;A-' ■.%.'■ , m i' '■<' ,*•• .'J\ m^mjh-im y^^p 13 !!J'"0]NrA'riON. *W' PAPKRS z^9 READ BEFORK THE Wisconsin TeacUBFS'flssociaiion 1898-1899. Bulletin of Information No. 6, ISSUED BY L. D. HARVEY, State Superintendent. MADISON Democrat Printing Company, State Printer, 1900. WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. CHARTER. An Act to incorporate the Wisconsin Teachers' Association. The People of the State of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assem- bly, do enact as follows: Section 1. John G. McMynn, J. L. Pickard, E. Hodges, C. B. Goodrich, R. O. Kellogg, W. Van Ness, D. Y. Kilgore, C. Childs, and S. G. Stacy, with such other persons as may become associated with them, and their successors, be and are hereby created a body corporate and politic, with perpetual succesion, by the name of "The Wisconsin Teachers' Associa- tion," and by that name they and their successors shall ever be known, and shall have the power to sue and be sued, to contract and be con- tracted with, plead and be impleaded, defend and be defended, in all courts of law and equity. Sec. 2. Said corporation shall have a common seal, and shall have power to acquire, purchase, receive, possess, hold and enjoy property, real and personal, and to sell and convey, rent or otherwise lawfully dispose of the same with pleasure: Provided, That the amount of real and personal property of said corporation shall not exceed the sum of twenty thousand dollars at any one time. Sec. 3. The purpose of said association shall be the mutual improve- ment of its members, and the promotion of popular education through- out the state. Sec. 4. Said corporation shall have the power to adopt such con- stitution and by-laws as they may deem proper, and make such rules and regulations from time to time as may be necessary to carry into effect the provisions of this act. Sec. 5. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage. Approved March 20, 1855. CONSTITUTION. Article 1. This Association shall be called The Wisconsin Teachers' Association, and shall have for its object the mutual improvement of its members, and the advancement of public education throughout the State. Art. 2. fAs amended Dec. 27, 1883.) The Association shall consist of school officers and persons engaged in teaching throughout the State; and the annual fee shall be, for men one dollar, and for women fifty cents. Art. 3. fAdopted Dec. 29, 1899.) The officers of this Association vi WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. shall be a President, a Secretary, a Treasurer, three Vice-Presidents, and an Executive Committee of five members, of which the President and Secretary of the Association shall be ex officio members. The other three members shall constitute a continuous body, one member to be elected by the Association every year for a term of three years. Pro- vided further, That in initiating the plan, the Association shall elect one member for three years, one other for two years, and a third for one year. Art. 4. The duties of the President, Vice-President, Secretary and Treasurer, shall be such as pertain to the same offices in similar associa- tions. Art. 5. The Executive Committee shall arrange business for the an- nual meetings, procure lecturers for the same, and through the Secre- tary of the Association, who shall be ex officio, their Secretary, conduct such correspondence as may be deemed advisable. They shall also have power to call special meetings of the Association, to fill all vacancies occurring in the offices, and shall make to the Asso- ciation an annual report of their proceedings. Art. 6. The annual meeting shall be held at such time and place as the Executive Committee may designate; and any five members who shall meet at a regular meeting, shall constitute a quorum for the trans- action of business. Art. 7. (Inserted July 24, 1867.) The Executive Committee shall have power to call an Executive Session of the Association for the pur- pose of considering questions of educational policy, at such a time and place as tliey may deenx advisable. Art. 8. (As amended July 22, 1868.) This constitution may be amended at any regular meeting of the Association, provided the pro- posed amendment shall have been submitted in writing at least one reg- ular meeting previous to its adoption. Resolved, That the Executive Committee be and it is hereby in- structed to arrange for one meeting annually of this Association until otherwise directed, — this meeting to be held in the last week of De- cember. Adopted July 2, 1889. BY-LAWS. (Adopted Dec. 29, 1890.) I. At every meeting the President shall appoint the following com- mittees: 1. On Enrollment: To secure as large a membership as possible. Of this committee, the Secretary and Treasurer shall be ex- officio members. 2. On Finance: To examine the accounts of the Secretary and Treasurer and report thereon just before the Committee on Honorary Members reports. 3. On Resolutions: To report just before the close of the session. 4. On Honorary Members: To report just before the committee on Resolutions. 5. On Nomination of OflScers: To present nominations for the several offices of the Association as provided by Art. Ill of the Constitution, except for the office of President. For this office nominations shall be made by informal ballot only. BY-LAWS. vii TI. The President shall annually appoint one member to serve, for a term of three years on the Advisory Committee, which committee shall consist of three members. It shall be the duty of this committee to formulate educational doctrine for submission to the Association. III. It shall be the duty of the Secretary to provide for the publica- tion of the official minutes of each meeting in the State Journal of Edu- cation, and to secure as extended notice as possible by the press of the State of the proceedings of the Association. IV. Papers read before the Association shall be prepared for publica- tion and delivered to the Secretary who shall hold them subject to the order of the author and the editor of the official journal of the Associa- tion. Brief synopses, noting the salient points of the papers read, shall also be prepared by authors, and handed the Secretary for insertion in the official minutes. Synopses should be handed the Secretary be- fore the paper is read. V. (As amended 1891.) The membership fee of the Association shall be payable jit or before the December meeting. The Secretary shall publish in the December number of the Journal of Education a list of the members of the Association at the last preceding meeting. VI. The President shall annually appoint a Railway Manager who shall have charge of all relations of this Association with the railroad lines of the State. VII. This Association shall annually elect a representative to attend the meeting of the National Educational Association. VIII. In accepting rooms for the meetings of the Wisconsin Teachers' Association, the President shall secure and hold exclusive possession of the rooms for the general meeting during the entire session. IX. Robert's Rules of Order shall be authority on matters of parlia- mentary practice, except as herein otherwise provided. X. These by-laws may be amended at any regular meeting of the Association by a two-thirds vote. XI. There shall be a standing committee on legislation which shall consist of three members. Upon the adoption of this by-law the Presi- dent shall appoint one member of this committee who shall serve for three years; one member for two years and one member for one year. Thereafter at each annual meeting of the Association, one member shall be appointed upon this committee, who shall serve for three years. It shall be the duty of this committee to report to the Association matters for discussion relating to needed legislation; to formulate bills incorporating measures decided upon by the Association, to urge their passage by fhe legislature and to co-operate with the State Department of Education in securing needed legislation. This committee shall have power to add to its members when for special occasions such additions may be deemed necessary. PAPEES EEAD BEFORE THE WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, 1898-99. KECESSITY FOE STIMULATING AIsTD UTILIZING INDIVIDUAL PURPOSE IN SCHOOL WORK. president's address: w. h. elson. The crowning factor in education is purpose. Sometimes we call it self-active interest; sometimes inner stimulus; sometimes attitude; sometimes ideals; sometimes aspiration. Whatever term we employ we mean essentially the same thing. In each case we mean the thing that prompts to action, that begets doing, that leads to execution. Purpose promotes growth; it not only promotes growth but it invites and directs further growth; purpose is the instrument through which the child car- ries on his own development; it is the agency by which he is to become a self-directing and self-asserting individual. It is the effective element in child training. So important a factor as that by which the child pro- motes his own growth and development, by which he is to make his impress on the world is worthy of highest consideration. All recognize the value of purpose in the adult. Every one concedes that only the thoughtful, purposeful man is really efficient in life. All agree that men ar^ valued more for what they are and for what they can do than for what they know. We see that efficiency exists in vary- ing degrees in different persons; but what is the influence of training in this respect? Should not the school make a direct appeal to purpose, stimulating and utilizing it at every turn and in all its work? The school has come down to us from the past. It brings with it the traditional practice of the daj^s when its mission was solely the acquisi- tion of knowledge stored in books — when absorption was the process; and though we may have a conviction that it should now appeal to in- dividual purpose in the child, yet the machinery and practice of the ' school handed down to us from the past is not adequate for making a direct appeal to this important element in child-training. To make the appeal direct and effective is to break up the schoolish routine and adapt practice to the definite end of stimulating and utilizing purpose. The modern primary school, under the vitalizing influence of the kin- dergarten, has done this in considerable measure. It has outgrown tradition and conventionality and adapts method to aim. Other phases of school work are yet to be touched by this vitalizing influence. In the organization and conduct of its work the school must be con- sciously guided by the fundamental law of growth expressed in the Froebelian formula, "From experience, thro' thought, to achievement"-r- from experiment, thro' theory, to practice. This is only saying that all 2 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. mental life finds its beginnings in experience, a doctrine as old as Kant, its attitude or purpose in thought, and its realization in achieve- ment. It means that in child-training everything begins with exper- ience and ends in achievement; it means that experience furnishes the materials to be used in self-expression in doing; it means that the in- come from experience begets purpose, ideals, aspirations; and these in turn stand in direct relation to achievement. Experience, purpose, achievement, — these constitute a trinity that is at once a unity. They form a series of which each represents a distinct phase or part, the whole series being vital to complete training. The integrity and order of the series must at all times be preserved. Thought is double-faced as it were. It looks on the one hand for its materials in the direction of experience, and on the other it points directly and surely to achieve- ment for its use of these data. Thought utilizes sense-products as cap- ital, which purpose seizes upon and employs in achievement. The child's thought-capital is the result of his experience which is deter- mined by his environment; but in achievement the child utilizes this capital and becomes the master of his environment. He seeks to make the outer world his inner possession, and the inner world his outer ex- pression. All his efforts to acquire knowledge and to establish himself in thought are carried over into his organization and fixed there per- manently, if at all, by corresponding efforts at self-expansion. Once more: periods of growth are continuous. They do not exist in detached sections, lliere is not a period of acquisition, then a period of expres- sion. A cross-section will at all times show both processes. These must always be held in unity. Growth is at all times a complex process, involving both acquisition and expression. Experience, purpose, achievement, should become the working form- ula of the teacher. When this is done the school will not only seek to enrich the child's experience, but it will, with equal certainty, cultivate his powers of self-expression. It will regard achievement as the legiti- mate outcome of all mental activity. Gains in knowledge will be met by corresponding gains in powers of self-control and achievement. In- deed these will be sought as the logical outcome. The test of a school will be its register of gains in the behavior of its children, their growth in self-control, self-denial, self-direction, self-guidance on the one hand, and on the other their gains in skill and in power to apply new knowl- edge to new fields of achievement, their growth in the productive and creative activities. The school will recognize that all acquisitions that do not register themselves in conduct or achievement are worthless lumber, dead-weight as it were. It will recognize in its actual work the well-known fact that the inleading processes have their correlative in outleading processes. It will see to it that all income from the senses brings with it the tendency to new and better expression in conduct or work. It will know that mere information-gathering is fruitless: that the child is to learn to use his powers, and in this use he is to become purposeful and efficient; that mere knowledge is worthless except as it becomes a means to achievement in life-utterance. The nineteenth century school leads the child to information; it leads him to repeat information; it stimulates only or chiefly the gath- ering^n process; it fosters the spirit of self-accumulation; it breeds selfishness. On the contrary the twentieth century school, with a clearer insight and a fuller recognition of the fundamental law of growth, will lead the child to use his acquisitions in new fields of en- deavor; it will lead him to put forth, to express, to achieve by doing; it will bless him with the joy of achievement; it will breed consecra- tion, devotion, benevolence in a helpful service to others; from a tendency to self-preservation it will lead him into a life of self-asser- tion; from a tendency to self-accumulation it will lead him into chan- PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99, 3 nels of allruism. The nineteenth century school lays more stress on the inleading currents than on the outleading currents; more on the sensory system than on the motor system; more on the impressive ac- tivities than on the expressive activities; more on the absorbing process and on the receptive attitude than on the productive and cre- ative tendencies; more on the acquisition of knowledge than on the use of it. The twentieth century school will adjust and equalize the em- phasis; it will concern itself with what the child knows that he can use, with what he can do, with what he measures in terms of life-effi- oiency; it will enquire what power he has to solve new problems, to ad- just means to end, to measure action to possible result. Two signrficant facts are apparent in the modern movement in educa- tion. First, the growing tendency and effort to base all school work on the child's experience and to enlarge and enrich this experience. Sec- ond, the growing tendency to provide for the completion of mental acts in actual achievement. The development of the arts and sciences has put into active service in the conditions of modern living a wealth of material which it is the business of the school to utilize in cultivating a spirit of inquiry and investigation, and a habit of relating all knowl- edge to practical life-purposes. The larger use of observation and ex- periment which now forms a part of the daily work of all schools calls for the larger use of the hand in constructive doing. Experience must always look to achievement for its justification. Progress in educa- tional practice is measured not by advancement in one or the other of these lines but in their close correlation in purpose. The child is to gain knowledge at first hand from personal experience but he is also to develop power to use knowledge thus gained. "What schools in gen- eral most need is the vitalizing touch that purpose gives. When ob- servation and experiment beget in the child the habit of relating all new income to new fields of achievement then purpose has been stimu- lated and proper correlation has been made between acquisition and expression, between thought and action. If half the time and energy spent within the past few years in attempting to make forced and me- chanical correlations between one thought-subject and another and in aittempting to determine the proper and exact number of correlating centers — whether there should be one, or three, or five — had been spent in expanding the field of reactive conduct, and providing for a close correlation between seeing and doing, between observing and express- ing, fewer children would have gone to wreck in the meantime and the cause of education would have been greatly helped. This is said with a full measure of appreciation of the rich contribution which the study of correlation in the past few years has brought to the elementary school. In an indistinct and imperfec/t way the school has long known that action tends to reaction, that impression is clinched by expression, that activity of the sensory system is followed by activity of the motor system, yet in practice it has gone on, basing its work on a psychology that begins in "cognition and ends in memory," gathering and repeat- ing information, and trusting to Providence to develop purpose in chil- dren in unrelated fields of exercise of the motor activities. It has gone on in the good old way, seeming to believe that the voice which ex- presses ideas in words is adequate to meet the requirements of all-sided training, ignoring the hand which expresses ideas in things. It is here that modern phychology is helping the school to see the immense value of the hand as a factor in mental development. It has pointed out the value of the hand as an aid to thinking in the little child before language comes to his relief, and the further fact that it supplements and complements the voice in its further service. It has emphasized enormously the motor power as a factor in mental de- 4 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. velopment. It regards the child as a dynamic factor in his own train- ing, an active doer of things. It considers hand-training to mean the adoption of the theory of the development of the mind through the influence of the eye and hand. Modern psychology believes that the child should live himself into knowledge through doing in which the joy of achievement is a constant stimulus to his growing sense of power and usefulness in the world. It believes that knowledge becomes per- manent, living possessions only when acquired and used through ra- tional doing in which purpose is the constant stimulus. All schools from the kindergarten to the university and including these need the gospel of hand-training, of measuring knowledge to its practical uses, of unifying thought and aotion in purpose. The kindergarten is the highest type of the rational school, provid- ing as it does for the exercise in knowledge-getting followed imme- diately by exercises having for their aim the application of the knowl- edge thus gained to the practical affairs of life in constructive work, in making useful articles involving the previously-gained knowledge. Thus the "gift-lessons" so-called in the kindergarten, designed to give certain facts of form, color, or number are followed by "occupation" lessons designed to apply to constructive work fpr life-purposes the facts developed in the gift work. The daily work in the kindergarten reveals both phases of activity. Improvements in the modern primary school mean nothing more than the vitalizing influence of applying the common-sense methods of hand-training on the plan of the kinder- garten to these schools, thus leading children to acquisition through doing, through using knowledge rather than as a lifeless and joyless repetition of information. Thought and action are unified in purpose. The prevailing w^eak- ness in school work is an arrangement which divorces expression from its sources in thought or which ignores all forms of expression except the voice. This is the crowning weakness in the so-called teaching of English about which so much is said and so little is accomplished. Close correlation must be made between acquisition and expression, between sense-activity and motor-activity, between knowing and doing, between seeing and adapting, between observing and applying, between jnvesitigating and using the results therefrom in common-sense, prac- tical life uses, in all of which purpose is the unifying and connecting element. EECOMMENDATIOXS, This association has grown to such large proportions as to justify the belief that railways should offer some concessions to its members, such as are offered other organizations of like nature, other than the usual rate made at this season of the year to the general public in their individual capacity. Indeed, in the face of the current practice of rail- ways of granting one-fare and less rates to other meetings that promise smaller attendance and membership than this association, anything less than a one-fare rate would seem a discrimination against teachers. In the brief time allotted to the details of preparation for this meet- ing an attempt was made to organize the states of I6wa, Minnesota, Illinois and Wisconsin into a joint application to the Western Passen- ger Association for a uniform rate of one fare for the round trip throughout its territory, but time and vigorous effort are both required to bring about such a result. I believe this matter should be carried to a successful issue. Railway people, while having an eye to the busi- ness outcome of things, are nevertheless obliging and accommodating "When approached in the proper way. There is a mutual point involved. The membership of this association would be considerably Increased PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 5 by such a rate; railroads would handle more people and make more dollars. The association would have a larger attendance and hence do more good. I suggest the wisdom of putting this matter into the hands of a special committee, to co-operate df thought best, with similar committees from other state associations. The papers and proceedings of this association are published for the benefit of its members. Doubtless the value of the publication would be enhanced and the expense of publication reduced by omitting un- important and the less helpful features of the proceedings. It is sug- gested that a committee on publication would be a practical way of meeting this difficulty. WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. THE COURSES OF OUR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. PREPARED AND READ BEFORE THE ASSOCIATION BY PRESIDENT CHARLES KENDALL ADAMS OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY. The Committee to whom this question was referred, one year ago, beg leave to present the following report.* It has been the opinion of the Committee that this subject should be Studied in the broadest way practicable, and that to that end its scope ought to include not only a study of the present condition of our own Grammar Schools, but also the courses of study in other states and countries, and the results of efforts that have already been made In the direction of modification by some of the more prominent schools in this country. Accordingly four lines of Investigation have been un- dertaken: 1. To ascertain the courses of study pursued in the Grammar Schools of "Wisconsin. This has been done by directing more than a hundred letters of inquiry to the more prominent and representative schools of the state for the purpose of obtaining the needed information. 2. For the purpose of ascertaining the general characteristics of the schools in other states than our own. and comparing them with Wis- consin, letters of inquiry were addressed to the Departments of Edu- cation in Massachusetts, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Michigan. In answer to these inquiries we have received not only the State Reports and State Manuals, but also many reports and courses of study from prominent schools in other states. 3. To be able to compare our courses with those of the most care- fully organized school programmes of Europe, letters of inquiry were sent to the Ministers of Public Instruction in Prussia, France, Switzer- land, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Russia, and courteous and prompt answers have been received from all of these countries. 4. For the purpose of ascertaining how many schools in the United States have recently attempted to modify the grade school courses by the introduction of Latin, German, geometry, or algebra, numerous letters have been written and answers have been received, not only explaining the courses, but also indicating the impressions of the school authorities in regard to the value and influence of such courses upon the schools. We have then, first, to compare our schools with those of the neigh- boring states; secondly, to compare them with foreign schools of the *Thp roimuittt'p flosiros to acknowlodsf its fri'<^!it ohlijintions to tlip ni.Tuy persons who. in ,ins\ver t(j its inquirios, have fontrilmted information, without which tliis Ueport would liave liad little value. In a very speeial way the romniittee would ackuowleilge indebtedness to Mr. Hill. Secretary of the State Board of Kducation in Massachusetts, for docunii-nts that have hu«>n freel.v used; and also to Mr. A. W. Tressler. Superintendin}; rriiicipal of ST-hooIs at Ripon, Wis., who jjenerously jilaced at the disposal of the Connnittee. much informa- tion collected liy hini as one of the subsidiary coinniittee on I^atiii of the Com- mittee of Fifteen appointed liy the American riiilolofrical Association. For tabulating the Charts accompan.viufr the Report the Committee acknowledges Its indebtedness to Dr. I'rdahl. Instructor in Kconomics and Statistiea iu the I'luversity of Wisconsin. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 7 same grade; and, thirdly, to ascertain, as far as is practicable, the re- sults of such efforts towards improvement as have already been made. While the amount of material thus accumulated has, from one point of view, been a source of embarrassment, it has, nevertheless, yielded to our efforts at classification, and thus, by eliminating individual pecu- liarities, we have been able to select what seem to be typical or repre- sentative programmes of instruction for comparison. Accompanying the report are twelve charts which show the courses of studies of Grammar grade in several of the nations of Europe, with some of the typical or representative courses in the United States. At the very outset it should be said that the members of your Com- mittee are unanimous in the opinion that this question should be in- vestigated and presented with sole reference to the welfare of the pu- pils in the grade schools, and with no reference to the comparatively small number of those pupils who go into the High Schools, or the still smaller number who go to the Colleges and the University. We are unanimously of the opinion that it is the business of the educa- tional authorities, whether general or local, to provide the best pos- sible education for pupils of Grammar School grade; that it is the unquestionable duty of the High Schools to adapt their work to what has already been done in the Grammar grades, and equally the duty of the University to adapt its courses to what has already been done in the High Schools. While schools of all grades should be formed and modified by public opinion, and while the educational ideas entertained in the High Schools and the University are part of public opinion, we wish it to be distinctly understood that, in our opinion, each grade should be determined and shaped by what has gone before, rather than by what is to come after. In view of this belief, it seems the natural method of procedure to inquire, at the very outset, as to whether it is possible to determine in advance the general object that should be sought in the schools of grammar grade. Pupils, when they complete the eighth grade, aver- age about fourteen years of age. A majority of them never go any farther; and it is this majority that is to constitute the majority of American voters. The matter needs only to be stated in this way to show how enormous is the importance of the question as to the kind of education this majority should have. At one point we ought to guard against misunderstanding. This majority is not a fixed number. It is constantly being recruited from those who intended to be a part of that select minority who go farther, and is, on the other hand, as constantly being diminished by the revelation of unexpected possibilities of going forward into the upper grades? The ideal course will, therefore, be strong enough for those that are to go on, and not too strong for those who are to end their schooling with the eighth grade. Since the only justification of schools of any grade, supported by the public, is the benefit the public derives from the improved condition of the pupils in consequence of the advantages they have received, it is pertinent to ask: What does the public really want of a boy or girl at the age of fourteen? How can the public best be repaid for the time, trouble, and taxation put into the schools? An answer to these questions is fundamental to our inquiry. The quesfion may be put in another way by asking what are the acquirements and peculiarities which, carried on into active and mature life, contribute most to success and usefulness? Now, in answer to this question, we think it can hardly be main- tained that such a measure of usefulness and success depends imme- diately and directly upon the acquisition of any given amount of knowl- edge on any specified selection of subjects whatever. This is made 8 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. apparent by the fact that an enormous percentage of what is learned in school is speedily forgotten in later life, even by the most success- ful men and women. Take a group of one hundred of the most suc- cessful men and women in Milwaukee, and how many of them remem- ber how to extract the cube-root, or to find the greatest common di- visor of seven or eight numbers? How many remember the constituent elements of air and water, and the proportions of those elements? How many could answer one in a score of the questions they learned to answer when they were studying in the grammar schools? If all of these successful business men were arrayed in a class and sent to the blackboard, and nine-tenths of them should fail to pass an examination, how many would think the worse of them? What then is it that ensures success in education? The answer is not difficult. It is not that kind of schooling which simply fills us with facts, but that which develops within us certain qualities and characteristics. It is not enough to take food into the stomach, for it Is never useful until it is disintegrated and digested and transferred into the blood, the brain, the muscles, and the spine. The processes of education are analogous to those of building up and strengthening the body. As in the one case, it is only what is digested that is used; so in the other, that only is of really essential service which is con- verted into certain habits and methods of thought and feeling and action. If these are secured, it hardly matters if nine-tenths of the facts learned in school are forgotten. Let us plant ourselves firmly on the ground that there are a few fundamental and elemental condi- tions of general success in life. These are a habit of discriminating observation; the possession of the inductive faculty, i. e.. the faculty of drawing correct inferences; that power of contingent reasoning which we call good judgment; the ethical ability to discriminate cor- rectly and clearly between right and wrong; and that firm and serene force of conscience and character which may be relied upon to adopt that which is right, and reject that which is wrong. Whatever may be a pupil's text-book deficiencies, if there be any one who has these qualities and charateristics, all other things shall be added unto him. If there be any one who has 7wt these characteristics, in at least con- siderable measure, his text-book knowledge, be it ever so perfect and ever so comprehensive, will be of little value in after life. And here lies the reason why such men as Washington and Lincoln, and so many of tlie modern successful captains of industry have achieved such triumphant success after so little school-room and text-book edu- cation. If these positions are correct, it follows of absolute necessity that the education most needed is that which best develops these indispensa- ble qualities. It is not so much what the pupil knows that is to lead him to success, as it is what he perceives, what he desires, what he longs for, what he approves, and what he is determined to accomplish. Barring the technical knowledge necessary in particular vocations, these are the principles by which the success of every educational system must finally be judged. It follows as an inevitable consequence that in every study the aim of the teacher should be so to awaken the mind of the pupil as to develop one or all of these qualities. It was precisely the ability to do this in very large measure that made consummate teachers of such men as Arnold, Agassiz, Pestalozzi, and Hopkins. Neither of these men took the highest rank in any specialty of knowledge, but it may probably be said that no pupil ever came under the instruction of any of them without having his ideas enlarged, his perceptions quickened, his reasoning powers strengthened, his purposes enlightened, and his determinations reinforced and satisfied. These results, moreover, fol- PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 9 lowed almost regardless of the subjects taught, or of the purpose of the pupil in after life. Pestalozzl was never a teacher till he was more than fifty years of age, and of no single subject was he in any sense a master, excepting of that superlative gift of awakening an enthusi- astic interest in any subject, no matter however trifling, to which he might give his attention. He said of himself that he had "an unrivaled incapacity for governing;" and yet he could take a bit of wood from the floor, a piece of chalk from the desk, or a piece of writing paper from the table, and talk about it and ask questions about it in such a way as to put even the dullest mind on the alert," and fill it with new and expanding ideas and aspirations. Two conclusions inevitably follow. The first is that great results are more dependent upon the method of teaching than upon what is taught. Good teachers, if pos- sible, great teachers are, after all, the principal thing. Let it be un- derstood once for all, that in our opinion no course of study can atone for inca4)aoity in the teacher's chair. Even a handsome and costly 'schoolhouse, desirable as it may be in itself, may be a curse; liter- ally a curse if its erection and care prove such a burden as to make the employment of the best obtainable teachers impossible. No good school can ever be the best until the controlling authorities are determined, at whatever cost, to secure the best available teachers in all the po- sitions. The other consequence is that whether good teachers or bad ones are employed, the best results can only be secured when those courses of study are pursued which are best adapted to the develop- ment of the qualities and characteristics necessary to success. And this brings us quite up to the question in hand: Are the courses of study in the Grammar Schools of this state well adapted to develop these qualities and characteristics? Or should they be shortened? Or should they be enriched and improved? In order that the Committee might be able not only to discuss the matter on rational grounds, but also to compare our system with others, pains have been taken, as we have already stated, to have at hand ample means of comparison. First of all, in examining this material, we are met with some em- barrassment in the fact that each of our cities and towns has a sys- tem of its own. The condition in "Wisconsin is not very different in this respect from that in Massachusetts, in regard to which Secretary Hill writes the Committee: "Inasmuch as we have 353 local school boards for as many towns and cities, there may be said to be 353 different courses of instruction for our public schools." But while it is true that the same local freedom exists in Wisconsin as in Massa- chusetts, it is also correct to say that an inspection of the courses in about 100 representative Wisconsin schools reveals, within certain lim- its, a substantial uniformity. What we are forced to do, therefore, is to take a course which, bar- ring minor and comparatively unimportant details, will fairly repre- sent the Grammar Schools of Wisconsin, and then try to ascertain whether it is, or it is not, adapted to the completest accomplishment of the ends we think desirable. It ought perhaps to be remarked in pass- ing, that, notwithstanding some uniformity, the differences in differ- ent schools are very striking, more striking indeed, than the differ- ences in European schools of the same grade. We find, for example, it is general, though not universal, to devote five lessons a week for nearly eight years to arithmetic. In not a few of the schools the same time is given to geography. Five lessons a week are generally given to language study, such study being for the 10 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. most part confined to the art of expression in English, and to English grammar. In a few of the schools, from two to three hours are given to history, or to history and sociology during two or three of the later grades. With these are joined, in varying amounts, reading, writing, spelling, music and drawing, and in a few cases manual training. Be- sides these, there are two or three hours (sometimes two and sometimes three) of science, which is meant to include natural history and ele- mentary physics and chemistry. The time of the individual lessons varies from ten minutes to forty, and the number of lessons per week from twenty to fifty. In Ashland, for example, the number is as high as fifty-five during the first and second years; forty during the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth, and thirty-three during the seventh and eighth. In many of the others, the number is very much less. If all the studies as they are now given are to be retained, it is needless to discuss the question whether the time of such a course can be shortened to less than eight grades. If the question we are called upon to consider means that we shall ask and answer the question as to whether all the studies, as they are now given, can be compressed into less than eight years, the answer must be in the negative. But if, on ithe other hand, it was intended that the Committee should in- quire whether in the light of correct pedagogical principles, or of ex- perience elsewhere, the programme can be so modified as to yield as good, or better results in a shorter time, the question assumes a very different aspect. While the Committee will not undertake to answer this question categorically, it is a unit in thinking that good may be subserved by a comparison of the courses in this State with those in other States, and by an inquiry as to whether the courses here in use are well adapted to serve the objects of education indicated in the be- ginning of this paper. Let us for a moment discuss these two questions. In the first place, we find that the courses in this state do not show that they differ very radically and significantly from those of the states adjacent to us. A careful study of typical courses in Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota, reveals about the same methods and tendencies that prevail in Wisconsin. In Indiana, the state central board pre- scribes a uniform course for all the grade schools, as well as all high schools. But the grammar school course, while differing in some im- portant particulars from the typical Wisconsin course, differs in details, rather than in characteristics that may be regarded as fundamental. The same is found to be in the main true when we compare the courses in Wisconsin schools with those prevailing in Massachusetts. It is but just to conclude, therefore, that the courses now generally in use in this state do not differ in fundamental characteristics from what may perhaps be called the common usages in the other states. While in the Wisconsin high schools the fully organized classical course is much less frequently found than in most, if not all, the other states still this peculiarity does not extend down into the grammar grades, and there- fore it hardly forms an exception to our general statement. II. When we come to a comparison with the usages in foreign countries, the case is far different. As already intimated, the committee has pro- cured the latest schemes of study from oflScial sources in nearly all the countries of Continental Europe. Great Britain was not included, because no general system of primary education can be said there to exist. All is yet practically in the hands of private schools, each of which does practically as it pleases. But on the Continent one strik- ing characteristic is everywhere observable. We have already inti- I»APERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. H mated that there is very considerable uniformity between the courses adopted for the schools in the several American states. But in Europe the similarity is even more marked. France, for example, learned that she was beaten at Gravelotte and Sedan by the German school system; and an examination of the courses provided for the French schools in 1899 shows that the similarities of the courses in France and Prussia are greater than the similarities of the courses in Wisconsin and In- diana; greater indeed than those of the programmes in Milwaukee and Superior. The same general characteristics have been revealed by an inspection of the official courses adopted in Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. With minor differences, they have at length all come to be modelled substantially on the Prussian system, which first spread over the other German states, and then over the rest of Continental Europe. Now it is pertinent to inquire as to the fundamental difference be- tween what may be called the American system and the European sys- tem. The first and most marked difference to be noted is in the vastly greater amount of time given in Europe to linguistic studies. Bearing in mind the great fact that in all European schools the courses are essentially the same, it will be enough to quote from one or two of the official programmes. For example, take the classical or gymnasium programme in the Netherlands. Before the pupils nave arrived at the average age of fourteen, they have had the equivalent of two and one- third hours per week of Dutch for five years ; the same amount of time has been given to French; three hours to English for three years; in German three hours per week for three years; in Latin six hours per week for tfour years, and eight hours for two years; and in Greek, five hours per week for five years. Thus we have a linguistic programme which includes instruction in Dutch, German, French, English, Latin and Greek, and in no one of them less than three hours a week for three years. The amount of history is three hours a week for four years, while the geography has only three lessons a week for two years, and the arithmetic about the same. Now let us turn to a somewhat fuller consideration, not of the Clas- sical Course, but of the Modern Course of instruction in France. The French courses are chosen for more exact comparison, not because they are very different from those of the other countries of Continental Europe, but because they have been recently formed after a most care- ful study by the French authorities, of the most successful systems In Europe. The system is the outcome of a national consciousness aroused after the terrible disasters of 1870-71, that education of the most fruitful and thorough nature possible, and in all its grades, would alone put the country on a par with its great rival on the other side of the Rhine. There is something strikingly analogous in this revival with that which took place in Germany after 1806 through the appeals of Fichte and the legislative and administrative work of von Stein and Wilhelm von Humboldt. The French courses, adopted some twenty years ago, have been slightly modified from time to time, the latest modification having been adopted August 6, 1898. The courses here de- scribed are taken from the official programme. As will immediately be seen, they have nothing to do with the classical programme, nor with the technical nor trade schools with which France abounds. It is important at the very outset to note that elementary instruc- tion is divrded into two groups: "Modern Elementary Instruction," and "Classical Elementary Instruction." These divisions correspond roughly with the Gymnasien and the Real Schulen in Germany, but with the important difference that while in the Real Schulen of Germany Latin forms an important part of the course, in the corresponding pro- gramme in France, Latin is altogether excluded. As the Modern Ele- 12 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. mentary course in France corresponds very nearly with the non-classical courses in America below the High Schools, it is possible to compare them in detail year by year. Time will not permit such a compari- son in perfect fullness; but enough may be presented to show the most important cfifferences between the French schools and the American. The comparison is made, be it remembered, not with the French Classic- al Schools, which may be supposed to provide for the elite of French youth but with the modern, or what would perhaps be regarded as the weaker course. The French system is arranged in three divisions: The "elementary division," the "grammar division," and the "higher or superior divi- sion." The first of these — a three years' course — is organized for pu- pils from eight to eleven years of age; the second, or grammar divi- sion, for pupils from eleven to fourteen; the higher division, for pupils from fourteen to seventeen. From this it will be seen that the first two divisions correspond with general precision to the grade of gram- mar schools in America from the third to the eighth grades inclusive; the French "ecole primaire," or primary school, to our kindergarten and the first and second grades. Now having thus prepared the way, let us advance to a comparison of the courses of study. ' The programme in the elementary division can be very speedily disposed of. There are nine and a half hours per week in the study of the French language during the first year, and nine hours per week during the second and third. In modern lan- guages (German or English), as may be elected four hours per week for three years. To history one and a half hours per week for three years; to geography one and a half hours per week during the en- tire period : to science, including arithmetic and the study of nature, two and a half hours per week during the first year, and three hours during the second and third. To design, or drawing, one hour a week during the three years. Interspersed with these, making twenty hours per week, come music and physical training and such other light ex- ercises as reading and spelling. To an American observer, the most striking peculiarity of this course of three years is the fact that considerably more than one-half (or, to be exact, twenty-seven fortieths) of the pupil's time is devoted to the study of language; and but a little less than one-half- (exactly nineteen fortieths ) is given to the French language. Another surprise to the American teacher is the fact that only two and a half hours are given to science, including arithmetic, during the first year, and only three hours during the second and third years. And when we look at the analysis of the courses, as they are given, we find that these hours are about equally divided between arithmetic and the study of nature, or, as the French has it: ''CalcuV and "Lecon de Choses." The French, then, give one and a half hours a week to arithmetic, while the Americans give two and a half or more; the Americans give from three to five lessons a week to geography, while the French give one and a half. The French give thirteen and a half hours to language, while the Americans give only five, exclusively to English. Now let us turn to the second, or what is termed the Grammar Divi- sion, which takes pupils who have completed the Elementary Division Note.— It is prob.ibly universally concedert that the French are the greatest modern masters of a pure literary style; and it has often been a niysterv how the art of expression in prose has reached sncli perfection. The' secret (or rather the explanation, for it is no secrett is undonbtedlv found in the pains- taking training given to this subject in the schools. The French official pro- gramme gives in minute detail what is to be done in each of the classes in all the public schools. A more elaborate account of the training French pupils receive was given by liniiictictr in the Atlantic Monthly for Octob'^r, 1897, on '•The French Mastery of Style." PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 13 at an average age of eleven, and carries them on to the end of the Middle or Orammar Division at the average of fourteen — in other words, the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of our Grammar School course. French in the French schools is now for pupils of eleven to twelve reduced from nine and a half to six hours a week, while modern lan- guage, German or English, whichever was previously taken, is increased from four hours to six. History and geography together are given three hours; arithmetic is now reduced to one hour; zoology is given one; caligraphy (or writing) one; and drawing three. In the next year French is kept at six hours per week; while modern languages are increased to eight, four being given to German, and four to Eng- lish. History now has two hours; geography, one; arithmetic, one; geology and botany, one; and drawing, or design, three. Passing to the last year of the grammar grade, we find that French is reduced to five hours, while eight hours are given to other modern languages; four each to any two of English, German, Spanish, Italian, or Russian. During the same year we find history, two; instruction in morals, one; in mathematics, three; drawing, or design, three. Thus summing up, we find that during the whole of this three years there is the same predominance of linguistic studies as we found in the elementary grades. While the pupil is advancing from eleven to fourteen he is required to take twenty-one hours per week during the first year, and of these, twelve are devoted to language; and during the second and third years, twenty-two hours, of which fourteen during the second year must be given to language, and thirteen during the third year. Thus it appears that there is not a single year during the period of French secondary education when less than half of all the time of the pupil is given to linguistic study. If this were in the classical schools, or courses, it would not perhaps be so surprising. But to realize the full force of its significance we must remember that this is not the course intended to lead to the universities, but the course designed for practical business men in a republic where the state is ruled by public opinion. Now, for the purpose of getting at the results of this strange neglect of arithmetic and geography, let us inquire as to what the French pu- pils of fourteen, just ready to enter the high school, appear to know. What has this training resulted in? We can only judge by an inspec- tion of the studies taken during the last year of the grammar grade, as revealed in the official programmes. In language we find prescribed for them such robust topics as "His- torical Grammar;" "Etymological Theories;" "Principal Laws which have Governed the Formation of the French Language;" "Epochs in the History of the Language;" "Development of the French Verb;" "Study of French Texts of the Middle Ages;" "Laws of French Verse;" "Crit- ical Study of French Authors;" "Practice in the Writing of Letters;" ^'Narrations;" "The Develoment of a Moral Idea;" "Analysis of Various Authors Read." Besides these, there is prescribed a large amount of critical and expository reading in French authors, among whom are named Corneille, Racine, Moliere, La Fontaine, and Voltaire. Besides all this, it is interesting to note that the pupils are required to read in French and analyze considerable portions of the works of such for- eign authors as Xenophon, Sallust, Cervantes, Tasso, and the works of the mediaeval French authors; Villehardoin, Joinville, and Comines. Turning to modern languages other than French we find that the pupils, having already read several of the standard German and Eng- lish authors, are now devoting a large part of their time to oral and written themes (or essays) in German and English, with readings la the modern German and English drama. Those who have elected Ital- 14 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. ian, or Spanish, or Russian, in place of English, are now carriyng ou their work in a similar manner. But how in regard to the poor mathematics? We find that all but the higher arithmetic has been completed, and geometry has been studied for a year. Looking forward into the next pe- riod, we find that in the high school the hours for mathematics are increased to four per week; in the first year arithmetic is com- pleted, geometry is carried on, and algebra is begun. In the second and third years algebra, spherical geometry, trigonometry and descrip- tive geometry are completed. From all this one's breath is almost taken away to find that in some mysterious way the French boy at six- teen or seventeen has learned more mathematics than the American boy of the same age though he has devoted scarcely more than one-half the time to it. Certain it is that the American boy of sixteen or seven- teen commonly knows nothing of trigonometry, or analytical geometry, both of which the French boy has taken as a regular part of his course. How is it in geography? When the pupil is eight, one and a half hours are given to geography for the purpose of making him inter- ested ("by descriptions and examples drawn as much as possible from the region in which the pupil lives") in the meaning of the principal geographical terms. Globes and mural maps are used for the purpose of showing the positions of oceans and continents and especially the general configuration of Europe and France. During the next year, also, three lessons are given every two weeks. The title of the course is "Elementary Geography of the Five Grand Divisions of the Earth." The subjects are: "Forms, limits and location of the large gulfs and seas, the great ranges of mountains, the large rivers and lakes, the principal deserts, the ranges of heat and cold, the most remarkable plants and animals, the principal nations and their capitals, great commercial ports, and the most important cities." Passing from the elementary to the grammar division, the first year is devoted exclu- sively to what is called "the elementary geography of France." This embraces: "General configuration and dimensions, seas and coasts, gulfs, peninsulas, capes, isles, dunes, swamps, salt marshes, lagoons and principal parts." To these are added: "Elevations of the soil, chains of mountains, masses, plains, valleys, altitudes, perpetual snow and glaciers, flowing waters and basins, rivers and their chief affluents, lakes, regions of the coasts." Then come: "Canals, railroads, and other important lines of communication; the old provinces, departments and chief places, as well as the most important cities." A patriotic- impulse is given to the pupil by the topic: "Frontiers and territorial losses of France in 1871." In the next year when the pupil is from twelve to thirteen, one hour a week is given to the subject. During the first trimester, under the head of General Geography, the topics are, "the sea: its currents, its depths; the polar regions; the atmosphere, winds, monsoons, cyclones: rain and the circulation of waters: climates and vegetation: continents, mountains in different parts of the globe; elementary notions of the different human races; civilized life and sav- age life." In the second trimester (not to go into too much detail) a more careful study of Europe is pursued, and in the third a similar study of America. In the following year, the last in the grammar school, when the pupils average fourteen, one hour a week is devoted to the geography of Africa, Asia, and Oceanica, including "general configura- tion, superficial areas, archipelagoes, large islands, general character- istics of the soil, the rivers, lakes, climates, fauna and flora, principal states and European possessions, languages, religions, great historical souvenirs, commerce, principal ports and routes of communication." The geography of the grammar school is concluded by a general re- view in which the larger states of the five quarters of the globe are PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 15 compared with each other, in their various relations and methods of Intercommunication. This program for the study of geography has been given in perhaps somewhat wearisome detail in order to show with particularity what the French accomplish in considerably less than half the time that is generally given to geography in America. In many of the American schools, commonly taking high rank in public esteem, as many as five lessons a week in geography are given for the period of from six to eight years. In not a single one of the European courses of study that have come to us has the subject of geography been given more than one and a half hours a week for six years. In the grammar schools of Wis- consin, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Massachusetts the time devoted to geography is seldom less than three times as much as is given to the subject in the schools of France, or in fact, in the schools of any of the nations of continental Europe. And yet a knowledge of geography must be cmite as important to a European as to an American. Of history it is perhaps enough to say that three hours are given every two weeks during the first two years; two hours a week for three years; and five hours a week for the last year of the grammar course, two hours being given to the history of civilization and the history or art. In what school of grammar grade in America has it been thought worth the while to give a course in "the history of civilization and the history of art?" There is one other subject which seems to us especially worthy of no- tice, and therefore take the liberty of giving it in full, translating it literally from the French program. It shows the way in which the French authorities have attempted to meet the difficult and most im- portant problem of instruction in what may be called practical moral- ity. One hour a week throughout the final year of the grammar school course is given to this subject, and it seems to us worthy of most thoughtful consideration. The following is the program: Preliminary Ideas: First indications of conscience. Domestic Duties: Duties of children to their parents; Duties of par- ents to their children ; Duties of brothers and sisters. Social Duties: Respect for human life; respect for honor and repu- tation; outrages, calumnies, slander; condemnation of accusations and envy; respect for property; theft and fraud under all their forms; sa- cred character of promises and contracts; equity, acknowledgments, benevolence, charity, obligations to assist one's fellow men in peril, fidelity, sacrifice; duties of friendship; respect for old age; the high- est requirements of morality (des superiorites morales). Duties in regard to animals. Reciprocal Duties of masters and servants. Civic Duties: Country and patriotism, obedience to the laws, respect for magistrates, imposts, the military service, the vote. Personal Duties: Duties of personal preservation and care; suicide, principal forms of respect for oneself — temperance, prudence, courage, respect for the truth, sincerity with one's self (vis a vis de sol mene) ; duty of cultivating and developing all our faculties, work, its necessity and its moral infiuence; religious duties and corresponding rights. For lack of time it is impossible to follow out in a similar manner the other subjects taught in the French course; but enough has been given to show the distinctive differences between what may be called the European program in schools of grammar grade and the typical American program of the same grade. And now, in surveying the results of our investigations, only a few words need be spoken in conclusion. The French course, which, as we 16 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. have already said, is simply the typical European course, differs from the typical American course in several important particulars. 1. In the first place it devotes vastly more time to severe linguistic studies, and much less time to studies in mathematics and geography. The French boy at fourteen has learned as much mathematics and geog- raphy as the American boy, and has in addition a fair reading knowl- edge of two foreign languages, besides a much better knowledge of his- tory. In the second place, the European system deals more with what may be called the substantial elements of education, and much less with what may be called the subordinate or accompanying elements. Any European judge would probably say that we give less of meat and bread, and more of olives and almonds, and ices, and sweets. 2. A second difference is found in the important fact that everywhere in Europe individual studies generally continue throughout the entire grammar school course, and generally through the course in the high school. Apparent but not real exceptions to this rule are sometimes found. For example, the time given to mathematics is divided between arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, and analytical geometry; and the various studies of nature are divided in a similar way. The European masters say it is not pedagogically correct to concentrate the mind too continuously on a single kind of intellectual food. We do not nourish and develop the body by feeding it one kind of food for a month or three months, and then another kind for the following period, but we in- terchange them frequently in order to have the necessary variety, and keep alive an appetite for all. It is the universal claim of European ex- perience that the boy that comes to arithmetic and geography once or twice a week only comes with more zest than the boy who comes every day. It is the too frequent lessons of the same kind that produces that lassitude and dawdling spirit w^hich Professor Paulson (probably the greatest modern pedagogical authority) regards as the enemy most to be dreaded. He declares that hard work, when accompanied with alertness and interest do not produce nervous prostration. It is lack of interest, followed by neglect and anxiety and sense of failure, that breaks the pupil down. 3. A third difference to be noted is the far greater prominence given in America to the text-book. Our publishers have drawn so success- fully upon the arts of bookmaking that they have made us the smiling slaves of their allurements. The books have become so charming that they have almost substituted pleasure for labor on the part of the teacher as well as the pupil. If the allurement were always toward the subject, rather than the book and the pictures, they would certainly leave nothing further to be desired. But if as we contended in the first part of this report, education still consists mainly of development, it must have much besides pleasant entertainment. If it be true, as it probably is, that the very attractiveness of a text-book lessens the neces- sity of work in the teacher, by shielding any incapacity or ignorance he may have, it follows that good text-books are in some danger of be- ing regarded as a fair substitute for good teachers. We are still too much given to the mere hearing of recitations, to driving and examin- ing rather than leading and inspiring. A boy may study grammar and recite well for years, and yet be habitually incorrect in his speech. Probably the only way to teach good language is by making the pupil use good language. — is by insisting upon the pupils' talking much and talking correctly, and then writing much and writing correctly. One of the members of this Committee spent a part of his time on the golf field in the course of the past summer vacation. Out of some forty caddies that he knew there was only one that used language with rep- utable accuracy. Such expressions as "I seen the ball go over the walk," and "If the ball had went a little higher," etc., were of frequent PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 17 and never ending occurrence. And yet these were bright boys, for the most part from the seventh and eighth grades in what was supposed to be an excellent mood. It was painfully evident that their teachers had simply required the boys to learn their lessons and recite them in a perfunctory way, without giving them any adequate drill' in the art of correct oral expression. And this brings us to the 4. Fourth and most important difference of all between the two sys- tems. Nobody can read the program of any of the European schools without perceiving that they can not be carried out with any approach to perfection, except by thoroughly well equipped and skillful teachers. We are unquestionably greatly in advance of the Europeans in our school houses and our material appliances; but they are as much in ad- vance of us in the quality of their 'teaching as they are behind us in the matter of school houses. The school laws show that their exactions of teachers are immeasurably higher than ours. Any one who has been present at a lesson in Germany, or in France, will not soon forget the impression made upon him by the clearness and distinctness and accur- acy with which the boys and girls give summaries of the lessons they have learned, or of the oral instruction they have received. This is their way of teaching accurate habits of oral expression. IV. We now come to the third general division of the subject, namely, the number of schools in the United States that have recently modified the grade program by the introduction of Latin, German, geometry, or al- gebra, and the opinions of superintendents and principals in regard to the value and influence of such modifications. On looking at the several reports of the United States Commissioner of Education for the last ten years, we find that the increase of enroll- ment of pupils in Latin in our secondary schools is relatively larger than the increase in any other study. The figures given in the latest report indicate that in 1897 the number in the country studying Latin in secondary schools was about 175,000 more than the number that were studying it in 1890. The increase in the North central division of the United States was even greater than in the country at large. While In 1890 the number reported as studying Latin was 38,833, the number pursuing the same study in 1898 was 117,731. Thus it is shown that the number in 1898 studying Latin in the secondary schools was more than three times as great as had been the number studying it in 1890. That this increase is not confined to any one part of the country is indicated by the fact that in the North Atlantic division the number studying Latin in the secondary schools advanced in the course of eight years from 39,763 to 88,484; that in the South Atlantic division the number increased from 11,299 to 25,126, in the South central division from 7,253 to 27,611, and that in the Western division, which includes all the states west of the Rocky Mountains, the increase was still more marked, the figures being 3,066 for 1890, and 15,341 for 1898, an increase of more than five-fold. From these interesting figures we should expect to find that of the so- called "strengthening studies" Latin has been the one most generally in- troduced into schools of grammar grade. Such we find to have been the fact. While in not a few of the schools German, geometry and al- gebra, have been introduced into the seventh and eighth grades, the tendency toward such an introduction seems not to have been so general as has been the case in Latin. It will, therefore, best serve our purpose to state the number of schools that have carried Latin into the gram- mar grades and then to indicate the opinions of superintendents and 2 18 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. principals concerning the advantages or disadvantages of the various changes that have been made. We find that there are fifty-nine cities or towns in which Latin is taught in grades below the high schools. In Massachusetts there are twenty-nine; in Connecticut five; in New York eight; in Michigan seven; in Illinois two; in Missouri two; in Minnesota two. with one each in four other states. While some of the schools, like the Boston Latin School and one of the schools in Connecticut have had Latin in the grammar grade from the establishment of the schools in the seven- teenth century, nearly all have developed their extended courses of in- struction within the past ten years — the most of them, in fact, within the past four years. Where a six years' program in Latin has been provided for, which extends over four years in the high school and two years in the grammar school, the tendency has been not so much to in- crease the number of hours given to Latin as to begin the Latin earlier in the course, when the mind seems particularly fitted for language study, and fhen to lessen the number of hours per week during the later years, in order that more time may be given to history, science and the mathematics, studies which are most advantageously pursued not in the earlier grammar grades, but at a time when greater maturity of the pupil has been reached. From the fifty-nine schools heard from only three persons have spoken in opposition to the beginning of the study of Latin in the grammar school grades. One objector said: "Give me boys and girls with a good, solid knowledge of arithmetic and English grammar, and not a smattering of this, that and the other." Another said: "Personally, I much prefer to expend the energies of our eighth grade students in leading them to an understanding of English thought and expression." A third, the principal of a small high school in Michigan, formulated his objections to Latin in the following manner: "First, since it must necessarily be elective in the beginning, many students who did not want Latin in the eighth grade would discover its value upon entering the high school and would be in a predicament. Second, there is a strong demand here for such work below the high school as will be the broadest and most liberal for that large number who leave school at this period. Had we retained the subject in the eighth grade I believe a prejudice would have started which eventually would have banished the subject entirely from our courses. Third, we carry students over about the same work now as then, and do it satisfactorily, as is judged by the universfty. Fourth, the subject was not taught by the eighth grade teacher, but by an assistant in the high school, thus overloading the already full program of work." These expressions embrace the sum total of the objections made in the letters received. Now let us come to opinions in commendation. It is not possible to quote from all the letters, nor is it practicable to classify the advantages that have been pointed out. Something in the way of generalization, however, may be attempted, and a few of the more important expressions of opinion may be quoted. The superintendent of schools at Braintree, Mass., writes: "During 'the past three years all pupils in the two highest grades of the grammar school have been very glad of the opportunity of studying both Latin and algebra." The superintendent of Belmont writes: "Algebra has been taught in the grammar grade for three or more years. Pupils are better prepared for high school work in mathematics, and there is not such a gulf between the high and grammar schools as formerly. Latin only this year. No results yet. Pupils are fond of manual training and do their work well." The superintendent at Chelsea writes: PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 19 "We are now doing quite a good deal in this subject (strengthening the grammar schools below the eighth grade). The pupils who have French and Latin do much less in English in the upper grades." The superintendent at Canton writes: "Algebra and geometry are taken in place of arithmetic for several years, with good results. The pupils have no difficulty in understand- ing the elements of these subjects. They broaden the mind of a child in a way not possible through arithmetic alone." Ths superintendent at Chelsea wrftes: "The study of Latin has been of great benefit in easing up the first year of the high school. The study does not meet with any opposition from the pupils taking it. The only question is whether or not French and German are not more practical studies." The superintendent at Clinton writes: "Algebra and geometry with physics may be taken in all graded schools without harm from crowding, if they are wisely correlated with other subjects and the development of the child is regarded as of more importance than the teaching of subjects." The superintendent at Concord writes: "Pupils enter the high school having pretty well mastered Latin in- flection and with considerable knowledge of Latin syntax, a fair vocab- ulary and some ability to translate easy Latin into English. Algebra not tried long enough to see results. Demonstration work in geometry practical and attended with good results." The superintendent at Gardner writes: "For those who take Latin a part of the English grammar and com- position is omitted. In my judgment it is desirable to have Latin as an elective in grammar grades." The superintendent of Milton writes: "I look for this work (Latin, algebra, and geometry) to open avenues of knowledge to the pupil who does not go beyond the grammar school, which would otherwise be always closed to him and in which it will al- ways be profitable and pleasurable for him to walk." The superintendent of North Adams says, in regard to Latin and algebra: "We have experienced excellent results, good effect on English, in- creased interest in school work." From the superintendent at Pittsfield we receive word: "We introduced algebra and geometry into our grammar school course for the improvement of the grammar school work, and not for the pur- pose of anticipating or sustaining the work of the high school. We aim to give our pupils through this brief study of algebra and geometry clearer ideas on mathematical truths in their practical aspects than they would naturally get from their arithmetic alone, as well as some- what broader views and insight and mental alertness." The principal at Omaha, Neb., writes: "The results from the algebra have been quite satisfactory. The time of the geometry has been too short to show uniform or ^tensive re- sults." The superintendent at Trenton, N. J., says: "For pupils who desire to get the best knowledge of English they . can in the grammar school the study of Latin is the most direct way of strengthening the pupil's power in English." The superintendent at Warrensburg, Mo., says ih regard to Latin, algebra, and geometry in the grade schools: "All these subjects have here been taught with excellent results. We have had occasionally failures, but they rank as the exceptions." The superintendent at Braintree, Mass.: "It is more natural, and hence much easier for the child of twelve to 20 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. learn and remember the Latin paradigms than for one of fifteen years. I advocate Latin in preference to French with the idea that the foreign language is to begin in the latter part of the grammar school course. If the foreign language were to begin with pupils at six or seven years of age, then, of course, French would be much better than Latin." The superintendent at Brooklyn, N. Y., writes: "Algebra has been taught in the grammar schools for the last twenty years. Inventional geometry was introduced about four years ago. Manual training has not been introduced in the grammar schools except in the form of drawing, modeling in clay, cutting and folding paper." The superintendent at Denham, Mass., writes: "Latin is an extra optional study in the final grammar grades. I am In favor of all pupils taking some language besides English in the gram- mar school. Pupils should be allowed to choose between Latin and some modern language." The superintendent of schools in Boston writes: "At present Latin is taught in five grammar schools, French in nine, geometry in eight, and algebra in thirty-five. Last year 249 pupils in the grades were taught Latin, 656 were taught French, 434 were taught geometry, and 1,718 were taught algebra." The principal of the Hawthoi-ne school, Chicago, writes: "We have had Latin in this grammar school since 1895, beginning with about forty pupils. The work is commenced at the first of the sev- enth grade and continued through the eighth grade. I am of the opin- ion that the study of Latin in the grammar grades is a wise measure." The Principal of the Douglas School, Chicago, writes: "We have Latin in our seventh and eighth grades and find the English much improved since its introduction. Exactness required in the study of Latin makes exactness in all of the other studies easier of attain- ment. Our principal object in introducing Latin into our grammar grade was that we might have a better and broader foundation for our English. As yet I have not discovered a single disadvantage." The Principal of the Wells School, writes: "Latin was made an optional study here in 1895. Pupils sufficient to fill two rooms elected to take the study. I also had two rooms of pupils of the same grade, the seventh, which did not take it. At the end of the year there was a very marked difference between the work of those studying Latin and those who did not, and this difference was in favor of those who studied the Latin. The eighth grade Latin class of this year is superior to the other eighth grade class. The same superiority is observable in the seventh grade Latin class of this year. As I know from the work of preceding years that the pupils who take Latin are in every respect superior to those who do not take it, I can come to no other conclusion than that it does more for them in the study of Eng- lish than tlie present slip-shod way of teaching English grammar. It requires a discrimination which immeditely becomes available to them in their other studies. I would most heartily favor Latin as a compul- sory study in the seventh and eighth grades, even if I knew the pupils never were to open a Latin book afterwards." The Principal of the L. Nettlehorst School, writes: "We have had Latin in our schools since 1895, and we think it one of the best disciplinary studies that we have. Pupils learn to be accurate. It is of great assistance to the study of English. It increases the vocal> ulary of the pupil and aids in work of literature. Our best thinkers are the Latin pupils. We would feel the loss of it were it taken from the school." The Principal of the Brentano School, Chicago, writes: "Now, as a practical educator, I hear you ask, 'Where do you find room for the study?' Well, in the first place, the Latin class takes no PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 21 technical English grammar. We intend to analyze sentences later on this year, I mean the more difficult selections, like Bryant's 'Thanatop- sis.' Is it not a fact that the grammar, even the English grammar, will be better understood by the Latin pupils than by the English? Well, why? Because one can make something of the study of the English language without understanding the underlying principles of grammar, while to understand Latin at all one must always have regard to all grammatical principles and rules. Grammar is in every sentence, yea, every word. And so, having constant need of grammar, they learn it, and learn it well. Children of the grammar grades take to Latin in a surprising mannei'. The study of language seems natural to them. They take a great interest in it. The training they get out of it I need not repeat to you. Every educator- knows this. Some of its advantages to our pupils are: When they enter the high school they feel more at home. Everything is not new. If they desire to study pharmacy, and have not the time to go to high school, they can understand the terms used in the lectures. They acquire the habit of close examination of the sentence, whether English or Latin, before they make up their minds as to its meaning." It is perhaps unnecessary to multiply these quotations. They might be much increased in number but representative schools have been se- lected, and with the exception of the three adverse reports above given, they are all of the same import. It would also be easy to give evidence of the advantageous results that are believed to have come from the in- troduction of algebra and geometry in place of arithmetic. In view of the facts that have now been presented and the compari- sons that have been made, your committee are of the opinion that al- though it would be possible, it would be by no means desirable, to shorten the grammar school course. It is useless to try to build upon any other foundation than a foundation of existing facts and conditions. Opinions are conditions; and although they may be gradually modified and perhaps eventually transformed, they cannot safely be ignored or neglected. In all parts of the country the grammar schools have gravi- tated or crystallized into eight grades, and in our opinion any attempt to lessen the number of grades would weaken the repute of the system and end in failure, if not in disaster. But when the question is asked whether the courses of grammar grade can be improved or "enriched," our answer is very different. We be- lieve that some of the courses that now form a part of the grammar school program should be reduced, and that others should be elimin- ated altogether. This process would leave room for the introduction of other and mor- ^eful studies. The fabric should have more of solid cloth and less of fringe and ornament. It would be perfectly prac- ticable, if desirable, by reducing the amount of time given to some studies and by eliminating others to provide for at least a good elemen- tary knowledge of two languages besides English. These languages in our opinion should be either German and Latin, or German and French. Further than this, we believe that interspersed between the lessons of the day there should be far more attention paid to certain subjects that up to the present time have been almost entirely neglected. We have in this state the best manual training school in the country, and probably the best in the world. At the Menomonie school boys and girls are taken from the grammar school and high school into the manual train- ing department for an hour a day without in any way detracting from the amount or quality of their lessons in the regular program The testimony is uniform that the 'pupils all look forward to the hour with pleasure, and it is hard to see how any one can observe what they ac- complish without perceiving that the hour must be as profitable as pleasurable. The boys are taught the arts of working in wood and 22 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. i metal, and Che girls are thoroughly drilled in the mysteries of the sew- ing room, the kitchen and the dining-room. Many students become very proficient in drawing and the arts of design. All this can be added We said above that all this is possible, "if desirable." As to whether these changes are desirable, there will inevitably, at least for the pres- ent, be differences of opinion. School systems are conservative, and wisely so. It is seldom that creation can take the place of develop- ment. Even the German system, so radically modified in 1810, was built up on what already existed. So it must be with us. But while we keep in mind this fact, we must also be open to conviction as to the possibilities of improvement along lines already established. We stated early in this report that in our opinion the great end of elementary education should be not so much to store the mind with facts in the vain hope that they can be used in later life, as to create certain qualities of mind and character. Those attributes were stated to be: "A habit of discriminating observation, the possession of the inductive faculty, that power of contingent reasoning which we call good judgment, the ethical ability to discriminate correctly and clearly between right and wrong, and a serene force of conscience and charac- ter which may be relied upon to accept the right and reject the wrong." If, as we believe, these are the fundamental essentials of a good educa- tion, they must first of all be considered in framing a good program of study. We would not be understood as contending that the establish- ment of these characteristics in the pupil is all that should be done. Information of value may and should be imparted; but even such in- formation should be of a nature to expand the faculties and enlarge the views of life rather than of the kind that is sure to be forgotten without having exerted an expanding and inspiring influence. Adopting these views as of fundamental importance, we are of the opinion that any considerable improvements in the grade courses can only be made along the lines indicated. There will necessarily be dif- fering opinions as to the extent to which these principles should be carried. Even the members of the committee might differ one from an- other as to what courses should be reduced or eliminated, and what should be substituted. But we are in harmony in thinking that the courses ought to be modified, and modified as rapidly as is practicable in the manner we have pointed out. No abrupt revolution is called for or advocated. Moreover, it must not be forgotten that the work of improvement along these lines can only go hand in hand with improve- ments in the work of instruction; and even these efforts must be ac- companied with constant endeavors to elevate public opinion in regard to the fundamental essentials of a superior school. If, therefore, we were to sum up in a few words all that we have to say on the question submitted to us, we should do it under these three heads: 1. Do not shorten the grammar school course; but encourage in every practicable way the best pupils to advance from one class to another without waiting for the majority. Every grammar school teacher should be instructed and required to keep a sharp lookout for the "lads and lassies of pairts" and to urge them forward to such proficiency as will advance them without waiting for the crowd. 2. The courses should be modified by judicial excisions and the sub- stitution of a better and a larger amount of linguistic study, perhaps algebra, and the introduction of manual training. 3. Pride in good schoolhouses, however great and justifiable, should be supplemented as rapidly as possible by pride in good teachers. It is teachers and not schoolhouses that educate. An opportunity alone does not achieve. The real thing is the way in which the opportunity is used, and therefore it is the worst of bad policy to allow efforts to be exhausted or even weakened in preparing the opportunity rather than PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 23 in using it after it is ready. Let the normal schools ever keep before their eyes the fundamental law which declares: "The exclusive pur- poses and objects of the normal schools shall be the instruction and training of persons, both male and female, in the theory and art of teaching, and in the various branches that pertain to a good, common school education, and in all subjects needful to qualify for teaching in the public schools; also to give instruction in the fundamental laws of the United States and of this State in what regards the rights and du- ties of citizens." Let all superintendents "cry aloud and spare not" in their insistence for teachers that shall know not only the content but also the method of instruction. Let it be understood universally that the real thing is to kindle a glowing and lasting fire in the pupil's heart, and that this cannot be done with paper and shavings alone. Let school ■boards have no peace until they admit that no elaborateness of a dining- room is a fit excuse or apology for any inadequacy in the quantity and ■quality of the diet. C. K. Adams, A. N. Faikchild, Wm. E. Anderson, F. E. DoTT, A. J. HUTTON, Committee. 24 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL PROF. GRAH.\M TAYLOR, CHICAGO THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, AND RESIDENT AVARDEN OF CHICAGO COMMONS SOCIAL SETTLEMENT. We may apply Hawthorne's remark about "Christian things" to school interests, and think them to be "like stained glass windows which can be seen only from within." But this can be only partially true, for if we teachers would catch the perspective of our work, we can see it only from without, at some point of view where the school is best to be seen in the setting of its surroundings, and our teaching in its relation to contemporary life. Need is ever the interpreter of truth. Truth may abide the same, but its application must differ as rapidly and radically as the needs of life change. Ten years in Europe or America see more changes in human life than a cycle in Cathay. The point at which modern methods of living separate themselves from the ancient is mark- ed by the name and thought of Francis Bacon. In his "Novum Organum" he initiated what has been aptly called "the Baconian Re- bellion." For since he revolutionized the method of procedure in human thought and action nothing has remained unchanged. ' No class or craft, no farm or factory, no philosophy or cult, no church or creed, no state or school lives, moves and has its being as before. To live, life must adjust itself to its environment. For the conservation and production of its energy, it must depend upon the school to readjust living to the changing conditions of life? I am asked by your President to present such evidences of the changing conditions of human life as are to be discerned from the social settlement, where life may be studied In the original, as may help interpret the truth concerning the social function of the school. Though located among the working poor, usu- ally in the densest populations of our great cities the social settlement affords one of those rare points of view which geologists know how to find for their students, where the social strata comes to the surface all on end and close together. Thence all classes may be studied, as each is brought in turn to a touchstone which tests its innermost character. Thence are to be seen not only the capacity of the less privileged classes; the debasement of involuntary idleness among the rich and the poor and the vicious demoralization of voluntary idleness both at the top and the bottom of the economic scale; the debt of learning to labor and the right to labor, to culture and to the efflorescence of life which alone makes it worth the living. Thence the trend of the present so- cial transition is plainly discerned to be from the independence of the one against another to the co-operative combinations of capital and labor; from the closing era of individualism with all its splendid achievements to the opening era of mutualism with all its grander pos- sibilities. Thence the necessity of learning and teaching the fine art of living and working together becomes mandatory, and the greatest question in education for the school to answer is seen to be how to train the individual to fulfill his partnership in society. To this end the school, especially the public school, has three great social functions to fulfill, "(l) To teach the ideal form of social relationship; (2) to af- ford in its building and organization a common ground for realizing PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 25 at least some of the social ideals of community life, which it teaches; (3) to generate the sacrificial spirit in the individual citizen, without which no ideal life can be realized. Horace Mann truly said "Where anything is growing, one formatory is worth a thousand reformatories." In America our cities are growing as fast as our boys and girls. The country must look to the public schools to be the formatories of the ideals which our boy and girl-citi- zenship is to have of civic life and municipal progress. The debasement of the political and commercial ideals of city government was con- trasted witli the ideal of the "ancient city," namely, that of a compact of families to promote their common wealth. The meal of labor and of the relation of respectful and co-operative interdependence in which it should hold all members of the community itself needs to be formed anew in the consciousness of the people. To this end the school life it- self should be organized as a little ideal community of unequal, yet interdependent parts, each working for all, all helping each. Inconsist- ent with the formulation of such an ideal and tne rendering of such service to the state is the competitive basis on which most schools are conducted. For it rewards the successful competitor in what is usu- ally a selfish struggle and, as Prof. Dewey declares, makes a "school- crime" of that co-operation which should be the highest aim of the school to promote within and beyond its sphere. The school is or should be tne flag-staff of the community, at the mast-head of which should ever be kept floating the highest ideal of life, individual and social. The school, building and yard constitute about the only little patches of Mother Earth owned by all the people upon which every one has the right to meet with every other one on absolutely common ground. The administration of this common possession constitutes the greatest trust committed by the community to our Board of Education and to the teachers of our schools. The educational and social democracy so truly maintained among the children of the people should be extended among their fathers and mothers, older brothers and sisters by a public school extension movement for the social unification and education of the whole people. In the assembly halls of our schools the cosmopolitan and often antagonistic elements of our city center population, as of our rural districts, should be gathered for social intercourse, personal ac- quaintanceship and community co-operation. Lectures, illustrated by the stereopticon, on American history and biography; old country talks about the heroes and histories of the Fatherlands; uiscussions of funda- mental principles of law and government; political economy, and in- dustrial economics, domestic science, sanitation and hygiene should brighten the winter season. The love of the beautiful should be incul- cated by the artistic adornment of our school interiors. Musical culture in choral clubs and oratorio societies would elevate and harmonize our communities far more cheaply than the cost of stamping out dissension by force. The social settlements are demonstrating at the heart of these very densest and most heterogenous populations the entire prac- ticability and high efficiency of these educational methods of promot- ing the betterment of municipal conditions by the co-operative effort of all classes and of bringing about the social unification of the people by bringing them into friendly personal relationships at a center which they feel to be neutral ground belonging equally to all. Only by the training which the school can best give in the spirit and practice of self-sacrifice can these social ideals ever be realized or even seriously entertained. Worthiness must be measured by service ren- dered, not received. Patriotism must be made to mean service to the city, state or nation at personal coet. The glory of civic, industrial and 26 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. social self-denial must be made glorious to all classes equally. Democ- racy must be nothing less than a religion. To survive it must be in- spired witb the religious passion — as the very breath of its life — to live for others, not for self, to minister unto others, not to be ministered unto, to have public luxury at the expense of private frugality. To impart this spirit to our scholars and communities, we teachers must have and practice it. By the sanctities of this, our holy calling, we should be reordained to our most sacred service to the community. By the destinies of the republic which depend imperatively upon the fulfillment by the schools of their social function should they be re- dedicated to their unique, indispensable and glorious mission to the na- tion and the world for the Twentieth Century and its on-coming social democracy. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 27 MUSIC m THE RURAL SCHOOLS. C. L. GOTHAM. That benefits are derived from the study of vocal music in the public schools is no longer an open question. If rightly taught, it affords excellent mental discipline. Sight reading necessitates quick thought and prompt execution. The beneficial effects of good music on charac- ter formation are inestimable. Who has not had his courage aroused, his sympathies deepened, and his determinations strengthened by music! The demand for systematic instruction in music in our rural schools is not based on fanciful speculations. In most of our city schools this subject has been introduced, and the results have justified its continu- ance. No one denies that the effect of good music is elevating and en- nobling. It quickens the intellect and trains for citizenship. What Taetter claim has any branch for a place on the program of school work? The aim in teaching music is two-fold, to create a love for good music, •and to make pupils independent singers. These should be kept con- stantly in mind as the goal toward which we are working. A love for good music comes only as a result of^ hearing and singing good music. We should be as careful in the choice of appropriate music as we are in the selection of good literature. In teaching rote singing (which will be spoken of later), much can be accomplished. By independent singers we do not mean soloists, but we do mean that the pupils should develop the ability and courage to sing a part independently. There are some practical obstacles to the general introduction of music into the common schools, which must be overcome, if this work is to gain a place. The hindrances most common are these: (1) Teachers of such schools are quite commonly unqualified to teach it. (2) The parents and school boards are not well aware of the benefits to be derived from having music taught in their schools. (3) It must take the place of some other work for the daily program is already full. These obstacles are not insurmountable, but they can be overcome only by the systematic efforts of those who are interested in the cause of music and alive to its needs. It seems to me that the first step to be taken in this direction is to provide means whereby teachers may become qualified to teach music. The normal schools and other institutions of higher learning are doing this kind of work and are accomplishing good results, but these results are felt mostly in the cities and not very much in the rural districts. For many years to come the vast majority of rural school teachers must be made up of those who have had little, if any, normal school training and many of whom have never studied vocal music at all. Some have studied it in the city schools but know very little about teaching it. I know of no more effective and general means of getting at this dif- ficulty than by dealing with music in teachers' institutes and summer schools. This would in itself be a slow means because of the amount of work that is necessary. But it would give a great impetus to the study of nausic and would in time accomplish much. Many teachers would, no doubt, take private lessons as a resufl. In this way teachers Avould not only master the subject but would learn how to teach it. That the people of the rural districts do not feel the need of music 28 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. in their schools is of course, an impediment to the work. But in many cases the d'lfflculty resulting from this lack of interest is, I think, more imaginary than real. The remedy lies very largely in the ability and spirit of well qualified and energetic teachers. If the teacher is thor- oughly qualified to handle music and undertakes the work in a judi- cious but whole hearted manner, her ability and confidence will beget confidence and interest in both pupils and parents. When parents see that their children are really making progress in independent music reading, there is little difficulty in getting them to buy books and co-operate in the work. At least, such has been my observation. It is not necessary that the school should be supplied with charts on the start, neither is it advisable to ask a school board to furnish this material until they have reason to hope for success in the under- taking. Members of school boards are generally men of business qual- ities. They are unwilling to spend money for that which promises no return. Therefore teachers should be cautious about asking for material until they can show that the required expenditure is war- ranted from a practical point of view. During the first few weeks, blackboard exercises are even better than charts or books, and during that time sufficient interest should be awakened to result in the procuring of material either through the par- ents directly or through the school board. This certainly is possible if the teacher has good tact and courage. It is not an easy matter to assign a place for music in the daily pro- gramme that will meet with general approval. It certainly would not seem best to have an additional number of recitations for the pro- gramme is already crowded. If the systematic teaching of music finds a place in the common schools, it must alternate with some other branch. The technique of music is very largely mathematical. There- fore, I would suggest that it be taught twice a week in place of arith- metic, throughout the entire course, and that singing be used as an opening and closing exercise every day. There is some difference of^ opinion as to the advisability of teach- ing rote singing in school. It seems to me that, while scale exercises should be taken up at the very beginning of the work, still rote sing- ing has a very important place in the early stages as a means of de- veloping rhythm, training the ear, and creating a taste for good music. It affords a good opportunity for establishing right habits in singing. As somewhat of a guide in teaching rote singing so as to establish good habits and taste, the following suggestions may be helpful: The teacher should sing the song in short phrases. The children should then sing after her, repeating each phrase until learned, then joining them. The teacher should not speak of breath but provide such songs as will allow of natural breathing, or if the phrases are rather long, sing rapidly enough so that the children can easily sustain their breath to tlae end of the phrases. If the breath is not sufficient to sustain the tone to the proper breathing places the pupils will soon sing out of time. Take plenty of time at breathing places. Gasping for breath means that the time for taking breath between phrases is not long enough. No sound of breathing should be heard. Sing softly and do not allow the children to use loud, coarse tones. The example of the teacher is more effective in securing this result than any amount of instruction. If the pupils are allowed to use coarse, harsh tones, they not only spoil the effect of the music, but injure their voices. Do not allow pupils, especially young children, to use the chest regis- ter. This can be prevented by using music that is pitched high, or that starts on a high pitch and does not run very low. The higher tones of a child's voice are much sweeter than the lower ones, and their PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 29 use is perfectly natural provided that the child is not attempting to drag chest tones up to a high pitch. In going from high tones to low ones the head register can be maintained, provided the tones do not run very low. Use such music as is suggestive of pleasant and cheerful thoughts and make the music hour a pleasant occasion. A child's frame of mind has a powerful effect on his ability to sing. If he feels listless or fretful, little can be accomplished. Never allow children to sing out of tune. If they are inclined to flat in a given place, try making them sing more softly, more distinctly, more brightly, more rapidly. Make unaccented beats lighter. If all this fails, drop the piece for a while that the habit of singing out of tune may not be formed. Correct false tones at once. Never allow a child to think that he is singing correctly when he is not. If the ear of a child is very deficient, deal with him alone as far as possible. If he cannot get the right pitch in starting the piece, it is well sometimes to let him take his own pitch and start the song. Then the teacher may join him and sing it through. It is often well in such cases to cause such a pupil to simply sit and listen for a while. Make tne vowels the prin- cipal part of the words. Increase the musical difficulties as fast as the pupils improve in ability to receive them. Success in this work depends very largely on the earnestness and enthusiasm of the teacher. She is the soul of the work and must feel and reflect the thought and purpose of each song that she teaches. Now, regarding the scale exercises, they of course furnish the prin- cipal part of the work. The scale itself must be taught by rote. But after the scale is taught, the work becomes largely mathematical, and whatever pedagogical principles apply in teaching arithmetic will also apply in teaching these exercises. The work should be definitely planned as a whole, and each exercise should be so thoroughly planned that the teacher knows just what she expects to accomplish, and how she expects to accomplish it. Since one of the chief objects of the work is to develop independence in singing, it becomes necessary that the pupils should do individual work, that is, sing exercises alone. But this part of the work must be managed with great care. It requires sympathy and patience on the part of the teacher and courage on the part of the pupils, who are unaccusto'med to hear their own, or one another's voices put to this use. Any little mistake is liable to be a source of great amusement. A spirit of earnestness and sympathy in the teacher will, however, soon find response in the pupils and the novelty will soon wear off. Still, some pupils are so very self conscious that they cannot at first sum- mon up courage enough to sing even the simplest exercise. In that case they should be given a chance to sing the exercises before the teacher alone until they get over some of their timidity. Doubtless it is best, for some time at least, to keep the individual work simpler than the general chorus work, until the pupils have had time to become accustomed to singing alone. Duets, trios and quartettes should also be sung frequently, after the class has progressed far enough to sing the various parts. 30 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. THE AEGUMENT EOE THE NOEMAL SCHOOL IN THE LIGHT OF CHANGED CONDITIONS. K. H. HALSEY. Sixty-one years ago yesterday the Massachusetts Board of Education passed the resolution providing for the establishment of two normal schools in tTiat state, — the first in America. Upon the occasion of the opening of the first at Lexington, Edward Everett, then Governor of Massachusetts, delivered an address in which, with clear insight into the requisites for the training of teachers, he, enumerates the four prin- cipal lines of training which the normal school should undertake: (1) A careful review of the branches required to be taught in the common schools; (T) Careful instruction in the art of teaching; (3) Careful training in school management; (4) The exemplification and testing of the foregoing principles in a school of practice. I think we shall agree that Everett's outline would not be far amiss for the basis of work in a modern normal school, if we include in it the amplification that he gives to what constitutes the art of teaching. The very next year after the opening of the Lexington school the Philistines were upon it. They "viewed with alarm" the arbitrary and revolutionary ideas and actions of the State Board of Education, citing as illustrations of two of the dangerous tendencies of its policy the establishment of normal schools in imitation of France and Prussia, and the measure which sought to furnish a school library in each dis- trict of the Commonwealth. The objection to the first measure is "that every person who has himself undergone the process of instruct- ing must acquire by that very process the art of instructing others;" and to the second that it is "a means of molding the sentiments of the rising generation" in a country in which "religion and politics are so intimately connected with every other subject that the matter selected for the libraries can not be free from sectarian and political objections."' For a half century the opponents of normal schools have spent their energies in the amplification of this argument viewed in 1840. Indus- triously they have continued their opposition in spite of the fact that the appeal both to reason and experience has long since shown their words to be but "sounding brass and clanging cymbal." The one who today attempts to assail the normal school as an integral part of the state's rounded system of education relegates himself to the period of ancient history. In this slate during the past ten years there\ have been many changes in matters educational. The rapid increase in the number of high schools and their graduates has been accompanied by a proportional improvement in the work done in the high schools. The number of these graduates entering the normal schools has greatly increased, so that the number of graduates from the advanced course of the normal schools has increased many fold. The pedagogical department of the University has been amplified and strengthened so that the number of University graduates seriously intending to teach has greatly mul- tiplieo. In view of these changes have the normal schools kept pace with the general improvement? Let us consider some of the criticisms which are offered upon our work both by destructive and constructive critics: PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 31 (1) We are told that there is an overproduction in the output of the normal schools. The last biennial report of the state superintend- ent of public instruction of Wisconsin shows that tnere are 2,577 teach- ers employed in the cities of this state. It is a difficult thing to de- termine just how large a percentage of these go out of service each year, but I think we shall agree that the average term of a city teacher at the present time is not more than seven years. This would show that we need 368 new teachers each year in the city schools. Last year there were graduated from the advanced course of the seven nor- mal schools 358 students. This will show that so far as the cities are concerned there is not as yet a sufficient number of normal school graduates to supply the demand for trained teachers. When we come to consider the condition of affair^ in the rural schools we are very far from meeting the demand. There were 9,800 teachers employed in these schools during the year '97-8. As we all know their term of service is not iso long in these schools as in the city schools, — probably not more than three or four years. Calculating, however, that 1-5 are changed every year, we find that there will be need of 1,960 new teachers each year for the district schools. Last year there were 173 graduates from the elementary course of the six schools — not enough to supply one-tenth of the demand. It is with these sta- tistics that our friends who are endeavoring to secure the establish- ment of county training schools are reinforcing their arguments. It is of course true that the normal schools are supplying to the rural schools a much larger number of teachers than the number graduating from the elementary course would indicate. At least as many students as graduate from the elementary course leave school each year to teach in the rural districts. However, one cannot deny that the normal schools are not at present supplying a sufficient number of teachers for the district schools. Let no one claim, however, that the county training school can supersede the elementary course of the normal school. A school that requires a third grade teacher's certificate for admission and gives the holder a one year's course can not expect to take the place of a course in the normal school that requires a second, grade certificate for admission and two years for completion. The number of these county training schools ought to increase so that the immediate needs of the rural schools may be supplied, until by the increase of the number graduating from the elementary course of the normal school, the reinforcement coming from the graduates of the advanced course, the lengthening of the term of service of teachers in district schools, the needs of the rural schools for professionally trained teachers may be reasonably satisfied. If we should come to depend upon the county training schools entirely for the supply of teachers for rural schools I very much fear that we should repeat the unprofit- able experience of New York, when back in the thirties, she attempted to train her teachers in special classes in her academies. About the only consolation that we can find for the failure of our normal schools in this state to meet fully the need of the rural schools is the fact that we are much better provided with professionally trained teachers than the average throughout the United States, for we have one student enrolled in our normal schools to every 152 pupils en- rolled in the schools of the state, whereas the average for the United States is one normal student to 217 pupils in the schools. (2) It is claimed that a large proportion of the graduates of the normal schools do not fulfill their promise to engage in teaching after graduation, and that thus the state is under the expense of providing in a technical school instruction of a high order and at a considerable cost for those persons who should have depended upon their localities to provide them with such training, or secured it at their own expense. 32 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. The statistics receixtly given to the press by the state superintendent with regard to the graduates of last year seem to me to answer that criticism quite effectually. (3) The statement is often made that the normal schools attract pupils away from the high schools before the course of the latter schools is completed. If by this is meant that the normal schools seek to induce pupils to leave the high schools by admitting them without examination, in so far as I know the charge is false. I am credibly informed tliat the uniform practice of the normal schools is to admit without examination only such persons as are graduates of high schools or colleges, students in other normal schools, or persons holding a teacher's certificate of second grade or higher. If, however, it is meant by this to bring an indictment against the normal schools be- cause they do not insist that every student admitted to their doors, who has attended a high school, shall complete his high school course before admission to the normal, then we must plead guilty, upon this count. But I had taken it that the object for which the state estab- lished the normal school was to train teachers for its schools both rural and urban: that if any person desired to save a year or two in his preparation for the work of teaching in the rural schools by entering the elementary course, he was not to be discouraged from so doing. (4) The normal schools are charged with being more largely aca- demic schools than professional. This is not the place to enter into an extended discussion upon this large question, but I must not leave it without reiterating the oft repeated statement that the academic instruction of the normal school and of the high school are very dif- ferent in their points of view. The consensus of opinion among prac- tical normal school men and among those who have made a most careful study of normal school work as related to the work of other schools in the scheme of public education is almost wholly in favor of such academic instruction. (5) It is stated that the graduates of normal schools are immature and are unfitted for positions involving any considerable respbnsibil- ity. Burke says: "You cannot draw an indictment against a nation." It is also true that you cannot draw an indictment that will stand against the graduates of normal schools as a class. Undoubtedly the very large influx of high school graduates during the past five or six years has greatly reduced the average age of the graduates from the advanced course as compared with what it was ten years ago. In fact it is frequently remarked in the Oshkosh school that the average age of the elementary graduate is even greater than that of the advanced course graduate. However, there can be no doubt that the graduate of the normal school has a much higher realization of the responsi- bility which he undertakes than has the average sophomore in college. The former has heard almost continually from the time of his admis- sion to the school of the grave responsibility which he assumes as an intending teacher, and some of this helps to make an impression upon him. The point of view from which each of his studies is approached — the child whom he is to take charge of — tends to develop in him a sense of responsibility. To say that these many young people at the age of twenty or twenty-one are immature is only paraphrasing the adage that you cannot put an old head on young shoulders. In order that the charge may have weight it must be shown that they have no higher sense of responsibility than other young people of the same age, and this my experience would lead me to contradict. (6) Our students are charged with expending their strength upon that which is purely formal — that the method or even a device seems of greater moment in instruction than the content. We recognize that PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 33 the success of the normal school depends largely upon the training given to its graduates, enabling them to get their pupils to grasp typi- cal facts and from these analyze so as to work out a law or general prin- ciple. It is not claimed by any advocate of normal training that ex- cellent as that training is. it has the quality of a touchstone to trans- mute lead into gold. Undoubtedly there are many persons who have not been connected with the normal school long enough to become im- hued with its spirit, whose ability to comprehend any subject as a whole is limited, whose weakness of intellectual grasp would make them likely to seize upon the minutiae of method to the sacrifice of the more im- portant subject matter. It is unfair, however, to judge of the school as a whole By these exceptions. As Dr. Hillis has said: "No amount of college training will make a $2,000 man out of a two-cent boy." The testimony of those who are in a position to judge from the observation of many instances is directly to the contrary of this gen- eral indictment. Dr. Harris somewhere says that the normal school graduate, according to his observation, continues to grow in profes- sional skill for ten, twenty or even thirty years, while the non-profes- sionally trained teacher reaches his maximum skill in from three to five years. (7) It is charged that there is a lack of continuity in the work of the normal school, which tends to give a desultory quality to the train- ing there obtained. There is a shadow of truth in this statement. In the earlier days of these schools in this state the work had to be planned in such a way that it would convenience the continually fluctu- ating constituency of the schools. In the majority of the schools this is still more or less true, and so, to the observer who is used to the more permanent clientage of the high school or university, for instance, it seems as though the normal school, by its numerous courses of ten weeks in different branches, the frequency of final examinations upon the same, and the quarterly readjustment of programmes, was con- tinually engaged in tying up numerous small bundles of intellectual goods, that justify its being called the package department of the edu- cational department store. However, there is no doubt that the great- est good to the greatest number will be subserved in this way, so long as we have as large a proportion of our pupils going and coming at the end of each quarter as we have at the present time. "When the condition of affairs in Wisconsin comes to correspond more nearly to that in Massachusetts, and our students enter in September to remain throughout the year, we can then readjust our courses of study with the expectation that there will be less of scrappiness and more of con- tinuity in the work. (8) The graduates of the normal schools are said to be out of place as teachers in high schools. This brings us to the consideration of a question which has been much discussed already in this body and was presented only a year ago by Mr. Sage.. An exceedingly interesting and valuable paper upon the preparation of teachers for secondary schools is that read by Dean Russell of the Teachers' College, New York City, before the Department of Superintendence of the National Educa- tional Association at its last meeting. I ventured to say that there is not a representative of the Wisconsin normal schools present who, having read that paper, dissents theoretically from its conclusions. Dean Russefl would have every person employed as an instructor in a secondary institution the holder of a diploma which would represent at least one year's work subsequent to college graduation. That would mean at least seventeen years of study if the student had come up through a city school system and then entered college. But Mr. Rus- sell has in mind, when he speaks of secondary schools, the high schools of our larger or middle class cities, where salaries are paid to assist- 3 34 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. ants that will warrant their incurring the expense of such preparation. Let us see whether simply as a business proposition any one of us would advise a young man to undertake that outlay of time and money as an investment the return from which was to be the average salary paid an assistant in a Wisconsin secondary school. From the last biennial report of the state superintendent I learn that the average salary paid to assistants in free high schools in this state having four years' courses was $510, and to assistants in three years course high schools $383. The average salary paid to the 142 principals of our four years course high schools was $1,133, 22 receiving less than $900 each. The average salary paid to principals of three years course high schools was $737. These salaries are not a fair compensation for the time and money ex- pended in securing the preparation for such work, to say nothing of the peculiar qualifications in each case in the way of experience and ac- quired technical skill that would naturally enhance the value of the service rendered by that individual. And when I learn that, in spite of this unpromising outlook, 67 of the 146 principals of the four years course high schools this year, and 228 of their 404 assistants, hold uni- versity or college diplomas, and that even 14 of tne 67 principals of three years high schools are also college graduates, I am more than ever filled with admiration for the teaching force of Wisconsin free high schools, because so many of them accept as part pay for their services that which is not "current money with the merchant," though it is doubtless accepted at heaven's gate. We have a condition to face that it seems to me no amount of theorizing with regard to the rela- tive merits of the university or college graduate and the normal school graduate wHl enable us to alter. There are many positions as teach- ers in the free high schools of our state that no young man or woman would wittingly accept as a fitting return for the sacrifice he or she must make to secure a college degree. Thus a lar'ge number of posi- tions, so long as salaries remain at their present standard, must al- ways be open to those whose education has cost them less than has that of the university graduate. I do not mean to imply, however, that these are the only positions that remain open to the normal school graduate. It not infrequently happens that a school board, in select- ing a principal, has to choose between the greater general knowledge and special knowledge of the university graduate and the greater pro- fessional knowledge and. technical skill, backed by experience, of the normal school graduate, and it chooses the latter. But every one must see that the combination of these qualities will always be preferred, and so it happens that, wherever such a thing is possible, our stronger normal school graduates are gaining the additional knowledge and culture which the university can give them. Aside from the question of salary it is fair to inquire whether the university and colleges of the state are at present graduating or are likely in the near future to graduate a sufficient number of persons who give evidence of undertaking the profesion of teaching, as evinced by their attempting serious work in pedagogy, to meet the needs of the high schools of the state. Not including the high schools of Mil- waukee. Oshkosh, La Crosse, Manitowoc, Menomonie and a few others •not in the list of free high schools, there are 633 teachers in the high schools of the state. It would seem that there ought to be a longer tenure of office among these teachers than among those holding grade positions, but one-half of them are university or college graduates, some of whom have probably undertaken this work temporarily, so that an average term of service of seven years is as long as we can expect. This will necessitate 90 new teachers annually for these schools. I do not believe that the higher educational institutions of the state are giving us each year anything like that number of students desirous PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 35 of making teaching their life work. This present year one-half of these teachers are university or college graduates, one-third normal school graduates, and one-sixth hold some form of teacher's certificate. It is a question whether the normal school graduate who has had his practice work with pupils of the eighth or ninth grade does not have a very great advantage over the inexperienced university grad- uate which more than compensates at first for the wider knowledge of the latter. For this the state is directly responsible in that it does not provide some form of practice school for the students of the peda- gogical department of the university. I cannot see that secondary instruction differs from elementary instruction to such an extent that the latter needs a department of practice for its preparing teachers while the former needs none. As yet I believe the only universities that have undertaken to provide anything like a department of prac- tice are Harvard, Columbia and Brown. The proper solution of the problem of preparing secondary teachers will not be reached until am- ple provision is made for this important portion of their training. It is not safe to take it for granted that the normal school gradu- ate is weak in special knowledge of the subject he may be called upon to teach in a secondary school. It was pointed out in the paper read before the Association last year upon this subject that one of our nor- mal schools (probably others, also) provides a course in physics that requires more time than in any of the higher institutions of learning except the state university. At least one of the normal schools provides a course for the teaching of physical geography in the high school that requires a year and a half. Other instances might be named. It is not, however, so much a question of general knowledge, or spe- cial knowledge, or professional knowledge, or technical skill that deter- mines the success or failure of the normal school graduate) or the uni- versity graduate in the high schoc' It is a question of the person- ality of the individual who underti ^ the work. The normal school which sends to the principalship of a b. .' ^tf/^,^ ^^J/exSit^^^^^^ of force that can a period of Q^iet nutrition without an> expena^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^k :^^r:^^. ^K^^-f LtfuLss are negative. of Children, p. 248. ^v,..rci,.ai tminin'' tends to improve the 8. "It has be™ showi, that PJl^.^^m™; Amoving .lisorderllnes, l^'?^tl^^:Z^ ^:iS^'i^^ - 0. Kroh^n, «. St. ''t 8wMi«dy ha. Shown .hat, "A pertect idea a,..y. '^^=i';^S'" ^'ro^^.Safihrrorfchn<,^ ^Jl'Xo^^'^rZiL^^ .s towa.. im.. *n'rTh« ■■HahiU.'fi actions are most powertul InWMtors o, move^ meits wffloh do pot tend in 'J„^/>™ //fo '".^ ''iiowed down to Touthtul habits of the right kind should not oe i Ine field. Too much specialization m early youth can have oniy cerebral results." Ibid. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 55 12. Child-study has shown the significance of the relation between physical and moral education. Judicious physical training will do more for moral education than all the lectures on moral science of a New England college professor. With the encouragement of properly di- rected athletic sports the old-time college pranks and hazings have nearly disappeared. The effects upon younger pupils is also very ap- parent. 13. Methods of training the feeble minded have been much improved. Instead of beginning with abstract mental training, some form of phys- ical exercises are first given to develop voluntary muscular control and to develop attention. From fundamental is here, also the order of pro- cedure. 14. "Observation of children has certainly contributed to the science of education something in regard to the teaching of morality. Such observations have shown that those who try to teach morality by mere -word of mouth waste their efforts." R. P. Halleck in Jour, of Ed. All sentiments about right doing must end in action if the result is to "be permanent. The teacher must furnish opportunity for right doing, as well as to point out what is desirable and what is undesirable. 1.5. The strongest potential capacity of the child is for action. 16. It has been well established that myopia is increased by school occupations. Tests made by Dr. Max Cohn of Breslau and repeated by many otlier observers, establish the fact that myopia increases from grade to grade. The proportion varies in different countries, but the trouble is, to say the least, most alarming. The causes are many and ■various. Insufficient light, glaring light, bad print, bad atmosphere, over-study, and bad position in writing all contribute their quota to the alarming results. The conditions all point to a necessity in re- •adjustment of present school curricula. 17. As a final point I would indicate that the modern study of edu- cational problems has very clearly demonstrated to us that the period of adolescence is a period requiring great tact and caution on the part of educators. It is the great period of readjustment. Often children take on entirely new physical characteristics. Up to this period they may have resembled one parent and now they change in features so as to resemble the other. What is true of physical characteristics is no less true of mental. The entire temperament often undergoes complete change at fhis age. It is the period when old interests die out and •entirely new ones replace them. It is a period of great unrest; boys often run away from home, and girls become giddy and wild. There is great desire to get out and see the world and to do battle for them- selves. It is the great period for doubt, for argumentation, debate, and sophistry. Boys organize debating societies and tend to argue every question with their elders. Most religious conversions occur at this age. It is the age of initiation into crime, and it is the age when speculation upon more cosmic relations first enter into the youth's thinking. Great care and discretion are necessary on the part of par- ents and teachers in guiding the restless youth safely through this crit- ical period. The question concerning the best kind of high school cur- riculum is closely bound up with a study of adolescence. Shall the Tiigh school course center about a few branches and shall these be drilled thoroughly into the pupil's mind, or shall the whole vista of human knowledge be opened up to him so that he may get a glimpse of many things and thus be enabled to better determine lines of interests which he is specially fitted to pursue. We know that it is just at this period that most pupils leave school, and many of them because they find nothing there that interests them. We also know of the great num- ber of misfits in the world because of having entered upon a mistaken calling. The question certainly deserves more careful study and inves- tigation. 56 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. The foregoing are a few of the results that child-study has either demonstrated or emphasized. Many more could be indicated, but these will suffice for the present purpose. „«„e5^«rc How shall the teacher study children is the next and last cons dera- tion to which I pass. I shall not presume to enter into it exhaustively but shall only suggest a few lines of profitable work. To begin with I believe that every teacher should study, children and I also believe that every good teacher does study t'hem and that the best teachers ^^How%hSl™°set about it and what preparation must I have? are the questions most frequently asked. If you have training in general psy- chology it is very desirable, but if you have not that do not wait Be- gin with the child, and thus gain the best part of your knowledge of psvchologv. While studying the children acquaint yourselves with the best available literature on the subject. This will enable you to coi-- rect your own observations. In order to do child-study work the teacher need not wait until the spirit moves to work out something en- tirely unheard of. The best work will be of the plain, everyday sort of observation of children. Observations of characteristics that are easilv apparent, but that are factors in determining a child s status in class and his future character. The teacher should determine what are the child's greatest possibilities, his greatest needs and limitations and the best methods of enabling her to help the child to realize his possibilities and to surmount obstacles to success. Remember that it is a knowledge of your individual pupils that you should seek rather than the "pedagogic phantom, the average child.'' The immediate outcome of the study should be better methods of dealing with the individual pupils and a greater mutual sympathy existing between teacher and pupil. The more the teacher can know about the pupil the better will she be able to deal with him. Too often all pupils of a given age are required to do the same work. No discrimination is made between the strong and the weak, the lame and the lazy. By such methods the weak are discouraged because of the excessive bur- dens, and the strong are disgusted because they are made to mark time. A better knowledge of pupils would help the teacher to adjust For convenience we may divide the studies into physical, intellectual, and moral. Under physical characteristics it would be well to note whether growth is normal, whether there are abnormalties of feature, etc These, however, seem to afford no very definite conclusions. There are undersized and ill-shaped persons with great mental ca- pacitv and there are persons with apparently normal physique who are lacking in intelligence and morality. More significant, it seems to me than size or outward form of feature, are the manner of their fun'ctionings. A disturbance of physical function means mental dis- traction at least, and often much more. If defects of sight or hear- ing are suspected simple tests may be made to verify suspicions, ir defects are discovered the case should be reported to parents and phy- sician. All tests are to be made in such a way as not to make the child self-conscious. The teacher must learn to study conditions with- out arousing antagonism. The only purpose is to better the child s welfare The teacher should further inform herself by talks with pu- pils and parents of the child's general health, whether sleep is nor- mal and sufficient, whether great fatigue is noticeable, whether the school work is too heavy or not. Teachers do not as a rule give due weight to the far-reaching results of school work, of loss of sleep, or lack of proper food. After some days of absence because of illness which mav have drained the whole body and brain of its reserve power and accustomed vitality, the pupil is given generally not less but more PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 57 work to "catch up." Seldom do teachers inquire into the home rest, recreation, and relaxation of their pupils. The teacher ought specially to be on the lookout for signs of nervousness. This may be exhibited in various ways, as by tremulousness of hands, by shyness, by stam- mering, by irritability, etc. The causes of nervousness should be close- ly inquired into. Is it due to worry over lessons, over examinations, lack of sleep, lack of exercise, heredity, or what? In all cases a remedy should be sought. To test mental and moral characteristics no apparatus nor special tests are required. They are generally out of place. The daily contact of the teacher with pupils in the classroom and on the playground ought to reveal to the observant tocher the mental and moral status of her pupils. More important, however, than simply determining what mental and moral characteristics her pupils exhibit, the teacher should make an especial study of each pupil to find out best methods of arous- ing given states of knowing, feeling, and willing in them. To do this she will need to study their interests and the apperceptive material already in possession. To determine what the child already knows and how best to lead him to the next step is fundamental in all true teaching. Along wfth the careful observation of children carry on as wide a line of reading as possible. The works of Preyer, Tracy, Baldwin, Hall, and others are full of suggestions. Although you cannot imitate all their observations, and it would not be desirable if you could, yet the reading wiU suggest many new points to observe, and serve as a cri- terion for your own observations. Read as much on general psychol- ogy as possible, and do not overlook the valuable psychological mate- rial in general literature. Nowhere else can you find such minute de- lineations of types of character as in general literature. Leave no stone unturned in trying to secure the maximum of intelligent knowl- edge concerning your pupils and ways of developing them into complete manhood and womanhood. Remember that the child is the center. Hail with delight anything that will enable you to know him better, no matter from what source that information has been gleaned, whether by general observation, by means of the balance, the tape- line, the microscope, test-types, ocular instruments, or even the much tabooed questionnaire. Do not regard the field as exhausted by the study of one child, by examination of one characteristic. You need to know all the children that come under your care, and all about them, and the goal is not a baptism of printer's ink but a true knowl- edge of the children, that they may be ennobled and uplifted. It is the law of life that parents live only as long as they can be of use to their offspring; as soon as the offspring bearing period closes, de- cline sets in. Then the whole goal of life is education, and we should strive diligently as did Pestalozzi, to better know the human spirit, its laws of development, and the means of vivifying and ennobling it. 58 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. CAX THE NORMAL SC^HOOL PREPARE TEACHERS EOR THE HIGH SCHOOLS A. H. SAGE. In the Fiigh schools of Wisconsin at the present time, there are em- ployed 584 teachers including principals of schools. Of this number, 246, or about 42 per cent., are college graduates; 185. or about 32 per cent., are normal graduates; and 153, or about 26 per cent., are teach- ing on some kind of a teacher's certificate. If we take this demand for the normal school product as an answer to our question, it would seem that the normal school can prepare teachers for the high school, since it is now providing about one-third of all the high school teach- ers employed in the state. It can afford us no satisfaction, however, to beg the question in tnis manner, for it makes no consideration of the forces and factors which must determine the policy of the normal schools of this state, and with which they must deal with frankness and dignity if they would maintain the public approval. Until recently, the normal school has held practically exclusive sway in its peculiar professional field. Within a few years past, however, American colleges have taken up this work and pursued it with such vigor and success as to greatly diminish the exclusiveness of the nor- mal school domain. Among the many other elements which claim at- tention in this connection, comes the question of the real province of the normal school. Normal schools differ so much in general char- acter and extent that no one needs be surprised to hear it said that there is no significance to the expression "the normal school." The general character and aims of our colleges and universities are much better defined. In one normal school, all the usual academic branches together with a broad professional course are treated. In another, only professional work is done. In some normals, the academic work is of a very elementary character, while in others it assumes the pro- portions of a coMege curriculum. We learn of some normal schools in which practically only academic work is done, and where the pro- fessional training is left to grow as did Topsy of slavery day fame. Even in our own state where the courses are modeled and defined sub- stantially alike, a great diversity of practice prevails. Every expe- rienced teacher knows that the idea frequently prevails that profes- sional training for teaching' is a kind of superficial varnish, or a sort of embalming process by means of fine-spun theories and the whole category of methods, fads, and isms plastered on layer by layer. Nor are these notions or something akin to them confined to those in the commoner ranks of life. It is only recently that our higher institu- tions of learning have recognized the value of professional training enough to admit into their courses any consideration of it, and it ap- pears that in some of these cases this move has been made more with a view to attracting popular attention than to complying with a rec- ognized permanent demand. The normal school has been called an excrescence on the public school system of fhis country. Viewed from an academic standpoint, it per- haps is such, but the normal school as such can never be looked at in this limited way, and whatever may ultimately be its status in the PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 59 academic line, it must always stand for the highest in its peculiar pro- fessional field or go to the wall, for it is on this rock it stands if it stands at all. As the case stands with us in Wisconsin today, the normal seems called on to train its students both academically and professionally. From first to last, our schools have faithfully striven toward a so- lution of this difficult double-headed problem. But while the nor- mal has been laboring to establish and secure sanction for its profes- sional ideals, the high school and the public school system generally have been making giant strides to the front. Of all the departments of our public school system, no one element has improved so rapidly as the high school during the past ten years. A recent impartial and con- servative writer has declared that the academic course of instruction in a few of the high schools in this state is superior to that in some normal schools. If the character and extent of the work in the average high school should increase for the next five years as fast as it has dur- ing the past decade, vthere would not be a normal in the state capable of suitably preparing teachers for it. I believe I stand in no danger of being seriously disputed when I say that the normal school should be the best school in the state both aca- demically and professionally. In any other profession or business, a man's defective training is largely his own loss and any advantage which comes from his superior training if he possess it accrues first and foremost to himself; but with the teacher the case is very different; any defect in his training is a direct and serious loss to the whole com- munity and any excellence that may come from his training produces its highest values in the direct service of the public. In a good high school of today, the courses of study as outlined on paper do not appear to differ largely in subject matter from the courses offered in our normal schools and colleges. It will be admitted that the work is more elementary in character and usually more text-bookish in quality. It is in this latter respect that one of the greatest elements of improvement may be looked for. A score or more of high schools in this state have faculties composed almost entirely of specialists, that is, teachers not only thoroughly trained for their work but whose services are devoted exclusively to some one field of work. A teacher in such a high school must not only be well grounded in the elements of a good general education but should have such a depth and breadth of training in some of the great fields of knowledge as to be a safe guide to the thought of his pupils whatever may be their proposed course in life. Does the normal school fit teachers for this kind of work? Let us make a specific analysis of the case. In the field of mathema- tics, the work required in our normal schools is not in excess of that required in many high schools and falls short of the course offered in some of them. Plane and solid geometry and a very ordinary course "in algebra are offered, while in some of the high schools trigonometry is added. Every experienced teacher knows that the literature of the ordinary mathematics and the sciences is full of allusions direct and indirect to the so-called higher mathematics, especially analytical geom- etry and trigonometry. How can a teacher be an intelligent stimulus to the higher educational ideals of a pupil in such fields of which he has not the remotest conception. Some of our fondest desires are rudely jostled when from one of our seniors we are asked to explain what is meant by the sine of an angle, the logarithm of a number, or the equa- "tion of a variable. And yet it is in this field of mathematics that our graduates receive the least adverse criticism on their work. With a view to securing the best possible consensus of public opinion concerning the relation of the normal graduate to the high school work, I addressed something over one hundred letters to high school princi- pals, superintendents, and other school officials. Among the questions -asked in these circular letters were the following: 60 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. 1. How many teachers in your high school faculty? 1. How many are college graduates? 2. How many are normal graduates? 2. Looking over your past experience and omitting superintendents and principals, can you say that the college graduates in your faculties have on the whole commanded larger individual salaries than the nor- mal graduates? 3. Which of the two classes just named have in your opinion aver- aged to hold their positions longer? (Of course definite statistics for a period of years are desired if convenient.) 4. Is the principal of your high school a normal or a college graduate? 5. If normal graduates are not admitted to positions in your high school faculty, will you very frankly state the reasons. In this con- nection I am especially anxious to know whether the objections to nor- mal graduates are based upon a theoretical consideration of their quali- fications or upon past experience with them in this capacity, and as specifically as possible what these objections are. 6. In what respects does the normal graduate as a class differ from the college graduate in his capacity to fill high school positions? Do you observe any marked difference in scholarship as demanded for high school work? comparative excellence in methods of presenting the work? success in securing results? susceptibility to suggestion and im- provement in the work? social status in the community? 7. If you have found the normal graduate deficient in scholarship for his work in the high school, please state as fully as may be in what respects this is true. 8. Please state whether you are a graduate of a college or a normal school, and give me some idea of the extent of your acquaintance with the normal school and its methods. About eighty responses were received. In some respects these re- plies speak with no uncertain tone and show unmistakably the trend of educational affairs with reference to the normal and high schools as nothing else could do since they voice public sentiment in its most ef- ficient form. I have combined with my deductions from the data of these letters some conclusions drawn from the reports of the superin- tendent of education of this state and the report of the United States commissioner of education. There are 153 high schools in this state with four year courses of study, and 55 with three year courses. Of these 110 are on the ac- credited list of the university. More than half the accredited schools are in charge of college graduates as principals or superintendents, but in all these schools, 83 principals are college gradutes and an equal number or 83 are normal graduates. The remaining 42 are presumably not graduates of any higher institution of learning. The following table gives some comparative idea of the growth of the high schools during the past four years: Fonr-year course. ] Three-year course ■! Year. 1894 1898 1894 1898 Aver- age attend- ance. 7,779 n,.S98 1,946 1,817 Enrollment in Dep't of English. German. Classics. 6,048 6,934 2,353 2,238 1,606 3,620 1,995 3,594 11 Graduates. Male. 314 682 139 139 Fe- male. 626 1,066 140 207 Total 940 1.748 279 M6 PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 61 From this comparison, it will be seen that the graduation from the high schools is increasing at the rate of about 50% per year at the present time. It is also obvious that the increase is felt most strongly in the higher and more specialized departments. The demand for in- struction in German is increasing at the rate of nearly 60% per year while that for the classics is not far behind at 50%. Absolute statistics are not available for a similar comparison in regard to the science work, but all the evidence at hand indicates a decided increase in this depart- ment as welT. This of course means an elevation of the tone and char- acter of the work all along the line and a greatly increased demand for special trained teachers, e^ecially in the more advanced departments of the work. More than half of the replies received from high school people show that at least in some of the departments of their schools they demand specialists and look to the colleges for them for obvious reasons. More than forty out of about sixty replies from high school principals state that normal school graduates do better work the first few years, many of them specifically naming two years, than do college graduates. Some make no further qualifications of their statement but many add that the college graduate seems to outstrip the normal graduate in the long run. The following are expressions and views that frequently occurred in these letters; The normal graduate is better "grounded in. the common branches" of the high school course; "he knows his arithmetic, book-keeping, word-analysis, and sentential analysis better and loses less time in get- ting at these subjects with his classes than does the college graduate." Many speak of the superiority of the normal graduate in the matters of discipline and method. It is frequently remarked that the normal grad- uate is a better all round teacher for the earlier classes but fails most in the more advanced classes where the work is more highly specialized. A number of high school men lay strong emphasis on the belief that the training in methods at the normal often does more harm than good. They emphasize the oft repeated thought that the teacher trained to a methodical treatment of children will be more likely to look on older pupils in the same childish methodical way and waste much time "de- veloping and teaching" that which common sense may be relied on to secure to the pupil. It is the belief of some that training in the practice department for grade work detracts in some respects from the efficiency of the high school teacher, "sears him over with a kind of professional gloss," "gives him a feeling that he has finished his professional train- ing," "inclines him to act on theories and precedents that are not adapted to his case." The larger high schools show a decided tendency to reject normal graduates in the last two years of the course. This of course comes in part from the specialization tendency of these schools which calls for specialists in these departments. With a view to a better appreciation of the public sentiment, I take the liberty of making anonymous extracts from some of these letters: "Normal graduates are admitted to positions in our high school pro- vided they are qualified, but my experience is that while one normal graduate may be qualified there are ten who are not. I find them weak in the classics and the sciences but usually strong in English. They usually excel in methods of presenting the work but are not always able to see beyond their methods." Another writer says; "After eleven years of observation in one of our leading cities, I am forced to the conclusion that the really efficient teacher, with rare exceptions, can be found only among the ranks of those who have made special preparation for their work, either in the normal school or some other institution in which a fair equivalent for normal training is given." Another says, — "The policy of our board has been to hire college graduates; first, because they can secure college 62 • WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. graduates for about the same they would pay normal graduates; and, second, because the board feel that they can hold pupils in the high school better if they employ teachers from the higher institutions of learning: and. third, because they wish their teachers to have a broader preparation than the normal can give. In my experience, I have found college graduates to be stronger teachers and especially of the lan- guages and the sciences. Normal graduates know better how to go to work with their classes and do not need as close supervision at the out- set but later there is not much difference." Concerning graduates from high school graduate courses, one says, — "The high school graduate is a mere boy, known as such only, and acts as such; in two years he graduates from a normal school. He is still only a boy, a little more advanced in knowledge, and with little or no ac- quired dignity, decision or maturity of judgment." Another writes, — "My preference is for university graduates for the reason that the uni- versity affords opportunities for specialization; the present condition of normal schools, and the arrangement of courses in them do not make this possible. The high school teacher needs not only to know his sub- ject, but he needs an over-view that comes only from a rich preparation in his special subject. My belief is that normal schools will come more and more to meet the requirements for specializations which are the de- mands of t"he high schools." "The normal graduate knows how to teach; but his knowledge of each branch is less thorough than that of the university graduate. He has knowledge of more branches, but lacks that quality in his work which comes from having done a few things well. I can not say that the nor- mal graduate is so much deficient in scholarship, but that in nearly all branches he is required to teach about as much in the high school as he himself has studied in the normal. For these reasons our board are exceedingly cautious about admitting normal graduates into the high school. The university high school inspectors are constantly calling at- tention to these points, and so in order to be sure, or surer as some of our board members think, of keeping the high school on the accredited list a university graduate is hired. The normal graduate's chances for a high school position are getting less every day. and I fear that with the present organization and equipment of our normal schools our graduates can not hold high school positions in the future as they have in the past." There is one other important phase of the high school problem that can not be omitted in this connection: I refer to the present custom of accrediting high schools by the university. This policy on the part of the university is undoubtedly slowly but surely diminishing the chances of the nominal graduate in the high school. High school principals freely admit this. Boards of education after one or two conferences with the university inspector would need to be made of different stuff than most men are if they did not feel impressed with the advantage of at least dominating their school faculty with teachers acceptable to the university." In the table of statistics presented above it was noticed that the demand for German as well as Latin and Greek was increasing at the rate of 50% or more a year. This has practically come about since the university inspection of the high schools began, and it can not be doubted that it is mainly due to the influence of that institution. To any one familiar with the trend of school affairs in this state of late, it will be no news when I state that the study of chemistry is suddenly ' disappearing from the courses of the high schools. If it be true that the university does not approve of this study in the high schools, is it to be understood that chemistry is not to be commended as a high school branch, or is it that the great forces of the secondary school system of this state are to be brought into line as a feeder for the state university PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 189S-99. 63 and chemistry omitted witlioiit regard to the interests of the thousands of high school pupils who never attend a university? From the above considerations, it appears that the university is dominating the policy of the high schools in some measure at least. This might appear at first sight to be an objectionable state of affairs, but it must De borne in mind that the state university is in a position to wield an immense influence for the upbuilding ^of the secondary schools and that if this power be properly used it must be one of the best influences that could possibly enter into the school situation of this state. The university of the state of New York has dominated or controlled the policy of the high schools of that state for many years; indeed, it may be said that a high school in New York state is what the state university makes it. But of course that institution has no resident student body and so is not open to the liability of imposing conditions in the interests of itself as opposed to those of the high schools of the state. That the normal school can not compete against such forces as these if it comes to a question of competition along these lines goes without saying. More than seventy per cent, of the high school principals who responded to my inquiry state that university graduates are favored in the high school and they offer explanations in most cases which show that this state of affairs is due in some measure to their accredited relations with the state university. It is not the purpose of this paper to consider the expediency of this policy of our state university, except in so far as it bears on the question of the relations of the normal school to the high school. In strengthening the language courses in the high school, an outlet is found for the col- lege graduate in his strongest and most exclusive field and in just the work in which the normal school is weakest; and must necessarily re- main so unless its course be materially extended. Every real advance- ment in the standard of the high school should be encouraged and if the normal can not keep pace, let it find the field which belongs to It and confine its efforts to tnat field, but neither the normal, nor the col- lege or university should endeavor to turn the work of the high school away from that course of action and development best suited to the needs of its pupils. Let us now-examine the situation on the side of the normal schools themselves. According to the estimates of the presidents of the several schools of fhe state, about twenty-five per cent, of the normal graduates at the present time go into high school positions. This per cent, is on the decrease. Nearly all of these men agree that the minimum require- ments in the respective courses are not adequate to fitting teachers for the high school. Five of the seven schools favor the extension of the present courses along lines calculated to fit teachers for the high school, and most of them, perhaps all, show a decided disposition to a closer Inspection of the qualifications of the high school graduate candidates for admission. As evidence in this connection, I will cite the case of those high school graduates who applied for admission to my classes in physics this year. There were eighty of them and all were graduates of high schools in this state. EiglJt questions scattered over the entire field of elementary physics were presented to them with the request that they write on any five. The questions dealt with the commonest funda- mental phenomena of the science and involved no exact technical or mathematical statement of facts. Nearly one-third of the class stood under 25%, more than half were under .50%, while not more than ten or twelve could possibly be marked above 75%. Some of my correspondents were very out-spoken in the objection to graduates form the two years' normal school course, and that mainly on two grounds: first, it is argued that they are too young and immature 64 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. of mind to take hold of the work with that vigor and capacity which come from the possession of at least a few settled convictions; and in the second place, they feel that these people have not been under the influence of the normal long enough to get above their ideals as pupils in the high school, a fact often commented on by the normal people themselves. The information received from a large number of these high school principals and superintendents shows unmistakably that according to the public estimate, the normal graduate is most deficient in the fields of the sciences and the languages. So obviously true is this in the case of the languages (See normal courses of study) that with one or two exceptions tlie normal schools of this state are not seriously attempting to fit teachers for this work. In the sciences, however, the case is dif- ferent. Physics and biology may be cited in illustration; twenty weeks in each branch is the maximum time required by the student. Any one with any considerable acquaintance with the field of organic nature does not need to be reminded that the student finds this an insufficient time in which to get acquainted with the fundamentals of even one of the great departments of biology, to say nothing about getting such a grasp of the subject as to teach it. Who dares assert that more than one in ten of our full course graduates could conscientiously offer him- self as a teacher of botany in a good high school? And this one in ten would doubtless be the student who carried his study in this field con- siderably beyond the required work. In most of the normals, I believe no attempt is made to cover the field of elementary physics in the twenty weeks; so that the student who graduates in the regular course has not had even a cursory survey of the merest rudiments of what some would designate as the chief of the physical sciences. If perchance the whole field of elementary physics be covered in the twenty weeks, the case is not essentially al- tered so far as fitting a person to teach is concerned. I believe a twenty weeks' course spread over the entire field of elements of physics, is to the adult mind more of an injury than a benefit; while, for the same amount of study on a limited portion of the subject, the best than can he said is tnat it affords some culture but by no means fits the indi- vidual to teach the subject even in the elementary schools. In addition to this inadequate required work, however, some of our schools are of- fering as high as six ten weeks elective courses, an amount which ex- ceeds that offered in any of the colleges of the state, and considerably in excess of that required in any of the courses usually pursued at the university by students who enter the profession of teaching. Some- thing like this is true of some of the leading courses in our normal schools. Tt must be said, however, that the student finds it impossible to avail himself of much of this elective work unless he remain in school for a year of post graduate work. As an indication of the demand made on the normal school for this elective work. I may cite the experience of our own school. The Osh- kosh normal began offering a few of these special courses four years ago. The 3emand for them from the first was large and has steadily In- creased until at the present time at least fifteen such ten week courses are given. The average enrollment in these classes probably exceeds 2.5 students. On the other hand, some of the normal schools are making no attempt at anything of this kind, though many of their graduates go into high school positions. From these considerations, it will be seen ^hat some of our normal school graduates will be prepared to teach science in the high school, while others will be unfitted to teach it in any school. This, it seems to us, is often just as true in kind if not in degree of our college graduates. These special elective courses are arranged with special reference to the needs of those fitting themselves for high school PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1S9S-99. 65 work. In the Oshkosh normal alone at the present time, more than one hundred students in the junior and senior classes are enrolled in these special classes, and a constantly increasing number remain annually for post graduate work along these lines. During the year just passed, thirteen graduates of this and other normal schools and colleges were enrolled in these courses. During the present year, thus far, eighteen or nineteen have been enrolled. These people almost without exception, go into high school positions. Doubtless the experience of the other normals is much the same. There are two elements in the normal school which through a process of natural selections tend to bring the best qualified persons into the high school positions: one is the fact that mostly only the stronger students take these special courses, and the other is the fact that the normal school faculties consider it a matter of good policy as well as of practical necessity, to recommend their stronger students for this work. These two elements which have recently entered into the policy of our normal schools have produced a marked change in the character and qualifi- cation of our graduates. It is still true that a considerable number of those not especially prepared for high school work do find positions in these schools. Would it not be well for the normal schools to make the distinction between these two classes more pronounced in the future, and to look forward to an added year generally for those proposing to enter high school positions? The status of the normal school, in the opinion of the writer, is likely to undergo a marked change in the near future, and either go up to the rank of the normal college or step down exclusively to the preparation of teachers for the elementary schools. More than 200 of our American colleges an3 Universities are already offering pedagogical courses. The character and extent of the work in these courses is rapdly increasing and in some instances have already exceeded in quantity and quality the work done in the normal schools. There is every reason why the great- est of the social sciences should have a place of honor in the university, and thus be dignified to the rank of a true profession side by side with law, medicine and the ministry. Can we now from these considerations draw any larger conclusions pertinent to our subject. That the graduates of the Wisconsin normal schools are__filling positions acceptably in the high schools of the state is a fact. That they are proving most acceptable in the common branches a.nd less specialized departments of the high school is clearly shown by the almost unanimous testimony of their employers, as well as by reference to the specific character of their preparation. That the high schools are rapidly changing in the extent and kind of work they are do- ing and in their organization and conduct, probably all will admit; but we have endeavored to show in what directions some of these changes are most pronounced and briefly to cite the chief causes and influences to which tliey are due. It has been shown that these and other con- siderations have wrought a decided and practical change of policy, or perhaps we should say extension of policy ,on the part of the normal schools seriously attempting to fit teachers for the high school. This extension of the normal academic course is an emphatic recognition of the inabillly of the straight course normal graduate to satisfactorily meet the demands of the modern high school; and the question nat- urally arises as to whether the normal schools should extend their courses and organization to meet these new and increasing demands, or confine their efforts strictly to the preparation of teachers for the ele- mentary schools. The data on which this paper is based seem to show clearly that, whatever may be the qualification of the normal school to fit teachers for the high school, it is already meeting in open field a product from the pedagogical courses of our colleges and universities 5 gg WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. normal school as at P^^^^S ^^^^^^f.^.^^.^.^^Vfrr the high school of the f P'^ '^nnM se™t'o retidelar'ge'y ^S insufficient material equip- hp ?n tMs grelt work. It is now sending its product to the high be m this great ^"T^^" j ^^ g^ jt must be better equipped for JSfwoi^k'a^ndt morl^ub'sS^^ supported by the state in its efforts^ Sir anrmot till then may we hope to see the normal graduate taking In und?sDutedplaceTn The field of secondary education, not because he fspossbTyable^ut because he is unquestionably superior, and because he is an educated as well as trained specialist in his chosen field. PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 67 SCHOOL EOOM DECORATION FROM A MOTHER'S POINT OF VIEW. MRS. J. B. ESTEE. The purpose of this paper is to give some practical observations gained in research and personal experience. It is limited to the very beginnings of this great work of school-room housekeeping — making the schools less factory-like and more habitable and attractive; to the prep- aration of the rooms for whatever is to follow in the way of decoration. The present mania for school-decoration presents scores of interest- ing problems, and not a few serious ones. The school-houses are surely the most important of public buildings and should contain the best that there is to be had. Yet how often are they among the poorest and shab- biest! Not that the people endorse such conditions when they actually know of their existence, but the fact is, many people have not interested themselves enough in the school-houses to know their practical wants, let alone plan a remedy. So long as the patrons or mothers — for it Is Ihe mother's business to look after the children's school environment — were satisfied with unwholesome conditions there was little hope for marked improvement. Fortunately, we have outgrown that period. In the vestibule of the twentieth century many things, hitherto unknown, have come to us. Among them the fact that we as a people are lacking in the power of seeing beauty. One of the crying needs today is culti- vation of taste — aesthetic education. That tfie influence of environment is irresistible no one doubts. Since the children of all classes spend two-thirds of their waking hours in the school, the question is yet to be determined which has the stronger influence — school environment or home furnishings. Trained in the habit of seeing beauty, a child's taste is naturally developed and he comes instinctively to discriminate between what is ugly and what is beautiful. It is, therefore, very important that the decorative spirit shall have come to stay; that the efforts now being made to adorn bare walls and furnish shabby rooms shall not be followed by a feeling of disillusion- ment. We can all recall educational movements from which we ex- pected great results, when, after the usual period of agitation, some- thing of a disappointment was experienced. And we concluded that the movement was either impractical or useless or both, for everything that ought to be done can be done. The necessity of the movement we are considering — ^school decoration — can hardly be exaggerated. To insure a steady and satisfactory advancement we must in the first place ex- clude the trivial, the trashy and the theoretical. "We must be practical. And in the second place, we must rigidly maintain a high ideal. It Is not enough that the pictures and casts be limited to the best. The work from the very beginning — the tinting of the walls, paintings of the wood-work and supplying the various furnishings must be done in ac- cordance with the best knowledge there is to be had upon the subject and with scrupulous care for the art of common things. A bad bit of workmanship or of furniture has inevitably a coarsening infiuence. The merely commonplace cheapens life. And all such work will inevitably be followed by a feeling of disillusionment. For this reason no step should be taken without realizing the seriousness of its consequences. WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION, bo „ „e couKl dispose o. all the oM monstrosUies we hav^^^^^^^^ louses and replace them wi h «™ °^fi,°"Jone is-bulld the new bulla, that is impossible. The only th ng to M^ ^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^^ p^^^,^,^ ^^^ SfL'?h^ -- -"»Hrofe o', Sesfoir buUdln., with its u.^ a-hltS.f;?s'in;s\Tsr.ri .Usn.^^^^^ zling cross-lights, the ^^'f VnH be?ne so wood may be painted any de- surfaces. For the wood-woik being sort w ^^ key-note to s red color, and therefore the wal\«^ ^^^ flet that the walls of the the entire color scheme. It is now a seau« ^^ ^^ ^hite walls are schooM-oom should be some sort of color. Glai^.^g^^ ^^^^ .^^.^^.^^ not only inartistic, ^"^ injunous to the ey - determining the proper them by the ^-efle^^^^V^^e'snSrdrora sanitary and aesthetic stand- color, that is. proper as f^timated ^;«^ ^ ^^^^^ here is a critical ^^rnl- TmI^ e\r;LSrmust l: Seated for itself alone, according to FtTexpo urf aTe'w general -l^s will apply ^o a 1. ^^ ^^^^ ' First— The wall surface when finished ^^''}}'^ ^ ^^^^ all parts of so thai the amount of 1^^^^^ ,^e1'effects are ve ftrySg to sensitive eyes, the surface, as wavy or clouded effec^^^^^^^^ responsive and cheerful. Second-the colors shou W be hai momoi , i^ ^^^^^^ ^^ soothing Last-and of the greatest impm^^^'^^e question is raised-what colors not irritating to the optic neive^ ^i can answer that in no better way are irritating and whicli, soothing? lean ans gtandish, a cele- than to quote the professional OP^^^^^^ J; „^^,V„„ ^een given. He said, braced specialist of Boston, l^^^\l^'^f^,Tt^lZn^^^^^^ of the eyes "Remember the general rule with egaid to tne ^^^ ^^^^^ .^ to the colors of the spectrum, which is he .^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^. red end of the spectrum, the "^oj^^" "r"'' "t^um the easier it is to the nearer the color is to the blue ^„^^,.«J,^^| 'S aTits derivatives should eyes. From this it will be ?^^^/^^|\\^t^arly as bad, while yellow be rigidly excluded, and orange is a ^o near y ^^ -^ ^n other^ sho ikl never be taken by I>reference, but may be jus ^^^ absolutely wise dark and badly lighted room^ Greens an^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ safe colors. The ^^Pth of color is dependent y ^^^.^^ ^ southern itv of ligh't." From this it is conclnsive tnat a ^^^^ ^^^^^^ exposure, filled with ^"-^i^h ^bl J sl^gravs,' of varying depth, accord^ with cooler tones, as Si-e^"^^^°^,^i^'|i'^'a northern exposure, one into ing to the light; whereas a i«o"^.^J'^ifoSld receive warmer treatment,, which the sun seldom or never ^^^er"- f.''^" ^ for the class-room. Colors should never bemused j^ ,^^ ^^j^f^^, /andl^^- ^^^"^ ^^"^ '^ f but the tones should be mode^st. luminous ana ^^^erless aspect, safe color, it is "nsatisfactory owing to wood-work is Brown, unless very V^^'v.?/the wl^ '"^'^^^^^ '""^ '''^'''^ ^^'"^ painted ligTiter in ^^^^^/^^'J^^^f ,0^0 added to preserve the harmony. light, with just enough ^^ J^^^;^^'^/^' "^l for corridors. . ^ Warmer and deeper tones may be ^^^d tm ^^^^ ^^^^^^^^ .^ All that has been said i-e^ar^^;"^/^^^ c^ 01 ^ ^^^ of s^rg^^s;^r:;:^t^aipt:t^u.a. SSb/S^rS^r ^^iS t^^l ^^uSibuldance of sunlight, the transparent quality has Pi'^Y^^^S" rooms that is, difficult to har- There is one feature i" ."^^f.^^^^^^^.^t ^s ^.el.'^"^'^''^'^- ^ ^^ monize in any color combination that is^ ^h^ ^^^^^^^ boards here in olive green is being used with ^f /^^/^;f ^Uhing to the eyesight and less Milwaukee. This is found to be more sootnmg inartistic than the oW-fashioned black-boaids^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^p. Just a word is due the position of picture mouiai g PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 69 plied with black-boards, the picture moulding should be placed at the top of the wall surface, i. e., at the ceiling. This will lessen by one the horionztal lines that cut up the wall surface, of which there are still two, — the c'halk tray and moulding at the top of the illustration board. But in the office and the teachers' room where there are no illustration boards, the picture moulding may be placed eighteen or twenty inches below the ceiling. In which case the ceiling color may be carried down to the picture moulding. Wall registers are painted the color of the wall surface instead of that forbidding black so often used; while the radiators and steam pipes may be finished in gilt or bronze. In considering the minor details — plants, bulletin boards, sash cur- tains, etc. — we will do well to recall the advice of Ruskin regarding the home furnishings and exclude everything that does not serve for use, or beauty, or both. As to plants, there are a few palms, ferns and vines which adapt themselves to the class-room temperature and will last for months in succession. They must, however, be exchanged when they begin to discolor or look starved, as they are then no longer decorative. Sash curtains are to shut out a too strong light, or obstruct an other- wise unpleasant view. They should never be white, but some tone that will harmonize with the color combination of the room. For bulletin boards a soft olive green burlap will prove effective. Having finished with walls, wood-work, window shades, illustration boards, etc., we next come to the chairs, desks and tables. There we may be guiBed somewhat by this fact: the class-room is a work-room in the same sense that the home library is a work-room. The furni- ture will in quality and quantity be in keeping with the purpose and occupation of the room. If the atmosphere of the home, as produced by its furnishings, reveals the tastes and interests of the family, so that of the school-house should represent the people of the ward. Al- though we may have well framed Raphael photographs on the walls and first model Angelo sculpture on hand-made iron brackets, yet, if we have not a decent chair in the school-house our aesthetic character suggests sounding brass and tinkling cymbals. The principal's office stands as an index to the school. Unless it is adequately representative it should be one of the first rooms to receive attention. If it chances to be in one of the older buildings, one of the worst problems will be the treatment of the floor. For a floor in the principal's office, teachers' room and library the best way, in the light of present experience, is to carpet with a heavy quality of lino- leum in the natural color. It wears well, the dull, soft brown is in- conspicuous, and being plain, there is no offensive design to mar the color combination of the room. From this it is but fair to concede that what the school-houses need is a siege of good, practical housekeeping. This may be one reason the movement appeals so strongly to mothers; why it has swept like con- tagion from Boston to San Francisco; and why, while yet in its in- fancy, it requires but little optimism to see that it is destined to have great influence. One of the more immediate results will be cleaner school-houses. And as the mothers become more interested in making the schools attractive, there will be developed a more friendly and helpful relation between teachers and mothers. No exaggerated prophetic power is needed to see the time when these voluntary organizations, endowed with suggestive power, will have served their purpose and the great M^ork will be officially adopted. Speed the day when Wisconsin will have a State Director of Art; when every city and town will have an art council with power to condemn public monstrosities, and when every board of school directors -svjll have an art committee. ^Q WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE HAKD. H. „. BEX.KIE.n, CHICAOO MANUA. TRAIMNO SCHOOL. . .,- 4.-^r, v.ic idpa of education AS man ascends in ^^^ ^^^t'' Z^XrsSnt^^^ of education chtnge^s. We read in cn^r boyhood t^^^^^^ P^^^^ ^'^-l^^f^TftsTee was to ride, to shoot, and to speaK uie masculine half of its tiee bioader but was confined m Athens to tne n r^^^ Ro^an idea c tizens,' never Probably more than 30^00J^_ -^^^ ^, ,,,. for the upper was similar to the Greek,— oiatoiy, guv ^^ Tractate of MiUo.t, class Coming to much l^tertmies the celeb, ate .^^^ ^^^ education wSch everybody praises and "J^^^f^^^^^ The modern idea of educa- rxclusively for the leaders ol the state. 1 1 includes the edu- tion diffeis totally from the ^"^^^"Vhfs modern idea of what should cation of the people, of the mass^ Jil'JeSt on been greatly modified, ronstltute an education ba^, --^thm a ^ene^^^^^^J; ,eai schule competes if not wholly revolutionized I'J ^'^JJJ^^f^y, a generation ago, a boy with the gymnasium. In oiir «^^^ ^"J^'^g-eek, and a girl could not eould not Jter^^ollege^with^it^^ ^^„^^, ^,,,,,, Greek is Setter than the number having Greek^ education in three school curriculum, also. ,^„„,,x-„. fact or principle, in higher edu- There is, however, a very '™P°3„\^^L 'extent in the common school,- cation which is found to a ^:^ry 7"^'^„e?ent idea of educating the few a act that seems to be %r«^;^,^,°JJi\^S men and a very few women only. The state "diversity educates a le^ ^^^^ j^ law. m medi- for their life work. The state o^eis tiee inst number of men Siefn engineering and lately in agricul^^^^^^^^^^ IgHculture, is very following these professions, i"^l"'l^V''^J' ^nd women who earn their small compared with the number «« ^^^^^^^^'J'^educates the lawyer, the fwelihood in mechanical pui-suits. ™^!^\^\V,e,, ,^, blacksmith, the phvsician. the engineer, .^'^^^^X education is made in Europe; and shoemaker? Provision for ^^^^^^^/^^^f ^^ u,e United States^ Perm t this question must soon be ^""f.^^f'^ „reat educational need in this me to say that in my ;\"'^sm«^„^ f^e gieat ^^, colleges, but country at the P^-^f^^J^Jf^.^'ireducated mechanics. But lest I be trade schools which shall """isn enuta believe that trade mfsi'nderstood, permit "^^/^ fLhv the state; certainly not at pres- rnstruction should be "J^;^\^;; ^ ^ ,,fjpiVed Ind will be supplied by prx- cTit This ereat need should oe ^V' ' u„ii ho hPtter understood, our wealthy philanthropists will gne '^"*^'* ' . ' t^ey now give it tor ^f'u-ade 'schools as freely and a^^J-^^^-^/.^has already begun In the foundation of "n>^^;;«'t'es^^ peter Cooper founded the Cooper In- fact. it began years ago, when ir-eier ^ PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 7I Perhaps T£ is well here to distinguish between the different schools in which the training of the hand forms an essential part of the cur- riculum: 1. The technological school, including schools of mechanical and elec- trical engineering, in which a thorough course of machine shop prac- tice is demanded of every student. 2. The technical school, which gives instruction, not in manual skill alone, but also in the science which underlies and is germane to the mechanical processes of a trade. 3. The trade school, which confines its instruction largely or wholly to the use of the tools and machines of the tr^de. Thus, a weaving school, if a technical school, furnishes instruction in the history and construction of the loom, in the qualities and values of wool and silk, in the action of dyes and mordants, in the designing of patterns, etc. The mere working of the loom, which might constitute the entire in- struction in a trade school, is a very small part of the instruction in a technical weaving school. 4. The manual training school, in which instruction in tools and ma- terials is wholly pedagogic. Of course, it is impossible to separate the industrial from the educational effect and value of this training of the brain through the hand, and the hand through the brain. Indeed, the term "manual training" is most unfortunate, since to most minds it conveys only a half truth. We generally distinguish between the industrial and the educational values of manual training. But the two are sometimes scarcely dis- tinguishable, since a man's industrial value depends in so great a meas- ure upon Ills intellectual ability and training. I trust, therefore, that a very few words on this topic may not be inappropriate. 1. As has been said,, the manual training school is not a school for the teaching of a trade or trades. But it cannot be denied that the pupil acquires mechanical skill, more or less, according to his natural aptitudes. Some boys fail to receive much benefit; but the great ma- jority of the pupils, especially of the graduates, are able to earn a liv- ing with tiieir hands, as a result of their training in the school. They have acquired mechanical skill, not by rule of thumb, under the direc- tion of an ignorant mechanic; but intelligently, in a scientific way, under the instruction of a skillful teacher. Very few of them will work at the bench very long, if at all. By their versatility, their intelligence, their superior mental power, they become foremen, superintendents, managers, etc. Many illustrations might be given to illustrate the superiority of the manual training graduate over even skillful mechanics, whose knowl- edge is confined to what they have learned in the shops, in which the reasons of many, processes are not learned. I shall give two only. The following was told me by one of the assistant superintendents of the pubFic schools of Chicago. A dispute arose between the master mechanic of a railroad and one of our graduates employed on the road, in regard to the application of a certain mechanical principle. The matter was referred to higher authority, and decided in favor of the hoy. Another graduate was employed as draughtsman and designer in an establishment for the making of articles of wrought iron. He sub- mitted a design for an elaborate piece of work, which the foreman of the blacksmith shop declared could not be made. The foreman also sneered at !lie youthful designer for being so ignorant of his business as to submit an impossible design: adding that it was not surprising, since he was o^ly a school-boy. The youth pushed the smith aside, se- lected the stock for the design, turned the draught on the forge, and with his own hands made the piece as designed. rj2 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. SjfeMllie proverbial IngeB.nty of the YaBkee nation ,8 not duo ^ !rt;;?tS"?rs;reX';'.e'?'"?t''\r„Vt\^L'^rc!£|;^,or a farme?rbov educated in a manual training school, can, ^vi h a few Sle 'ools'sa4 to the farm many dollars and --^ Ume^ ^achin r',? hands will in a few minutes, make repairs of ^^iming machinery which otherwise would delay the planting or gathering of crops for hours even davs. This is not a fancy picture; there is abundant evi- dence' that Tt has been done. A few days ago the owner of a ranch anXd for the privilege of receiving instruction m the school that he mSht save time bv fhe repair of his own machinery. He had seen ft donf on a ifeiehboring ranch by a manual training school bo5^ '*2.Tur undemanding of the intellectual 7.^^^^%°^^ ,"J^\""jy^Twl will depend almost entirely upon our ^«"^^Ption of e ucatiom If we believe that education is merely or chiefly the study of books tne cramr^ing of the memory with facts, manual training has no place lu ^■^We prefer to believe that education is something more than a knowl- edge of literature; something more. even, than the development of thfinteiect; and we believe also that it is ^^^r>^^^^^^^J\^'''''}^]^^. hand and eve without cultivating the brain, of which the hand and ev^ are but the agents. We do not believe that the hand or rather the f;u?« ? "diSerfntiates man from the monkey;" although it cannot be denied fhat the human thumb confers upon man -power of which the monkev is forever incapable; but we maintain, and call upon hs- tory^nd science as witnesses, that mind and hand are not antagonistic but are loving co-workers; what while "mind makes the man," mind has alwavs ha. the loyal service of its indispensable he per. he hand^ and that the present civilization of the race was impossible ^ithout the human hand. Emerson's beautiful lines are as true of mmd and hand as they are of the sexes: "From the twins is nothing hidden; To the pair is naught forbidden; Hand in hand the comrades go Every rook of nature through; Each for other they were born, Each can other best adorn." Dr Henrv Maud.=^lev. writing on the Physiology of the Mind, observes that "ihe great advances in science have uniformly corresponded w-ith the invention of some instrument by which the nower of the senses has been increased, or the range of action extended." PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 73 Ruskin exclaims: "Let the youth once learn to take a straight shav- ing off a plank, or draw a fine curve without faltering, or lay a brick level in its mortar, and he^ has learned a multitude of other matters which no lips of man could ever teach him." The physiologist is making progress in tracing the connection of mind and body. He has located the control of different phases of muscular action in different parts of the brain. With unerring accuracy and con- fident assurance he removes a portion of the skull, and finds the tumor which by Its pressure on the brain has paralyzed the action of certain muscles. He is also making progress in the study of the converse of this, viz., in the effect of muscular action on the brain. A noted physician of Boston, Dr. Clarke, says: "The growth, training and employment of the hands of the young aid in the building of a brain. Cut off an arm in infancy, or compel it to be inactive, and there will be less brain in adult life." "What is true of the hand is true of all other organs of the body. They and the brain are developed by recip- rocal action." "The eye and the ear, the hand and the foot, must be exercised and taught in our schools by appropriate labor, and books no longer regarded as the only factor, if we would have fully developea brains." "No perfect brain ever crowned an imperfectly developed body." Dr. Maudsley says: "The muscles are not alone the machinery by which the mind acts upon the world, but their actions are essential ele- ments in our menial operations." Let us examine for a few moments some of the well-known operations of our brains. Here I shall quote from Superintendent Balliet, of Sprigfleld, Mass.: It is well known that that portion of the brain "controlling the hand and arm is very much larger than the area controlling any other por- tion of the body of equal size, except the face. This seems to be due to the fact that it requires a very large number of cells to effect the fine adjustments and delicate co-ordinations of the muscles of the hand in its infinfte variety of movements." "The exercise of the special senses is necessary for the proper phys- ical growth of the brain. Sense training, in so far as it is a physical process at all, consists not in training the external sense organs, but in developing their brain centers." "Both the sensory cells and the motor cells develop through "exercise. It is the function of these cells to generate nerve energy to contract the muscles, and to co-ordinate muscular movements. Voluntary muscular movements have therefore the effect not only of exercising the muscles involved, but also of call- ing into activity the motor brain cells which control them. Indeed, these motor cells cannot be made to act and to develop except by means of the muscles; and muscular exercise, whether in the way of ordi- nary labor, or recreation, or of gymnastics, or of manual training, is absolutely indispensable to the proper development of the motor area of the brain." In persons deprived, by disease, of muscular exercise for many years, the motor area of the brain is found, after death, to be more or less atrophied. "Exercise of the motor cells must come dur- ing the period of brain growth, if it is to be most effective; and the lack of such exercise during this period is a matter of very serious consequence to the brain. It has been found that the amputation of an arm or leg after maturity has been reached is not nearly so detri- mental to the corresponding brain centers as a like amputation in childhood." "What does manual training contribute to the develop- ment of the mind? Examine the processes of seeing and hearing. Light strikes the retina of the eye, and the impression is conveyed to the visual cells in the brain, when a sensation of color is produced. These cells, after having been stimulated many times, acquire the power of reproducing these sensations in the form of ideas. These ideas are 74 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. analyzed, compared, put together ^-JZ^^ZTn"oS^e^"\i7r^^^ become a part of the °^>^d ^ °7,^^^;!!^^n^n"ef tS o^^^^^^^^ and the sions of sound are received in ^^^^^^J^JJ^.^^^^'into ideas which finally L^^-'/wS ala'-Lv tSSn/wSS'?Uer'?.ou.t'; product, are developed." . . , „^ f^«m tvip mnvements of the muscles. In like manner we --^ceive .aeas '™" */,^3°3™glments. are sup- "The Inner surfaces of the fn's. .^e "f^^'f/o, ^irert motor percep- plied with sensory n«"«%™'"f,l°^° '''d%oimd form the basis of the tion. onst as the f"^";"'^ °' "^^Lse motor percepts are developed -tTsr? i^eat whtct 5"H;-£tr'j^o^f'treVrand':;o7'o°, Z Ss rrefhr S ,rn^Sr-ron'ly"Mnr,;.^nowled.e which '"f ^iit? ;;^t"o?r ^h<;;^Arord^nL7':orh^pfaf r^^; rtLr'a'Lrh^y'Sa^arni,?^ In these are there^ motor training. But the large ^otoi area o the wain g » j^ inhnitely varied -<> --/^ -„S'r«Tf' moto feat and especially that pSSn'^ofll'iSull'areSrei^^heringymnaU^ skilled labor: narnely the five finges and » e.i^n^^_y^ ^_^^^^ ^^^^_ '■■i-SsT si^?cirfrroVrr'srrii"S. fund^ running, jumping, lifting. The ^f ^^^^''^ ""f f,^ ^„7e arr^ tre S. ing the more delicate operations: the muscles ^f t^^ ^^re ai m^ the na the vocal organs. Physical training m. the form ^f^ 8^^"?,^;'^ ^ra n well-considered games, reach the fundamental muscles, .manual tram Tng reading aloud, singing, playing a musical instrument, tram the ^^B^rSerels^lnother factor in the P-^^- and that factor is t^^^^ sninal cord. The spinal cord relieves the bram of a '^^ff,,^"^^"!', ". l-^JrT.' '1,1 automatic. ,^ahm.a,nrovemen,s are made nde, the mrec^ S„!'h„ri:rert"J,egatlf'?oVhe\pinarcord. We generally walk PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 75 without being conscious of any mental effort. Can any of us forget the mental as well as the physical strain involved in our first efforts to master that persistently perverse piece of mechanism, the bicycle? Did not the process demand our undivided attention? But now that the spinal cord has relieved us of all, or nearly all, anxiety concerning equi- librium and locomotion, we can enjoy the scenery, and converse with our wheeling friends as easily as we do when walking. Here is the answer to the second objection: The unskilled laborer uses the fundamental muscles. The skilled mechanic may use the ac- cessory muscles, but their movements have become largely or wholly automatic; that is, their control is under the direction of the spinal cord. The brain is scarcely called into exercise. Here also we see the need of intelligence in devising and supervis- ing the work of a manual training school. The manual exercises should develop the accessory muscles; the gymnasium and healthy play will care for the fundamental muscles. The manual exercises should always be under the direction of the brain, not of the spinal cord. When we convert the manual training school into a manufacturing establishment, when we seek skill and rapidity in the production of many articles of the same kind, we have begun to transfer the control of the pupil's operations from his brain to his spinal cord; we are ceasing to develop brain power. Do the observed effects of manual training agree with this philoso- phy? What can be learned from the men and women who have de-- voted years to the intelligent study of pupils in manual training schools? From a mass of testimony from the schools of America and Europe, time permits only a few quotations. The Report of the Boston Commit- tee on Manual Training, issued in 1891, says: "Your committee are not so enthusiastic as to believe that the in- troduction of wood-working into all our schools is to solve all our dif- ficult problems, or in any way be a substitute for the present intel- lectual studies. The fundamental things, reading, writing, arithmetic, history, geography, which are the basis of all education, must still be taught. But on the other hand, we do believe that a systematic in- troduction of tnis kind of work will be a priceless boon in many ways. Many boys, after they have been three years in a primary school and three years in a grammar school, become weary of books and exceed- ingly restless. To such minds; doing something with the hands is a great relief, and brings back the waning interest. It carries the boy arounrl and over that critical period in Ms life when he is too old to be boy, and yet not old enough to feel the restraints and responsibilities of coming manhood. "Such training is not only educational but disciplinary. The boy works off some of his surplus energy at the bench, and is more ready for his book. In a neighboring city, where boys were from the worst homes, and often unnjlv, the giving them tools to use, and work to do. changed their whole habit of thought. Manhood was aroused; they took pride in their tools and their bench, and were stimulated to care in the performance of every task. The experience of the Lyman School at Westborough is valuable upon this point. This school is composed of nearlv two hundred bovs, sent here, most of them, for petty lar- ceny, and fhey are constantly changing. In the manual training shop, where the work of all the boys is together side by side, no boy for nine monDis has been known to interfere with the work of any other, although tTie temntaflon for the poor workman quietly to substitute some better work for his own must at times be very great. In the time that this work has been carried on, only one boy out of four hundred has been obliged finally to be forbidden the opportunity to learn, be- 76 WISCONSIN TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. cause Oi unwillingness to conform to the rules. Even to boys who have taken their first steps in crime, there seems to be a fascination about this work which begins at once to develop in them that which is manly and right, and leads them upwards to better things. And it is not necessary for us to go outside of our own city for illustrations. The change that has been wrought in some of our own boys is most wonderful. Before the tool work was introduced they were unruly and almost ungovernable, except by severe measures. Now all is changed; they have learned the law of exactness, the value of time; there is self- reliance and dignity awakened, and even the suggestion that they may, under certain circumstances, be deprived of their tools, is the sever- est of all punishments. Furthermore, in the two grammar schools v/here this work has been done under the best conditions, it has been found that as much has been done intellectually as before, when the whole time was given to regular studies, — a statement that has some- times been questioned." Permit me to remark parenthetically that while for centuries the game of Jackstraws has been played by boys, I find no record of its use as a preventive of, or remedy for, the crime of petit larceny, or for the habit ol cheating in play. The school at Westborough is a reform school. Let us turn to an- other class of youth, the children of the city of Brookline, that little city of wealth, culture, and refinement, which has had the wisdom to preserve its autonomy, notwithstanding the blandishments of its neigh- bor, Boston. It is a city of ''fads:'" in its schools are found kindergar- tens, sewing, cooking, drawing, manual training. After years of ex- perience, the Superintendent writes: "The School Committee of Brook- line are in full sympathy with the idea that the best and broadest edu- cation is assured onlv when, to the ordinary studies, hand and eye training are added. The theory upon which the committee are work- ing is, that hand training belongs properly to every grade; that it should begin in the kindergarten and proceed progressively through the Primary, Grammar, and High schools. This scheme is more compre- hensive and liberal than that which admits the feasibility of working in grammar grades in such materials as clay and paper, but reserves all tool work for the Manual Training High School. "The success that has attended the development of tool work with pupils of grammar grades in the W. H. Lincoln School, is a sufficient answer to any such claim. "It would appear that the devotees of higher manual training are in danger of making the mistake that has ever marred our educational system, viz.. that of postponing those subiects that are most-stimulating and enriching, like Natural Science, History and Literature, to a point in the course when the vast majority of the pupils have passed out to their life work. "We want the most nourishing mental food, and the most universal forms of hand training for the grammar schools. In no other wav can we economize educational means, and give the masses that broad and liberal training demanded bv present social conditions. "Teachers who witness daily lessons in hand training soon learn that its value consists larselv in the emphasis given to sense activity, and Peek to applv this principle while instructing in other branches. Thus the tone and spirit of these schools is being graduallv improved." Dr. .Tohn D. Runkle. formerly President of the Massachusetts Insti- tute of Technologv, and still a professor in the Institute, has been a member of the school committee of Brookline since 1882. In a pri- vate letter, after telling me their plans for the future. Dr. Runkle says: "So you see we are makig a careful study of the question of the variety an3 extent that hand studies can be carried in a grammar PAPERS READ BEFORE THE CONVENTION, 1898-99. 77 school. Thus far we have been well satisfied with the result. There is but one opinion among the teachers, and all who have carefully fol- lowed the experiment as to quickening effect and increased interest and success in all school work. The attendance has never been so good, and many more pupils now remain to the end of the course. We ex- pect to see good results from this close relation between the grammar and manual training schools." But I am asked to give some facts directly connected with my own experience, and my conclusions therefrom. I shall attempt to do this very briefly. 1. A judicious amount of manual training does not diminish the amount or the quality of pupils' academic work. The Chicago Manual Training School devotes one and a half hours a day to shop work, and one hour daily to drawing, five days in the week. That is, twelve and a half hours a week to shop work and drawing. One might rea- sonably expect that a boy's academic work would be considerably de- creased by the abstraction of so many hours of school time. But such is not the case. Not only does the manual training school boy accom- plish as much in book work as the average high school boy in the same time, but in some studies, as geometry and physics, his knowledge is more thorough and lasting. Graduates from our three years' course are admitted on an equality with the graduates of four year high schools to the engineering courses of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, of Cornell university, of the universities of Michigan, Illi- nois, Wisconsin, and others. Some of these young men have taken prizes and honors. Some of them have been admitted to advanced standing, and have graduated from Cornell, Michigan, and Purdue, in three years. One school of technology admits our graduates of three years, and de- mands an additional year in mathematics from many .high schools. These facts jprove that our graduates hold their own side by side with graduates of four year high schools. Besides, they are excused from a , large amount of shop vi'ork and drawing, which the high school boy is obliged to do, notwithstanding the fact that his time in the univer- sity is of much more value to him than it was in the high school. This extra time the manual training school boy has for other work or for play. I shall not, I trust, be understood as saying anything derogatory to the high school. I am simply comparing two high schools, one with, the other without, manual training. Neither do I pretend to say that a manual training school boy accumulates more knowledge in three years than a boy without manual training accumulates in four years. I believe that I understate the truth when I say that his acaaemlc work is not decreased by his manual training. I am not alone in this contention. I find this statement in the Prince- ton Review: Among the 110,000 pupils in the public schools of Phila- adelphia, those who attended Mr. Leland's Art School "stood highest of all in all studies." Of many illustrations of the truth for which I am contending that I found in Europe, a few years ago, one amused me. The head master of one of the London Board schools had become, from a bitter oppo- nent of manual training, its most enthusiastic advocate. Asking the reason of this conversion, I was told that it was wholly a financial mat- ter. It is no doubt well known to you all that the grant, or, as we would say, the appropriation of the Imperial government to each school depends on the number of promotions in that school. This head master opposed tlie introduction of manual training into his school for fear that it would interfere with his pupils' academic work, and thus re- duce the amount of money appropriated to his school. However, he was persuaded to experiment. His fear and trembling were turned to Library of Congress Branch Bindery, 1902 »''* '-«• .^,«. a^TT' ^^p^'-o fW<<. sw ^^^^■^v^ ^^^^Hi^^H mm.^MW f l^ m^mMit- #^ .< . z 1 % - •"•vt LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 020 407 224 3 ■>^, -^^ •"IK' <««& ■**Wf#l^. '1^ ■ ^ i^J ^^*(.^