater river. 
 More labor is employed in this place in the manufacture of cot- 
 ton, wool, paper, flour, and iron than in any other city in the 
 state. The Indiana yearly meeting of the society of Friends is 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 259 
 
 held at this place. The surrounding country is the most popu- 
 lous and highly cultivated in the state. Its population in 1860 
 was about six thousand six hundred. 
 
 LAPORTE 
 
 Is situated on the border of a beautiful and highly cultivated 
 prairie of the same name, twelve miles from Lake Michigan. It 
 is a place of active trade. It contains the Indiana medical col- 
 lege, an academy and a bank. Its population in 1860 was about 
 five thousand, but in consequence of its rapid growth, the census 
 of 1870 will most likely nearly double that number. 
 
 JEFFERSONVILLE 
 
 Is situated on the Ohio river, nearly opposite Louisville. 
 " The situation is elevated, and commands a delightful view of 
 the city of Louisville, of the broad and winding river with 
 its verdant islands, and a range of hills a few miles distant." 
 It contains eight churches, one bank, three United States hos- 
 pitals, and one of the state prisons of Indiana. 
 
 LOGANSPORT 
 
 Is situated on the Wabash river and canal, at the mouth of 
 Eel river, seventy miles north-west of Indianapolis. The city is 
 actively engaged in trade. It has valuable water power which 
 is employed in manufactures to some extent. The city was laid 
 out in 1827. It now contains eight churches, two academies, 
 one bank, and a court house built of hewn stone, one of the finest 
 in the state. The population numbers about five thousand. 
 
 ILLINOIS. 
 
 In 1673, Marquette, a French traveler, visited Illinois, and 
 in the latter part of the seventeenth century, settlements 
 were made by the French at Cahokia and Kaskaskia. These, 
 however, like other French colonies, did not increase rapidly. 
 In 1800, in connection with Indiana, it formed a part of a sep- 
 arate territory, called Indiana. In 1809, the present state was 
 organized as the territory of Illinois, and in 1818 it was admit- 
 ted into the union. Since that time its population has increased 
 
260 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 very rapidly. According to the census of 1860, it numbered 
 one million seven hundred and eleven thousand seven hundred 
 and fifty-three. 
 
 The state is generally level, having few hills, and no moun- 
 tains. There are elevated bluffs on the Mississippi and Illinois 
 rivers, also a small tract of hilly country in the southern part 
 of the state. The lowest portion is about three hundred and 
 forty feet, and the highest only eight hundred feet above the 
 Gulf of Mexico. A large portion of the state consists of prairie 
 land. 
 
 The scenery of Illinois presents few bold and striking fea- 
 tures, yet it is not entirely without attractions. The prairies 
 are not generally flat, but gracefully undulating, and covered 
 with waving grass, and a profusion of lovely wild flowers. For 
 quiet landscape beauty they are unsurpassed, and a person unac- 
 customed to prairie land, perhaps might find no object of natural 
 scenery as interesting as these. Along the rivers are bluffs 
 which, in rugged grandeur, almost rival mountain scenery. The 
 most remarkable of these are on the Mississippi river, and are 
 from one hundred to four hundred feet high. One of these, 
 called Fountain Bluff, is of an oval shape, six miles in circuit, 
 and three hundred feet high. The top of this bluff is full of 
 sink-holes, or depressions in the surface of the ground. There 
 are two eminences on the Illinois river, one of which is called 
 Starved Rock, the other, Lover's Leap. Perhaps ' Thirsty 
 Rock' would be a more appropriate name for the former. It 
 received its name from a band of Illinois Indians having taken 
 refuge here, who, being surrounded by the Pottawatomies, all 
 died, not of starvation, but of thirst. It is a perpendicular mass 
 of limestone, situated about eight miles below Ottawa, and one 
 hundred and fifty feet above the river. Lover's Leap, consisting 
 of a ledge of precipitous rocks, is situated some distance above 
 Starved Rock. In Hardin county, on the Ohio river, there is 
 a cave, the entrance to which is but a little above the bed of 
 the river. This cave slopes gradually from its entrance for 
 about one hundred and eighty feet, when a second entrance leads 
 to another cave, the dimensions of which are not known. This 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 261 
 
 cave was, in 1797, the abode of a band of robbers, "who were 
 the terror of Ohio boatmen. Since that time several bands of 
 robbers have taken refuge in this cave. 
 
 A large portion of the great lead region is in the limits of 
 Illinois. The coal-fields of Illinois are estimated to occupy an 
 area of about forty-four thousand square miles. Bituminous 
 coal is found in almost every county, and a bed of anthracite 
 coal is reported to have been discovered in Jackson county. 
 Copper, lime, zinc, marble, free-stone, gypsum, and quartz crys- 
 tals are also found. The state contains several medicinal 
 springs, one of which, in Jefferson county, is much resorted to. 
 
 Lake Michigan forms the north-eastern boundary of the state 
 for about sixty miles, and adds greatly to its commercial import- 
 ance. The Mississippi forms the entire western boundary, and 
 the Ohio the southern, thus giving it access to the commerce of 
 these great valleys. The Wabash forms its eastern boundary 
 for about three hundred miles. The other principal rivers are 
 the Illinois, Rock, Sangamon, and Kaskaskia. The Illinois is 
 formed by the union of the Des Plaines and Kankakee rivers. 
 It has a very sluggish current, and in times of freshets the 
 waters of the Mississippi back up into it for about seventy 
 miles. It is navigable at all times for about two hundred and 
 eighty-six miles, and at high water, for some distance farther. 
 Rock river is about three hundred and twenty miles in length. 
 The current is obstructed by rapids in several places, but at a 
 moderate expense it might be made navigable. Already the 
 subject has been much agitated, and probably at no distant day, 
 the improvement of the river will begin. It flows through an 
 extensive plain noted for its fertility and beautiful scenery. 
 The Sangamon is about two hundred miles in length. It is nav- 
 igable for small steamboats at high water. The Kaskaskia, a 
 fine, navigable stream, is about three hundred miles in length. 
 
 The climate of Illinois is somewhat milder than that of the 
 Atlantic states in the same latitude. Its great length gives it 
 considerable variation in climate. Its agricultural capabilities 
 are unsurpassed by any state in the union. In some of the 
 
262 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 river bottoms the soil is twenty-five feet deep, and the upland 
 prairies are nearly, if not quite, as fertile. 
 
 On the formation of the state constitution, one section in each 
 township was appropriated to the support of common schools, 
 and subsequently an additional income of three per cent, on the 
 proceeds from the sale of the public lands within the state. In 
 the year 1853, the school fund yielded ah income of two hun- 
 dred and ninety-nine thousand and forty-seven dollars. 
 
 Illinois has a state lunatic asylum at Jacksonville, a state pen- 
 itentiary at Joliet, and a deaf and dumb asylum at Jacksonville. 
 
 SPRINGFIELD, 
 
 The capital, is situated three miles south of the Sangamon 
 river. The streets are wide and straight. A new state house 
 has been erected. Besides this, the town contains a court-house, 
 four banks, a state arsenal, thirteen churches, and several acade- 
 mies. Springfield will ever be memorable as having been the 
 residence of Abraham Lincoln, late president of the United 
 States. (See view.) 
 
 The other important places are Chicago, Peoria, Quincy, 
 Galena, Belleville, Alton, Rockford, Bloomington, Ottawa, Auro- 
 ra, Lincoln, Rock Island and Galesburg. 
 
 CHICAGO, 
 
 The largest city, and the most important commercial center 
 of the north-western states, is situated in the north-eastern part 
 of the state, on Lake Michigan. The city is built on the lake 
 shore, and along the banks of the Chicago river and its two 
 branches, its limits extending westward for about five miles. 
 
 The city has, within the last thirty-five years, risen from a 
 small military post or fur station, till now it is the great metrop- 
 olis of the northwestern states, and the largest interior city of 
 the United States. In 1833, the site of the city, together with 
 the land which now forms the states of Illinois and Wisconsin, 
 was purchased from the Indians. Walking in the imposing 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 263 
 
 streets of the Chicago of to-day, it is difficult to realize that 
 thirty-five years have not elapsed since the red men were dis- 
 possessed of the very site on which the city now stands. 
 
 The prairie on that part of the shore of Lake Michigan 
 appears to the eye flat as the lake itself, and its average hight 
 above the lake is not more than six feet. The entire business 
 portion of the city has, during the last ten years, been raised 
 from six to eight feet above its former level. This greatly facil- 
 itates drainage, besides rendering it possible to have dry cellars 
 for store houses. The grading and filling up, and raising the 
 buildings to the new grade, cost the city upwards of a million of 
 dollars. 
 
 The river was originally but a small creek, that emptied into 
 the lake ; the inlet was twenty feet deep, but the mouth was 
 obstructed by a sand-bar, and it only admitted vessels of thirty 
 or forty tons. In 1833, the United States spent thirty thous- 
 and dollars in improving the harbor, and in 1834 a freshet 
 swept away the bar at the mouth of the river, making it access- 
 ible to the largest ships that sail the lakes. At the present time, 
 over nine hundred vessels, carrying in all, upwards of two hun- 
 dred thousand tons, and employing about ten thousand sailors, 
 ply between Chicago and the other lake ports. In the winter, 
 after navigation is closed, four hundred vessels may be counted 
 in the harbor, frozen up safely in the ice. Vessels can ascend 
 the river a distance of five or six miles on the south branch, and 
 from four to five on the north branch. Along the river and its 
 branches, are immense warehouses, some of which are capable 
 of storing one million five hundred thousand bushels of grain. 
 Miles of timber yards extend along one of the forks, and the 
 harbor is choked by arriving and departing vessels. (See views 
 of Chicago river.) The people of Chicago have had a long and 
 severe struggle with their river, and they have not yet made a 
 complete conquest of it. The river and its two forks so divide 
 the town, that it is impossible to go far in any direction without 
 crossing one of them. In old times, the Indians carried people 
 over in their canoes. In course of time, the canoes expanded 
 into commodious row boats; next floating bridges were tried; 
 
264 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 afterwards draw-bridges came into use, seventeen of which now 
 span the river. These draw-bridges are rather in the way at 
 present. Unfavorable winds sometimes detain vessels on the 
 lake, until three hundred of them are waiting to enter. When 
 the wind changes, the whole fleet comes streaming in, each towed 
 by a puffing and snorting little tug-boat. Occasionally the 
 bridges can be closed for a few moments, and then there is a 
 tremendous rush to cross the river. These are exceptional 
 cases, and some days the bridges are seldom opened ; but as it is, 
 they are a great inconvenience ; however, this will soon be a thing 
 of the past. Already one tunnel has been constructed (see 
 view No. 40,) at a cost of two hundred thousand dollars, and 
 in a short time these seventeen maddening draw-bridges will 
 have been superseded by seventeen tunnels. 
 
 The streets of Chicago are regular, and nearly all of them 
 eighty feet wide. The city is laid out in rectangular blocks. 
 (See views from the dome of city hall.) The principal streets 
 are now paved with Nicholson pavement, or wooden blocks, which 
 are found to be more durable than stone pavement. 
 
 The business portion of the city was formerly built mostly of 
 brick, but this is now almost entirely superseded by " Athens 
 marble." An inexhaustible quarry of this stone was discovered 
 by some workmen while digging a canal at Athens, a point about 
 fourteen miles south-west of the city. It is soft, and of a light 
 cream color. At first it was regarded as useless, but it was 
 afterwards found to harden on exposure to the air, and it is now 
 recognized as the very best and most elegant building material 
 in the country. It possesses the virtue of being easily worked 
 when first quarried, but is hard in the finished wall. The general 
 use of this light colored stone gives to the principal streets of 
 Chicago a cheerful, light and airy appearance. (See street views 
 of Chicago.) 
 
 The principal public buildings are the city hall, built of stone 
 brought from Lockport, New York, (see view,) and chamber of 
 commerce, built of Athens stone. (See views.) This is an ele- 
 gant, spacious apartment, decorated with fine fresco paintings by 
 resident Italian artists. It is ninety-three feet in width, one 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 265 
 
 hundred and eighty feet long and one hundred feet high. It 
 cost the city about four hundred thousand dollars. Among the 
 elegant church edifices are the First and Second Presbyterian, 
 the latter of which is built of a dark oily stone, dug out of the 
 prairie immediately west of the city ; Trinity, St. James, Church 
 of the Redeemer, Methodist, First Unitarian, Church of the 
 Holy Name, Church of the Holy Family, Unity, and New Eng- 
 land. (See views.) 
 
 Tremont and Sherman houses are among the first class hotels. 
 (See views.) Among the other prominent buildings are Potter 
 Palmer's building, Crosby's opera house and the custom house. 
 (See views.) The city contains three large book stores, the 
 shelves of which are crowded with the best literature. (See 
 views.) 
 
 " Along the lake, south of the river, extend the beautiful ave- 
 nues which change insensibly into those streets of cottages and 
 gardens which have given to Chicago the name of the ' Garden 
 City.' ' (See avenue views.) " This is a pleasant umbrageous 
 quarter where glimpses are caught of the blue lake that stretches 
 away to the east for sixty miles." 
 
 There are seventeen public schools and a high school in Chi- 
 cago, which are among the very best in the United States. The 
 buildings are large, handsome and convenient. (See views.) 
 The attendance at the high school ranges from seven hundred to 
 two thousand. The university, under the auspices of the Bap- 
 tist denomination, is situated just in the outskirts of the city, in 
 Cottage Grove. (See views.) 
 
 The city is provided with water from the lake, but that near 
 the shore is impure on account of the large amount of filth which 
 runs out of the river. A tunnel has recently been constructed 
 extending under the bed of the lake two miles from the shore, 
 (See views,) so that the city is supplied with pure lake water. 
 " The work is really something to be proud of, not for its mag- 
 nitude, but for the simplicity, originality, and boldness of the 
 idea." The tunnel is five feet in diameter, and cut thirty-five 
 feet below the bed of the lake. A shaft is sunk on the shore 
 
266 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 eighty-seven feet deep, and an iron one nine feet in diameter in 
 the lake at the extreme end of the tunnel. Around this shaft 
 there is an immense crib built of heavy timber. (See views.) 
 
 Chicago is the great commercial metropolis of the north-west. 
 It is the largest interior grain market in the world, the greatest 
 lumber market in the United States, second only to New York 
 as a beef and cattle market, and as a beef and pork packing 
 point it stands first in the United States. It is the center of a 
 railroad system which includes about five thousand miles of track. 
 Its railroad depots are immense in extent and admirably con- 
 structed. (See views.) The great Union Central depot has 
 under cover three quarters of a mile of track. Three trains can 
 start from it at the same moment without the least danger of 
 interference, and no passenger is obliged to cross a track in 
 changing cars. 
 
 No city in the United States has increased in population so 
 rapidly as Chicago. In 1830 there resided in Chicago four 
 white families. In 1831 there were twelve. In 1837, when the 
 first census was taken, the entire population numbered four 
 thousand one hundred and seventy. In 1865 it was estimated 
 at one hundred and seventy-five thousand. 
 
 PEORIA 
 
 Is situated on the west bank of the Illinois river, seventy 
 miles north of Springfield. The river here expands into a 
 broad and deep lake, which adds greatly to the scenery of the 
 town. A draw-bridge connects the city with the opposite shore 
 of the river. The town is situated on rising ground, while back 
 of it extends one of the most beautiful rolling prairies in the 
 state. Near the center of the city a public square has been 
 reserved. The schools and churches are prosperous, and the 
 society good. The population in 1860 was fourteen thousand 
 and forty-five. 
 
 QUINCY 
 
 Is situated on the Mississippi river, one hundred and seventy- 
 five miles above St. Louis. The country in the vicinity is a rich 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 267 
 
 and rolling prairie, and one of the best cultivated in the state. 
 The city is quite extensively engaged in commerce, by means of 
 steamboats on the Mississippi river. It has a large public 
 square, a good court-house, twenty-four churches, ten public 
 halls, two national banks, an armory, and four United States 
 hospitals. Its population in 1860 numbered sixteen thousand 
 six hundred and seventy-two. 
 
 GALENA 
 
 Is situated on the Fevre river, six miles from its entrance to 
 the Mississippi river, and four hundred and fifty miles above St. 
 Louis. The Fevre river is navigable by steamboats, which make 
 regular passages to St. Louis, St. Paul, and other ports on the 
 Mississippi river. The river is more properly an arm of the 
 Mississippi, setting up between lofty bluffs, and winding around 
 their base with picturesque effect. The streets are built one 
 above another, and communicate by means of steps. Galena 
 owes its growth and importance mainly to the rich mines of lead 
 with which it is surrounded in all directions. Its population in 
 1860 was eight thousand one hundred and ninety-six. 
 
 BELLEVILLE 
 
 Is situated fourteen miles south-east from St. Louis. It is 
 actively engaged in trade and manufactures, and growing very 
 rapidly. Its population in 1864 numbered ten thousand. 
 
 ALTON 
 
 Is situated on the Mississippi river, three miles above the 
 mouth of the Missouri, and twenty-one miles above St. Louis. 
 Alton is one of the oldest towns in the state. It is the seat of 
 the diocese of the Roman Catholic church for Southern Illinois. 
 
 The state penitentiary was formerly located at this place, but 
 has since been removed to Joliet. 
 
 ROCKFORD 
 
 Is beautifully situated on both sides of Rock river. It is a 
 flourishing city, the center of an active business, and contains 
 seventeen churches, seven public schools, a female seminary, and 
 three newspaper offices. Its water power is one of the finest in 
 
268 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 the west, and its manufactures amount in value to about four 
 millions of dollars per annum. Its growth since 1836 has been 
 very rapid. Population at the present time, about twelve 
 thousand. (See views of Rockford.) 
 
 BLOOMINGTON 
 
 Is situated on the Illinois Central railroad, one hundred and 
 twenty-six miles south-west of Chicago. The State Normal 
 University is situated two miles north of the city. It is an im- 
 posing building, said to have cost two hundred thousand dollars. 
 It is attended by about five hundred students. 
 
 OTTAWA 
 
 Is situated on both sides of the Illinois river, just below the 
 mouth of Fox river, eighty-four miles south-west of Chicago. 
 The Fox river, at this point, has a fall of about twenty-nine 
 feet, producing a city water-power which is said to be unsur- 
 passed by any in the state. In 1865 the population numbered 
 about ten thousand. 
 
 AURORA 
 
 Is a flourishing city situated on the Fox river, forty miles 
 south-west of Chicago. Population in 1864, eight thousand 
 seven hundred and fifty. 
 
 LINCOLN 
 
 Is a flourishing town, situated on Salt creek, twenty-eight 
 miles north-east of Springfield. This place, the origin of which 
 is quite recent, was named in honor of Abraham Lincoln. Its 
 population is about five thousand seven hundred. 
 
 ROCK ISLAND 
 
 Is situated on the Mississippi river, two miles above the mouth 
 of Rock river, and one hundred and eighty-two miles south-west 
 of Chicago. The place derives its name from an island three 
 miles in length, the southern extremity of which is nearly oppo- 
 site the town. This island is partly covered with woods, and 
 affords an agreeable retreat in the heat of the summer. It 
 presents a perpendicular front of limestone twenty or thirty feet 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 269 
 
 high. Rock Island is remarkable for its flourishing manufac- 
 tures. A bridge across the river connects it with Davenport, 
 Iowa. Its population in 1865 numbered about seven thousand 
 five hundred. 
 
 GALESBURG 
 
 Is situated on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad, 
 one hundred and sixty-five miles south-west of Chicago. It is 
 situated in a rich farming district, and has an active business. 
 Population in 1865, about seven thousand. 
 
 KENTUCKY. 
 
 This state formed a part of Virginia until 1792. It was first 
 explored by Daniel Boone in 1769. The early settlers were 
 much annoyed by the Indians, who made frequent incursions 
 and attacks upon their villages. Their bloody contests with 
 these savage foes gave rise to the name of Kentucky, which 
 means "the dark and bloody ground." 
 
 The Cumberland mountains form the south-eastern boundary 
 of the state. A range of hills runs nearly parallel with the Ohio 
 river. West of the Cumberland river the surface is generally 
 level ; the rest of the state is undulating and hilly. Kentucky 
 contains much that is picturesque in her natural scenery, and 
 many wild and striking objects. The Mammoth cave is situated 
 about one hundred miles south-west of Louisville, in Edmondson 
 county, in the valley of Green river. The entrance to this cave 
 is in a ravine, two hundred feet above Green river, and one hun- 
 dred below the table land above. The cave abounds in inter- 
 esting objects, such as streams, mounds, stalactites, stalagmites, 
 etc. The stalactites and stalagmites are some of them very 
 large ; one of them, called the Temple, occupies an area of two 
 acres, and is covered by a single dome of solid rock, one hundred 
 and twenty feet high. Echo river, five miles from the entrance, 
 is the deepest and widest of the rivers, being about ten feet deep 
 and a quarter of a mile in width. The water is very transpar- 
 ent, the sand and pebbles on the bottom being as plainly visible 
 
270 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 as if seen in air. The surface of the river is nearly upon a level 
 ■with that of Green river, and it is supposed that it empties into 
 Green river as they usually rise and fall together. Near the 
 shore of the river the roof of the cave descends within a few feet 
 of the surface of the water, and appears like an arch sprung from 
 one side of the cave to the other. About half way across the 
 river the cavern expands into immense proportions. Here is the 
 remarkable echo which gives its name to the river. Sounds are 
 repeated millions of times, receding at each successive echo, 
 until they die away in the most distant chambers with a strain 
 of melody resembling that of a wind-harp. 
 
 A few miles farther on is Cleveland's Cabinet. This is an 
 arch about twenty feet high, and twenty wide, incrusted with a 
 thick coating of frost, through which protrude in all directions, 
 bads, vine-tendrils, sun flowers, cactus leaves, etc.. fashioned 
 from a material the most delicate, and all of pearly whiteness. 
 Thirteen miles from the entrance, is Serenna's bower, a small 
 and deep grotto, guarded by an aperture difficult of entrance. 
 The bottom, roof, and sides, of this bower are covered with 
 stalactite formations. In the side, about three feet from the 
 floor, is a basin of pure water, around the edge of which the 
 most curiously shaped pillars form, as it were, a fence for its 
 protection. Among the other remarkable objects of the cave, 
 are the Devil's Arm Chair, the Elephant's Head, the Lover's 
 Leap, the Gothic Chapel, the Cinder Pile, and the Bottomless 
 Pit. ( See views of Mammoth Cave.) There are a number of 
 smaller caves in the state, which in almost any other place, 
 would be considered remarkable. There are also a great many 
 sink-holes or depressions in the surface of the ground. These 
 metimes three hundred feet in circumference, and from 
 sixty to seventy feet deep. They are shaped bike an inverted 
 cone. Frequently the sound of running water can be detected 
 beneath them, and in one or two cases openings have been made 
 revealing subterraneous streams. A number of streams of 
 considerable size disappear for some distance, and afterwards 
 rise again to the surface. In Breckenridge county, there is a 
 stream called Sinking creek, which, a few miles from its source, 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 271 
 
 sinks beneath the surface, and does not re-appear again for sev- 
 eral miles. In Christian county, in the midst of romantic 
 scenery, is a natural bridge, thirty feet high and sixty feet in 
 span. There are numerous mounds or fortifications in the state, 
 erected, it is supposed, by a race who occupied the country at 
 some period antecedent to the Indians. 
 
 The climate of Kentucky is milder than the same latitude on 
 the Atlantic coast, but subject to sudden changes. The soil is 
 very fertile ; there is but a small portion of the state which is 
 not capable of cultivation. 
 
 The state is actively engaged in commerce. The Ohio forms 
 its entire northern boundary, and the Mississippi its western, 
 giving it access to the commerce of these great valleys. The 
 other important rivers are the Cumberland, Tennessee, Licking, 
 Kentucky, Salt, and Green rivers. The Cumberland rises in the 
 south-eastern part of the state, in the Cumberland mountains. 
 Its whole length is six hundred miles, three hundred and fifty of 
 which passes through Kentucky. It is navigable for large 
 steamboats as far as Nashville, Tennessee, about two hundred 
 miles from its mouth, and small boats ascend about three hun- 
 dred miles further. The Tennessee river crosses the western 
 part of the state, and enters the Ohio river about forty-eight 
 miles from its mouth. The navigation of the river is unobstruct- 
 ed as far as Florence, at the foot of Muscle Shoals. Here it is 
 obstructed by rapids, but above the rapids it is navigable for 
 some distance, making, in all, about five hundred miles of navi- 
 gable water. Licking river rises in the Cumberland mountains, 
 pursues a north-westerly direction, and empties into the Ohio, 
 opposite Cincinnati. It is about two hundred miles in length, 
 and navigable for small steamboats for about fifty miles from 
 its mouth. Kentucky river is formed by the union of three 
 small rivers. The length of the main stream is about two hun- 
 dred miles. Steamboats ascend as far as Frankfort, and flat- 
 boats ascend about one hundred miles further. Salt river is 
 formed from the union of two small rivers. It derives its name 
 from the number of salt springs which abound near it. The 
 main stream flows in a north-westerly direction, and empties into 
 
272 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 the Ohio twenty-two miles below Louisville. Green river rises 
 in the east central part of the state. During its course it trav- 
 erses the cavernous limestone formation and passes by Mammoth 
 cave. It is about three hundred miles in length. The lower 
 part of the river is navigable for steamboats at all seasons of 
 the year, and during high water, small steamboats have ascend- 
 ed for about two hundred miles from its mouth. 
 
 FRANKFORT, 
 
 The capital of Kentucky, is beautifully situated on the right 
 bank of Kentucky river, sixty miles from its mouth and fifty- 
 three miles east of Louisville. The city stands on an elevated 
 plain, commanding a delightful view of the picturesque scenery 
 for which the Kentucky river is so remarkable. The town is 
 regularly laid out and generally well built. It contains a hand- 
 some state house, built of Kentucky marble, quarried in the 
 vicinity. The governor's house, a state penitentiary, a court 
 house, six churches, one academy, and two banking houses. 
 The population is about three thousand seven hundred. The 
 other important places are Louisville, Covington, Newport and 
 Lexington. 
 
 LOUISVILLE 
 
 Is situated on the Ohio river, one hundred and thirty miles 
 below Cincinnati, and fifty-three miles west of Frankfort. The 
 city stands upon a plain elevated about seventy feet above low 
 water, and commanding a delightful view of the Ohio river and 
 of the rapids immediately below. The city is well built and regu- 
 larly laid out. Parallel to the river are eight handsome streets, 
 about two miles in length, which are intersected at right angles 
 by more than thirty different streets. 
 
 The principal public buildings are the city hall, court house, 
 medical institute and the university. Besides these the city has 
 a marine asylum, two orphan asylums, forty churches, two syn- 
 agogues, a prison, four banks, and four large public school 
 houses. In 1860 the population numbered sixty-eight thousand 
 and thirty-three. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 273 
 
 COVINGTON 
 
 Is situated on the Ohio river, opposite Cincinnati, and just 
 below the mouth of Licking river. It may he considered as a 
 suburb of Cincinnati, and is laid out according to the same plan. 
 The city contains ten churches, three banks, a large city hall, 
 two female academies and the western theological college, which 
 is under the direction of the Baptists. In 1860 the population 
 was sixteen thousand four hundred and seventy-one. 
 
 NEWPORT 
 
 Is situated on the Ohio river, opposite from Cincinnati, and 
 just above the mouth of Licking river, which separates it from 
 Covington. It owes its rapid growth to its proximity to Cin- 
 cinnati and its beautiful situation. It contains twelve churches 
 and one bank. Its population is about ten thousand. 
 
 LEXINGTON 
 
 Is situated twenty-five miles south-east of Frankfort, and nine- 
 ty-four miles east of Louisville. It was formerly the capital of 
 Kentucky. The situation is delightful, and its general appear- 
 ance is surpassed by few inland towns. The city contains a 
 university, a state lunatic asylum, a court house, two banks, a 
 public library, several academies, a museum, an orphan asylum 
 and twelve churches. A monument is contemplated, to be erected 
 to the memory of Henry Clay, who resided at Ashland, a mile 
 and a half from the city. Lexington was founded in 1776, 
 while the news of the battle of that name was fresh in the minds 
 of its founders. In 1860 its population was nine thousand five 
 hundred and twenty-one. 
 
 TENNESSEE. 
 The country now constituting the state of Tennessee, was 
 originally comprised within the state of North Carolina. It 
 was ceded to the general government in 1784, but the grant was 
 afterwards revoked. At that time hostilities had been com- 
 menced by the Indians ; they were without a government of 
 their own, and unprotected by the troops of North Carolina. 
 
 18 
 
274 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 A large proportion of her people determined to form an inde- 
 pendent state government, which would enable them to legally 
 assemble a military force for defense. The new state was 
 organized under the name of Frankland, in 1786. This gave 
 rise to considerable trouble, and the state was finally ceded to 
 the United States government, and formed a part of the South- 
 western Territory until 1796, when it was admitted into the 
 union. 
 
 The state is commonly divided into three sections, East, West 
 and Middle Tennessee. East Tennessee includes that part east 
 of the Cumberland mountains ; Middle Tennessee that part 
 between the Cumberland mountains and the Tennessee river ; 
 and West Tennessee, that portion west of the Tennessee river. 
 East Tennessee is mountainous, Middle Tennessee is hilly, and 
 West Tennessee is level or gently undulating. The Alleghany 
 mountains form the entire eastern boundary of the state. The 
 Cumberland mountains enter it from Kentucky and cross it in a 
 south-westerly direction, into Alabama. There are a number 
 of caves in these mountains, some of them several miles in ex- 
 tent. In one of these, four hundred feet below the surface, 
 there was found a stream large enough to turn a mill. Another, 
 on the top of one of the mountains, has a perpendicular descent, 
 and its depth has never yet been ascertained. The climate of 
 Tennessee is mild, the winters are not severe, and the summers 
 are free from the intense heat of the Gulf States. The soil, 
 especially in the valleys, is fertile. Some of the mountain land 
 is not adapted to cultivation, but is favorable to grazing. 
 
 The Mississippi river forms the western boundary of the state. 
 The other important rivers are the Cumberland, which flows for 
 about one hundred and fifty miles through Tennessee ; the Ten- 
 nessee river, which crosses the state twice ; the Clinch, about two 
 hundred miles in length, and navigable for about half that dis- 
 tance, and the Holston, which is about two hundred miles in 
 length, and navigable as far as Knoxville at all seasons of the 
 year ; besides these, there are several smaller streams, each more 
 or less navigable for small boats during high water. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 275 
 
 NASHVILLE, 
 
 The capital, is situated on the left bank of the Cumberland 
 river, two hundred miles from its mouth, and two hundred and 
 thirty miles north-east of Memphis. It is one of the wealthiest 
 and most populous cities of Tennessee. The city is pleasantly 
 situated, regularly laid out, and well built. It contains many 
 elegant private buildings. The public buildings are also among 
 the best in the United States. The capitol is estimated to have 
 cost one million dollars. It is built of fine limestone, quarried 
 in the vicinity, and very nearly resembles marble. It is one of 
 the handsomest and most costly structures in America. A large 
 lunatic asylum has recently been erected. Besides these, the 
 city contains a state penitentiary, a university, several female 
 seminaries, three banks and fourteen churches. A wire suspen- 
 sion bridge has recently been built across the Cumberland river, 
 at a cost of one hundred thousand dollars. In 1860, the popu- 
 lation was sixteen thousand nine hundred and eighty-eight. (See 
 views of Nashville.) 
 
 The other important places are Memphis, Knoxville, Mur- 
 freesboro and Jackson. 
 
 MEMPHIS 
 
 Is beautifully situated on the Mississippi river, just below the 
 mouth of Wolf river, and two hundred and nine miles south- 
 west of Nashville. It is situated on a bluff about seventy feet 
 high, and presents a very fine appearance from the river. It is 
 rapidly increasing in population, and is full of life and commer- 
 cial activity. It is the most populous and important city between 
 St. Louis and New Orleans. The river is navigable for the 
 largest ships from this point to its mouth. The city contains 
 twenty-three public schools, eleven churches, one academy, four 
 banks, and a telegraph office. In 1865 the population was 
 about forty thousand. 
 
 KNOXVILLE 
 
 Is beautifully situated on the right bank of the Holston river, 
 one hundred and eighty-five miles east of Nashville. The situ- 
 ation is elevated and commands a delightful view of the river, 
 
276 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 which is navigable at all seasons of the year from this point 
 downwards. The city contains an asylum for the deaf and 
 dumb, a university, five churches, three banks, and several acad- 
 emies. The city was laid out in 1794. In 1860 its population 
 was about six thousand. 
 
 MURFREESBORO 
 
 Is situated in a beautiful plain, thirty miles south-east of 
 Nashville. It contains a university, founded by the Baptists, a 
 female institute, also under the direction of the Baptists, one 
 bank, and five churches. It was formerly the capital of Ten- 
 nessee. The population is about two thousand nine hundred. 
 
 JACKSON 
 
 Is situated on the Forked Deer river, one hundred and fifty 
 miles south-west of Nashville. It is situated in the midst of a 
 fertile region, and is actively engaged in trade. It contains a 
 bank, two or three churches, and a flourishing college. Its 
 population is about two thousand four hundred. 
 
 ARKANSAS. 
 
 Arkansas was settled by the French as early as 1685, and 
 formed a part of the great tract purchased from France in 1803, 
 under the name of Louisiana. It made little progress until after 
 its formation into a territory of the United States in 1819. In 
 1836 it became a member of the American union. 
 
 Throughout its entire length it occupies the right bank of the 
 Mississippi, which separates it from the states of Tennessee and 
 Mississippi, and renders it accessible to the sea from many points. 
 Its area is about fifty-two thousand one hundred and ninety- 
 eiwht square miles, being about two hundred and forty miles in 
 length from north to south, and two hundred and twenty-four in 
 breadth from east to west. 
 
 The eastern part of Arkansas, for about one hundred miles 
 back from the Mississippi, is covered with marshes, swamps and 
 lagoons, occasionally interspersed with elevations, some of which 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 277 
 
 are thirty miles or more in cireuit, which, when the rivers over- 
 flow their banks, form temporary islands. In 1854, out of the 
 equivalent thirty-three millions four hundred and six thousand 
 seven hundred and twenty acres, only eight hundred and fifty- 
 seven thousand one hundred and seventy-nine were cultivated, 
 very little more than one-fourth of the whole, or one-seventh of 
 the lands liable to taxation, as being allotted and occupied ; but 
 since the bill passed by congress giving to the southern and 
 western states all the overflowed swamp lands within their re- 
 spective limits, the state of Arkansas has constructed along its 
 entire eastern boundary levees of great strength, by means of 
 which extensive tracts that have hitherto been entirely worth- 
 less, have been converted into cultivable land of extraordinary 
 fertility. 
 
 In climate and productions, Arkansas occupies, as it were, an 
 intermediate position between the states of the west and those 
 of the south. The state is divided into two unequal parts by 
 the Ozark mountains, of which the northern has the climate and 
 productions of the northern states, while the southern portion 
 resembles that of the southern states. The northern region is 
 well adapted to grazing. It produces, also, an abundance of excel- 
 lent wheat, and, perhaps, the finest apples in the world. This 
 section of the country is hilly, or rolling, and is interspersed with 
 prairie, and abounds with fine springs of excellent water. The 
 tops of the hills and mountains are often flat or rolling, and 
 covered with a good soil and a heavy growth of timber. Indian 
 corn, cotton, and live stock form the staple products of the state. 
 On the bottom lands is generally found a heavy growth of cot- 
 ton-wood, ash, cypress, and gum. The hickory and different 
 kinds of oak flourish in the mountainous or hilly portions. From 
 the central part of the state southward to the Red river, pine is 
 found in great abundance. Beech is also found in considerable 
 abundance on the St. Francis river. Besides these are found 
 the black walnut, cherry, red cedar, dogwood, maple, poplar, 
 sassafras and black locust. Immense quantities of these differ- 
 ent kinds of timber are sent down the Mississippi to New Orleans. 
 
278 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 Probably no state in the union is penetrated by so many nav- 
 igable rivers as Arkansas. These rivers can only be ascended 
 by vessels of any size, for about nine months in the year, owing 
 to the long continued droughts which prevail in the hot season. 
 The Arkansas is the principal river that passes wholly through 
 the state. It enters the western border of the state from the 
 Indian territory at Fort Smith, and sweeping almost directly 
 through the middle of the state, after receiving a number of 
 small tributaries, discharges its waters into the Mississippi. It 
 is from three-eighths to half a mile wide through the last six hun- 
 dred miles of its course, and navigable for about eight hundred 
 miles from its mouth. The north-eastern part of the state is 
 drained by the White river and the St. Francis with their afflu- 
 ents. They have their sources in the Missouri and their outlet 
 in the Mississippi. The White river is navigable for about five 
 hundred miles, the St. Francis for three hundred miles. Besides 
 these there are the Red river, running through the south-western 
 angle of the state, the Washita and its numerous affluents, 
 having an aggregate of six hundred and thirty-five miles of nav- 
 igable water, and the little Missouri. The state has no foreign 
 commerce, though it has considerable boating trade with New 
 Orleans, engaged in the export of its productions. 
 
 The mineral resources of the state are very extensive. The 
 principal minerals are coal, iron, lead, zinc, manganese, gypsum, 
 and salt. There is a celebrated quarry of oil stone near the Hot 
 Springs, superior to any thing else of the kind known in the 
 world. There are a great many varieties exhibiting all degrees 
 of fineness. The quantity is said to be inexhaustible. There 
 is in Pike county, on the Little Missouri river, a mountain of 
 alabaster of the finest quality, and white as the driven snow. 
 Gold is said to have been discovered in White county. Arkan- 
 sas has more gypsum than all the other states put together, 
 while it is equally well supplied with marble and salt. 
 
 The celebrated Hot Springs are situated in a county of the 
 same name, about sixty miles south-west of Little Rock. More 
 than one hundred of these springs issue, at different elevations, 
 from a point or ridge of land forming a steep bank from one 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 279 
 
 hundred and fifty to two hundred feet high, projecting over Hot 
 Spring creek, an affluent of the "Washita. This creek is warm 
 enough to bathe in, even in the coldest weather. A considerable 
 portion of the bank consists of calcareous deposits, formed from 
 the water as it is exposed to the air. Near the top of the bank 
 there is a fine cold spring, so near the warm springs, that a per- 
 son can put one hand into cold, and the other into hot water at 
 the same time. These springs are a great resort for invalids, 
 their waters being considered particularly beneficial to persons suf- 
 fering from rheumatism. Their temperature varies from one 
 hundred and thirty-five to one hundred and sixty degrees. 
 
 LITTLE ROCK, 
 
 The capital of Arkansas, is situated on the right or southern 
 bank of .the Arkansas river, on a rocky promontory, or bluff, 
 about fifty feet high, commanding a delightful and extensive 
 view of the surrounding country. In ascending the river, there 
 appears on the south bank, rising out of the water, a bald, 
 igneous slate rock, which, at low water, is about twenty-five feet 
 above the surface, but at high water is almost hidden from view. 
 This gave to the place the name of Little Rock. Two miles 
 above this point, there is another rocky bluff about two hundred 
 feet high, which is called Big Rock. The town contains a state 
 house, United States arsenal, state penitentiary, and six hand- 
 some churches. The population in 1860, was three thousand 
 seven hundred and twenty-seven. 
 
 The other important places are Camden, Fort Smith, and 
 Pine Bluff. 
 
 CAMDEN 
 
 Is situated on a high range of hills on the right bank of the 
 Washita river, one hundred and ten miles south-west of Little 
 Rock. Its growth has been very rapid. A few years ago, the 
 land on which the city now stands was covered with a dense 
 forest, and many of the trees are still standing in the streets. 
 The city has great advantages for trade, being at the head of 
 navigation for large steamers. It was settled in 1842, and in 
 
280 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 1860 the population numbered two thousand two hundred and 
 nineteen. 
 
 FORT SMITH 
 
 Is situated at the western boundary of the state, on the right 
 bank of the Arkansas river, one hundred and sixty-three miles 
 north-west of Little Rock. It is a military post of the United 
 States, and is extensively engaged in trade with the Indians. 
 Its population is about one thousand and five hundred. 
 
 PINE BLUFE 
 
 Is situated on the right bank of the Arkansas river, forty- 
 eight miles south-east of Little Rock. It is situated in a rich 
 cotton planting region, and ships twenty thousand bales of cotton 
 annually. It has about one thousand three hundred inhabitants. 
 
 MISSOURI. 
 
 The early settlers of Missouri were French. The first settle- 
 ment was made in the year 1719, near the site of the present 
 capital. It was purchased by the United States as a part of the 
 territory of Louisiana, in 1803. In 1812, when Louisiana was 
 admitted into the union, the remainder of the territory was named 
 Missouri. In 1821 the territory applied to congress for admis- 
 sion into the union. A bill was introduced admitting it as a 
 state, but prohibiting slavery. This passed the house, but was 
 arrested in the senate. After a stormy debate the question was 
 settled by a compromise. A bill passed for the admission of 
 Missouri without any restriction as to slavery, but prohibiting it 
 throughout the United States north of latitude thirty-six degrees 
 thirty minutes. 
 
 North of the Missouri river the surface is mostly level. South 
 of this river it is varied, presenting mountains, marshes, and 
 prairie lands. The climate is variable. The winters are cold 
 and the summers very warm, but the air is dry and pure. The 
 soil, especially on the river bottoms, is fertile. In the south- 
 eastern part of the state there is considerable marsh land, which, 
 with a proper system of drainage, would probably become the 
 most fertile part of the state. The principal productions of 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 281 
 
 the state are Indian corn, wheat, oats, tobacco, and wool. 
 
 The Mississippi river forms its eastern boundary, and the Mis- 
 souri crosses it from west to east, thus giving it access to the 
 commerce of the two largest rivers of the United States. 
 
 The Missouri river rises in the Rocky mountains. It is three 
 thousand and ninety-six miles in length. Throughout the greater 
 part of its course the current is very rapid, and the navigation 
 is somewhat difficult. Steamboats, however, meet with but little 
 difficulty in ascending for about two thousand five hundred and 
 seventy-five miles from its mouth. It forms the north-western 
 boundary of the state of Missouri for about two hundred miles, 
 then crosses it in a south-easterly direction. On its southern 
 shore there are a number of bluffs from one hundred to three 
 hundred feet in hight. Its principal tributaries within the state 
 are the Chariton, Grand, Osage, and Gasconade. The Chari- 
 ton is navigable for about fifty miles from its mouth, the Grand 
 for only a short distance, the Osage in high water for about two 
 hundred, and the Gasconade for about sixty miles. 
 
 JEFFERSON CITY, 
 
 The capital of Missouri, is beautifully situated on the right 
 bank of the Missouri river, one hundred and fifty-five miles west 
 of St. Louis. The situation is elevated, and commands a fine 
 view of the river and of the bluffs on the opposite shore. In 
 1865 the population was about three thousand five hundred. 
 
 The other important towns are St. Louis, St. Joseph, Hanni- 
 bal, Kansas City, and Lexington. 
 
 ST. LOUIS, 
 
 The largest city, is situated on the right bank of the Missis- 
 sippi, about twenty miles below the mouth of the Missouri. 
 The thickly settled portion extends for about two and one half 
 miles, but the whole extent is about seven miles along the river 
 and three miles back. The natural commercial advantages of 
 the city are very great. It is situated midway between the At- 
 lantic and Pacific, in the center of the finest agricultural region 
 in the world, on the largest river of the United States, and 
 
282 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 almost at the very point where the Missouri, Ohio, and Illinois 
 rivers converge. The city is regularly laid out and well built. 
 The streets are wide, and with few exceptions intercept each 
 other at right angles. It contains many elegant public build- 
 ings. The new court house, built of Genevieve limestone, occu- 
 pies an entire square. It cost the city about half a million of 
 dollars. The United States arsenal is a large and handsome 
 building, surrounded by handsomely ornamented grounds. 
 Among the finest churches are St. George, the Catholic cathe- 
 dral, and the Church of the Messiah. In the tower of the cathe- 
 dral there is a chime of bells, the heaviest of which weighs two 
 thousand six hundred pounds. The site of St. Louis was 
 selected in 1764. In 1822 it was chartered as a city. In 1860 
 its population was one hundred and sixty thousand seven hun- 
 dred and seventy-three. 
 
 ST. JOSEPH 
 
 Is situated on the left bank of the Missouri, four hundred and 
 ninety-six miles, by water, from St. Louis. The town was laid 
 out in 1843. The population in 1865 was about fifteen thousand. 
 
 HANNIBAL 
 
 Is situated on the Mississippi river, one hundred and fifty- 
 three miles above St. Louis. It is a flourishing city, neatly laid 
 out and well built. In 1865 the population was about eight 
 thousand. 
 
 KANSAS CITY 
 
 Is situated on the right bank of the Missouri river, just below 
 the mouth of the Kansas. It contains a court house, eleven 
 churches and three banks. In 1864 the population was about 
 five thousand four hundred. 
 
 LEXINGTON 
 
 Is situated on the right bank of the Missouri, one hundred 
 and twenty miles west of Jefferson City. In 1860 the popula- 
 tion was four thousand one hundred and twenty-two. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 283 
 
 IOWA. 
 
 Iowa formed, origin a My, part of the Louisiana purchase; after- 
 wards it became a part of Missouri, then of Wisconsin, and lastly 
 of Iowa Territory. It was organized as a state, with governor 
 and legislature, in 1846. 
 
 The surface of Iowa is undulating and beautiful, with alter- 
 nate forests and prairies. There is nothing within its limits 
 which approaches a mountain in elevation ; but bold bluffs, with 
 picturesque ravines, line the rivers. A plateau, which enters 
 the northern part of the state from Minnesota, is the highest 
 elevation. Table Mound, a conical elevation with a flat summit, 
 three or four miles from Dubuque, is about five hundred feet 
 high. 
 
 There are said to be some swamps in the north-western por- 
 tion of the state. On Turkey river, in the northern part, there 
 are numerous sinks, or circular depressions in the surface of the 
 ground, some of them from ten to twenty feet across. On the 
 same stream, within ten or fifteen miles of its mouth, are small 
 mounds, from three to six feet high, and sometimes ten or twelve 
 in a row. In Jackson county, there is a cave, several rods in 
 extent, from which flows a stream large enough to turn a mill. 
 
 The state may be described as a rolling prairie, crossed by 
 rivers whose banks are skirted with wood. The Mississippi and 
 Missouri form its eastern and western boundary. The other 
 important rivers are the Des Moines, Iowa, Red Cedar, and 
 their branches. The Des Moines, the most important of these, 
 has its sources in Minnesota, and, traversing the entire state of 
 Iowa, forms, near its mouth, a small portion of the south-eastern 
 boundary. It is thought that it can be made navigable for 
 steamboats as far as Fort Des Moines, a distance of about two 
 hundred miles, and the state government has recently undertaken 
 the work. Small steamboats can ascend the Iowa river three 
 months in the year, for about eighty miles from its mouth, as far 
 as Iowa City. The Red Cedar is about three hundred miles in 
 length, and passes almost entirely across the state, furnishing 
 important water-power. 
 
284 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 Iowa lias not much direct foreign commerce, but trades exten- 
 sively with the Atlantic and Gulf towns, and with the interior. 
 The soil is exceedingly fertile and the climate healthful. The 
 summers are warm, but the winters are quite severe. The rivers 
 are frozen over from two to three months, on an average, each 
 winter. Iowa, except along the rivers, is not well timbered. 
 Between the belts of timber bordering on the streams, there are 
 often prairies of from fifteen to twenty miles in extent, without 
 as much as a shrub or tree to break the monotony of their 
 surface. 
 
 DES MOINES, 
 
 The capital of the state, is situated at the junction of the 
 Des Moines and Raccoon rivers, one hundred and seventy-five 
 miles west of Davenport. 
 
 The other principal towns are Dubuque, Davenport, Keokuk, 
 Burlington and Iowa City. 
 
 DUBUQUE 
 
 Is situated on the right bank of the Mississippi, about four 
 hundred and fifty miles above St. Louis. Part of the city is 
 built on a terrace, which extends along the bank of the river 
 for several miles ; the remainder is built upon a bluff, which 
 rises about two hundred feet higher. 
 
 DAVENPORT 
 
 Is situated on the Mississippi, about three hundred and thirty 
 miles above St. Louis. Next to Dubuque and Burlington it is 
 the largest city of Iowa, and it is rapidly increasing in size. A 
 handsome draw-bridge connects it with the city of Rock Island, 
 on the opposite side of the river. 
 
 KEOKUK 
 
 Is situated on the Mississippi, two hundred and five miles 
 above St. Louis. It stands on a basis of fine limestone, which 
 affords an excellent material for building. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 285 
 
 BURLINGTON 
 
 Is situated on the Mississippi river, about two hundred and 
 fifty miles above St. Louis. It was at one time the capital of 
 Iowa, and it continues to grow rapidly, notwithstanding the 
 removal of the seat of government. At the present time its 
 population is not equaled by any city in the state except Du- 
 buque, which is about the same. 
 
 IOWA CITY 
 
 Was also at one time the capital of Iowa. It is situated on 
 the Iowa river, about eighty miles from its mouth. The river 
 at this point has excellent water-power, which is partially im- 
 proved. 
 
 MICHIGAN. 
 
 The first settlements in Michigan were made by the French 
 in the latter part of the seventeenth century, at Detroit and 
 Mackinaw. In 1763, together with the other French possessions 
 in North America, it passed into the hands of Great Britain. 
 On the breaking out of the American revolution, it came into 
 the hands of the United States. It was admitted into the union 
 in 1837. 
 
 The state is divided by Lakes Michigan and Huron, into two 
 irregular peninsulas. The northern peninsula is a wild and 
 rough region of mountains and forests, and containing about 
 two-fifths of the area of the state. The southern is a level, 
 rich, fertile country of prairies and oak openings, and watered 
 by numerous rivers. There is a striking contrast between the 
 two peninsulas, the lower being level and fertile, while the 
 upper is picturesque, rugged and sterile in soil. The climate is 
 mild in the southern, and cold and bleak in the northern regions. 
 The southern portion produces wheat, maize, butter, and cheese, 
 in great abundance. The northern part is rich in minerals. 
 Along the shores of Lake Superior are probably some of the 
 richest copper mines in the world. A mass of copper weighing 
 one hundred and fifty tons was uncovered in one of the mines 
 
286 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 in 1854. Silver is also found in considerable quantities in con- 
 nection with the copper. In some instances the ore has yielded 
 as high as fifty per cent, of silver. Iron also abounds along the 
 shores of the same lake. (See views of the iron mines of Lake 
 Superior.) Large quantities of this mineral are shipped from 
 the town of Marquette, which owes its prosperity to the iron 
 mines worked in the vicinity. Extensive ore docks are built 
 along the shore of the bay. (See views of the bay of Mar- 
 quette.) 
 
 Michigan is most favorably situated for internal trade, and 
 trade with British America. It has a lake coast of over one 
 thousand miles. The coast is indented by a number of bays, 
 furnishing valuable harbors. The rivers are small and rapid in 
 their course, obstructed by frequent waterfalls, which oppose 
 navigation, but furnish valuable water power. The St. Joseph, 
 Kalamazoo, Grand and Muskegon, are navigable for vessels of 
 light draft from forty to fifty miles. 
 
 The towns of Michigan are remarkable for their rapid growth. 
 
 LANSINGS, 
 
 The capital, is situated on Grand river, one hundred and ten 
 miles north-west of Detroit. When it was selected for the seat 
 of government in 1847, it was surrounded by an almost unbro- 
 ken wilderness. It now contains a large and handsome state 
 house, twelve churches, two banks, a female college, an academy, 
 and a reform school. In 1860, the population was three thous- 
 and and seventy-four. The other important places are Detroit, 
 Grand Rapids, Adrian, Kalamazoo, Ann Arbor, Jackson and 
 Monroe. 
 
 DETROIT, 
 
 The largest city, is situated on the west bank of Detroit river, 
 eighteen miles from the head of Lake Erie. The city covers an 
 area of about ten miles, and stretches along the bank of the 
 river for about three miles. The city is regularly laid out, the 
 streets are wide, well paved, and ornamented with forest trees. 
 The city is supplied with pure lake water which is raised from 
 the river by steam power. The position of Detroit on the great 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 287 
 
 chain of lakes, gives it great commercial advantages. Several 
 lines of large steamers are actively engaged in the copper and 
 iron trade. In 1805, Detroit was entirely destroyed by fire. 
 The city was then built up on an entirely different plan. It was 
 the capital of the state from the admission of Michigan into the 
 union in 1886, until 1850. The city contains a number of large 
 and handsome public buildings, and many elegant private resi- 
 dences. In 1865, the population was about sixty thousand. 
 
 GRAND RAPIDS 
 
 Is situated on Grand river, forty miles from its mouth. The 
 city takes its name from the rapids of the river at that place. 
 It is beautifully situated on both banks of the river, in an eleva- 
 ted position, commanding a fine view of the river and surround- 
 ing country. It is actively engaged in commerce and manufac- 
 tures. The city was laid out in 1833, and incorporated in 1850. 
 It now contains twelve churches, two banks, and several semi- 
 naries. The population is about eight thousand one hundred. 
 
 ADRIAN 
 
 Is situated on a branch of the Raisin river, seventy miles 
 south-west of Detroit. It is actively engaged in commerce, and is 
 rapidly increasing in population. It has a number of large 
 public buildings, and several places of worship. The population 
 it about six thousand two hundred. 
 
 KALAMAZOO 
 
 Is situated on the left bank of Kalamazoo river, one hundred 
 and forty miles west of Detroit. It is actively engaged in trade. 
 The Michigan asylum for the insane is located here. It also 
 contains a United States land office, nine churches, and three 
 banks. In 1860 the population was six thousand and seventy. 
 
 ANN ARBOR 
 
 Is situated on the Huron river, thirty-eight miles west of 
 Detroit. It contains a university, three colleges, eight churches, 
 three banks, and a large union school. In 1864, the popula- 
 tion was about eight thousand nine hundred. 
 
288 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 JACKSON 
 
 Is situated on Grand river, seventy-six miles west of Detroit. 
 It contains the county buildings, five churches, one seminary 
 and the state penitentiary. In 1860 the population was four 
 thousand nine hundred and seventy-nine. 
 
 MONROE 
 
 Is pleasantly situated on both sides of the Raisin river, two 
 miles from its entrance into Lake Erie and forty miles south- 
 west of Detroit. The place was settled in 1776, but has mostly 
 been built since 1835. The population in 1860 was three thou- 
 sand eight hundred and ninety-two. 
 
 WISCONSIN. 
 
 Wisconsin was settled in the latter part of the seventeenth 
 century. For some time the population did not increase very 
 rapidly, but within the last few years the rich soil, valuable 
 minerals, and beautiful scenery of the state have attracted a 
 large number of emigrants. It was admitted into the union in 
 1848. 
 
 The surface of Wisconsin is elevated, though it has no moun- 
 tains. The climate is severe, the winters long, but almost en- 
 tirely free from those sudden changes which occur in some of 
 the states further south. The soil is fertile, and generally 
 adapted to farming and grazing, especially in the southern part 
 of the state. The mineral resources of the state are not yet 
 fully developed. Considerable quantities of copper, iron and 
 lead are found. The lead is frequently intermingled with cop- 
 per, zinc, and silver. 
 
 The principal rivers of the state flow in a south-westerly direc- 
 tion, and empty into the Mississippi, which traverses the south- 
 western border of the state for about two hundred miles. The 
 other important rivers are the Wisconsin and the Chippewa. 
 The Wisconsin rises in the northern part of the state, flows in a 
 south-westerly direction, and empties into the Mississippi. It is 
 about two hundred miles in length, and navigable for about one 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 289 
 
 hundred and eighty miles of this distance. The Chippewa rises 
 in the northern part of the state, flows in a south-westerly direc- 
 tion a distance of about two hundred miles, and discharges its 
 waters into the Mississippi. The courses of the rivers are rapid, 
 furnishing valuable water power, but unfavorable to navigation. 
 They abound in rapids and falls. On the Wisconsin occur the 
 St. Croix, Chippewa, and Big Bull falls. On the banks of this 
 river are Pentenwell peak, and Pulpit rock. The former is an 
 oval mass of rock, nine hundred feet long, three hundred feet 
 wide, and elevated about two hundred feet above the surround- 
 ing country. The latter (see view,) is about one hundred feet 
 in hight. One side has a perpendicular descent, and the other 
 descends by a succession of terraces. About fifty miles below 
 St. Anthony's falls the Mississippi river expands into a lake, 
 some five miles in width and twenty-five miles in length. This 
 is called Lake Pepin, which means " the Lake of Tears." This 
 lake is noted for its beautiful scenery. On the east side is a 
 bold rock over four hundred feet high called Maiden rock. (See 
 view.) 
 
 This rock derived its name from an occurrence which took 
 place about fifty years ago. An Indian girl, of the Wapa- 
 sha tribe, became very much attached to a young hunter. Her 
 parents, however, determined that she should marry a young 
 warrior who had signalized himself in battle against the Chippe- 
 was. Rather than submit to this, she ascended this rock, and, 
 with a loud voice commenced upbraiding her parents for their 
 cruel conduct. They promised to relinquish all compulsory 
 measures, but, regardless of their entreaties, she threw herself 
 from the rock, and fell a lifeless corpse at their feet. 
 
 In the northern part of the state are a number of small lakes, 
 remarkable for their beautiful scenery. Scattered throughout 
 the state are mounds or earth works, which are evidently the 
 work of a race who occupied the country previous to the peo- 
 ple found by the Europeans on their arrival here. The cities of 
 Wisconsin are growing rapidly, and new ones are constantly 
 springing up. 
 
290 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 MADISON, 
 
 The capital, is pleasantly situated in the center of a broad 
 valley, on an isthmus between Lakes Mendota and Monona. 
 The situation is remarkably beautiful, and it is much frequented 
 by pleasure seekers as a summer resort. Since its origin the 
 place has steadily and rapidly increased in population. When 
 it was selected in 1836 for the seat of government, it contained 
 but one house, and that was built of logs. It now contains a 
 handsome capitol, a university, twelve churches, four banks and 
 eighty stores. In 1865 the population was about ten thousand. 
 
 The other important places are Milwaukee, Racine, and 
 Janesville. 
 
 MILWAUKEE, 
 
 The largest city, is situated on the western shore of Lake 
 Michigan, at the mouth of Milwaukee river, seventy-five miles 
 east of Madison. It is pleasantly situated on both sides of the 
 river, and the general appearance of the place is very pleasing, 
 on account of the large number of buildings made from the brick 
 manufactured at that place. These bricks are of a light cream 
 color. Large quantities of them are shipped to other parts of 
 the United States. Milwaukee is remarkable for its rapid growth. 
 The extensive water power of the Milwaukee river is an impor- 
 tant element in the prosperity of the place. The town was set- 
 tled in 1835, and incorporated as a city in 1846. It contains 
 forty-three churches, eleven public schools, one female college, 
 several academies, eight banks, three orphan asylums and two 
 hospitals. In 1863 the population was about sixty-five thousand. 
 
 RACINE 
 Is beautifully situated on an elevated plain on the western 
 shore of Lake Michigan, at the mouth of Root river, twenty-five 
 miles south-east of Milwaukee. The city is regularly laid out, 
 with wide streets, and contains a number of handsome public 
 buildings and elegant private residences. Racine contains six- 
 teen churches, one college, six public schools and two banks. 
 It was settled in 1835, and incorporated in 1848. In 1865 the 
 population was about ten thousand. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 291 
 
 JANESVILLE 
 
 Is pleasantly situated on both sides of Rock river. It was 
 settled in 1836, and incorporated in 1853. It contains a court 
 house, nine churches, two banks, a high school, a female semi- 
 nary, and the state institution for the blind. In 1860 the pop- 
 ulation was seven thousand seven hundred and three. 
 
 MINNESOTA. 
 
 Minnesota was first visited by white men in the year 1654. 
 The first permanent settlement was made in 1811. The present 
 state formed a part of the original Louisiana territory as pur- 
 chased from France in 1803. It became a territory in 1847, 
 and was admitted into the union in 1853. 
 
 The surface of the state is generally uniform. It contains no 
 mountains, but is the most elevated tract of land between the 
 Gulf of Mexico and Hudson's bay. There are a few eleva- 
 tions above the general average, called mounds ; but, with these 
 exceptions, the surface is marked only by ravines running from 
 the general level down to the beds of the streams. It is neither 
 mountainous, hilly, or level, but a beautiful arrangement of up- 
 land and lowland plains. The climate is severe but remarkably 
 uniform, sudden changes rarely occurring, so that there is far 
 less suffering from cold than in the changeable weather of the 
 winters further south. 
 
 The soil on the river bottoms is very fertile. In the northern 
 part of the state the country is generally covered with drift, in- 
 terspersed with marshes, too wet for cultivation. The climate is 
 well adapted to the culture of wheat, barley, oats, and potatoes. 
 Indian corn thrives as well as in northern New York or New 
 England. Wild rice, strawberries, currants, plums, cranber- 
 ries and grapes are found in great abundance. 
 
 Minnesota is one of the best watered states in the union. It 
 abounds in beautiful lakes of almost every size. The largest of 
 these lakes, with the exception of Lake Superior, are the Lake 
 of the Woods, Rainy Lake, Red Lake, Lake Cass, Leech Lake, 
 and Mille Lac, or Spirit Lake. Lake Pepin and White Bear 
 
292 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 lake (see views,) are noted for their beautiful scenery. The 
 rivers of Minnesota abound in falls and rapids, which obstruct 
 navigation, but afford valuable water power. St. Anthony Falls, 
 on the Mississippi, have a perpendicular descent of sixteen and 
 one half feet. These falls are celebrated, not so much for their 
 hight, as for the wild and romantic scenery in the vicinity. 
 (See views of the Falls of St. Anthony.) Near the Falls of St. 
 Anthony is the beautiful cascade of Minnehaha. This is one of 
 the small perfect works of nature, possessing all the greater 
 charm, because it is not grand and overpowering, but simply 
 beautiful. It has a perpendicular descent of about forty-five 
 feet. As seen from beneath there is but a small portion of the 
 sky visible, against which the fall seems projected, as though the 
 waters were falling from some summer cloud. The precipice 
 below the verge arches over, leaving a space wide enough for a 
 foot path between it and the falls. (See views of Minnehaha.) 
 The principal rivers are the Mississippi, Minnesota, Red river 
 of the North, St. Louis, and St. Croix. The scenery along the 
 Mississippi is very beautiful. Near the confluence of the Mis- 
 sissippi and St. Peter's rivers there is an elevation two hundred 
 and sixty-two feet in hight, called Pilot Knob, and another at 
 Red Wing, three hundred feet in hight, called Barn Bluff. 
 (See views.) Two or three miles above St. Paul there is an ex- 
 cavation in the white sand stone called Fountain cave. This 
 opens by an arched passage into a chamber one hundred and 
 fifty feet long and twenty wide, along the center of which runs 
 a small stream. (See views of Fountain cave.) The scenery at 
 St. Cloud and Fort Snelling is remarkably beautiful. (See 
 views.) About thirty miles from the mouth of the St. Croix 
 river there are some rapids which have a descent of about fifty 
 feet in about three hundred yards. About half a mile below the 
 rapids the river has forced its way through a perpendicular wall 
 of trap rock, through which it rushes with great velocity. This 
 pass is called the Dalles of the St. Croix. (See views.) 
 
 ST. PAUL, 
 
 The capital of the state, is situated on a bluff seventy or eighty 
 feet high, on the left bank of the Mississippi river, eight miles 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 293 
 
 below the Falls of St. Anthony. It is a place of active business, 
 and is growing very rapidly. It was settled in 1840. The pop- 
 ulation in 1860 was ten thousand four hundred. 
 
 The other important places are St. Anthony, Minneapolis, 
 Stillwater, Winona, and Hastings. 
 
 CALIFORNIA. 
 
 California was discovered in 1548, by Cabrillo, a Spanish 
 navigator. In 1758, Sir Francis Drake visited its northern 
 coast, and named the country New Albion. The original settle- 
 ments in California were mission establishments, founded by 
 Catholic priests for the conversion of the natives. The policy 
 of these priests, who held absolute sway in California until 1833, 
 was to discourage emigration. In the year 1840 the number 
 of free whites and half breed inhabitants numbered less than six 
 thousand. The emigration from the United States first com- 
 menced in 1838 ; this so increased from year to year that' in 
 1846, Colonel Fremont had but little difficulty in calling to his 
 aid some five hundred fighting men. 
 
 Geographically considered, the position of California is one of 
 the best in the world, lying, as it does, on the Pacific, fronting 
 Asia. It is about seven hundred and fifty miles long with an 
 average breadth of about two hundred miles, giving an area of 
 one hundred and fifty thousand square miles. Its great length, 
 together with its diversity of surface, gives it a greater variation 
 of climate and productions than any other state in the union. 
 
 The Colorado desert lies in the south-eastern part of the state, 
 and is seventy miles wide by one hundred and forty long. It is 
 a low, barren, dry, cheerless region. Part of it is seventy feet 
 below the level of the sea, and, in times of very high water, the 
 Colorado river frequently overflows its banks, and a large stream 
 runs down into, this basin and makes a lake. North of the Col- 
 orado desert lies the Mohave basin, which has no outlet. All 
 its streams terminate in salt lakes, most of which dry up in sum- 
 mer. All these lakes are so strong with alkaline salts that no 
 fish can live in the water, and one of them is so strong that it 
 scalds the human cuticle. Most of the basin is four thousand 
 
294 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 feet above the level of the sea, but one portion, called Death 
 valley, is three hundred and seventy-five feet below. 
 
 Sierra Nevada stretches along the coast, at the general dis- 
 tance of one hundred and fifty miles from it. This great moun- 
 tain wall receives the warm winds, charged with vapor, which 
 sweep across the Pacific ocean, precipitates their accumulated 
 moisture in fertilizing rains and snows upon its western flank, 
 and leaves cold and dry winds to pass on to the east. The 
 region east of the mountains is comparatively barren and cold. 
 
 West of the Sierra Nevada is the inhabitable part of Califor- 
 nia. North and south, this region extends through about ten 
 degrees of latitude, from Oregon to the peninsula of California. 
 East and west it averages, in the middle part, one hundred and 
 fifty, and in the northern part, two hundred miles, giving an 
 area of about one hundred thousand square miles. Side ranges, 
 parallel to the Sierra and the coast, make the structure of the 
 rest of California, and break it into a surface of valleys and 
 mountains — the valleys a few hundred, and the mountains two 
 or three thousand feet above the sea. 
 
 The climate of California is mild. Snow never falls except 
 in mountain regions. About one-third of all the land is suscep- 
 tible of cultivation, and the soil is generally fertile, though not 
 equal to the Mississippi valley. Where rain is abundant large 
 crops are produced. Barley is cultivated to a greater extent 
 than in any other state in the union. Fruit trees grow rapidly, 
 and commence to bear when very young. The climate is pecu- 
 liarly favorable for the cultivation of the grape. The vineyards 
 of the state cover upwards of ten thousand acres. A single 
 bunch of grapes has been known to weigh seventeen pounds. 
 The vegetables are remarkable for their great size. At one of 
 the agricultural fairs there was exhibited a cabbage weighing fifty- 
 three pounds, a squash two hundred and sixty pounds, an onion 
 forty-seven pounds, a turnip twenty-six pounds, a watermelon 
 sixty-five pounds, a carrot ten pounds, and a beet one hundred 
 and eighteen pounds, five feet long by one foot in diameter. 
 
 There are dense forests on the Sierra Nevada and on the coast 
 north of the Golden Gate. The forests of the low land of the 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 295 
 
 Sacramento, the coast mountains south of thirty-seven degrees, 
 the Colorado desert, and the Mohave basin are limited to some 
 scattering groves of oak in the valleys and along the borders of 
 the streams, and of red wood on the ridges and in the gorges of 
 the hills, sometimes extending into the plains. The largest trees 
 in the state are the Sequoia Crigantea or mammoth trees. These 
 trees are found in the Sierra Nevada at an elevation of four 
 thousand feet. Already twenty groves have been discovered in 
 California. The Mariposa is the largest and finest, though the 
 Calaveras, fifty miles to the northward, is better known. This 
 grove contains ten trees thirty feet in diameter, eighty-two 
 between fifteen and thirty, and a number of smaller ones. Nearly 
 all of them are over two hundred and fifty feet high, and several 
 of them three hundred. One of them was cut down by boring 
 with augers and sawing the spaces between. The work employed 
 five men for twenty-five days. When fully cut off the tree stub- 
 bornly continued to stand, only yielding at last to a mammoth 
 wedge and a powerful battering-ram. Of the trees in the Mar- 
 iposa grove, two hundred are more than twelve feet in diameter, 
 fifty more than sixteen feet and six more than thirty feet. The 
 largest, called the " Prostrate Monarch," is now lying upon the 
 ground, leafless and branchless. It is believed to have fallen 
 fully one hundred and fifty years ago. Part of the trunk has 
 been consumed by fire, though enough of it remains to show that 
 with the bark on it must have been at least forty feet in diame- 
 ter. The largest of the trees are between three and four hun- 
 dred feet high. The tops of many of the large trees have been 
 broken off, leaving their average hight about two hundred and 
 fifty feet. In one of the trees, there is a cavity about half the 
 thickness of the trunk, which is large enough to admit fifteen 
 persons on horseback, without crowding in the least. Through 
 another, lying on the ground, a cavity has been burned, large 
 enough to permit a man to ride through its entire length. The 
 largest standing tree is the Grizzly Grant. If it was cut off 
 smoothly, fifty horses could easily stand upon the stump. If 
 the trunk were hollowed to a shell, it would hold more freight 
 than a man-of-war or a first class ocean steamer two hundred 
 
296 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 and fifty feet long. (See views of mammoth trees in Mariposa 
 and Calaveras groves.) The redwood pines which are scattered 
 among these trees would elsewhere be considered kings of the 
 forests, but among these hoary giants they dwarf into small 
 shrubs. They are scattered over an area of about twelve hun- 
 dred and eighty acres. Many of them are two hundred feet 
 in hight. 
 
 The chief mineral is gold, and California is the chief gold pro- 
 ducing country in the world. On the 19th of January, 1848, 
 the gold mines of the Sierra Nevada were discovered by an 
 American gentleman, James N. Marshall, and in about three 
 months upwards of four thousand people were working them. 
 Further explorations showed that these deposits of gold extended 
 over a vast extent of country. The discovery of gold at once 
 changed the character of California. Its people, before engaged 
 in cultivating small patches of ground, and guarding their herds 
 of cattle and horses, flocked to the mines. The laborers left 
 their work, the tradesmen their shops, the soldiers deserted from 
 the forts, and the sailors ran away from their ships. The mines 
 astonished the world by the vast amount of their production. 
 Information of the discovery spread rapidly, and in fifteen 
 months after their discovery one hundred thousand people had 
 started for the new El Dorado. Lower California was forgotten; 
 the only California before the eyes of the world was the new 
 land of gold, which thus usurped the name which once belonged 
 exclusively to the peninsula. 
 
 The principal gold region of California is about five hundred 
 miles long, and from forty to fifty miles broad, following the 
 line of the Sierra Nevada. (See views of California mining.) 
 
 There are numerous streams which have their sources in the 
 springs of the Sierra, and receive the waters from its melting 
 snows and that which falls in rain during the wet season. These 
 rivers in forming their channels, or breaking their way through 
 the hills, have come in contact with the quartz containing the 
 gold veins, and by constant attrition cut the gold into fine flakes 
 and dust, and it is found among the sand and gravel of their 
 beds at those places where the swiftness of the current reduces 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 297 
 
 it, in the dry season, to the narrowest possible limits, and where 
 a wide margin is consequently left on each side, over which the 
 water rushes during the wet season with great force. (See 
 views of Yuba river.) 
 
 Perhaps no state in the union is as remarkable for the com- 
 bination of loveliness with sublimity, as California. Its natural 
 scenery is unsurpassed by that of any other part of the world. 
 The Geysers, in Lake county, a cluster of hot, steaming springs, 
 and Lake Tahoe, or Bigler, near the summit of the Sierra Ne- 
 vada, are fashionable watering places. The rivers have fre- 
 quently cut for themselves beds, or canons, in the solid rock, 
 narrow and deep, with the banks rising perpendicularly on either 
 side. (See views of canons.) Lieutenant Ives' statements 
 respecting the gorges upon the Colorado river are almost incred- 
 ible, and are certainly without a parallel. At the head of 
 navigation the deep and narrow current of the river flows between 
 massive walls of rock, which rise sheer from the water for over 
 a thousand feet, seeming almost to meet in the dizzy hight above. 
 The sun rarely penetrates the depths of this " Black Canon," 
 which is about twenty-five miles in length. Incomparably the 
 grandest feature of California is the Yosemite valley. Unless 
 the unexplored Himalayas hide some rival, there is no spot, the 
 wide world over, of such varied beauty and measureless grand- 
 eur. The valley is from eight to ten miles long, and a little 
 more than a mile wide, with steep, rocky sides, in some places 
 four thousand feet high. Through this valley runs the Merced 
 river. This river is about forty yards wide. Its waters are almost 
 perfectly transparent. In the valley are five great cascades, the 
 highest of which is the Yosemite. This is the loftiest waterfall 
 in the world. It leaps one thousand six hundred feet at one 
 fall, then it has four hundred and thirty-four feet of rapids and 
 a second fall of six hundred feet, making in all a descent of two 
 thousand six hundred and thirty-four feet. Next to the Yo- 
 semite is Bridal Veil fall, which is nine hundred and forty feet 
 in hight. It is unbroken and much narrower than the Yo- 
 semite. Before reaching the end of its long descent it is com- 
 pletely transformed to spray. Its name is peculiarly fitting. It 
 
298 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 indeed looks like a veil of white lace, and, softened as it is by a 
 delicate mist, notwithstanding its great night, it strikes the be- 
 holder not so much with a feeling of awe, as with admiration of 
 its own beauty. Nevada Fall is six hundred feet in hight. Its 
 waters are always white as a snow drift. Its volume is much 
 greater, still it is not lacking in the misty softness, which forms 
 the principal beauty of Bridal Veil. South Fork Fall, six hun- 
 dred feet high, is very difficult of access, and is seldom visited by 
 travelers. Vernal Fall is on the middle or main fork of Ver- 
 nal river. In spring each fall has twenty times as much water 
 as in summer, and they are much more impressive and beautiful 
 than later in the season. The view from the top of Vernal Fall 
 is particularly impressive. In the distance, across the gorge, 
 snow-streaked mountains loom up before the eye, while beneath 
 is the valley, shut in by measureless inclosing walls, and fringed 
 with groves of pines and spreading oaks. 
 
 The rock mountains are the principal feature of the Yosemite. 
 Their dimensions are so vast as almost to exceed comprehension. 
 South Dome is really a semi-dome. It is four thousand nine 
 hundred and sixty-seven feet in hight. When we speak of a 
 rock thirty feet in hight, it conveys some definite impression, 
 but to tell of one four thousand feet high, only bewilders the 
 mind. North Dome is three thousand seven hundred and twen- 
 ty-nine feet in hight. Both these rocks are covered with vege- 
 tation. Hardy cedars, apparently growing out of the solid 
 rock, have braved for a thousand years the war of elements. 
 One large rock is named in honor of Thomas Starr King. The 
 grandest of all the rocks is Tutoconuula. This rock is three 
 thousand and twenty-nine feet in hight, with a smooth, seamless 
 wall, entirely destitute of vegetation. Its surface is so smooth 
 that it is impossible for a vine to fasten its tendrils upon its 
 polished, weather-beaten wall. Mirror Lake is on the north 
 fork of Merced river. The water is very transparent, reflecting 
 the objects above so perfectly as almost to resemble an inverted 
 dome of blue sky, dotted with mountains, rocks and trees. The 
 United States authorities have taken measures to preserve the 
 Yosemite valley and the Mariposa groves, as pleasure grounds 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 299 
 
 for the people of the United States. They are set apart from 
 the general public domain as a national park, and are under the 
 care of a commissioner appointed by the governor of California, 
 for their preservation and protection. 
 
 SACRAMENTO CITY 
 
 Is the capital of the state. It is situated on the left bank of 
 Sacramento river, one hundred and twenty miles north-east of 
 San Francisco. The river is navigable for steamers for some 
 distance above the place, at all seasons of the year, giving it 
 great commercial advantages. It was founded in 1849, and in 
 1865 the population was about eighteen thousand. (See views 
 of Sacramento.) 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, 
 
 The principal city, is situated on San Francisco bay, six miles 
 south of the Golden Gate. It is regularly laid out, and con- 
 tains many handsome buildings. There are within the city 
 forty-six churches, twenty banks, a custom-house, a branch mint, 
 a marine hospital, a number of public schools, a state normal 
 school, and seventy-five private schools, besides a number of 
 benevolent institutions. It is actively engaged in commerce, for 
 which it has great natural advantages. The population is rapidly 
 increasing ; in 1865 it was about ninety thousand. (See views 
 of San Francisco, harbor and bay.) 
 
 OREGON. 
 
 Oregon was first visited by the whites in 1775. From this 
 time until 1804 the coast was occasionally visited by fur traders. 
 In the year 1792, Captain Robert Gray, of the ship Columbia, 
 of Boston, discovered and entered the Columbia river. In 1808 
 the Missouri fur company established a trading post on Lewis 
 river, a branch of the Columbia, which was the first white set- 
 tlement in the state. Emigration from the United States did 
 not begin to any great extent until 1839. It was organized as 
 a territory in 1848, and admitted into the union in 1859. 
 
300 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 The state is divided into three natural sections ; the lower or 
 that portion next the ocean, the middle, or that part which lies 
 between the Cascade range and the Blue mountains, and the 
 upper, or that portion which lies between the Blue and Rocky 
 mountains. 
 
 Oregon has a milder climate than that of the same latitude on 
 the Atlantic coast. The climate of the coast region is mild 
 throughout the year, neither experiencing the extreme cold of 
 winter or the heat of summer. In the middle region the sum- 
 mers are drier and the winters colder than in the lower region, 
 but free from sudden changes from heat to cold. The upper 
 country is variable and colder than either of the others. The 
 soil in the upper region is sterile and unfitted for agricultural 
 operations. The central portion affords in many places excel- 
 lent pasturage, though it is not in many places susceptible of 
 cultivation, but that of the coast region is unsurpassed in fertil- 
 ity. Indian corn, wheat, barley, oats and turnips are the prin- 
 cipal productions. 
 
 The principal river is the Columbia, which is the largest river 
 on the Pacific slope of the continent. Its length, including that 
 of its longest affluent, is about one thousand two hundred miles. 
 It is navigable as far as the Cascades. Above this point the 
 navigation is obstructed. The scenery along the river is remark- 
 ably beautiful. At the point where it breaks through the Cas- 
 cade range, the channel narrows to one hundred and fifty yards. 
 The river rushes through the narrow opening with great violence, 
 and descends forty feet in two miles. At the dalles the channel 
 again narrows for half a mile to one hundred yards, and descends 
 fifty feet in two miles. 
 
 SALEM, 
 
 The capital of the state, is situated on the east bank of the 
 Willamette river, fifty miles above Oregon City. The river is 
 navigable to this point during high water for about nine months 
 of the year. The city is growing rapidly. In 1865 the popu- 
 lation was about two thousand five hundred. The other impor- 
 tant towns are Portland, Oregon City, Salem, Albany, Cor- 
 vallis, and Eugene City. 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 301 
 
 KANSAS. 
 
 This state was purchased from France in 1803, under what 
 is called the Louisiana purchase. It was organized as a sepa- 
 rate territory in 1854, and admitted into the union in 1861. 
 
 The surface of the state is gently undulating with no moun- 
 tains or other high elevations. The climate is mild ; the winters 
 are very short. The days in summer are quite warm, but are 
 always succeeded by cool and pleasant evenings. The soil is 
 very fertile, equal to if not surpassing that of any other state 
 in the union. The principal productions are corn, wheat, rye, 
 oats, tobacco, buckwheat, potatoes, cotton and hemp. The 
 principal rivers are the Missouri, which forms the north-eastern 
 boundary of the state for some distance, the Kansas and Arkan- 
 sas. The Kansas is formed by the union of the Republican and 
 Smoky Hill Forks. The length of the main branch is about 
 one hundred and twenty miles. The navigation is obstructed 
 by sand-bars. The Arkansas flows through the south-eastern 
 part of the state for some distance. The navigation is obstructed 
 by rapids. The principal tributaries from the state, are the 
 Walnut, Neosho, Verdigris, and Little Arkansas. 
 
 TOPEKA, 
 
 The capital, is pleasantly situated on the southern bank of 
 the Kansas river, about fifty miles south-west of Leavenworth. 
 It is regularly laid out, with wide streets, and is being rapidly 
 and neatly built up. The population is about seven hundred 
 and fifty. 
 
 The other important places are Leavenworth, Atchison and 
 Lawrence. 
 
 LEAVENWORTH, 
 
 The largest city, is beautifully situated on the right bank of 
 the Missouri, in the midst of a fine agricultural region. Steam- 
 boats navigate the river from this place to St. Louis. The city 
 contains sixteen churches, seven banks, four academies, seven 
 public schools, and one medical college. The population is rap- 
 idly increasing. In 1855, it numbered about one thousand, and 
 in 1865, it was nearly eighteen thousand. 
 
302 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 ATCHISON 
 
 Is situated on the right bank of the Missouri river, about 
 twenty-five miles above Leavenworth. In 1865, the population 
 was about three thousand five hundred. 
 
 LAWRENCE 
 
 Is situated on the right bank of the Kansas river. The city 
 was founded in 1854. In 1863, the town was burned by the 
 rebels under Quantrell, and about one hundred and fifty of the 
 inhabitants killed. It has since been rapidly rebuilt. The pop- 
 ulation is now about one thousand six hundred. 
 
 NEBRASKA. 
 
 Nebraska originally formed a part of the Louisiana purchase. 
 It became a separate territory in 1854. In 1861 its limits were 
 greatly reduced by the formation of the territory of Dakota. 
 It was admitted into the union in 1867. 
 
 The surface of the state, from the Missouri westward, is a 
 rolling prairie, but little diversified in its aspect, except by the 
 intersection of its streams. The soil for about one hundred 
 miles west of the Missouri river resembles that of Iowa and Mis- 
 souri. In the western part of the state is an extensive tract 
 known as "badlands." This consists of a rolling prairie, so 
 largely intermixed with sand as to be almost unfit for ordinary 
 agricultural purposes. The prairies, however, are covered with 
 rich grass, which affords excellent pasturage. The principal 
 productions of the state are corn, wheat, oats, hay, butter, and 
 potatoes. 
 
 The climate is milder than that of the eastern states in the 
 same latitude. The summers are very warm, but are generally 
 relieved by cool winds from the prairies. 
 
 The principal rivers are the Missouri, Niobrara, and Nebraska. 
 The Missouri forms its entire eastern boundary. The Niobrara 
 crosses the north-western part of the state and empties into the 
 
THE WESTERN STATES. 303 
 
 Missouri. The Nebraska is formed by the union of the North 
 and South fork. Its length, including North fork is about one 
 thousand two hundred miles. 
 
 OMAHA, 
 
 The capital, is pleasantly situated on the west bank of the 
 Missouri, opposite Council Bluffs. The city contains a court 
 house, ten churches, a female seminary and a number of other 
 schools. The name of Omaha was derived from a tribe of In- 
 dians. It is a thriving town, and growing rapidly. In 1860 
 the population was about one thousand eight hundred, and in 
 1865 about four thousand five hundred. (See views of Omaha.) 
 The other important places are Nebraska City and Brownsville. 
 
 The population of Nebraska City is about one thousand nine 
 hundred. That of Brownsville, in 1860, was four hundred and 
 twenty-five. 
 
 NEVADA. 
 
 Nevada was formerly comprised in the territory of Utah. It 
 was organized as a territory in 1861, and admitted into the 
 union in 1864. 
 
 The surface of Nevada consists of a succession of mountain 
 ranges, with intervening valleys, and sandy plains. The soil is 
 generally sterile, and a large portion of it is not capable of 
 supporting a population. The climate is dry, and in many 
 respects resembles that of Utah. It is rich is mineral resources. 
 In Story county there are some silver mines said to be the rich- 
 est in the world. Gold, silver, copper, lead, and iron, are also 
 abundant. 
 
 It has no large streams. The only ones deserving of notice, 
 are Humboldt, Walker, and Carson rivers. The lakes are small, 
 and many of them have no outlet. Pyramid lake in the western 
 part of the state, is inclosed by precipitous rocks which rise to 
 a great hight. It derives its name from a rock shaped like a 
 pyramid, about six hundred feet in hight. 
 
304 THE WESTERN STATES. 
 
 CARSON CITY, 
 
 The capital, is situated at the eastern base of the Sierra 
 Nevada, about four miles west of Carson river. In 1864, the 
 silver mines at this place yielded upwards of one million dollars. 
 In 1865, the population was about two thousand five hundred. 
 
 The other important places are Nevada City and Gold Hill. 
 The population of Nevada City is about three thousand six 
 hundred. That of Gold Hill in 1860, was six hundred and 
 thirty-eight. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 The territories of the United States are ten in number, viz : 
 Washington, Idaho, Montana, Dakota, Wyoming, Utah, Color- 
 ado, Arizona, New Mexico, and Indian territory ; the greater 
 number of which are traversed by the Rocky mountain system, 
 commencing in New Mexico, extending in a north-west direction 
 across the North American continent, and terminating near the 
 mouth of the Mackenzie river. The name Rocky mountains is, 
 however, applied to only that part of the system within the 
 United States. To this system belong the Sierra Madre, Was- 
 utch, Bitter Root, Black Hills, and others. The great breadth 
 of the base, and the gentle acclivity render the Rocky moun- 
 tains more easily traversed than any others of the same altitude. 
 The Union Pacific railroad crosses them at Bear mountain sum- 
 mit, eight thousand seven hundred and ninety feet above the 
 level of the sea. 
 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 Is bounded on the north by British America, on the east by 
 Idaho, on the south by Oregon, and on the west by the Pacific 
 ocean. This territory was separated from Oregon by an act of 
 Congress in 1853. A large portion of the surface is mountain- 
 ous, and abounds in romantic scenery. Washington has a great 
 coal trade, and gold has been found on the Columbia river, and 
 on the east side of the Cascade mountains. The eastern and 
 central portions are peopled by various Indian tribes. The white 
 inhabitants live west of the Cascade range. Olympia, the capi- 
 tal, is on Shute's river, at its entrance into Puget sound. Steil- 
 acoom is one of the most important places. 
 
 20 
 
306 TERRITORIES. 
 
 IDAHO 
 
 Was organized in 1863. It is bounded on the north by Brit- 
 ish America and Montana, on the east by Montana and Wyom- 
 ing, on the south by Utah and Nevada, and on the west by 
 Oregon and Washington. 
 
 The surface is rugged and mountainous ; the scenery pic- 
 turesque and grand. In this territory is Fremont's peak, the 
 highest of the Rocky mountains in the United States, having 
 an altitude of thirteen thousand five hundred and ten feet. 
 
 Gold and silver, the chief minerals, are found in large quanti- 
 ties, and mining is actively engaged in. 
 
 Boise City, on the Boise or Big Wood river, is the capital. 
 
 MONTANA 
 
 Formed a part of Idaho until 1864, when it was organized as 
 a territory. It is bounded on the north by British America, on 
 the east by Dakota, on the south by Wyoming and Idaho, and 
 on the west by Idaho. 
 
 The surface is rugged, mountainous, and in some places shows 
 signs of volcanic action. Silver and iron exist in large quanti- 
 ties, and gold has been found to some extent. 
 
 The Missouri river has its source in Montana. In the north- 
 eastern part of this territory is Fort Union, on the proposed north- 
 ern railroad route to the Pacific. Montana was organized as a 
 territory in 1863. 
 
 The principal towns are Virginia City, the capital, Bannock 
 City, Laburge City, Gallatin City, and Nevada. 
 
 DAKOTA, 
 
 The largest territory, was organized in 1861. It is bounded 
 on the north by British America, on the east by Minnesota and 
 Iowa, on the south by Nebraska, and on the west by Montana 
 and Wyoming. 
 
 This territory presents every variety of surface, elevated table 
 lands, rugged hills, plains, and sand hills. The Missouri river 
 
TERRITORIES. 307 
 
 traverses nearly the entire length of this territory. On it are 
 built several United States forts, among which are Forts Ber- 
 thold, Clark, Sully, and others. 
 
 Yanktown is the capital, and Pembina the oldest city. (See 
 views in Dakota.) 
 
 WYOMING, 
 
 The latest organized territory, is bounded on the north by 
 Montana, on the east by Dakota and Nebraska, on the south 
 by Colorado and Utah, and on the west by Utah, Idaho and 
 Montana. 
 
 Through the central part of this territory passes a ridge of 
 the Rocky mountains. In the south-eastern part occur the Black 
 hills, the principal of which are Laramie peak and Mount Pisgah. 
 South-west of this range of hills, and between them and the 
 Rocky mountains, are the Laramie plains, on which are found 
 huge red sandstone rocks. This territory formerly belonged to 
 Dakota, from which it has recently been separated. 
 
 UTAH 
 
 Is bounded on the north by Idaho and Wyoming, on the east 
 by Wyoming and Colorado, on the south by Arizona, and on 
 the west by Nevada. 
 
 It was originally a part of California territory, ceded to the 
 United States by Mexico in 1848. It became a separate terri- 
 tory in 1850. The general surface is mountainous, and the 
 most barren and sterile region in the United States. Some of 
 the villages are six thousand feet above the level of the sea. 
 The climate in summer is hot and in winter mild, but subject to 
 sudden changes. Great Salt Lake, in this territory, is the most 
 remarkable body of water in the United States. This lake is 
 in the northern part of the territory, about four thousand two 
 hundred feet above the level of the sea, and so bitterly salt that 
 no live animal can exist in it. It has no visible outlet, but four 
 
308 TERRITORIES. 
 
 rivers empty into it, one of which is the river Jordan, connect- 
 ing it with Utah Lake. The water of Salt Lake is so buoyant 
 that one finds difficulty in wading in it, floats with ease, and 
 would be in no danger of drowning, except by strangling. 
 Three gallons of water produce one gallon of pure salt ; and, 
 during hot weather, the shores of the lake are covered with a 
 thick incrustation of salt, caused by solar evaporation. The 
 lake is one hundred and twenty miles long and forty miles broad. 
 Utah Lake is about thirty miles from Great Salt Lake. It is 
 a clear, fresh body of water, twenty miles wide and thirty-five 
 miles long. 
 
 SALT LAKE CITY, 
 
 The capital of L'tah, is about twenty miles from Great Salt 
 Lake, and is situated near the Jordan river. The city was laid 
 out by the Mormons in 1847, contains about twenty thousand 
 inhabitants, and publishes three daily and one weekly papers. 
 Camp Douglas, a garrisoned post of the United States army, 
 restrains the despotic power of the Mormon church, affords 
 shelter to all those who abandon that faith, and sends them to 
 the states under military escort. Brigham Young, the president 
 of the Mormon church, is popular among the " saints," and 
 rules them with ease. His dwellings, the Lion House and the 
 Bee-hive House, are in the heart of the city, surrounded by a 
 wall eleven feet high, built of bowlders laid in mortar. In the 
 city are four public squares, in one of which a magnificent tem- 
 ple is being erected. (See views of Salt Lake City.) 
 
 COLORADO, 
 
 Organized in 1861, is bounded on the north by Wyoming and 
 Nebraska, on the east by Nebraska and Kansas, on the south 
 by Indian Territory and New Mexico, and on the west by Utah. 
 
 The general surface is mountainous. Within this territory 
 are some of the highest peaks of the Rocky mountains, the 
 most noted of which are Long's Peak and Pike's Peak. The 
 
TERRITORIES. 309 
 
 latter has an altitude of eleven thousand four hundred and nine- 
 ty-seven feet. It was at this peak that gold was first discovered 
 in Colorado. 
 
 The principal rivers are Arkansas, south fork of the Platte, 
 Yampa, Bear, Bunkara and Gunnison. Big Thompson creek 
 is in the northern part of the territory. 
 
 DENVBK, 
 
 The capital, the most populous and principal commercial city 
 of Colorado, is pleasantly located at the foot of the mountains, 
 on the south fork of the Platte. Among the public buildings 
 are the Colorado seminary, costing twenty thousand dollars ; 
 five churches, one of which cost twenty -four thousand dollars ; 
 a Catholic academy, and a United States branch mint, costing 
 seventy-five thousand dollars. 
 
 ARIZONA 
 
 Is bounded on the north by Utah, on the east by New Mexi- 
 co, on the south by Mexico, and on the west by California and 
 Nevada. 
 
 It formerly belonged to New Mexico, and was made a separate 
 territory in 1863. Its general surface is mountainous, and 
 great portions are supposed to be of volcanic origin. This ter- 
 ritory abounds in extensive treeless plains, or prairies. 
 
 Arizona is rich in gold and silver mines, which are found in 
 almost every part of the territory. The capital is Prescott. 
 The chief towns are Tucson and Tubac. 
 
 NEW MEXICO 
 
 Is bounded on the north by Colorado, on the east by Indian 
 Territory and Texas, on the south by Texas and Mexico, and 
 on the west by Arizona. 
 
 This territory is, for the most part, an elevated table-land, 
 traversed by several mountain ranges. The greater portion of 
 the inhabitants are Indians. It is probable that this territory 
 abounds in precious metals, but the mines have not yet been 
 worked very extensively, and the future may reveal vast treas- 
 ures of gold, silver and other metals. 
 
310 TERRITORIES. 
 
 SANTA FE, 
 
 The capital, has a population of four thousand six hundred 
 and thirty-eight. The other principal settlements are Albu- 
 querque and Socorre. 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY. 
 
 This territory is bounded on the north by Colorado and Kan- 
 sas, on the east by Missouri and Arkansas, on the south by 
 Texas, and on the west by Texas and New Mexico. 
 
 This territory was set apart by the United States as a perma- 
 nent home for the Indians. The soil is fertile, productive, and 
 well adapted to grazing. Some of the tribes which people this 
 territory are advanced in civilization. Others are indolent, 
 degraded, and are rapidly diminishing under the influence of 
 intemperance. 
 
 Tahlequah, a Cherokee town, is the principal place of this 
 territory. 
 
 The Union Pacific railroad is now completed, forming an easy 
 mode of communication between the states and territories, and 
 there is a prospect that they will now be more rapidly settled. 
 The railroad passes through Nebraska, Wyoming, Utah, Nevada, 
 touches Colorado, and terminates at Sacramento, California. 
 
 RUSSIAN AMERICA 
 
 Was purchased by the United States in 1867. Its area is 
 nearly ten times as great as that of Pennsylvania. It is bounded 
 on the north by the Arctic ocean, on the east by British Amer- 
 ica, on the south by the Pacific ocean, and on the west by Behr- 
 ing's sea, Behring's strait, and Arctic ocean. 
 
 The inhabitants are chiefly Esquimaux, living in huts partly 
 under ground. They are a filthy and degraded race. There 
 are, beside these, about six thousand Russians engaged in trap- 
 ping and fishing. 
 
 South of the peninsula of Alaska the coast is mountainous, 
 abounding in precipitous cliffs, descending abruptly to the sea. 
 
TERRITORIES. 311 
 
 North of this peninsula it is low and marshy. Along the coast 
 are groups of volcanic islands, between which and the main land 
 is a remarkable interior channel, safe for navigation at all times. 
 The climate is not as cold as it is in the same latitude on the 
 eastern coasts of the American and Asiatic continents. Sitka, 
 or New Archangel, the principal settlement, is on Baranoff 
 island. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF BRITISH AMERICA. 
 
 British America comprises Canada East, Canada West, New 
 Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Prince Edward's Island, 
 Newfoundland, North-west Territory, and Hudson's Bay Terri- 
 tory. 
 
 The surface is generally level. The] Alleghany mountain 
 system extends into Canada, and terminates in low hills on the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence. A chain of hills called the Wotchish 
 mountains, separates the basin of the St. Lawrence from that 
 of Hudson's Bay. With these exceptions, it has few elevations 
 of any considerable hight. 
 
 The climate is subject to great extremes. The summers are 
 very warm, and the winters long and cold. The heat of sum- 
 mer, and the cold of winter is much greater than in the same 
 latitude in Europe. In that portion bordering on the great lakes, 
 the winters are not so cold and the heat of summer is less 
 intense. 
 
 The Province of Canada is heavily timbered. In the south- 
 eastern portion of this province, the soil is very fertile, and 
 produces large crops of wheat and other grains ; but near the 
 mouth of the St. Lawrence, the climate is too severe and the 
 soil too poor to admit cultivation. 
 
 The principal rivers are the St. Lawrence and Ottawa. The 
 St. Lawrence, one of the largest rivers of North America, forms 
 the outlet to the great lakes. It is about seven hundred and 
 fifty miles in length, and navigable as far as Montreal for vessels 
 of six hundred tons. Above this point, the navigation is 
 obstructed by rapids. The Ottawa, with a volume of water 
 almost equal to the St. Lawrence, enters this river about forty 
 
BRITISH AMERICA. 313 
 
 miles west of Montreal. It is about eight hundred miles in 
 length. Its navigation is obstructed by rapids and cataracts. 
 It abounds in beautiful scenery, and its banks are covered with 
 valuable timber. 
 
 Canada shares with New York in the grand and beautiful 
 scenery of Niagara Falls. The basin of the St. Lawrence is 
 famous for the grandeur of its natural scenery. Besides Niag- 
 ara, it contains the Falls of Montmorenci, seven miles from 
 Quebec, with a perpendicular descent of two hundred and forty 
 feet ; the Falls of Chaudiere, ten miles from Quebec, rushing 
 and foaming over a wild chasm one hundred and twenty-five feet 
 in perpendicular descent ; the Carrillon Falls of the Ottawa, a 
 series of rapids twelve miles in length, and the romantic scenery 
 of the Saguenay river. The banks of this river, varying in hight 
 from five hundred to one thousand five hundred feet, are in many 
 places perpendicular, while in other places they absolutely over- 
 hang the river. The water is very deep. Near its mouth a line 
 of three thousand feet failed to reach the bottom. In other 
 places, its depths varies from one hundred to one thousand feet. 
 
 The principal towns of British America are Montreal, Quebec, 
 Toronto, Halifax, St. Johns, Hamilton, Ottawa, and Kingston. 
 
 MONTREAL 
 
 Was formerly the capital of Canada East. It is situated on 
 the island of Montreal, in the St. Lawrence river, at the mouth 
 of the Ottawa. The city occupies a tract of land about two 
 miles wide, between the river and a beautiful elevation called 
 Royal Mount. It possesses a fine harbor and is extensively 
 engaged in commerce. It contains a number of elegant churches, 
 the finest of which is the Roman Catholic Cathedral, one of the 
 handsomest gothic buildings in North America, and capable of 
 seating from ten to twelve thousand persons, a town hall, a 
 French college, a university, a Roman Catholic theological 
 school, and several classical and scientific academies. The city 
 was founded in 1640. In 1861, the population was about nine- 
 ty thousand. (See views of Montreal.) 
 
314 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 Is situated on the left bank of the St. Lawrence river one 
 hundred and eighty miles above Montreal. The city is beauti- 
 fully situated at the extremity of a narrow table land which 
 forms the bank of the St. Lawrence for about eight miles. The 
 city is actively engaged in commerce. Manufactures are not 
 carried on to any great extent. It contains a large number of 
 elegant public and private buildings. The population in 1861 
 was about fifty-one thousand. (See views of Quebec.) 
 
 TORONTO, 
 
 Formerly the capital of Canada West, is situated on a beau- 
 tiful bay on the north-western shore of Lake Ontario, about 
 three hundred and ninety miles south-west of Montreal. It is 
 one of the most flourishing cities of British America. The 
 harbor, formed by the bay, on which the town is situated, is 
 beautiful and commodious. The city contains many elegant 
 public buildings. The Government and Parliament houses are 
 very plain and unpretending, and have long been in use, but 
 they are soon to be superseded by new buildings. The city was 
 founded in 1794. The population in 1861 was about forty- 
 four thousand eight hundred. 
 
 HALIFAX, 
 
 The capital of Nova Scotia, is situated on a deep inlet of the 
 sea on the southern shore of that peninsula. It is actively 
 engaged in commerce with various parts of North America, 
 West Indies and Europe. The population is about thirty thous- 
 and. 
 
 ST. JOHNS, 
 The capital of Newfoundland, and the most eastern seaport of 
 North America, is situated on a peninsula which projects from 
 the eastern coast of the island of Newfoundland. The shortest 
 distance between any two seaports of Europe and America is 
 from this point to Gal way, Ireland, being one thousand six hun- 
 dred and sixty-five miles. The town is situated on an elevation, 
 and consists principally of one street about a mile in length. 
 The population is about twenty-five thousand. 
 
BRITISH AMERICA. 315 
 
 HAMILTON 
 
 Is situated at the head of Burlington bay, at the western ex- 
 tremity of Lake Ontario. In the rear of the city is a mountain 
 rising to a considerable hight, and affording a delightful view of 
 the city and surrounding country. The city was laid out in 
 1813. The population in 1861 was about nineteen thousand. 
 
 OTTAWA, 
 
 One of the most flourishing towns of Canada West, is situated 
 on the right bank of the Ottawa river. It has recently been 
 selected as the capital of Canada. The necessary public build- 
 ings were completed in 1867, and the seat of government removed 
 to this place. The population in 1861 was about fourteen thou- 
 sand six hundred. 
 
 KINGSTON 
 
 Is situated on the St. Lawrence river, at the foot of Lake 
 Ontario, about two hundred miles south-west of Montreal. It is 
 a flourishing city and growing rapidly. The population in 1861 
 was about thirteen thousand seven hundred. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF MEXICO. 
 
 Mexico, of the grand divisions of North America the fourth 
 in size, and second in population, lies between latitude 15° 58' 
 and 33° 5' N., and longitude 86° 43' and 117° 5' W. This 
 territory is bounded on the north-east and north by the United 
 States — Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and California, — and on 
 the east-south-east by Guatemala, a province of Central Amer- 
 ica. On the east the outline forms a semi-circle, which is washed 
 by the Gulf of Mexico ; and on the west, south and south-west 
 is the Pacific Ocean. The general outline of the country is very 
 irregular. The greatest length from north-west to south-east 
 is one thousand nine hundred miles ; greatest width on a paral- 
 lel of latitude is nine hundred and sixty miles ; area, six hun- 
 dred and sixty-eight thousand square miles. The most import- 
 ant indentation in the coast line is the Gulf of California, about 
 six hundred miles long and one hundred miles wide, and lying 
 between the peninsula of California, and Sonora and Sinaloa. 
 
 The interior of Mexico consists of a vast table-land, rising 
 from five thousand to nine thousand feet above the sea. The 
 chief divisions of this great Mexican plateau are the Chihuahua 
 and Anahuac table-lands, the former from four thousand to six 
 thousand, and the latter from five thousand to nine thousand 
 feet in hight. The table-land of Chihuahua is north of the 
 twenty-fourth parallel, and is a bleak, barren and desolate re- 
 gion. Directly the reverse is the Anahuac plateau, a healthy, 
 rich and fertile tract, where flourishes vegetation peculiar to the 
 temperate zone. The Sierra Madre mountain chain, a continu- 
 ation of the Rocky mountains, crosses the plateau from north 
 to south. The loftiest summits of the mountains of Mexico 
 occur in a chain which extends across the southern portion of 
 
MEXICO. 317 
 
 the table-lands from east to west. Here are the Smoking Moun- 
 tain, or volcano of Popocatapetl, seventeen thousand seven hun- 
 dred and seventeen feet high; Iztaccihuatl, the White Lady, 
 fifteen thousand seven hundred and five feet high ; the peak of 
 Orizaba, seventeen thousand three hundred and eighty feet high ; 
 CofFre de Perote, thirteen thousand four hundred feet high, and 
 the volcano of Tuxtla, five thousand one hundred and eighteen 
 feet high. About one hundred and seventy-five miles west of 
 the White Lady, is the far-famed volcano of Jurullo, which rose, 
 in September, 1789, from a level plain to the hight of four thou- 
 sand two hundred and sixty-five feet. 
 
 The descents among the valleys of the Mexican plateau are 
 so gradual, that carriages can travel over it without much diffi- 
 culty. On the contrary, the approach from the sea is steep and 
 precipitous, especially on the eastern side, where the summit can 
 be reached only by two roads. Between the base of the table- 
 land and the Gulf of Mexico, is a considerable interval of low 
 and sandy land. 
 
 The rivers of Mexico are generally small, and are frequently 
 obstructed by rapids. The largest of these is the Rio Grande 
 del Norte, marking a portion of the boundary between Mexico 
 and the United States. It has a course of one thousand eight 
 hundred miles, and is navigable for small vessels to Matamoras, 
 forty miles from the Gulf of Mexico, which it enters. The Rio 
 de Tampico, formed by the confluence of the Tula and Panuco, 
 enters the Gulf of Mexico after a course of four hundred miles. 
 The other rivers worthy of note are Rio Grande de Santiago 
 and Tecapan, entering the Pacific, the Sinaloa, entering the 
 Gulf of California, and the Conchas, Sabinas and Salinas, afflu- 
 ents of the Rio Grande. The Rio Grande de Santiago, origi- 
 nating in Guanajuato, drains Lake Chapala, and, after a course 
 of seven hundred miles, enters the Pacific near San Bias. Near 
 Guadalaxara the river has sixty falls in the space of three miles. 
 
 Mexico, like all other countries within the tropics, containing 
 high and low lands, exhibits a great variety of climate. The 
 rainy season generally continues from May till October, and the 
 
318 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 dry from October till May. From the Gulf of Mexico to the 
 summit of the table land will be found three climatic districts, 
 viz. : the hot, swampy, and pestilential lowlands, the temperate 
 regions, found between the hights of two and five thousand feet, 
 and cold and desolate regions above. Vegetation varies with 
 the climate, the lowlands yielding forests of oak, pine, mahogany, 
 ebony, and palm, and the cooler regions wheat, barley, Indian 
 corn, cotton, tobacco, sugar-cane, fruits and spices. 
 
 The wild animals of Mexico are numerous. The jungles of 
 the lowlands are made the retreat of the cougar, or American 
 lion, ocelot, jaguarundi, tiger-cat, and the more formidable 
 jaguar, or American tiger. The American buffalo, known in 
 Mexico as Cibolo, in mid-winter, sweep in immense herds over 
 the lower districts from the plains of the north-west. The most 
 ferocious of the species of grizzly bear inhabits the northern 
 mountain districts. The tapir, wolf, American lynx, stag, deer, 
 sloth, armadillo, and weasel, are also peculiar to Mexico. 
 Various species of the monkey are found, and the cochineal in- 
 sect is reared with great success. The forests swarm with count- 
 less varieties of the feathered family, as the parrot, humming- 
 bird, and various species of wild game birds. 
 
 The mineral wealth of Mexico, particularly in gold and silver, 
 is very great. The mines are, however, but imperfectly worked, 
 and are not as productive as in former times. The chief de- 
 posits of gold occur north of the twenty -fourth parallel, on the 
 west side of the Sierra Madre. Silver, variously mixed with 
 sulphur, antimony and arsenic, is found in beds from twenty-five 
 to one hundred and fifty feet thick in the state of Guanajuato. 
 The annual product of gold and silver at the beginning of the 
 present century, amounted to about fifteen millions of dollars, of 
 which by far the greater portion was yielded by the silver. 
 Mexico has also mines of iron, copper, lead, zinc, and other 
 useful metals, which, however, have been but little worked. 
 
 The chief manufactures of Mexico are sugar, aloes, wine, 
 earthenware, silk, paper, and glass. In the city of Mexico are 
 fifty mills engaged in the manufacture of olive oil, and also man- 
 ufactories of silk, producing forty thousand pounds annually. 
 
OF MEXICO. 319 
 
 The coast on the Gulf of Mexico is flat and sandy, and is 
 therefore deficient in good harbors. On the contrary the Pacific 
 shore is more bold, and abounds with excellent havens. Not- 
 withstanding the unrivaled advantages which the country has 
 for trade, being washed by the Atlantic on one hand and the 
 Pacific on the other, and being rich in vegetable and mineral 
 productions, the commerce of Mexico is extremely limited. Her 
 commercial standing has been on the retrograde ever since her 
 independence of Spain was recognized. The chief exports are 
 gold, silver, cattle, hides, and cochineal. 
 
 The capital, and largest city of Mexico, is a city of the same 
 name. The other most important cities are La Puebla, Guada- 
 laxara, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Merida, Morelia, Zacatecas, 
 Monterey, and Vera Cruz. 
 
 MEXICO, 
 
 The capital, is in the valley of Tenochititlan, on a table land 
 seven thousand four hundred and thirty feet above the sea, and 
 is environed on all sides by lofty mountain peaks. The city is on 
 a plateau, covering an area of seventeen hundred square miles, 
 and embracing in its extent five beautiful lakes. At the time of 
 the conquest by Cortez, the city occupied three islands in Lake 
 Tezcuco, and was approached by four large causeways, which 
 met in the heart of the city. In the center of the city is a fine 
 square of thirty or forty acres, known as Plaza Mayor, and 
 contains besides the cathedral, the National Palace and town 
 house. The chief streets converge towards this square, and are 
 broad, well-paved, and lighted with gas. 
 
 The cathedral is an imposing building, occupying the site of 
 the great teoealli, or temple of the Aztec god Mixitli. This 
 structure, occupying an entire side of the Plaza Mayor, is five 
 hundred feet long, four hundred and twenty feet wide, and has 
 in front two towers, supported by immense pillars. The choir 
 is of finely carved wood, and the high altar is adorned with gold 
 and silver candle-sticks and crosses. On another side of the 
 Plaza Mayor, is the palatial residence, formerly of the viceroys, 
 and at the present time, of the president. The other buildings 
 
320 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 of interest are the university, directly opposite the National 
 Palace, containing the National Museum, the Church of San 
 Domingo, a beautiful structure surmounted with a dome and 
 lofty spire, and the convents of St. Augustine and St. Francis- 
 co, elegant structures, adorned with a large number of domes 
 and cupolas. In the Plaza Mayor, is the kellenda, a circular 
 stone, on which are carved hieroglyphics, by which the Aztecs 
 used to represent months of the year ; and in the court-yard of 
 the university is a colossal equestrian statue of Charles IV. 
 The other objects worthy of notice, are the magnificent aque- 
 ducts, which supply the city with water ; the Alameda, a fine 
 public park of twelve acres, a great resort for the people on 
 occasions of festivity, and the Paseos, two fine promenades, the 
 one in the eastern, and the other in the western section of the 
 city. Mexico has fifteen churches, fifty monasteries and con- 
 vents, a large number of charitable institutions, a theatre, and 
 a circus, a circular enclosure called the Plaza de Toros, capa- 
 cious enough to accommodate three thousand five hundred per- 
 sons, where are celebrated bull-fights and other public amuse- 
 ments. 
 
 Mexico is the great focus of the internal trade of the republic. 
 The chief manufactures are carriages, leather, gold-lace, and 
 cigars, which, in connection with gold and silver, are the chief 
 articles of export. Population in 1860, two hundred and five 
 thousand. 
 
 LA PUEBLA, 
 
 Called from the beauty of its location, the "city of angels," 
 is a finely built city, and capital of the state of the same name, 
 seventy-six miles south-east of Mexico. The streets are well 
 paved. The city is built chiefly of stone, and has three colleges, 
 and manufactories of glass, soap, earthenwares, etc. Popula- 
 tion in 1860, seventy-one thousand. 
 
 GUADALAXARA 
 
 An important city of Mexico, and capital of the state of Jal- 
 isco, is on the southern bank of the Rio Grande de Santiago, 
 two hundred and seventy miles north-west of Mexico. 
 
OP MEXICO. 321 
 
 The most interesting building in the city is the cathedral, an 
 imposing edifice in the Plaza Mayor. This building does not 
 hold its former architectural rank, as both its towers were de- 
 stroyed, and other injuries sustained, during the earthquake 
 of 1818. The Alameda, or public walk, is a fine promenade, 
 beautifully adorned with trees and flowers. The city has man- 
 ufactories of iron, earthenware, leather and cloth. Population 
 in 1860, sixty-three thousand. 
 
 GUANAJUATO, 
 
 A city of Mexico, and capital of a state of its own name, is 
 in a narrow mountain defile, one hundred and sixty miles north- 
 west of Mexico. The city is formed by a cluster of villages, 
 and is extensively engaged in mining. It has seven fine churches, 
 numerous chapels and convents, and a large public granary. 
 Population, fifty thousand. 
 
 QUERETARO, 
 
 Capital of a state of the same name, is a manufacturing town, 
 one hundred and ten miles north-west of Mexico. The city has 
 a monastery, in the center of finely ornamented grounds, a large 
 convent, and manufactories of cloth. It is supplied with water 
 by an aqueduct ten miles long. Population, twenty-nine thous- 
 and eight hundred. 
 
 MERIDA 
 
 Is an important city in the north-western part of Yucatan, of 
 which it is the capital. It is twenty-five miles from Sisal, its 
 port, and has a considerable trade. The finest building is the 
 cathedral, an imposing structure, in the central square. This 
 square also contains the government house and Bishop's palace. 
 The city has a university and thirteen churches. Population, 
 forty thousand. 
 
 The inhabitants of Mexico, consisting of whites, Indians, 
 negroes and mixed races, number eight millions two hundred and 
 eighteen thousand. 
 8 21 
 
322 HISTORY 
 
 HISTORY OF MEXICO. 
 
 Mexico was discovered by Francisco Hernandez Cordova, in 
 1517.' At the time of the discovery, a large portion of the 
 country was peopled by the Aztecs, a race of Indians farther 
 advanced in civilization than the majority of American Indian 
 tribes. The ruins of temples and cities still attest their skill in 
 architecture. They cultivated the land, introduced Indian corn 
 and cotton, built immense monuments and pyramids, and con- 
 structed bridges, aqueducts and roads. In 1518, Grijalva 
 commanded a second expedition to Mexico, and on his return 
 confirmed the glowing accounts of Cordova. The description 
 of mines of gold and silver, and of treasures in cities, awakened 
 the deepest cupidity of the Spaniards, and in 1518, Velasques, 
 then governor of Cuba, dispatched Cortez, a Spanish adventur- 
 er, with an armed force, to Mexico, with instructions to conquer 
 the people and possess himself of their wealth. Cortez landed 
 at San Juan d'Ulloa, and marched, without opposition, to the 
 city of Mexico. Two years of incessant and terrible war follow- 
 ed, till finally, by strategem, and the aid of the adjacent hostile 
 tribes, the Spaniards succeeded in subduing the natives, over- 
 throwing their empire, and adding the vast country of Monte- 
 zuma to the Spanish American possessions. Mexico remained 
 firm in her allegiance to Spain till the period immediately suc- 
 ceeding the French revolution, when the country began to assume 
 a revolutionary aspect. This feeling was greatly intensified by 
 the clergy, who favored the movement, and did much to dissem- 
 inate the growing spirit of discontent. The first revolt was 
 made in 1810, under the leadership of Hidalgo, a country priest. 
 Hidalgo was defeated, and quiet was for a time restored. In 
 1820, however, the rebellious spirit broke forth anew, and, after 
 a number of severe battles, the independence of the country 
 was acknowledged, and Mexico was proclaimed a constitutional 
 monarchy, with Don Augustin Iturbide as king, under the title 
 of Augustin I. Ever since this period Mexico has been har- 
 assed by jealous and covetous nations from without, and torn 
 by internal dissensions from within. Within the last forty years, 
 there have been no less than seventy revolutions, or different 
 
OF MEXICO. 323 
 
 governments, in Mexico. Iturbide was deposed, the constitution- 
 al government abolished, and a republican form of government 
 established, in part resembling that of the United States. The 
 first president, General Guadalupe Victoria, was elected in 1825. 
 In 1835, Texas revolted, and became independent of Mexico, 
 and ten years after, in 1845, became one of the United States. 
 In 1845, difficulties arose between Mexico and the United States, 
 concerning the boundary between the two countries, which occa- 
 sioned a long and bloody war. (See United States.) After the 
 close of the war, Mexico was under the direction first, of Santa 
 Anna, and afterwards of Herrera. In 1852, the latter was 
 deposed, and General Cevallos was, for a time, at the head of 
 affairs. He, also, failed to satisfy the people, and was succeed- 
 ed by a number of others, till 1859, when Benito Juarez was 
 elected. His claims were contested by General Miramon, who 
 was at the head of the priestly, or conservative party, and the 
 country was plunged into a civil war. 
 
 Measures taken at this time by the Mexican authorities, 
 adverse to the interests of several foreign nations, brought into 
 the Mexican gulf a combined fleet of English, French, and 
 Spanish, for the purpose of obtaining redress for the acts offen- 
 sive to them. An armistice was agreed upon, a treaty negotia- 
 ted, which was ratified by all the contending powers, except 
 France, who, after the departure of the English and Spanish 
 fleets, declared war against president Juarez. They obtained 
 possession of Puebla, gained other advantages, and finally, in 
 June, 1863, entered the capital. The feelings of the mass of 
 the people, owing to the horrors of the civil war then raging, 
 were in sympathy with the French ; consequently the invaders 
 were greeted with joyful demonstrations on their arrival at the 
 city of Mexico. A provisional government was organized under 
 the protection of the French troops, which met on the tenth of 
 July, and voted almost unanimously to establish an imperial gov- 
 ernment, and to invite Archduke Maximilian, brother of the 
 emperor of Austria, and son-in-law of King Leopold of Belgium, 
 to accept the throne. This movement did not meet with the 
 approval of the United States, and France could not deem it 
 
324 Mexico. 
 
 her duty to incur war with that power, in her efforts to rescue 
 Mexico from barbarism. The French troops were withdrawn, 
 and Maximilian was left to his own slender resources to establish 
 the empire. In encountering the opposition of the moral and 
 physical powers of the United States, and with Juarez concen- 
 trating his strengthened forces around him, his success became 
 hopeless. He repulsed the latter in several hard fought battles, 
 but was finally, by treachery and overwhelming numbers, defeat- 
 ed, taken prisoner, and, with his two chief generals, Miramon, 
 (the former rival of Juarez) and Mejia, executed. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF CENTRAL AMERICA 
 
 Central America is the name applied to a narrow and irregu- 
 lar country between seven and eighteen degrees north latitude. 
 It is bounded on the north-west, north, and north-east by Chia- 
 pas, Tabasco and Yucatan, provinces of Mexico, Bay of Hondu- 
 ras and Caribbean sea, and on the south-west by the Pacific 
 ocean. At the Isthmus of Panama, its narrowest portion, it is 
 only twenty miles from the Caribbean sea, on the east, to the 
 Pacific ocean, on the west. Greatest length of the country eight 
 hundred and seventy-five miles; greatest width, four hundred 
 miles ; area, two hundred thousand square miles. 
 
 In surface, Central America bears a general resemblance to 
 Mexico. The table-lands decrease in hight as you advance 
 south, where the surface is varied by a range of low hills, and 
 at the Isthmus of Panama by a series of limestone elevations. 
 Bordering on the south-western edge of the table-land is a line 
 of volcanoes, which form in part the great volcanic chain on the 
 Pacific coast of America. The culminating point of Central 
 America is Volcan de Agua, having an altitude of fifteen thou- 
 sand feet. 
 
 The chief river on the Pacific coast is the Lempa, rising in 
 the north-western part of the country, forming the boundary 
 between San Salvador and Honduras, and finally crossing the for- 
 mer state and entering an arm of the Pacific. On the Atlantic 
 coast is the San Juan, draining Lake Nicaragua, Bluefield, 
 Cape, and Patook rivers. The San Juan river has a course of 
 one hundred miles, and forms a part of the overland route of 
 one of the lines of California steamers. The chief lake, Nicara- 
 gua, found at an elevation of one hundred and twenty-five feet 
 above the sea, is ninety miles long and thirty miles wide, is in- 
 terspersed by a large number of islands, and, in some places, is 
 two hundred and fifty feet deep. Lake Atitlan, in the north of 
 
326 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 Central America, is twenty-five miles long by ten miles wide, is 
 environed by lofty mountains, and is above eighteen hundred 
 feet deep. The other important lakes are Managua, the waters 
 of which flow into Lake Nicaragua, and Petens, in the northern 
 part of Guatemala. 
 
 In climate and productions, Central America greatly resem- 
 bles Mexico. The dry season lasts from October to May, and 
 the rainy season from May to October. The thermometer rises 
 as high as eighty-six degrees in March, but generally averages 
 about seventy-eight degrees at mid-day. The low lands yield 
 Indian corn, potatoes, sugar-cane, tobacco, and cocoa, while the 
 more elevated regions are rich in the products of the temperate 
 zone. 
 
 Central America comprises the five states of Guatemala, Hon- 
 duras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. New Guate- 
 mala, the capital of the state of Guatemala, is the largest city. 
 Other important towns are Comayagua, San Salvador, Leon, 
 and San Jose. 
 
 NEW GUATEMALA 
 
 Is one hundred and six miles north-west of San Salvador, on 
 a large and fertile plain, five thousand feet above the level of 
 the sea. The great square contains the chief shops of the city, 
 the cathedral, an archbishop's palace, a vice-regal palace, and 
 government offices. The city is extensively engaged in manu- 
 factures, has sixty churches, five newspaper publications, a 
 university, several other schools, a bull-ring, and a theatre. In 
 the center of the city is a fine public fountain. Population 
 sixty thousand. 
 
 LEON, 
 
 An important town of Central America, and capital of the 
 state of Nicaragua, is built on the site of an old Indian town, on 
 a rich and spacious plain between Lake Managua and the Pa- 
 cific ocean. It contains the cathedral, an Episcopal palace, a 
 number of churches, a college, and extensive manufactories of 
 leather and cutlery. Population thirty-five thousand. 
 
OF CENTRAL AMERICA. 327 
 
 SAN JOSE, 
 
 A town of Central America, capital of Costa Rica, is fifteen 
 miles west of Matina, and about equi-distant from the Carib- 
 bean sea and Pacific ocean. " It has grown up since the inde- 
 pendence of this region was established, and has no buildings of 
 note, but it has succeeded to the importance and commercial 
 activity of Cartago, the former capital of the state." Popula- 
 tion thirty thousand. 
 
 The population of Central America is estimated at about two 
 millions one hundred and sixty-two thousand, and consists of 
 whites and Creoles, mestizoes, or the descendants of whites and 
 Indians, and natives. 
 
 Central America was first discovered by Columbus in 1502, 
 and in 1523 was visited by Pedro Alvarado, who was sent by 
 Cortez to conquer the country. The country remained subject 
 to Spain till 1823, when it threw off the yoke and became a 
 federal republic. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 The West Indies form three divisions : the Greater Antilles, 
 the Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas. The Greater Antilles 
 consist of Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. The Lesser 
 Antilles consist of a chain of islands which extend from Porto 
 Rico to South America. The Bahamas are low islands of coral 
 formation. 
 
 Most of these islands are in possession of European nations. 
 Cuba and Porto Rico belong to Spain ; Jamaica, the Bahamas, 
 and most of the Lesser Antilles to Great Britain, and the re- 
 maining islands, with the exception of Hayti, which is indepen- 
 dent, are owned by France, Denmark, Holland, Sweden, and 
 Venezuela. 
 
 CUBA, 
 
 The largest and richest of the islands, is the most important 
 colonial possession of Spain. The island was discovered by 
 Columbus during his first voyage in 1492. He gave it the name 
 of Juana, which was afterwards changed to Fernandina, and again 
 to Santiago, but it is now called by its Indian name, Cuba. As 
 early as 1511 a permanent settlement was made by the Span- 
 iards, who, since that time, have retained possession of the 
 island. 
 
 The city of Havana was taken possession of by the British in 
 1762, but was restored the following year. In 1851, Lopez, at 
 the head of a band of United States adventurers, invaded Cuba. 
 His men were all either slain or taken prisoners. Lopez, with 
 six of his companions, was garroted, and fifty of the prisoners 
 shot. The island is now undergoing a revolutionary movement. 
 The Cubans are endeavoring to throw off the dominion of Spain 
 
THE WEST INDIES. 329 
 
 and become an independent republic. The greater part of the 
 island is now held by the Cubans, who will probably, ere long, 
 succeed in establishing their independence. 
 
 The surface of the island is generally level. The only eleva- 
 tions of any importance are the Copper mountains, which extend 
 from one extremity of the island to the other, reaching their 
 culminating point at the eastern end at an altitude of about seven 
 thousand feet. Reefs of rocky formation, and marshy tracts 
 of country are found among the low lands of the coast. These 
 reefs penetrate into the sea between two and three miles, render- 
 ing navigation difficult and dangerous. The coast is generally 
 but little above the water level, and is subject to floods and inun- 
 dations. There are some localities, however, where the sea is 
 deep to the water's edge, and in these places are found some of 
 the finest natural harbors in existence. The rivers are not large, 
 and are navigable only for small boats. 
 
 The climate is tropical. Snow never falls, even on the highest 
 mountains. Vegetation is very luxuriant. The principal pro- 
 ductions are sugar, coffee, tobacco, cotton, cocoa, and indigo. 
 
 Havana was formerly the capital of the island, but since the 
 breaking out of the revolution the Cuban congress has met at 
 Guaimaro. This town is situated on a plain, and surrounded by 
 a net work of seven small crooked rivers. The surrounding dis- 
 trict is much of it covered with a dense wood, relieved only by 
 the course of the various rivers. The wisdom of the Cubans in 
 selecting Guaimaro as a capital, and fortifying it, is apparent. 
 It would be a difficult battle field for the Spaniards. They 
 would have fearful odds to encounter in plunging into a plain 
 upon which grow dense woods, and through which half a dozen 
 rivers wind and turn, so that none but a resident of the locality 
 would know upon which side he was standing. 
 
 HAVANA, 
 
 The former capital, and the principal city of the island, is 
 situated at the head of a beautiful bay on the north-western 
 shore of the island. The harbor is entered by a channel one 
 
330 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 half mile long, and so narrow that only one ship can enter it at 
 the same time. It is deep enough to receive vessels of the largest 
 size. At the mouth of the channel are two strong castles, Punta 
 on the west and Moro on the east. A light is fixed upon the 
 latter, one hundred and forty-four feet high, which can be seen 
 at a great distance. 
 
 Viewed from a distance, the city presents a picturesque and 
 imposing appearance, but on a closer inspection it is found to 
 possess but few attractions. The streets are narrow, ill-paved, 
 and dirty, and are lined with massive stone buildings, with barred 
 windows, which give the whole town a dreary and gloomy aspect. 
 The city, however, is not entirely destitute of beauty, for, besides 
 a number of handsome public buildings, it contains several parks 
 and public squares, and a great many fountains. The Plaza de 
 Armas is a beautiful enclosure, containing paved walks, foun- 
 tains, and flowers, and is the site of the palaces of the governor, 
 and the residences of the nobility. 
 
 Havana is a bishop's See, and has a handsome display of re- 
 ligious establishments. The bishop's garden is one of the most 
 delightful retreats of the city. Shady walks, lined with flowers 
 and plants and ornamental trees, among which the cocoanut and 
 palm are conspicuous, are found in large numbers throughout 
 the grounds. 
 
 The city contains a number of large churches, richly oramen- 
 ted with gold and silver lamps and images. A large cathedral 
 contains the ashes of Columbus, which were brought from San 
 Domingo in 1796. The population of the city, including its 
 suburbs, is about one hundred and forty thousand. (See views 
 of Havana.) 
 
 HAYTI, 
 
 The second in size of the West Indies, is a rich and beautiful 
 island. The coast is irregular, being indented by numerous 
 gulfs and bays, and presenting corresponding projections. The 
 island was discovered by Columbus, during his first voyage. In 
 1773 the western part of the island was ceded to France. In 
 
OF THE WEST INDIES. 331 
 
 1821 a revolution broke out, and the inhabitants succeeded in 
 establishing for themselves first an empire, then an independent 
 republic. 
 
 The island is crossed by three mountain chains, between which 
 are extensive plains and savannas. The vegetation, like all 
 tropical countries, is very luxuriant. Majestic trees and the 
 richest flowering plants clothe the mountains and adorn the val- 
 leys, forming some of the richest natural scenery on the globe. 
 The usual tropical fruits and vegetables, such as oranges, pine 
 apples, melons, grapes, plantains, bananas, yams, etc., are 
 abundant. 
 
 There are several lakes in the south-western part of the island. 
 The principal rivers rise in the central mountain chain. Their 
 navigation is obstructed by sand-bars. 
 
 The population of the island is estimated at about nine hun- 
 dred and forty-three thousand. 
 
 JAMAICA 
 
 Is a beautiful and fertile island. It has a coast line of about 
 five hundred miles, and is indented by a number of excellent 
 harbors. The general appearance of the island is very beauti- 
 ful. It is traversed in all directions by lofty mountains, covered 
 with stately forests and intersected by vales, exhibiting the most 
 romantic scenery. The principal rivers are the Minho, Black, 
 and Cobre. 
 
 The commerce of the island is not in a very flourishing con- 
 dition. The productions and exports have fallen off considera- 
 bly during the last two or three years. 
 
 The population of the island is estimated at about three hun- 
 dred and seventy-eight thousand. 
 
 PORTO RICO, 
 
 The fourth in size of the West Indies, is about ninety miles 
 in length, and thirty-six in width. The coast is indented by 
 numerous bays and gulfs, deep enough for vessels of considera- 
 ble burden, but, owing to the tremendous ground seas, only 
 
332 THE WEST INDIES. 
 
 three of them are safe for vessels the year round. The climate 
 is mild. The inhabitants are principally engaged in agricultural 
 pursuits. The principal productions are sugar, molasses, coffee, 
 cotton and tobacco. 
 
 The population numbers about five hundred thousand. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 South America is a great peninsula, stretching from the Isth- 
 mus of Panama, in latitude 12° 30' K, to latitude 55° 59' S., 
 and terminating in the bold and rocky promontory of Cape 
 Horn. From the latter point, passing north over the rocky 
 wastes of Patagonia, the grassy plains and extensive forests of 
 the La Plata and Amazon, and crossing the lofty mountains of 
 the Parina system, Point Gallinas, the northern extremity of 
 this division, is reached after a journey of over four thousand 
 eight hundred miles. Its greatest breadth from east to west, is 
 three thousand two hundred and thirty miles, and it contains 
 over six hundred and fifty thousand square miles. 
 
 In South America there are three great mountain systems, 
 viz.: Andean, the system of the Parina, and the Brazilian 
 system. The Andean system extends, in a grand unbroken 
 range, from the Isthmus of Panama, to the Straits of Magellan, 
 a distance of four thousand five hundred miles. They run near- 
 ly parallel with the Pacific coast, and below 23° south latitude, 
 consist of but a single chain. North of this point, several 
 ranges run in parallel directions. The Andean mountains are 
 inferior in hight only to the Himalaya range of Asia ; and 
 reach their culminating point with Sorata, twenty-four thousand 
 eight hundred and twelve feet above the sea. The Parina range, 
 also called the Highlands of Guiana, having a length of nine 
 hundred miles, comprises several parallel ranges, and separates 
 the basins of the Orinoco and Rionegro rivers. They extend 
 over a tract of country about three hundred and fifty miles wide, 
 and have an average elevation of four thousand feet, though 
 many of the peaks rise to a much greater hight. The Duida 
 has an altitude of eight thousand five hundred feet, and the 
 Maravaca towers still higher, being ten thousand five hundred 
 
334 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 feet high. The Brazilian mountains extend along the south- 
 eastern coast of Brazil, a distance of over two thousand miles. 
 They have an average elevation of three thousand five hundred 
 feet, and are found at a distance of from twenty to eighty miles 
 from the shore. The culminating point of this range is mount 
 Itamba, reaching an altitude of five thousand nine hundred and 
 sixty feet. The Andes rise almost perpendicularly from the 
 Pacific coast, but towards the interior the descent is more 
 gradual. 
 
 Among the mountain peaks of South America, may be men- 
 tioned the Sahama, twenty-three thousand and fourteen, Acon- 
 cagua, twenty-three thousand, Tupungato, twenty-two thousand 
 four hundred and fifty, Gualateiri, tWenty-two thousand, and 
 Chimborazo, twenty-one thousand and sixty-five feet high. 
 Among the volcanoes, Cotopaxi, Pichincha and Tunguragua, in 
 Equador, Aconcagua, in Chili, and Gualateiri and Arequipa, in 
 Peru, are the most important. Cotopaxi is an active volcano 
 on the eastern slope of the Andes, in latitude 41' south, and 
 longitude 78° 42' west. It has an altitude of eighteen thousand 
 eight hundred and eighty-seven feet above the level of the sea, 
 and rises nine thousand eight hundred feet above the table-land 
 of Quito. The upper four thousand feet forms a perfect cone, 
 which, except in the immediate vicinity of the crater, is covered 
 with snow throughout the year. The lava and stones, ejected 
 from this volcano, cover an area around its base of sixty square 
 miles. Flames have been known to issue from Cotopaxi three 
 thousand feet above the crater ; and the roaring caused by its 
 eruptions can be heard at a distance of two hundred miles. 
 During an eruption in 1743, the flames forced several new vents 
 near the summit. The last great eruption occurred in 1803. 
 (See views of Cotopaxi.) 
 
 The volcano of Pichincha is situated eleven miles north-west 
 of Quito. The summit of the volcano, found at an altitude of 
 fifteen thousand nine hundred and twenty-four feet, is covered 
 with ice and snow throughout the year. The most remarkable 
 feature of Pichincha is its crater, which is three miles in cir- 
 cumference and one and one-fourth miles deep. Prior to the 
 
OF SOUTH AMERICA. 335 
 
 Spanish invasion, Pichincha was an active volcano, since which 
 time it has been silent. (See views of Pichincha.) The Tun- 
 <mra<nia volcano has a hight of sixteen thousand four hundred 
 and twenty-four feet. Its greatest eruption occurred on the 
 23d of April, 1773, when an immense flood of lava was ejected 
 from the volcano, which lies in hardened masses at its base. 
 (See views of Tunguragua.) 
 
 Among the objects of interest in connection with the surface 
 of South America, may be mentioned an immense rock, or 
 bowlder, in the province of Antioquia, United States of Colum- 
 bia, called El Penol. It covers six acres of ground, and rises 
 four hundred and sixty-four feet above the level of the sur- 
 rounding country. (See view.) 
 
 With the exception of the Brazilian mountains and table- 
 land, and the Parina range, the section of country east of the 
 Andes is one vast plain. The northern division of this plain is 
 the Llanos of the Orinoco, a vast tract, almost as level as the 
 ocean. During the rainy season this territory is covered with 
 rich grass, but with the return of the dry season life and vege- 
 tation cease. The rich mould is crumbled into sand, and the 
 surface becomes filled with large rents and cracks. The Selvas, 
 or forest plains of the Amazon, extend from the mouth of that 
 river to the region of the periodical inundation. The great 
 moisture and heat of this region greatly promote the luxuriance 
 of the vegetable kingdom. "Behold," says Guyot, "under the 
 same parallel, where Africa presents only parched table-lands, 
 those boundless virgin forests of the basin of the Amazon, those 
 selvas, almost unbroken, over a length of over fifteen hundred 
 miles, forming the most gigantic wilderness of this kind that 
 exists on any continent. And what vigor, what luxuriance of 
 vegetation ! The palm trees, with their slender forms, boldly 
 uplift their heads one hundred and fifty or two hundred feet 
 above the ground, and domineer over all other trees of these 
 wilds, by their hight, by their number, and by the majesty of 
 their foliage. Climbing plants, woody-stemmed twining lianos, 
 infinitely varied, surround them with their flexible branches, 
 display their own flowers upon the foliage, and combine them in 
 
336 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 a solid mass of vegetation, impenetrable to man, which the axe 
 alone can break through with success." 
 
 The Pampas of the La Plata, or plains of Buenos Ayres, 
 are rich districts north of Patagonia, covered with a luxuriant 
 growth of grass, which affords abundant pasturage for the herds 
 of horses and cattle which exist in this region. A large tract 
 of marsh country, a short distance north-west, abounds with 
 lakes, and rich grassy meadows again appear above the head- 
 waters of the Paraguay river. During the dry season, these 
 plains, the same as the Llanos, become destitute of vegetation. 
 The deserts of Patagonia extend from the Atlantic to the base 
 of the Andes, and cover an area of one hundred thousand square 
 miles. They occupy nearly all the territory south of the Rio 
 Negro, and are frequently diversified by huge bowlders and 
 rocky hights. 
 
 The chief rivers of South America are the Orinoco, Amazon, 
 and La Plata. The Orinoco rises among the mountains in the 
 southern part of Venezuela, flows first north and then east, and 
 after a course of sixteen hundred miles, enters the Atlantic 
 through several mouths. It drains an area of two hundred and 
 seventy-two thousand square miles. There are rapids in the 
 Orinoco, below its junction with the Guaviare, called the Altures, 
 and thirty-six miles below they again appear, and are called 
 Maypures. The mighty Amazon, rising among the Andes, re- 
 ceives the waters of the Rio Negro, Coqueta, Coary, Jurua, 
 Purus, Madeira, Tapajos, Xingu, and Tocantius, and pours a 
 volume of water into the ocean with such force that it remains 
 unmixed with the waters of the sea for a distance of two hundred 
 and fifty miles from the shore. It has a course of four thousand 
 miles, and enters the ocean through several mouths, at which 
 point it is, including the islands, two hundred and fifty miles 
 wide. The La Plata river, formed by the confluence of the Sa- 
 lado with the Parana, enters the Atlantic with such force that 
 its current is perceptible at a distance of one hundred and seven- 
 ty-five miles from the shore. The river at Montevideo is fifty- 
 three miles wide, and gradually expands, till at the mouth it has 
 a width of one hundred and seventy miles. 
 
OF SOUTH AMERICA. 337 
 
 The wild animals of South America are numerous, though 
 not as ferocious as those of Asia and Africa. The jaguar, 
 puma, ocelot, and tiger-cat are the most formidable. The 
 ant-eater, sloth, armadillo, deer, antelope, ape, monkey, etc., are 
 peculiar to the tropical regions of South America. Among the 
 birds, the condor of the Andes, is conspicuous. There are also 
 numbers of parrots, humming birds, toucans, macaws, and birds 
 of prey, such as the eagle, vulture, falcons, etc. 
 
 South America has, for the most part, a tropical climate. In 
 no section, however, of this country, do we find that intense 
 heat, which its geographical position would lead us to expect. 
 The prevalence of the trade-winds, the position of high moun- 
 tains, and other physical causes, give the country a more uniform 
 temperature, than it otherwise would enjoy. In passing south 
 from the lowlands near the equator, or advancing up the moun- 
 tain slopes, the heat of the torrid zone, is gradually succeeded 
 by the more pleasing climate of the temperate zone. In Pata- 
 gonia, the cold becomes severe ; and snow falls almost daily, at 
 the Strait of Magellan. 
 
 No other country can boast of a greater luxuriance, or varie- 
 ty of vegetation, than South America. On the slopes of the 
 Andes and Cordilleras, is a vast amount of fertile land, which 
 with proper attention would make a great agricultural district. 
 In Ecuador, this region has three divisions, Ambato, Quito, and 
 Cuenca, which includes the larger portion of the cultivated lands 
 of the state. (See views in the valley of Ambato.) 
 
 In South America the forest trees are more various, and reach 
 a greater size than those of the old world. The most important 
 are the palm, cocoanut, balsam, passion-flower tree, and oak. 
 Sugar-cane, wheat, barley, Indian corn, and potatoes are pro- 
 duced at elevations of from five thousand to ten thousand feet. 
 Among the fruits produced may be mentioned mangabas, pome- 
 granates, oranges, limes, cocoa-nuts, banannas, pine-apples, man- 
 goes, mammoons, and jambas. 
 
 The countries embraced within the limits of South America 
 are nine republics, viz : Venezuela, United States of Columbia, 
 
 22 
 
338 GEOGRAPHICAL HISTORY 
 
 Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Chili, Argentine Confederation, Uru- 
 gray, and Paraguay ; the empire of Brazil, the colonies of 
 British, French, and Dutch Guana, and the unsettled district of 
 Patagonia. 
 
 The chief towns of South America are Rio Janeiro and Bahia 
 of Brazil, Buenos Ayres of the Argentine confederation, and 
 Lima of Peru. 
 
 QUITO 
 
 Is a city situated among the Andes of Ecuador, on the Quito 
 table-land, nine thousand five hundred and forty-three feet above 
 the sea. The city contains a number of fine squares, one of 
 which contains the town-hall, cathedral, palaces of the president 
 and archbishop of the republic, and a fine bronze fountain. The 
 university, orphan asylum, large hospital, work-house, and 
 churches and convents comprise the other important buildings. 
 Near the church of San Francisco is a fine public fountain, 
 which supplies a large number of the people with water. (See 
 views.) 
 
 The scenery which surrounds Quito is picturesque in the 
 highest degree. " From the terrace of the government palace," 
 says Humboldt, " there is one of the most enchanting prospects 
 the human eye ever witnessed, or nature ever exhibited. Look- 
 ing to the south, and glancing to the north, eleven mountains, 
 covered with perpetual snow, present themselves, their bases 
 apparently resting upon the verdant hills which surround the 
 city." Quito was made a city in 1541, by Charles V. of Spain. 
 Population seventy-six thousand. (See views of Quito.) 
 
 AMBATO 
 
 Is a town of Ecuador, one hundred miles south-east of Quito, 
 on the northern slope of Chimborazo, eight thousand eight hun- 
 dred and fifty-nine feet above the sea. It was destroyed by an 
 eruption of Cotopaxi in 1698, but was rebuilt, and soon became 
 more flourishing than before. It has some good buildings, and 
 carries on an active trade in grain, sugar and cochineal, the 
 products of the surrounding country. Population, fifteen thous- 
 and. (See views of Ambato.) 
 
OF SOUTH AMERICA. 339 
 
 IBARA 
 
 Is an important town of Ecuador, fifty miles north-east of 
 Quito, at the foot of the volcano of Imbabura. It is in a fertile 
 region, well built, and has about fifteen thousand inhabitants. 
 (See views at Ibara.) 
 
 MARAYCABO, 
 
 Is a city and port of entry of Venezuela, and capital of a 
 province of its own name, on the western side of the entrance 
 from Maraycabo Gulf into Maraycabo Lake. It has several 
 monasteries and convents, and a large and handsome parish 
 church. The harbor is obstructed by a bar, on which there is 
 only eight feet of water at ebb tide. Population, eighteen 
 thousand. (See views of Maraycabo.) 
 
 Within sight of Maraycabo is the town of Los Haticos, the 
 streets of which are finely shaded with magnificent palms and 
 cocoa-nut trees. (See views at Los Haticos.) 
 
 South America was discovered by Christopher Columbus, who 
 landed at the mouth of the Orinoco river in 1498. All the 
 country, except Brazil and Guana, was claimed by Spain, and 
 remained subject to that power till the beginning of the present 
 century, when the different provinces threw off the Spanish yoke, 
 and established themselves as independent republics. Brazil was 
 claimed by Portugal, and remained in her possession till 1822, 
 when a peaceful separation was effected. Guana is divided 
 between the British, French, and Dutch. 
 
zp^ir/t in. 
 
 FOKEIG-N OBJECTS 
 
 F 
 
 INTEEE8T. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 The British islands are west of Europe, and comprise England, 
 Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and many adjacent islands. 
 
 England, the seat of government of Great Britain, is situated 
 south of Scotland, and east of Wales. The surface is generally 
 level or undulating, the climate moist and mild, and the soil fer- 
 tile and productive. 
 
 LONDON, 
 
 The capital of the empire, and the largest city in the world, 
 is situated on both sides of the Thames, in England. It had, 
 according to the census of 1865, a population of three millions 
 and fifteen thousand. It is the first city in commercial import- 
 ance, and covers an area of one hundred and twenty-two square 
 miles. 
 
 In the beginning of cold weather the city is sometimes en- 
 veloped in fogs so dense, that it is necessary, in the business part 
 of the city, that the buildings should be lighted, and vehicles 
 are unable to pass through the streets. The thick atmosphere 
 and the cloud of smoke constantly hovering over the city, ren- 
 ders it difficult to view the whole metropolis from any one point. 
 But from a number of positions views of portions of the great 
 mass of buildings may be obtained, the magnificent dome of St. 
 Paul's cathedral forming a conspicuous object in nearly every 
 one. This church, in point of architecture, is the greatest orna- 
 ment of the city. Its foundation was laid on Lodgate Hill in 
 1675. It is five hundred and ten feet long and two hundred 
 and fifty wide, exclusive of the porticos. The building is sur- 
 mounted by a massive and handsome dome, on the top of which 
 is a lantern with a ball and cross, the hight of which is four hun- 
 dred and four feet above the ground. The west front has a 
 beautiful double portico of coupled columns and two clock towers, 
 
344 BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 over which rises the cupola. This magnificent edifice is built of 
 Portland stone, and was constructed at a cost of seven hundred 
 and forty-seven thousand nine hundred and fifty-four pounds. 
 
 Westminster Abby, next to St. Paul's, the finest church edifice 
 in London, was erected during the reign of Henry III. and Ed- 
 ward I. The beautiful chapel on the east end was built under 
 the auspices of Henry VII., and is known as his chapel. This 
 edifice is three hundred and sixty feet long and one hundred and 
 ninety-five feet wide. In this building have been crowned all 
 the kings and queens of England, from Edward, the Confessor, 
 to Queen Victoria, and here a number of them have been interred. 
 
 London Tower occupies an area of twelve acres. It rises 
 amidst an assemblage of ancient walls, battlements, and turrets. 
 The central and most ancient part of the existing structure, 
 known as the White tower, was erected in 1078, during the 
 reign of William, the conqueror. 
 
 The House of Parliament is a vast and magnificent structure, 
 containing the House of Lords, the House of Commons and vari- 
 ous offices and apartments connected with parliamentary business. 
 This massive edifice, covering about eight acres of -ground, is 
 situated between the river Thames and Westminster Abbey. The 
 House of Lords is decorated with carved oak panelling, gilding, 
 fresco paintings, and richly stained glass windows. This apart- 
 ment is ninety-seven feet long, forty-five wide, and forty-five high. 
 The House of Commons is somewhat smaller, and not so hand- 
 somely decorated. 
 
 St. James' palace was erected by Henry VIII. It is an irreg- 
 ular brick building, and has nothing striking in its appearance 
 externally. In this palace royal levees are held. It has also 
 drawing rooms, and is much resorted to during the fashionable 
 season. 
 
 Buckingham palace, opposite St. James' park, was erected by 
 George IV. The east front, in the Italian style, is higher than 
 the rest of the building, and adds much to its beauty. The 
 palace has a gallery one hundred and sixty feet long, in which 
 are fine pictures. The Queen resides here during the greater 
 part of the spring and summer months. 
 
BRITISH ISLES. 345 
 
 One of the greatest architectural ornaments of London is 
 Whitehall, or the Banqueting house. Kensington palace, the 
 birth-place of Queen Victoria, is a plain brick building situated 
 in Kensington garden. 
 
 The Mansion house, constructed at a cost of seventy-one thou- 
 sand pounds, is situated in the east end of the Boultry. It was 
 built between the years 1739 and 1753, and is the residence of 
 the Lord Mayor. 
 
 The British museum, on Russel street, is a large and impos- 
 ing edifice, founded in 1753. It has an Ionic front, with sculp- 
 tured ornaments, and contains Assyrian, Greek, Egyptian, and 
 other antiquities, and also a large collection of sculptures, coins, 
 minerals, books, manuscripts, stuffed animals, and a library of 
 four hundred and sixty thousand volumes, to which the public 
 have access three days of the week. 
 
 London university was founded in 1837 for the exclusive pur- 
 pose of conferring degrees, the candidates for which are furnished 
 by University college, and King's college. The course of edu- 
 cation embraces history, science, medicine, jurisprudence, and 
 the classical languages. 
 
 The great world's exhibition, originated by Prince Albert and 
 held in a magnificent crystal palace, erected in Hyde Park, was 
 first opened in 1851. This palace was nearly a half mile in 
 length, the center forty-eight, and the sides twenty-four feet in 
 hight. The whole structure which cost 347,937 pounds, has 
 since been removed and re-erected at Sydenham, on a still more 
 magnificent scale. (See views of London.) 
 
 The limits of London, as defined by a parliamentary act for 
 parliamentary purposes, are within a circle, the center of which 
 is the Post office, the radius being three miles. The actual 
 area of this great metropolis greatly exceeds this, embracing 
 the city of Westminster, the parliamentary boroughs of Tins- 
 bury, Southwork, Lambeth, Marglebone, Tower Hamlets, and 
 the towns of Greenwich, Dalwich, Clapham, Kensington, 
 Hampstead and others. 
 
346 BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 GREENWICH, 
 
 Located on the right bank of the Thames, is about five miles 
 south-east of London bridge. The older streets are narrow and 
 irregular, but those recently laid out are wide, and numerous 
 handsome houses have been built. The most interesting institu- 
 tion of Greenwich is the magnificent Naval hospital, a home for 
 the superanuated seamen. It is one of the finest structures in 
 England, and was erected in 1694 by the munificence of William 
 and Mary. (See views of Hospital.) 
 
 On an eminence in Greenwich park, is the observatory, found- 
 ed in 1674 by Charles II. From this meridian, longitude is 
 reckoned in all British charts. The park was first enclosed by 
 the Duke of Gloucester. It embraces about two hundred acres, 
 a part of which is covered by a forest in which are numerous 
 herds of deer, forming a great place of resort for the Londoners. 
 
 LIVERPOOL, 
 
 The second city in population, and the principal seaport of 
 England, is about two hundred and ten miles from London. 
 The city is about five miles in length, and nearly three in width. 
 The principal public buildings are the town hall, exchange and 
 revenue buildings, and St. George's hall. The latter, in which 
 are the Assize Courts, is in the center of the city. This sump- 
 tuous building is five hundred feet in length, and is constructed 
 in the Corinthian style. The most remarkable feature of Liv- 
 erpool is the number and magnificence of its docks, covering an 
 area of more than four hundred acres. (See views of Liver- 
 pool.) 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, 
 
 A parliamentary borough and seat of Cambridge university, 
 is about fifty miles from London. The University of Cambridge, 
 founded in the seventh century, now consists of thirteen colleges 
 and four halls, viz.: St. Peter's, Caius, Corpus Christi, King's, 
 Queen's, Jesus Christ's, St. John's, Magdalene, Trinity, Em- 
 manuel, Sidney Sussex, Downing colleges, and Clare, Pembroke, 
 Trinity, and Catharine halls. Some of these buildings are the 
 
BRITISH ISLES. 347 
 
 most magnificent in the kingdom. A student of this university 
 is called a Cantab. (See views of Cambridge.) 
 
 OXFORD, 
 
 County seat of Oxford county, is about fifty-five miles from 
 London. On High street, the principal thoroughfare of the 
 city, are the university colleges, nineteen in number, and the 
 five halls connected with the university ; also Magdalene, 
 Queen's, and All Souls' colleges and University church. (See 
 views of Oxford.) 
 
 DARTMOUTH, 
 
 A seaport town of Devon county, England, is most pictur- 
 esquely built on a succession of terraces on the west side of the 
 estuary of the Dart, the entrance to which is defended by a castle 
 and strong batteries. (See views of Dartmouth.) 
 
 WARWICK, 
 
 A parliamentary borough, is situated on the right bank of the 
 Avon. The principal object of interest in this town, is Warwick 
 castle. The credit of founding this castle is bestowed on Eth- 
 elfleda, daughter of Alfred the Great. It is probably the most 
 magnificent feudal fortress in England. (See views of War- 
 wick castle.) 
 
 About two miles north of Warwick, is Guy's Cliff, containing 
 the hermitage of Sir Guy, Earl of Warwick. During the reign 
 of Henry VI, a chapel was here built by Beauchamp, Earl of 
 Warwick, and contains a colossal statue of Sir Guy. (See views 
 of Guy's Cliff.) 
 
 WINDSOR 
 
 Is a parish of Berks county. It is situated on the right bank 
 of the Thames. The river is here crossed by an iron bridge, 
 connecting Windsor with Eaton, the seat of Eaton college, 
 founded by Henry VI., in 1446. (See views of Eaton college.) 
 
 The town is built principally upon one street, winding around 
 
348 BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 the south and west sides of Windsor castle. It is well built, and 
 contains some handsome private buildings. (See views of Wind- 
 sor castle.) 
 
 Among the principal cathedrals of England, outside of Lon- 
 don, are the Exeter, Wells, Peterborough, Durham, and Ely 
 cathedrals. The Exeter cathedral, a noble edifice of great an- 
 tiquity, is four hundred and eight feet long, and one hundred 
 and thirty in hight. Its west facade is one of the most beauti- 
 ful in the kingdom. Wells' cathedral dates from the time of 
 Henry III. The interior is beautifully ornamented. The cen- 
 tral tower of the building is one hundred and seventy-eight feet 
 in hight. Petersborough cathedral was founded by Peada, in 
 635. The building is four hundred and seventy-one feet long. 
 The front consists of three pointed arches, each eighty feet high, 
 surmounted by spires and pinnacles. Durham cathedral was 
 founded in 1093. Its greatest length and breadth are five hun- 
 dred and seven feet, and two hundred feet respectively, and the 
 hight of the central tower is two hundred and fourteen feet. 
 Ely cathedral was built between the reigns of William Rufus 
 and Edward III. It is a singular and magnificent edifice in the 
 Norman, Saxon, and Gothic styles, and contains many interest- 
 ing monuments. (See views of the different cathedrals.) 
 
 SCOTLAND. 
 
 This division of Great Britain is north of England, from 
 which it is partly separated by the Chevoit hills. The Gram- 
 pian mountains divide the surface of Scotland into the lowlands 
 and highlands, the latter lying north and the former south of 
 this range. The general surface, particularly in the northern 
 part, is in striking contrast with that of England, possessing 
 few of the valleys for which the latter is so remarkable. Many 
 of the mountains belonging to the Grampian range, have a 
 rounded form, terminating in fantastic peaks, among which are 
 Ben Nevis, Ben Lomond, Ben Macdhue, and Ben Venue. A 
 noted pass of this range is the Killiecrankie. The river Garro 
 here flows for a distance of two miles, through a narrow, rocky 
 
BRITISH ISLES. 349 
 
 and precipitous defile, along which a road has been cut. Anoth- 
 er system, with their general level much lower, and their sum- 
 mits much more lofty than the Grampian range, lies to the north 
 and west of lakes of Glenmore. The most elevated of these 
 summits are Ben Wyvis, Ben Moore, Ben Clibbrick, Bendearge, 
 and Morren. The lakes of Scotland are in the glens of the 
 highlands, and are noted for their varied and picturesque scen- 
 ery, and also for being much longer than wide. The most 
 remarkable are Loch Lomond, Loch Ketrine, Lock Tummel, 
 Lock Achray, Loch Rannoch, and Loch Tay. To Scotland, 
 belong all the islands that line its coast. On the east side they 
 are small and few in number, on the north are the groups of 
 Orkneys and Shetlands, and on the west side is a series of 
 groups called the Hebrides. Staffa, a much celebrated island 
 belonging to the latter group, is composed of conglomerated trap. 
 On this island are a number of caves resembling architectural 
 designs. Of these, Fingal's Cave is the most remarkable. The 
 entrance is formed by columnar ranges, supporting a mag- 
 nificent and lofty arch. The entrance is thirty-three feet 
 wide, and sixty feet high, and the length of the cave is two hun- 
 dred and twenty-seven feet. The cave is composed of compli- 
 cated ranges of gigantic columns. The floor is the sea, from 
 which is reflected on the pendent roof, whitened with cal- 
 careous stalagmites, many colored lights. Of the other caves 
 on the island, the most noteworthy is the Clam Shell Cave, 
 deriving its name from the peculiar curve of the basaltic columns, 
 giving it the appearance of pecten-shell. (See views.) 
 
 EDINBURGH, 
 
 The capital of Scotland, is situated on a picturesque cluster 
 of hills, about one and a half miles from the Frith of Forth, in 
 the county of Mid Lothian. Owing to the recent growth of 
 the city, it is at present nearly connected with the town of 
 Leith. 
 
 The Abbey of Holyrood was founded in the twelfth century, 
 by David I., a pious Scottish king, who endowed the clergyman 
 
350 BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 of this parish with power to found a burgh in a westerly direc- 
 tion up the slope, toward Edinburgh ; and thus was built Canon- 
 gate, a suburb now united to the city. A royal palace sprung 
 up about this time, which became a favorite place of resort for 
 Scottish kings and nobles. This edifice and the Holyrood pal- 
 ace were among the earliest buildings of Edinburgh. The Royal 
 or Edinburgh Castle was undoubtedly the first erection in the 
 city. Edinburgh being a fortified town, in 1436 the capital was 
 removed to this place from Perth. After this event, while sur- 
 surrounding cities sunk into obscurity, Edinburgh greatly 
 increased in size and population. The city being walled, the 
 houses were necessarily built high, consisting of a number of 
 stories, each floor serving the purpose of a dwelling. The design 
 of the buildings resembles those of Paris. One of the finest 
 features of Edinburgh are the Public Gardens, which are laid 
 out in the valley between the old town and the new. Of the 
 public monuments in the city, the one erected in honor of Sir 
 Walter Scott is the most remarkable. It was designed by 
 George M. Kemp, is two hundred feet high, and is in the form of 
 an elaborate gothic cross. 
 
 The chief educational establishments of the city are the High 
 School, New Academy, University, and Medical Schools. Some 
 of the buildings of interest in Edinburgh are the Castle, in 
 which are shown the ancient regalia of Scotland ; the extensive 
 Library of the Faculty of Advocates ; the Royal Institute, 
 which contains the apartments of the Royal Society ; the Mu- 
 seum of the Society of the Scottish Antiquaries ; the general 
 Register House, where the whole of the rights and pecuniary 
 obligations connected with hereditable property are registered, 
 and state documents preserved ; the Parliament House, used by 
 the Scottish parliament previous to the union with England ; 
 the University buildings ; the National Gallery of Art ; and the 
 Palace and Abbey of Holyrood. (See views in Edinburgh.) 
 
 GLASGOW, 
 
 The principal commercial city of Scotland, situated on both 
 sides of the Clyde, is, after London, one of the largest and most 
 
BRITISH ISLES. 351 
 
 important cities of the British empire. By far the greater por- 
 tion of the city is built on the northern bank of the river. Three 
 handsome stone bridges span the river at this place, two of which 
 are of solid granite, and are greatly admired for their light and 
 graceful architecture. There are also two suspension bridges for 
 the accommodation of foot passengers. The city has a some- 
 what smoky appearance, owing to its numerous workshops, fac- 
 tories, etc. It is about three miles in length and eight in 
 circumference. The houses are built of freestone, and in much 
 the same style as those of Edinburgh. 
 
 Glasgow has three parks, viz : Green, containing one hundred 
 and forty acres, and occupying the level next to the Clyde ; 
 Queen's park, beautifully situated on rising ground ; and Kelvin- 
 grove, embracing forty acres, sloping toward Kelvin river. The 
 city of Glasgow originated with the cathedral and university, 
 both of which are in the north-east part of the city. The site 
 of the cathedral is an eminence on the bank of a ravine traversed 
 by the Molendinar. This edifice was founded during the reign 
 of David I. A lofty tower rises from the center two hundred 
 and twenty-five feet in hight. The Necropolis, opposite the 
 cathedral, is a handsome cemetery studded with monuments, and 
 tastefully decorated with trees and shrubs. Several of the 
 banks, many of the churches, and the royal exchange, in Green 
 street, are excellent specimens of architecture. An obelisk, one 
 hundred and forty-four feet high, is situated in the park, or 
 green as it is generally called. This park embraces one hun- 
 dred and forty acres, and is used by the inhabitants as a place 
 of recreation. The botanic garden covers an area of forty acres, 
 and every summer, during the fair holidays, it is thrown open, 
 and visitors admitted. (See views in Glasgow.) 
 
 Glen Urquhart is a parish of Scotland. It contains the re- 
 mains of an ancient castle and Druidic antiquities. Blair Athole 
 is an extensive parish, in which are the mountains of Benygloe 
 and Bendeare, the pass of Killiecrankie and Blair Athole castle, 
 seat of the Duke of Athole. (See views of Glen Urquhart, 
 Blair Athole, and Benygloe.) 
 
352 BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 BALMORAL CASTLE 
 
 Is in a picturesque dell in Bracmar, the south-western district of 
 Aberdeenshire. This castle is the residence of Queen Victoria. 
 It is located on an elevation sloping back from the river Dee, 
 and commands a magnificent prospect on every side. Craigan- 
 gowan rises in the background, and the castle, which is built of 
 granite, when viewed at a distance, presents a strong and im- 
 posing appearance, looking as though it had been hewn out of 
 one vast rock of that material. The old castle not being suffi- 
 ciently commodious, Prince Albert erected a new one at his own 
 expense in the Scottish balmoral style of architecture. The 
 castle, which consists of two separate blocks of buildings, is 
 united by wings, and surmounted by a massive tower thirty-five 
 feet square, rising to the hight of eighty feet, and surmounted 
 by a turret twenty feet high. Prince Albert has recently made 
 great improvements upon the edifice and the property surround- 
 ing it. The estate, at present, includes Birkhall, the seat of 
 Prince Albert, Knock castle ruins, Loch Muich, and dark Loch- 
 nagar, about seven miles south-west of Balmoral castle, and 
 contains ten thousand acres in addition to thirty thousand acres 
 of hill ground which has been converted into a deer forest. 
 
 Among other residences of the nobility are Inverary castle, 
 west of the town of Inverary, the seat of the Duke of Argyle, 
 Taymouth castle, the seat of the Marquis of Breadelbane, on 
 the right bank of the Tay, in Perth county, Drummond, the 
 seat of Lord Willoughby, and Abbotsford, the celebrated seat 
 of Sir Walter Scott, in Roxburg county, on the Tweed. (See 
 views of castles. 
 
 IRELAND, 
 
 The most western of the islands of Great Britain, is in the 
 shape of a rhomboid. The surface is very irregular, no part of 
 the island being more than fifty miles from the coast. The 
 climate is moist and mild, and the atmosphere is seldom clear or 
 free from fog. The mountainous regions are along the shore, and 
 instead of being in continuous ranges, are in isolated masses. 
 A considerable distance on the shore of Ireland is distinguished 
 
BRITISH ISLES. 353 
 
 for its basaltic cliffs and caves, the most remarkable of which is 
 the Giant's Causeway, which projects into the sea from the base 
 of a stratified rock, about four hundred feet in hight, seven 
 hundred in length, and three hundred and fifty in breadth. It 
 is separated into three divisions by whinstone dykes. The name 
 of this stupendous formation is derived from a popular legend, 
 ascribing the work to some giants, who were endeavoring to 
 construct a bridge across the sea to Scotland. 
 
 In the interior of the island are a vast number of lakes, some 
 of which are so near together as to form a continued series. 
 The lakes of Killarney are celebrated for their romantic scene- 
 ry. Few countries of the same extent are traversed by as 
 many rivers as Ireland. In some of them are waterfalls of 
 great beauty, and the valleys through which they flow are noted 
 for the magnificence of their scenery. (See views of natural 
 scenery.) 
 
 DUBLIN, 
 
 The capital and largest city of Ireland, is situated on the 
 Liffey, in the eastern part of the island. In the ancient part 
 of the city occur Christ's Church and St. Patrick's Cathedral. 
 This division of the town is not well built, and is irregular and 
 filthy. In the east quarter is Sackville street, one of the finest 
 thoroughfares in Europe. On this street are the Rotunda, Post- 
 office, and the Nelson Pillar; also, Rutland, Mountjoy, and 
 Marlborough squares. In the southern part of the city is 
 the Dublin Castle, situated on an eminence, and containing 
 an arsenal, an armory, the viceregal chapel, and various gov- 
 ernment offices. The principal church edifices are St. George 
 Frindloter, twenty-nine Protestant and nine Roman Catholic 
 parochial churches. (See views of Dublin.) 
 
 BELFAST, 
 
 A port and parliamentary borough of Ireland, is the principal 
 commercial city, and the seat of the linen manufacture. The 
 houses are of brick, and well built ; the streets are spacious, well 
 lighted, and macadamized. Among the educational institutions 
 
 23 
 
354 BRITISH ISLES. 
 
 are Queen's College, an edifice of brick and stone ; the Presby- 
 terian College ; the Royal Academical Institution, founded in 
 1810 ; the Belfast Academy, and other national and private 
 schools. The chief public buildings are the custom-house, com- 
 mercial buildings, hotels, offices, reading and music halls, and 
 the new house of correction. (See views of Belfast.) 
 
 YOUGHAL 
 
 Is a seaport town of Munster county, situated on the west side 
 of the Blackwater. The town was formerly enclosed by walls, 
 the ruins of which still remain. It contains a court house, cus- 
 tom house, hospital, barracks, and also the former residence of 
 Sir Walter Raleigh. The culture of the potato in Ireland was 
 first introduced at this place by Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 WALES. 
 
 Wales, a part of the British empire, joins England on the west. 
 The surface is rugged and mountainous, particularly in the 
 northern part. Snowden, the culminating point of South Britain, 
 rises to the hight of three thousand five hundred and seventy 
 feet. Among the chief cities are Merthyr Tydvil, the largest 
 town, noted for its iron works, Swansea, the principal seat of 
 the copper trade, and much resorted to for sea-bathing, and 
 Conway, the seat of the Conway castle, founded by Edward I. 
 It is in a good state of preservation, and one of the greatest 
 feudal fortresses in the kingdom. (See views of Wales.) 
 
 THE ISLE OF WIGHT 
 Is south of England, in the English channel. It has an area 
 of one hundred and thirty-six square miles. The center is much 
 more elevated than the margin, the highest elevation being eight 
 hundred and thirty feet above the sea. Newport is the capital. 
 The principal towns are Yarmouth, Ryde, Ventnor, and Cowes. 
 Near the latter is the Osborn house, a favorite summer residence 
 of Queen Victoria. (See views of the Osborn house.) 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 FRANCE. 
 
 This is one of the most populous and influential empires on 
 the globe. It is situated in the south-western part of Europe, 
 and covers an area of about ninety-seven thousand square miles. 
 It includes under its dominion, a large number of small islands 
 and colonies in various parts of the world. The population, 
 including that of its possessions, is forty-one millions sixty-three 
 thousand three hundred and forty-nine. 
 
 The surface of the country is somewhat broken by mountain 
 ranges, though it contains only a few lofty summits. The prin- 
 cipal ranges are the Pyrenes, on the south, separating it from 
 Spain, and the Alps, on the south-east, separating it from Italy. 
 Both these ranges are celebrated for their beautiful scenery. At, 
 their base and along their sides, are beautiful villages, sometimes 
 occupying an elevation of several thousand feet. Luz and St. 
 Sauveur in the Pyrenes, are celebrated for their mineral springs. 
 (See views.) Mount Blanc, the culminating point of the Alps, 
 and the highest mountain of Europe, is situated in the province 
 of Savoy, which was ceded to France in 1860. The mountain 
 is about fifteen thousand eight hundred feet in hight. It is sit- 
 uated at the dividing line between France, Switzerland and Italy. 
 The limit of the snow line is about eight thousand feet above 
 the level of the sea. It forms the terminus of the Grurain 
 Alps, one of the divisions of the western Alps. Thirty-four 
 glaciers are found in this range, occupying an area of about 
 ninety-five square miles. The largest of these is the Mer de 
 Glace, or " sea of ice." The lower part of this glacier is called 
 the Glacier des Bois. These glaciers extend north-east into 
 Switzerland. It is thought that the whole extent covered by 
 these fields of ice, in the different Alpine ranges, is not less 
 than one thousand five hundred square miles, and averaging 
 
356 FRANCE. 
 
 about one hundred feet in depth. The valley of the Chamouni, 
 lying at the base of Mount Blanc, is remarkable for its beauti- 
 ful scenery. The glaciers which descend into it are the grandest 
 of the Alps. The valley contains three villages, Chamouni, 
 lying at the foot of Mont Blanc, Argentine, and Ouches. (See 
 views.) 
 
 The rivers of France are rapid in their course, and of but 
 little value for navigable purposes. 
 
 PARIS, 
 
 The capital and principal city, is situated upon two islands 
 formed by the river Seine, about one hundred and ten miles from 
 its mouth. It is surrounded by a range of hills, the highest of 
 which attains an elevation of about two hundred feet. Recently 
 a line of fortifications has been built, enclosing the city and a 
 large portion of the suburbs. The city proper is enclosed by an 
 interior wall. Between this wall and the fortifications are what 
 is called the outer Boulevards, making nearly the circuit of the 
 town. The inner Boulevards, just within the interior wall, are 
 a finely planted thoroughfare, bounded on either side by a double 
 row of trees. These are a fashionable resort, and usually pre- 
 sent a scene of gaiety and splendor. 
 
 The streets in the newer part of the town are regular, wide, 
 and well paved, but in the older portions they are irregular, cut- 
 ting each other at all kinds of angles, and in many places so 
 narrow that carriages find difficulty in passing. 
 
 There are within the city several magnificent triumphal arches. 
 The Arc de l'Etoile, surpasses anything of the kind ever erected, 
 either in ancient or modern times. It is one hundred and sixty- 
 two feet high by one hundred and forty-seven feet long and 
 seventy feet broad. In the Place du Carrousel is another beau- 
 tiful arch, designed after that of Septimius Severus, at Rome. 
 This arch is forty-five feet high by sixty feet long and twenty 
 feet broad. The top is crowned by a triumphal car drawn by 
 four bronze horses. 
 
FRANCE. 357 
 
 The public buildings of Paris equal, if not surpass, those of 
 any other city on the globe. Among the many elegant churches, 
 that of Notre Dame is the most celebrated. It is situated on 
 the site formerly occupied by a Pagan temple, and afterwards 
 by a Christian basilica. The present building, which was erected 
 between the twelfth and fifteenth century, ranks among the 
 noblest specimens of Gothic architecture. It is built in the 
 shape of a cruciform, with an octagonal east and west end, sur- 
 mounted by two towers and a new central spire, remarkable for 
 its delicate tracery. 
 
 Among the most celebrated palaces are the Tuileries, the 
 Palais Royal, and the Louvre. The Tuileries, situated on the 
 right bank of the Seine, have continued for centuries to be the 
 chief Parisian residence of the sovereigns. The Palais Royal is 
 situated not far from the Tuileries. It is surrounded by beauti- 
 ful gardens, and much resorted to by the people of Paris. The 
 Louvre, situated east of the Tuileries, has ceased to be a state 
 residence, and is now occupied as the great national repository 
 of works of art. 
 
 A large sandy plain, near the Quai d' Orsay, in which reviews 
 and other military displays are held, is called the Champ de 
 Mars. Not far from it is the Ecole Militaire, which was founded 
 in 1752, and is now used as a military training school for infan- 
 try and cavalry. 
 
 The year 1867 witnessed, in Paris, a grand display of the 
 products of different nations, called the Paris Exposition. The 
 grounds, situated on the Champ de Mars, cover an area of thir- 
 ty-seven acres. The building is oval in form, and consists of 
 twelve circles around a common center, having an open central 
 garden. This exhibition was visited by the principal monarchs 
 of the world, and vast multitudes of people from all nations. 
 (See views of Paris and Paris Exposition.) 
 
 LYONS, 
 
 The second city of France, is situated at the junction of two 
 large rivers, the Saone, flowing from the north, and the Rhone, 
 
358 FRANCE. 
 
 flowing from the east. The city extends to the opposite banks 
 of both rivers, communication being maintained by a large num- 
 ber of handsome and commodious bridges. The streets, in a 
 large portion of the city, are narrow and irregular, and lined 
 with ungainly buildings, crowded together in the smallest possi- 
 ble space. Some portions of the town, however, are well built 
 with stately mansions, wide streets, and finely planted walks. 
 The public buildings are more remarkable for their antiquity, 
 than for the style of their architecture. Among the most inter- 
 esting are the Cathedral, the Church of Notre Dame, the 
 Church of St. Irengeus, the Palais de Justice, and the Abbey of 
 Ainay. 
 
 As a manufacturing town it holds the first rank. Its silk 
 manufactures are perhaps the most important in the world. It 
 is admirably situated for commerce, and extensively engaged in 
 trade. The population in 1862 was three hundred and eighteen 
 thousand eight hundred and three. (See views of Lyons.) 
 
 VERSAILLES, 
 
 Situated ten miles south-west of Paris, is remarkable for the 
 elegance and regularity of its construction. It is considered 
 one of the handsomest towns in Europe. It contains a number 
 of handsome public buildings, the most remarkable of which 
 are the Palace of Versailles, the Church of St. Louis, the Pre- 
 fecture, and the Chancery. The palace, built by Lous XIV., is 
 now used as a historical museum. From 1672 to 1790 it was 
 the residence of the kings of France. Connected with the 
 palace are a chapel, a theatre, an orangery, large flower gar- 
 dens, and a park, ornamented with numerous statues and foun- 
 tains. The opening of the museum in 1837 did much to increase 
 the prosperity of the city. In 1852 the population was thirty- 
 five thousand three hundred and sixty-seven. (See views of 
 Versailles.) 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 Switzerland is a republic of central Europe, lying between 
 latitude 45° 50' and 47° 50' N., and longitude 6° and 10° 25' 
 E. It is bounded on the north by Baden, on the south by Italy, 
 Piedmont, and Savoy, on the north-east by Wurtemburg and 
 Bavaria, on the east by Tyrol, and on the west by France. 
 Greatest length of Switzerland from east to west, two hundred 
 and sixteen miles, from north to south, one hundred and forty 
 miles, area, fifteen thousand two hundred and sixty-one square 
 miles. 
 
 The scenery of Switzerland is on the grandest scale. The 
 inhabitants of level districts, accustomed only to the prairies or 
 wooded plains which surround them, can form but a faint idea of 
 the grandeur, the singularly beautiful natural scenery of the alpine 
 regions of Switzerland. Nature has an infinite variety of as- 
 pects among the Alps. Beautiful lakes are embosomed among 
 the mountains, the peaks of which tower far above the limits of 
 perpetual snow ; the naked rock is covered with hardened masses 
 of glacier ; immense glaciers glisten on the mountain sides ; vast 
 quantities of ice and snow are hurled into immeasurable abysses, 
 and wild and picturesque valleys form the course of impetuous 
 streams and mountain torrents. 
 
 Switzerland is the most mountainous country of Europe. The 
 Jura mountains comprise several parallel ranges, which lie on 
 the north-western side of the republic. The Alps, crossing the 
 southern part of the country on the Italian frontier, cover over 
 one half of the country. 
 
 One of the most striking physical features of Switzerland are 
 glaciers, which are found here in greater numbers than in any 
 other country. They exist in all latitudes, varying in hight 
 
360 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 according to the temperature of the country in which they are 
 found, but those of the Alps have been more clearly and satis- 
 factorily investigated than of any other region. They cover 
 an area of fifteen hundred square miles, and are frequently 
 from fifteen to twenty miles long, and three miles broad. " In 
 elevated mountain valleys, glaciers are formed by the fall of 
 snow, which is increased in amount by immense quantities pre- 
 cipitated from the adjacent mountain peaks. This mass is sub- 
 ject to alternate freezing and thawing, until, in the progress of 
 centuries, the valley becomes filled with a body of ice constitu- 
 ting the glacial formation." Glaciers have a gradual downward 
 motion, and are often found below the snow limit. The Lower 
 Grindelwald is five hundred, and the Aar fifteen hundred feet 
 below the snow line. They present the appearance of a frozen 
 torrent, frequently traversed by deep rents called crevasses. 
 The most important rivers of Switzerland owe their origin to 
 glaciers. The Rhone issues from the Rhone glacier on the west 
 side of Mount St. Gothard, between the mountains of Furka 
 and Grimsel, and the Hinter Rhine from the Rheinwald glacier. 
 Switzerland is divided into twenty-two cantons or states. 
 
 BERN 
 
 Is one of the three leading states of the Swiss confederation, 
 and celebrated above all others for the beauty and variety of its 
 scenery. It has some of the loftiest peaks of the Alps, and con- 
 tains the romantic valleys of the Lauterbrunnen, Grindelwald, 
 Simmenthal, Gasternthal, and Kanderthal. In the Lauterbrun- 
 nen valley is the White Lutschine, celebrated for its picturesque 
 beauty, and so confined, that, in winter, the sun does not appear 
 till noon. In this valley, also, is the Staubbach fall, one of the 
 highest and most beautiful in Europe. It occurs in a small 
 stream of the same name, an affluent of the White Lutschine. 
 The amount of water precipitated is small, and the whole, in its 
 descent, is dashed noiselessly, by the mere resistance of the 
 opposing air, into spray, and ere long into a fine mist-like rain. 
 The hight of the fall is about eight hundred and sixty feet. " It 
 
SWITZERLAND. 361 
 
 is neither mist nor water," says Byron, " but a something be- 
 tween both; its immense hight gives it a wave or curve — a 
 spreading here, or condensation there — wonderful and indescrib- 
 able." Seen from the front, the Staubbach often presents the 
 appearance of a white semi-transparent lace veil, flitting to and 
 fro over the face of the rock, and contracting itself now and 
 then into folds and undulations, as of drapery. (See views of 
 the Staubbach.) From this fall, through the narrow valley of 
 the Lutschine, is offered a distant vista gleam of the stainless 
 Jungfrau, which towers far above the limits of perpetual snow, 
 having an altitude of thirteen thousand seven hundred and twenty 
 feet. The Jungfrau signifies the " Maiden," or the " Virgin 
 mountain," and undoubtedly obtained its name from the purity 
 and dazzling brightness of the snow and ice with which it is 
 perpetually covered. This mountain is steep and precipitous, 
 and it is but recently that travelers have succeeded in reaching 
 its summit. (See views of the Jungfrau.) 
 
 Three miles north-east of the Jungfrau, is the Mouch, one of 
 the loftiest of the Alpine peaks of Switzerland, having an alti- 
 tude of thirteen thousand and forty-four feet. (See views of the 
 Mouch.) 
 
 Two miles from Lake Thun the White Lutschine is joined by 
 the Black Lutschine. The road up the valley of the latter stream 
 leads to the valley of the Grindelwald and the Magic peak of 
 the Wetterhorn. The valley of Grindelwald is surrounded on 
 all sides by lofty and imposing mountain peaks, and is one of 
 the most fertile and picturesque Alpine districts in Switzerland. 
 It covers about fifty square miles, being about four miles wide 
 and twelve miles long. Two immense glaciers branch off from 
 the mass of snow and ice which clothe the Bernese Oberland, 
 and furnish the principal inducement to tourists to visit the val- 
 ley. (See views of the Grindelwald glaciers.) 
 
 On the right of the Grindelwald valley is the Wetterhorn, 
 signifying "Peak of Tempest," one of the grandest and most 
 picturesque mountains of Switzerland. It belongs to the group 
 of the Bernese Oberland, and reaches an altitude, according to 
 various authorities, of from twelve thousand two hundred to 
 
362 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 fourteen thousand one hundred and five feet. The summit is 
 clothed with ice and snow, and is reached by a precipitous and 
 irregular foot-path. (See views of the Wetterhorn.) 
 
 The Simmenthal valley is watered by the Simmen river, which 
 has a course of thirty-five miles, and joins the Kander near 
 where the latter empties into Lake Thun. In the Simmenthal 
 valley the river flows through a deep, narrow, and romantic 
 gorge, and has a number of beautiful falls and cascades. (See 
 views of falls in the gorge of Simmen.) In this valley, also, is 
 found the Peak of Amertenhorn, unsurpassed by few mountains 
 of Switzerland in hight and grandeur. (See views.) 
 
 The Gastern, or Gasternthal valley, on the southern frontier 
 of the state of Bern, is drained by a small stream called the 
 Kander, which has a number of beautiful falls and cascades. 
 This valley has scarcely a rival in savage grandeur, having for 
 its background the great Tschingel glacier, which is between the 
 peaks of the Schlithorn and Sackhorn, both of which attain an 
 elevation of nine thousand feet. (See views in the Gasternthal 
 valley.) A foot-path extends from this valley over the Hoch- 
 weyden Alps and Lotschen glacier, to the valley of Lotschen, 
 canton of Valais. The valley of Kanderthal is also drained by 
 the Kander river, and contains the peaks of Doldenhorn, Eschi- 
 nensee, Birrenstock and Fissistock. (See views.) 
 
 Bern contains the lakes of Neufchatel, Bienne, Thun, and 
 Brienz, all of which are celebrated for the wildness and gran- 
 deur of their scenery. 
 
 The soil in the valleys of Bern is exceedingly rich, and the 
 mountains are covered with majestic forests of pine. The can- 
 ton has mines of iron, copper, lead, and marble. 
 
 BERN, 
 
 The capital, is finely built on a peninsula in the river Aar, 
 which is here crossed by two substantial stone bridges. It has 
 a large and imposing cathedral, an observatory, a museum of 
 natural history, an arsenal, a public library, a mint, and manu- 
 factories of fire-arms, hats, paper, and leather. Population, 
 twenty-nine thousand and sixteen. 
 
SWITZERLAND. 363 
 
 INTERLAKEN 
 
 Is a village on the Aar, canton of Bern, consisting of a num- 
 ber of white-washed lodging-houses, and containing a subscrip- 
 tion reading-room and library. It is a great summer resort. 
 (See view.) 
 
 GRISONS, 
 
 Next to Bern the largest canton of Switzerland, is in the 
 eastern part of that republic, and covers an area of two thous- 
 and nine hundred and seventy-five square miles. Population in 
 1860, ninety-one thousand one hundred and seventy-seven. 
 
 The canton is divided into three great valley-districts, the 
 most important of which is the valley of the Rhine, occupying 
 nearly the whole of the western portion of the canton. The 
 valley or mountain pass of Albula extends across Mount Albula 
 from the valley of Bergun to the Upper Engadine, and from 
 the basin of the Rhine to that of the Inn. (See views in the 
 valley of Albula.) The most remarkable feature, however, in 
 connection with the surface of the Grisons, is the gorge of 
 Viamala, a deep mountain defile, four miles long, between Chur 
 and the Splugen. It is walled in by rocky precipices, sixteen 
 hundred feet high, which nearly overarch the gorge, frequently 
 approaching, at the top, within ten yards of each other, while 
 far below, in the depths of the chasm, the Hinter Rhine darts 
 like an arrow in its onward course. The walls run nearly par- 
 allel to each other, each indentation on one side corresponding 
 to the projection on the other. The lower portion of this gorge 
 was long deemed inaccessible, and had received the name of the 
 Lost Gulf ; but a difficult and precipitous road has recently been 
 constructed about four hundred feet above the river, by means 
 of blasting and cutting. The road is protected by a canopy of 
 rocky projections and wooden roofing, from the rocks and stones 
 which are hurled from the hights above. It winds from one 
 side of the gorge to the other by means of three bridges, built 
 about four hundred feet above the stream. Yet, so narrow is 
 the chasm, that, during the flood of 1834, the river rose and 
 
364 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 washed away the upper bridge, and reached within a few feet of 
 the others. (See views of the Viamala.) 
 
 There are two hundred and forty glaciers in the Grisons, one 
 of which, Rheinwald, forms the source of the Hinter Rhine. In 
 the valleys of the Grisons are a number of villages, more noted 
 for their beautiful situations and grandeur of the scenery which 
 surrounds them, than for size and wealth. Among these may 
 be mentioned Schiersch, Grusch, Malix, Rhazuns, and Alvas- 
 chein. The village of Fideris is in the Landquart valley, twelve 
 miles north-east of Chur. Klosters is on the Landquart, four 
 miles north-east of Fideris. (See views.) 
 
 GLARUS 
 
 Is a canton of Switzerland, between St. Gall, the Grisons, 
 Schwytz, and Uri, containing an area of two hundred and eighty 
 square miles. The chief river, Linth, having a course of twenty- 
 five miles, and its affluents, enter Lake Wallenstatt. It flows 
 through a picturesque country, and on its banks is Glarus, the 
 capital of the canton, in the rear of which rises Glarnisch, a 
 steep and precipitous mountain, the peak of which is eight thous- 
 and nine hundred and twenty-five feet above the level of the 
 sea. (See Views.) The culminating point of this canton, and 
 also of East Switzerland, is Mount Dodi, having an altitude 
 of eleven thousand eight hundred and eighty-seven feet. The 
 chief town is 
 
 GLARUS, 
 
 The capital, on the Linth, at the foot of Mount Glarnisch, 
 containing a hospital, free school, public library and reading- 
 room, and manufactories of muslins, cottons, woolen cloths, etc. 
 Population of the city, four thousand and eighty-two. (See 
 views.) 
 
 Population of the canton, thirty-three thousand three hundred 
 and sixty-three. 
 
 VALAIS 
 
 Is a canton in the south-eastern part of Switzerland, bounded 
 on the north by Vand and Bern, and on the south by Italy. 
 
SWITZERLAND. 365 
 
 Area, about two thousand and sixteen square miles ; population 
 in 1860, ninety thousand seven hundred and ninety-two. It 
 forms a single long and deep valley, between the Bernese and 
 Pennine Alps, two of the loftiest mountain chains of Europe, 
 and is drained by the Rhone, which originates in the glacier of 
 Gallenstock, (see view) and enters Lake Geneva. This valley 
 has been described as an immense trough, seventy miles in length, 
 one and one-half miles in depth, and two miles wide at the bot- 
 tom. The higher elevations are covered with the greatest of 
 Swiss glaciers, and the whole canton is exposed to impetuous 
 torrents and destructive avalanches. In the north are the 
 Goimsel and Gemmi, and in the south the Great St. Bernard 
 and Simplon passes. 
 
 Two important peaks of this canton are Mont Rosa, having 
 an altitude of fifteen thousand two hundred and eight feet, 
 and Mount Cervin, having an altitude of fourteen thousand 
 seven hundred and seventy-one feet. The former is inferior in 
 hight only to Mount Blanc, of the Pennine Alps, from which it 
 is fifty miles distant. (See view of Mont Rosa.) 
 
 The cultivated portion of Valais comprises a strip of land 
 from one-half to three-fourths of a mile wide, on each side of 
 the Rhone. Considerable quantities of corn are here produced. 
 A railroad ascends this valley as far as Sion. The chief towns 
 are Sion, the capital, Martigny, and Vispach. 
 
 The other cantons of Switzerland, not yet described, are 
 Aargau, Appenzell, Basel, Freyburg, Geneva, Lucerne, Neuf- 
 chatel, St. Gall, Schaffhausen, Swytz, Soleure, Ticino, Thur- 
 gau, Unterwalden, Uri, Vaud, Zug, and Zurich. The best cul- 
 tivated are Basel, Aargau, Thurgan, Vaud, and Geneva. The 
 chief productions are spelt, wheat, rye, barley, Turkish corn, 
 oats, and tobacco. 
 
 The chief cities are Geneva, Bern, Basel, Lausanne, Zurich, 
 St. Gall, Lucerne, Freyburg, Neufchatel, Schaffhausen, Soleure, 
 Lugano, Aarau, Glarus, and Appenzell. 
 
366 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 GENEVA, 
 
 The most populous city of Switzerland, and capital of a can- 
 ton of its own name, occupies the slope of two hills, at the west- 
 ern end of Lake Geneva, where that body discharges the Blue 
 Rhone. The city is built on both sides of the river, which is 
 crossed by several bridges. The lower portion of the city is the 
 chief district of trade, and is irregularly and poorly built. The 
 upper portion, however, the seat of the aristocracy, contains a 
 large number of elegant hotels and private residences and villas. 
 
 The most important public buildings are the cathedral, town 
 house, casino, penitentiary, and Musee Rath, a tasty building 
 named after its founder. The cathedral is a Gothic edifice, 
 flanked by three massive towers, and occupying a commanding 
 situation on the highest ground in the city. Among the educa- 
 tional establishments may be mentioned the Calvin college and 
 academy. Geneva has a museum of natural history, a botanic 
 garden, and is extensively engaged in the manufacture of watches 
 and jewelry. It is surrounded on three sides by walls, and is 
 entered by three gates. Population twenty-nine thousand one 
 hundred and eight. (See views of Geneva.) 
 
 ST. GALL, 
 
 A city and capital of a canton of the same name, is eighteen 
 miles south-east of Constance, in a mountain valley, two thou- 
 sand one hundred and fifty feet above sea-level. The environs 
 of the city are beautiful, and contain many fine walks and prom- 
 enades. It contains a cathedral, monastery, town house, post 
 office, three churches, a public square, a number of fountains, 
 and manufactories of linen, cotton, fine muslins, etc. Popula- 
 tion in 1860, fourteen thousand five hundred and thirty-two. 
 (See views of St. Gall.) 
 
 APPENZELL, 
 
 An important city of Switzerland, and capital of Inner Rhodes, 
 in the canton of Appenzell, is six miles south of St. Gall. It 
 has a number of churches, a council house, an arsenal, baths, 
 and manufactories of linen. Population two thousand nine hun- 
 dred and ten, chiefly Roman Catholics. (See view of Appenzell.) 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 AUSTRIA, PRUSSIA, GERMANY, AND RUSSIA. 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 Austria, next to Russia, is the largest province of Europe. 
 The inhabitants are of different races, speaking as many differ- 
 ent languages. The general surface is mountainous, abounding 
 in beautiful and romantic scenery. The plains are not exten- 
 sive, occupying less than one-fifth of the surface. The principal 
 valleys are found in Tyrol, Solsburg, Styria, and Illyria. The 
 loftiest mountains are in Tyrol, Styria, and Illyria. 
 
 VIENNA, 
 
 The capital and largest city of Austria, is situated on a 
 branch of the Danube, about two miles from the main stream. 
 It consists of the city proper and upwards of thirty suburbs. The 
 most important of the church edifices, are the Cathedral of St. 
 Stephen, a massive gothic structure three hundred and fifty feet 
 long, by two hundred and thirty-five deep, ninety feet high, and 
 built of hewn limestone ; and the court parish church, founded by 
 Frederick the Fair, in 1330. It contains a beautiful monument 
 to the Archduchess, Christina, and in the chapel the hearts of 
 the imperial family are preserved. Among the palaces and gov- 
 ernment edifices are the imperial palace, the palaces of Archduke 
 Charles, Belvedere, one built by Prince Eugene, and those of 
 Count Schonborn, Prince Auersperg, etc. The chief govern- 
 ment buildings are the national bank, mint, town house, and the 
 Imperial and Civil arsenals, in both of which are collections of 
 ancient armor. The monuments of the city are not numerous. 
 The finest are an equestrian and colossal statue of Joseph II., 
 one of the late Emperor Francis I., the monument and statue 
 to the Virgin, and the marble statue of Theseus. (See views in 
 Vienna.) 
 
368 AUSTRIA. 
 
 LLNZ, 
 
 A city of upper Austria, is fortified by a circle of thirty-two 
 forts, nine on the north side of the Danube, and twenty-three 
 on the south side. The city is well built, and has three suburbs, 
 larger than the city proper. The river is here crossed by a 
 wooden bridge two hundred and eighty yards in length. The 
 city contains several fine churches, a bank, theater, custom 
 house, and an old castle. (See views of Linz.) 
 
 TYROL, 
 
 A division of Austria, occupies the south-western portion of 
 that province. It is for the most part a mountainous region, being 
 crossed by three ranges of the Alps, the center range dividing 
 it into two parts. The summits of many of these mountains are 
 covered with perpetual snow, and glaciers to the number of 
 eighty, covering an area of one hundred and seventy square 
 miles, descend into the valleys. The scenery of Tyrol is second 
 only to Switzerland. The principal rivers are the Danube, Po, 
 and Rhine. These rivers are fed by numerous streams and tor- 
 rents from the glaciers and regions of perpetual snow. Brena- 
 ver, one of the culminating points of the mountains of Tyrol, 
 has an elevation of six thousand seven hundred and eighty-eight 
 feet above the sea. The road between Insprjck and Brjfxen 
 crosses this mountain at an elevation of four thousand six hun- 
 dred and fifty feet. (See views among the mountains of Tyrol.) 
 
 SAL^ZBURG, 
 
 A city of Tyrol, has a picturesque site at the base of two 
 precipitous bights. The scenery around this city is scarcely 
 surpassed by the finest and most romantic parts of Switzerland. 
 The greater part of the town is built on the left bank of the 
 Salza. In this part of the city is a lofty hight, crowned by 
 a magnificent ancient castle. The principal squares are Resi- 
 deng and the D^implatz. Between these is an Italian Cathedral, 
 adjoining to which is the Archbishop's palace. In the same 
 vicinity is the collegiate church of St. Peter, and a cemetery 
 distinguished for its remarkable ancient tombs. The castle has 
 
Prussia. 369 
 
 been sometime used for barracks. In one of the towers is pre- 
 served a part of the torturing apparatus employed on the prot- 
 estants, who were here cruelly persecuted, and some of whom 
 suffered martyrdom. (See views of Saltzburg.) 
 
 BORMIO, 
 
 A town of Tyrol, Austria, is about twenty-nine miles from 
 the Adda, on which occur the ancient and celebrated salt baths 
 called Bagni di Bormio. (See views of Baths.) 
 
 PRUSSIA. 
 
 The kingdom of Prussia ranks as a leading power of Europe. 
 By its late victories over Austria, it has added to its territory, 
 Hanover, Holstein, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and several other 
 divisions. The surface is generally level, the mountains occur- 
 ing only in the south and south-western parts of the country. 
 The soil is fertile and productive. Prussia lies in the basins of 
 the North and Baltic seas, and is drained by large rivers, the 
 most celebrated of which is the Rhine. Along this river the 
 scenery is mountainous and picturesque. The inhabitants are 
 mostly Germans, and are well educated and intelligent people. 
 All children are obliged by law to attend school until they are 
 fourteen years old. 
 
 BERLIN, 
 
 The capital, is, next to Vienna, the largest city of Central 
 Europe, and is remarkable for the regularity of its streets, the 
 size and beauty of its buildings, and for its institutions of science 
 and art. It is finely located on both sides of the Spree, is 
 about ten miles in circumference, and comprises the city proper, 
 Cologne, Lewsenstadt, Friedrichstadt, Friedrichswerder, Neu- 
 stadt, Friedrich Wilhelmstadt, and the suburbs of Stralhau, 
 Spandau and Konigstadt, Oranienburg and Potsdam. Forty 
 bridges cross the Spree and its branches at this place. The city 
 is enclosed by a wall sixteen feet high. One of the gates through 
 which the city is entered, is one of the most splendid in Europe. 
 
 24 
 
370 PRUSSIA. 
 
 Among the numerous public buildings are the royal palace and 
 castle, the palaces of the princes, the museum, arsenal, opera 
 house, and university. (See views in Berlin.) 
 
 COLOGNE, 
 
 A city of Prussia, situated on the Ehine, is one of the most 
 populous in the kingdom. It is connected with Deutz, on the 
 opposite side of the river, by a handsome double bridge. The 
 cathedral is the greatest object of interest in the town, and is 
 the best specimen of Gothic monuments in Europe. It was 
 begun in 1248, is five hundred and eleven feet in length, and two 
 hundred and thirty-one in breadth. The roof is supported by one 
 hundred columns, the center four of which are thirty feet in cir- 
 cumference. The cost of the completion of this structure is 
 estimated at seven hundred and fifty thousand pounds. This 
 part of the work was commenced in 1842. The city contains 
 eight chapels, a synagogue and twenty-seven churches. (See 
 views in Cologne.) 
 
 COBLENTZ, 
 
 A fortified city of Prussia, is situated on the Rhine, about 
 fifty miles from Cologne. The Rhine is here crossed by a bridge 
 of boats. The city is well and regularly built, and contains a 
 noble palace and several fine churches, the residences of several 
 families of the nobility, valuable collections of coins, minerals 
 and antiquities, and a town library. (See views in Coblentz.) 
 
 BACHARACH, 
 
 A walled town, is on the left bank of the Rhine, about twenty- 
 three miles from Coblentz. (See views.) 
 
 ANDERNACH 
 
 Is a town of Prussia, on the Rhine, about ten miles from 
 Coblentz. It has become distinguished for the production of 
 millstones and cement. (See views.) 
 
GERMANY. 371 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 Germany comprises Bavaria, Saxony, Baden, Wurtemberg, a 
 number of smaller states, three free cities, and a part of Prussia 
 and Austria. The inhabitants are an industrious and intelligent 
 people. The free cities are Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck. 
 Many of the smaller towns are noted for remarkable historical 
 events, and others for their magnificent palaces, churches and 
 universities. 
 
 HAMBURG, 
 
 A commercial city of Germany, is situated on the river Elbe. 
 Within the city is a lake called the Inner Alster. This is a 
 favorite place of resort for the inhabitants, and during some 
 seasons of the year the lake is covered with pleasure boats. 
 The canal and branches of the Alster river pass through the 
 city. In many places the buildings come to the waters edge, 
 and communications between the buildings are carried on by 
 means of boats. (See views of Hamburg.) 
 
 LIMBURG, 
 
 An ancient town of Germany, on the Lahn, has a hospital, a 
 Roman Catholic seminary, and a palace. (See views.) 
 
 WEILBURG, 
 
 On the Lahn, contains a castle and manufactories of paper. 
 The river is crossed by an iron bridge. (See views.) 
 
 NEUBURG 
 
 Contains a theatre, museum, barracks, a church, a castle,, 
 remains of ancient fortifications, and a royal institute. The river 
 Danube is here crossed by two bridges. (See views.) 
 
 CANNSTATT 
 
 Is in a beautiful and fertile valley of Wurtemburg. Near the 
 town are a number of mineral springs. It contains the royal 
 seats of Bellevue and Rosenstein. (See views.) 
 
372 Russia. 
 
 NENHAUS 
 
 Contains a handsome palace of Count Czernin, and a Jesuit 
 college. (See views.) 
 
 BADEN BADEN, 
 
 A celebrated watering place, and summer resort for visitors 
 from all parts of Europe, is in Germany, in the valley of 
 Schwarzwald. Over the principal spring, a pump-house has 
 been erected, from which water is conveyed by numerous pipes 
 to different hotels for the accommodation of visitors. (See views.) 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 Russia is the largest empire in the world, embracing European 
 Russia, Siberia and Trans-caucasian Russia. Russian America 
 also belonged to this empire until 1867, when it was purchased 
 by the United States government. The surface is for the most 
 part, very level, the only mountainous section being north of the 
 Caucasus mountains. The government is an absolute monarchy. 
 The people are divided into four classes — the nobles, clergy, 
 merchants, and the recently emancipated serfs. 
 
 ST. PETERSBURG, 
 
 The capital, is situated on the river Neva, near its mouth. 
 It is the largest and most populous city of the empire, and in 
 the splendor of its public buildings, is surpassed by few cities. 
 The most distinguished of the ecclesiastical edifices is the cathe- 
 dral of our Lady of Kezan. It is in the form of a Greek cross, 
 and cost upwards of twenty millions of dollars. The Winter 
 palace, probably the most magnificent in the world, is seven 
 hundred feet square, and during the residence of the emperor 
 within it, is inhabited by six thousand people. The city was 
 founded by Peter the Great, in 1703. The little cottage in 
 which he lived, is in the city in a remarkable state of preserva- 
 tion. 
 
 MOSCOW, 
 
 Formerly the capital, and at present a famous city of Russia, 
 is about four hundred miles from St. Petersburg. The site of 
 
Russia. 373 
 
 the city is on undulating ground. On the highest eminence, near 
 the center of the city, stands the Kremlin, which is of a trian- 
 gular shape, surrounded by a wall sixty feet high, and nearly a 
 mile in circuit. Among the buildings of the Kremlin is the 
 famous Ivan Veliki, rising without ornament to the hight of two 
 hundred and nine feet, surmounted by a gilded dome, on which 
 is a cross. This tower consists of a number of stories, in each 
 of which is suspended a massive bell, one of which weighs sixty- 
 four tons. Another bell, weighing about one hundred and nine- 
 ty tons, is on a pedestal of granite in the bottom of the tower. 
 The tower in which it was first suspended was burnt, and the 
 bell in falling was broken. Its hight is upwards of twenty-one 
 feet, its circumference twenty-two and a half feet, and its least 
 thickness three inches. (See views in Moscow.) 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 ITALY AND PAPAL STATES. 
 
 ITALY, 
 
 Formerly the center of the Roman Empire, comprises a num- 
 ber of islands in the Mediterranean sea, and a large peninsula, 
 between the latter body and the Adriatic sea. It lies between 
 latitude 47° and including Sicily, 36° 41' 30" north, and longi- 
 tude 6° 35' and 18° 35' east. Its greatest length from north 
 to south, is six hundred miles ; from east to west, three hundred 
 miles ; area, one hundred and seventeen thousand nine hundred 
 and fourteen square miles. 
 
 The Alps separate Italy from France, Switzerland, and Aus- 
 tria, and send ramifications over the northern part of the coun- 
 try. The Apennine mountain range winds through the entire 
 length of the peninsula from north to south. The valleys 
 between the mountains are extremely fertile, and well adapted 
 to cultivation. The Apennines contribute beauty and grandeur 
 to central Italy, which in the southern districts assumes a wilder 
 aspect. In the vicinity of Mount Vesuvius and the city of 
 Naples, the scenery approaches almost a savage grandeur. This 
 volcanic peak rises out of a fertile and luxuriant plain, three 
 thousand nine hundred and forty-eight feet above the sea. The 
 crater is fifteen hundred feet in diameter, and five hundred feet 
 deep. Around the base of Vesuvius are immense fields of hard- 
 ened lava and scoriae, which have been ejected from the volcano. 
 Its first recorded eruption occurred in A. D. 63, and in 79 the 
 cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae, were buried in lava 
 and ashes, which were emitted from this volcano. The site of 
 Herculaneum was discovered in 1713, but though extensively 
 excavated, only a small portion of the ancient theater is visible. 
 Pompeii, not having been buried in lava, but ashes, is much 
 
ITALY. 375 
 
 more easily excavated than Herculaneum, and a large number 
 of statues, urns, etc., here found, have been deposited in the 
 museum at Naples. After being buried nearly eighteen hun- 
 dred years, these cities are gradually being removed of their 
 covering, and are found to be in a remarkable state of preserva- 
 tion. (See views of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Vesuvius.) 
 
 Sicily is crossed by a mountain chain from east to west, known 
 first as Neptunian, and afterwards as Madonian mountains. 
 This chain so greatly resembles the Appenines, and the physical 
 character of the Strait of Messina is such as to give strength to 
 the assertion that Sicily formerly constituted a part of the main- 
 land, from which it has been separated by some terrible convul- 
 sion of nature. The prevalence of earthquakes, and the fre- 
 quency of volcanic eruptions, are facts that further support this 
 theory. Etna, Stromboli, and Lipari, are still subject to terri- 
 ble eruptions. The former is an isolated peak, forming a per- 
 fect cone, which has a circumference at its base of eighty-seven 
 miles, and is one of the greatest curiosities of the world. It 
 has an altitude of ten thousand eight hundred and seventy-four 
 feet. It is nearly encircled, except on the east, where it is bor- 
 dered by the sea, by the Alcantara and Giaretta rivers. There 
 are about sixty recorded eruptions of Etna, the most remarka- 
 ble of which are those of the years 1669, 1792, 1811, 1819, 
 and 1832. Numerous new vents were formed near the summit 
 in 1832, from which issued sheets of flame, and immense quan- 
 tities of ashes and cinders. In 1669, one of these burning 
 streams of molten matter overtopped the ramparts of Catania, 
 sixty feet in hight, and fell in a fiery cascade into the city, a 
 part of which it destroyed. It however, ultimately cooled, and 
 the solid lava may still be seen curling over the top of the ram- 
 part, like a cascade in the act of falling. (See view.) In the 
 northern part of Italy are the great plains of Lombardy, which 
 are drained by the river Po. 
 
 The rivers of Italy, owing chiefly to the narrowness of the 
 country, are generally small, sometimes obstructed with rapids, 
 and navigable only for small boats. The Po is much the largest, 
 and rises in Mount Piso. Among the others may be mentioned 
 
376 ITALY. 
 
 Adige, Brenta, Piave, Tagliamento, Aterno, Saugro, Metauro, 
 Ofanto, Arno, and Tiber. The chief lakes are Como, Garda, 
 Maggiore, Lugano, Iseo, and a part of Geneva. The Como 
 lake might properly be regarded as an expansion of the Adda 
 river, which enters it at the foot of the Rhetian Alps, and flows 
 from it at Lecco. It is environed on the south by mountains 
 from one thousand to thirteen hundred feet in hight, and is 
 separated into its two branches of Como and Lecco by a penin- 
 sular projection known as Bellagio. It is thirty-five miles long, 
 and three miles wide, and is surrounded by the richest of Italian 
 scenery. The water abounds with fish, and the lake is exposed 
 to sudden storms, which greatly impede water communication. 
 On the shore are a number of villas, among which may be men- 
 tioned Villa Lenno, on the supposed site of Pliny's villa, and 
 Villa d' Este, once the residence of Caroline, Queen of England. 
 (See views of Como.) 
 
 The climate of Italy is varied. In the north flourishes vege- 
 tation peculiar to the temperate zone, while in the south it 
 reaches the richness and luxuriance of that in tropical countries. 
 The singular clearness of the atmosphere sets off the landscape 
 beauties of Italy with brilliant effect, giving a brightness of color, 
 and distinctness of outline rarely known in other countries. 
 The lakes in the basin of the river Po, and the lagoons and 
 marshes of Venice are frequently frozen in winter, but the cli- 
 mate of Calabria, Sicily, and the adjacent islands, is such as to 
 promote the vegetation of the tropical zone. Silk is extensively 
 manufactured in the northern provinces, and sugar-cane flour- 
 ishes in Sicily. Corn is produced in large quantities, as is also 
 cotton, hemp, flax, oil, rice, olives, wine, and fruits. 
 
 Florence is the capital of Italy, and Naples, Milan, Turin, 
 Venice, Geneva, Leghorn, and Verona are the most important 
 towns. 
 
 FLORENCE 
 Is an important city and capital of Italy, in the division of 
 Tuscany, chiefly on the northern bank of the Arno river. The 
 river is here spanned by four bridges, the finest of which, Ponte 
 
ITALY. 377 
 
 del la Santa Trinita, remarkable for its light and graceful archi- 
 tecture, is constructed of marble, has three arches, and is adorned 
 with statues. The general appearance of Florence is neat and 
 prepossessing. The streets, though narrow, are clean, and are 
 lined with public and private edifices of every description and 
 style. There are a great many noble and elegant palaces, 
 among which the Pitti palace, the former residence of Luca Pitti, 
 and now of the grand duke, holds a conspicuous place. (See 
 view.) The most important building of Florence is the Cathe- 
 dral of Santa Maria del Flore, an imposing structure, surmount- 
 ed by a dome, the largest in the world. The walls are of brick, 
 and are incrusted with marble. Among the other buildings may 
 be mentioned the church of Santa Croce, containing the ashes 
 of Michael Angelo, Galileo, and other celebrated men, the church 
 of St. John, now used as a city baptistery, the Biblioteca Maru- 
 celliana, Magliabecchian, and Laurentian libraries, the latter of 
 which occupies a long and lofty gallery, with windows of stained 
 glass. Florence is surrounded by a wall, four and one-fourth 
 miles in circuit, and is entered by seven gates. Population in 
 1862, one hundred and fourteen thousand three hundred and 
 sixty-three. 
 
 NAPLES, 
 
 Formerly the capital of the state of Naples, and at present 
 capital of Napoli, is the most populous city of Italy. It is near 
 the north-eastern extremity of the Bay of Naples, at the base of 
 Mount Vesuvius, one hundred and eighteen miles south-east of 
 Rome. Opposite Vesuvius, on the east, rises the peak of Pau- 
 silippo, and in the background recede the ramifications of the 
 Apennines. The city itself has scarcely a rival in beauty of 
 location and grandeur of surrounding scenery. The streets are 
 paved with blocks of hardened lava, and, with but few excep- 
 tions, are straight and clean. The most important building is 
 a fine Gothic cathedral, occupying the site of a Temple of Apollo, 
 and containing relics of St. Januarius. The royal palace is an 
 immense building, three stories high, each of which is composed 
 of a different order of architecture. Its original design has not 
 been carried out, but it is richly furnished, and adorned with 
 
378 ITALY. 
 
 paintings, statues, etc. (See views.) The other buildings worthy 
 of note are the Palace of Capo di Monte, the Palazzo Degli 
 Studij Publici, a building of the seventeenth century, the churchs 
 Dei Santi Apostoli, St. Martin, St. Philip de Neri, Del Parto, 
 and San Severo, and royal library. The chief manufactures 
 are silk, lace, gloves, carriages, soap, violins and other musical 
 instruments, hats, woollen, linen, etc. Population, four hun- 
 dred and eighteen thousand nine hundred and sixty-eight. 
 
 TURIN, 
 
 One of the most important cities of Italy, and capital of Pied- 
 mont, is on a rich plain among the Alps, on the right bank of 
 the river Po, at the mouth of the Dora Susina, eighty miles 
 south-west of Milan. The most important building is the cathe- 
 dral, the interior of which is richly ornamented with frescoes and 
 paintings, and containing the remarkable chapel of Santo Suda- 
 rio. Among the other ecclesiastical buildings may be mentioned 
 the churches of San Filippo Neri, Santa Christina, Corpus 
 Christi, Sant 'Andrea, and San Rocco. Turin has a university, 
 an Episcopal seminary, a royal military academy, and two col- 
 leges. Population in 1862, one hundred and eighty thousand 
 five hundred and twenty. 
 
 MILAN, 
 
 Third city in size in Italy, is on a fertile plain, between the 
 basins of the Ticino and Adda, eighty miles north-east of Turin, 
 and one hundred and seventy-five miles west of Venice. The 
 city is encircled by a wall, and is entered through eleven gates. 
 The buildings are generally of brick, and frequently have ele- 
 gant exteriors. 
 
 The chief object of interest, however, of Milan, is the cathe- 
 dral, a massive structure, which ranks in size and beauty of 
 architecture among the finest buildings of the world. It is in a 
 square in the heart of the city, called Piazza del Duomo, and is 
 four hundred and ninety feet long, two hundred and ninety- 
 eight feet wide, and three hundred and fifty-five feet high to the 
 apex of the dome, above which rises an obelisk spire. Around 
 
ITALY. 3T9 
 
 the roof and sides of the building are four thousand six hundred 
 niches, of which four thousand are occupied by statues. The 
 interior is as gorgeous as the exterior, almost overcoming the 
 beholder, who gazes in rapt wonder at the splendor and magnifi- 
 cence of the countless objects which surround him. The floor 
 is formed of marble of various colors, the arches of the naves are 
 supported by fifty immense pillars, the walls are adorned with 
 the work of the most renowned painters, and the windows with 
 groups of figures of' a size probably unequaled in the world. 
 (See views of Milan cathedral.) Other important buildings are 
 the churches of Sant' Ambrogio, Sant' Eustorgio, and Santa 
 Maria della Passione. Milan has a royal academy of arts and 
 sciences, a normal school, a military and geographical institute, 
 and a military, orphan, and several foundling asylums. Popu- 
 lation in 1862, one hundred and ninety-six thousand three hun- 
 dred and eighty. 
 
 VENICE 
 
 A city of Italy, and semi-capital of the Lombardo-Venetian 
 kingdom, is situated in the lagoons of Venice, a swampy district 
 resembling a vast lake, which is separated from the Adriatic by 
 a narrow strip of land, and connected with the main land by a 
 bridge of two hundred and twenty-two arches, and two miles 
 long. Venice was formerly the greatest commercial city in the 
 world. Its site is formed by eighty small islands, separated by 
 one hundred and fifty canals, and united by three hundred and 
 sixty bridges. The most important buildings are the Palazzo di 
 San Marco, and the church of San Marco. The latter may 
 justly be regarded as one of the grandest and most interesting 
 buildings in Christendom. It is of the Byzantine style, partly 
 of Gothic and partly of the Italian order, and is constructed in 
 the form of a Greek cross. It is flanked by five domes, the cen- 
 tral one being ninety feet high, and the others each eighty feet. 
 The main front has five hundred columns of black, white, and 
 veined marble, and terminates in pointed arches supporting 
 crosses, pinacles, and spires. " Over the portal of this magnifi- 
 cent temple were replaced, in 1815, the four celebrated bronze 
 
380 ITALY. 
 
 horses which were found at Corinth, and successively adorned 
 Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Venice, and Paris." Among 
 the other buildings may be mentioned the churches of Santa 
 Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, La Madonna dell 'Orto, San Fran- 
 cisco, Santa Maria della Salute, and San Giovannie Paolo. 
 
 Venice has a lyceum, marine college, normal high school, and 
 an academy and school of the fine arts. Population one hun- 
 dred and eighteen thousand one hundred and seventy-two. 
 
 VERONA 
 
 Is a city of Italy, government of Venice, on the Adige, 
 twenty miles east of Venice. The city was founded by the Ro- 
 mans in the fourth century before the Christian era, and has still 
 relics of Roman architecture. The most important of these an- 
 tiquities is the celebrated ampitheatre, the most perfect of its 
 kind, and the only one in which public exhibitions are still held. 
 (See view.) The principal buildings are the churches of St. 
 Zeno, St. Anastasia, and St. George. The city has a botanic 
 garden, a philharmonic academy, two valuable libraries, and 
 manufactures of cottons and woollens, and an extensive trade in 
 silk and rural produce. Population fifty-nine thousand one hun- 
 dred and sixty-nine. 
 
 POZZUOLI, 
 
 Is an important town of Naples, seven miles south-west of the 
 city of Naples. Population eight thousand four hundred. Its 
 environs were formerly crowded with villas of wealthy Romans, 
 and contain the ruins of an amphitheatre. (See view.) 
 
 CAPUA 
 
 Is a fortified city of Italy, twenty miles north of Naples. It 
 was built by the Lombards in 855, out of the ruins of ancient 
 Capua, the remains of which, about two miles east, include a 
 gate, and the ruins of a large amphitheatre. The only import- 
 ant building in the town is the cathedral. Population eight thou- 
 sand one hundred. (See view.) 
 
PAPAL STATES. 381 
 
 PAPAL STATES. 
 
 The territory belonging to the Papal States formerly occupied 
 Central Italy, stretching from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic, 
 and from Naples to the river Po. It has recently been greatly 
 reduced by the incursions of Italy, and, at present, comprises 
 only the states of Roma et Comarca, Velletri, Viterbo, Civita 
 Vecchia, and Frosinone. 
 
 The country, though generally rugged and hilly, has few 
 mountains. The Pontine Marshes is the name of a swampy 
 tract of land, twenty-five miles long, which lie along the Medi- 
 terranean sea, between Cisterna and Terracina. During the 
 time of the Romans, these marshes were intersected by a num- 
 ber of canals, which rendered a considerable portion of them 
 dry ; but they have recently been neglected, and allowed to 
 return to their former condition. The Appian Way, formed by 
 the Romans, is the present road from Rome to Naples. 
 
 The chief river, the Tiber, originating in the Tuscan Apen- 
 nines, has a course of one hundred and eighty-five miles, and 
 enters the Mediterranean through two mouths, seventeen miles 
 below Rome. In the spring, the river, generally sluggish, is 
 rapid, and brings down with it a yellowish mud, which caused 
 it to be called " Yellow Tiber." It is three hundred feet wide 
 at Rome. 
 
 The Papal States enjoy one of the finest climates in the world. 
 The intense heat of summer is greatly mitigated by refreshing 
 sea-breezes, which originate in the Mediterranean. The soil is 
 rich, and is generally well cultivated. 
 
 ANCIENT ROME. 
 
 This city was the capital of ancient Italy, and was built on 
 the left bank of the Tiber. It was founded by Romulus, and 
 laid out in the form of a square. The city became rapidly 
 extended under the direction of the early Roman Kings, who 
 founded buildings still famous in history, and embellished the 
 
382 PAPAL STATES. 
 
 city with works of utility and art. In the reign of Servius 
 Tullius, the city had covered the famous seven hills — Palatine, 
 Capitoline, Quirinal, Caelian, Aventine, Viminal, and Esquilline. 
 The city heing laid in ashes by the Gauls in 390, B. C, was 
 hastily rebuilt, with little regard to regularity or beauty. After 
 the wars with Carthage, numerous buildings of great architec- 
 tural pretentions were planned and executed, while the narrow 
 and filthy streets were left unmolested. In the reign of Nero 
 the city was burned a second time, to gratify, it is said by 
 various authorities, the curiosity of the reigning prince. Be 
 that as it may, it is certain that when Rome revived from her 
 ashes, she presented an entirely different aspect than before. 
 The city was entirely remodeled, the hight of the houses being 
 restricted, and the streets widened and straightened. In the 
 reign of Vespasian, the city was thirteen miles in circumference, 
 and had a population of over two millions. The wall built by 
 Romulus enclosed merely the Palatine, and was pierced by three 
 gates. That of Servius Tullius was not continuous, but consist- 
 ed of fortifications drawn across the intervening valleys, and 
 was pierced by thirty-seven gates. The walls of Aurelian, with 
 the exception of the portions beyond the Tiber, are the same as 
 those that surround the modern city. 
 
 The principal public place in the city was the Forum, an 
 oblong open space, where were held the assemblies of the people. 
 It was surrounded with arched porticos, within which were spa- 
 cious halls, where courts of justice might sit on private affairs. 
 The Campus Martius, or Field of Mars, was a large plain with- 
 out the city, where was practiced the use of arms, athletic exer- 
 cises, and sports. It was adorned with statues of famous men, 
 and triumphal arches, columns and porticos, and other magnifi- 
 cent structures. One of the most interesting buildings of 
 Ancient Rome is the Flavian Amphitheatre, or Colliseum, com- 
 menced by Vespasian, and completed by his son Titus. It is 
 probably the largest structure of its kind, and is fortunately, 
 also, the best preserved. It is of an elliptical form, is six hun- 
 dred and twenty feet long, five hundred and thirteen feet broad, 
 and was capacious enough to seat eighty-seven thousand persons. 
 
PAPAL STATES. 383 
 
 Five thousand beasts were slain in the arena, on the occasion of 
 the dedication, and the games and sports of the amphitheatre 
 lasted one hundred days. " The exterior is about one hundred 
 and sixty feet in hight, and consists of three rows of columns, 
 doric, ionic and corinthian, and, above all, a row of corinthian 
 pilasters." (See views of Amphitheatre.) 
 
 The celebrated Via Sacra was the chief street of the city, 
 remains of which can still be seen in the Forum of Modern 
 Rome. According to various authorities, the city contained 
 four hundred temples, of which the Feretrian Jupiter was the 
 oldest, having been founded by Romulus, and restored by Au- 
 gustus. There was, also, a number of elegant palaces, the most 
 noted of which was the Palatium, formerly the residence of the 
 orator Hortensus, and afterward the seat of the imperial family. 
 Two palaces, exceeding the latter in beauty, were built by Nero, 
 one of which covered the whole of Palatine Hill and a portion 
 of Esquilline, and was burned down during the great fire. 
 
 MODERN ROME 
 
 Occupies a sandy plain on both sides of the Tiber, and is 
 divided by that stream into two unequal parts. The wall en- 
 closing the city is twelve miles in circuit, and is pierced by 
 sixteen gates. About one-half of the section enclosed is occu- 
 pied by pleasure grounds, gardens, and vineyards, which lie 
 south of the capitol. The most densely populated, as well as 
 the business part, is on the site of the ancient Field of Mars. 
 A street about one mile long, called the Corso, extends from 
 Piazza del Popolo, the northern entrance, through the heart of 
 the city, to the Piazza di Venezia, at the foot of the capitol. 
 The houses on the Corso are regular and substantial, and con- 
 sist of elegant churches and palaces, the Grhigi, Borghese and 
 Ruspoli being found among the latter. 
 
 By far the finest building of Rome, and the most stupendous 
 ever constructed, is the Cathedral, or Church of St. Peters, 
 which is on the right bank of the Tiber, between the Vatican 
 and Janiculum. The building is erected in the form of a Greek 
 cross, and is approached through a richly ornamented piazza. 
 
384 PAPAL STATES. 
 
 On either side of the latter, the buildings are hid from view by 
 a magnificent colonnade, forming two semi-circular porticos of 
 two hundred and eighty-four columns. On the entablement of 
 the columns are one hundred and ninety-two statues of saints, 
 each eleven feet high. The dome, rising four hundred and fifty- 
 eight feet above the ground, is supported by four immense piers, 
 and may justly be regarded as the most astonishing and perfect 
 work of architecture ever submitted to the gaze of an admiring 
 world. Within the cathedral everything is gorgeous beyond 
 description. The walls are six hundred and seven feet long, and 
 four hundred and fifty-eight feet wide. The Baldacchino, a 
 splendid bronze canopy, under the dome, and immediately over 
 the high altar, is one hundred and twenty feet above the floor. 
 The interior of the dome is adorned with magnificent mosaic 
 paintings. This truly wonderful building was produced by the 
 genius of Bramante, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, and cost, 
 with all of its embellishments, from sixty to eighty millions of 
 dollars. (See views of St. Peter's.) 
 
 Among other ecclesiastical structures of Rome, may be men- 
 tioned the Santa Crose, richer in relics of ancient days, than in 
 architecture. It is supposed to possess a portion of the cross of 
 our Savior, and has mixed with its foundation earth brought 
 from Jerusalem. St. John Lateran, regarded as mother church 
 of the " Eternal City," occupies an isolated spot near the south 
 wall, and is the place where the popes were formerly crowned. 
 Among the other churches may be numbered Santa Maria Mag- 
 giore, Santa Agnese, St. Agostino, St. Antonio Abate, San 
 Bonosa, and Santa Maria sopra Minerva. 
 
 Among the many palaces of Rome the Vatican, occupying a 
 hill of the same name, in point of architecture and matter of 
 history, is the most deserving of attention. It is regarded by 
 various writers, as having been founded in the reign of Constan- 
 tine, and is at present the seat of the Romish Popes. They first 
 took possession of it in 1377, and from that period continued to 
 embellish it till the time of the Pontificate of Alexander VI. It 
 was by him renovated on a grander scale, and finished in nearly 
 its present style. It covers a large square, and consists of an 
 
PAPAL STATES. 385 
 
 irregular pile of buildings, the entire mass being one thousand 
 one hundred and fifty-one feet long, and seven hundred and sixty- 
 seven feet wide. This great building has twenty courts, and 
 four thousand four hundred and twenty-two apartments. (See 
 views of the Vatican.) 
 
 The other palaces deserving notice are the Piazza del Campi- 
 doglio, on the summit of the capitol, in the piazza of which is a 
 bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius Antonius; the Cap- 
 itoline museum ; and the Conservators 
 
 Among the educational establishments of Rome, the university 
 is the most important. The school was founded by Leo X. ; has 
 forty-two professors, and is attended by one thousand students. 
 There is also a Roman college, under the direction of the Jesuits, 
 and twenty other colleges, three of which are English, Irish, and 
 Scotch institutions. 
 
 Rome has numerous hospitals and charitable institutions, and 
 is well supplied with theatres, museums, and enclosures for horse 
 races and other public amusements. The manufactures are of 
 little importance, consisting of woollen, silk fabrics, hats, gloves, 
 etc. Population in 1863, two hundred and one thousand one 
 hundred and sixty-one, including foreigners and strangers. 
 
 25 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CHINA AND JAPAN. 
 
 China is a vast empire of Asia, stretching from 18° 20' to 
 54° north latitude, and from 72° to 134° west longitude. Its 
 greatest length from north to south is one thousand four hun- 
 dred and seventy-four miles ; from east to west, one thousand 
 three hundred and fifty-five miles ; area, four million seven hun- 
 dred thousand square miles. 
 
 The outline of the country is very irregular. On the north 
 of China is Asiatic Russia, from which it is nearly separated by 
 the Altai mountain range and the Amoor river ; on the south 
 and south-west is Hindoostan, — separated by the Himalaya 
 mountains — Birmah, and Tonquin ; on the south-east and east 
 are the China, Yellow, and Japan Seas; and on the west is 
 Turkestan. 
 
 China is one of the most mountainous regions on the globe. 
 All of the great mountain chains of Asia either intersect or 
 bound the country. Owing to the rigid exclusion of foreigners, 
 and the natural and artificial barriers which guard the frontier, 
 the interior of China has been but imperfectly explored. The 
 Himalaya mountains, the loftiest range in the world, lie in the 
 south-western part of the empire, on the northern frontier of 
 Hindoostan, and attain their greatest elevation with Mount Ev- 
 erest, the culminating point of the globe, at an altitude of twen- 
 ty-nine thousand one hundred feet. The Himalaya mountains 
 are continued to the sea by the Nanling range, which forms the 
 water-shed between the Yang tse Kiang and Hong Kiang rivers. 
 The Kuen Lun and Peling mountains constitute a grand chain 
 extending through the central part of southern China. North 
 of this chain branches off an irregular range called the Khin 
 Gau mountains, which terminate in Siberia, at the northern ex- 
 tremity of the Channel of Tartary. The Altai mountains, after 
 
CHINA AND JAPAN. 387 
 
 forming a portion of the boundary line between Russia and 
 China, branch off in a north-easterly direction through the 
 former empire, and extend to the north-eastern extremity of 
 Siberia. 
 
 The Great Wall of China, perhaps the greatest monument of 
 human industry and skill in existence, forms a barrier between 
 Mongolia and China for about fifteen hundred miles. It was 
 begun in 214 B. C, and completed in 204 B. C, and employed 
 in its construction several millions of men at one time. Its 
 design was to protect the country from the incursions of the 
 Tartars from the north. It is twenty feet high, and is carried 
 in a single instance over a mountain having an altitude of one 
 mile. It is about twenty feet thick, and throughout its whole 
 extent supports towers at regular intervals from each other, 
 which were occupied by the archers and soldiers. " It has been 
 estimated that the materials employed in this immense fortifica- 
 tion would be sufficient for constructing a wall six feet high and 
 two feet thick, twice around the world." 
 
 South of the Altai are the Thian Shan mountains, between 
 which and the Kuen Lun range is the Great Desert of Gobi. 
 It covers an area of about five hundred thousand square miles, 
 and is covered with shingly gravel and fields of drifting sand. 
 In the central part it is two thousand four hundred feet high ; 
 and at the great wall it has a hight of five thousand eight hun- 
 dred feet ; average height four thousand feet. The table land 
 of Thibet, having an average elevation of eleven thousand feet, 
 lies between the Kuen Lun and Himalaya ranges, and is trav- 
 ersed in every direction by the ramifications of these mountains. 
 
 The chief rivers of China are the Yang tse Kiang and Hoang 
 Ho. The former rises on the southern slope of the Kuen Lun 
 mountains, and has a course of about two thousand seven hun- 
 dred miles ; the latter, rising among the Peling mountains, has 
 a course of two thousand miles, and both enter the Yellow Sea. 
 
 The Chinese belong to the Mongolian, or yellow race. They 
 are generally low in stature, have black hair, thick lips, flat 
 
300 CHINA AND JAPAN. 
 
 nose, expanded at the nostrils, and are generally of a dark com- 
 plexion. The smallness of the hands K and feet of the males, 
 reaches almost a deformity with the females. The good quali- 
 ties of a portion of the population, who are not debased by 
 foreign intercourse, are counterbalanced by the immorality and 
 vice of the majority of the people, who practice lying, deceit, 
 treachery, and nameless abominations. Population of the em- 
 pire, four hundred and seventy-seven millions. 
 
 The chief cities are Pekin, Canton, Soo-chow, Hang-Chow, 
 Fuh-Chow, Amoy, and Shanghai. 
 
 CANTON, 
 
 The great emporium city of China, is on the left bank of the 
 Canton river, seventy miles from the sea. It is very irreg- 
 ularly built, the streets being narrow and crooked, and averag- 
 ing about eight feet in width. Canton has upwards of one 
 hundred and twenty temples, fourteen high schools, and thirty 
 colleges. Manufacturing is also extensively carried on. The 
 poorer portions of the people live in mud huts, which line 
 the canal, and one apartment is often crowded with from fif- 
 teen to twenty persons. The wealthy class reside in elegant 
 and richly furnished houses. No wheeled carriages are used in 
 the streets of Canton. The nobles and officers are borne by 
 their attendants in sedan chairs, often taking up the whole of 
 the walk, to the great annoyance of the foot passengers. The 
 city is surrounded by a wall about seven miles in circuit, and is 
 entered through twelve gates. Population, one million. (See 
 views of Canton.) 
 
 MACAO 
 
 Is a city on the island of Macao, at the entrance of the Can- 
 ton river, having a population of forty thousand. The harbor 
 forms a semi-circle, around which is built the town, consisting 
 chiefly of an intermingling of European and Chinese residences. 
 The harbor is defended by six forts. The principal buildings 
 are a number of Chinese temples, the church of St. Joseph and 
 college of St. Joseph, a royal grammar school, and a female 
 orphan asylum. (See views of Macao.) 
 
CHINA AND JAPAN. 389 
 
 THE EMPIRE OF JAPAN. 
 
 The several islands which comprise this empire are east of 
 Asia, and have an area of one hundred and sixty thousand 
 square miles. The surface is uneven and broken, rising in places 
 to mountains of considerable elevation. The highest peak is 
 about twelve thousand feet high. It was formerly a burning 
 volcano, but now is a snow-capped mountain. 
 
 YEDDO, 
 
 The seat of the military emperor, and capital of the empire, 
 has a population of two millions. It is surrounded by a trench, 
 and contains a fortified castle, large temples and numerous public 
 buildings. 
 
 MIAKO, 
 
 The ecclesiastical capital, is situated on a plain surrounded 
 by mountains. It contains a strong citadel, a number of tem- 
 ples, in one of which is suspended the largest bell in the world. 
 It is eighteen feet high, and weighs about one thousand tons. 
 The population of the city is about five hundred thousand. 
 
 SIMONOSEKI 
 
 Is a small town and harbor of Japan, on the strait of Kioo 
 Sioo, on Niphon Island. The site of the town is a plain par- 
 tially surrounded by mountains. (See views of Somonoseki.) 
 
 NAGASAKI, 
 
 A foreign settlement, principal seaport, and commercial city 
 of Japan, stands on a hill-side, and is regularly built. The 
 harbor is about one mile in width and seven in length. Before 
 the treaty which was recently concluded between the Japanese 
 and the United States, this was the only port open to foreign 
 commerce. The chief edifices in the town are the palaces of the 
 nobility, the arsenal, theatres, and numerous temples, which are 
 enclosed in gardens, forming a place of public resort for the 
 people. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 HISTORICAL AND DESCRIPTIVE SKETCH 
 
 OF 
 
 PALESTINE AND ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 
 
 The name Palestine or Palestina was at first applied to a 
 small tract of country on the south-eastern shore of the Medi- 
 terranean sea. It received this name from the Philistines who 
 settled it. The whole country inhabited by the Jews ., God's 
 chosen people, soon became known by this name, and, at the 
 present time, it is called Palestine almost exclusively. This 
 country, in ancient times, was also designated by a variety of 
 other names, among which are the following : Canaan, so called 
 from the fourth son of Ham, because it was first settled by de- 
 scendants from his eleven sons ; Holy Land, because it was 
 inhabited by the Jews, who were the chosen people of God, and 
 because it was the scene of the deeds, sufferings, and final 
 triumph of the Savior ; Land of God, because, under the Mosaic 
 dispensation, God was considered as the Supreme Ruler of the 
 land ; Land of Promise, because God promised to Abraham 
 that it should be peopled and owned by his posterity ; Land of 
 Israel, because the Israelites, descendants of Jacob or Israel, 
 inhabited it ; and Land of Judah or Judea, because the tribe of 
 Judah was the largest of the Israelitish tribes. 
 
 Palestine is bounded on the " north by Syria, east by Syria 
 and Arabia Deserta, south by Arabia Petraea, and west by the 
 Mediterranean sea." When first occupied by the twelve tribes 
 of Israel, the country was divided between them by lot. One- 
 half of the tribe of Manasseh, and the tribes of Gad and Reuben, 
 settled on the east of the river Jordan ; the remaining nine 
 tribes and the half tribe of Manasseh settled between Jordan and 
 the Mediterranean sea. In the time of Christ, the country was 
 
PALESTINE AND ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 391 
 
 divided into provinces. Judea occupied the southern part of 
 Palestine east of the Jordan, and included the tribes of Judah, 
 Simeon, Benjamin, and Dan ; the name of Samaria was applied 
 to the central part of the country, including the tribe of Ephraim 
 and the half tribe of Manasseh ; the province north of Samaria, 
 including the tribes of Issachar, Zebulon, Asher, and Naphtali, 
 was called Galilee ; and the province of Perea was west of the 
 Jordan. The country is about one hundred and eighty miles in 
 length, and in width ranges from forty to ninety miles, being 
 widest at the south. 
 
 In the time of Christ, Palestine belonged to the Roman em- 
 pire. It was taken from them in the seventh century by the 
 Mohammedans, who held it until 1099. From that time until 
 1291, the Crusaders were in possession of the country ; from 
 1291 until 1517, the Egyptians; and since that time the Turk- 
 ish government has held it. 
 
 The land is fertile and productive. Fig, pomegranate, olive, 
 sycamore, palm, and oleander trees abound. The land is now 
 the same as it was in the time of the prophets and apostles, but 
 almost barren on account of neglect. The natural physical con- 
 dition of the country is the same. " The hills still stand round 
 about Jerusalem as they stood in the days of David and of Solo- 
 mon. The dew falls in Hermon ; the cedars grow in Lebanon, 
 and Kishon, 'that ancient river,' (Judges, v:21,) still draws its 
 stream from Tabor as in the times of old." " The Sea of Gali- 
 lee still presents the same natural accompaniments ; the fig tree 
 springs up by the wayside (See views of Fig trees) ; the syca- 
 more spreads its branches, and the vines and olives still climb 
 the sides of the mountains. The desolation which covered the 
 cities of the plain is not less striking at the present hour than 
 when Moses, with an inspired pen, recorded the judgment of 
 God. The swellings of the Jordan are not less regular in their 
 rise than when the Hebrews first approached its banks ; and he 
 who goes down from Jerusalem to Jericho, still incurs the great- 
 est hazard of falling among thieves. There is, in fact, in the 
 scenery and manners of this ancient land a perpetuity that 
 
392 PALESTINE AND 
 
 accords well with the everlasting import of its historical records, 
 and which enables us to identify, with the utmost readiness, the 
 local imagery of every great transaction." 
 
 MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Palestine is a very mountainous country. Its principal moun- 
 tains are Lebanon, Hermon, Tabor, Carmel, Little Hermon, 
 Gilboa, Ebal and Gerizin, Mountains of Ephraim, Mountains 
 of Judah and Mountains of Jerusalem. 
 
 LEBANON. 
 
 The mountains of Lebanon are north of Palestine, in Syria. 
 They consist of two principal ranges running parallel with the 
 coast. The range nearer the sea is called Lebanon, the other 
 Anti-Lebanon. They are divided by an extensive valley called 
 Coele-Syria, or "the valley of Lebanon." The tops of the moun- 
 tains are perpetually covered with snow, and, either on account 
 of this, or from the fact that the limestone of which they are 
 composed is white, they have received the name of Lebanon, 
 which, in Hebrew, means the " White Mountains." As the snow 
 is not in very large quantities, however, it is probably the white 
 limestone which has given the name to the mountain. (See view 
 No. 94.) These mountains are famous in sacred history for their 
 lofty cedars. (See views of Cedars of Lebanon.) The cele- 
 brated temple of Solomon on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem was 
 built chiefly of cedar of Lebanon. There are not at present 
 many cedars found in Lebanon except in a space about three 
 quarters of a mile in circumference at the base of one mountain. 
 
 HERMON. 
 
 This mountain forms the southern extremity of the anti-Leb- 
 anon range. It is also called Sion, Slienir, Sirion, and Baal- 
 hermon. It is about ten thousand feet above the level of the 
 sea. The " tower of Lebanon, which looketh toward Damas- 
 cus," mentioned in Canticles vii:4, is supposed by some com- 
 mentators to refer to Hermon, as it is the most lofty and 
 imposing peak of the range. (See views of Mount Hermon.) 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 393 
 
 TABOR. 
 
 Mount Tabor is situated in the north-eastern extremity of the 
 plain of Esdroelon, about six miles south-east of Nazareth, and 
 fifty north-east of Jerusalem. In shape, it resembles a cone. 
 It is about one thousand feet high, and may be ascended by an 
 ancient path to the summit. The mountain is formed of lime- 
 stone, and its sides are very nearly covered with trees and 
 bushes. By some, this mountain is supposed to be the one upon 
 which the Savior was transfigured ; but this supposition has been 
 proven groundless by very good evidence. 
 
 CARMEL. 
 
 This mountain, the highest peak of a range of the same name, 
 is much renowned in Jewish history. The range of mountains 
 extends from the plain of Esdrselon to the coast of the Medi- 
 terranean, south of the bay of Acre, a distance of five or six 
 miles. The mountain, in shape resembling a flattened cone, is 
 from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet above the level of the 
 Mediterranean sea. (See view of Mount Carmel, No. 90.) Its 
 soil in the time of the prophets was exceedingly fertile and pro- 
 ductive, from which fact it derived its name Carmel, which 
 signifies " a fruitful field," or " The Garden of God." It has 
 now, in accordance with the prediction of the prophet (Amos 
 i:2), lost a great deal of its former productiveness. This moun- 
 tain is famous in Biblical history as being the place where Elijah 
 in the presence of the king and people of Israel, confounded 
 the four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal, and proved that 
 the Lord was God. (1 Kings, xviii:17-41.) During the eight- 
 eenth century, Mount Carmel was the resort of many christian 
 devotees, and an order of monks called Carmelites, established 
 a convent there. This convent was destroyed in 1799, after the 
 retreat of the French army, by the Arabs, who used it during 
 the siege of Acre, as a hospital for their sick and wounded 
 soldiers. (See view of the convent, No. 23.) 
 
 LITTLE HERMON 
 
 Is a short range of mountains in the southern part of Galilee, 
 in the tribe of Issachar, about eight miles south of Mount 
 Tabor, and five miles north of Gilboa. 
 
394 PALESTINE AND 
 
 GILBOA. 
 
 Mount Gilboa is situated in the south-eastern part of Galilee, 
 in the tribe of Issachar. This mountain is famous as the scene 
 of the battle between the armies of Saul and the Philistines, 
 where occurred the death of Jonathan, and the suicide of Saul, 
 as recorded in the last chapter of 1 Samuel. The lamentation 
 of David after this event (2 Samuel, i:19-27) is one of his most 
 touching productions. 
 
 MOUNTS EBAL AND GERIZIM 
 
 Are in Samaria, in the tribe of Ephraim, one on the north- 
 east, and the other on the south-east of the city of Shechem. 
 From these mountains the blessings and curses of the law were 
 declared to the Israelites. (Deuteronomy xxvii, 11-26 ; Joshua 
 viii:30-35.) In accordance with the command of Moses (Deu- 
 teronomy xxvii:4-6,) the children of Israel built an altar upon 
 Mount Ebal, " the mountain of curses," after their entrance 
 into the promised land. The Samaritans believed that this altar 
 should have been built on Gerizim, and they afterwards erected 
 a temple on this mountain, where they worshipped. It was to 
 this mountain that the woman of Samaria referred in her con- 
 versation with the Savior, recorded in the beginning of the 
 fourth chapter of John. 
 
 MOUNTAINS OP EPHRAIM. 
 
 This is the general name applied to the mountains in the tribe 
 of Ephraim in the southern part of Samaria; and those in Judea, 
 including the tribes of Judah, Simeon, Benjamin, and Dan, are 
 called the Mountains of Judah. 
 
 MOUNTAINS OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 The mountains of Jerusalem are Bezetha on the north, 
 Bezetha, Moriah and Ophel on the east, Zion on the south, and 
 Zion and Acra on the west. Without the city are Mount Olivet 
 on the east, Mount of Corruption on the south-east, and the 
 Hill of Evil Counsel on the south. 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 395 
 
 SEAS. 
 
 DEAD SEA. 
 
 The seas of Palistine are the Lead Sea, Sea of Gfalilee, and 
 Waters of Merom. The Dead sea is situated in the southern 
 part of Palestine, between Judah on the west, and Reuben and 
 the kingdom of the Moabites on the east. In the Bible it is 
 called the Salt sea, (Genesis xiv:3, numbers xxxiv:3-12 ; Deu- 
 teronomy iii:17 ; Joshua iii:16, xii:3, xv:2-5, xviii:19); Sea of 
 the Plain (Deuteronomy iii:17, iv:49 ; Joshua iii:16, xii:3, II 
 Kings, xiv:25) ; the Sea (Ezekiel xlvii:8); East sea (Ezekiel xlvii: 
 18, Joel ii:20); in the Talmud it is called the Sea of Sodom. 
 Josephus calls it the Asphaltic Lake; the Greeks call it 
 Asphaltites, and the Arabs Sea of Lot. The name Lead Sea 
 was not used until about the second century after Christ. This 
 sea is the receptacle of the rivers Jordan, Kidron and Arnon, 
 besides several smaller streams. It is about forty miles long 
 and from four to ten wide. Its depth ranges from thirteen to 
 thirteen hundred feet. The water of the Dead Sea is extremely 
 nauseating and sluggish. A gallon of this water weighs over 
 twelve pounds, or over two pounds more than pure water. Some 
 have advanced the theory that this sea did not exist until the 
 destruction of Sodom and Gomorah, and that they were at that 
 time submerged. This supposition is based solely upon Genesis 
 xiv:3, which makes the vale of Siddim identical with the Salt 
 sea. As the waters of the Jordan were always discharged in 
 the same place, believers in this theory suppose that there before 
 existed a subterranean lake which received the waters of which 
 the Dead Sea is now the receptacle. Others contradict this 
 theory on the ground that Genesis xiv:3 is the only passage in 
 the whole Bible which at all gives countenance to this belief ; 
 that the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah, lying, as they did, in 
 the " Plain of the Jordan," must have been north, or at least 
 on the northern extremity of the sea ; and, which is a still 
 stronger proof of the fallacy of this belief, that it is in direct 
 opposition to the description of the manner of the destruction 
 of these cities as given in Genesis xix:24. 
 
396 PALESTINE AND 
 
 SEA OP GALILEE. 
 
 The Sea of Galilee is situated between Zebulon and Naphtali 
 on the west, and the half tribe of Manasseh on the east. It is 
 called in the Bible, Sea of Ohinereth (numbers xxxiv:ll, Deu- 
 teronomy iii:17, Joshua xiii:27); QMneroth (Joshua xi:2, xii:3); 
 Sea of Galilee (Matthew iv:18, xv:29, Mark i:16, vii:31, John 
 vi:l); Lake of Crennesaret (Luke v:l); Sea of Tiberias (John 
 vi:l, xxi:l). The sea is about fifteen miles long, and from six 
 to eight wide. There are in this lake several kinds of fish ; and 
 it is famous from the fact that the first four of Christ's disciples, 
 Peter, Andrew, James and John, were fishermen on this lake, 
 (Matthew iv:18-22, Mark i:16-20, Luke v:l-ll), and that it 
 was the scene of several interesting incidents in the life of our 
 Savior. The river Jordan passes through this lake on its course 
 to the Dead sea. (See view of Sea of Galilee, No. 24.) 
 
 WATERS OF MEROM. 
 
 This is a small, triangular shaped lake in the northern part of 
 Palestine, in the territory of the tribe of Naphtali. Josephus 
 calls it Lake Samochonitis, and it is now called Huleh. It is 
 celebrated as being the scene of a battle during the conquest of 
 Palestine between the Israelites under Joshua, and Jabin, king 
 of Hazor, Jobab, king of Madon, and divers other kings. (Josh- 
 ua, xi:l-9.) 
 
 RIVERS. 
 
 JORDAN. 
 This river, the most important and celebrated of the rivers of 
 the Bible, has two sources. One of these is a fountain south-west 
 of Mount Hermon, near a place called Hasbeiya, whence the 
 river, between that place and the waters of Merom, is called the 
 Hasbany. The principal source of the Jordan, however, is 
 among the mountains of Naphtali, near Caesarea Philippi. (See 
 view of the source of the Jordan, No. 93.) These two branches 
 unite in the waters of Merom. The river then flows in a south- 
 erly direction, passing in a direct current by itself through the 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 397 
 
 Sea of Galilee, and discharges its waters into the Dead sea. It 
 is a remarkably tortuous stream. From its most remote source 
 to its mouth it will not measure more than one hundred and fif- 
 teen to one hundred and twenty miles in a straight line, but the 
 river is in reality more than twice that length. The current of 
 the river is very rapid. Its average breadth is about ninety 
 feet, but at its mouth it is said to be over five hundred and thirty 
 feet wide. The Jordan was the scene of many interesting trans- 
 actions, both in the times of the prophets and in the time of 
 Christ, the most important of which were the overflowing of 
 its banks at the time of the dividing of the waters of the Dead 
 sea, in order that the Israelites might pass over (Joshua, iii:14- 
 17); the waters divided by Elijah and Elisha (II. Kings ii: 8- 
 14) ; Naaman, the Syrian captain, cured of the leprosy (II. 
 Kings, v:l-14) ; and the baptism of Christ (Matthew, iii:13-17; 
 Mark, i:9-ll; Luke, iii:21-22; John, i:32-34). 
 
 OTHER RIVERS. 
 
 Abana and Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, a city of Syria, rise 
 among the mountains of Anti-Lebanon, and flow, Pharpar 
 through the city of Damascus, and Abana in the immediate 
 vicinity. They are lost among the marshes to the east of Da- 
 mascus. These rivers are mentioned but once in the Bible (II. 
 Kings, v:12). Abana is also called Amana, and some have sup- 
 posed the expression in Solomon's Song, iv:8, to refer to this 
 river. Belus is a small river which rises among the mountains 
 in the territory of the tribe of Asher, and empties into the Bay 
 of Acre, a short distance below the city. 
 
 Besor, meaning " cold," is the name of a brook passed over 
 by David when he was in pursuit of the Amalekites (I. Samuel, 
 xxx :9-l 0-21). It rises among the mountains of Judah in the 
 tribe of Simeon, and flows through the land of the Philistines, 
 emptying into the Mediterranean at the little town of Anthedon, 
 about five miles south-west of Gaza. 
 
 " That ancient river, the river Kishon," rises in the territory 
 of the tribe of Issachar, and flows through the beautiful plain of 
 Esdraelon, entering the Bay of Acre near the base of Mount 
 
398 PALESTINE AND 
 
 Carmel. Its other names are the river before Jokneam (Joshua, 
 xix :11), and the waters of Megiddo (Judges, v:19). This river 
 is famous as the scene of the overthrow and defeat of the hosts 
 of Jabin, king of Canaan, under Sisera, by Deborah and Barak 
 (Judges, iv:l-16), and the destruction of the four hundred and 
 fifty prophets of Baal (I. Kings, xviii :40). 
 
 The river Kanah is in Samaria, and flows into the Mediter- 
 ranean sea. In the division of Palestine into tribes, this river 
 formed the boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh (Joshua, 
 xvi:8, and xvii:9). 
 
 The river Leontes rises among the mountains of Anti-Lebanon, 
 a few miles above the town of Baalbek, and flows through the 
 valley of Lebanon or Coele-Syria, emptying into the Mediter- 
 ranean sea a short distance above Tyre. 
 
 The rivers Hieromax and Jabbok are branches of the Jordan 
 on the east ; the former flowing from Bashan through the half 
 tribe of Manasseh and the northern portion of Gad, and discharg- 
 ing its waters into the Jordan at a point about eight miles south of 
 the Sea of Galilee, and the latter flowing from the country of the 
 Ammonites, across the central part of Gad, and entering the Jor- 
 dan about four miles north-west of the town of Succoth. 
 
 Arnon and Zered are rivers emptying into the Dead sea on 
 the east. The river Arnon formed the boundary between the 
 country of the Moabites and Reuben (Deuteronomy, iii:8-12-16, 
 iv:48 ; Joshua, xii:l-2, xiii:9— 16 ; Judges, xi:13-18-26), and 
 Zered (Deuteronomy, ii:13-14), called also Zared (Numbers, 
 xxi:12) and "the brook of the wilderness " (Isaiah, xv:7) was 
 the boundary between Moab and Edom. 
 
 The brook Kedron runs through the valley of Jehoshaphat 
 which separates Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives, and 
 empties into the Dead sea. The name Kedron does not appear 
 in the Bible. It is called Kidron (II. Samuel, xv:23 ; II. 
 Kings, xxiii:6), and Cedron (John, xviii:l). The brook Cherith 
 flows through Jerico eastward, and empties into the Jordan. It 
 was near this brook that Elijah was fed by the ravens when he 
 was hiding from the presence of King Ahab (I. Kings, xvii:2-6). 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 399 
 
 CITIES. 
 
 JERUSALEM, 
 
 The capital, and principal city of Palestine, is situated in the 
 south-western part of the land of the tribe of Benjamin, in 
 Judea. (See views of Jerusalem.) This city, the most sacred 
 of all cities, received, in the Bible, a variety of names, viz : 
 Salem (Genesis, xiv:18 ; Psalm, lxxvi:2 ; Hebrews, vii:l-2) ; 
 The Jebusite (Joshua, xv:8) ; Jebusi (Joshua, xviii:28) ; Jehus 
 (Judges, xix:10-ll) ; City of the Jebusites (Judges, xixrll) ; 
 Stronghold of Zion (II. Samuel, v:7) ; City of David (II. Sam- 
 uel, v:7-9, vi: 10-12-16 ; I. Kings, ii:10, viiirl) ; Zion (I. Kings, 
 viii:l ; Psalm, xlviii:12, lxxxvii:2-5 ; Isaiah, xxxiii:20, lx:14) ; 
 City of God (Psalm, xlvi:4, xlviii:l-8, lxxxvii:3) ; City of the 
 Lord (Psalm, xlviii:8 ; Isaiah, lx:14) ; City of the Gfreat King 
 (Psalm, xlviii:2 ; Matthew, v:35). Herodotus called it Kadytus, 
 and Homer gave it the name of Solyma. The modern Arabian 
 name is El-Khuds, signifying " the holy." 
 
 Jerusalem is situated in latitude 31° 46' 35" N., and longi- 
 tude 35° 18' 30" E. from Greenwich, thirty miles from the 
 Mediterranean, thirty-five southeast of Joppa, six north of Beth- 
 lehem, eighteen north of Hebron, twenty from the Jordan, fifteen 
 south-west of Jericho, and thirty-six south of Samaria. It is 
 built upon several hills, Bezetha on the north, Moriah and Ophel 
 on the east, Zion on the south, and Zion and Acra on the west. 
 In the time of Christ, the wall extended between Acra and Be- 
 zetha on the north, Calvary being just outside the city, between 
 these hills. After the death of Christ, king Agrippa built a 
 wall, which was the same as the former on the east, west and 
 south, but on the north it included Calvary and Bezetha in the 
 city. The modern wall is wider at the north than that built by 
 Agrippa. It extends, on the north, across Bezetha, cutting oflf 
 its northern part, and on the south, across Mount Zion, leaving 
 the southern portion of this mountain outside of the wall. 
 
 In the wall are four principal gates, which are always open 
 from morning until sunset. They are as follows : On the east 
 side of the city, near the pool of Bethesda, is St. Stephen s gate, 
 which is also called the Sheep gate, and the Grate of the Virgin 
 
400 PALESTINE AND 
 
 Mary ; on the south side is Zion gate, called likewise the Gate 
 of David ; between Mounts Bezetha and Calvary, on the west 
 side, is the Damascus gate ; and near the bend on the west side is 
 the Joppa gate (see view No. 86). This gate is also called the 
 Pilgrim s gate, Crate of Bethlehem, and Bab el Khaleel, mean- 
 ing "the gate of the beloved," i. e., Abraham. Two smaller 
 gates, which are opened occasionally, are, one a little west of 
 Mount Moriah, on the south side, which Maundrell calls the 
 Dung gate, and the other, going out from Bezetha, on the west 
 side, to which the same writer gives the "name of Herod 's gate. 
 Another gate, which Maundrell calls the Golden gate, is on the 
 east side of Mount Moriah. It was used as a gate at the time 
 the Christians were in possession of the city, but it is now com- 
 pletely walled up. (See view No. 18.) There are several other 
 gates mentioned in the scriptures, among which are the follow- 
 ing : Crate Sur (II Kings, xi:6) ; Crate of or behind the Guard 
 (II Kings, xi:6,19); Horse gate (II Kings, xi:16, II Chroni- 
 cles, xxiii:15, Nehemiah, iii:28, Jeremiah, xxxi:40) ; Corner 
 gate (II Kings, xiv:13, II Chronicles, xxv:23, xxvi:9, Nehe- 
 miah, iii:85, Jeremiah, xxxi:38, Zechariah, xiv:10) ; Gate of 
 Ephraim (II Kings, xiv:13, II Chronicles, xxv:23, Nehemiah, 
 viii:16, xii:39) ; Gate of Joshua (II Kings, xxiii:8); Gate be- 
 tween the two walls (II Kings, xxv:4, Jeremiah, xxxix,4) : Gate 
 of foundation (II Chronicles, xxxiii:5); High gate (II Kings, 
 xv:35, II Chronicles, xxiii:20, xxvii:3) ; Valley gate (II Chron- 
 icles, xxvi:9, Nehemiah, ii:13, iii:13) ; Gate Shallecheth (I 
 Chronicles, xxvi:16); Fish gate (II Chronicles, xxxiii:14, Ne- 
 hemiah, iii:3, xii:39, Zephaniah, i:10) ; Fountain gate (Nehe- 
 miah, ii:14, iii:15, xii:37) ; Old gate (Nehemiah, iii:6, xii:39) ; 
 Water gate (Nehemiah, iii:26, viii:l-3-16, xii:37) ; East gate 
 (Nehemiah, iii:29, Jeremiah, xix:2) ; Gate Miplikad (Nehemiah, 
 iii:31) Prison gate (Nehemiah, xii:39); Gate of Benjamin (Jer- 
 emiah xx:2, xxxvii:13, Zechariah, xiv:10) ; First gate (Zecha- 
 riah, xiv:10). Josephus mentions Essenes' gate and the gate 
 Gennath. 
 
 There are one Catholic and twelve Greek convents on Mount 
 Calvary. The Greeks have another near Zion gate. The 
 
ADJACENT COUNTKIES. 401 
 
 Armenians have two in the city, three on Mount Zion, and one 
 outside of Zion gate, "where the house of Caiaphas, in which 
 our Savior was tried and denied by Peter, is supposed to have 
 stood. There are also a Syrian convent and an English church 
 (see view No. 16) on Mount Zion, a Coptic convent on Calvary, 
 a Dervise convent on Mount Moriah, and a Latin convent on 
 Acra. (See view No. 13.) The Jews have a number of syna- 
 gogues, the principal of which is the church of the Holy Sepul- 
 chre, on Calvary. (See view No. 12.) "This is an edifice 
 distinguished for its size and massiveness. It forms altogether 
 a block one hundred and sixty feet long, and one hundred 
 wide ; and includes what are called the chapel of the crucifix- 
 ion, the church of the sepulchre, seven small chapels, a monas- 
 tery and cloisters. The traditions with which the various 
 apartments are associated are scarcely worthy to be preserved, 
 and yet the votaries of superstition have contrived to group and 
 connect them in such a manner as to excite strong and probably 
 salutary emotions in the mind of the reflecting visitor." On 
 Mount Moriah, in the eastern part of the city, on the site of 
 Solomon's temple (I Kings, vi), stands the mosque of Omar. 
 This mosque is walled in on all sides, and none but Mussulmen 
 are permitted to enter its sacred precincts on pain of death. It 
 is a very large building, and there are strong proofs that it 
 is built on the same foundation on which the temple of Solo- 
 mon stood. (See views of the mosque of Omar.) On the 
 south of Mount Moriah the Mohammedans have another large 
 and beautiful mosque, which they call the mosque of Aksa. (See 
 views of the mosque of Aksa.) 
 
 On the east side of the city, in the street leading up from the 
 gate of St. Stephen, commences the Via Dolorosa, or " grievous 
 way." This is the path in which tradition says our Savior 
 walked from the house of Pontius Pilate, the governor, to the 
 place of crucifixion. (See view No. 14.) Without the city are 
 several places of interest. The valley of Gihon is memorable 
 as the place of the anointing of Solomon as king (I Kings, i: 
 33-38-45) ; and the fountain of Gihon is mentioned as having 
 its course turned by king Hezekiah (II Chronicles, xxxii:38). 
 
 26 
 
402 PALESTINE AND 
 
 (See view No. 85.) The valley of Hinnom, which is a continu- 
 ation of Gihon, is immediately below Jerusalem, and joins Je- 
 hoshaphat south-east of the city. In this valley, at one time, the 
 most abominable idolatries were practiced (II Chronicles xxxiii: 
 6). It is also called Topheth (II Kings, xxiii:10), from toph, 
 (a drum), because that instrument was often used to drown the 
 cries of victims. The valley of Hinnom is situated at the foot 
 of Mount Zion, along the western branch of the brook Kedron 
 (see view No. 82). On the slope of a lofty mountain opposite 
 to Mount Ophel, at the foot of which runs the brook Kedron, 
 is situated the village of Siloam, to the south-west of Jerusalem. 
 (See view No. 10.) South-east of Jerusalem, at the foot of 
 Mount Zion, is the pool of Siloam, memorable as the pool in 
 which the blind man washed and received sight (John, ix:7). 
 (See view No. 11.) The garden of Gethsemane, where our Sa- 
 vior agonized before his crucifixion, is east of Jerusalem, on the 
 western slope of Mount Olivet (see view No. 9). Mount Olivet, 
 celebrated as the mountain from which Christ made his public 
 entry into Jerusalem, and also from which He ascended into 
 heaven, is west of Jerusalem. (See views Nos. 9 and 81.) 
 South of Jerusalem, across the western branch of the brook 
 Kedron, is Aceldama or "the field of blood," which was bought 
 with the money paid to Judas Iscariot for betraying his Master 
 (Matthew, xxvii:7). (See view No. 83.) 
 
 BAALBEK. 
 
 This is an ancient city of Syria, the origin of which is not 
 known. It is situated in the valley of Lebanon, on the river 
 Leontes, a short distance below its source. It is supposed to 
 have been built by the Phoenicians at a very ancient date, and 
 afterwards greatly enlarged and beautified by the Romans. 
 The ruins of this ancient city are supposed to exceed in extent 
 even those of Rome. (See views Nos. 35 to 45 inclusive.) This 
 is probably the same as Baalgad, mentioned in Joshua, xi:17. 
 
 DAMASCUS. 
 
 This city, the oldest in the world, and capital of Syria, is sit- 
 uated on the Pharpar river, in a plain covered with olive, chestnut, 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 403 
 
 and fig trees, apricots and vines. No Christian is permit- 
 ted to enter within the walls of the city. It is at the present 
 time under the government of the Mohammedans. A mosque 
 in that city, which is a very old building, is supposed to be the 
 longest structure in the world which is used as a place of worship. 
 (See view No. 30.) This place is memorable as the residence 
 of Naaman, the leper, and captain of the hosts of Syria, whom 
 Elisha healed of leprosy, (II. Kings, v.,) and for the conversion 
 of the Apostle Paul, (Acts, ix:l-18). (See views of Damascus.) 
 
 RUKHLEH 
 
 Is an ancient city north of Mount Hermon, at the foot of the 
 Anti-Lebanon range. The town is now in ruins. (See view 
 No. 29.) 
 
 TYRE AND SIDON 
 
 Are ancient cities of Phoenicia, on the coast of the Mediter- 
 ranean, the former about one hundred and ten, and the latter 
 about one hundred and thirty miles north-west of Jerusalem. 
 The Hebrew name of Tyre was Tsor or Tsur. The modern 
 name is Sur. Sidon was also called Zidon several times in 
 scripture, and was the subject of several remarkable prophecies. 
 (Isaiah, xxiii:4-18 ; Jeremiah, xxv:17-38 ; Ezekiel, xxviii:21- 
 24.) It is now called " Saida." In the division of Canaan by 
 lot to the twelve tribes, Tyre and Sidon were in the territory 
 assigned to the tribe of Asher (Joshua, xix:28-29), but the 
 Israelites never succeeded in wholly expelling the native inhabi- 
 tants, who were to them a source of great annoyance. These 
 cities are now in Phoenicia. They are supposed to have been 
 built over a thousand years before the Christian era. The 
 ancient inhabitants lived in a style of great luxuriance, which 
 caused the prophet to utter maledictions against the cities (Is- 
 aiah, xxiii). Their crimes were, however, in some degree palli- 
 ated on account of their non-enlightenment when Christ " up- 
 braided the cities wherein most of his mighty works were done, 
 because they repented not." (Matthew, xi:21-22; Luke, x:13- 
 14.) These cities were formerly very beautiful, but they are 
 now in ruins. (See views of Tyre.) 
 
404 PALESTINE AND 
 
 CAPERNAUM 
 
 Was situated on the western coast of the Sea of Galilee. In 
 this city Christ performed some of his most wonderful works, 
 and delivered some of his most pointed discourses. Notwith- 
 standing Capernaum was so highly favored by the Savior's 
 instructions and presence, it was a wicked and ungrateful city, 
 and was the subject of some of the Lord's most fearful denun- 
 ciations. The prediction of its downfall, contained in Matthew 
 xi: 23-24, and Luke x:15, was long ago fulfilled, and now even 
 the site it occupied is uncertain, although it was once the metrop- 
 olis of all Galilee, and a city of great renown. Dr. Robinson 
 believes it to be the same as "Kaln Minyeh" on the north- 
 western shore of the Sea of Galilee ; but Dr. Thomson thinks 
 it is "Tell Hum," three miles above "Kaln Minyeh," on the 
 same shore, and nearly ninety miles from Jerusalem. (See view 
 No. 26.) 
 
 BETHSAIDA. 
 
 The town of Bethsaida was situated on the western shore of 
 the river Jordan, and near the Sea of Galilee. There is at the 
 present day scarcely any trace of the town, it being entirely 
 destroyed. It is celebrated in sacred history as being the birth- 
 place of Philip, Andrew, and Peter, who were among the first 
 followers of Christ, and who were all subsequently chosen 
 Apostles, (John i:44.) (See view No. 24.) 
 
 CHORAZIN. 
 
 This town, which is somewhere in Galilee, was once a city of 
 some note, and was included in the curse (Matthew xi:21-22, 
 Luke x:13-14) because it would not repent. Its exact location 
 is not now known, but it is supposed to be identical with 
 " Khorazy," two miles above " Tell Hum," and ninety-two from 
 Jerusalem. 
 
 (LESREA PHILIPPI. 
 
 This town was situated in the north-eastern part of Galilee, 
 near Mount Hermon, about one hundred and ten miles from 
 Jerusalem. The town is now in ruins. (See view No. 92.) 
 Near this place is the principal source of the river Jordan. 
 " Philip, the tetrarch, son of Herod, contributed largely to its 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 405 
 
 prosperity, and gave it the name of Caesarea, in honor of Tibe- 
 rius Caesar." It is called Csesarea of Philip, or Caesarea Phil- 
 ippi, to distinguish it from 
 
 CiESAREA OF PALESTINE. 
 This town is in Samaria, on the coast of the Mediterranean 
 sea, about sixty miles north-west of Jerusalem. It was built by 
 Herod the great, about twenty years before Christ. It was 
 called Csesarea in honor of Augustus Caesar. This place was at 
 one time the principal city of Palestine, and it was here that 
 Paul made his celebrated defense before King Agrippa (Acts 
 xxiii:33, xxvi:30.) In Caesarea was the residence of Cornelius, 
 the centurion (Acts x:l,) and also of Philip the evangelist (Acts 
 xxi:8.) 
 
 NAZARETH. 
 
 This town is situated from fifty to seventy miles north of Jeru- 
 salem, and six miles north-west of Mount Tabor. It is described 
 by a modern traveler as " situated upon the declivity of a hill, 
 the vale of which spreads out before it resembling a circular 
 basin, encompassed by mountains." The streets are narrow and 
 steep ; the average estimate of the population is about three thou- 
 sand; and the houses, of which there are about two hundred and 
 fifty, are all flat-roofed. About five hundred of the inhabitants 
 are Turks, and the remainder are nominal Christians. This 
 town is celebrated in scripture as being the place where the 
 parents of Jesus dwelt after their return from their flight into 
 Egypt. (Matthew, ii:23.) (See view No. 89.) 
 
 SAMARIA. 
 
 The province of Samaria received its name from the city of 
 the same name. This city is situated about forty miles north of 
 Jerusalem, and six miles north-west of the ancient city of She- 
 chem. It was built about the year 925 B. C, by Omri, king 
 of Israel, as the capital of the kingdom of Israel, and named in 
 honor of Shemer, from whom the land on which it was built was 
 purchased (I. Kings, xvi:24). The Hebrew name of the city 
 was Shomeron. The position of the city was extremely beauti- 
 ful, and it was strongly fortified. It withstood an unsuccessful 
 
406 PALESTINE AND 
 
 siege by Benhadad, king of Syria, who was assisted by thirty- 
 two other kings (I. Kings, xx:l-21) ; but was finally taken 
 by Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, during the reign of Hosea 
 (II. Kings, xvii:l-6), after a siege of three years. The 
 Romans called the city Sebaste. It is now but a small vil- 
 lage, and is called by the Arabs Sebustiyeh, a corruption of 
 Sebaste. " Some architectural remains it has, partly of Chris- 
 tian construction or adaptation, as the ruined church of St. 
 John the Baptist" (see view No. 88), and "partly, perhaps, 
 traces of Idumaean magnificence. St. Jerome, whose acquaint- 
 ance with Palestine imparts a sort of probability to the tradition 
 which prevailed so strongly in later days, asserts that Sebaste, 
 which he invariably identifies with Samaria, was the place in 
 which St. John the Baptist was imprisoned and suffered death. 
 He also makes it the burial place of the prophets Elisha and 
 Obadiah." 
 
 SHECHEM 
 
 Was one of the most ancient cities of Palestine. It was also 
 called Sicliem (Genesis xii:6), Syehar (John iv:5), and Sychem 
 (Acts vii:16). The Romans calledit Neapolis or Nablous, and 
 it is still known by the latter name. Mount Ebal is north 
 and Gerizim south of the city. In the modern town two 
 long streets run parallel with the valley. The view of the city 
 from the surrounding hights is said to be exceedingly beautiful, 
 situated as it is in a delightful and fertile valley. There are in 
 the town six Mohammedan mosques, a church of the Greek 
 Christians, and a Samaritan synagogue, in which service is held 
 every Saturday, which is the Samaritan sabbath. It has a pop- 
 ulation of eight or ten thousand, all Mohammedans, with the 
 exception of twelve or fifteen Jews, from fifty to one hundred 
 Greek Christians, and about forty Samaritans. (See view 
 No. 87.) 
 
 SHILOH 
 
 Was a city of Samaria in the land of the tribe of Ephraim, 
 about twenty-two miles north of Jerusalem, and twelve miles 
 south-east of Shechem. Its modern name is Seilun. It is cele- 
 brated in Scripture as being the residence of Eli, where Samuel 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 407 
 
 was taken by his mother (I. Samuel, i:24-25), and where he 
 began to prophesy (iii: 20-21). It was also the residence of the 
 prophet Ahijah (I. Kings, xiv:2). The ruinous condition of 
 Shiloh was proverbial in the times of the prophets (Jeremiah, 
 vii:14, xxvi:6-9). It is now wholly in ruins. (See view No. 22.) 
 
 JOPPA 
 
 Was and is yet the principal seaport of Palestine, though its 
 harbor is a poor one, ships being obliged to anchor about a mile 
 from the city. It is called Japho in Joshua xix:46, and is now 
 known as Jaffa or Yaffa. It is situated in the tribe of Dan, 
 about thirty-five miles north-west of Jerusalem, and about the 
 same distance south-west of Shechem. Joppa was the residence 
 of Dorcas, a woman "full of good works" (Acts, ix:36), and, 
 also, of Simon, the tanner, with whom Peter lodged, and where 
 he had his celebrated vision (Acts x:6-9-16). 
 
 JERICHO 
 
 Is one of the oldest cities of Palestine. It is situated in the 
 tribe of Benjamin, about sixteen miles north-east of Jerusalem. 
 Its modern name is Rika. There are a great many palm trees 
 in the vicinity; and in Deuteronomy, xxxiv:3, it is called the 
 city of palm trees. When the Israelites crossed into Palestine, 
 they went immediately to Jericho. The city was compassed 
 seven days ; the walls fell on the seventh at the shouting of the 
 people, and by the command of God the city was completely 
 destroyed and all the inhabitants slain, except Rahab and her 
 family, and the very ground on which the city stood was cursed 
 (Joshua, vi). It was at the fountain of Jericho, near this 
 place, that Elisha effected a miraculous change in the unwhole- 
 some waters (II. Kings, ii:19-22). (See view No. 7.) Jericho 
 was also the residence of Zaccheus, the publican. (Luke xix: 
 1-10.) 
 
 BETHANY 
 
 Was a village on the south-eastern side of the Mount of Olives, 
 two miles from Jerusalem. It was the scene of many interest- 
 ing events in the life of Christ, among which are the cursing of 
 the fig tree (Matthew, xxi: 18-22, Mark, xi: 12-14-20-23) ; the 
 anointing of His feet (Matthew, xxvi:6-13, Mark, xiv:3-9, Luke, 
 
408 PALESTINE AND 
 
 vii:36-50, John, xii:3-8) ; and the raising of Lazarus (John, xi: 
 1-44). The village is now in ruins. (See view No. 79.) 
 
 BETHLEHEM. 
 
 This village, celebrated in sacred history as the birth-place of 
 David (Luke, ii:4-ll), and of Christ (Matthew, ii:l, Luke, ii:4- 
 6, John, vii:42), is about six miles south-west of Jerusalem. It 
 was so small a place that it was generally omitted in the lists of 
 the cities of Judah. Travelers speak of it as being reduced 
 to a miserable state, from the ravages of war. When Mr. 
 Whiting, an American missionary, was there, in 1834, " it 
 had just suffered severely from some tyrannical measures of the 
 government ; and he passed over the ruins of houses and fields 
 that had just then been demolished, and parks of olive and fig 
 trees which had been cut down by order of the pasha, to punish 
 their proprietors for an alleged rebellion and flight." (See view 
 No. 78.) 
 
 HEBRON. 
 
 This town is situated about twenty miles south of Jerusalem. 
 It was, also, called Kirjath-Arba (Genesis, xxiii:2, Joshua, xiv:15, 
 Judges, i:10) ; City of Arba (Joshua, xv:13) ; Mamre (Genesis, 
 xxiii:16, xxv:9, xlix:30, i:13). The Arabs now call it "Ul-KJia- 
 leel, which signifies 'the friend,' or ' the beloved,' from the re- 
 markable title given to Abraham, namely, ' the friend of God.' " 
 Here Abraham lived (Genesis, xiii:18), and here was his family 
 burial-place, the cave of Machpelah (Genesis, xxiii:19-20, xxv: 
 9-10, xlix:29-32, i:13). After the conquest of Canaan, Hebron 
 was in the territory assigned to Caleb (Joshua, xiv: 13-14), and 
 it was afterwards one of the cities of refuge (Joshua, xx:7, xxi: 
 13). The cave of Machpelah is now covered by a mosque, which 
 is the most prominent object in the town. (See view No. 77.) 
 It is supposed by some that Hebron was the residence of Zach- 
 arias and Elizabeth, at the time of the birth of John the Bap- 
 tist. " About a mile from the town, up the valley, is one of the 
 largest oak trees in Palestine. This, say some, is the very tree 
 beneath which Abraham pitched his tent, and it still bears the 
 name of the patriarch." 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 409 
 
 SINAI. 
 
 Sinai, the scene of the Israelite -wanderings in the desert, is 
 situated between the Gulfs of Suez and Akabuh. The surface 
 is generally mountainous and rocky. Nearly in the centre of 
 this peninsula is a wedge of granite, rising upwards of eight 
 thousand feet in hight. Mount Horeb forms the north end of 
 the ridge. Mount Sinai, one of the peaks, is generally identi- 
 fied with Jebel-Moosa, or "Mount of Moses," the supposed site 
 of the burning bush, though many conjecture that Mount Horeb 
 was the original Sinai, celebrated in holy writ. The culminat- 
 ing point of this cluster of mountains is Mount St. Catharine. 
 
 Wady Mukatteb, or the Written Valley, is celebrated for the 
 inscriptions which line the rocks. These are thought to be the 
 work of christian hands, probably of some passing pilgrims. 
 On the north-east side is the fortified convent of Sinai, now 
 tenanted by about twenty Greek monks. (See views of Sinai.) 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 In ancient times this country was in advance of all others in 
 freedom, literature, art, philosophy, and of civilization generally. 
 Its early history is involved in obscurity. The only approach 
 to it is through the marvelous legends of gods and heroes, but 
 how much truth may underlie these stories it is difficult to say. 
 In the fifteenth century it was conquered by the Turks, but in 
 1821 the inhabitants revolted, and the country is now independ- 
 ent. It is situated in the southern part of Europe, and covers 
 an area about half the size of Scotland. 
 
 The surface of Greece is generally mountainous, more so 
 than any other country of Europe, except Switzerland and parts 
 of Scotland. The province of Arcadia almost rivals Switzer- 
 land in the rugged grandeur of its mountain scenery. The 
 mountains are more remarkable for the abruptness of their rise 
 than for their great elevation, though some of the peaks rise to 
 a great hight. Olympus is nine thousand seven hundred feet 
 in hight, and is covered with perpetual snow. 
 
 The rivers of Greece are small, and none of them navigable; 
 but it has an extensive coast-line, with numerous bays extending 
 far up in the land, affording important commercial advantages. 
 
410 PALESTINE AND 
 
 ATHENS, 
 
 The capital of Attica, and the chief city of Greece, is situa- 
 ted about three miles from the coast, in the central plain of 
 Attica, surrounded by hills on all sides except towards the sea. 
 The plain is broken by a number of hills, of moderate hight, 
 several of which, with their intervening valleys, are partially 
 occupied by the city, while the highest, rising abruptly for about 
 one hundred and fifty feet, forms the Acropolis, or citadel, on 
 which most of the noblest monuments are placed. This is an iso- 
 lated rocky hight, with a flat summit of about one thousand feet 
 long from east to west, by five hundred feet broad from north 
 to south. 
 
 Immediately west of the Acropolis is a second hill, of irreg- 
 ular form, called the Areopagus, or Mars' Hill. (See view No. 
 99.) According to tradition, it is called Mars' Hill on account 
 of this god being brought to trial before the assembled gods by 
 Neptune, for the murder of his son. It was the place of meet- 
 ing of the Council of Areopagus, the most ancient and ven- 
 erable of all the Athenian courts, enjoying a high reputation 
 not only in Athens, but throughout all Greece. To the Chris- 
 tian it possesses a peculiar interest as the spot from which 
 St. Paul delivered his eloquent address to the people of Athens. 
 
 The city of Athens is crowded in every direction with tem- 
 ples, alters, and other sacred buildings. The Acropolis is covered 
 with temples of gods and heroes. The Propylaca, standing at 
 the top of a flight of marble steps, seventy feet broad, serves as 
 an entrance to the works within. It is constructed entirely of 
 Pentelic marble, and forms one of the master pieces of Athenian 
 art. (See view No. 48.) 
 
 In the highest part of the xicropolis, and near the center, 
 stands the Parthenon, adorned by the most exquisite sculptures, 
 and forming the most perfect production of Grecian architecture. 
 (See view No. 102.) North of the Parthenon and close to the 
 northern wall of the Acropolis stands a magnificent building 
 called the Erechtheum. (See view No. 100.) In front of the 
 sacred area which Athens dedicated to her tutelary divinity, 
 stands a temple called the "Wingless Victory. On the marble 
 
ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 411 
 
 balustrade, which encircles the edifice, are pictured a troop of 
 personified Victories. (See view No. 51.) Pausanias informs 
 us that the Athenians gave no wings to victory because they 
 would prevent her flying away from them. In many of these 
 buildings female figures called Caryatides are used in the place 
 of columns. (See view No. 49.) Occupying the slope at the 
 south-eastern extremity of the Acropolis is the theatre of Bac- 
 chus. This is excavated out of solid rock, with rows of seats 
 extending one above the other. (See views Nos. 53, 54 and 55). 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 The early history of Egypt is involved in obscurity. History 
 throws but little light on the building of its ancient cities, and the 
 construction of the magnificent monuments which still continue 
 to be the wonder and admiration of the world. At the present 
 time, it is principally under the French government. It is sit- 
 uated in the north-eastern part of Africa, embracing the north- 
 ern division of the Nile, and extending from the Mediterranean 
 to the cataract of the Syene. 
 
 Scattered throughout Egypt are a number of remarkable 
 works of art, among which are the Pyramids, Lake Mseris, an 
 immense artificial reservoir, the Great Sphinx at Gizeh, a colossal 
 form hewn out of the solid rock, one hundred and seventy-two 
 feet long, by fifty-six feet high ; the Labyrinth, an enormous 
 structure of marble, built underground, and the Catacombs, 
 subterraneous galleries of great extent, appropriated to the 
 reception of the dead. 
 
 The Pyramids are one of the wonders, both of the ancient 
 and modern world. They are solid mounds raised over the 
 chambers containing the remains of the kings who flourished 
 from the fourth to the twelfth dynasty. One of the first acts of 
 an Egyptian monarch, was to prepare his tomb. For this pur- 
 pose a rectangular chamber was first excavated in the solid rock. 
 Over this chamber, a cubical mass of masonry of square blocks 
 was then placed, leaving the orifice of the shaft open. Addi- 
 tions to this mass continued to be made during the life of the 
 monarch. At his death the outer surface was smoothed off, and 
 the entrance carefully filled up to prevent ingress to the 
 
412 PALESTINE AND ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 
 
 sepulchral chamber. In the construction of the largest of these 
 pyramids, one hundred thousand men are said to have been 
 employed for upwards of thirty years, (See views of the Pyra- 
 mids.) 
 
 The only river of Egypt is the Nile. It is about half a mile 
 in width, and receives no tributaries for the last one thousand 
 five hundred miles of its course. It yearly overflows its banks, 
 furnishing, in a country where rain seldom or never falls, valua- 
 ble irrigation to the soil. The scenery along the river in upper 
 Egypt is wild and romantic, but in the lower part of its course, 
 it is monotonous and uninteresting. Herodotus describes it as 
 having seven mouths, but at the present day only two of them 
 continue to flow in an uninterrupted course to the sea. West of 
 the Nile, is the fertile valley of Fagoon. From this valley a 
 road leads west to the oasis of El Dukhel. Other roads from 
 Girgesh, Esneh and Ezion Geber, offer communication with the 
 fertile spots which characterize the regions west of this river. 
 The usual manner of traveling is by means of camels and drom- 
 edaries. (See view No. 5.) 
 
 CAIRO, 
 
 The capital, is situated on the right bank of the Nile, about 
 five miles above the commencement of its delta. Its streets are 
 narrow, dark, irregular, and unpaved. It covers an area of 
 about three square miles, and is surrounded by a low wall. The 
 most remarkable buildings are the minarets and mosques. It 
 has two elegant and high minarets. Under the rule of the 
 Mameluke kings, the celebrated mosque, on account of its great 
 size and the thickness of its walls, was frequently seized and 
 made use of as a fortress. 
 
 Among the objects of interest, situated in the environs of the 
 city, are the tombs of the Caliphs. These are magnificent 
 and imposing buildings, forming beautiful specimens of Arabian 
 architecture. (See view No. 96.) On the south, outside the 
 walls, are the celebrated tombs of the Mamelukes. (See view 
 No. 60.) The public gardens, which consist of groves of orange, 
 citron, palms, and vines, are considered very beautiful. The 
 population of the city is estimated at about two hundred and 
 fifty thousand. (See view of Cairo. ) 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 224 The Tomb of Washington (Mount Vernon), 232 
 
 1414 Mount Vernon, the Residence of George Washington, 232 
 
 667 1339 669 668 The Genesee Falls, at Rochester,. 176 
 
 702 Loch Lomond. The Ferry (Scotch), 349 
 
 1775 1776 Saloon of the Steamer St. John, on the Hudson, 175 
 
 1875 1283, 1873, 1874 Fort La Fayette, New York Harbor, 184 
 
 1410 1411 1412 1413 Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., 159 
 
 4115 Upper Saloon of the North River Steamer Dean Richmond,. 175 
 4571 Group of Officers on board the Italian Man- of- War, N. Y. 
 
 Harbor, 188 
 
 4579 Wall Street Ferry, New York Harbor, 188 
 
 4584 Castle Garden, New York,. 185 
 
 4596 Funeral of President Lincoln, N. Y. City, 7th Regiment pass- 
 
 ing in view, 
 
 93 
 
 5268 Residence of President Brigham Young and Daniel H. Wells, 
 
 Salt Lake City, Utah Territory, -. 308 
 
 5269 Section of Roof of the New Tabernacle, Salt Lake City, 308 
 
 5432 View on Stapleton Hights, Staten Island, 202 
 
 5438 5437 Interior view of Fort Lafayette, showing the spot 
 
 where Kennedy was executed, 184 
 
 5899 5900 Saloon of the Steamer "Drew," Central Park, 185 
 
 5974 5902 The Sound Steamer "Bristol," on the Hudson, 175 
 
 5973 5974 Cohoes Falls, N. Y., 176 
 
 6708 6709 The Cornell University at Ithica, N. Y.,._ 203 
 
 5978 5977 Looking across the Hudson, Jersey City in the distance, 206 
 
 5979 Looking across the Hudson, Hoboken in the distance, 206 
 
 6087 Upper Saloon of the Steamer Providence, (on the Hudson,). 175 
 
 6609 6610 Natural Bridge, in Virginia, 230 
 
 6617 Monument and Attendant Statue of Victory, Lowell, Mass., 158 
 
 6289 Washington Monument, Union Square, N. Y., 188 
 
 450 444 440 432 429 Fourth of July in and about New York,... 184 
 816 Georgetown, from Camp Cameron. A view of exquisite 
 
 beauty, 225 
 
 944 View of Harper's Ferry, showing the ruin wrought by war,. 72 
 1263 1264 Flag Ship of the Russian fleet in New York Harbor,.. 188 
 2166 2167 Harper's Ferry and the Shenandoah Valley from Mary- 
 land Heights, 81 
 
 2018 2020 Views at Chambersburg, 90 
 
 VIEWS IN AND ABOUT SARATOGA SPRINGS. 
 3996 View from the front of the United States Hotel, looking down 
 
 Broadway, _ 201 
 
 4051 Front of the Union Hotel, looking down Broadway, 201 
 
 4057 Group of Actors on the Stage of Leland's Opera House, 201 
 
 4058 Entrance to Congress Hall, 201 
 
 4067 4066 Congress Spring, 201 
 
414 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 4075 4074 Columbia Spring, 201 
 
 4078 Reservoir in Congress Spring Park, 201 
 
 4079 Entrance to the Washington Spring, 201 
 
 4081 4080 Washington Spring, 201 
 
 4084 4083 Saratoga Spring, 201 
 
 4088 4087 Empire Spring, . 201 
 
 4092 4091 High Rock Spring, 201 
 
 4100 Congress Street and Park, 201 
 
 INSTANTANEOUS VIEWS, NEW YORK. 
 308 Broadway, from the balcony of St. Germain's, looking north, 
 showing the Worth Monument and the spires of the Col- 
 legiate Church and the Tabernacle, 188 
 
 904 905, Omnibuses starting from South Ferry, N. Y., 188 
 
 900 Bird's eye view of New York City, from Shot Tower, 184 
 
 3696 The junction of Chatham and Center streets, from Printing 
 
 House Square, 184 
 
 2950 2952, 2956, the Funeral of President Lincoln, New York, 
 
 April 25th, 1865, 93 
 
 5078 5079, 5080, Broadway, from the corner of Broome street, 
 
 looking up, 184 
 
 5337 Looking north from the corner of Fulton street, showing 
 
 Broadway and City Hall Park, 184 
 
 5093 Broadway — Burst of Sunshine after a : Shower, 184 
 
 5095 Broadway on a Rainy Day, .. 184 
 
 2121 Looking up the East River from the Roosevelt St. Ferry, 184 
 
 MAJESTY AND BEAUTY OF NIAGARA. 
 
 639 The American Fall, from the Canada side, near the Museum, 177 
 
 644 The American Fall, from the Museum grounds, Canada side, 177 
 
 868 The Scenery ©f the Niagara, 177 
 
 1943 The Suspension Bridge, from Canada side, 179 
 
 1949 The Suspension Bridge, from the Monteagle House, 179 
 
 1951 The Rapids, looking towards the Three Sisters,.. 177 
 
 1952 Horse Shoe Fall, from the Canada side, 177 
 
 1967 1968, View from Lewiston Mountain, looking towards Lake 
 
 Ontario, 180 
 
 1969 View looking down the river from Terrapin Tower, 177 
 
 1973 Gate and Carriage Way, Suspension Bridge, 179 
 
 1974 Table Rock, Canada side, 179 
 
 1976 Sectional view of Suspension Bridge, 179 
 
 1985 The Clifton House, from the Museum grounds, Canada side, 179 
 
 1982 1987, The American Fall, from the Museum grounds, 177 
 
 2977 The Falls from Point View, American side, - 177 
 
 2980 Terrapin Tower and Horse Shoe Fall, from Goat Island, 177 
 
 8007 Bridge to Goat Island, 179 
 
 3729 The Suspension Bridge, Niagara Falls, 179 
 
 3732 Table Rock and Clifton House, 179 
 
 3736 Table Rock and Horse Shoe Fall, 179 
 
 5392 From Point View, American side, 177 
 
 5798 The Horse Shoe Fall, from the Custom House, 177 
 
 5801 Horse Shoe Fall,. 177 
 
 6010 The Falls from Victoria Island, 177 
 
 6043 Cataract House, from Goat Island Bridge, 179 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 415 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 6047 General View of the Suspension Bridge, Canada side, .- 179 
 
 6056 American Fall, from the Hog's Back, showing the heavy ice 
 
 mounds, 178 
 
 6070 Snow and Sunshine on Luna Island Bridge 178 
 
 6011 The Falls, from Victoria Island, 177 
 
 6018 The American Fall, from below, 177 
 
 1387 The Suspension Bridge, Niagara, 179 
 
 BEAUTIES OF THE HUDSON. 
 
 343 354 West Point from Fort Putnam, 199 
 
 349 A View from Fort Putnam, 199 
 
 356 Mount Taurus from Stony Point, 175 
 
 423 View from Cold Spring, looking north, (West Point,) 199 
 
 359 367 West Point. View from the Cemetery, 199 
 
 519 From West Point looking north, 199 
 
 377 Sugar Loaf and Anthony's Nose, from Garrison's, 175 
 
 380 Mount Taurus from Cold Spring, 175 
 
 392 West Point from Cold Spring, 199 
 
 1344 Above Cold Spring, Breakneck on the right, 175 
 
 4121 Along Shore View. Storm King in the distance, 174 
 
 4125 4126 Beach below Moodna, looking south, 174 
 
 4127 From the mouth of the Moodna, looking south, — 174 
 
 4150 View from a spur of the Storm King, Breakneck Hill in the 
 
 distance, - 175 
 
 4152 View at Cornwall, Polypus Island in the distance, 175 
 
 4156 Fishkill Landing, with Newburg and Snake Hill in the dis- 
 tance, . — 175 
 
 4172 Howland's Mansion, Fishkill, 198 
 
 4173 4174 4175 Landscape view from Howland's Mansion, Fish- 
 
 kill. Newburg in the distance, 198 
 
 4183 Washington's Headquarters at Newburg, N. Y.,_ 175 
 
 5374 View from Breakneck looking north. Polypus Island in the 
 
 distance, 175 
 
 5579 The Fisherman's Hut. Storm King and Breakneck in the 
 
 distance, - - 175 
 
 5583 Bird's-eye View of Cornwall, from Round Top, 174 
 
 5581 Road on Round Top overlooking the Hudson, 174 
 
 343 354 West Point from Fort Putnam, 199 
 
 5952 Bird's-eye View of Yonkers, from the Palisades, 174 
 
 5955 Looking down the River from the Palisades. Fort Washing- 
 
 ington in the distance, - 174 
 
 5963 5962 Profile View of the Palisades, 174 
 
 5964 The Palisades above Fort Lee, 174 
 
 GLENS OF THE CATSKILLS. 
 
 394 The Kauterskill Fall from the Staircase, 173 
 
 396 The Kauterskill Fall from the Bluff, 173 
 
 400 Kauterskill Falls from below the second Fall, 173 
 
 405 Terrace Cascade in the Kauterskill Gorge, 173 
 
 406 407 The Bastion Fall, 173 
 
 409 410 View from the top of Kauterskill Falls, 173 
 
 415 1340 Catskill Mountain House, from North Mountain, 173 
 
 1589 Catskill Mountain House, near view, 173 
 
 4199 The five Cascades below Haines' Fall, 173 
 
416 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 4207 4208 View from the top of Haines' Fall. South Mountain in 
 
 the distance, . 173 
 
 4213 4214 View from the top of the Kauterskill Fall looking down 
 
 the Glen, 173 
 
 4215 The Bastion Fall, Kauterskill Glen, near the Laurel House,. 173 
 
 5757 4217 The Kauterskill Fall, near the Laurel House, 173 
 
 VIEWS IN WASHINGTON CITY, AND DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 
 
 226 The United States Treasury Building at Washington, 227 
 
 226 Interior view. Retiring room of the United States Senate, .. 126 
 
 1309 South front of the White House, 127 
 
 1315 The Navy and War Department, 127 
 
 1316 ThePostOfflce, 227 
 
 1323 The Smithsonian Institute, 228 
 
 1325 Smithsonian Institute Grounds — Capitol in the distance, 228 
 
 1326 Lafayette Square ; Jackson's Statue in the distance, 227 
 
 1333 Washington Monument, 228 
 
 1991 Clark Mills' Equestrian Statue of Washington, 227 
 
 2732 The President's House, Washington, 227 
 
 2733 President's Summer House, Washington, 227 
 
 2743 Picturesque view of Georgetown, the Potomac, and the 
 
 Chesapeake Canal, from rear of the observatory, 225 
 
 2747 View of the Potomac and the Washington Monument, 228 
 
 2981 Pennsylvania Avenue, looking north from Metropolitan Hotel 227 
 
 2982 Statue of Civilization, by Greenough, 226 
 
 2986 White House ; front view, 226 
 
 2987 The Treasury Buildings ; east front, 227 
 
 6453 6452, The Post Office from S. E. and S. W., 227 
 
 6455 The War Department, 227 
 
 6456 The Navy Department, 227 
 
 6457 East Capitol Square, 227 
 
 6459 Walk in the East Capitol Square, 227 
 
 6461 6462, Marble Statue of Washington (by Greenough) in East 
 
 Capitol Square, 227 
 
 6464 West Capitol Grounds or Park, 227 
 
 465 View in the United States Botanical Garden, west side of the 
 
 Capitol, 227 
 
 •6466 The Capitol from the Botanical Gardens,. 227 
 
 6467 The United States Capitol from Maryland avenue, (distant 
 
 view), 227 
 
 6470 The Capitol from East Capitol Square ; Marble Statue of 
 
 Washington in the foreground, 227 
 
 6471 6472, The Capitol from East Capitol Square, 225 
 
 6473 6474, 6475, East front of the Capitol from north-east, 225 
 
 6479 East front of the Capitol from south-east, 225 
 
 6484 Western entrance to the U. S. Capitol, 226 
 
 6485 6486, Eastern portico of the Capitol, 226 
 
 6490 6491, Statue of Columbus and Indian Girl, (by Persico),... 226 
 
 6492 6493, 6494, Statue of Civilization, (by Greenough), 226 
 
 6595 9496, Statue of A. Lincoln, in the Rotunda of the Capitol,.. 226 
 
 6497 6498, Statue of Ceres, or Peace, (by Persico), 226 
 
 6499 Statue of Mars, or War, (by Persico), 226 
 
 6500 Brumidi's Allegorical Painting in the dome of the Capitol,.. 226 
 
 6501 West or Middle Room, Congressional Library of the Capitol, 226 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 417 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 6502 North Room, Congressional Library of the Capitol, 226 
 
 6503 Bronze Statue of Jackson, in Lafayette Square, (by Clark 
 
 Mills), 227 
 
 6504 Statue of Jefferson, in the lawn, Executive Mansion grounds, 227 
 6506 6607, 6508, South Front of White House, fountain in fore- 
 ground, 227 
 
 6509 The Executive Mansion, south front, 227 
 
 6511 The President's House, south front, 227 
 
 6513 The President's House, north front, 227 
 
 6516 President's House, from eastern carriage entrance, 227 
 
 6519 6520, The White House, from Treasury buildings, 227 
 
 6524 6526, The U. S. Treasury, from the south-west, 227 
 
 6530 U. S. Patent Office, east front, 227 
 
 6631 U. S. Patent Office, south front, 227 
 
 6533 Model Room, U. S. Patent Office, 227 
 
 6534 Blue Corridor, U. S. Patent Office, 226 
 
 PUBLIC BUILDINGS IN NEW YORK CITY AND BROOKLYN. 
 
 1284 Plymouth Church, Brooklyn, Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, 189 
 
 1285 Christ Church, Brooklyn, E. D., Rev. Mr. Patridge, 189 
 
 912 N. Y. Academy of Music, cor. 14th street and Irving Place,. 187 
 
 1656 Church of the Puritans, Rev. Dr. Cheever, 189 
 
 1587 Fifth Avenue Hotel, New York, 187 
 
 1588 Church of the Holy Trinity, Brooklyn, Rev. Dr. Littlejohn,. 189 
 
 2245 Fifth avenue and 37th street, looking north, 185 
 
 3699 City Hall, from Broadway, 185 
 
 3704 Rutger's Institute, corner of 5th avenue and 42d street, 186 
 
 3950 View of City Hall from Broadway, 185 
 
 4624 Hoffman House, Broadway and 24th street, 187 
 
 4402 Cooper Institute, 187 
 
 4615 Free Academy, East 23d street and Lexington avenue, 186 
 
 4793 New York University from Washington Parade Ground, 186 
 
 4997 The St. Nicholas Hotel from corner of Broome street, 
 
 5082 U. S. Treasury, corner of Wall and Nassau streets, 186 
 
 5084 Trinity Church,. 187 
 
 5090 Entrance to City Hospital, view from Broadway, 186 
 
 5089 City Hospital, view from south side, 186 
 
 5092 City Hospital, view from north side, 186 
 
 5308 Mercantile Library Association Building, (Clinton Hall,) 
 
 Astor Place, 187 
 
 5310 Fifth Avenue Hotel, 187 
 
 5172 The Broadway Bridge, including St. Paul's Church and the 
 
 Astor House, _ 188 
 
 5808 Broadway and City Hall Square from Fulton street, 185 
 
 6294 National Academy of Design, 186 
 
 6598 6599 City Hall, 185 
 
 6601 Looking down Wall street from Trinity spire, 185 
 
 6602 Looking across the Hudson, from Trinity spire, 184 
 
 6603 Up Broadway, from Trinity spire, . 184 
 
 6828 A. T. Stewart's Retail Store, 187 
 
 BROOKLYN NAVY YARD. 
 
 6717 Looking down from the entrance, - 189 
 
 6721 Shot and Shell Pyramids, 189 
 
 27 
 
418 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 6722 Pyramids of Shot, 189 
 
 6723 Shell Pyramids, 189 
 
 6725 The Torpedo Boat, Midge,. 189 
 
 WEST POINT VIEWS. 
 
 4279 View of West Point from the Cemetery, 199 
 
 4283 Arsenal and portion of Sea View Battery, W. P. M. A., 199 
 
 4285 Sea View Battery, 199 
 
 5769 North-east corner of Cadet Barracks, looking north-west 
 
 over plains, 199 
 
 5775 Plain of West Point from area of Cadet Barracks, looking 
 
 north, 199 
 
 West Point from R. R. Tunnel at Garrisons, 199 
 
 VIEWS ON THE SOUTHERN TIER OF THE ERIE RAILROAD. 
 
 670 At Elmira — View on the Chemung, looking up the river, 200 
 
 671 Owego, and Valley of the Susquehanna, 201 
 
 760 Owego, from Evergreen Cemetery, looking south, . 201 
 
 701 Bird's-eye view of Owego from the north, Susquehanna river 
 
 in the distance, 201 
 
 657 View at Lackawaxen, looking down the Delaware river, 210 
 
 754 View of Port Jervis, from the east, 202 
 
 753 View near Port Jervis, 202 
 
 755 764, View from the Deep Cut, near Port Jervis, 202 
 
 744 Down the Neversink, near Port Jervis, 202 
 
 5602 Owego, view from Evergreen Cemetery, 201 
 
 WHITE MOUNTAIN VIEWS, N. H. 
 
 4403 Summit of Mount Lafayette from the top of Canon Moun- 
 tain, 145 
 
 4409 4410, Profile or Canon Mountain, 145 
 
 4412 Silver Forest on Canon Mountain,. 145 
 
 4413 Summit of Canon Mountain,.. , 145 
 
 4427 Echo Lake from the Boat House, showing the summit of 
 
 Mount Lafayette, 145 
 
 4430 4429, Echo Lake from the outlet, showing the Notch, 145 
 
 4447 South-east side of Canon Mountain,. 145 
 
 4449 The Franconia Notch, from the Profile House, 145 
 
 4453 4787, 4454, East side of Canon Mountain, 145 
 
 HILLS AND DALES OF NEW ENGLAND. 
 
 454 In the Gold Miner's Glen, Plymouth, Vt 150 
 
 577 The Passumpsic at St. Johnsbury, Vt. The village in the 
 
 distance. 152 
 
 596 Looking north from Ox Bow Cliff, Waterford, Vt., 152 
 
 599 View across the Passumpsic at St. Johnsbury, Vt, 152 
 
 772 The Crossings ; View of Village of St. Johnsbury Center, Vt, 152 
 
 761 Village of St. Johnsbury Centre, Vt, 152 
 
 122 221, Prof. Wise inflating his Balloon, Ganymede at St. Johns- 
 bury, Vt., 152 
 
 VALLEY OF THE RAMAPO, ERIE RAILWAY. 
 
 6244 Hotel and Turner's Station, Erie Railroad, 176 
 
 6249 The old Albany Post Road, below Turner's Station, looking 
 
 east, 176 
 
CATALOGUE OP VIEWS. 419 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 6250 Valley of the Ramapo, below Turner's Station, looking up 
 
 the clove towards Newburg, 176 
 
 6256 The Valley at Greenwood, Erie Railroad, 176 
 
 G259 At Greenwood,. 176 
 
 6263 Bridge over the Ramapo, at Greenwood, 176 
 
 6265 The everlasting Hills, 176 
 
 6266 The Valley below Greenwood Station, . 176 
 
 6270 Erie Railroad at Southfleld in the Ramapo valley, 176 
 
 6276 The Dam and Terrace House at the Village of Ramapo, 176 
 
 6278 At the Village of Ramapo, 176 
 
 6279 View of Southfleld from the Church, 176 
 
 6280 The Dam at Ramapo, 176 
 
 6281 The "Windings of the Ramapo, 176 
 
 6283 Quiet on the Ramapo, 176 
 
 6251 Valley of the Ramapo between Turner's and Greenwood 
 
 Station, 176 
 
 6260 Greenwood Furnace in the Ramapo valley, .. 176 
 
 6275 Terrace House, Torn Mountain in the distance, 176 
 
 GREENWOOD CEMETERY VIEWS. 
 948 Tomb of W. W. Grosbeck, Dale avenue, Crescent Water 
 
 foreground, 192 
 
 1487 The Fountain, on Fountain Hill, 190 
 
 1592 Monument of Henry Ruggles, 192 
 
 2185 2186 2187 Monument of Miss Charlotte Canda, Battle ave.,. 191 
 
 2189 New Entrance to Greenwood Cemetery, 190 
 
 5290 2191 The Sea Captain's Monument, on Vista Hill, 192 
 
 2192 Monument of De Witt Clinton, 190 
 
 2197 Crescent Lake, 190 
 
 5271 View on Willow avenue. New Gateway in the distance, 190 
 
 5278 Crescent Water, Dale avenue,. 190 
 
 5279 Sylvan Water, 190 
 
 5280 Niblo's Tomb, Dale avenue, 192 
 
 5282 Monuments on Ocean Hill, 190 
 
 6842 From Vine Dell looking towards Ocean Hill, 190 
 
 PASSAIC FALLS, PATTERSON, NEW JERSEY. 
 
 2132 2131 2130 Bird's-eye view of Patterson, 204 
 
 2138 2140 2136 2134 Passaic Falls, (different views,) 204 
 
 CENTRAL PARK VIEWS. 
 
 1065 From the Bell Tower, looking south. The Terrace and Mall 
 
 in the distance, 185 
 
 1066 From Bell Tower, looking south-east, .. 185 
 
 1068 From the Summer House, north-west of 6th ave. entrance,. 185 
 
 1075 The Mall, looking north, 185 
 
 1078 Grounds east of the Mall, now temporarily occupied by the 
 
 animals for the Zoological collection, 185 
 
 1079 From the Casino, looking north-east, 185 
 
 1081 The Valley. Harlem Plains in the distance, 185 
 
 1096 Transverse Road No. 2, south of Old Reservoir, 185 
 
 1102 TheCave, 185 
 
 1108 A Music Day on the Park, 185 
 
 1113 1111 Swans on the Lake, 185 
 
420 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 1121 The Lake, with the Bow Bridge in the distance, 185 
 
 1124 Bronze Group of Eagles and Alpine Goats, west of the Mall, 185 
 
 1137 The Music Pavilion,. 185 
 
 1138 From Walk near Artist' Gate, 6th avenue and 59th street en-. 
 
 trance, looking east. Old Arsenal in the distance, 185 
 
 1162 Lake and Bow Bridge, 185 
 
 1887 1888 Rustic Bridge near West Drive, 185 
 
 3712 3705 Instantaneous View of the Lake from the Terrace, 185 
 
 3716 3714 Rustic Bridge, near the 8th avenue, 185 
 
 3725 3726 3727 The Music Stand, 185 
 
 4503 5350 The Terrace, 185 
 
 4804 4798 Skating Scene in Central Park, 185 
 
 4406 4407 View in the Ramble, 185 
 
 5911 5912 The Camel and his Rider, 185 
 
 5914 The Fountain on the Mall, 185 
 
 5917 The Fountain. The Esplanade of the Terrace, the Lake and 185 
 
 Ramble in the distance, 185 
 
 6204 Ornamental Water west of the Conservatory, 185 
 
 6208 The Casino and Statue of "Auld Lang Syne,". 185 
 
 6233 6217 6231 The Fountain on the Mall, 185 
 
 CALIFORNIA VIEWS. 
 
 1 The Yo-Semite Valley, 297 
 
 3 2 The Yo-Semite Fall, 2500 feet high, 297 
 
 4 The Bridal Veil, 937 feet high, near view, 297 
 
 5 Fall on the South Fork, 600 feet high, 298 
 
 6 Nevada Fall, with South Dome and Valley, 298 
 
 9 8 Nevada Fall, 600 feet in hight, 298 
 
 13 The Big Tree in Mariposa Grove, 298 
 
 14 Vernal Fall, 600 feet in hight, 298 
 
 21 19 17 Scene in a Canon, 297 
 
 23 The South Dome, 4967 feet high, 298 
 
 26 Tu-to-con-u-u-ta, 3039 feet high, 298 
 
 28 The North Dome, 3729 feet high, 298 
 
 22 The Domes, 298 
 
 29 The South Dome from the South Fork, 298 
 
 35 View on the Merced River, 298 
 
 33 From the top of Vernal Fall, looking west, 298 
 
 39 Group of Big Trees in Mariposa Grove, 295 
 
 45 52 Panoramic View of San Francisco taken from the corner 
 
 of Sacramento and Taylor streets, 299 
 
 40 Group of Big Trees in Mariposa Grove, 295 
 
 42 78 The Heads ; entrance to the Bay of San Francisco. Gold- 
 en Gate in the distance, , - 299 
 
 60 South Park, San Francisco, 299 
 
 67 View of Sacramento, 299 
 
 VIEWS IN CUBA. 
 
 15 164, Cocoanut trees in the Bishop's garden, Havana,. 330 
 
 18 The large Cactus, in the Bishop's garden, Havana, 330 
 
 19 The avenue of Royal Palms, in the Bishop's garden, Havana, 330 
 
 20 An Instantaneous View. The Harbor of Havana, 329 
 
 22 An Instantaneous View. The steamer DeSoto leaving the 
 
 harbor of Havana, - — 329 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 421 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 24 134, Pan. view of Havana, from Tacon Prison, looking W., 329 
 
 25 26, 27, Bird's-eye view of the Harbor and City of Havana, 
 
 from the Castle Cabana 329 
 
 31 32, The Moro Castle and the entrance to the Harbor of Ha- 
 vana, from the Cabana, 330 
 
 39 A street view from the Dominica. A company of Spanish 
 
 troops returning from Mass, 329 
 
 44 An Instantaneous view of the Dashing Spray, Harbor of 
 
 Havana, with Moro Castle in the background, 330 
 
 53 A panoramic view of the Church of San Domingo, Havana, 330 
 60 Front view of the Cathedral where the remains of Columbus 
 
 are deposited, 330 
 
 71 Plantation view. Avenue in Orange Grove, 330 
 
 88 160, View of the Castello Atares, where the fifty Fillibus- 
 
 ters were executed, 328 
 
 148 Bird's-eye view of the Harbor and City of Havana, from the 
 
 Castle Cabana, ,-- 329 
 
 VIEWS IN EL ECUADOR. (The Andes.) 
 1197 Street in Riobamba, with " Chimborazo, the Monarch of 
 
 Andes," in the distance, 334 
 
 1203 View upon the volcanic deposit of lava thrown from the cra- 
 ter of Tunguragua during an eruption, April 23, 1773, 335 
 
 1211 Ambato. This town is 8,540 feet above the sea, and has a 
 
 climate that produces strawberries and peaches all the year, 338 
 
 1212 Peach Orchards of Ambato, looking up the valley, ... 337 
 
 1213 View looking across the Valley of Ambato, 337 
 
 1217 Volcano of Cotopaxi, from its base. Hight, 18,860 ft. above 
 
 the sea, 334 
 
 1218 Cotopaxi, from near Lake Tacunga, 334 
 
 1220 Bird's-eye view of Quito, the capital of the Republic, from 
 
 the top of Panacillo, a hill rising 700 feet above the city, 
 
 upon the south, 338 
 
 1221 Bird's-eye view of Quito, looking east by north from Pana- 
 
 cillo, -- 338 
 
 1222 View of Quito, with Panacillo in the background,.. 338 
 
 1233 Government building, with the volcano of Pichincha in the 
 
 background, 334 
 
 1235 Street and Fountain in Quito (Santa Barbara), 338 
 
 1237 San Diego, Quito, with the Pantheon in the distance, looking 
 
 down from the top of Panacillo, 338 
 
 1239 Water Carriers at the Fountain of San Francisco, Quito, — 338 
 
 1242 Ibarra, the capital of Imbabura, the most northerly Province 
 
 of Ecuador, 339 
 
 1243 Market in Ibarra, 339 
 
 1247 Mounted for ascending Pichincha, with the volcano in the 
 
 distance, . . — 334 
 
 1248 View within the crater of Pichincha, looking down from the 
 
 head of a ravine 1,050 feet below the top, and 1,410 feet 
 above the bottom ; the entire depth 2,460 feet, 334 
 
 1249 Looking down the valley from out the crater of Pichincha,. 334 
 
 1250 View within the crater of Pichincha, looking down from 
 
 the side of the great eastern wall, 334 
 
 1255 Bird's-eye view of Quito, 338 
 
422 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 1260 Public Square in Quito, 338 
 
 VIEWS IN VENEZUELA. 
 
 2269 Decidedly Tropical; a street shaded by Cocoas and Palms in 
 
 Los Haticos, 339 
 
 2270 A Cocoanut Grove in Los Haticos, 339 
 
 2259 2260, 2261, 2264, 2271, Views in Maracaibo, 339 
 
 1917 Banana Plant (New Granada),... — 337 
 
 1922 El Penol, a rock in Antioquia, (New Granada,) 335 
 
 GLIMPSES OF THE GREAT WEST. MINNESOTA. 
 
 325 Falls of Minnehaha, in the merry spring time,.. 292 
 
 334 Bridge over the Mississippi at St. Paul, 1,794 feet long, main 
 
 span 240 feet, top of bridge 113 feet above the water, 292 
 
 925 926, 932, Fort Snelling, on the Mississippi, 292 
 
 927 931, The Falls of St. Anthony, on the Mississippi, 292 
 
 929 930, The Falls of Minnehaha, Minnesota, 292 
 
 11 14, 15, 16, Falls of Minnehaha, 292 
 
 30 Barn Bluff, at Red Wing, Minnesota, 292 
 
 36 37, View at White Bear Lake, 291 
 
 153 155, View in the Dalles of St. Croix, 292 
 
 159 160, Views at Fountain Cave, St. Paul, 292 
 
 166 St. Anthony Falls, from Minneapolis, 292 
 
 VIEWS ON THE PENNSYLVANIA CENTRAL RAILROAD. 
 
 489 The Cresson Mountain House, situated on one of the highest 
 
 peaks of the Alleghanies, 210 
 
 525 Broad Top Mountain House, on the top of Broad Top Moun- 
 tain, 210 
 
 490 View from near the summit of the Alleghanies, with iron 
 
 furnaces in the foreground, 209 
 
 492 East Slope of the Alleghanies, near the summit, 209 
 
 510 On the Juniata, east of Tyrone City, ... 210 
 
 513 516, 519, 522, 523, 524, Scenes on the Juniata, 210 
 
 DELAWARE WATER GAP. 
 
 2227 View from near the Kittatinny House, looking north, 209 
 
 2228 View from the River Bank, looking north towards the Gap, 209 
 
 SCENES IN CHINA. 
 
 9 Mandarin in Sedan Chair, and attendants, 388 
 
 14 Rev. C. F. Preston and friends on the parade ground, Can- 
 ton, showing N. E. Gate of the city wall in distance, 388 
 
 16 View on the parade ground, Canton, China, 388 
 
 22 View in Macao, showing Fort on the hill, 388 
 
 25 26, Macao, China, 388 
 
 10 Entrance to the Temple occupied by General Crawford, Can- 
 ton, China, 388 
 
 VIEWS OF NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT. 
 
 3774 New Haven, Chapel Street, from Depot Tower,. 163 
 
 3776 New Haven, East Rock and Railroad, from Depot Tower, 163 
 
 3777 New Haven, looking towards Fair Haven, from Dep. Tower, 163 
 
 3778 New Haven, St. Paul's Church and Harbor, from Dep. Tower, 165 
 
 3779 New Haven, Harbor and Long Wharf, from Depot Tower,. . 165 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 423 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 3780 New Haven Harbor, looking towards Savin Rock, from Depot 
 
 Tower, 165 
 
 3782 3783, Temple Street, New Haven - 164 
 
 TRENTON FALLS. 
 
 2032 High Fall, from store on west side, 175 
 
 2033 High Fall, from below, 175 
 
 2035 Lower Fall, near view, 175 
 
 2036 Lower Fall, distant view, - 175 
 
 VIEWS ABOUT LAKE GEORGE, N. Y. 
 
 6416 View from the Hotel Lawn, looking down the Lake 180 
 
 6420 Col. William's Monument, near Bloody Pond 181 
 
 6434 View of Lake George from the South 180 
 
 6442 The Pavilion Hotel from old Fort Ty, Vermont, and Lake 
 
 Champlain in the distance, . 181 
 
 6446 6445, General view of old Fort Ty, (Ticonderoga) from the 
 
 South 181 
 
 6450 Parade Ground inside of Fort Ticonderoga, from the East 181 
 
 6447 Ruins of old Fort Ticonderoga, from the East 181 
 
 6451 Battle Field at Ticonderoga 181 
 
 6444 Looking north from old Fort Ty.... 181 
 
 THE VALLEY OF THE HOUSATONIO. 
 
 6310 6309 On the Housatonic River at Falls Village, Conn., 162 
 
 6311 6312 6313 The Falls of the Housatonic at Falls Village, Conn., 162 
 
 6337 Monument Mountain from the Ice Glen, Stockbridge, Mass., 153 
 
 6338 On the Summit of Monument Mountain, Stockbridge, Mass., 153 
 6340 6339 From the Summit of Monument Mountain, looking north, 153 
 6343 6342 From the Summit of Monument Mountain, looking south, 153 
 6361 6360 The Natural Bridge, North Adams, Mass., 154 
 
 VIEWS ABOUT BERGEN HILL. 
 
 5992 5991 Looking east from the Brow of the Hill. Hoboken in 
 
 the foreground and New York in the distance, 204 
 
 5993 Looking south from the Brow of the Hill. Jersey City in 
 
 the distance, 206 
 
 VIEWS IN JAPAN. 
 
 32 Foreign settlement at Nagasaki, Japan, taken from Decima,.. 389 
 
 5529 550 Simonoseki, 389 
 
 VIEWS IN WAYNE COUNTY, PENN. 
 5865 5864 Lower Falls of the Wallenpaupack, from Cromwell's 
 
 Ledge, 211 
 
 5867 5866 Lower Falls of the Wallenpaupack, from Cromwell's 
 
 Ledge, 211 
 
 5872 5871 Middle Falls of the Wallenpaupack, from Hemlock 
 
 Ledge, 211 
 
 5876 The Delaware and Hudson Canal at the Narrows on the 
 
 Lackawaxen, _. 210 
 
 SCENERY AT LITTLE FALLS, ON THE MOHAWK, N. Y. 
 
 6619 Little Falls, from Lover's Rock, 200 
 
 6620 Little Falls from Lover's Leap, 200 
 
424 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 6622 Little Falls, Lover's Rock, looking north-west, 200 
 
 6634 6641, Locks and Dry Dock, Erie Canal, 200 
 
 6636 6637, Falls and Bridge on the Mohawk river, 176 
 
 6638 6639, Profile Rocks, east and west sides, 200 
 
 6642 Little Falls, looking west, „ 200 
 
 6643 Little Falls, looking east, 200 
 
 VIEWS IN MONTREAL AND QUEBEC. 
 
 21227 Victoria Square, Montreal, 313 
 
 20980 Beaver Hall, from Victoria Square, Montreal, 313 
 
 1(5710 View looking west across the city, from tower of French 
 
 Church, Montreal, 313 
 
 16762 Court House, Montreal, 313 
 
 21275 Great St. James Street, Montreal, 313 
 
 20851 Notre Dame Street, looking east, Montreal, 313 
 
 16828 Wharves at Montreal, with steamers and bridge in distance, 313 
 
 17326 Marine Hospital, Quebec, 314 
 
 MAMMOTH CAVE VIEWS, KENTUCKY. 
 
 5 Mouth of the Cave, 269 
 
 17 Deserted Chamber, Guide entering, equipped for the long 
 
 route,.... _ 269 
 
 18 Gorin's Dome. This is sixty feet wide and two hundred feet 
 
 high, the sides beautifully fluted is if by the hands of 
 
 skillful artists, ._ 269 
 
 19 Bridge of Sighs, over the far-famed "Bottomless Pit," 269 
 
 23 Wild Hall, surpassing in wierd gloom Dore's conception of 
 
 the inferno, . 269 
 
 24 Snowball Arcade. A regular arched way, the ceiling of 
 
 which is covered with white gypsum, resembling snow,-. 269 
 
 25 Grand Crossing, showing two avenues, one passing over the 
 
 other, 269 
 
 SCOTCH AND CONTINENTAL VIEWS. 
 
 984 Power's Court, Waterfall, County of Wicklow, (Ireland,)... 353 
 
 1009 General View of Paris, taken from the Pantheon, (France,). 356 
 
 1393 Church of Notre Dame, (France,).. 357 
 
 1402 Champ de Mars, Ecole Militaire, (France,) 357 
 
 1579 St. George's Hall, Liverpool, (England,) 346 
 
 1629 Panorama of Lyons, (France,) 357 
 
 1631 General View of the Mer de Glace, Savoy, (France,) 355 
 
 1649 Osborn House, (Isle of Wight,) 354 
 
 1739 Giant's Causeway, (Ireland,) 353 
 
 1797 Panoramic view of the Cathedral of Cologne, (Prussia,) 370 
 
 1805 Church of St. Peter and Obelisk at Rome, 383 
 
 1834 New Houses of Parliament, London, (England,) 344 
 
 1902 Ice Glaciers, (Switzerland,)... 359 
 
 1903 " " " 359 
 
 1904 " " " 359 
 
 2006 Ice Glaciers (Switzerland), 359 
 
 2010 Ice Glaciers, Switzerland, 259 
 
 3959 Fingal's Cave, Staffa, (Scotland), 349 
 
 3961 The mouth of the Clam Shell Cave, Staffa, 349 
 
 3963 Windsor Castle. The Garden Terrace, (England), 347 
 
CATALOGUE OP VIEWS. 425 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 3964 Windsor Castle. The Garden Terrace, (England) 347 
 
 3967 Balmoral Castle, from the south-west, (Scotland), - 352 
 
 3968 Sir Walter Scott's Monument, Edinburg, (Scotland), 350 
 
 3974 In the Pass of Killie Crankie, (Scotland,) 351 
 
 3975 Loch Katrine. The Boat House, (Scotland,). = 349 
 
 3981 Drummond Castle. The Garden from the Terrace, 352 
 
 4235 Windsor Castle. The Norman Gate, (England,) 347 
 
 4236 Taymouth Castle, from the Fort, (Scotland,) 352 
 
 4250 Fingal's Cave, Staffa, (Scotland,) 349 
 
 4355 Durham Cathedral. The Galilee and Lady Chapel, (Eng.,). . 348 
 
 4461 Rue Rivoli, showing a portion of the Palace of Tuilleries, 
 
 (France,) - 357 
 
 4484 General View of Rome from the Cupola of St. Peter's, 383 
 
 4485 The Vatican, Rome, (Papal States,).. 384 
 
 4486 General View of the Vatican, Rome, (Papal States,) 348 
 
 4499 Abbotsford. The Garden Front, (Scotland,) 352 
 
 4500 Windsor Castle. The Round Tower, (England,) 347 
 
 4505 Roof of Henry's VII. Chapel, Westminster, (England,) 344 
 
 4700 Canton of Valois. Superior Glacier of Rhone, (Switzerland,) 365 
 
 4701 Balmoral Castle from the north-west, (Scotland,). 352 
 
 4702 Warwick Castle. The Cedar Drawing Room, (England,). .. 347 
 4715 Road to the Obsides of the Cathedral of Cologne, (Prussia,). 370 
 
 4730 North Wales. Conway Castle, 354 
 
 4739 Myrite Grove, Youghal, County of Cork, built in 1656 ; 
 
 formerly the residence of Sir Walter Raleigh, (Ireland,).. 354 
 
 4741 The Presbyterian College, Belfast, (Ireland,) 354 
 
 4742 The Custom House, Belfast, (Ireland,) 354 
 
 4746 The Rotunda, Dublin, (Ireland,) 353 
 
 4747 Frindloter Church, Dublin, (Ireland,) 353 
 
 4750 Birkhall, the Highland residence of the Prince of Wales, 
 
 (Scotland,) 352 
 
 4825 Grand Crevasses on the Mer de Glace, Savoy, (France,) 355 
 
 4827 Grotto of Ice. Glacier of the Bossons, Savoy, (France,) 355 
 
 4830 View of the Wetterhorn at Grindelwald, (Switzerland,) 361 
 
 4836 Staubbach Falls. Valley of Lauterbrunnen, (Switzerland,). 360 
 
 4866 Bridge of Milan in the Via Mala, (Switzerland,) 363 
 
 4873 View in the Valley of the Linth, (Switzerland,) 364 
 
 4885 The Elysian Fields and the Triumphal Arch, Paris, 356 
 
 4889 Entrance to the Arsenal, Vienna, (Austria,) 367 
 
 4891 The Belvedere Facade, Vienna, (Austria,) 367 
 
 4902 The Port of Naples, (Italy,)... 377 
 
 4903 Entrance to the Royal Palace, Naples, (Italy,) 377 
 
 4919 Grand Eruption of Mount ^Etna, near Catane, (Italy,) 375 
 
 4920 Panorama of St. Sauveur, taken from Solferino, (France,) — 355 
 
 4931 Panorama of Luz, taken from Solferino, (France,) 355 
 
 4944 View on the Canal, Hamburg, (Germany,) 371 
 
 4953 The Royal Institute, Edinburg, from the south-west, (Scot- 
 land,) 350 
 
 4955 Crystal Palace, Sydenham, (England,) 345 
 
 4956 " " " " 345 
 
 4958 " " " The Byzantine Court, (Eng.,).. 345 
 
 4961 " " " " " " " 345 
 
 4962 Parliament House. General View of (London, England,)... 344 
 4968 House of Lords, London, 344 
 
 28 
 
426 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 4969 "Wells Cathedral ; the west front, (England,) 348 
 
 4970 Exeter Cathedral from the south-east, (England,) 348 
 
 4971 Well's Cathedral from the south-east, (England,) 348 
 
 4978 Colonnade of Formi, Circle, Pompeii, (Italy,) 374 
 
 4979 Cathedral of Milan, (Italy,) 378 
 
 4980 Panorama of Venice, side of St. Marks, (Italy,) 379 
 
 4981 Hotel of the Queen of England, on the Lake of Conio (It.), 376 
 4983 Buckingham Palace, London (England), 344 
 
 4987 Panoramic view of the Lake of Como (Italy), 376 
 
 4988 Crystal Palace, Sydenham. The Fine Art Court, 345 
 
 5008 Balmoral Castle, from the south-east (England), 352 
 
 5010 Inverary Castle, seat of the Duke of Argyle (Scotland), 352 
 
 5012 Greenwich Hospital (England),... 346 
 
 5031 Place of the Royal Palace, Paris (France) 357 
 
 5035 General view of the Amphitheatre of Santa Maria Maggiore, 
 
 (Italy), 380 
 
 5037 The Arena at Verona (Italy) 380 
 
 5038 Interior of the Royal Palace, Naples (Italy), 377 
 
 5039 View of Naples, taken from the Ghiatamono (Italy), 377 
 
 5041 St. Peter's, Rome (Papal States),. 383 
 
 5051 Library of the Vatican, Rome (Papal States), 384 
 
 5060 Boulevard of Sebastopol (France), „ 356 
 
 5061 Gallery of Statues, Museum of the Vatican, 384 
 
 5064 Ball Room, Buckingham Palace, London, 344 
 
 5068 The Pitti Palace, Florence, (Italy), 377 
 
 5069 Ceremony of the Benediction, Easter day, Rome, (Pap. St.), 383 
 
 5070 The Parlor, Buckingham Palace, London, (England), 344 
 
 5108 The Papal Benediction at Rome, .. 383 
 
 5202 Reception Parlor, Windsor Castle, (England), 347 
 
 5206 Interior of the Library of the Vatican, Rome, 384 
 
 5209 Interior of the Library of the Vatican, Rome, 384 
 
 5218 Door to St. Denis, Boulevard Montmorenci, 356 
 
 5219 Instantaneous view. Boulevard of the Emperor, Paris, 356 
 
 5232 Sculptured Columns in Central America, 101 
 
 5233 Sculptured Columns in Central America, 101 
 
 5238 View in the interior of the Glacier of Grindelwald, 361 
 
 5241 Mount Blanc, and Panorama of Chamounix, 355 
 
 5355 The Bell of Ivan-Velilsan, Kremlin, Moscow, 373 
 
 5357 View of the Kremlin, Moscow, (Russia,) 373 
 
 5358 Coliseum, Rome,. 382 
 
 5381 St. Paul's London, 343 
 
 5489 Museum of Louvre, Hall of Apollyon, 357 
 
 5491 The Royal Chateau, Berlin, (Prussia,) 370 
 
 5496 Osborn House, Isle of Wight, (English Channel,) 354 
 
 5610 Interior of the Cavern of Ice, Grindelwald, (Switzerland,) — 361 
 
 5620 Loch Archray and Ben Venue, (Scotland,).. 348 
 
 5622 Balmoral Castle, from the south-east, (Scotland,) 352 
 
 5627 Loch Katrine, from above the Trossach's Pier, (Scotland,) .. 349 
 
 5628 Holyrood Palace, Edinburgh, from the Queen's Park, (Scot- 
 
 land,) - 350 
 
 5654 Instantaneous View of the Boulevard of Sebastopol, Paris,.. 356 
 
 5656 View taken from the Tower of Ivan-Velik, Moscow, (Russia,) 373 
 
 5726 Temple of Venus, Pompeii, (Italy,) 374 
 
 5728 Tomb of Nevalois and Diomede, Pompeii, (Italy,) 374 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 427 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 5729 General View of Naples, (Italy,) 377 
 
 5732 Valley of Lauterbrunnen. The Staubbach view of the route, 
 
 (Switzerland,) 360 
 
 5737 Versailles, (Park,). 258 
 
 5741 Drumnadrochit, Glen Urquhart, (Scotland,) , 351 
 
 5950 The Basin of Latone, Versailles, (France,) 358 
 
 6656 St. Paul's, London, (England,) 343 
 
 6657 The Tower of London, (England,) 343 
 
 SWISS AND AUSTRIAN VIEWS. 
 
 294 View from Berg to Cannstatt, in Wurtemburg, (Germany,).. 371 
 324 View of the Chateau of Neuburg, on the Danube, Bavaria, 
 
 (Germany,) 371 
 
 366 Neuhaus, on the Danube, (Germany,) 372 
 
 371 The Bridge of the City of Linz, on the Danube, (Austria,).. 368 
 502 Cascade in the Gorge of the Simmen, and the Peaks of the 
 
 Amertenhorn, Canton Berne, (Switzerland,) 362 
 
 505 First fall in the Gorge of the Simmen, (Switzerland,) 362 
 
 523 View of the Kander at Bunderbach, with the summits of the 
 
 Birrenstock, Doldenhorn and Fissistock, Canton of Bern, 
 
 (Switzerland), 362 
 
 542 Cottage near the Eschinensee, Berne, (Switzerland), 362 
 
 543 The Doldenhern, view taken from the Eschinensee, Canton 
 
 Berne, (Switzerland), 362 
 
 546 Fragments of Rock, and Cascade of the Kander, in the Gorge 
 
 of the Gastern, (Switzerland), 362 
 
 547 Bridge over the Kander in the Gorge of Gastern, (Switz.),.. 362 
 555 Gorge near Gastern, and view of the Schlithorn, (Switz.),.. 362 
 596 Panorama of Appenzall, taken from the east, the Himmel- 
 
 burg in the distance, (Switzerland), 366 
 
 656 Railway Station and Post Office at St. Gall, 366 
 
 657 Public Square in St. Gall, 366 
 
 682 View of the Prattigau at Grusch, (Switzerland), 364 
 
 683 View of the Prattigau from Schiersch, (Switzerland), 364 
 
 686 Baths of Fideris, in the Prattigau, (Switzerland), 364 
 
 702 View at the Klosters, looking towards the Selveretta, (Sw'd) 364 
 
 715 Village of Malix, near Chur, in the Prattigau, (Switz.), 364 
 
 723 Ruins of the Castle of Belfort, in the Valley of the Albula, 
 
 Canton Grisons, (Switzerland), 363 
 
 737 Source of the Rhine at Albula, near Weissenstein, Grisons, 
 
 (Switzerland), 363 
 
 746 Alvaschein in the Grisons, (Switzerland), 364 
 
 747 Gorge of the Albula, near Alvaschein, (Switzerland), 363 
 
 752 The Schyn-Pass, valley of the Albula, (Switzerland), 363 
 
 798 Chateau of Rhazuns, valley of Domlescho, (Switzerland),.. 364 
 813 Gorge near the second bridge of Via Mala, Canton Grisons, 
 
 (Switzerland), 363 
 
 815 An old Bridge in the Gorge of Rofla, Via Mala, (Switz.), 363 
 
 1120 Monument of the Virgin, at Vienna, (Austria), 367 
 
 1121 Statue of the Emperor Joseph II., at Vienna, (Austria), 367 
 
 PARIS AND PARIS EXPOSITION. 
 
 43 Instantaneous view of Paris, Boulevard of Sebastopol, France, 356 
 
 159 Triumphal Arch from the Trone, Paris, 356 
 
428 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 6095 The French Park. Paris Exposition, 357 
 
 6118 Gallery of Machinery. French Section, 357 
 
 6122 Crystal. French Section, 357 
 
 6147 Gallery of Machinery. English Section, 357 
 
 6152 Crystal. Austrian Section,.. 357 
 
 6157 Gallery of Machinery. Portuguese Section, 357 
 
 6161 Gallery of Workmanship. Russian Section, 357 
 
 6168 The Egyptian Park. Paris Exposition, 357 
 
 6181 Gallery of Workmanship. Italian Section, 357 
 
 6186 Saloon of Awards. Paris Exposition, 357 
 
 6199 Panoramic view of the Building. Paris Exposition, 357 
 
 VIEWS IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 429 Black Point and Golden Gate, from Telegraph Hill, San 
 
 Francisco, -.. 299 
 
 430 The Presidio and Golden Gate, from Russian Hill, San Fran- 
 
 cisco, 299 
 
 690 Swift's Station, Carson and Lake Bigler Road, eastern sum- 
 mit of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 294 
 
 798 Hydraulic Mining, Timbucto Diggings, Yuba county, 296 
 
 803 Hydraulic Mining, the Pipe and Tank, 296 
 
 875 The Sentinels; hieht 315 feet; Mammoth Grove, Calaveras 
 
 County, .~ 295 
 
 878 Section of the original Big Tree ; diameter 30 feet ; Calave- 
 ras County, 295 
 
 882 Big Tree Hercules, from a point 250 feet from the base, Cal- 
 averas County, - 295 
 
 887 Big Tree, Abraham Lincoln ; hight, 281 feet, circumference, 
 
 44 feet, 295 
 
 907 Abraham Lincoln, near view, 281 feet high, 44 feet in cir- 
 cumference, Calaveras County Big Tree Grove, 295 
 
 1107 The Three Brothers, 4,000 feet high, Yosemite Valley, Mar- 
 iposa County, 297 
 
 1109 The Three Brothers, reflected in the Merced river, Yosemite 
 
 Valley, Mariposa County, 298 
 
 1111 The Yosemite Fall, 2,634 feet high, Yosemite Valley, Mari- 
 posa County, 297 
 
 1113 View down the Yosemite Valley, Cathedral Rocks in the dis- 
 
 tance, Mariposa County, 297 
 
 1114 The North Dome, 3,725 feet high, Royal Arch, and Washing- 
 
 ton Tower, Yosemite Valley, Mariposa County, 298 
 
 1118 Mirror Lake and Reflections, Yosemite Valley, Mariposa Co., 298 
 
 1119 The Vernal Fall, 350 feet high, " " " " 298 
 1124 The South Dome, from the little " " " " 298 
 1225 Mount Starr King, 5,600 f. high, " " " " 298 
 1020 Placer Mining. The Flume and Boulders, Columbia, Tou- 
 
 lumne County, - • 296 
 
 1023 Placer Mines. The Boulder Range, Knapp's Ranch, Colum- 
 bia, Toulumne County, 296 
 
 VIEWS ABOUT LAKE SUPERIOR AND VICINITY. 
 
 266 Bay of Marquette, Lake Superior, 286 
 
 265 Ore Docks, Bay of Marquette, Lake Superior, 286 
 
 270 The Superior Iron Mine, Main Working, 286 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 429 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 272 View in the Jackson Iron Mine, 286 
 
 276 Ore Train and Vein in the Jackson Mine, 286 
 
 CROSSING THE PLAINS TO MONTANA. 
 
 238 On the Plains, D. T., 306 
 
 239 Camp near Bonehill, crossing of James river, D. T., 306 
 
 240 Camp on the Sand Hills, D. T.,_ 306 
 
 242 241, Bluffs near Fort Berthold, 307 
 
 245 Campat White Bear Den, D. T., 306 
 
 248 247, Indian Teepees, or Wigwams, - 102 
 
 253 Trading Post, N. W. Fur Co., Fort Union, Montana,. 306 
 
 VIEWS IN THE CITY OF CHICAGO. 
 
 143 37, 42, University of Chicago, 265 
 
 47 City Hall, Chicago, 111., 264 
 
 49 Sherman House and Wood's Museum from Lasalle street, 265 
 
 50 Great Union Central Depot, south end,. 266 
 
 75 52, Sherman House, corner of Clark and Randolph streets,. 265 
 
 30 74, Michigan Southern Railroad Depot, 266 
 
 32 97, Chicago Waterworks, 265 
 
 43 100, Potter Palmer's Marble Store, 265 
 
 120 The Crib of the Chicago Lake Tunnel, 266 
 
 121 Interior Section of the Chicago Lake Tunnel, 265 
 
 47 123, Lake street, from Illinois Central Depot, 264 
 
 132 263 Panorama of Chicago river from Randolph street, 263 
 
 188 Chicago river from Rush street bridge, 263 
 
 189 Crosby's Opera House, Washington street, i.. 265 
 
 45 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, View from the Dome of City Hall, 262 
 
 36 Shipping, from Wells street bridge, 263 
 
 46 River Tunnel, Washington street. (West,) 264 
 
 58 Wabash avenue, south from Jackson street, 265 
 
 59 Wabash avenue, north from Peck court, 265 
 
 61 Wabash avenue, south from Eldridge court, 265 
 
 71 Chicago river, north from Randolph street,. 263 
 
 74 Interior of the Chamber of Commerce, 264 
 
 VIEWS ON THE LINE OF THE PACIFIC RAILROAD AND 
 ROCKY MOUNTAINS. 
 
 228 Union Pacific Railroad Works and Depot at Omaha, 303 
 
 231 View of Omaha from Capitol Hill, 303 
 
 288 Carmichael's Camp in the Black Hills, U. P. Railroad, 307 
 
 289 Mount Pisgah, Summit of Black Hills, 307 
 
 291 Red Sandstone Rock, Laramie Plains, 307 
 
 293 " " " " " 307 
 
 299 View of the Mountains near Big Thompson creek, 309 
 
 300 Hayden's Valley, near Big Thompson creek, 309 
 
 301 View of Canon and Long's Peak, 308 
 
 302 View of Canon near Long's Peak, 308 
 
 303 View of the Mountains near Long's Peak, 308 
 
 304 Bears' Cathedral, near the Big Thompson, 309 
 
 308 Group of Indian Chiefs, Pawnee Tribe, 105 
 
 310 Group of Indians and Mud Lodge in Pawnee Tribe, 105 
 
 311 Indian domestic life in the Pawnee Village,. 105 
 
 312 Government School for Indians, Pawnee Reservation, 105 
 
430 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 314 Indian Graves on the Pawnee Reservation, 103 
 
 315 Group of Ogalallah Sioux, at North Platte, 105 
 
 VIEWS IN WISCONSIN. 
 
 31 Maiden Rock, Lake Pepin, Wisconsin side, 289 
 
 24 Pulpit Rock, Wisconsin, 289 
 
 VIEWS IN ILLINOIS. 
 
 130 Abraham Lincoln's residence, Springfield, Ills., 262 
 
 View of the New State House, " " 262 
 
 Panoramic View of Springfield, from Dome of State House, . . 262 
 
 The State Normal School, near Bloomington, Ills., 268 
 
 Panoramic View of Rockford, Ills., from the east, looking west, 267 
 Panoramic View of Rockford, Ills., from top of Female Sem- 
 inary, 267 
 
 View of Public School, East Rockford, Ills., 267 
 
 " " " " West " " 267 
 
 " " " " South " " 267 
 
 View of the Seminary, Rockford, 267 
 
 View on the Fair Grounds, Rockford, 267 
 
 View in Floral Hall, County Fair, Rockford, 267 
 
 VIEWS IN THE SOUTHERN STATES. 
 2294 2295, Marshall House, Alexandria, sceue of Col. Ellsworth's 
 
 Assassination, 73 
 
 2328 Bull Run Battlefield, Virginia, 75 
 
 2329 Soldier's Graves, Bull Run Battlefield, Virginia, 75 
 
 2384 Position of the center of the Army at Gettysburg, 84 
 
 2385 2386, Woods on the left wing, Battle of Gettysburg, 84 
 
 2387 Breastworks on the left wing, Battle of Gettysburg, 84 
 
 2392 Wheatfield where Gen. Reynolds was killed, 84 
 
 2394 2395, Gen. R. E. Lee's Headquarters, Gettysburg,. 84 
 
 2396 Gen. Meade's Headquarters, Gettysburg, 84 
 
 2653 Knoxville R. R. Depot at Chattanooga ; Lookout Mountain 
 
 in the distance. Group of Conscripts in the foreground, 84 
 2655 View of Lookout Mountain from the R. R. Depot, Chatta- 
 nooga, 87 
 
 2659 2660, View from the top of Lookout Mountain, looking down 
 
 the Chattanooga Valley, 87 
 
 3047 View of Fort Sumter from the Bar, S. C, 85 
 
 3049 View of Fort Sumter, showing a mingled mass of debris, 
 
 shot and shell, and bursted guns, 85 
 
 3053 View of Fort Sumter on the Parapet, overlooking the Harbor 
 
 and distant shore, _.. 85 
 
 3135 3138, View from the Parapet of Fort Sumter, S. C, with 
 Charleston in the distance; taken April 14th, 1865, on the 
 
 occasion of the raising the old flag by Gen. Anderson, 92 
 
 3139 Interior of Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, S. C, April 14, 
 
 1865, pending the ceremony of raising the old flag, 92 
 
 3140 Interior of Fort Sumter, Charleston Harbor, S. C, April 14, 
 
 1865, Henry Ward Beecher delivering the oration on the 
 
 occasion of raising the old flag, 92 
 
 3149 View in the Arsenal Grounds, near the Petersburg Railroad 
 Bridge, Richmond, Va., showing shot, shell, and canister, 
 
 scattered around, - 91 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 431 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 3171 3173, Panoramic view of Richmond, Va., from Libby Hill, 
 looking west ; in the distance, Pontoon Bridge and Belle 
 Island, the place where so many union prisoners were con- 
 fined, 230 
 
 3253 Panoramic view of Richmond, Va., from Gamble Hill, look- 
 ing east. Lynchburg Canal and ruins of City Armory in 
 
 the foreground ; in the distance, Church Hill, 230 
 
 3372 3373, Pontoon Bridge on the James river, Richmond, Va.; 
 
 in the middle ground are large Woolen Factories, 230 
 
 3540 Gen. Sherman's Headquarters, Savannah, Georgia, 90 
 
 3547 Gen. Sherman's Wagon Train, near Savannah, Georgia, 90 
 
 3647 3648, 3649, The place where Maj. Gen. J. B. McPherson was 
 
 killed, Atlanta, Ga„ 89 
 
 3661 3662, Pulpit Rock, Lookout Mountain, the place where Jeff. 
 
 Davis addressed the Confederate Armies, Tenn., 87 
 
 3663 Fortifications and Bombproofs, Atlanta, Ga., 89 
 
 3666 View in the City of Atlanta, Ga., 240 
 
 3410 Quarter Deck and Starboard Battery of U. S. Ship Pawnee, 
 the Fighting Ship of U. S. Navy, taken at Charleston Har- 
 bor^. C.,.._ 237 
 
 3168 Washington Monument in the Capitol Grounds, Richmond, 
 Va. The statues around the center base, are those of 
 
 Patrick Henry, Thomas Jefferson, and Mason, 230 
 
 ALPINE CLUB. 
 
 67 Mont Rosa, taken from the Gorner Gratt, Switzerland, 365 
 
 77 Panorama of Interlaken, with Jungfrau in the distance, 363 
 
 89 The Wetterhorn in the Valley of Grindelwald, Switzerland, 361 
 
 90 View of the Wetterhorn, Grindelwald, Switzerland, 361 
 
 103 Staubbach Fall, Valley of Lauterbrunnen, Switzerland, 360 
 
 172 Panorama of Glarus and Glarnish Mountain, Switzerland,. 364 
 
 210 Mount Blanc, and panorama of Chamounix, France, 355 
 
 215 View on the Mer de Glace, Chamouuix, Savoy, France, 355 
 
 216 Grand Pyramids on the Mer de Glace, Savoy, France, 355 
 
 221 The summit of Mount Blanc, and view of Servoz, France,.. 355 
 
 228 The Mer de Glace, Chamounix, Savoy, France, 355 
 
 274 The Jungfrau, taken in the Wengern Alps, Switzerland, 361 
 
 275 Hotel of the Jungfrau, Wengern Alps, Switzerland, 361 
 
 276 The Monch, view in the Wengern Alps, Switzerland, 361 
 
 277 The Monch, and the Eiger, Wengern Alps, Switzerland, 361 
 
 278 The Jungfrau, view on the Route of Murren, Switzerland,.. 361 
 299 General view of the Superior Glacier of Grindelwald, Switz., 361 
 302 Interior of an Ice Cavern, Glacier of Grindelwald, Switz.,.. 361 
 
 ENGLISH AND SCOTCH VIEWS. 
 
 St. Paul's, South-west, England, ,... 343 
 
 The Tower of London, England,... 344 
 
 10 Loch Katrine, the path by the Loch, Scotland, 349 
 
 13 Balmoral Castle, from the southeast, Scotland, 352 
 
 14 Balmoral Castle, from the river, Scotland, - 352 
 
 16 Clamshell Cave, Staffa, Scotland, 349 
 
 17 Fingal's Cave, Staffa, Scotland, 349 
 
 19 The Thames. Eton College, England, 347 
 
 43 Glasgow Bridge, Scotland, 351 
 
432 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. N0 - PAGE - 
 
 45 Glasgow. View on the Clyde, Scotland, 350 
 
 59 Loch Archray and Ben Venue, Scotland, 349 
 
 70 Guy's Cliff, from Mill Meadow, England, 347 
 
 103 Abbotsford, from the river, Scotland, - 352 
 
 111 Edinburgh Castle, from Princess street, Scotland, 350 
 
 114 Sir Walter Scott's Monument, Edinburgh, Scotland, 350 
 
 131 Ely Cathedral ; view from the Park, England, 348 
 
 132 Balmoral Castle, from the south-west, Scotland, 352 
 
 134 Balmoral Castle, from the north-west, Scotland, 352 
 
 145 Fingal's Cave, Staffa, Scotland, ----- 349 
 
 201 The city of Oxford, from the top of Magdalen Tower, Eng., 347 
 
 440 Balmoral Castle, from the south-east, Scotland, 352 
 
 443 Windsor Castle— the Garden Terrace, England, - 347 
 
 445 Windsor Castle— the North Terrace, England, 347 
 
 471 In the Pass of Killiecrankie, looking towards Ben-y-gloe, 
 
 Scotland, - l 5 ] 
 
 478 Blair Athole, from Tulloch Hill, Scotland, - 351 
 
 480 Bridge of Tilt, looking towards Ben-y-gloe, Scotland, 351 
 
 485 Taymouth Castle, from the Fort, Scotland, - 352 
 
 490 Peterborough Cathedral, from the south-east, England, 348 
 
 490 Drummond Castle, from the Garden, Scotland, - 348 
 
 497 Drummond Castle, from the Garden, Scotland, 348 
 
 508 Loch Zummel— the Queen's View, Scotland, 348 
 
 530 Abbotsford— the Garden Front, Scotland, - 352 
 
 668 View from above Tarbot, Loch Lomond, Scotland, - 34 J 
 
 730 Ben Nevis, from above Banavie, Scotland, 348 
 
 763 The Necropolis, Glasgow, Scotland, - - 351 
 
 769 The Queen's View— Pass of Killiecrankie, Scotland, 3ol 
 
 773 Faskally House, Pass of Killiecrankie, Scotland, 3ol 
 
 812 Glasgow— in the West End Park, Scotland, - - - 351 
 
 829 Luss— Loch Lomond, Scotland, 349 
 
 837 Ben Lomond, from Luss, -i - - £*° 
 
 842 Ben Lomond, from near Tarbot, Scotland, o4b 
 
 869 Ellen's Isle, Loch Katrine, Scotland, 349 
 
 872 Loch Katrine, from the Goblin's Cave, Scotland, 34J 
 
 1931 Dartmouth, from Hill above Warfleet, England -- 347 
 
 19 St. John's College, Cambridge, new buildings, from the 
 south-east, England, - 
 
 PRUSSIA AND GERMANY. 
 
 46 View of Bacharach and Durhin, Prussia, - - 370 
 
 77 Absideof the Cathedral of Limburg on the Lahn, Germany, 6W 
 80 View of the Bridge and the Chateau of Welburg, on the Lahn, 
 
 Germany, - ' 
 
 325 Baden Baden. View on the Oosbach, Germany, * <* 
 
 ITALY AND PAPAL STATES. 
 
 754 Interior of the Amphitheatre at Pozzuoli, Italy, -"TV" q?5 
 
 825 Excavations of Herculaneum in 1828. Mosaic Branch, Italy, d/4 
 
 1094 Entrance to the Cathedral of Milan, Italy, - 37» 
 
 1531 General view of Naples, Italy, - — - %l\ 
 
 1546 Observatory of Vesuvius, near Naples, Italy, ------- - % '* 
 
 1578 Garden of the Vatican, and Cupola of St. Peter s, Italy, . - - - <*»* 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 433 
 NO. VIEW. NO. PAGE. 
 
 VIEWS OP PALESTINE AND ADJACENT COUNTRIES. 
 
 1 Sinai. Wady Mukatteb. The Written Valley. A good 
 
 specimen of the mysterious "Sinaitic" Writing, 409 
 
 2 6, Sinai. Wady Feiran. Paran. Wild Palms and Arab 
 
 Figure, - 409 
 
 3 Sinai. The Plain of the Assemblage from the Convent, 404 
 
 4 Sinai. Convent of Sinai. The Abbott and Monks, 409 
 
 5 15, Travelers on Dromedaries, near Ezion Geber, 412 
 
 6 Hebron. A Group of Natives, - 409 
 
 7 The Fountain of Jericho. Ain Sultan healed by Elisha, 407 
 
 8 22, Jerusalem from Mount Zion, with Mosque of Omar, etc., 
 
 showing much of the modern City, 399 
 
 9 Jerusalem. The Garden of Gethsemane and Mount of Olives, 402 
 
 10 25, Jerusalem. The Village of Siloam, and Valley of the 
 
 Kedron, 402 
 
 11 Jerusalem. The Pool of Siloam, 402 
 
 12 " Facade of Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 401 
 
 13 " LatinMonks, 402 
 
 14 27, " Via Dolorosa, 401 
 
 16 " The English Church, 401 
 
 17 32, " The Mosque of Aksa, 401 
 
 18 32, " The Golden Gate, 400 
 
 19 33, " The Mosque of Omar ; the Site of Solomon's 
 
 Temple, 401 
 
 20 33, Jerusalem. View of the Court of the Mosque of Omar; 
 
 specimen of Saracenic Architecture, 401 
 
 22 Shiloh (Seilun,). 407 
 
 23 43, Mount Carmel. The Convent, 393 
 
 42 Site of Bethsaida. See of Galilee, 396 
 
 25 Sea of Galilee. Bethsaida. The Castor Oil Plant, 396 
 
 26 Site of Capernaum. Tell Hum. Ruins of Synagogue, Cor- 
 
 nice, Capitals, etc., 404 
 
 29 Rukhleh. Huge Medallion Face, supposed to be of Baal, 403 
 
 30 Damascus, with Ancient Great Mosque, 403 
 
 31 Damascus. A view from a House Top, 402 
 
 35 Baalbek. The Great Columns, 402 
 
 36 Baalbek. View of the Great Columns and Temple of Jupiter, 402 
 
 37 Baalbek. Ornamental Door and Niche on the south side of 
 
 the Great Court, 402 
 
 38 Baalbek. General view of the Temple of Jupiter, 402 
 
 39 " " " " 402 
 
 40 " " «« " Fallen mass 
 
 of Ceiling of the Perystyle, 402 
 
 41 69, Baalbek. Temple of Jupiter. The Great Portal with 
 
 Slipped Key Stone, measuring 42 by 21 feet, 402 
 
 42 70, Baalbek. Temple of Jupiter. Capitals, etc., 402 
 
 43 " " " " Columns, Capitals, etc., 402 
 
 44 71, " " " " " « « 402 
 
 45 72, " The Circular Temple, 402 
 
 46 75, Cedars of Lebanon. Near View, Old and Young Trees, 392 
 
 47 " " The largest of the Cedars, 392 
 
 48 Athens. The Propyls, 410 
 
 49 84 " The Caryatides, 411 
 
 " 29 
 
434 CATALOGUE OE VIEWS. 
 
 NO. VIEW. N 0» PAGE. 
 
 50 Athens. Sculptured Heads, etc., in the Acropolis, 410 
 
 51 " Sculptures of the Wingless Victory, 410 
 
 53 91," Theatre of Bacchus, 411 
 
 54 » " « " State Chair, 411 
 
 gg (i u u « u » 411 
 
 56 Egypt. The Great Pyramid and Excavated Temple, 411 
 
 57 " The Second Pyramid and Sphinx, 411 
 
 58 " Step Pyramid of Sakhara, 411 
 
 59 " Pyramid of Dashoor, 411 
 
 60 " Cairo. Tombs of the Mamelukes, showing the Cit- 
 adel,. - ---- 412 
 
 63 109, Egypt, Cairo. Mosque of Mohammed AH,. 412 
 
 64 no, " " " " " 412 
 
 65 " " " of Sultan Kassan. The Fountain, 412 
 
 66 112, Egypt, Old Cairo. Mosque of Sultan Amer,. 412 
 
 67 Egypt, Old Cairo. Ruined Mosque in the Desert, 412 
 
 68 " " " Street view from Mosque of Sultan Hassan, 412 
 
 69 Egypt, Cairo. Street view, from road to Citadel, 412 
 
 72 1, Sinai. The Valley of the Cave, 409 
 
 73 " The Wilderness of Paran, 409 
 
 74 " Wild Palms, 391 
 
 75 8, " Mount Horeb, 409 
 
 76 10, " The supposed Site of the Burning Bush, ._ 409 
 
 77 Hebron, with Mosque covering the Cave of Machpelah, 408 
 
 78 17, Bethlehem, from the Church of the Nativity, 408 
 
 79 Bethany, 407 
 
 80 22, Jerusalem, from the Mount of Olives, 402 
 
 81 28, " from the Walls, looking east, 402 
 
 82 " The Valley of Hinnom, 402 
 
 83 " Aceldama, 402 
 
 84 " The Mosque of Omar, 401 
 
 85 34, " The Fountain of Gihon, 401 
 
 86 35, " TheJoppa Gate,... 400 
 
 85 Shechem. Nablous, between Ebal and Gerizim, 406 
 
 88 39, Samaria. Ruins of the Church of St. John, 406 
 
 89 40, Nazareth, from the west, 405 
 
 90 Mount Carmel, 393 
 
 92 Caesarea Philippi, Roman Ruins, 404 
 
 93 Caesarea Philippi, principal source of the Jordan, 396 
 
 96 106, Egypt, Cairo, Tombs of the Caliphs, 412 
 
 97 Egypt, Cairo, Bedouin and Dromedary, 412 
 
 98 Egypt, Cairo, Arab Tombs, 411 
 
 99 77, Athens and Mars' Hill, 410 
 
 100 Athens, and the Erectheum, 410 
 
 102 81, Athens, the Parthenon,.... 410 
 
 23 Jerusalem, Pool of Hezekiah, 409 
 
 33 " View from near Mount Zion, Mosque of Omar,.. 399 
 
 97 Egypt. The Great Pyramid and Sphinx, 411 
 
 102 Egypt. Cairo. From the Citadel, with Mosque of Sultan 
 
 Hassan, 412 
 
 94 Athens. The Modern City from the Acropolis, 410 
 
 105 Egypt. Cairo. Tombs of the Mamelukes, 412 
 
 61 Baalbek. A general view of the Temples, and the range of 
 
 the Lebanon, 402 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 435 
 
 no. view. N0 - PAGE - 
 
 SCENERY AT ITHACA AND VICINITY, N. Y. 
 
 6923 Ithaca Fall, 160 feet high and 150 feet broad, from the north 
 
 bank, Fall creek, J80 
 
 6924 Ithaca Fall, 160 feet high and 150 feet broad, Fall creek,... 180 
 
 SCENERY AT PORTAGE AND VICINITY, N. Y. 
 
 6988 View from High Bank, Middle. Horse Shoe Falls and Bridge 
 
 in the distance, - 1*6 
 
 6990 High Bank, (380 feet,) Genesee river, below Middle Falls,.. 176 
 
 6991 View of High Bank, (380 feet,) Genesee river, below Middle 
 
 Falls,.... 
 
 176 
 
 6992 Middle Falls, Genesee river. Bridge in the distance,. 176 
 
 6994 The Genesee Falls, 96 feet high, Rochester, N. Y., 176 
 
 6995 " " " " " ' " " \H 
 
 gnng (C u l( it «< H " 17o 
 
 6999 The Lower Genesee Falls, below Rochester, JJ6 
 
 7000 " " " " " " 
 
 VIEWS IN BALTIMORE AND VICINITY, MD. 
 
 7027 Catholic Cathedral, 223 
 
 7032 Delaware Row, Franklin Square, 223 
 
 7042 Bay View Asylum, 223 
 
 7044 Baltimore from Federal Hill, looking north-east, 222 
 
 7045 " " " " " north,. 222 
 
 7046 Baltimore Harbor from Federal Hill, looking south-east, 222 
 
 7048 Battle Monument, 222 
 
 7049 " " 222 
 
 7050 Washington Monument,. 222 
 
 7051 " " - - 222 
 
 7054 The Grand Promenade, Druid Hill Park 223 
 
 7055 Mansion House, south view, Druid Hill Park, 2^3 
 
 7056 Mansion House and Fountain, Druid Hill Park, 223 
 
 7058 Woodbury, from Prospect Hill, Druid Hill Park, 223 
 
 7059 The Music Stand, Druid Hill Park,. 223 
 
 7063 Looking towards the Lake, Druid Hill Park, 223 
 
 VIEWS IN PARIS AND ON THE GROUNDS OF CHAMP DE MARS. 
 
 1 Royal Gardens connected with the Palace Royal, Paris, 357 
 
 2 Fountain in the Public Square, Paris, 357 
 
 3 Artificial Fountain, Paris, - 356 
 
 4 Artificial Fountain, Paris, 356 
 
 5 Panoramic View of the Exposition Grounds, 357 
 
 6 Panoramic View of the Building, Paris Exposition, 357 
 
 7 Horticultural Gardens, " " 357 
 
 8 Artificial Grotto, Horticultural Gardens, Paris Exposition,.. 357 
 
 9 Gallery of Machinery, 
 
 10 The Telurian, American Section, 
 
 11 Partial View of the Building, 
 
 12 Horticultural Gardens, 
 
 13 Horticultural Gardens, 
 
 14 Horticultural Gardens, 
 
 15 Horticultural Gardens, 
 
 16 Triumphal Arch in the Place du Carousal 
 
 357 
 
 « ... 357 
 
 " ... 357 
 
 « .. 357 
 
 « 357 
 
 « . 357 
 
 " ... 357 
 
 Paris, 356 
 
436 CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 
 
 17 The Boulevards, Paris,. 356 
 
 18 Front View of Notre Dame, Paris, 356 
 
 VIEWS IN ITALY. 
 
 19 Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, 1861, Italy, 374 
 
 20 Grand Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, 1850, Italy, 374 
 
 21 Grand Eruption of Mt. Vesuvius, 1865, Italy, 374 
 
 22 Banks of Lava ejected from Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, 374 
 
 23 Distant View of Mt. Vesuvius, Italy, 374 
 
 24 View of Petrified Bodies taken from late excavation at Pompeii 374 
 
 25 View of Petrified Body taken from the excavation at Pompeii, 374 
 
 26 The Great Amphitheatre shown by the excavation at Pompeii, 374 
 
 27 The Grand Caserty Cascade, (Naples,) 377 
 
 28 The Coliseum at Rome, (exterior view,) _ 382 
 
 28 The Coliseum at Rome, (interior view,) 382 
 
 29 The Garden to the Vatican and St. Peter's Church, Rome,.- 383 
 
 30 Library of the Vatican, Rome, 383 
 
 31 Library of the Vatican, Rome, 384 
 
 32 Gallery of Statuary in the Vatican, Rome, 384 
 
 33 Gallery of Statuary in the Vatican, Rome, _ 384 
 
 34 Front View of St. Peter's Church, Rome, ceremonies of the 
 
 Benediction, 383 
 
 35 Bronze Statuary in the Chapel of St. Peter's, Rome, _ 383 
 
 36 Monument in St. Peter's, Rome, in honor of Bramante, Raph- 
 
 el, and Michael Angelo, 383 
 
 37 Interior of St. Peter's Rome, 383 
 
 38 Interior of Santa Maria Maggiore, Rome, 384 
 
 39 Entrance to St. John's Church, Rome, 384 
 
 40 Interior of St. John's Church, Rome, 384 
 
 41 Cascade near the Tiber, Rome, 383 
 
 42 Public Gardens in Florence, 376 
 
 43 Public Gardens in Naples, 377 
 
 44 The Royal Palace, Naples,. 377 
 
 45 General View of Naples, 377 
 
 46 View of the Roof and Spires of the Milan Cathedral, 378 
 
 47 Interior View of the Milan Cathedral, 378 
 
 48 Street view at Milan, Caihedral in the distance, 738 
 
 49 Mill and Bakery shown by the excavations of Pompeii, 374 
 
 50 Forum or Court House shown by the excavations of Pompeii, 374 
 
 51 View of the street shown by the excavations of Pompeii, 374 
 
 51 Bridge across the Tiber, with Campidoglio in the distance,.- 385 
 
 53 Street View, showing the Walls of Ancient Rome, 382 
 
 54 Ruins of the Forum, or Courts of Justice, Ancient Rome,.. 382 
 
 55 Interior of the Amphitheatre, at Caponue, 380 
 
 VIEWS IN SWITZERLAND, PRUSSIA, AND FRANCE. 
 
 56 First Bridge of the Chur and Splugen Pass, Gorge of the 
 
 Viamala, 363 
 
 57 Second Bridge of the Chur and Splugen Pass, Gorge of the 
 
 Viamala, 363 
 
 58 Third Bridge of the Chur and Splugen Pass, Gorge of the 
 
 Viamala,... 363 
 
 59 View of the Chur and Splugen, Gorge of the Viamala, 363 
 
 60 View of the Chur and Splugen, Gorge of the Viamala,. 363 
 
 61 View on the St. Bernard Pass, Switzerland, 365 
 
CATALOGUE OF VIEWS. 437 
 
 62 View on Lake Geneva, Switzerland 366 
 
 63 Botanical Gardens at Geneva, Switzerland, 366 
 
 64 Grand Crevasses of the Mer de Glace, or Sea of Ice, Switzer- 
 
 land, - - 355 
 
 65 The Peaks of Doldenhorn, Eschinensee, and Birrenstock, . . 362 
 
 66 View on the Rhine, Route of St. Gothard, between Furka 
 
 and Grimsel Mountains, 360 
 
 67 View of Geneva, showing the Glacier twenty miles distant,. 366 
 
 68 The Mer de Glace, sixteen miles in length, crossed at this 
 
 point, France, -- 355 
 
 69 The Glacier des Bois, in the Valley of Chamounix, France,. 355 
 
 70 Ice Pyramids of the Mer de Glace, July 10th, 1867, France,. 355 
 
 71 The Mer de Glace, or Sea of Ice, France, 355 
 
 72 The Valley of Luterbrunen and Staubbach Falls, Switzerland, 360 
 
 73 The Majestic Peak of Mount Cervin, Switzerland, 365 
 
 74 General View of Geneva, - - 366 
 
 75 The Village and Valley of Chamounix, 356 
 
 76 Fountain in the Public Garden at Versailles, France, 358 
 
 77 General View of Andernach, Prussia,. 370 
 
 78 The Simplon Pass, Switzerland, 365 
 
 79 Saltsburg, Austria, 368 
 
 VIEWS IN ENGLAND, IRELAND AND SCOTLAND. 
 
 80 Roof of Westminster Chapel, built by Henry VII., 344 
 
 81 Distant View of Windsor Castle, 347 
 
 82 House of Parliament, London, 344 
 
 83 Partial View of Windsor Castle, Garden in front, 347 
 
 84 Public Square, London, 343 
 
 85 Interior of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, 343 
 
 86 Sterling Castle from the Cemetery, 
 
 87 Edinburg from Cal ton Hill, 349 
 
 88 Inverary Castle, seat of the Duke of Argyle, 352 
 
 89 The Tower of London, 344 
 
 90 The Royal Chapel, Dublin, 353 
 
 91 View at Dublin, 353 
 
 92 The Custom House, Dublin, 353 
 
 93 Howth and Ireland's Eye, Co. Dublin, 
 
 2d MISCELLANEOUS LIST. 
 
 94 Ashland, favorite walk of Henry Clay, (Kentucky,) 273 
 
 95 View from the top of Bunker Hill Monument, showing the 
 
 cities of Charlestown and Boston, (Mass.,) 160 
 
 36 Winter Scene at Niagara, Cave of the Winds,. 
 
 97 Oak Hill Cemetery, D. C, 
 
 98 National Cemetery, where lie the brave boys of the Potomac, 
 
 (Alexandria, Va.,) 73 
 
 99 Camp of the Potomac Army, near Fredericksburg, Burnside 
 
 in command, 82 
 
 100 The River Aar, and Village of Interlaken, Switzerland, 363 
 
 101 Triumphal Car, Vase of Skeleton Leaves, dedicated in honor 
 
 of A. Lincoln, by his funeral procession, 93 
 
 102 Ice Glaciers, Switzerland, 359 
 
 103 Panoramic View of Salt Lake City, showing the Wasatch 
 
 Mountains fifteen miles distant, 308 
 
 104 Union Pacific Railroad, 1000 Mile Tree, Echo Canon, 310 
 
438 CATALOGUE OP VIEWS. 
 
 105 The Great Mormon Tabernacle, Salt Lake City, 308 
 
 106 Scenery in the Rocky Mountains, Brigham Young's Saw Mill, 
 
 Utah Territory, 305 
 
 107 Scenery of the Rocky Mountains, Union Pacific Railroad... 305 
 
 108 Scenery of the Rocky Mountains, Devil's Gate, Walls 1000 
 
 feet high, 305 
 
 109 The original Big Tree, 250 feet from the stump, 335 feet long, 
 
 Mammoth Grove, California, 295 
 
 110 Scenery of the Rocky Mountains, Wasatch Range, Echo Lake, 305 
 
LIST OF HEADINGS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Alpine Club, 413 
 
 Beauties of the Catskills, 415 
 
 Brooklyn Navy Yard, - 417 
 
 Central Park Views,. 419 
 
 California Views, 420 
 
 Crossing the Plains to Montana, 429 
 
 Delaware Water Gap, 422 
 
 English and Scotch, 431 
 
 Glens of the Catskills, -- 415 
 
 Greenwood Cemetery views, 419 
 
 Glimpses of the Great West. Minnesota, 422 
 
 Hills and Dales of New England, - 418 
 
 Instantaneous Views, New York, 414 
 
 Italy and the Papal States, 432 
 
 Miscellaneous, _ 413 
 
 Mammoth Cave Views, Kentucky, 424 
 
 2d Miscellaneous List, 437 
 
 Public Buildings in New York City and Brooklyn, 417 
 
 Passaic Falls, Patterson, New Jersey, - 419 
 
 Paris and Paris Exposition, 427 
 
 Prussia and Germany, 432 
 
 Scenes in China, 423 
 
 Scenery at Little Falls, on the Mohawk, 423 
 
 Scotch and Continental Views, 424 
 
 Swiss and Austrian Views, . 427 
 
 Scenery at Ithaca and vicinity, N. Y., 435 
 
 Scenery at Portage and vicinity, N. Y., -- 435 
 
 The Majesty and Beauty of Niagara, . 414 
 
 Trenton Falls, New Jersey, -- 423 
 
 The Valley of the Housatonic, 423 
 
 Views at Saratoga, 413 
 
 Views in Washington City and District of Columbia, 41 6 
 
 Views on the Southern Tier on the route of the Erie Railroad, 418 
 
 Valley of the Ramapo, Erie Railroad, . 418 
 
 Views in Cuba, 420 
 
 Views in El Ecuador, _ . 421 
 
 Views in Venezuela, 422 
 
 Views on the line of the Pennsylvania Central Railroad, 422 
 
 Views in New Haven, Connecticut, 422 
 
 Views about Lake George, 423 
 
 Views about Bergen Hill,. ._ 423 
 
 Views in Japan, 423 
 
 Views in Wayne County, Pennsylvania,. 423 
 
 Views in Montreal and Quebec, 424 
 
 Views in California, 428 
 
 Views about Lake Superior, 428 
 
 Views in the City of Chicago, 429 
 
 Views on the line of tho Pacific Railroad and Rocky Mountains, 429 
 
440 LIST OF HEADINGS. 
 
 Views in Wisconsin, 430 
 
 Views in Illinois, 430 
 
 Views of Palestine and Adjacent Countries, 433 
 
 Views in Baltimore and vicinity, Md., 435 
 
 Views at Paris and on the grounds of Champ de Mars, 435 
 
 Views in Italy, 436 
 
 Views in Switzerland, Prussia and France, 436 
 
 Views in England, Ireland and Scotland, 437