-■^^ -^^ 
 
 
 
 0° 
 
 
 

 MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 MODERN 
 GEOGEAPHY AND HISTOEY. 
 
 BY 
 
 WILHELM PUTZ, 
 
 PRINCIPAL TUTOR AT THE GYMNASIUM OF DUREN. 
 
 AUTHOR OP 
 
 " MANUAL OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY " ETC. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROBI THE GERMAN BY THE 
 
 REV. R. B. PAUL, M.A., 
 
 VICAR OF ST. AUGUSTINE'S, BRISTOL. AND LATE FELLOW OF EXETER COBLEG-B 
 
 OXFORD. : ' r r^^^V^ 
 
 '■■■ ^^A 
 
 FIRST AMERICAN, • -f~~x..JJi_ ^ '■' 
 
 REVISED AND CORRECTED FROM THE LONDON EDITtsljIri''// ■ 'r-l-r-H ^'" '^ 
 
 NEW-YOKK : 
 D. APPLETON &L COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 GEO. S. APPLETON, 164 CHESNUT-ST. 
 
 
ENTERKD, according 10 Acl of Congress, in the year 1851, by 
 1). APPLETON & COMPANY, 
 the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the Southern District of New- 
 
 York 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The present volume completes the seriei* of Professor 
 Putz's Manuals of Ancient, Mediaeval, and Modern 
 Geography and History. Its adaptation to the wants of 
 the student will be found to be no less complete than was 
 to be expected from the former Parts, which have been 
 highly approved by the public, and have been translated 
 into several languages besides the English. The difficulty 
 of compressing within the limits of a single volume the 
 vast amount of historical material furnished by the pro- 
 gress of modern states and nations in power, wealth, sci- 
 ence, and literature, will be evident to all on reflection ; 
 and they will find occasion to admire the skill and per- 
 spicacity of the Author of this Manual, not only in the 
 arrangement, but also in the facts and statements which 
 he has adopted. 
 
 In the American edition several improvements have 
 been made ; the sections relating to America and the 
 United States have been almost entirely re-written, and 
 materially enlarged and improved, as seemed on every 
 account necessary and proper in a work intended for gen- 
 eral use in this country ; on several occasions it has been 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 thought advisable to make certain verbal corrections and 
 emendations ; the facts and dates have been verified, and a 
 number of explanatory notes have been introduced. It is 
 hoped that the improvements alluded to will be found to 
 add to the value of the present Manual. 
 
 J. A. S. 
 Burlington College, Jan. 2, 1851. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. The conquest of the Byaantine empire by the Turks . 1 
 
 2. The application of gunpowder to purposes of war, and 
 
 the establishment of standing armies . . ib. 
 
 3. The invention of printing ... 2 
 
 4. The revival of the arts and sciences , . . ib. 
 
 5. The discovery of the New World, and of a passage 
 
 by sea to the East Indies . . . ib. 
 
 6. The Reformation . . . . . ib. 
 
 7. Political equipoise ..... ib. 
 
 First Period. — From the Discovery of America to the 
 Peace of Westphalia. 1492—1648. 
 
 ^ 1. Discoveries, conquests, and colonies of the Europeans 
 
 in other quarters of the globe . . . iJb. 
 
 2. The Reformation ..... 7 
 
 1. In Germany . . . . . ib. 
 
 2. In the Scandinavian kingdoms . . 14 
 
 3. In Switzerland . . . . . ib. 
 
 4. In other countries .... 15 
 
 3. Germany under Maximilian I. and Charles V,, 1493 — 
 
 1556 17 
 
 1. Maximilian I., 1493—1519 . . . ib. 
 
 2. Charles v., 1519— 1556 .... 23 
 
 4. Spain ....... 28 
 
 1. The marriage of Ferdinand the Catholic and Isa- 
 
 bella of Castille . . . . . ib. 
 
 2. Charles I. .... . 29 
 
 3. Philip II 30 
 
 4. Philip III.— Philip IV 31 
 
 5. The Netherlands ..... 32 
 
 6. Portugal ...... 36 
 
 A. The illegitimate Burgundian line . . . ib. 
 
 B. As a Spanish province .... 37 
 
 7. France ....... ib. 
 
 A. Under the house of Valois ... ib. 
 
VI 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 8. Louis XII. .... 
 
 9. Francis I. . ' . 
 
 10. Henry II 
 
 11. Francis II. .... 
 
 12. Charles IX 
 
 13. Henry III. .... 
 B. Under the house of Bourbon 
 
 1. Henry IV. .... 
 
 2. Louis Xin 
 
 ^ 8. England and Ireland under the house of Tudor 
 
 1. Henry VII 
 
 2. HenrvVin 
 
 3. Edward VI 
 
 4. Mary Tudor .... 
 
 5. Elizabeth .... 
 9. Scotland under the Stuarts . 
 
 Mary Stuart .... 
 James VI. ..... 
 
 10. Great Britain and Ireland under the two first Stuarts 
 
 1603—1649 . 
 
 1. James I. 
 
 2. Charles L 
 
 11. Italy 
 
 1. The Spanish possessions 
 
 2. The Duchies 
 
 3. The Republics 
 
 4. Tuscany 
 
 5. The states of the Church 
 
 12. Germany, from the abdication of Charles V, to the 
 
 peace of Westphalia, 1556—1648 
 
 3. Ferdinand I. 
 
 4. Maximilian II. 
 
 5. Rudolph II. 
 
 6. Matthias 
 
 A. Bohemian-Palatine period 
 
 7. Ferdinand II. 
 
 B. Danish period 
 
 C. Swedish period 
 
 D. Swedish-French period . 
 
 8. Ferdinand in. . 
 
 13. Prussia .... 
 
 14. Scandinavia 
 
 1. Denmark 
 
 2. Sweden under the house of Vasa 
 Gustavus I. 
 Gustavus III. (Adolphus) 
 
 15. Poland .... 
 
 A. Under the Jagellones 
 
 B. Poland an elective monarchy 
 
 16. Russia 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Vll 
 
 , 17. The Ottoman empire .... 
 18. Religion, arts, sciences, &c., during the First Period 
 
 1. The Church (Romish) .... 
 
 2. Political constitution 
 
 3. Legislation ..... 
 
 4. War 
 
 6. The Sciences ..... 
 
 6. Literature ..... 
 
 7. Art 
 
 8. Commerce and manufactures 
 
 69 
 ib. 
 71 
 
 iJb. 
 
 72 
 ib. 
 75 
 
 76 
 
 77 
 
 Second Period. — From the peace of Westphalia to the 
 French Revolution. 1648 — 1789. 
 
 1. To the Spanish war of succession, the northern 
 war, and the elevation of Prussia into a 
 kingdom 
 
 19. France under Louis XIV. 
 
 A. Louis XIV. under the guardianship of 
 
 Mazarin . 
 
 B. Preponderance, of France in Europe during 
 
 the administration of Louis XIV. . 
 First war of spoliation against the Spanish Neth- 
 erlands ..... 
 Second war of spoliation agg,inst Holland 
 The Reunions .... 
 
 20. Germany 
 
 21. Brandenburg and Prussia to 1701 . 
 
 1. Frederick William 
 
 2. Frederick III. . 
 
 22. Great Britain and Ireland 
 
 1. Under the parliament . 
 Cromwell 
 
 2. Under the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell 
 
 B. Under the last two Stuarts 
 Charles II. ... 
 James II. . . . 
 
 C. The house of Orange 
 
 23. The republic of Holland 
 
 24. The north-east of Europe . 
 
 II. To the French Revolution 
 25. War of the Spanish succession 
 
 A. Struggles in Italy and Germany 
 
 1. In Italy 
 
 2. In Germany 
 Joseph I. . 
 
 B. Struggle in Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy, 
 
 for the united Spanish monarchy 
 
 1. In Spain .... 
 
 2. In the Netherlands and Italy 
 
 79 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 ib. 
 84 
 85 
 87 
 ib. 
 89 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 90 
 ib. 
 91 
 ib. 
 iJb. 
 94 
 ib. 
 95 
 99 
 ib. 
 100 
 ib. 
 ib. 
 101 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 102 
 
Tiii 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 C Reverse of fortune. Peace concluded at 
 Utrecht, Rastadt, and Baden 
 ^26. The northern war . • • • 
 
 Causes of the war . • • • 
 
 1. Tlie Danish war . . • • 
 
 2. The Russian-Saxon war 
 
 3. Russian war to 1709 
 
 4. Charles XII. in Turkey , • ^, \ vtt 
 
 5. Invasion of Norway and death of Charles Xii. 
 
 6. Treaties concluded separately 
 
 27. The Emperor Charles VI. • ' ■, ^ \ ■, 
 
 1. War of the Turks against Venice and Austria 
 
 2. The quadruple alliance 
 
 3. The pragmatic sanction 
 
 4 War of the Polish succession _ . , • _ 
 6. War of the Turks against Russia and Austria 
 
 28. Prussia under her two first kings 
 
 1. Frederick I. . 
 
 2. Frederick Wilham I. . ' , ,; +w^'fiv«t 
 
 29. War of the Austrian succession, and the two nisi 
 
 Silesian wars . • • • * 
 
 The first Silesian war 
 The second Silesian war . ■ 
 
 30. The third Silesian or seven years war . 
 
 The year 1756 . • • • ' 
 
 The year 1757 
 
 The year 1759 . • .Larx ' 
 
 The bommenceraent of the year 17bU 
 The commencement of the year 1761 
 The years 1762 and 1763 . • . • 
 
 31 The Emperov Joseph II., 1765-1790. Frederick the 
 Great after the seven years war 
 
 1. The first partition of Poland _ 
 
 2. Disputed succession in Bavaria 
 
 3. Joseph II. sole emperor ^■^^- . ,; .r 
 
 4. The administration and death of Frederick II. 
 
 5. The last years of Joseph II. 
 
 32. France .•••'' 
 
 33. Great Britain . • - • * 
 
 The house of Hanover . . - • 
 
 George III. • • • ' " 
 
 The North American war 
 War in the East Indies ' ^^ * 
 
 34. Spain under the Bourbons, from 1701 • • 
 
 35. Portugal under the house of Braganza, from 1640 
 
 V Possessions of the house of Hapsburg . 
 
 2. The kingdom of the two Sicilies 
 
 3. The Duchies . • • • 
 
 4. The Republics . • 
 
 103 
 104 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 105 
 
 ib. 
 106 
 107 
 
 ib. 
 108 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 109 
 
 ib. 
 110 
 112 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 113 
 114 
 
 ib. 
 115 
 116 
 
 ib. 
 119 
 120 
 121 
 
 ib. 
 
 122 
 123 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 125 
 126 
 
 ib. 
 129 
 
 ib. 
 130 
 
 ib. 
 133 
 134 
 135 
 136 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 
 137 
 
CONTENTS. XX 
 
 PAGK. 
 
 5. The grand duchy of Tuscany . . . 137 
 
 6. The states of the Church ... ib. 
 ^37. Denmark ••.... ib. 
 
 38. Sweden from the termination of the northern war , 138 
 
 39. Russia . , . . . . 140 
 
 40. The houses of Romanow and Holstein-Gottorp, in 
 
 Russia ..... Ml 
 Elizabeth , , . . . .142 
 
 House of Holstein-Gottorp, 1762 . . . ib. 
 
 41. The Osmanic Empire .... 145 
 
 Third Pjjriod — I. From the outbreak of the French Revolu- 
 tion TO THE PRESENT TIME, 1789 — 1848. 
 
 42. Causes and immediate occasion of the Revolution . 145 
 
 I. Chief causes ..... ib. 
 II. The impossibility of avoiding a national bank- 
 ruptcy ..... 146 
 
 43. The constituent National Assembly . . 147 
 
 A. At Versailles . . . . , ib. 
 
 B. In Paris ..... 149 
 
 44. The Legislative Assembly .... 151 
 
 II. The Republic. 
 
 45. The National Convention .... 152 
 
 1. Trial and execution of the king . . ih. 
 
 2. Overthrow of the Gironde . . . 153 
 
 3. The reign of terror after the fall of the Gironde 154 
 
 4. The re-action ..... 156 
 
 46. The first coalition against France , . . 157 
 
 1. Commencement of the war with Austria and 
 
 Prussia ...... ii. 
 
 2. War against the grand coalition, to the peace 
 
 of Blsle ..... 158 
 
 3. Continuation of the war against Austria, the 
 
 German empire, England, Naples, and Sar- 
 dinia ...... 159 
 
 47. Eastern Europe ..... 163 
 
 1. Fall of Poland . . . . . ib. 
 
 2. Prussia.— Frederick William II, . . 165 
 
 48. The French Directory . . . . . ib. 
 
 Bonaparte's expedition against Egypt and Syria . 166 
 
 Establishment of new republics . . . 168 
 
 Dissolution of the Directory !• . . ib. 
 
 49. War of the second coalition against France . . 169 
 
 1. The war in Italy .... 171 
 
 2. The war in Germany and Switzerland . . 172 
 
 3. The war with England ... 174 
 
 50. The consular government of Napoleon Bonaparte . ib. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 III. The Empire. 
 
 ^51. The third coalition against France . 
 
 1. The war in Germany 
 
 2. The maritime war with England 
 
 52. The fourth coalition against France 
 
 53. The war in Portugal and Spain 
 
 54. Suppression of the temporal authority of the pope 
 
 55. War of Austria against Napoleon 
 
 56. Napoleon at the summit of his power . 
 
 57. Napoleon's Russian campaign 
 
 58. The war of liberation 
 
 Campaign in the Spring of 1813 
 Resumption of the war after the armistice 
 Invasion of France by the allies 
 Escape of Napoleon from Elba. — The hundred days 
 Death of Murat .... 
 The last battle of the allies , 
 
 60. France. — A. The restoration under the Bourbons 
 
 Charles X. .... . 
 
 Revolution of July 
 
 B. Under the house of Orleans . 
 
 C. Second French Republic . 
 
 61. Holland and Belgium 
 
 62. Great Britain .... 
 
 George IV. ..... 
 
 William IV. .... 
 
 Victoria ..... 
 
 63. Germany ..... 
 
 A. Germany, a confederacy of states 
 
 B. Germany, a federal state 
 Foundation of a federal state 
 
 64. Russia ..... 
 
 The Russian-Persian war 
 The Russian-Turkish war 
 The Russian-Polish war 
 
 65. The Osmanic empire and Greece 
 
 Greek war of liberation 
 Abdul Medschid 
 
 66. Italy ... 
 
 67. Switzerland 
 
 68. Spain 
 
 69. Portugal 
 
 King John VI. . 
 Donna Maria da Gloria 
 
 70. Sweden 
 
 Gustavus IV. . . . 
 
 The house of Bernadotte since 1818 
 
 71. Denmark .... 
 
 72. The American States 
 
 1. The United States of North America 
 
CONTENTS, XI 
 
 2. Hayti . . ' . 
 
 3. Spanish America .... 
 War with the United States 
 
 4. Brazil . . ... 
 
 ^73. Religion, arts, sciences, &c,, during the Third Period 
 
 1. Religion ..... 
 
 2. Constitutional history of the period . 
 
 3. Science, literature, and art 
 
 a. Philosophy .... 
 
 b. Philology .... 
 
 c. Historical investigations 
 
 d. Geography 
 
 e. Natural science .... 
 
 f. Poetry .... 
 
 g. Oratory ..... 
 h. Fine arts .... 
 
 i. Music ..... 
 
 4. Trade, manufacturing industry, agriculture 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 242 
 
 lb. 
 244 
 245 
 
 ib. 
 
 ^. 
 246 
 247 
 
 ib. 
 
 ib. 
 248 
 
 ib. 
 249 
 
 ib. 
 251 
 
 ib. 
 252 
 253 
 
HAJSTDBOOK 
 
 OP 
 
 GEOGEAPHY AND HISTORY 
 
 PART III.-MODERN HISTORY.^ 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 (1) The latter part of the fifteentli and commence- 
 ment of the sixteenth century, witnessed the occurrence 
 of events which produced a change, and in some instances 
 a complete revolution, in the relations of European so- 
 ciety Of these events the most remarkable were, _ 
 
 1 The conquest of the Byzantine empire 
 by the Turks, under Mohammed II. A. V. 
 
 2 The application of gunpowder to pur- 
 poses of war, and the establishment of 
 standing armies. , i i 4. 
 
 (2 ) The use of firearms seems to have been learnt 
 from the Spanish Moors, in the beginning of the thir- 
 teenth century, by the inhabitants of Flanders, who taught 
 it to the English during the war in which the two nations 
 
 1 The History of the Middle Ages and Modern History cannot 
 be accurately divided. It is usual to consider the letter as com- 
 mencing from the last invasion of the barbarians (the Ottoman 
 Turks)^nd the fall of Constantinople, A. D. 1458. On the whole 
 this division may be most conveniently adopted.— S. 
 1 
 
2 MODERN mSTORY. [3. § 1. 
 
 were engaged together against France ; but we hear noth- 
 ing of an organized system until the reigns of Louis XI. 
 of France and Maximilian I. of Grermany. As this 
 change in the mode of warfare made the event of a battle 
 less dependent on acts of personal bravery, and dimin- 
 ished the superiority of cavalry over infantry, it became 
 necessary to teach large bodies of men such manoeuvres 
 as would render their combined movements most effective, 
 and give them the full advantage of the newlj^-invented 
 weapon. Hence^ the establishment of standing armies, 
 especially in France, under Charles VII. 
 
 3. The invention of printing (about A. D. 
 1440). 
 
 4. The revival of the arts (especially paint- 
 ing) and sciences, comprehending philology^ a taste for 
 which was introduced into Italy by the Greek exiles, who 
 sought an asylum in thot country after the capture of 
 Byzantium by the Turks ; and natural philosophy^ which 
 began again to be cultivated in Western Europe. 
 
 5. The discovery of the New World, and 
 of a passage by sea to the East Indies, 
 which occasioned the general substitution of maritime for 
 overland trade. 
 
 6. The Keformation, the effects of which were 
 experienced in almost every country of Europe. 
 
 7. The gradual development of a system of politi- 
 cal equipoise (or balance of power). 
 
 First Period. 
 
 From the discovery of America to the peace of Westphalia. 
 1492—1648. 
 
 § 1. Discoveries, Conquests, and Colonies of the Hivro- 
 peans in other Quarters of the Globe. 
 
 (3.) In the hope of putting an end to the monopoly 
 of the East Indian trade enjoyed by the free states of 
 
4 6. ^ l] DISC0VERIE3, CONQUESTS, ETC. 3 
 
 Italy, especiaUy by the Venetians, voyages of discovery 
 were undertaken by the Spaniards and Portuguese, in op- 
 posite directions, the former steering westward and the 
 latter eastward, for the purpose of discovering a passage 
 by sea to the East Indies. 
 
 (4.) 1. Discoveries and conquests of the Sjmniards. 
 
 (5.) a. Christopher Columbus (or Colombo), 
 a native of Genoa, having been unsuccessful in his appli- 
 cations to the Portuguese government and the authorities 
 of his own city, submitted to the court of Spain a plan 
 for the discovery of a western passage to India, and after 
 eighteen years of fruitless solicitation, obtained at last 
 from Isabella, Queen of Castille, an assurance of support, 
 and the promise of a reward if he succeeded in his un- 
 dertaking (comp. § 4). On the 3d of August, 1492, Co- 
 lumbus sailed with three caravels or ships from Palos, a 
 small seaport of Andalusia, landed October 12th (October 
 21st, new style) on the island of Gruanahani, which he 
 named S. Salvador, and discovered the islands of Cuba 
 and Hayti. In his second voyage (1493-96) he discov- 
 ered several of the smaller Antilles and Jamaica ; and in 
 the third (1498 — 1500) Trinidad, and the continent at 
 the mouth of the Orinoco : but soon afterwards he was 
 recalled, and conveyed back to Spain in chains by Don 
 Francisco de Bobadilla, a Spanish knight, who had been 
 sent out in pursuit of him. After his liberation he un- 
 dertook a fourth voyage (1502 — 1504), in which he made 
 an unsuccessful attempt to discover a passage into the 
 South Sea, and died at Valladolid, of disappointment and 
 mortification, May 20th, 1506. The chains which he had 
 worn on his return from his third voyage were buried 
 with him. The recently-discovered continent received 
 the name of America from Amerigo Vespucci 
 (t 1512), a Florentine, who accompanied Columbus on his 
 third voyage, and published a description of the new 
 world. Florida was soon afterwards discovered by the 
 Spaniards (1512). 
 
 (6.) b. In the year 1519, Hernando (or Ferdinand) 
 Cortez landed from Cuba on the coast of Mexico, ad- 
 vanced without opposition to the capital, and took the king, 
 Montezuma, prisoner : but the cruelty of the Spaniards soon 
 
4 MODERN HISTORY, [7 9. ^ 1. 
 
 rendered them so odious to the inhabitants, that Cortez was 
 obliged to evacuate the city. Having a second time (1521) 
 made himself master of it, he was nominated by Charles V. 
 governor of Mexico, which they now called New Spain. 
 A few years later, Cortez appeared before the king for the 
 purpose of defending himself against the accusations of 
 his enemies, but notwithstanding his honorable reception 
 at court, the only office of trust which he was permitted 
 to retain, was the command of the army in the new colony. 
 After discovering the peninsula of California (1536), he 
 returned to Spain, where he died of a broken heart (at 
 Seville, in 1547). 
 
 (7.) c. Meanwhile Ferdinand M a g e 1 1 a n, a Portuguese 
 officer in the Spanish service, had discovered (1520) a pas- 
 sage, through the narrow channel called from him the 
 Strait of Magellan, into the South Sea, to which he gave the 
 name of the Pacific Ocean. The crew of his ship, after, 
 the assassination of their commander on one of the Philip- 
 pine islands, completed the first circumnavigation of the 
 globe {\ 522). 
 
 (8.) d. Francis P izarro (with Almagro and Luque) 
 discovered and conquered the rich country of Peru, 
 which fell into his hands the more easily, in consequence 
 of a disputed succession between two brothers (Huaskar 
 and Atahualpa). The foundation of a new capital, named 
 Lima, was laid by the conqueror. Almagro (who had un- 
 dertaken the conquest of Chili) having quarrelled with 
 Pizarro respecting the possession of Cuzco, the ancient 
 capital, was executed at Lima ; and soon afterwards 
 Pizarro himself fell a victim to a conspiracy of the friends 
 of Almagro, to whom he had refused a share of the con- 
 quered territory. 
 
 (9.) e. Conquest of Terra Firma and New G-ranada. 
 
 The government of these provinces was intrusted to 
 " a Council of the Indies," which sat at Madrid, and to 
 two, and at a later period three, viceroys (of Mexico, Peru, 
 and New Granada). Civilization was promoted, a. By 
 building cities, at first on the coast, and subsequently in 
 the interior, b. By the formation of missions, i. e. com- 
 munities of converted Indians, under the superintendence 
 of a priest. The grand obstacles to their success were the 
 stupidity of the Indians and their hatred of the Euro- 
 
10 13. § 1.] DISCOVERIES, CONQUESTS, ETC, 5 
 
 peans. c. By the establishment of convents, bishoprics, 
 and universities (at Mexico and Lima). The advantage 
 derived from these settlements was limited at first to the 
 acrjuisition of the precious metals b}'' means of numerous 
 mining establishments, which were worked (through the 
 influence of the Dominican monk, Las Casas, the great 
 protector of the aborigines) bj negro slaves purchased in 
 Africa. The colonists were required to transmit the pro- 
 duce of these mines exclusively to Spain, and to import 
 articles of European merchandise from the port of Seville 
 alone. Disputes with Portugal were avoided by the estab- 
 lishment (by Popes Sixtus IV. and Alexander VI.) of a 
 boundary line drawn, in the first instance, through the 
 20th, and subsequently through the 70th degree of West 
 longitude, reckoned from the island of Ferro. 
 
 (10.) 2. Discoveries and settlements of the Portuguese. 
 After the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartho- 
 lomew Diaz, fresh attempts were made by King Emanuel 
 the Great to find a passage by sea to the East Indies. In 
 the year 1498, this passage was discovered byVasco de 
 Gam a, who landed at Calicut, on the coast of Malabar. 
 
 (11.) The Portuguese supremacy was maintained in 
 the East. Indies (in spite of the Arabians, who were sup- 
 ported by the Venetians) by the erection of a chain of 
 fortresses and factories extending from the eastern coast 
 of Africa to the peninsula of Malacca and the Moluccas. 
 These establishments (of which Goa was the central point) 
 were chiefly planned by the viceroys Francisco de Almeida 
 (1505-1509) and Alfonso Albuquerque (1509-1515). 
 
 (12.) Brazil, which had been discovered by Cabral 
 on his voyage to the East Indies, was not colonized until 
 the year 1550. Advantages still more important were 
 secured to the Portuguese by commercial treaties with 
 China and (since the mission of Francis Xavier) with 
 Japan. 
 
 (13.) 3. Settlements and conquests of the Dutch com- 
 panies. The Spaniards, who had become masters of the 
 Portuguese Netherlands by the conquest of Portugal in 
 1580, having deprived the rebellious Dutch of the East 
 Indian trade, which they had hitherto carried on from the 
 port of Lisbon, the latter undertook an expedition to In- 
 dia on their own account, drove the Portuguese from the 
 
6 MODERN HISTORY, [14, 15, ^1. 
 
 Indian seas (from 1663), and left them only an insignifi- 
 cant remnant of their former power. An East India 
 company^ incorporated, with the sanction of the States 
 General, in 1602, enjoyed by the terms of its charter a 
 monopoly of the Dutch trade beyond the Cape and the 
 Straits of Magellan, and was invested with sovereign au- 
 thority over all future settlements in India. These set- 
 tlements were, for the most part, on the Moluccas, or 
 Spice Islands, and the isles of Sunda.'* The seat of gov- 
 ernment and central emporium of Indian and European 
 commerce was the city of Batavia, which had been recently 
 built on the island of Java. The West Indian trade was 
 also in the hands of a company (1621), which made, but 
 was unable to retain, some important conquests in Brazil. 
 
 (14.) 4. The discovery of a north-western passage to 
 India was attempted by Sir Francis Drake in his voyage 
 round the world (1577-80), and that of a north-eastern by 
 Hudson, but in both cases without success. During the 
 whole of this period the possessions of the English East 
 India Company (chartered by Queen Elizabeth in 1600) 
 consisted merely of a few factories in India, the island of 
 St. Helena, and some agricultural establishments in North 
 America and the West Indies.^ 
 
 (15.) 5. The French began to form settlements in 
 several of the West India islands. 
 
 " Sumatra, Java, &c. 
 
 3 During this period (1492—1648) various voyages, discoveries, 
 and settlements were made in America. John and Sebastian Cabot 
 first reached the continent on the coast of Labrador (1497) ; they 
 Bailed under the patronage of Henry VII. of England. In 1513 
 Balboa first saw the Pacitic Ocean; De Ayllon visited Carolina iu 
 1520. Verrazani coasted along New Jersey and New- York in 1524; 
 Cartier entered the St. Lawrence in 1535; and De Soto crossed 
 the Mississippi in 1540. Sir Walter Raleigh made vigorous efforts 
 towards colonization in Carolina, 1584 — 1590. James I., in 1606, 
 chartered the Plymouth and London Companies to operate in Vir- 
 ginia : Jamestown was the first English settlement in America (St. 
 Augustine, in Florida, was founded by the Spaniards in 1565. and 
 is the oldest town in the United States). Henry Hudson, in 1609, 
 discovered the Hudson river, while in the employ of the Dutch 
 East India Company, and the island of Manhattan (New- York) was 
 occupied by the Dutch for purposes of trade, in 1613. On the 21st 
 of December, 1620, the " pilgrim fathers" landed at Plymouth, 
 Massa^l^us^^ts. Boston was founded in 1630.— S. 
 
16 18. §2.] THE REFORMATION. 
 
 ^ 2. The ^formation. 
 
 (16.) The rapid progress of tlie Reformation in the 
 sixteenth century must be attributed mainly to the cor- 
 ruption of the Church, both in discipline and doctrine, 
 and the general conviction that the time was come for the 
 eradication of those abuses by which the Christian com- 
 munity was daily scandalized. 
 
 (17.) Ever since the thirteenth century, and espe- 
 cially since the removal of the papal residence to Avignon, 
 the character of the heads of the Romish Church had been 
 losing ground in public estimation, through their extor- 
 tionate jDractices, the collation of ignorant and vicious men 
 to important benefices, the exercise of ecclesiastical autho- 
 rity for secular objects, and, more than all, the personal 
 unworthiness of some of the popes themselves (Alexander 
 YI. and Julius II.). All these abuses had produced, 
 especially in Grermany, at the beginning of the sixteenth 
 century, a feeling of bitter hostility to the papal see. To 
 these causes we may add the ignorance and worldliness of 
 most of the bishops,, as well as of the inferior clergy, the 
 decline of monastic discipline, and corrupt practices of 
 various sorts. 
 
 (18) 1. In Germany. The immediate cause of the 
 German Reformation Avas the scandalous trade in indul- 
 gences carried on by one John Tetzel, a Dominican 
 monk, in the neighbourhood of Wittenberg. This sys- 
 tem, which had been sanctioned by Pope Leo X. for the 
 purpose of raising funds for the erection of St. Peter's 
 church at Rome, was vehemently opposed by Martin 
 Luther (born in Eisleben in 1483), an Augustin monk, 
 and professor at the recently-established university of 
 Wittenberg, who affixed to the door of the principal 
 church in that city (on the 31st October, 1517) a paper 
 containing ninety-five theses (principally against the abuse 
 of indulgences), and pledged himself to defend his propo- 
 sitions against all opponents. Soon afterwards he pub- 
 lished several German treatises, in which he maintained 
 the doctrine of Justification by Faith only. In conse- 
 quence of these proceedings the Pope summoned Luther 
 
8 MODERN HISTORY. [18. §2. 
 
 to appear before him at Eome within sixty days, and give 
 an account of his doctrine ; but, at the request of the Elec- 
 tor Frederick the Wise, of Saxony, and the University of 
 Wittenberg, permission was granted to the Reformer to 
 discuss the question with the Pope's plenipotentiary. Car- 
 dinal Cajetan, before the diet which was then assembled 
 at Augsburg (1588). At this conference the Cardinal de- 
 manded unconditional submission, which Luther refused ; 
 and even the papal chamberlain, Charles von Miltitz, who 
 was afterwards appointed to act as the Pope's representa- 
 tive, could only obtain from him a conditional promise, 
 that he would abstain from controversial writing if his 
 opponents would do the same. A disputation which Dr. 
 Eck, professor of theology at Ingolstadt, held with Luther 
 and his colleague, Carlstadt, at Leipzig, having produced 
 no result except the confirmation of the Reformer in his 
 own opinions, a bull was published, condemning- as heretical 
 forty-one propositions extracted from the writings* of 
 Luther, and threatening him with excommunication unless 
 he retracted them within sixty days. This bull, with the 
 books of canon law and some of Eck's writings, was pub- 
 licly burnt by Luther before the Elster gate of Witten- 
 berg, on the 1 0th December, 1520. Hereupon sentence 
 of excommunication was passed on Luther and his fol- 
 lowers. In the year 1521, he appeared before the first 
 diet of Charles V., assembled at Worms, and having re- 
 fused either to retract his assertions or submit to the 
 decision of a general council, was placed under the bann 
 of the empire : but this sentence, called the " Edict of 
 Worms," was not -published until his safe arrival a\ the 
 Wartburg, near Eisenach, where he translated the Bible 
 into German. 
 
 * In a treatise published in 1520, with the title, ^ ' A letter to 
 his Imperial Majesty and the Christian nobility of the German 
 nation, touching the improvement of the Christian estate," Luther 
 repudiates both the ecclesiastical and secular authority of the 
 pope, and condemns monastic vows, celibacy, and the whole of the 
 canon law. In a second publication he combats the doctrine of the 
 "Sacrifice of the Mass;" and in the third, intituled '• Concerning 
 the Babylonish captivity," he rejects four of the five Romish sacra- 
 ments, viz. confirmation, orders, matrimony, and extreme unction, 
 retaining only penance. 
 
19 21. §2.] THE REFORMATION. 9 
 
 (19.) The reformed doctrines found an able defender 
 in Philip Melancthon^ (in his Loci Communes Rerum 
 Theolog.), and stout opponents in Henry VIII., King of 
 England, and Erasmus of Rotterdam, and were already 
 gaining a firm footing in Hesse and other places, particu- 
 larly in Prussia, where the Grrand Master of the Teutonic 
 Order, a personal friend of Luther's, embraced the re- 
 formed religion, and at the same time married a daughter 
 of Frederick, King of Denmark, and by the convention of 
 Cracow, in 1525, converted his territory, with the consent 
 of the crown of Poland, into a temporal duchy. Luther 
 himself quitted the cloister, and married a nun named 
 Catherine of Bora. Meanwhile the oppressive cruelty of 
 the nobles, and the misinterpretation of Luther's doc- 
 trines concerning Christian liberty, occasioned the P e a- 
 s ants' War, which broke out in Swabia, in 1525, and 
 spread rapid destruction over the Rhineland and Franco- 
 nia, as far as Saxony and Thuringia. A few of the nobles 
 were compelled to join the insurgent peasants (i. e. Gotz 
 von Berlichingen^), but the undisciplined masses were 
 soon scattered in all directions, and a subsequent attempt 
 of Thomas Munzer, the Anabaptist, was rendered equally 
 abortive by the victory of Frankenhausen. 
 
 (20.) In their so-called twelve articles, the peasants 
 demanded freedom of hunting, fishing, and woodcutting, 
 abolition of serfdom, and the abrogation of various penal 
 ordinances. To these demands were added others of a 
 more visionary character. They would no longer be vas- 
 sals, because Christ had redeemed them with his blood. 
 They refused to pay tithes, except of wheat, for this was 
 the only tithe recognized in the Old Testament. They 
 chose to elect their own preachers, that they might be 
 instructed in the true faith. 
 
 (21.) At the diet assembled at Spires, in 1529, by 
 Charles Y., for the purpose of discussing church afi"airs, 
 as well as of obtaining means for carrying on a war against 
 the Turks, it was resolved, that those communities which 
 
 * A Greek translation of his German name Schwarzerd, •' Black 
 earth." 
 
 ^ " The knight with the iron hand," the hero of one of Goethe s 
 dramas. 
 
 1* 
 
10 MODERN HISTORY. [22. §2. 
 
 tad hitherto followed the edict t)f Worms, should still 
 abide by it, but that wherever the new doctrines had been 
 embraced, the authorities should be required to abstain 
 from the introduction of further novelties until the sitting 
 of the next general council, and in nowise be permitted to 
 molest or obstruct the professors of the ancient faith. 
 Against this prohibition the Reformers entered a formal 
 ptotest, from which, at a later period, they obtained the 
 name of P r o t e s t an t s. 
 
 (22.) In the hope of bringing about a reconciliation 
 between the two parties, the Emperor, in the year 1530, 
 assembled a diet at Augsburg, where the reformers 
 handed in a confession of faith drawn up by Melancthon, 
 and signed by the Protestant princes and cities. This 
 document, which contained twenty-eight articles, was af- 
 terwards named " the Confession of Augsburg." As all 
 attempts to effect a reconciliation were fruitless, an impe- 
 rial edict was issued, commanding the withdrawal of all 
 novelties, and an unconditional return to the doctrines 
 and practices of the Romish Church, until a general diet 
 of the empire could be assembled. A league was 
 then formed at Schmalkalde (1531), to which all the 
 Protestant princes and imperial cities were parties, each 
 pledging himself to protect his brethren, and to refuse all 
 aid to the Emperor against the Turks, as long as the im- 
 perial edict remained in force. This determined resist- 
 ance compelled the Emperor to withdraw his edict, and 
 to conclude the so-called religious peace at 
 Niirnberg (1532), by the terms of which a general 
 truce was established until the next council or diet, it be- 
 ing distinctly understood, that in the mean time no party 
 should oppress or disquiet another on the ground of his 
 religious belief The calm, however, was soon disturbed 
 by the revival of the Anabaptist heresy. This sect, 
 which had appeared before the commencement of the 
 Reformation, not only taught the necessity of a second 
 baptism in the case of adults, but threatened to shake 
 society to its foundation by its wild doctrines respecting 
 the reign of the saints upon earth.'' Both Romanists 
 
 ' It was against these heretics that the Church of England 
 maintained, in her thirty-eighth article, that "the riches and goods 
 
23 4 2.1 THE REFORMATION. 11 
 
 and Protestants had then united to crush tne promulga- 
 tors of these dangerous theories, and the sect seemed to 
 haTe expired with the death of its apostle Thomas Muu- 
 zer when it suddenly reappeared in Miinster 
 
 (23 ) A crazy enthusiast, named Jan Matthys, a ba- 
 ker of Harlem, accompanied by one Jan Bockelson (orig- 
 inally a tailor at Leyden, and afterwards an m^eeper and 
 S came to Manstei (1534), where the Protestants 
 had, a short time before, obtained the upper tand and 
 baY ntr collected a prodigious crowd of followers, and de- 
 SShe magistrals, proceeded to establish themse ves 
 LTrresponsible rulers of the city, which they «>0" ^1^^ 
 with violence and bloodshed. Matthys having fallen ma 
 desperate sally against the army of the Bishop, which 
 cS rllockaded'the city, ^s lieutenant, Bockelson was 
 proclaimed king of the New Zion._ His first act was to 
 Lnd apostles to different countries, and i"f Edition to 
 the original Anabaptist doctrine "^ «7'""°'*y °^-JS 
 to permit a plurality of wives. >t length tj" B;«l^°P' 
 supported by several temporal princes, stormed the city, 
 the inhabitants of which were sufiermg grievously from 
 want of provisions, put Bockelson and his coadjutors 
 KnTpperdolUng and Ileftig, to death by ^e most cruel 
 tortures, and re-established the Eoman Catholic relig on. 
 After several fruitless conferences between the represen- 
 tatives of the two parties, the Council of Trent 
 was at last opened in the year 1545, a short time before 
 r death of Vrtin Luth'er (t 1546). But the Protect- 
 ants, acting under the advice of Luther refused to appear 
 befo e an assembly the majority of which tW knew to 
 be unfavorable to their doctrines, and demanded tha^a 
 council of the German nation should be <=«^^J"f „ J^i 
 hope of accommodation being now at an end, the Jimpe 
 ror threatened the Protestants with war a menace which 
 occasioned the withdrawal of several of their leaders from 
 the Schmalkaldian league ■ but ^^f great supporters the 
 Elector of Saxony (John Frederick) and the Landgrave, 
 
 of Christians are not common as certein Anabapfeta do falsely 
 
 boast. The Book of Common f'^^yf/,^ *" trthodox denomina- 
 Church contains the same ''rt'cle ; and aU the ortnoaox 
 tions agree in sentiment and practice on this point, o. 
 
12 MODERN HISTORY. [24, 25. § 2. 
 
 Philip of Hesse, made every preparation for a determined 
 resistance, and were in consequence placed under the bann 
 of the empire. 
 
 (24.) The Schmalkaldian war, as it is called, 
 commenced in 1546. Charles, who was unprepared for 
 so sudden a declaration of hostilities, might have been 
 easily surprised ; but the delay occasioned by the indeci- 
 sion of the allies and their want of unanimity, enabled 
 him to assemble troops from Italy, Hungary, and the 
 Netherlands, and to defeat the Schmalkaldian confede- 
 rates in Southern Germany, whilst at the same time Duke 
 Maurice of Saxony (who, although a Protestant, had ta- 
 ken part with the Emperor) invaded the territories of the 
 Elector of Saxony. 
 
 (25.) The Elector, it is true, re-conquered his pos- 
 sessions, but soon afterwards he was defeated by the Enf- 
 peror near Muhlberg (24th April, 1547), taken pris- 
 oner, and compelled to abdicate in favor of Duke Mau- 
 rice. The electoral dignity was thus transferred for ever 
 from the Ernestine to the Albertine line.^ The Laud- 
 grave of Hesse threw himself at the Emperor's feet, and 
 recovered his lands, but was sompelled, like the Elector, 
 to follow the imperial court as a prisoner. The council of 
 Trent having adjourned to Bologna in consequence of a 
 pestilence which had broken out at the former city, a de- 
 cree was issued by the Emperor (called the Interim), pro- 
 fessing to regulate the affairs of the Church until the re- 
 assembling of the council at Trent. But this arrange- 
 ment pleased neither the Pope nor the Protestants, the 
 former considering it an unwarrantable interference on 
 the part of a layman in matters purely spiritual ; the lat- 
 ter believing it to be merely an attempt to re-establish 
 Eomanism. The city of Magdeburg, which had distin- 
 
 " Frederick II., Elector, 1428—1464. 
 
 Ernest, Elector, f I486. Albert, f 1510. 
 
 Frederick the Wise, John, George. Henry 
 
 Elector, f 1525. Elector, 1 1532. | 
 
 John Frederick, Maurice. 
 
 Elector, deposed 1547. Elector, 1547—1553. 
 
26. §2.] THE REFORMATION. 13 
 
 guished itself by its determined opposition to the Empe- 
 ror's decree, was taken by Maurice, after a siege of thir- 
 teen months, and compelled to accept the " interim." A 
 change in the aspect of affairs was occasioned at this 
 time by the defection of Duke Maurice, who went over to 
 the Protestants, pleading as an excuse for this treacher- 
 ous course, the refusal of the Emperor to liberate his 
 father-in-law, the Landgrave of Hesse. In conjunction 
 with several- German princes, and with Henry II., King 
 of France, who took possession of the imperial cities of 
 Metz, Toul, and Verdun, Maurice declared war against 
 the Emperor, who was then at Innpsruck, and compelled 
 him to fly for safety to Villach in Carinthia. On the 
 22d August, 1552, a convention was concluded at Pas- 
 s a u , on terms sufficiently favorable to the Protestants, 
 who were allowed the free exercise of their religion until 
 the meeting of a general diet. At the same time the 
 Landgrave of Hesse was set at liberty, and the Elector, 
 who had been freed from arrest on the departure of the 
 Emperor from Innspruck, was re-instated in his dignities 
 as a prince of the empire, Duke of Saxony, and Land- 
 grave of Thuringia and Meissen. An attempt of the 
 Emperor to retake Metz was unsuccessful. The Mar- 
 grave Albert of Brandenburg, who refused to recognize 
 the convention of Passau, was defeated at Sievershausen, 
 in 1553, by Maurice, who was himself mortally wounded 
 in the battle. The promised diet was at length opened at 
 Augsburg, in 1555, by the Roman King Ferdinand, 
 brother of Charles V. The free exercise of their religion 
 was secured alike to Romanists and Protestants by a 
 convention termed the Religious Peace of Augs- 
 burg, the only subject of dispute being a demand of the 
 Romanists, that a clause should be inserted {reservatuni 
 ecclesiasticum)^ depriving of their temporal rank and priv- 
 ileges all ecclesiastical dignitaries who should embrace 
 the Protestant faith. 
 
 (26.) The council of Trent (1545—1563). 
 Since the year 1536, several unsuccessful attempts had 
 been made by the Popes to convene a general council for 
 the solemn discussion of the religious questions which 
 agitated Europe. At length, on the 13th December, 
 
14 MODERN HISTORY. [27, 28. ^ 2. 
 
 1545, the council of Trent opened its session, which con- 
 tinued, with two interruptions, for eighteen years. A 
 reconciliation between the Protestants and the Church of 
 Rome was now hopeless ; the council therefore directed 
 its chief attention to the removal of abuses, and the es- 
 tablishment of a definite and unmistakeable rule of faith, 
 
 (27.) 2. In the Scandinavian kingdoms Lu- 
 theranism was adopted as the state religion by the Kings 
 of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden ; whose treasuries 
 were replenished by the confiscation of Church property. 
 The profligacy and ignorance of the clergy, in those re- 
 mote countries, had long since rendered the people dis- 
 contented with the ancient clergy. 
 
 (28.) 3. In Switzerland, Ulric Zwingli (born in 
 1484, at Wildhaus, in the county of Toggenburg), preacher 
 at Einsiedeln and subsequently at Zurich, opposed the sale 
 of indulgences by Bernardin Sampson ; and soon after- 
 wards attacked the celibacy of the clergy, the mass, and 
 the use of images in churches. Zwingli's reformation was 
 of a more sweeping character than that of Luther, who 
 was willing to retain all practices not expressly forbidden 
 by Holy Scripture, whilst the Swiss reformer endeavored 
 to restore the Church to a condition (as he believed) of 
 primitive simplicity, by rejecting every thing for which he 
 was unable to find scriptural authority. But the grand 
 subject of dispute between the two reformers, was the doc- 
 trine of Christ's presence in the Eucharist ; Luther main- 
 taining the real [consubsta7itiated'] 'pTesence of our Blessed 
 Lord in the Sacrament of the Lord's Supper ; and Zwingli, 
 on the contrary, contending that the bread and wine were 
 merely mgns or symhoh of his body and blood. The doc- 
 trine of Zwingli was embraced by Zurich, and the northern 
 cantons, but the forest cantons (Schwyz, Uri, Unterwalden, 
 and Lucerne) with Zug, continued firmly attached to the 
 Church of Rome, and off'ered every opposition in their 
 power to the progress of the Reformation. After several 
 skirmishes between the five Romanist cantons and the 
 Protestants, the inhabitants of Zurich sustained a defeat 
 in 1531, near Cappel, where Zwingli himself was left dead 
 on the field of battle. The immediate result of this vic- 
 tory was the extermination of Protestantism in many dis- 
 
29—33. §3.] GERMANY. 45 
 
 tricts where it had begun to take root. The canton of 
 Berne having wrested the Pays de Vaud from the Duke of 
 Savoy, the whole of French Switzerland became Protestant, 
 and the head-quarters of the reformed belief were estab- 
 lished at Greneva, by 
 
 (29.) John Calvin (Jean Caulvin), born in 1509, at 
 Noyon in Picardy. This Reformer, who had abandoned 
 his profession as a jurist for the study of theology, was 
 driven from France by the persecutions to which the Prot- 
 estants were exposed in that country, and sought an asy- 
 lum at Basle, in Switzerland, where he published his 
 Christianas Religionis Institutio, in 1535, and was subse- 
 quently appointed preacher and theological professor at 
 Geneva. Here his doctrine was embraced by the citizens, 
 who passed a resolution depriving all recusants of their 
 civil rights. An opposition was organized which drove 
 Calvin from the city, but after a time he returned, and 
 preached, with great zeal, the doctrines which are supposed 
 to distinguish his system from those of Luther and Zwingli 
 (predestination, the spiritual refreshment of the believer's 
 soul, by the body and blood of Christ in the Lord's Sup- 
 per, &c.). The presbyterian form of Church government 
 was also established and introduced into other countries, 
 by means of the disciples whom the fame of Calvin's 
 learning attracted to Geneva from France, Germany, the 
 Netherlands, and England. Calvin died in 1564. 
 
 (30.) 4. In other countries. The teaching of 
 Calvin spread from Geneva into France, where the Prot- 
 estants (termed Huguenots) formed a powerful party in 
 the reigns of Francis II. and Charles IX. 
 
 (31.) The Netherlands, which their situation, and 
 extensive commercial relations, rendered peculiarly acces- 
 sible to the doctrines of the Reformation, were visited by 
 Anabaptists from Germany, and large bodies of Calvinists 
 from France. 
 
 (32.) The severe measures adopted by Philip II. for 
 the extermination of Protestantism, occasioned the separa- 
 tion of the seven northern provinces from the Spanish 
 dominions. 
 
 (33.) In all these provinces Calvinism became the es- 
 
16 MODERN HISTORY. [34 — 36. ^2. 
 
 tablished religion, the Soutliern Netherlands still adhering 
 to the faith of the Church of Rome. 
 
 (34.) InEngland, Henry VIII.^ at an earlier period, 
 one of the most determined opponents of Luther's doc- 
 trine, quarrelled with the Pope because he refused to 
 sanction his divorce from Queen Catherine, and, breaking 
 off all connection with Rome, proclaimed himself the head 
 of the Anglican Church. This assumption of supremacy 
 was recognized by Parliament and a vast majority of the 
 clergy. The recusants were either delivered over to the 
 executioner, banished to foreign lands, or thrown into 
 prison, where many of them perished miserably. All the 
 English monasteries (500) were suppressed, and their 
 revenues confiscated to the king's use. In most other re- 
 spects, Henry remained a Romanist. The Reformation 
 in England was principally effected by the labors of the 
 learned Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 during the minority of Edivard VI. His successor, 
 Mary., re-established the connection with Rome, and 
 treated the Protestants with great cruelty. In this reign. 
 Archbishop Cranmer, and several other bishops, were 
 burnt at the stake, for their adherence to the reformed 
 faith. Elizabeth renounced the papal domination in 
 England, and adopted such measures as served to estab- 
 lish the Reformation. The constitution of the Church 
 in its government by bishops was retained, but this 
 arrangement was vehemently opposed by an ultra-Calvin- 
 istic party, who recognized only Presbyters ; — whence 
 they were called Freshjterians^ in contradistinction to 
 Episcopalians. Another sect, termed Independents, sprang 
 up in the reign of Charles I. These schismatics asserted 
 the right of all Cliristians to interpret Scripture according 
 to their own conscience, without the intervention of con- 
 fessions of faith. 
 
 (35.) In Scotland, the preachers of the new doc- 
 trines were successful, in proportion to the corruption of 
 the Church in that country. The most vehement oppo- 
 nent of the Church of Rome was John Knox, a friend of 
 Calvin's. 
 
 (36.) All attempts of the English government to con- 
 vert the Irish to Protestantism were unsuccessful, until 
 
37—39. §3.] GERMANY. 17 
 
 tlie reigns of Elizabeth and James I., when the confisca- 
 tion of large Irish estates, and the establishment of Eng- 
 lish colonies in Ireland, were deemed the most effectual 
 modes of exterminating Romanism ; but the natives, in 
 spite of persecution, remained, for the most part, firm in 
 their adherence to the Church of Rome. 
 
 (37.) From G-ermany the Reformation extended 
 into Poland, Livonia, Courland, Hungary, and 
 Transylvania. 
 
 ^ 3 Germany under Maximilian I. and Charles V., 
 1493—1556. 
 
 1. Maximilian I., 1493— 1519. 
 
 (38.) I. The constitution. The estates of the 
 realm having demanded, as a condition of their granting a 
 subsidy for the Italian war (against Charles YIII), that 
 peace and order should be established on a firm footing 
 throughout the empire, Maximilian, at a diet held at 
 Worms in 1495, abolished the Faustrecht^ (right of the 
 nobles to make war on their own account), and instituted 
 an Imperial Chamber as the supreme court of justice, 
 with authority to publish the bann of the empire against 
 all transgressors of the laws. The president of this court 
 was nominated by the Emperor, but all the other members 
 were elected by the estates. The chamber, instead of 
 migrating with the imperial court, as had formerly been 
 the' case, held its sittings in one place — at first at Worms, 
 then at Spires, and lastly at Wetzlar (1689—1806). For 
 the better maintenance of peace, the whole empire was 
 divided (at a diet held at Cologne in 1512) into ten 
 Circles, viz. the Austrian, Bavarian, Swabian, Fran- 
 conian, Upper Rhenish, Lower (or Electoral) Rhenish, 
 Westphalian, Upper Saxon, Lower Saxon, and Burgun- 
 dian. In each circle chief officers were appointed for 
 carrying into execution the decrees of the imperial 
 chamber. 
 
 Of the ten circles, 
 
 (39.) 1. The Austrian (the largest of all) comprised 
 
 » Lit. Fist-righi, i. e. right of the strong hand. 
 
18 MODERN HISTORY. [40 — 46. §3. 
 
 Austria, Stjria, Carmthia, Carniola, the Tyrol, and some 
 possessions of the house of Hapsburg on the Upper 
 Rhine, and in Swabia. 
 
 (40.) 2. The Bavarian. The duchy of Bavaria, the 
 Upper Palatinate, the principality of Neuburg, the arch- 
 bishopric of Salzburg, and several smaller spiritual and 
 temporal seignories. 
 
 (41.) 3. The Swahian. The duchy of "VYiirtemberg, 
 the Margravate of Baden, the county of HohenzoUern, 
 the county of Fiirstenberg, the bishopric of Augsburg, 
 &c., altogether, 90 spiritual and temporal estates. 
 
 (42.) 4. The Franconian. The Brandenburg mar- 
 gravates of Culmbach (Baireuth) and Onolzbach (Ans- 
 pach), the Teutonic Order, which after the secularization 
 of Prussia established itself at Mergentheim as the seat 
 of government, the bishoprics of Bamberg, "VViirzburg, 
 and Eichstadt, the imperial city of Nurnberg, &c. 
 
 (43.) 5. The Upper 'Rhenish circle was intermixed 
 with the Electoral Rhenish. Its two principal portions 
 were Lorraine on the left, and Hesse on the right bank of 
 the Rhine. Since the year 1619, the latter of these por- 
 tions had comprised only Darmstadt and Cassel, the 
 two other lines of Marburg and Rheinfels having become 
 extinct, and their territories having been annexed to 
 Cassel. 
 
 (44.) 6. Tlie Electoral or Loiver Klienish compre- 
 hended the three spiritual electorates of Mainz (Mayence), 
 Trier (Treves), and Koln (Cologne), with a portion of the 
 territories of the Elector Palatine, which were divided 
 into four circles. 
 
 (45 ) 7. The JBurgimdia^t, which since the year 1536 
 had belonged to the Spanish branch of the Habsburg 
 family, and consequently was no longer, strictly speaking, 
 a portion of the empire, comprehended Holland, Belgium, 
 and a part of the north of France, omitting Luttich 
 (Liege). 
 
 (46.) 8. The Westphalian circle, between the Mass 
 (Meuse) and the Weser, comprised the duchies of Cleves, 
 Julich, Berg, the county of Marie, the six bishoprics of 
 Liege, Munster, Paderborn, Minden, Verden, and Os- 
 nabriick (Osnaburgh), with East Friesland, Oldenburg, 
 
19 
 
 47—51. §3.] GERMANY. 
 
 the imperial cities of Cologne, Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), 
 
 Dortmund, &c. i t i • i? 
 
 (47) 9. The Lower Saxon — the archbishoprics ot 
 Magdeburg and Bremen, the bishoprics of Halberstadt, 
 Hildesheim and Lubeck, the duchies of Braunschweig 
 (Brunswick) and Liineburg, Saxe-Lauenburg, Hoistem, 
 Mecklenburg, six imperial cities, &c. ^ , s 
 
 (48) 10. Tlie Upper Saxon — the two electorates ot 
 Saxony and Brandenburg, the two Pomeranian duchies 
 (Stettin and Wolgast), the principality of Anhalt, the 
 landgravate of Thuringia, &c. , , , ^i, oka 
 
 (49 ) These ten circles comprehended more than 25U 
 states : but as the smaller voted in groups, scarcely more 
 than 100 members appeared at the diet. Bohemia (with 
 its provinces of Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia), together 
 with the Prussian and Livonian states, was entirely ex- 
 cluded from this arrangement; Switzerland was also ex- 
 empted (by Maximilian in 1508) from the jurisdiction of 
 the chamber and the necessity of furnishing its contin- 
 gent of troops and money. Italy was hardly eveii in 
 name a portion of the empire. The kingdom of Aries 
 had been annexed piecemeal to France. 
 
 (50.) 2. Italian wars respecting Milan and 
 
 a. Occupation for a short time of Naples ^ hy the 
 French -(1495). Charles VIII., who had inherited, as 
 heir of the house of Anjou, the claims of his father to 
 the Neapolitan throne, obtained possession ot JNaples^ 
 But the facility with which the conquest was achieved 
 rendered the French so insolent, that a league was formed 
 between Venice, the Pope, the King of Arragon, the Em- 
 peror, and the Duke of Milan, for the restoration of Fer- 
 dinand II., who returned to his kingdom, supported by 
 troops from Arragon, and compelled the feeble garrisons 
 left by Charles to capitulate, on condition of being per- 
 mitted to depart unmolested. 
 
 (51 ) b Conquest of Milan by the French m 14yy. 
 —Louis XII., the successor of Charles VIII., in conjunc- 
 tion with Venice, conquered the duchy of Milan, which 
 he claimed in right of his grandmother, Valentma Vis- 
 conti (see genealogical table, § 7). The French were 
 
20 MODERN HISTORY. [52 54. ^ 3. 
 
 soon afterwards expelled by Ludovico Moro, who in his 
 turn was betrayed by his Swiss mercenaries, and died in 
 a French prison. 
 
 (52.) c. Conquest of Naples hy the French and 
 Spaniards in 1501. — Louis XII., whose power had been 
 greatly augmented by the acquisition of Milan, formed 
 an alliance with Ferdinand of Arragon (the Catholic) for 
 the re-conquest of Naples. The reigning sovereign, 
 Frederick II., was conveyed a prisoner to France, and 
 continued a pensioner of the French crown until his 
 death ; but the French and Spaniards having quarrelled 
 respecting the division of the booty, the Spanish general, 
 Gonsalvo de Cordova, defeated the French, and compelled 
 Louis XII. to relinquish his claims. 
 
 (53.) d. War against Venice (1508-9).— Although 
 Louis was indebted to the Venetians for the acquisition 
 of Milan, and depended mainly on their friendship for the 
 secure possession of his conquest, he was nevertheless 
 weak enough to enter into a confederacy with the Pope 
 (Julius 11. ), the Emperor Maximilian, and Ferdinand the 
 Catholic, for the ruin of Venice. By this treaty, termed 
 the league of Cambray, it was agreed that the 
 Venetians should be compelled to restore all the territory 
 which they had wrested from any of the allies. But 
 scarcely had the war commenced (with a battle near Ag- 
 nadello, in which the Venetians were defeated), when the 
 confederacy was broken up, the Venetians acquiescing in 
 all the demands of the Pope and Ferdinand, and forming 
 with those two powers 
 
 (54.) e. The Holy League (1511) tor the expulsion 
 of the French from Italy. The French lost Milan, which 
 was recovered by the successor of Louis, Francis I., in a 
 brilliant victory over the Swiss at Marignano (1515). 
 The French gained at first some advantage over tjae allies 
 (near Ravenna) ; but their brave leader, Gaston de Foix, 
 having fallen in the battle, the Swiss garrisoned Milan 
 for Maximilian Sforza ; and although the city was taken, 
 for the third time, by the French (after the dissolution of 
 the league), they were compelled at last to abandon it 
 (after their defeat at Novara), and about the same time 
 were overthrown (at Gruinegate) by the English and the 
 
55. § 3.] GERMANY. 21 
 
 Emperor Maximilian. Milan was taken, for tho Tourth 
 time, by Francis I. (in conjunction with the Venetians), 
 after his victory over the divided Swiss at Marignano 
 in 1515. Maximilian Sforza became a pensioner of 
 France, and was compelled to reside in that country. 
 
 (55.) 3. Acquisitions of territory. — Maxi- 
 milian married his son Philip to Joanna, daughter of 
 Ferdinand the Catholic (who became heiress to the Span- 
 ish throne by the death of all the nearer claimants), and 
 effected a marriage between his second grandson Ferdi- 
 nand, and Anne, sister of Louis II., the last king of 
 Bohemia and Hungary. Maximilian, who was unable 
 to proceed farther than Trent, on his journey to Rome to 
 receive the imperial crown (the passes being beset by the 
 Venetians), adopted the title of Self-elected Roman E^n- 
 peror {\ 1519). All his successors, with one exception, 
 assumed the imperial dignity immediately after their cor- 
 onation at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
22 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 [56. §3. 
 
57 — 59. ^ 3.] GERMANY. 23 
 
 2. Charles V., 1519—1556. 
 
 (57.) After the death of Maximilian, two candidates 
 for the imperial dignity appeared in the persons of his 
 grandson, Charles I., King of Spain and Naples, and 
 Francis I., King of France, the latter of whom relied for 
 success on the friendship of the Pope, and the liberality 
 with which he had distributed among the electors presents, 
 and promises of assistance against the Turks. Austria, 
 on her part, was equally active, and the result was the 
 unanimous election of Charles, who was required to sign 
 an instrument, by which the rights of the electors and of 
 the empire were secured. By this union of the German 
 and Spanish crowns, France was surrounded on three 
 sides by the territories of one gigantic power. It was not 
 until the year 1530, that Charles V. received, at Bologna, 
 the imperial and Italian crowns from the hands of the Pope. 
 (For the diet of Worms, see page 7.) 
 
 Wars of Charles V. 
 
 (58.) First ivar with Francis J, 1521—1526. The 
 immediate occasion of a war between Charles and Francis, 
 the two most powerful sovereigns of Europe, was the sim- 
 ultaneous refusal of Francis to restore the duchy of 
 Burgundy (which had been wrested by Louis XI. from 
 Charles's grandmother), and of Charles to cede to France 
 the kingdom of Navarre, which had been conquered by 
 Ferdinand the Catholic. A fatal error on the part of the 
 French leader, Lautrec, in permitting the junction of the 
 imperial and papal armies, occasioned the loss of Milan, 
 which was conferred on Duke Francis Sforza. During 
 the preparation of Francis I. for its re-capture, his near 
 relation, the Constable Charles de Bourbon (who had been 
 deprived of the government of Milan and the command- 
 in-chief of the army, on account of some insult offered by 
 him to the Queen Mother), went over to the imperialists. 
 A portion of the duchy of Milan was reconquered, but the 
 French were soon compelled to commence a retreat, in 
 which Bayard (the " chevalier sans peur et sans reproche") 
 lost his life. 
 
 (59.) The imperialists having made an unsuccessful 
 
24 MODERN HISTORY. [59. ^3. 
 
 incursion into the Soutli of France, Francis availed him- 
 self of this opportunity for a last attempt on Milan, and 
 entering Italy, reconquered, almost without opposition, 
 the greater part of the duchy. Then he sat down before 
 the fortified city of Pavia, after dispatching a division of 
 his army to Naples for the reconquest of that kingdom. 
 Meanwhile an imperial army, commanded by Pescara, had 
 marched to the relief of Pavia, where the French were 
 utterly defeated in 1525. In this battle Francis I. was 
 taken prisoner, and compelled to purchase his liberation 
 by renouncing (in the Convention of Madrid, 1526) 
 all claims to Italy and Burgundy, and delivering up his 
 sons as hostages. No sooner, however, had he regained 
 his freedom, than he refused to fulfil the conditions, which, 
 as he asserted, had been violently imposed on him, and 
 were contrary to his coronation oath. Hence the second 
 war, 1527 — 1529. The Pope (Clement VII.) having quar- 
 relled with the emperor (who had refused to support him 
 in his claims on Ferrara), and formed an alliance with 
 Francis I. and the republic of Venice, a war again broke out 
 between the two great European powers. George Frunds- 
 berg entered Italy at the head of an imperial army, joined 
 the Constable Charles de Bourbon, and soon afterwards 
 died. The Constable then marched without opposition to 
 Home, but lost his life during the storming of the city, 
 which was taken and plundered by his troops. The Pope, 
 who had taken refuge in the castle of St. Angelo, was re- 
 leased by the Emperor after promising to summon a gen- 
 eral council for the reunion and reformation of the 
 Church, and to oppose the divorce of Henry VIII. of 
 England from Catherine (Charles's aunt). In the year 
 1528, a French army (under Lautrec) conquered Naples, 
 with the exception of the capital, which was saved by An- 
 drew Doria, a noble Genoese, who had gone over to the 
 Emperor in consequence of insults received from the 
 French. The French besieging army was almost exter- 
 minated by pestilence. In the following year a peace 
 (called the Ladies' Peace, because it was negotiated by 
 Louisa of Savoy, mother of Francis, and Margaret of 
 Austria, Charles's aunt) was concluded at Cambray, 
 Francis retaining Burgundy, but agreeing to pay a ran- 
 
60, 61. §3.] GERMANY. 25 
 
 som of two millions of crowns for the liberation of his 
 sons, and renouncing all claims to Flanders and Italy. 
 
 (60.) War ivith tlie Turks, 1526—1532. Soljman 
 II. had entered Hungary (in consequence of a summons 
 dispatched from Madrid by Francis I.), and had defeated 
 and slain the Hungarian King Lewis, in the battle of 
 Moliacz (1526). Lewis was succeeded in both kingdoms 
 by his brother-in-law, the Archduke Ferdinand (brother 
 of Charles V.), the powerful Waiwode of Transylvania 
 (John Zapolj^a) being at the same time elected King of 
 Hungary by another party. Meanwhile Solyman II. had 
 renewed the war (previously to the conclusion of peace at 
 Cambray in 1529), and taken Zapolya under his protec- 
 tion, marched, almost without opposition, to the gates of 
 Vienna, but withdrew his forces after besieging the city 
 for three weeks, in consequence of a report that an army 
 was advancing to its relief Zapolya, who had received 
 the so-called holy crown from the hands of the infidels, 
 remained sovereign of Hungary (or rather a vassal of the 
 Sultan), his rival Ferdinand being too poor to prosecute 
 his claims. Solyman, who had never altogether abandoned 
 his favorite project of universal conquest, was encouraged 
 by the distracted state of Christendom to enter Hungary 
 a second time (in 1532) with 250,000 men; but the Em- 
 peror had in the mean time effected a reconciliatioif with 
 the Protestants, and immediately after the conclusion of 
 peace at NiJrnberg was enabled to take the field at the 
 head of 80,000 men. This unexpected opposition, the 
 checks which he had already received before several unim- 
 portant places, and the intelligence of Doria's victories in 
 the Ionian Seas, were deemed by Solyman sufficient rea- 
 sons for a hasty retreat. 
 
 (For an account of the diets of Spires and Augsburg^ 
 see page 9.) 
 
 (61.) Expedition against Tunis, 1535. Muley Has- 
 san, King of Tunis, was deposed by Hayraddin Barba- 
 rossa, a vassal of Solyman II., and chief of a band of 
 corsairs, who had established himself in Algiers a short 
 time before. The coasts of Spain and Southern Italy 
 having been ravaged by these pirates, in defiance of the 
 Knights of St. John (to whom Charles at his coronation, 
 2 
 
26 MODERN HISTORY. [62 — 64. § 3. 
 
 in 1530, had^granted Malta, Gozzo, and Tripoli, as fiefs, 
 on condition of their waging perpetual war against unbe- 
 lievers and pirates), a Spanish-Italian fleet of 420 sail was 
 fitted out by the Emperor, who stormed the fortress of 
 Goletta, defeated the army of Hayraddin before Tunis, took 
 the city, and set at liberty a large body of Christian 
 slaves (22,000) who were confined in its prisons. The 
 whole of the conquered territory, except Goletta and the 
 coast, was restored to Muley Hassan by the Emperor. 
 
 (62. ) Third ivar with Francis Z, 1 536 — 1 538. I'rancis 
 Sforza, of Milan, having died without issue, and bequeath- 
 ed his possessions to the Emperor, an attempt was made 
 by Francis I. to regain possession of the duchy. Alter 
 demanding from the Duke of Savoy (brother-in-law of 
 Charles V.) a free passage through his territories, as well 
 as the cession of a portion of the duchy (which he claimed 
 in right of his descent from Philip of Savoy, his mater- 
 nal grandfather), Francis suddenly entered Savoy and 
 Piedmont, declared war against the Emperor, and formed 
 an alliance with the Turkish Sultan. At the same time 
 Charles V. invaded France, but was compelled by want of 
 provisions to follow the advice of the Constable Montmo- 
 rency and retire, after laying waste the whole of Provence. 
 In 1538, an armistice was concluded at Nice, each party 
 retaining the places which he had taken during the war. 
 Milan was given to Philip, Charles's son. 
 
 (63.) Charles's Expedition against Algiers^ 1541, was 
 occasioned by the terrible depredations of the Algerine 
 corsairs on the coasts of Spain and Italy. An army was 
 landed on the African coast, but its operations were frus- 
 trated by continual rains, and a second storm destroyed 
 the greater part of the fleet. 
 
 (64.) Fourth ivar against Francis J, 1542 — 1544. 
 The disaster which had befallen the Emperor before Al- 
 giers, and the advance of a Turkish army into Upper 
 Hungary, seemed to afi'ord a favorable opportunity for the 
 reassertion of tho^e claims which had never been entirely 
 abandoned by Francis I. The assassination of two (so- 
 called) French ambassadors by some Spanish troops, 
 served as a pretext for hostilities, which were recom- 
 
65^67. §3.] GERMANY. 27 
 
 mencecl by Francis in conjunction with his allies the 
 Turks, Danes, Swedes, and the Duke of Cleves. 
 
 (65.) The Turks took possession (after the death of 
 Zapolya) of all that remained of Christian Hungary, and 
 the French, with an army composed of Danes and subjects 
 of the Duke of Cleves, invaded the Netherlands, whilst the 
 united fleets of France and Turkey scoured the Mediter- 
 ranean and stormed Nice. The Duke of Cleves, who had 
 trusted to the strength of his fortresses (all of which 
 capitulated after the capture of the previously impreg- 
 nable stronghold of Diiren), was the first of his ene- 
 mies defeated by Charles Y. Having received assistance 
 from the states of the empire (including even the Protes- 
 tant powers) and concluded an alliance with England, the 
 Emperor then marched through Champagne, as far as 
 Soissons, on his way to Paris. This movement hastened 
 the peace of Crespy, which was concluded in 1544, the 
 two sovereigns pledging themselves to assist each other 
 against the Turks, and to strain every nerve for the resto- 
 ration of the ancient religion. At the same time Francis 
 renounced his claims to Naples, Milan, and Flanders. 
 
 [For the Schmalkaldian war^ and the war ivith 
 Maurice of Saxony^ see page 10.) 
 
 (66) War ivith Henry II. of France (1552). Avail- 
 ing himself of the distracted state of Germany, Henry 
 II., by dint of liberal promises of assistance to the 
 Protestants, obtained possession of the bishoprics of 
 Metz, Toul, and Verdun. An unsuccessful attempt of 
 Charles Y. to reconquer those cities was followed by an 
 armistice for five years. 
 
 (67) Abdication of Charles Y. The elevation 
 of Paul lY. to the papal throne threatening a revival 
 of the old contests between the Pope and Emperor, 
 Charles Y., whose strength had been for a long time de- 
 dining, resigned the sovereignty of Naples, Milan, and 
 the Netherlands, in 1555, and the crown of Spain in the 
 following year, to his son Philip ; and having abdicated 
 the imperial dignity in favor of his brother Ferdinand, 
 retired to Spain, where he established himself in the 
 Hieronymite monastery of St. Just, near Placentia. In 
 this retirement his time was divided between the duties 
 
28 MODERN HISTORY. [68. ^4. 
 
 of religion, music, gardening, and the manufacture of 
 wooden clocks. After celebrating his own obsequies, 
 he died on the 21st of September 1558, in the fifty-sixth 
 year of his age. 
 
 ^ 4. Spain. 
 
 (68) 1. The marriage of Ferdinand the Catholic 
 (1479—1516) and Isabella of Castillo (1474—1504) 
 laid the foundation of a union between the kingdoms 
 of Arragon (to which Sicily and Sardinia also be- 
 longed) and Castillo. To these possessions were 
 added (by Ximenes) the kingdom of Grenada, Naples 
 (1534), and the conquests on the north coast of Africa 
 (Oran, 1509). The anxious desire of the two sovereigns 
 was to render the monarchy as far as possible independ- 
 ent of the nobility and the higher order of clergy. With 
 this view the grand-masterships of the three orders of 
 chivalry (St. James, Alcantara, and Calatrava) were an- 
 nexed to the crown, which in consequence exercised un- 
 limited control over the estates, finances, and military 
 resources of the orders. Encouragement was also given 
 to the leagues (Hermandades) of cities against the tyran- 
 ny of the nobles. The newly established inquisition was 
 employed for the ruin of those who had rendered them- 
 selves obnoxious to the court, as well as for the extirpa- 
 tion of heresy, and the persecution of the Jews, whose 
 expulsion from the kingdom on account of their apostasy 
 from a religion to which they had been converted by 
 force, secured to the crown the possession of their for- 
 feited property. A lustre was thrown over the reign of 
 Ferdinand^" by the discovery of America, the admirable 
 
 ^° The principal part of the glory of this reign must be at- 
 tributed to queen Isabella. She evinced the greatest courage 
 during the vicissitudes of her youth. When Ferdinand fled from 
 Segovia, she undauntedly remained there. She would guard the 
 Alhama, at the gates of Grenada, when her most valiant officers 
 proposed a retreat. She consented reluctantly to the establish- 
 ment of the Inquisition. She loved literature, and aided its ad- 
 vancement. She understood Latin ; while Ferdinand could scarce- 
 ly sign his name. Notwithstanding the objections of Ferdinand, 
 she armed the fleet which discovered America. She defended the 
 
69, 70.] SPAIN. 29 
 
 administration of Cardinal Ximenes, and the reputation 
 acquired by the Spanish warriors in the conquest of 
 Grenada and Naples under their renowned leader Gron- 
 zalvo de Cordova. Isabella was succeeded in the sov- 
 ereignty of Castille by her daughter Joanna and her 
 husband Philip I., son of the Emperor Maximilian, who 
 conquered Navarre as far as the Pyrenees. Two years 
 after his succession Philip died (1506), and his widow 
 having fallen into a state of imbecility, Ximenes per- 
 suaded the estates of Castille to confer the sovereignty 
 on Ferdinand the Catholic, who was succeeded in both 
 his kingdoms by Philip's son, 
 
 (69) 2. Charles I. (1516—1556), who commenced his 
 reign under the guardianship of Cardinal Ximenes ; 
 but on his arrival in Spain from the Netherlands, the 
 minister was disgraced, and died soon afterwards of vexa- 
 tion. Cardinal Adrian, a native of the Netherlands, 
 having been appointed regent of the kingdom during the 
 absence of Charles in G-ermany, the cities of Castille, 
 irritated at the oppressive and increasing taxation, 
 formed themselves into a confederacy called the " Holy 
 Junta," and sent an army into the field under the com- 
 mand of Don Juan Padilla, who was defeated near Yilla- 
 lar (1521), taken prisoner, and executed. On his return 
 Charles proclaimed a general amnesty; but the privi- 
 leges of the Castilian crown were still maintained at the 
 expense of the people's freedom, and the Cortes, although 
 it continued its sessions, had become powerless and con- 
 temptible. 
 
 (70) But it was not merely by the extension of his 
 prerogative that Charles upheld and augmented the dig- 
 nity of the Spanish crown. From his ancestors he had 
 inherited the whole of Spain, the Netherlands, the Aus- 
 trian states (with the exception of Bohemia and Hun- 
 gary), Sicily, Sardinia, and Naples, the recently discovered 
 West India islands, the colonies on the north coast of 
 Africa, and the Canary islands. To these he had added 
 the kingdom of Germany, the duchy of Milan, the prov- 
 
 accused Columbus; consoled Gonsalvo de Cordova in his dis- 
 grace ; and gave liberty to the unhappy Americans. — Michelet. (S.) 
 
30 MODERN HISTORY. [71,72. ^4. 
 
 inces of Utrecht, Oberyssel, and Groeningen, and the 
 rich transatlantic countries of Mexico, Peru, Chili, Quito, 
 and New G-ranada. The whole of this enormous mass 
 of territor}^, with the exception of Germany and the 
 Austrian states, he delivered over (in 1556) to his only 
 son, 
 
 (71) 3. Philip II. 1556—1598, husband of Mary, 
 Queen of England, whose gloomy, reserved, and haughty 
 behavior disgusted his Spanish subjects, whilst his undis- 
 guised preference for Spain rendered him equally unpopu- 
 lar in the Netherlands. The ivar with France^ which he 
 had inherited from his father, was carried on with the 
 assistance of England, and terminated, after the battle of 
 St. Quintin,* and another victory gained by Count Eg- 
 mont, near Gravelines, by the peace of Chateau Cam- 
 bresis (1559), the French consenting to restore all the 
 territory which they had acquired by conquest in Italy. 
 In this reign the royal residence was transferred from 
 Valladolid to Madrid. Spain had now reached the sum- 
 mit of her glory, from which she began rapidly to decline. 
 The persecution of the Moors, commenced by Ferdinand 
 the Catholic, and renewed by Charles V., was carried on 
 with increased severity by Philip, who compelled them 
 to renounce not only their faith, but even their customs, 
 dress, and language. This occasioned a civil war, which 
 lasted two years, and was infamous for the acts of revolt- 
 ing cruelty perpetrated by both parties. The naval power 
 of the Turks (who had sanctioned the pillage of the 
 Italian and Spanish coasts by the corsair states of Africa) 
 was annihilated in the battle of Lepanto (1571) by 
 the combined imperial, Venetian and papal fleets, under 
 the command of Philip's natural brother, Don John of 
 Austria ; but the advantages of this victory were neutral- 
 ized by Philip's jealousy of his brother. 
 
 (72.) The heaviest loss sustained by Spain at this 
 period was the defection of the seven united 
 
 ^ It was in fulfilment of a vow made during this battle that 
 Philip built the Escurial, a royal palace of Spain, about twenty- 
 two miles from Madrid, at the foot of the mountains which divide 
 the two Castilles. (S.) 
 
73, 74. § 4.] SPAIN. 31 
 
 provinces of the Netherlands (see ^ 5). On the 
 other hand, Portugal, to which Philip had some claim 
 by his mother's side (as grandson of Emanuel the Great), 
 was annexed to the Spanish crown by the Duke of Alva, 
 after the extinction of the Burgundian line in that coun- 
 try (1580). As the Protestant Queen of England, 
 Elizabeth, supported the United Netherlands in their 
 resistance to Spain, and at the same time attacked the 
 Spanish colonies in America, Philip, relying on the sup- 
 port of the Romanists in England, fitted out a fleet of 
 150 sail (called the Inmncible Armada), which was 
 beaten by the English off Dunkirk, and almost annihi- 
 lated by a storm, in 1588. From this blow the power 
 of Spain never rallied. Philip sank into the grave with 
 the melancholy consciousness that all his plans had ended 
 in disappointment and disgrace. His son, Don Carlos, 
 a feeble-minded youth, whose violence bordered on in- 
 sanity, was arrested, not on account of his love for his 
 stepmother,'^ but in consequence of his treasonable pro- 
 jects, and died in prison, probably from natural causes, in 
 1568. 
 
 (73.) 4. Philip III. (1598—1621). The narrow- 
 minded policy of this monarch, and his incapable min- 
 ister the Duke of Lerma, in expelling all the Moriscos 
 (baptized Moors), hastened the downfall of Spain by de- 
 priving her of the most intelligent and industrious 
 portion of her population. In the yeai* 1609, Philip 
 was obliged to conclude an armistice for twelve years with 
 the Netherlands. The ruin of Spain was still further ac- 
 celerated by his son, 
 
 (74.) Philip IV. (1621—1665), who abandoned the 
 government of Spain to his minister, the Count Olivarez. 
 The folly of this man in seeking to restore prosperity by 
 the introduction of a uniform system of administration 
 rather than by a rigid economy in the expenditure of the 
 courtj occasioned an insurrection of the Catalonians, who 
 resisted for twelve years the attempt of Olivarez to de- 
 prive their province of its peculiar privileges. For the 
 defection of Portugal, see § 6. In consequence of these 
 
 * As represented by Schiller, in his tragedy of Don Carlos. 
 
32 MODERN HISTORY. [75. ^ 5. 
 
 miscarriages Olivarez was removed, but the administra- 
 tion of his successor, Luis do Haro, seems to have been 
 scarcely more judicious. Great discontent was excited 
 in the provinces by immoderate taxation and by the ap- 
 pointment of none but Spaniards to ofl&ces of trust and 
 honor. The imposition of a fresh tax occasioned an 
 insurrection at Naj)les (1647), headed by a fisherman 
 named Tommaso Aniello (generally contracted into Mas- 
 aniello), who compelled the Spanish viceroy to grant all 
 his demands. The assassination of this patriot by his 
 enemies occasioned a fresh outbreak, which was quelled 
 by the appearance of a Spanish fleet off the harbor. 
 The independence of the United Netherlands was 
 fully recognized by Spain in the peace of Westphalia 
 (1648). 
 
 § 5. The Netherlands. 
 
 (75.) At the commencement of the mediaeval period, 
 the Netherlands belonged to France, after the partition 
 of that kingdom, to Lorraine, and subsequently to the 
 duchy of Lower Lorraine. They were gradually split 
 into a number of small duchies and counties, all of 
 which, either by conquest, marriage, or purchase, became 
 the property of the Dukes of Burgundy. Charles the 
 Bold possessed fourteen Netherlandish provinces (viz., 
 the four duchies, Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, and 
 Geldern ; the counties of Flanders, Artois, Hennegau, 
 Namur, Holland, Zealand, and Zutphen, the margravate 
 of Antwerp, and the seigniories of Mechlin and Fries- 
 land), which were annexed to Austria by the marriage of 
 Maximilian I. with Mary of Burgundy. To these were 
 added the three provinces of Utrecht, Oberyssel, and 
 Groeningen, by Charles V. Under the Dukes of Bur- 
 gundy the Netherlandish States.^ as they were called, ob- 
 tained several important privileges, such as the right of 
 self-taxation and levying their own contingent of troops, 
 which Philip II. on two occasions (in 1549 and 1555), 
 solemnly swore to respect and defend. After the peace 
 of Chateau Cambresis, Philip quitted the Netherlands, 
 leaving as his representative his natural sister, Marga- 
 
75. ^5.] THE NETHERLANDS. 33 
 
 ret of Parma, who was assisted by Granvella, Bishop 
 of Arras. Offices of the highest trust and importance 
 were also conferred on the great native nobles, William 
 of Nassau, Prince of Orange, and Lamoral, Count 
 Egmont ; and the Count Van Hoorn was appointed ad- 
 miral of the Netherlandish fleet. But these popular 
 measures were neutralized by the appointment of foreign- 
 ers to the other great offices of state, the quartering of a 
 Spanish force (3000 men) in the Netherlands, and the es- 
 tablishment of fourteen new bishoprics and three arch- 
 bishoprics, the chief of which, Mechlin, was conferred on 
 Grranvella, who soon afterwards obtained a cardinal's hat. 
 The discontent excited by these proceedings was aggra- 
 vated by a persecution of the Protestants, and at last 
 reached such a height, that Granvella deemed it most 
 prudent to quit the Netherlands. After the publication 
 of the articles agreed on by the Council of Trent, a pro- 
 test against the Spanish inquisition and the severity of 
 the ecclesiastical laws was presented to the Duchess-Re- 
 gent at Brussels, by a confederacy of 250 noblemen (ori- 
 gin of the faction called " les gueux")^. As no decisive 
 answer was given to this petition, the populace became 
 furious, and commenced a general attack on the churches, 
 which so terrified Margaret, that she consented to the 
 suppression of the inquisition in the Netherlands, and 
 the revocation of the edict commanding uniformity of be- 
 lief and worship. Egmont was satisfied with these con- 
 cessions, and promised to support the government ; but 
 the Prince of Orange still continued his opposition, and 
 finding his party too feeble for an open demonstration, 
 fled for safety into Germany, an example which was spee- 
 dily followed by most of the Protestants. In the year 
 1567, the Duke of Alva appeared in the Netherlands with 
 an army of 20,000 men, and assumed the principal direc- 
 tion of the government ; but the arrest of Egmont, 
 
 ' As the members of the confederacy approached the palace, 
 walking two and two in solemn procession, the Duke of Barlai- 
 niont cried out contemptuously, " Ce n'est qu'un tas de gueux" (it 
 is only a heap of beggars) — a designation which was thenceforth 
 adopted by all the Netherlandish patriots.— Wolfgang Menzel's 
 Geschuhte der Deutschen, cap. 422. 
 2* 
 
34 MODERN HISTORY. [76, ^5. 
 
 Hoorn, and other nobles, without the sanction of his co- 
 regent, so disgusted Margaret, that she resigned her office 
 and retired to Italy, where she remained until her death. 
 Alva, now sole governor, immediately established a com- 
 mission of inquiry (called by the people the bloody court\ 
 which commenced proceedings against the Prince of Or- 
 ange and all who had either signed the protestation or ta- 
 ken any part in acts of sacrilege. Those who refused to 
 appear were outlawed, and their goods confiscated. Eg- 
 niont, Hoorn, and several other noblemen, were executed 
 at Brussels as conspirators against the state (1568).* 
 
 (76.) The Prince of Orange, on receiving intelligence 
 of the confiscation of his estates, immediately made ar- 
 rangements for an invasion of the Netherlands, in con- 
 junction with his brother Lewis of Nassau ; but Lewis 
 was defeated by Alva near Jemmingen on the Ems, and 
 the prince himself compelled to retreat almost as soon as 
 he had crossed the frontier. Even those Netherlanders 
 who had hitherto remained faithful to Alva, were now 
 disgusted by the imposition of a new tax (one per cent, 
 on all property, and five per cent on the sale of immova- 
 ble, and ten per cent, of movable merchandise), and 
 placed themselves under the command of the Prince of 
 Orange, who was elected royal stattholder of Holland, 
 Zealand, Friesland, and Utrecht, at a general meeting of 
 deputies of the insurgent states held at Dort in 1572. 
 In the following year Alva was dismissed at his own re- 
 quest, and succeeded in the government of the Nether- 
 lands by Don Luis de Zuniga y Requesens (1573 — • 
 1576), who dissolved the " bloody court," and after a vic- 
 tory gained by the Spaniards on the banks of the Maas, 
 and an unsuccessful attempt on Leyden (1575), endeav- 
 ored fruitlessly to negotiate a peace, and died in the fol- 
 lowing year. A confederation of Netherlandish provin- 
 ces was formed at Ghent for mutual defence against the 
 Spanish troops, who were liquidating their long arrears of 
 pay by the plunder of Maestricht, Antwerp, and other 
 
 * The Duke of Alva made it a boast, on his return to Spain, 
 that he had put to death with the sword more than 18,000 men in 
 the Netherlands. — S. 
 
77j 78. § 5.] THE NETHERLANDS. 35 
 
 rich cities. On receiving intelligence of this movement, 
 Philip II. appointed his half-brother, Don Juan of 
 Austria (a natural son of Charles Y.), governor of the 
 Netherlands (1576 — 1578), and after his death (at the 
 end of two years) conferred the office on an experienced 
 warrior and statesman named Alexander Farnese, 
 of Parma (son of the late Regent Margaret; 1578 — ■ 
 1592), who conciliated the southern or Walloon provinces 
 (which had remained faithful to the Church of Rome), by 
 securing to them the enjoyment of their ancient privile- 
 ges. 
 
 (77.) On the other hand, the seven northern 
 provinces, Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gelderland, 
 Groeningen, Friesland, and Oberyssel, all of which had 
 embraced the doctrines of the Reformation, formed a un- 
 ion at Utrecht (in 1579), formally renounced their 
 allegiance to Philip in 1581, and were on the eve of con- 
 ferring the hereditary countship of the Netherlands on 
 William of Orange, when he fell by the hand of an assas- 
 sin (1584.) The government of the seven united provin- 
 ces was then committed to his brave son, Maurice of 
 Nassau-Orange (1584—1625). 
 
 (78.) In the mean time, Alexander of Parma having 
 obtained possession of Ghent, Brussels, Mechlin, Nime- 
 guen, and lastly of Antwerp (after a siege in which both 
 sides greatly distinguished themselves, 1585), the states- 
 general applied for assistance to Elizabeth Queen of Eng- 
 land, and consented to appoint the Earl of Leicester gen- 
 eral stattholder ; but the interference of Maurice of Or- 
 ange and Oldenbarneveld (pensionary of Rotterdam) so 
 crippled his operations, that he soon resigned his appoint- 
 ment (1587). Notwithstanding, however, this untoward 
 occurrence, friendly relations were still maintained be- 
 tween the Netherlands and England ; and in consequence, 
 Philip II. fitted out his invincible Armada, hoping, after 
 he had subdued England, to find the Netherlands an easy 
 prey. After the destruction of this fleet, Alexander of 
 Parma, so far from making any further aggressions on the 
 independence of the northern provinces, was scarcely able 
 to maintain his authority in the south. The united prov- 
 inces, aided by France, continued to carry on war against 
 
MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 [79,80. §6- 
 
 Alexander and his feeble successors with such success 
 (notwithstanding the capture of Ostend by the Spanish 
 general Spinola), that they obtained, in the year 1609, an 
 armistice for twelve years, and subsequently, at 
 the peace of Westphalia, a distinct recognition of 
 their independence by the Spanish government. 
 
 (79.) The Dutch Protestants were divided about this 
 time into two parties, Arminians, or remonstrants, who 
 rejected, and Gomarists, or Counter-Remonstrants, who 
 held Calvin's favorite tenet of predestination. The Ar- 
 minians, after the condemnation of their doctrine by the 
 Synod of Dort in 1618, were cruelly persecuted by their 
 opponents, who put Oldenbarneveld to death, and con- 
 demned Hugo Grotius and others to perpetual imprison- 
 ment. 
 
 ^ 6. Portugal. 
 
 (80.) A. The illegitimate Burgundian line 
 (1383—1580). 
 
 The most prosperous days of Portugal were under her 
 rulers of the illegitimate Burgundian house, especially 
 Emanuel the Great (1495 — 1521)^, when the discovery of 
 a new passage by sea to India, and the conquests and set- 
 tlements of the Portuguese in Asia, rendered Lisbon the 
 first commercial city of Europe. 
 
 After the defeat and death (?) of King Sebastian at 
 Alkassar in 1578 (in a war against Fez and Morocco), and 
 the short reign of his great uncle, the Cardinal Henry 
 
 ^ Emanuel the Great, f 1521. 
 
 John III. 
 t 1557. 
 
 Isabella. 
 
 John, 
 1 1554. 
 
 Sebastian, 
 t 1578. 
 
 Mary, Philip II. 
 
 Lewis. 
 
 Antonio, 
 Prior. 
 
 Henry, 
 
 Cardinal, 
 
 King, 
 
 t 1580. 
 
 Edward. 
 
 Catherine, 
 
 mar. John 
 
 of Braganza. 
 
 Theodosius. 
 
 John IV. 
 King, 1640. 
 
83, 84. § 7.] FRANCE. 37 
 
 (1578 — 1580), Portugal became a Spanish province, re- 
 taining, however, her own constitution. 
 
 B. As a Spanish province, 1 581 — 1 640. A report 
 being widely circulated that King Sebastian was still alive, 
 three pretenders claimed the crown in succession, but were 
 speedily arrested and executed. It is uncertain whether 
 the fourth claimant was also an impostor, or the real King 
 Sebastian who had escaped with life after the battle of 
 Alkassar. Under Spanish domination, Portugal not only 
 lost most of her foreign possessions, but was even deprived 
 of those privileges which Philip II. had sworn to respect 
 and maintain. All the public offices were filled with 
 Spaniards, commerce was crippled by vexatious restric- 
 tions and heavy imposts, the crown lands alienated, and 
 the fortresses dismantled. This state of slavery was ter- 
 minated, almost without bloodshed, by a revolution which 
 raised to the throne (in 1640) Duke John of Braganza 
 (descended from a natural son of John I.), and established 
 the independence of Portugal in spite of repeated attempts 
 on the part of Spain to reconquer her ancient province. 
 
 ^ 7. France. 
 A. Under the House of Yalois (1328)— 1589. 
 
 83. 8. 6 Louis XII. (1498—1515) (Duke of Orleans) 
 succeeded his cousin Charles YIII. on the throne of 
 France, which comprehended at that period a much less 
 extensive territory than at present (Flanders, Artois, Lor- 
 raine, Franche-comte and Alsace having been since added), 
 but which, nevertheless, occupied a distinguished position 
 in Europe on account of the compact union of its different 
 provinces, its admirable military organization, and the 
 firmly established authority of the crown. For the French 
 wars in Italy, see ^ 3. He was succeeded by his son-in- 
 law. 
 
 (84.) 9. Francis! (1515— 1547) (Count of Angou- 
 
 ' See Handbook of Medi6.eval Geography and History, p. 143. 
 
38 MODERN HISTORY. [84. ^7. 
 
 leme^ and Duke of Yalois) disgusted most of his subjects 
 by the wanton extravagance with which he lavished the 
 revenues of the crown on his mistresses and unworthy fa- 
 vorites. The first act of his reign was the revival of his 
 wife's claim to the duchy of Milan, which he recovered 
 after a brilliant victory over the Swiss at Marignano in 
 1515 (see page 20). For his unsuccessful attempt to ob- 
 tain the imperial crown, see page 24. His four wars with 
 Charles V. all of which were prejudicial to the interests of 
 his kingdom) terminated in the loss of Milan through the 
 insufficiency of the previous preparations, and the incapa- 
 city of Francis either to arrange any connected system of 
 military operations, or to carry out with perseverance even 
 his .own imperfect plans. This disaster occasioned the 
 imposition of still heavier taxes, and the establishment of 
 a system of plunder in Provence, Champagne, and Picar- 
 dy. His ambitious projects at home were attended with 
 better success. The duchy of Britany was annexed by 
 marriage to the crown of France, the most powerful vas- 
 sals rendered dependent on the throne by their appoint- 
 ment to offices at court, the choice of bishops and abbots 
 vested in the crown by virtue of a concordat with the 
 Pope, and the parliament of Paris, which had refused to 
 register these and other arbitrary acts, humbled by the 
 
 Charles V. 
 
 Charles VI. Louis of Orleans, 
 
 I mar. Valentina Visconti. 
 
 Charles VII. Charles of Orleans. John of Angoul6me. 
 Louis XI. Louis XII. Charles of Angoul6me. 
 
 Charles VIII. Claudia. Francis I. 
 
 Henry II, 
 mar. Catherine de' Medici. 
 
 Francis II. Elizabeth, Charles IX. Henr5^IlI. Francis Margaret 
 
 mar. mar. (Duke of Duke of mar. 
 
 Mary Stuart. Philip II. Anjou, Alengon. Henry IV. 
 
 King of 
 
 Poland.) 
 
85— -87. §7.] FRANCE. 39 
 
 withdrawal of its privileges. The establishment of a 
 national infantry enabled him to discharge his foreign 
 mercenaries, and thus rendered him less dependent on 
 other countries. Legislation was, for the most part, in- 
 trusted to the Chanceilors of France. On the other hand, it 
 cannot be denied that Francis merited his title of Pere des 
 lettres, by the encouragement which he gave to science, 
 literature, and the fine arts. His son 
 
 (85.) 10. Henry II. (1547—1559) was completely 
 under the influence of his mistress, Diana of Poitiers, the 
 Gruises* (Francis, Duke of Gruise, and Charles, Cardinal 
 of Lorraine, a branch of the house of Lorraine), and the 
 Constable Montmorency. As an ally of Maurice of Sax- 
 ony, Henry renewed the war with Charles V. ostensibly 
 for the benefit of the German Protestants, although he 
 tortured and murdered their brethren in France. Metz, 
 Toul, and Verdun were betrayed into the hands of the 
 French. Frai^cis of Gruise distinguished himself by his 
 defence of Metz against Charles Y. The French, who 
 had recommenced hostilities on the accession of Philip, 
 Charles's son, were defeated at St. Quentin by the Span- 
 iards, assisted by an English force obtained from Philip's 
 consort, Mary Queen of England. 
 
 (86.) At the peace of Chateau Cambresis, concluded 
 m 1559, after the defeat of their forces by Count Egmont 
 near Grravelines, all the places recently taken by the 
 French were restored, with the exception of Calais, which 
 had been recaptured from the English by Francis of 
 Guise, and again contained a French population. 
 
 (87.) 11. Francis IL (1559—1560) husband of 
 Mary Stuart, The mental as well as bodily imbecility of 
 
 * Claude de Guise. 
 
 Francis. Duke, Mary, wife of Charles, Cardinal of 
 
 j- 1663. James V. Lorraine, 
 
 of Scotland. 
 
 Mary Stuart, 
 
 Henry, Charles of Louis, Cardinal, 
 1 1488. Mayenne, 1 1688. 
 
 1 1611. 
 
40 MODERN HISTORY. [88, 89. § 7. 
 
 this sovereign, who was only sixteen when he ascended the 
 throne, rendered the regency an object of ambition to a. 
 Catherine de' Medici, his mother, h. The Bourbons,^ 
 descendants of the youngest son of Louis IX. (Antony, 
 King of Navarre, in right of his wife, and Louis of Conde), 
 who claimed the office as princes of the blood royal near- 
 est in succession to the crown, c. The Guises, who 
 claimed as uncles of the King's wife. The Guises havings 
 triumphed over their opponents, Francis of Guise under- 
 took the military, and the Cardinal of Lorraine the civil 
 administration of the kingdom. Under his brother 
 
 (88.) 12. Charles IX. (1560— 1574), who ascended 
 the throne at eleven years of age, the Guises lost all their 
 influence. The Queen mother now undertook the regency, 
 the King of Navarre was appointed lieutenant of the 
 kingdom, and the free exercise of their religion without the 
 walls of the city was granted to the Huguenots. The 
 murder of a number of Protestants in a barn at Yassy on 
 the one part, and various acts of violence committed by the 
 Protestants, especially in the south of France, on the 
 other, occasioned the first of those religious wars by 
 which France was distracted for more than thirty years. 
 
 (89.) In the first three the Huguenots, commanded by 
 the Condes, and at a later period by Admiral Coligny 
 and Henry of Navarre, were defeated in every battle (at 
 Dreux 1562, St. Denys 1567, Jarnac and Moncontour 
 1569), but at the peace which followed each of these re- 
 verses (at Amboise in 1563, Lonjumeau, 1568, and St. Ger- 
 main en Laye 1570) they obtained, in consequence of the 
 exhausted condition of their enemies, complete religious 
 freedom, and eventually the right of admission to offices 
 of state, and the possession of four fortresses, which they 
 were permitted to occupy with garrisons of their own. 
 The marriage of Henry of Navai-re to Margaret the king's 
 
 ^ Charles, Duke of Venddme. 
 
 Antony, King of Navarre. Charles, Cardinal. Louis I. 
 
 I of Cond^. 
 
 Henry IV. | 
 
 Henry I. 
 ofCond^, 
 
90. ^7.] PRANCE. 41 
 
 sister, and the invitation to court of Admiral Coligny and 
 other distinguished Huguenots, seemed to augur well for 
 the continuance of peace. Under these circumstances 
 many thousands of Protestants were induced to visit 
 Paris, where they were all massacred, with the exception 
 of Coligny, on the night of the 24th of August, 1572 
 (the eve of St. Bartholomew). This atrocious 
 act was planned by the Queen mother, Catherine de' Med- 
 ici, her third son, Henry of Anjou, and the princes of 
 Guise (sons of Duke Francis of Guise, who was murdered 
 before Orleans), with the consent of the feeble-minded 
 king. At the same time orders were issued for the mur- 
 der of all the Huguenots in the provinces ; but these 
 bloody edicts were in some instances disobeyed by the 
 provincial governors. Their fortresses were also taken 
 from the Protestants. These atrocities occasioned the 
 fourth religious war, in which La Rochelle, one of the 
 strongholds of the Huguenots, was besieged by Henry of 
 Anjou ; but on the elevation of this prince to the throne 
 of Poland, peace was concluded, and freedom of religious 
 worship granted to the Protestants in certain districts. 
 On the death of Charles IX. his brother was recalled 
 from Poland, and ascended the throne of France as 
 
 (90.) 13. Henry III. (1574— 1589), a contemptible 
 prince, whose time was divided between the most licen- 
 tious gratifications and acts of superstitious devotion. 
 Under the influence of his profligate favorites, he pursued 
 a system of extravagance which completely exhausted the 
 exchequer. The discontent occasioned by his concessions 
 to the Huguenots emboldened Duke Henry of Guise to 
 form a Catholic league, ostensibly for the re-establish- 
 ment and maintenance of Romanism, but in reality as the 
 best means of forwarding those claims to the throne 
 which he was determined to advance (at all events after 
 the extinction of the house of Valois) as the lineal de- 
 scendant of Charlemagne. The king, through mere ter- 
 ror, placed himself at the head of the league, and issued 
 an edict forbidding the public profession of Protestant- 
 ism — hence a fresh war (called " the war of the three 
 Henrys") with the Huguenots under Henry of Navarre. 
 Whilst the issue of this war was yet doubtful, a fresh 
 
42 MODERN HISTORY. [91. ^7. 
 
 league was formed, called •' the league of tJie sixteen'^'' the 
 object of which was the elevation of Guise to the throne 
 of France. The king fled from Paris (on " the day of 
 the Barricades"), but procured the assassination (1588) 
 of Henry of Gruise, and his brother the Cardinal Louis. 
 The league, which was now headed by the Duke of May- 
 enne, brother of the murdered Guise, was goaded to des- 
 peration by this atrocious act, and Henry, to escape their 
 fury, placed himself under the protection of Henry of Na- 
 varre, and in conjunction with his new ally besieged Pa- 
 ris, but was assassinated in his camp by a Dominican 
 monk named Jacob Clement. On his death-bed he recom- 
 mended the Bourbon prince, Henry of Navarre, as his 
 successor. 
 
 (91.) B. Under the house of Bourbon, 1589 
 (_179-2). 
 
 1. Henry lY., 1589 — 1610, after a five years' strug- 
 gle with the leaguists (supported by the Spaniards), and 
 two victories, at Arques and Ivry, embraced Romanism 
 (in 1593), and entering Paris for the first time since his 
 accession, was gradually recognized as king by the whole 
 nation. 
 
 The religious wars, which had lasted with little inter- 
 mission for thirty-eight years, were terminated by the 
 Edict of Nantes, by which entire religious liberty, 
 and admission to all ofiices of state, were secured to the 
 Protestants. This period of tranquillity was employed by 
 Henry in the restoration of prosperity to France by 
 means of an extensive financial reform, conducted by his 
 friend and minister Sully. Under his able administra- 
 tion trade revived, cities and villages were rebuilt, &c. ; 
 but scarcely were the wounds of the nation in some de- 
 gree healed, when Henry announced his intention of fol- 
 lowing out the plans of his predecessors for the ruin of 
 the house of Hapsburg, in the hope of finding sufficient 
 employment in foreign wars for the restless ambition and 
 energy of his subjects. With the view of wresting from 
 Spain her provinces in Italy and Belgium, and at the 
 same time destroying the power of Austria in Germany, . 
 Henry devised the plan of a universal Christian Euro- 
 pean republic, to be composed of fifteen states of equal 
 
93. §7.] FRANCE. 43 
 
 influence Ibut dissimilar constitutions (six hereditary and 
 five elective monarchies, and four republics). Perpetual 
 peace was to be the result of this combination. The exe- 
 cution of this project was interrupted by the death of 
 Henry, who was assassinated by Kavaillac during a pro- 
 gress through Paris, in 1610. He was succeeded by his 
 son, 
 
 (93.) 2. Louis XIII. (1610—1643), a minor, who 
 commenced his reign under the guardianship of his 
 mother, Mary de' Medici. Sully having been dis- 
 missed from the administration, the Queen mother, under 
 the direction of an Italian named Concini (Marquis 
 d'Ancre), pursued a course of the most ruinous extrava- 
 gance, which was only checked by her banishment from 
 court, and the execution of Concini (through the influ- 
 ence of a favorite of the king named Luynes). A war 
 between the king and his mother was averted by Jean 
 Armand du Plessis, afterwards Cardinal and Duke of 
 Kichelieu, whose sagacious and energetic measures 
 imparted new life to the state, and defeated all the trea- 
 sonable attempte of the Queen mother (who soon after- 
 wards fled from France, and died at Cologne) and her 
 brother Graston of Orleans. The grand objects of his ad- 
 ministration, during a period of eighteen years, were, a. 
 the augmentation of tJie royal authority at home^ which 
 he effected b}'^ depriving the Huguenots (after a protract- 
 ed siege) of their stronghold, la Rochelle, and reducing 
 them to the condition of a mere religious sect ; refusing 
 to convoke the estates of the realm, restricting the privi- 
 lege of exemption from taxation hitherto enjoyed by the 
 clergy, &c. ; b. the extension of tJw political influence of 
 France abroad. This policy was successfully adopted in 
 Sweden, Italy (where the Mantuan war of succession was 
 terminated by the elevation of the Duke of Nevers to the 
 throne), the Netherlands, and Germany, where he carried 
 out with success the plans of Henry IV. for diminishing 
 the influence of the house of Hapsburg both in that coun- 
 try and in Spain. The last of these measures was ren- 
 dered imperative by the circumstance of France being so 
 nearly surrounded on three sides by Spanish provinces, 
 as to require a strong force on almost every frontier, in 
 
44 MODERN HISTORY. [94. ^ 8. 
 
 the event of a war with Spain. With this object in view, 
 Richelieu supported the enemies of Hapsburg (the Neth- 
 erlands, and G-erman Protestants), and favored the sepa- 
 ration of the Catalonians and Portuguese from Spain. 
 His vigorous foreign policy raised France to the influen- 
 tial position which had been occupied by the Pope in the 
 middle ages, and even during the Heformation, whilst at 
 the same time comprehensive plans were devised for the 
 extension of commerce, the augmentation of the naval 
 force, the protection of the colonies, the construction of 
 canals, and the embellishment of Paris, which was in- 
 debted to him for the establishment of the Academic 
 Francaise, in 1635. A few months after Richelieu's 
 death (4th December, 1642), Louis XIII. also died (14th 
 May, 1643), leaving his kingdom to his sou Louis XIV., 
 a child of five years old. 
 
 & 8, England and Ireland under the house of Tudor ^ 
 1485—1603. 
 
 (94.) 1. Henry VIL (1485—1509) put an end to 
 the long war between the houses of York and Lancaster 
 by the victory of Bosworth Field (1485), and by his sa- 
 gacity, vigilance, and firmness defeated all the subsequent 
 machinations of the Yorkists. The English nobility hav- 
 ing been almost exterminated during the civil wars, Hen- 
 ry experienced little opposition to his authority, which he 
 exercised as absolutely as any English king since the 
 signing of Magna Charta. He increased the influence 
 of the crown, secured to his subjects the protection of 
 wise laws, encouraged trade and industry, took part in 
 the new discoveries (Newfoundland, &c.), and laid the 
 foundation of England's naval supremacy. 
 
^8.] 
 
 ENGLAND AND ICELAND. 
 
 45 
 
 o 
 H . 
 
 2>i 
 
 S S 
 
 (D O 
 O CB 
 
 
 c« too 
 
 fcuo 
 
 t-iO 
 
 
 I lb 
 
 
 
 pi a; 
 
 02 
 
 ^ JH 
 
 si 
 
 
 ^ S g 
 
 fe CD "sH 
 
 o 
 
 i-T.s -IS 
 
 f=^ 6 ^ U CD 
 
 ^ a c c^ fl 
 h'C W o ■ 
 
 ^11 
 
 a 
 
 
 +s PI 
 
 i-i <A 
 
 -^ tyo 00 tj ^ -^ 
 
 c3 cu 
 
 lO 
 
 ;o 
 
 
 
 -- cc f= ^ w 
 
 T-5 c<i'^ ?o 
 
 ^ « ^ •,- 
 
 £ s ^ ^ 
 
 l^§ ^ffiH 
 
 ; c4 CO 
 
 6J0C<J 
 C CO 
 
 ■:^ a 
 
 .2 3 
 
 w 
 
 -^ &I 
 ^C^c/5 
 
 ^a 
 
46 MODERN HISTORY, [96, 97. ^ 8. 
 
 (96.) 2. Henry YIII. (1509—1547) married Cath- 
 erine of Arragon, his brother's widow, and soon expended 
 the treasure bcL^ueathed to him by his father in court pa- 
 geants and wars with France, carried on in conjunction, 
 with his father-in-law, Ferdinand, and at a later period 
 with Charles Y. Leaving the management of public af- 
 fairs (for seventeen years) to Cardinal Wolsey, Henry oc- 
 cupied himself in theological studies, and published a 
 reply to Luther's treatise concerning the Sacraments, 
 which obtained for him from the Pope the title of " De- 
 fensor fidei." After a time, however, he quarrelled with 
 the Pope, to whom he had addressed an unsuccessful pe- 
 tition for a divorce from his wife on the plea of his mar- 
 riage being uncanonical. The king, exasperated by the 
 vexatious delays on the part of the Pope in pronouncing 
 a decision, determined to take the matter into his own 
 hands, and was privately married to Anna Boleyn (1532), 
 by whom he had a daughter, the future Queen Elizabeth. 
 Henry now broke off all communication with Rome, and 
 declared himself the supreme head of the Anglican 
 Church. Many persons who resisted this claim were put 
 to death by the advice of Thomas Cromwell, who had 
 succeeded Wolsey in his office of Chancellor. Anna Bo- 
 leyn, whose lively demeanor had excitfed the tyrant's jeal- 
 ousy, ended her days on the scaffold. The very day after 
 her death he married one of her maids of honor, named 
 Jane Seymour, who died soon after the birth of Edward 
 YI. The obsequious parliament was now required to de- 
 clare both his former marriages illegal, and consequently 
 to bastardize Mary and Elizabeth. From his fourth wife 
 (Anne, sister of the Duke of Cleves) he was soon di- 
 vorced ; his fifth (Catherine Howard) was beheaded for 
 acts of unchastity committed before her marriage ; and 
 the sixth (Catherine Parr) was condemned to death for 
 claiming to differ from the King on religious subjects, but 
 obtained a remission of her sentence. His son 
 
 (97.) 3. Edward VL (1547— 1553), a boy of nine 
 years old, was placed at first under the protectorate of 
 his maternal uncle, who assumed the title of Duke of 
 Somerset. After the death of Somerset (who was execu- 
 ted on a charge of attempting to dethrone the King), the 
 
• 98, 99. ^ 8.] ENGLAND AND IRELAND. 47 
 
 administration of public affairs was committed to the 
 Duke of Northumberland, who persuaded the King to 
 declare the Lady Jane Grey (Northumberland's daughter- 
 in-law) heiress to the crown. After Edward's death, and 
 before the parliament could confirm this change in the 
 succession, Jane Grey was persuaded to assume the 
 crown, which she resigned at the end of nine days in fa- 
 vor of the eldest daughter and rightful heiress of Henry 
 VIIL, 
 
 (98.) 4. Mary Tudor (1553— 1558), who soon af- 
 terwards married Philip II., at that time King of Naples 
 and Duke of Milan. Northumberland, who had been 
 chiefly instrumental in interrupting the regular succes- 
 sion to the throne, was convicted of high treason and exe- 
 cuted : Jane Grey and her husband were also condemned 
 to death ; but the sentence was not carried into execution 
 until it was rendered necessary, as the government al- 
 leged, by the breaking out of fresh disturbances. The 
 re-establishment of Romanism in England was the signal 
 for a fierce persecution of the Protestants, which contin- 
 ued until the death of the Queen. Cranmer, Ridley, Lat- 
 imer, Hooper, and other fathers of the Reformed Church, 
 with many persons of inferior note, were cruelly burnt at 
 the stake : others fled to the continent. Mary seems in 
 this, as well as other passages of her reign, to have acted 
 under the influence of her husband, Philip II., by whose 
 persuasion she also engaged in a war with France, and 
 lost Calais, the last of the English possessions in that 
 country. After her death, the title of Queen of England 
 was assumed by Mary Stuart, Dauphiness of France ; but 
 her party was too insignificant to resist successfully the 
 claims of 
 
 (99.) 5. Elizabeth (1558—1603), a sovereign 
 whose character seems to have been a union of opposite 
 qualities. Possessing extraordinary talents for govern- 
 ment, she was at the same time eminently successful in 
 the cultivation of classical literature ; her severity and 
 caprice were tempered by gentleness and magnanimity ; 
 her vanity was willingly pardoned by those who witnessed 
 her courageous patriotism. She restored the Anglican 
 Episcopal Church, and was recognized by parliament as 
 
48 MODERN HISTORY. [99, §8. 
 
 its supreme head. ' ° The wise administration of her min- 
 isters (Nicholas Bacon, Lord High Chancellor, and Wil- 
 liam Cecil, Lord Burghley, chief Secretary of State) and 
 the long peace, insured the prosperity of agriculture and 
 domestic trade ; the operations of manufacturing indus- 
 try were extended by the invention of the stocking-loom, 
 and the ingenuity of fugitives from the Netherlands ; and 
 foreign commerce was promoted by voyages of discovery 
 (see page 6), the establishment of colonies in North 
 America, and the incorporation of the East India Com- 
 pany. The assistance rendered by Elizabeth to the re- 
 volted provinces in the Netherlands, the execution of 
 Mary Stuart (see ^ 9), the capture of a hundred Spanish 
 merchantmen on the high seas, and the destruction of a 
 Spanish fleet in the harbor of Cadiz (both by Sir Francis 
 Drake), provoked Philip to send out (after five years of 
 preparation) " the Invincible Armada," under the Duke 
 of Medina Sidonia ; but before the fleet could form a 
 junction, as it had been proposed, with a squadron from 
 the Netherlands under Alexander Farnese, it was at- 
 tacked by the English under Howard, and soon after- 
 wards was scattered and almost annihilated by storms 
 (1588). This victory was followed by the building of an 
 English fleet of forty-two ships of war, and the establish- 
 ment of a colonial power in North America (Virginia). 
 Towards the end of Elizabeth's reign, Ireland, which 
 (with the exception of the eastern third) had been, espe- 
 cially since the Reformation, scarcely more than a nomi- 
 nal province of England, was more closely united to the 
 English crown. The free exercise of their religion had 
 been guaranteed to the Irish (under the Earl of Tyrone) 
 by the Queen's favorite, the Earl of Essex, perhaps in 
 the hope of obtaining for himself the Irish crown ; but 
 after his fall, and the expulsion of the Spaniards who had 
 landed on the coast, the Irish were compelled to submit 
 unconditionally to the authority of England. Whilst all 
 the other nations of Europe were becoming daily more 
 enfeebled and insignificant, England, under the govern- 
 ment of Queen Elizabeth, gradually raised herself to the 
 
 10 See Article XXXVH, of the Church of England. 
 
100, 101. §9.] SCOTLAND. 49 
 
 rank of a first-rate power. By her last ordinance (re- 
 specting the succession) Scotland was united to England 
 and Ireland. 
 
 ^ 9. Scotland under the Stuarts. 
 
 (100.) Scotland since the year 1371 had been gov- 
 erned by princes of the house of Stuart, the most un- 
 fortunate royal family in Europe. Of five kings named 
 James, two were murdered by their subjects, two slain in 
 wars with England, and the last, James V., was driven 
 mad by the treason of his discontented vassals, and died 
 in 1542, leaving one daughter, an infant of eight days' 
 old. 
 
 (101.) Mary Stuart (1542—1568 [f 1587]), whilst 
 her mother, Mary of Guise, governed Scotland as regent, 
 was educated in France, where she married the Dauphin 
 (afterwards Francis II.). After the death of Mary Tu- 
 dor, she assumed the title of Queen of England, but was 
 unable to prevent the accession of Elizabeth. The pre- 
 rogative of the Queen of Scotland was vigorously defended 
 by the regent at the commencement of John Knox's 
 Reformation in Scotland, and after the death of her 
 mother and her husband, Mary returned to her native 
 country, and herself undertook the government (1561). 
 Soon after her arrival she married her cousin Darnley, 
 who (after the murder of her confidential secretary Riz- 
 zio) was blown up with the house in which he lay sick. 
 The marriage of Mary with Bothwell (believed by the 
 people to be the murderer of Darnley) occasioned an in- 
 surrection of the nobles, who compelled Mary to abdicate, 
 drove Bothwell out of Scotland, and placed the crown on 
 the head of Mary's son James, a child of a year old, and 
 appointed her brother Murray regent of the kingdom. 
 Mary effected her escape from confinement ; but being de- 
 feated in a struggle to regain the crown, she fled to Eng- 
 land, where she was detained in prison for eighteen years, 
 partly on the ground of her having been pronounced by 
 .' the English courts an accomplice in the murder of Darn- 
 ley, and partly because she refused compliance with the 
 demands of Elizabeth, to renounce her pretensions to the 
 3 
 
50 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. [102—104. § 10. 
 
 Endish crown, and break off all communication with tlie 
 Bomanist party in that country as well as with the court 
 of Spain, to punish the murderers of Darnley, never to 
 marry without the consent of Elizabeth, and to permit 
 her son to be educated in England. In the year 1587 
 she was beheaded, in consequence of ^f^f^'fj^^'-^Z' 
 pation in a conspiracy against the life of Ehzabeth. Dur- 
 ing the minority of her son, . r. ,■■ j i \ 
 (102 ) James YL (1567—1603, m Scotland alone), 
 who succeeded his mother in 1567, Scotland was governed 
 bv four regents in succession, all of whom, with one ex- 
 ception, died a violent death. During his own feeble ad- 
 ministration the Presbyterians triumphed over the_ Jipis- 
 copalians, notwithstanding the preference of the King tor 
 episcopacy. James, as the next heir-male to the Enghsh 
 crown was nominated to the succession by Queen ±.liza- 
 beth, and consequently was the first sovereign who bore 
 the title of King of Great Britain and Ireland. I he 
 complete union of the two kingdoms (with one parhament) 
 was not effected until the year 1707. 
 
 6 10 Great Britain and Ireland under tlie first tivo Stu- 
 ^ ' arts, 1603—1649. 
 
 (103.) 1. James I. (1603—1625). The unfortu- 
 nate personal peculiarities of this sovereign, his prefer- 
 ence for the Scotch, his blind affection for imworthy fa- 
 vorites, such as the Duke of Buckingham, and the desire 
 which he manifested to exercise an authority over the 
 parliament as absolute as that of the mighty Tudors, ex- 
 • cited the disgust of his English subjects; whilst his in- 
 tolerant treatment of the Romanists provoked several 
 members of that communion to engage m the Gun pow- 
 der Plot, the object of which was to blow up the King 
 and parliament. Happily for the nation, this conspiracy 
 was betrayed by an accomplice, and the machinations ot 
 the traitors defeated. 
 
 (104.) 2. Charles I. (1625— 1649) quarrelled with 
 his parliament respecting the imposition of taxes, the 
 toleration granted to the Romanists, and the retention m 
 office of his father's unpopular minister the Duke ot 
 
104. ^ 10.] GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 51 
 
 Buckingham. After two dissolutions, Charles, in order 
 to procure funds for carrying on the war (in defence of 
 the continental Protestants) against Austria, France, and 
 Spain, was compelled to summon a third parliament, and 
 give his assent to the " petition of right," which provided 
 that no taxes should be levied without the consent of par- 
 liament, and secured personal liberty to the King's sub- 
 jects. But as neither this concession nor the assassina- 
 tion of Buckingham satisfied the malcontents, the King 
 dissolved his third parliament, and did not call another 
 for eleven years. After the conclusion of peace with 
 France and Spain, Charles, in direct contravention of the 
 " petition of right," levied throughout the kingdom, on 
 his own authority, a tax called ship-money, professedly to 
 meet the expenses of fitting out a fleet. In Scotland, in 
 consequence of an attempt to enforce the use of the An- 
 glican ritual, " a solemn league and covenant" was formed, 
 the avowed object of which was a general resistance to 
 the King's proclamation. The intelligence of their prep- 
 arations so alarmed Charles, that he immediately sum- 
 moned the so-called " long parliament," and demanded a 
 vote of money for carrying on war against the rebels. 
 The parliament now required the dismissal of the King's 
 ministers (Laud and Strafi"ord, both of whom were after- 
 wards executed), assumed the royal prerogative, expelled 
 the Bishops from the Upper House, and joined the Scotch 
 in their rebellion. The parliament army (in which Oli- 
 ver Cromwell soon distinguished himself) obtained 
 two victories over the ill-disciplined forces of the King, 
 who sought an asylum among the Scotch, and was deliv- 
 ered up by them to the English parliament on his refusal 
 to embrace puritanism. About this time (1647) began 
 the disputes between the Puritans, who were most in- 
 fluential in parliament, and the Independents, who 
 governed the army. The latter having obtained posses- 
 sion of the King's person, their leader, Cromwell, defeat- 
 ed the Scotch, who had invaded England for the purpose 
 of rescuing him. It was now resolved to bring Charles 
 to trial, and the Presbyterian members of the House of 
 Commons, who opposed this treasonable proceeding, were 
 all expelled ; those who remained were called in derision 
 
52 MODERN HISTORY. [105 107. §11. 
 
 the " Rump-parliament." Disregarding the protest of 
 the Upper House, this remnant of the House of Com- 
 mons nominated a high court of justice (including Crom- 
 well among itg members), which condemned Charles I. to 
 suifer death, as a " tyrant, murderer, traitor, and cause of 
 all the blood that had been shed." On the 30th Jan. 
 1649, this sentence was carried into execution in front of 
 Whitehall palace. 
 
 § 11. Italy. 
 
 (105.) 1. The Spanish Possessions. — The political 
 equipoise which had been established in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury between the difi"erent states of Italy, was destroyed 
 in the sixteenth by the preponderance obtained by Spain 
 through her Italian conquests. To Sicily and Sar- 
 dinia, which already belonged to Arragon, Naples was 
 added in 1504 by Ferdinand the Catholic ; and after the 
 extinction of the house of Sforza, Milan was granted as 
 a fief by Charles Y. to his son Philip II. 
 
 (106.) 2. The Duchies^ a. Savoy with Nice and 
 Piedmont (Greneva also until 1536). h. Mantua (ori- 
 ginally a marquisate (1432 — 1530), then raised to the rank 
 of a duchy, and (1536) augmented by the addition of 
 Montferrat after the extinction of its marquisate) was 
 governed by the house of Gronzaga, and after the extinc- 
 tion of that line, and a war of succession which had lasted 
 four years, was settled on Duke Charles of Nevers by the 
 peace of Chierasco. c. Modena, with Reggio and Fer- 
 rara, under the house of Este (1288 — ^1796). Ferrara, 
 on the extinction of the legitimate line of JGste, lapsed 
 to its feudal sovereign the Pope. d. Parma and Pia- 
 cenza, which belonged sometimes to France, sometimes 
 to the states of the Church, were subject at a later period 
 (1545) to the house of Farnese. 
 
 (107.) 3. The Republics^ a. Venice (which pos- 
 sessed also the whole northeastern side of Upper Italy as 
 far as the Adda (terra firma), Istria, the coasts of Dalma- 
 tia and Albania, several Neapolitan ports, the Ionian and 
 many of the Greek islands, Candia and Cyprus) occupied 
 during this period a prominent position among the states 
 
108—111.^12.] GERMANY. 53 
 
 of Italy ; but her supremacy in the Adriatic and Med- 
 iterranean occasioned jealousies, and involved her in wars 
 with the southern powers of Italy, which terminated in 
 the loss of most of her continental possessions. Several 
 of the Greek islands and Cyprus were also wrested from 
 her by the Turks ; and lastly, her commerce was ruined 
 by the discovery of a passage by sea to the East Indies, 
 and the conquest of Egypt by the Turks, b. Grenoa, 
 which belonged at first to Milan, and was twice conquered, 
 together with that duchy, by the French, obtained her 
 independence by means of a revolution efi"ected with sur- 
 prising suddenness by Andrew Doria. An aristocratic 
 form of government was established, which lasted until 
 the year 1797. A conspiracy, set on foot by Fiesco, 
 Count of Lavagna, for the ruin of the Doria family and 
 the overthrow of this constitution, miscarried in conse- 
 quence of the sudden death of Fiesco, who was drowned 
 in the harbor of Genoa, c. Lucca. 
 
 (108.) 4. Tuscany remained subject to the house of 
 Medici, at first as a republic, then as a duchy (1531 — 
 1574), and finally as a grand duchy (1574 — 1737). 
 
 (109.) 5. The states of the Church were enlarged 
 by the conquest of the republic of Bologna and the mark 
 (margraviate) of Ancona, and the annexation of Ferrara. 
 
 § 1 2. Germany, from the abdication of Charles V. to the 
 peace of Westphalia^ 1556 — 1648 (comp. § 3). 
 
 (110.) 3. Ferdinand I. (1556—1564), 
 
 King of Bohemia and Hungary in right of his wife (see 
 page 21), and Roman King since 1531, was elected Empe- 
 ror without a dissenting voice, it being merely required 
 that he should swear to respect the resolutions passed by 
 tho diet of Augsburg. He reigned with prudence and 
 moderation ; but was unable to recover from France the 
 three bishoprics in Lorraine, and was obliged, as the con- 
 dition of an armistice with the Turks, to abandon to them 
 all the territory of which they had taken possession in 
 Hungary. 
 
 (1 1 1.) The disappointment occasioned by the failure of 
 these attempts, and of his plan for the reconciliation of the 
 
54 MODERN HISTORY. [112 114. §12. 
 
 two confessions, by conceding to the laity the use of the cup 
 in the Holy Eucharist, and permitting the marriage of 
 priests, probably hastened his death. He was succeeded 
 by his son 
 
 (112.) 4. Maximilian 11. (1564—1576), 
 
 a mild and sagacious prince, who was persuaded by Zapo- 
 lya's son to engage in a fresh Turkish war, which was ter- 
 minated by an armistice, after the death of Solyman II. 
 before the fortress of Sigeth (defended by Zriny). Wil- 
 liam of Grrumbach, who had murdered the BishxDp of "VYiirz- 
 burg, was put to death by the Emperor with most of his 
 followers. Maximilian was succeeded by his son 
 
 (113.) 5. Rudolph II. (1576— 1612), 
 
 a feeble-minded sovereign, whose reign was distracted by 
 the disputes of the Romanists, Lutherans, and Calvinists. 
 The religious peace of Augsburg had failed to reconcile the 
 contending parties, who were still further estranged by 
 the decision of the Council of Trent, and by various un- 
 toward circumstances, such as the expulsion of the Pro- 
 testants from Aix-la-Chapelle, where they had seized on 
 the reins of government; the excommunication by the 
 Pope of G-ebhard, Elector of Cologne, who had gone over 
 to Calvinism, and married the Countess Agnes of Mans- 
 feld; the expulsion of a Protestant Bishop from Stras- 
 burg; and the placing the Protestant city of Donauwerth 
 under the bann of the empire for obstructing the Romish 
 worship. By the advice of the Elector Palatine, Frede- 
 rick IV., several of the Protestant princes formed a Union 
 (1608), the professed object of which was mutual protec- 
 tion. 
 
 (114.) To this "Union" the Romanist princes opposed 
 a "League," headed by Duke Maximilian of Bavaria 
 (1609); consequently, the representatives of the two 
 branches of the house of Wittelsbach were opposed to one 
 another as leaders of the antagonist parties, — the elder or 
 Palatine line supporting the Union, and the younger or 
 Bavarian the League. In Bohemia, where most of the 
 
115— 118. § 12.] GERMANY. 55 
 
 Utraquists ^ had joined the Lutheran communion, the Pro- 
 testants compelled the Emi^eror to publish a Letter of 
 Majesty, by which religious freedom was secured to the 
 three estates of nobles, knights, and royal cities, with their 
 vassals. 
 
 (115.) The death (without issue) of John William, 
 Duke of Julich (Juliers). Cleves, and Berg, was followed 
 by aw a r ofsuccession between the descendants of his 
 sisters, the Elector John Sigismund. of Brandenburg, and 
 the Count Palatine Wolfgang of Neuburg (1609). After 
 raging eighteen years, this war was terminated by the 
 convention of Diisseldorf by which the territories of the 
 late Duke were equally divided between the two claimants, 
 Brandenburg receiving for his share Cleves and the coun- 
 ties of Mark and Bavensberg, and Neuburg obtaining 
 Julich, Berg, and the seignory of Bavenstein. In the 
 reign of Budolph's brother and successor 
 
 (116.) 6. Matthias (1612—1619) 
 
 began the thirty years' war (1618 — 1648), the com- 
 mencement of which may be dated from an insurrection 
 at Prague, occasioned by disputes respecting the erection 
 of Utraquist churches, when two of the royal counsellors 
 (Martinitz and Slavata) were thrown out of the windows 
 of the senate-house by a tumultuous assemblage headed 
 by Count Thurn. 
 
 A. Bohemimi-Palathie period. 1618 — 1623. 
 
 (117.) The Bohemian Protestants, supported by the 
 Union with an army under Count Ernest of Mansfeld, had 
 already made themselves masters of the greater part of 
 Bohemia, when Matthias died, and was succeeded (after 
 the repulse of Count Thurn from Austria) by 
 
 (118.) 7. Ferdinand II, (1619—1637), 
 
 a grandson of Ferdinand I. Although this prince had 
 already been two years King of Bohemia, the Protestant 
 
 ^ The Hussites, or Bohemian Brethren, called Utraquists be- 
 cause they partook of the Holy Eucharist "sub utraque forma" (in 
 both kinds). 
 
56 MODERN HISTORY. [119. ^12. 
 
 estates refused to recognize his election, and placed on the 
 throne the Elector Palatine Frederick V.. head of 
 the Union and of the Calvinistic party in Germany. On 
 the other hand, the Elector of Saxony, who disliked the 
 spread of Calvinism in Bohemia, formed an alliance with 
 the Emperor, whilst Maximilian of Bavaria (commander- 
 in-chief of the League), after compelling the Protestant 
 estates of Lower Austria to return to their allegiance, en- 
 tered Bohemia, and utterly routed the army of Frederick 
 (which was exhausted by a night-march) on the White 
 Mountain, near Prague (8th November, 1620). Fre- 
 derick, who had fled to Holland, was placed under the 
 bann of the empire, and all his estates confiscated, Bohe- 
 mia was subdued, the Letter of Majesty torn in pieces, the 
 Protestants deprived of all their civil privileges, and their 
 preachers banished.^ The bann of the empire was carried 
 into ejBFect by the League, whose general, Tilly (an officer 
 of Maximilian's), took possession of the territories of the 
 exiled Elector on the Danube and Rhine, after defeating 
 Ernest of Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick. The 
 vacant electorate was conferred on Maximilian (whose ap- 
 pointment gave the Romanists a majority in the electoral 
 college), and Lusace on the Elector of Saxony. The Union 
 had been dissolved since the year 1621. The valuable 
 library collected by the Elector Palatine at Heidelberg, 
 was presented by Maximilian to the Pope.^ 
 
 B. Danish period^ 1625 — 1629. 
 
 (119.) Hostilities were recommenced by Christian 
 IV., King of Denmark, who came forward as defender of 
 his brother-in-law, Frederick Y., and the Protestant cause, 
 at the head of a considerable army, which he had levied in 
 conjunction with England, Holland, and France. Mean- 
 while the Emperor, whose jealousy of Maximilian became 
 daily more apparent, had found an able supporter in Al- 
 
 ^ It is calculated that no less than 30 000 families M'^ere forced 
 to leave Bohemia at this time. They resorted, for the most part, 
 to Saxony and Brandenburg. — S. 
 
 ' This library, at the intercession of the Emperor of Austria 
 and the King of Prussia, was restored to Heidelberg, in the year 
 1815.— S. 
 
120. ^12.] GERMANY. 67 
 
 bert of Waldstein, orWallenstein, Prince, and after- 
 wards Duke, of Friedland, in Bohemia, who raised an army 
 at his own expense, defeated Count Mansfeld at the bridge 
 of Dessau, and followed him into Hungary. At the same 
 time the arms of the League were victorious under Tilly, 
 who defeated (1626) the Danish and Lower Saxon army com- 
 manded by Christian IV., near Lutter on the Baren- 
 berg, in the territory of Brunswick, and effected a junc- 
 tion with Wallenstein on his return from Hungary, for the 
 purpose of making a combined attack on the territories 
 of the King of Denmark. Holstein was conquered by the 
 united forces of the two generals, and Schleswig and Jut- 
 land by Wallenstein alone : the two Dukes of Mecklen- 
 burg were expelled from their dominions for promising 
 aid to the Danes, and the Duke of Pomerania forced to 
 place his hitherto peaceful country at the disposal of Wal- 
 lenstein. The strong fortress of Stralsund alone refused 
 to receive an imperial garrison, and, with the assistance of 
 Denmark and Sweden, repulsed the besiegers. In order 
 to prevent a junction of the Swedes and Danes, a peace 
 was concluded at Liibeck (1629) between the Emperor 
 and the King of Denmark, on terms exceedingly favorable 
 to the latter, who received back all the territories of which 
 he had been deprived by Wallenstein and Tilly, on pledg- 
 ing himself never to become a party to any confederacy 
 against the Emperor. 
 
 (120.) As a compensation for the expenses incurred 
 in the war, the Elector of Bavaria received the Upper 
 Palatinate, and Wallenstein the duchy of Mecklenburg. 
 The Emperor, who considered this a favorable opportu- 
 nity for the re-establishment of Romanism, at first in his 
 hereditary dominions, and then throughout the empire, 
 demanded (at the instance of the papal nuncio, and with 
 the consent of the four Romanist Electors) the restoration 
 of all ecclesiastical endowments which had been appropri- 
 ated by the Protestants since the convention of Passau, 
 (1552), viz. two archbishoprics (Magdeburg and Bremen), 
 twelve bishoprics, and almost all the abbeys and monaste- 
 ries of Northern Germany. At the same time he issued 
 a decree that no sectaries should in future be tolerated 
 except those who recognized the Confession of Augsburg. 
 3* 
 
58 MODERN HISTORY. [121. § 12. 
 
 This edict was carried into effect with great severity by 
 Wallenstein, in conjunction with the troops of the League. 
 The discontent excited by these proceedings was express- 
 ed by the estates of the empire, and especially by Maxi- 
 milian (at a diet held by Ferdinand at Ratisbon, for the 
 purpose of procuring the election of his eldest son as Ro- 
 man King), so loudly and unequivocally as to compel the 
 Emperor to" dismiss Wallenstein from his service (Sep- 
 tember, 1630). 
 
 C. Swedish period^ 1630 — 1635. 
 
 (121.) The divided state of the Romanist party, and 
 the vacillation of the Emperor, who still suspended the 
 execution of the Restitution Edict, had given fresh cou- 
 rage to the Protestants, especially since the accession to 
 their cause of Grustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, 
 with whom they had formerly entered into negotiations, 
 and who was now ready to declare war against the Empe- 
 ror, partly out of zeal for the Lutheran faith, and partly 
 for reasons independent of his religious opinions ; the ex- 
 pulsion, for instance, of his relatives, the Dukes of Meck- 
 lenburg, and the rejection of his mediation at the peace of 
 Liibeck. Having formed an alliance with France, Gusta- 
 vus Adolphus yielded to the solicitations of the German 
 Protestants, and in the summer of 1630 landed on the 
 coast of Pomerania, drove the Austrians out of that coun- 
 try, and advanced as far as the March of Brandenburg. 
 Meanwhile Tilly (now commander-in-chief of the imperial 
 forces), in conjunction with Pappenheim, invested the city 
 of Magdeburg, which had made common cause with the 
 Swedes. Gustavus Adolphus advanced to its relief, but 
 before he could cross the Elbe Magdeburg was taken, 
 sacked, and almost levelled with the ground (May 20, 
 1631).'* Tilly now determined to secure Electoral Saxony, 
 as the most likely means of arresting the progress of the 
 Swedes ; and the Electors, who had hitherto stood aloof, 
 
 * The savage and monstrous cruelty and outrage of the soldiery 
 under Tilly, almost surpass belief. From this date all glory and 
 good fortune deserted him, and his name was never pronounced 
 without a malediction. — S. 
 
122. § 12.] GERMANY. &9 
 
 placed themselves under the protection of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus. On the 7th September, 1631, Tilly was defeated 
 by the united Swedish and Saxon army on the great plain 
 near Leipzic. This victory annihilated the two formida- 
 ble armies of the Imperialists and Leaguists, and neutral- 
 ized at one blow all the advantages which the Emperor 
 had obtained during the whole war, whilst to the mind of 
 Gustavus Adolphus it suggested the ambitious design of 
 proclaiming himself, under some form or other, head of 
 the German empire, or at least of the Protestant portion 
 of it. A plan of operations was now settled between the 
 Conqueror and the Elector of Saxony, who was to attack 
 the Emperor in his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia, whilst 
 Gustavus Adolphus overran Western and Southern Ger- 
 many, and destroyed the remnant of the League. In pur- 
 suance of this plan, Gustavus traversed Thuringia and 
 Franconia as far as Mainz (Mayence), and then advanced 
 on Bavaria, leaving his generals, with Duke Bernard of 
 Saxe Weimar at their head, to complete his conquests on 
 the Rhine. 
 
 (122.) On the frontier of Bavaria the passage of the 
 Lech was contested by Tilly, who fell in the engagement.® 
 Gustavus Adolphus then marched without interruption to 
 Munich, having overrun the whole of the German empire 
 except the hereditary dominions of the Emperor in Aus- 
 tria. Meanwhile Wallenstein had been persuaded to raise 
 a fresh army of 40,000 men, with which he drove the Sax- 
 ons out of Bohemia. Then he joined the Elector of Ba- 
 varia, and marched to Number g, where the Swedish, 
 and Imperialist armies remained opposite one another for 
 eleven weeks, each party hoping that the other would be 
 compelled by want of provisions to abandon his position. 
 At last Gustavus Adolphus, after an unsuccessful attack 
 on Wallenstein's camp, returned to Bavaria, hoping that 
 the enemy would follow him. Wallenstein also broke up 
 his encampment ; but, instead of proceeding southwards, 
 he marched into Saxony, for the purpose of compelling the 
 J&lector to renounce his alliance with the Swedes, and in 
 the following spring of cutting off the retreat of the Swe- 
 
 ^ He died twenty-five days after the battle,— S. 
 
60 MODERN HISTORY. [123. ^12. 
 
 dish army by reconquering northern Germany, especially 
 Mecklenburg. On receiving intelligence of this move- 
 ment, Gustavus, at the earnest entreaty of the Elector, 
 returned by forced marches to Saxony, and finding that 
 Wallenstein's troops were now dispersed in winter quar- 
 ters, and that a detachment under Pappenheim had been 
 sent to the Rhine, he compelled the Imperialists to give 
 him battle at Lutzen (Nov. 16, 1632). In this engage- 
 ment Gustavus Adolphus lost his life,^ and the Swedish 
 troops were already beginning to waver, when the intelli- 
 gence of their King's death goaded them to such exertions 
 as secured the victory, notwithstanding the arrival of re- 
 inforcements under Pappenheim, who was borne from the 
 field mortally wounded. The prosecution of the war was 
 then undertaken by the Swedish Chancellor Axel Oxen- 
 stiern, in conjunction with Cardinal Richelieu, whose sole 
 object was the humiliation of Austria and the acquisition 
 of the territory on the left bank of the Rhine. Thus the 
 war assumed every day more unequivocally the character 
 of a mere political rather than a religious contest. 
 
 (123.) Whilst Bernard of Saxe "Weimar, who 
 had taken the command of the Swedish army after the 
 death of Gustavus Adolphus, employed himself in the 
 conquest of Franconia, which had been granted him as a 
 fief of the Swedish crown; and Gustavus Horn, one of 
 the most distinguished pupils of the deceased King, made 
 himself master of the greater part of Alsace, Wallenstein, 
 instead of profiting by the confusion ca.used by the death 
 of Gustavus Adolphus, remained inactive, and entered into 
 negotiations with France for the crown of Bohemia. This 
 conduct was the result, it would seem, of a conviction that 
 the watchful jealousy of his enemies would prevent his 
 receiving the grant of an hereditary principality from the 
 Emperor. The apparent inconsistency of the policy pur- 
 sued towards the German Protestants and Sweden, with 
 whom he was sometimes at war, and sometimes engaged 
 in negotiation (for the purpose, as he pretended, of pre- 
 venting a junction of their forces), his backwardness in 
 
 ^ Not without suspicion of treachery at the hands of the Duke 
 of Saxe-Lauenburg. See Schiller's " TkirLy Years' War." — S. 
 
124. ^12.] GERMANY, 61 
 
 marching to the rescue of Bavaria, the negotiation with 
 France, of which we have just spoken, and, lastly, the pre- 
 tended conspiracy of Pilsen, furnished his enemies at the 
 imperial court (among whom the Bavarian ambassador was 
 the most conspicuous) with sufficient grounds of accusa- 
 tion. Without affording him an opportunity of bemg 
 heard in his own defence, the Emperor removed Wallen- 
 steiu from his command, and on the 25th February, 1634, 
 he was assassinated at Eger by some of his own officers/ 
 Wallenstein was succeeded in the command of the imperial 
 forces by the Emperor's eldest son, Ferdinand, King of 
 Hungary and Bohemia, with Gallas as his lieutenant. In 
 conjunction with the Bavarian army under John von 
 Worth, the new commander-in-chief ascended the Danube, 
 and defeated the two Swedish generals at Nordlingen 
 in Swabia. Bernard fled to the Bhine, Horn was taken 
 prisoner, and Swabia, Franconia, and the Palatine were 
 occupied by detachments of the imperial army. As little 
 assistance could now be expected from their Swedish allies 
 the Protestants of south-western Germany were compelled 
 to purchase the protection of France by the sacrifice of 
 Upper Alsace. 
 
 D. Stvedish French Period (1634—1648). 
 (124 ) Before the French could cross the Rhine (for 
 the purpose of relieving Heidelberg, which was besieged 
 by John von Worth), the condition of discreditable de-^ 
 pendence on a foreign power in which the Protestants of 
 Germany now found themselves, was fully recognized by 
 the Elector of Saxony, who, in the spirit of a true patriot, 
 set on foot such negotiations as terminated in the peace 
 of Prague (1635). By the terms of this peace (which 
 were gradually subscribed by all the Protestant princes, 
 except the Landgrave of Hesse Cassel), the operation of 
 the Restitution Edict was defered for forty years, and the 
 Elector obtained possession of Lusace. In the following 
 year, however (1636), the Saxons joined the Imperialists 
 
 ' The question of Wallenstein' s guilt or innocence is well dis- 
 cussed by Schiller. There is no proof of his treason, though great 
 mystery covers the closing career of this wondertul man.— b. 
 
62 MODERN HISTORY. [125. ^12. 
 
 under Count Hatzfeld, for the purpose of attacking B a n e r, 
 commander of the Swedish forces in central and northern 
 Germany, and were utterly defeated by that general near 
 "Wittstock in Brandenburg. 
 
 Ferdinand III. (1637—1657.) 
 
 (125.) The passages of the Rhine having been left un- 
 defended by the removal of G-allas, who had been sent 
 against Baner by the new Emperor, Bernard of Saxe 
 Weimar recrossed the river from Alsace, and, after gain- 
 ing a victory at Rheinfelden (where John von Werth was 
 taken prisoner), obtained possession of several places on 
 the right bank, all of which (after his death in 1639) 
 again fell into the hands of the French, together with his 
 army, the leaders of which had been corrupted by French 
 gold. After Bauer's death, the command in chief of the 
 Swedish forces devolved on Torstenson, a brave but 
 inferior general, who entered Silesia and Moravia in 1642, 
 and, after permitting his lieutenant Wrangel to advance 
 almost to the walls of Vienna, retraced his steps for the 
 purpose of obtaining reinforcements, and defeated the 
 Imperialists near Leipzic. The breaking out of a war 
 between Denmark and Sweden recalled Torstenson from 
 Germany ; but after a short absence he re-entered the 
 hereditary dominions of the Emperor, obtained a victory 
 at Jankau in Bohemia (1645), and advanced a second 
 time to Vienna, where he sustained so heavy a loss as 
 compelled him to abandon all hopes of following up his 
 victory. Soon after this reverse, his increasing infirmity 
 compelled him to resign the command. Meanwhile the 
 war was carried on, with various success, on the banks of 
 the Rhine, by the united forces of France and Protestant 
 Germany on the one side, and a Bavarian army on the 
 other. Wrangel, who succeeded Torstenson in the com- 
 mand, twice joined Turenne, for the purpose of attacking 
 Bavaria, but never advanced farther than Augsburg, 
 where Konigsmark quitted the main army, and marched 
 into Bohemia. He had already made an impression on 
 Prague, when the peace of West2)halia^ after negotiations 
 which had been protracted for five years, was concluded at 
 
126, 127. § 12.] GERMANY. 63 
 
 Miinster and Osnabriick (Osnaburg) on the 24tli October, 
 1648. The conditions of this peace, (which terminated the 
 thirty years' war) were, 
 
 (126.) (a.) With respect to ecclesiastical matters, the 
 confirmation of the Convention of Passau,and the Religious 
 Peace of Augsburg, and the extension of their provisions 
 to the Calvinist or "Reformed" Protestants. Ecclesi- 
 astical property to remain in the same hands as in the 
 year 1624, and both parties to enjoy equal political 
 rights. 
 
 (127.) Political matters. 1. France obtained as an 
 indemnification the Austrian possessions in Alsace, the 
 confirmation of her sovereignty over the bishoprics and 
 cities of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, and the right of garri- 
 soning Philipsburg. 2. Sweden received a considerable 
 portion of Pomerania (with the island of Riigen), Wismar, 
 the secularized bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, and five 
 millions of thalers (dollars), as an indemnification for ex- 
 penses incurred in the war. 3. Brandenburg was recom- 
 pensed for her sacrifices in Pomerania by being permitted 
 to hold the secularized bishoprics of Magdeburg, Halber- 
 stadt, Minden, and Camin, as four temporal principalities. 
 4. Mecklenburg received the bishoprics of Schwerin and 
 Ratzeburg (on the same terms), as an indemnification for 
 the loss of Wismar. 5. Hesse-Cassel, for the assistance 
 rendered by her to Sweden during the war, obtained seve- 
 ral places in Westphalia, and 600,000 thalers. 6. The 
 son of the Elector Palatine, Frederick Y., received the 
 Lower Palatinate, with an understanding that the Upper 
 Palatinate also should revert to the electoral line on the 
 extinction of the Bavarian house. At the same time an 
 eighth electorate was founded expressly for his benefit. 
 For all other immovable property lost during the war, a 
 general system of restitution was arranged. The inde- 
 pendence of Switzerland and the united Netherlands was 
 fully recognized by the German empire. With regard to 
 political rights, no measures of legislation, war and peace, 
 taxation, expenditure, defence, or alliance with foreign 
 powers, were to be adopted by the Emperor without a 
 vote of the princes of the empire assembled at a diet ; 
 the sovereignty of the princes within their own terri- 
 
64 MODERN HISTORY. [128—130. ^ 13, 14. 
 
 tories was secured to them ; and they were allowed to 
 conclude treaties of alliance with one another and with 
 foreign powers, provided always that nothing were done 
 against the Emperor and empire, the intestine tranquillity 
 of Germany, or the peace of Westphalia. 
 
 § 13. Prussia. 
 
 (128.) The Teutonic Order, which had governed 
 Prussia since the year 1283, was entirely suppressed in 
 that country, when the Grrand Master, Albert of Branden- 
 burg Anspach,® became a Lutheran, and received, at the 
 diet of Cracow, in 1525, Eastern Prussia as a temjMral 
 duchy ^ to be held as a fief of Poland. 
 
 (129.) On the accession of his imbecile son Albert 
 Frederick (1508 — 1618), the Electors of Brandenburg 
 obtained first the co-investiture of Prussia, then the guard- 
 ianship of the idiot Duke ; and finally, the Elector, John 
 Sigismund, after the death of his father-in-law (Al- 
 bert Frederick), annexed the duchy to Brandenburg (in 
 
 § 14. Scandinavia. 
 
 (130.) Since the Union of Calmar, in the year 
 1397, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden had formed one 
 
 8 1. Frederick I., first Elector of Brandenburg, of the line of 
 Hohenzollern, t 1440. 
 
 2. Frederick II., f 1471. 3. Albert Achilles, f 1486. 
 
 I' \ 
 
 4. John Cicero, f 1409. Frederick, Margrave of Anspach and 
 
 5. Joachim I., f 1585. Baireuth. 
 
 6. Joachim II., f 1571. 
 
 7. John George, f 15*J8. Albert, Grand master George, 
 
 8. Joachim Frederick, of the Teutonic Order, Margrave of 
 
 t IGOH, Adminis- Duke of Prussia in Anspach. 
 
 trator in Prussia, 1525. 
 
 1605. 
 
 9. John Sigismund, Albert Frederick (of weak intellect), 
 Administrator, mar. Mary Eleanor, dangliter of the 
 and (in 1()18) Duke of Julich, Cleves, and Berg. 
 
 Duke of Prus- 
 sia, mar. Ann, 
 heiress of Jiilic 
 Cleves, and Berj 
 
 sia, mar. Ann, Ann, mar, John Sigismund. 
 
 heiress of Julich, 
 
131, 132. ^14.] SCANDINAVIA. 65 
 
 kingdom; but the kings chosen by the Danes from the 
 hovm of Oldenburg were not acknowledged in Sweden 
 until Christian II. enforced their recognition in 1520, and 
 endeavored to confirm his authority by a cruel slaughter 
 of his enemies at Stockholm. Gustavus Vasa, who had 
 escaped this massacre, placed himself, after a succession 
 of romantic adventures, at the head of an army of Dale- 
 carlians, declared war against the Danes, was elected Ad- 
 ministrator, and afterwards King (in 1523), and delivered 
 Sweden from the Danish yoke. 
 
 (131.) 1. The unbridled ambition of the house of Old- 
 enburg occasioned also the loss of Denmark^ (which in- 
 cluded Norway, the South of Sweden, Gothland [until 
 1645], and Iceland), to the Duke of Holstein and 
 Schleswig (Frederick I.). For the introduction of the 
 Reformation, see p. 14. For Christian's part in the thirty 
 years' war, p. 56. 
 
 2. Sweden under the house of Vasa, 1523 — 1654. 
 
 (132.) Gustavus I. (Vasa) introduced the Reforma- 
 tion into Sweden with considerable tact and circumspec- 
 tion ; but here, as elsewhere, the change was accompanied 
 by acts of unjust severity, especially towards the clergy, 
 whose immense wealth was confiscated to supply the de- 
 ficiencies of the royal exchequer. The repeated declara- 
 tions of the King that he wished to abdicate, induced the 
 estates to grant all his demands, and even to settle the 
 crown upon himself and his descendants. Gustavus cre- 
 ated the nucleus of a naval force, and encouraged the 
 extension of Swedish commerce. Both these objects were 
 still further promoted by his successor Eric XIV. This 
 sovereign was subject to periodical fits of insanity, on ac- 
 count of which he was placed under restraint by his 
 brothers, deposed, with consent of the estates of his king- 
 dom, and poisoned in prison. His next descendant but 
 one, Sigismund, King of Poland, was educated in the faith 
 of the Church of Rome, and in consequence was deposed 
 
 " Danish Kings : Christian II. deposed in 152B. Frederick I. 
 1523—1533. Cluistian III. 1533—1559. Frederick II. 1659—1588. 
 -1648. 
 
66 MODERN HISTORY. [133. ^14. 
 
 soon after his coronation, through the intrigues of his 
 uncle, Charles, Duke of Sudermania, who was appointed 
 Administrator of the kingdom, and, after completing the 
 work of the Reformation in Sweden, ascended the throne 
 as Charles IX. His son, 
 
 (133.) austavus II. (Adolphus), 1611— 1632, 
 
 found his kingdom distracted by intestine commotions, 
 and involved in three foreign wars (with Denmark, Po- 
 land, and Russia). A peace was concluded with the 
 Danes, who restored all the territory taken from Sweden 
 in the war, Gustavus on his part consenting to pay an in- 
 demnification of a million thalers. Russia, after one cam- 
 paign, was driven from the Baltic. For his G-erman ex- 
 pedition and death at Lutzen, see p. 60. He was succeeded 
 by his daughter Christina, who commenced her reign 
 under the guardianship of the Chancellor Axel Oxenstiern 
 and the Council of State. Whilst the young queen, who 
 possessed extraordinary abilities, was receiving a learned 
 education in obedience to her father's injunctions, the war 
 was continued in Germany, and hostilities were recom- 
 menced against the Danes, who had manifested consider- 
 able jealousy of Sweden on account of her recent successes. 
 Both these wars were terminated, as soon as Christina 
 herself assumed the reins of government, under circum- 
 stances very advantageous to Sweden. The period of 
 tranquillity which ensued was favorable to the extension of 
 commerce and the cultivation of the arts and sciences ; 
 but the literary tastes of the Queen were soon found to 
 be inconsistent with the conscientious discharge of her 
 political duties ; and complaints of the time and treasure 
 squandered on unworthy favorites became so general, that 
 Christina, in 1654, abdicated in favor of her cousin 
 Charles Gustavus, Count Palatine of Zweibriicken. 
 After her abdication, Christina became a Romanist, 
 and resided generally at Rome. She made an inef- 
 fectual attempt to resume her crown after the death 
 of her cousin, and twice revisited Sweden for that pur- 
 pose, and also became a candidate for the crown of 
 Poland, but with no better success. She died at Rome 
 in 1689. 
 
134 — 136. § 15, 16] POLAND — RUSSIA. 67 
 
 § 15. Poland. 
 I A. Under the Jagellones. 
 
 (134.) Under the last Jagellones, Poland, with Lithu- 
 ania and Western Prussia, became the most important 
 state of Eastern Europe, and, by the addition of Masovia 
 and Livonia, extended its limits from the Baltic to the 
 Black Sea, and almost from the Oder to the Don. But, 
 amidst all this apparent prosperity, there existed an ele- 
 ment of dissolution in the ambition of the nobles, who con- 
 tinued to encroach on the prerogatives of the King as well 
 as the rights of the citizens and peasants, until at length 
 they extorted from the last of the Jagellones the privilege 
 I of electing their King, and imposing conditions on him 
 (pacta conventa). 
 
 B. Poland an elective monarchy (1572 — 1791). 
 
 (135.) After the extinction of the Jagellones, the 
 nobles, now the only powerful body in the state, elected 
 
 I Henry of Anjou, who quitted Poland in the following 
 year for the purpose of ascending the throne of France, 
 
 ; vacant by the death of his brother Charles IX. He was 
 succeeded by Stephen Bathori, Prince of Transylvania, 
 who was followed by three kings of the house of Vasa 
 (1587—1669), Sigismund III. of Sweden, Wladislaw IV., 
 
 i and John (II.) Casimir, whose elevation to the throne of 
 
 1 Poland, instead of uniting, as was intended, the two great 
 northern kingdoms, involved the country in a long war 
 with Sweden,, which was terminated in 1660 by the peace 
 of Oliva, by which Livonia was ceded to Sweden, and 
 Prussia recognized as a sovereign power. The nominal 
 supremacy of Poland over the Moldau had been lost since 
 the year 1616. 
 
 § 16 Russia. 
 
 (136.) After her liberation from the Mongolic yoke, 
 Russia advanced rapidly in power and civilization under 
 the last rulers of the house of II u r i c. Casan, the kingdom 
 of Astrachan, and the countries of the Caucasus and Sibe- 
 ria were added to her territories by conquest; G-erman 
 
68' MODERN HISTORY. [137. ^17. 
 
 handicraftsmen, miners, artists, and learned men were in- 
 troduced ; the corps of tirailleurs (Strelitzes) established, 
 and a commercial treaty concluded with England. But, 
 after the extinction of the race of Ruric in 1598, the coun- 
 try was distracted by a disputed succession which lasted 
 fifteen years, and by foreign wars, in which Poland and 
 Sweden reconquered many of the territories which they 
 had formerly lost. In the year 1613, the throne became 
 hereditary in the family of Romanow (a branch of the 
 house of Euric), who reigned with absolute authority. 
 Peace with Poland and Sweden was purchased by the re- 
 nunciation of all the claims of Russia to Courland, Livo- 
 nia, and Esthonia. 
 
 § 17. Ttie Ottoman or Osmajiic Empire. 
 
 (137.) Extent of the empire in 1500.— All the 
 continent, from the Ionian Sea to the Euphrates, in the 
 north to the Danube, and on the other side of the Danube 
 Bessarabia; some islands of the Archipelago, and the 
 southern coast of the Crimea. To this territory, Selim I„ 
 during his short reign (1512 — 1520), added by conquest 
 Armenia, Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt. But the 
 Turkish power attained its highest elevation under Soly- 
 man II. (1520 — 1566), surnamed the Magnificent, the 
 most distinguished of all the Osmanic sultans, whose fleets 
 and armies were indebted for their victories to the reck- 
 less courage rather than the skill of their commanders. 
 Their first conquest was the island of Rhodes, which was 
 garrisoned by the Knights of St. John, who capitulated 
 after an obstinate defence, during which 40,000 Turks 
 were killed, and the town itself was laid in ashes. The 
 Knights then retired to Malta, which was placed at their 
 disposal by the Emperor Charles V. Solyman visited 
 Hungary six times: 1. For the sake of conquest and 
 plunder. After the defeat and death of King Lewis at 
 Mohacz, the whole of Hungary seemed to be at the dispo- 
 sal of the conqueror, when he was suddenly recalled by the 
 intelligence of an outbreak in his Asiatic provinces. Sec- 
 ond and third times as an ally of Zapolya (comp. page 25). 
 Siege of Vienna ; loss of 80,000 men. 4. On the fourth 
 
138. § 18.] RELIGION, ARTS, SCIENCES, ETC. 69 
 
 occasion Solyman compelled King Ferdinand to cede a 
 j portion of Hungary and pay a yearly tribute. Fifth and 
 I sixth times, as an ally of Zapoiya's son (John Sigismund), 
 prince of Transylvania. In his sixth campaign, Solyman 
 died during the siege of Sigeth. Between these several 
 campaigns occurred, 1. The conquest of Algiers, Tunis, 
 and Tripoli, by the Corsair Hayraddin Barbarossa. Tunis 
 I was afterwards recaptured by Charles V. (see page 26). 
 2. The seizure of the Venetian possessions in the Morea, 
 and of most of their settlements in the Archipelago. 3. 
 The conquest of Yemen in Southern Arabia. 4. Two wars 
 with Persia, which ended in the conquest of Greorgia. 
 5. Descents on the coasts of Spain and Italy, for the pur- 
 pose of weakening the power of Charles V. during the war 
 I with France. 6. An unsuccessful attack on Malta. By such 
 means as these, Solyman extended his empire from Al- 
 giers and the Adriatic Sea to the country beyond the Tigris 
 (with the exception of a few islands), and from the Carpa- 
 thian Mountains, the Dniester, and the mouth of the Don, 
 to Southern Egypt and Arabia. The unwearied energy 
 1 of his character was displayed in peace no less than in 
 war : order and security were re-established throughout 
 his dominions, the courts of justice again placed on a re- 
 spectable footing, military discipline improved, a system 
 of finance introduced, and even the arts and sciences pro- 
 tected and encouraged. The heterogeneous elements of 
 which the empire was composed were again disunited un- 
 der his successors, whose effeminacy rendered them mere 
 puppets in the hands of the Janissaries. Cyprus, it is 
 true, was wrested from the Venetians ; but the naval pow- 
 er of Turkey was annihilated in 1571 in the battle of 
 Lepanto; most of their strongholds in Hungary were 
 lost, and an almost perpetual, though not disastrous, war 
 with Persia, prevented any further military operations in 
 Europe. 
 
 ^18. Religion^ Arts, Sciences, ^^c, during the First 
 Period. 
 
 \ (138.) 1. The Church (Romish). 
 I a. The credit of propagating Christianity among the 
 teathen during this period, especially in Hindostau, Thi- 
 
70 MODERN HISTORY. [139, 140. ^18. 
 
 bet, China, Japan, and the newly-discovered continent of 
 America, is chiefly due to the religious orders ; among 
 whom the Jesuits (Francis Xavier and others) were the 
 most conspicuous for their zeal, courage, and self-denial. 
 For the promotion of such missions, Pope Gregory XV. 
 established at Rome, in 1622, the " Congregation for the 
 propagation of the Faith," to which Urban VIII. united 
 the " Collegium de propaganda Fide," where missionaries 
 were . educated for all parts of the globe. Among the 
 American missions, we may especially notice the state 
 of Paraguay, which was founded and governed by the 
 Jesuits. ^ 
 
 (139.) b. Tim estahlishment of new orders and congre- 
 gatiofis (the Theatines, Capuchins, Ursulines, &c.), and 
 the partial reformation of those which already existed, 
 were productive of some benefit, as regarded the improve- 
 ment of monastic discipline, but could not check the pro- 
 gress of the Reformation, or restore to the Church of 
 Rome the influence which she had lost. To attain this 
 object, a Spanish nobleman, named Ignatius Loyola, 
 founded, in 1540 (in Guipuscoa), a brotherhood, called 
 the SocietyofJesus, under the sanction of Pope Paul 
 III., who conferred several important privileges on the 
 order. In addition to the three usual vows of poverty, 
 chastity, and obedience, the Jesuits promised to undertake 
 the work of conversion in any country to which the Pope 
 might think fit to send them as missionaries. They were 
 also employed as preachers, catechists, and especially as 
 instructors of youth. 
 
 (140.) The principal or " General" of the order, who 
 resided at Rome, was chosen for life, and exercised uncon- 
 trolled authority over the members. In spite of opposi- 
 tion, this order spread (until the middle of the eighteenth 
 century) over all the Romanist countries of Europe, as 
 well as over Spanish America, the Philippine Islands, and 
 China, and eventually comprehended thirty-nine " Pro- 
 
 * The efforts of Protestants in the great missionary field, " the 
 world," are, with sliglit and unimportant exceptions, subsequent 
 to the period here spoken of. — S. 
 
141 145. ^ 18.] RELIGION, ARTS, SCIENCES, ETC. 71 
 
 (141.) c. Dogmatic disputes were occasioned by the publi- 
 cation (by Jansenius. a professor of Louvain) of five theses 
 on the subject of grace. These doctrines were defended 
 by the disciples of Jansenius, and condemned by the Pope 
 as heretical. 
 
 (142.) 2. Political constitution. In the Ger- 
 manic kingdoms the development of absolute mon- 
 archy and the fall of the aristocracy. 
 
 (143.) a. In France this result was produced by the 
 appropriation of the crown fiefs, the dissolution of the 
 general assembly (etats-generaux), and the grant of unli- 
 mited powers to the ministers of the crown, b. In Spain^ 
 by the Inquisition, the assumption by the crown of the 
 grand mastership of the three orders of chivalry, the trea- 
 sures of the new world, the dismissal of the general Cortes, 
 and the despotism of Philip II. c. In Germany we must 
 ascribe the establishment of absolutism, not to the Empe- 
 ror, whose powers were limited by the compact entered 
 into at his election, but to individual princes, whose su- 
 premacy within their own territories was secured to them 
 by the peace of Westphalia, d. In most of tlie Protestant 
 countries the sovereigns were rendered independent of 
 their subjects by the possession of property which had 
 formerly belonged to the Church. In England, Denmark, 
 and Sweden, great additional powers were given to the 
 sovereign by the union in his person of the supreme eccle- 
 siastical and civil authorities. In Sweden, moreover, the 
 cause of absolutism was promoted by the establishment of 
 an hereditary instead of an elective monarchy, and gene- 
 rally throughout Europe by the introduction of standing 
 armies, a regular system of taxation, and legislation with- 
 out the sanction or advice of the nobles. 
 
 (144.) In Poland alone, since the establishment of an 
 elective monarchy, the nobles exercised a power similar to 
 that possessed in England by the House of Commons in 
 the reign of Charles I. In Italy, Switzerland, and the 
 Netherlands, there existed republican constitutions ; in 
 Hungary the system was representative, and in Russia 
 and Turkey the government was an unmixed despotism. 
 
 (145.) 3. Legislation. Since the abolition of the 
 Faustrecht (right of the strong hand), a more regular sys- 
 
72 MODERN HISTORY. [146 — 148. § 18. 
 
 tern of legislation Lad been introduced ; but except in 
 England, which retained its ancient institution of trial by 
 jury, the laws were administered, not by the community, 
 but by lawyers nominated by the sovereign. The pro- 
 ceedings were always in writing, and the punishments in- 
 flicted were ferociously severe. The foundation of most 
 of their codes was the E,oman law. The Spanish In- 
 quisition, and the prosecutions for witchcraft, carried on 
 in G-ermany by virtue of a penal ordinance called the 
 " Witch-hammer," delivered over thousands of innocent 
 persons to torture or the stake. 
 
 (146.) 4. War. The system of warfare was consider- 
 ably modified by the introduction of standing armies, the 
 use of muskets and heavy ordnance (which had become 
 more and more general, especially since the days of Grus- 
 tavus Adolphus), the construction of regular fortifications, 
 particularly in the Netherlands, the establishment of light 
 cavalry, the introduction of an extended instead of a deep 
 order of battle, and the formation in many countries of a 
 formidable marine. 
 
 (147.) 5. In the sciences a system of more pro- 
 found, as well as more active investigation, was created 
 by the rapid spread of the art of printing, the continual 
 establishment of new universities (in Grermany, Witten- 
 berg, Frankfort on the Oder, Marburg, Konigsberg, Jena, 
 Helmstadt, Griessen, and Strasburg), and schools (the 
 Jesuit colleges, schools established by princes, &c.), and 
 the inquiries set on foot by the Reformers and their 
 opponents. 
 
 (148.) a. The groundwork of a learned education was 
 the study of classical literature^ which imparted its tone, 
 more or less, to all the sciences. This study, which had 
 been revived in Italy during the preceding period, ex- 
 tended first to France, where it was cultivated, partly as 
 an independent science (by the able critic and interpreter 
 Lambinus (tl572) ; the distinguished Latin scholar Mu- 
 retus (1585); the learned printers, Robert and his son 
 Henry Stephanus [^Etienne^ Ang. StepJieJis'] (Thesau- 
 rus Linguas Greecge) ; the philosopher Julius Caesar 
 Scaliger, and his son, the chronologist and philologist, 
 Jos. Scaliger (tl609) ; the profound critic and translator 
 
149, 150. ^18.] RELIGION, ARTS, SCIENCES, ETC. 73 
 
 Casaubon (11614); the great linguist Salmasius (11653), 
 and many others, partly as the handmaid of theology and 
 jurisprudence. It was not without influence on the na- 
 tional literature, especially on tragical composition. In 
 G-ermany, the most renowned " Humanists" were Reuch- 
 lin (t 15:22), who revived the study of Hebrew literature ; 
 Erasmus of Rotterdam (tl536), and a distinguished Grreek 
 scholar; Melancthon (tl560) ; Freinsheim (11660), &c. 
 But the great seat of classical learning was Holland, 
 where Justus Lipsius (tl606), Hugo G-rotius (1645), Gerh. 
 Vossius (tl649), Daniel Heinsius (11655), and his son 
 Nic* Heinsius (11681) distinguished themselves as ety- 
 mologists, grammarians, and critics. 
 
 (149.) 6, This revival of the study of classical anti- 
 quity had an influence also on jpkilosophy ^ which was now 
 elevated from the rank of a mere handmaid of theology, 
 to its proper station as an independent science. The 
 scholastic philosophy of the middle ages was, in a great 
 measure, supplanted by the study of Plato, and especially 
 of Aristotle, which had been recently revived, and by the 
 mystic philosophy, the chief professor of which was the 
 celebrated physician and chemist Philip Bombast von 
 Hohenheim (11541), who calls himself in his (theosophic) 
 writings Theophrastus Paracelsus. The struggle 
 was maintained during the first half of the seventeenth 
 century, and produced three new schools. — 1. Those who 
 believed, with the English philosopher, Francis Bacon, 
 Lord Yerulam (11626), that the source of all philosophy 
 was to be found in experience (de Dignitate et Augmentis 
 Scientiarum ; Novum Organum) ; or, 2, in the intellect^ 
 as Descartes (Cartesius, tl650 — cogito, ergo sum) ; or, 
 3, in divine revelation^ general or particular, confirmed by 
 signs and miracles. This was the doctrine of the Theo- 
 sophists, who thought that they received direct illumina- 
 tion from the Almighty. Their leader was a cobbler of 
 Gorlitz, named Jacob Bohme (11624). 
 
 (150.) c. The pJiysical scicT^ces underwent a great re- 
 volution. Nicholas Copernicus (of Thorn, 11543) dis- 
 covered that the sun remained immovable in the centre 
 of the planetary system, the earth revolving round it and 
 round its own axis. John Keppler (tl630) discovered 
 4 
 
74 MODERN HISTORY. [151, 152. ^18. 
 
 the laws which regulate the revolutions of the planets, 
 and the relations which their respective distances bear to 
 the time occupied in their course round the sun. His 
 contemporary Galileo G-alilei (of Pisa, 11642) dis- 
 covered the laws of gravitation and of the pendulum, im- 
 proved the telescope, which had been invented some years 
 before in Holland (by Jansen ? or Lippersey ?) defended 
 the Copernican system, and became the founder of a new 
 system of natural philosophy. His pupil Torricelli (f 1647) 
 invented the barometer. Botany, zoology, and physiology 
 began also to be studied. Mathematics were the ground- 
 work of the physical sciences. Pope G-regory XIII. un- 
 dertook the reformation of the Julian calendar, which, by 
 erroneously making the year consist of 365 days and six 
 entire hours, had caused a difference of ten days between 
 the vulgar reckoning and the actual position of the sun. ' 
 
 (151.) d. Political science found able expounders in 
 Nic. Macchiavelli (1527, Principe), Hugo Grrotius (de 
 Jure Belli et Pacis), and Thomas Hobbes (tl679, de Give, 
 Leviathan). 
 
 (152.) e. History. Whilst the method of treating 
 universal history remained still in its infancy, on account 
 of the singular practice which prevailed for more than a 
 century of dividing its subject-matter according to the 
 four great monarchies — the Assyrian, Persian, G-recian, 
 and Bomano-German — much had been effected in the 
 department of particular history by Macchiavelli (Storie 
 Florentine), Paolo Sarpi (Storia del Concilio Tridentino), 
 Johannes Sleidanus (de Statu Beligionis et Reipublicae 
 sub Carolo V.), de Thou (Historia sui Temporis). Me- 
 moirs also began to be written during this period (de 
 Commines, Sully), and political journals to be published 
 (the earliest at Venice, in manuscript in 1536) ; the Eng- 
 lish Mercury (the first printed newspaper) in 1588; the 
 Frankfort Journal in 1615; the Gazette de France in 
 1631. The foundation of literary history was laid by 
 
 ^ He had observed that the vernal equinox, which in the year 
 325 was on the 21st March, was now ten days earher. This altera- 
 tion of the style was not adopted in England until the year 1752, 
 when eleven days were left out between the 2nd and 14th Sep- 
 tember, 
 
153. ^ 18.] RELIGION, APcTS, SCIENCES, ETC. 75 
 
 Conrad Gessner (Biblioth. Univ.), of chronotogy by Jos. 
 Scaliger (de Emendatione Temporum), and of numisma- 
 tics by the two Stradas. 
 
 (153.) 6. Literature. Poetry was cultivated dur- 
 ing this period most successfully in Southern Europe. 
 In Italy, where princes and popes vied with one another 
 in their patronage of genius, Epic poetry appeared in its 
 most perfect form in the fantastic " Orlando Furioso" of 
 Ariosto (tl533), and the romantic " Gerusalemme Lib- 
 erata" of Torquato Tasso (tl595). Extraordinary 
 richness of imagination is displayed in the great Epic 
 (Os Lusiadas) of the Portuguese poet, Luis de Camoens 
 (tl579), on the subject of Vasco de Gama's voyage. In 
 Spain we find Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (tl616), 
 who produced the famous romance of " Don Quixote de 
 la Mancha," a burlesque representation of the worn-out 
 chivalry of that country; Lope de Vega (tl636), the 
 most prolific of dramatic writers, and his more polished 
 successor Calderon de la Barca (11687), the author of 
 a great number of pieces composed for the feast of Cor- 
 pus Christi, and of several comedies. In France, Fran- 
 cois Rabelais (11553) exhibited in his half-philosophi- 
 cal, half-satirical romance of " Gargantua and Pantagruel," 
 a masterly caricature of his own times; and Malherbe 
 (11628) prepared the way, by his lyrical compositions, 
 for the transition from the romantic to the modern clas- 
 sical school of poetry. England produced, in the person 
 of William Shakspeare (1564 — 1616), the greatest 
 dramatic poet that the world ever saw. In Germany the 
 Epic was almost entirely lost; for we find nothing in 
 that class of poetry except a sort of " Beast-Epic^^ in- 
 troduced, for the second time, at the commencement of 
 this period, in the form of a Low German translation of 
 " Reineke Fuchs" (Reynard the Fox). The drama was 
 more successfully cultivated by a shoemaker of Niirn- 
 berg [Nuremberg] named Hans Sachs (1494 — 1576). 
 During this period the popular ballad (Vokslied) at- 
 tained its highest degree of excellence, and gradually 
 declined. The most remarkable novelties in German lit- 
 erature were : a. The introduction by Luther of the 
 Evangelical Church Songs. b. Comic and satirical 
 
76 MODERN HISTORY. [154 156. § 18. 
 
 poetry, in an epic as well as a didactic form (Brandt's 
 " Ship of Fools," and many other pieces of the same 
 character), c. The creation by Luther in his prose works, 
 especially his translation of the Bible, of anew High 
 German language, compounded of the various High 
 German dialects previously in use. With the establish- 
 ment of the first Silesian poetical school (by 
 Opitz), 1624, began the corruption of the language by 
 the introduction of foreign words, — a practice which 
 continued, especially in poetry, for more than a century 
 (1624 — 1730). To Opitz, however, belongs the credit of 
 having invented a regular system of prosody. 
 
 (154.) 7. Art. a. Ever since the 15th century the 
 modern school of architecture in Italy had been engaged 
 in restoring the ancient Roman style, from the speci- 
 mens which still existed, or from the descriptions of Vi- 
 truvius. The two earliest schools of architecture, the 
 Florentine and Venetian, had been chiefly employed in 
 the erection of palaces ; but when Konie became the 
 centre of Italian architecture, church-building assumed 
 a prominent position. The most distinguished profes- 
 sors were Bramante (11514), who commenced the 
 building of St. Peter's at Rome, and Michael Angelo 
 Buonarotti (tl563), who revived Bramante's plan of 
 an immense cupola over a Greek cross. He was also 
 celebrated as a sculptor^ and chief of the Florentine 
 school of painting. From Italy the Italian style found 
 its way into other countries, and gradually displaced the 
 Gothic. 
 
 (155.) 1). The most distinguished sculptors were 
 found at Florence and Venice, where the classical mod- 
 els of antiquity were diligently studied and copied 
 with great success. Naples was also celebrated as a 
 school of sculpture. Benvenuto Cellini was re- 
 nowned as a worker in metals (11572). 
 
 (156.) c. Painting attained its highest degree of ex- 
 cellence during this period, aa. In Italy, where the 
 most distinguished professors were chiefs of the schools : 
 viz. Raphael Sanzio d'Urbino (1483—1520) of the Ro- 
 man; Michael Angelo Buonarotti of the Florentine; 
 Tiziano [Titian] (1477— 1576) of the Venetian; Alle- 
 
157, 158. ^ 18.] RELIGION, ARTS, SCIENCES, ETC. 77 
 
 gri da Corregio (11534) of the Lombard, which was 
 first brought into notice by Leonardo da Vinci 
 (tl519). To these names we may add Giulio Romano, 
 Paolo Veronese, the three Caracci, Guido Eeni, and Do- 
 menichino. bb. In Germany we have Albert Durer 
 (11528), Lucas Kranach (11553), and Hans Holbein 
 (11554). cc. In the Netherlands, especially in Brabant, 
 Peter Paul Rubens (born at Cologne. 1577, fat Ant- 
 werp, 1640), and his pupil Antony van Dyk [Vandyke] 
 (tl611). 
 
 (157.) d. Music. The Flemisl^ school, which flour- 
 ished at the commencement of this period, was thrown 
 into the shade by Pales trina, the inventor of a new 
 style of Church music. The Roman school of which he 
 was the founder, produced also Allegri (composer of the 
 famous " Miserere") and Carissimi. The establishment 
 of an opera at Florence in the 16th century contributed 
 to the formation of a better style of vocal as well as in- 
 strumental music, 
 
 (158.) 8. Commerce and manufactures. The 
 discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to the 
 East Indies, occasioned a complete revolution in the 
 commerce of the world, which became ^nariiime instead 
 of overland. Its great highway was now the Atlantic 
 Ocean ; and one consequence of this change was, that the 
 countries of Western Europe, — Spain and Portugal in 
 the first instance, then England and Holland, and lastly 
 France, — established a trade at the expense of the Vene- 
 tians and of the German Hansa, which gradually fell into 
 decay, and in the year 1630 dissolved itself, with the ex- 
 ception of three towns. The establishment of colonies 
 greatly facilitated the operations of commercial enter- 
 prise. Europe now exported largely to the East and 
 West Indies, and to America, receiving in return the 
 products of those countries. The East Indian trade 
 was at first exclusively in the hands of the Portuguese, 
 partly in the shape of an agency or commission business 
 in India itself, partly as a direct trade between that 
 country and Portugal. Lisbon became the grand depot 
 for Indian produce (pepper and other spices, woollen and 
 silk wares, pearls, &c.). By the union of Portugal with 
 
78 MODERN HISTORY. [159, 160. § 18. 
 
 Spain, the latter country became possessed of the foreign 
 and colonial trade of both hemispheres, which was soon 
 shared by the Dutch commercial companies. Amster- 
 dam now raised itself to the position of the first com- 
 mercial city in the world ; whilst at the same time the 
 Dutch wrested from the Hanse towns the privilege which 
 they had hitherto monopolized of conducting the com- 
 mission trade of Europe. The herring and whale fish- 
 eries also employed nearly half a million of men. 
 
 (159.) Circumstances favor oUe to trade. The open- 
 ing of fairs at Leipzic, Brunswick, &c. : the establish- 
 ment of Assurances (the first at Florence) ; construction 
 of canals and chauss6es (fii'^t in France) ; Exchanges (at 
 Antwerp, London and Amsterdam), and Banks ; regula- 
 tion of the post-offices (in Grermany by the family of Tour 
 and Taxis) ; commercial treaties (between Russia and 
 England). Neio products: — tobacco, potatoes, coffee, 
 tea, porcelain. New trade, in negro slaves. 
 
 (160.) Mamifacttiring industry. The silk and cloth 
 manufactures flourished in Spain until the expulsion of 
 the Moors in the reign of Philip III. — Cloth and linen 
 manufactures in the Netherlands. — Commencement of 
 silk-weaving at Tours and Lyons, afterwards (about 
 1625) in England. — Lace-making in the Saxon Erzge- 
 birge. — Invention of watches (Nuremberg eggs as they 
 were called) by Peter Hele of Nuremberg ; of the spin- 
 ning-wheel by Jorgens of Brunswick, and of the stock- 
 ing-loom by William Lee of Cambridge. 
 
161. ^19.] FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV. 79 
 
 Second Period. 
 
 From the peace of Westphalia to the French Revolution. 
 1648—1789. 
 
 1. To the Spanish war of succession, the 
 northern war, and the elevation of Prussia into 
 a kingdom. 
 
 § 19. France under Louis XIV. 
 
 A. Louis XIV. under the guardianship of 
 Mazarin, 1643—1661. 
 
 (161.) The guardianship of Louis XIV., who was only 
 five years old when his father died, was conferred by the 
 parliament of France on his mother Anne of Spain ; but 
 the actual functions of government were discharged by 
 Cardinal Mazarin, a minister recommended by Kiche- 
 lieu. The unpopularity of this minister, who from the 
 first had been disliked as a foreigner, was increased by a 
 dispute with the parliament respecting the imposition of 
 some fresh taxes for the purpose of carrying on the war 
 with Germany and Spain (victories of the young Conde, 
 Duke of Enghieu, at Rocroi and Lens), by which he 
 hoped to withdraw public attention from the defects of his 
 domestic administration. The parliament having rendered 
 itself obnoxious to the court by the pertinacity with which 
 it demanded a constitution, many members were arrested 
 by command of the Queen, who was encouraged to this 
 act by the intelligence of a fresh victory gained by Conde 
 near Lens. But before he could reach Paris the populace 
 (whose favor the parliament had conciliated) had raised 
 barricades in the streets (1648), liberated the prisoners, 
 established the Fronde (as the party opposed to the 
 court was called), and, headed by the coadjutor of the 
 Archbishop of Paris, afterwards Cardinal Retz, had de- 
 clared war against the Queen Mother and Mazarin, who 
 ■quitted Paris, but returned on the re-establishment of 
 4# 
 
80 MODERN HISTOPwY. [162 166. ^ 19. 
 
 • 
 
 peace by the Prince of Condo. The systematic attempts 
 of this general to concentrate in his own person all the 
 functions of government, occasioned his arrest by Mazarin, 
 who was soon compelled by the populace to liberate his 
 prisoner, and himself seek safety in exile. 
 
 (162.) Conde now formed an alliance with the King 
 of Spain, and declared war against his master, who had 
 recently attained his majority. After a bloody but inde- 
 cisive skirmish in the Faubourg St. Antoine, between 
 Conde and the royal troops commanded by Turenne, the 
 former quitted Paris, was placed under the bann of the 
 kingdom, and sought an asylum in Spain, whilst Maza- 
 rin returned to France and resumed his functions as 
 minister. 
 
 (163.) For an account of the termination of the war by 
 the peace of Westphalia, and the territories acquired by 
 the different powers, see page 53. 
 
 (164.) The war tvith Spain, which had broken out 
 during the period of the thirty years' war, was terminated 
 (after the defeat of the Spanish army under Conde by 
 Turenne at Dunkirk in 1658), by the peace of the 
 Pyrenees, negotiated by Mazarin himself By this 
 peace France acquired the country of Rousillon, the Bel- 
 gian district of Artois, and several cities with their terri- 
 tories in Flanders, Hennegau, and Luxembourg. Conde 
 was re-established in the enjoyment of his estates 
 and dignities, and Louis XIV. married Philip the 
 Fourth's eldest daughter, Maria Theresa, who formally 
 renounced for herself and heirs all claims to the Spanish 
 crown. 
 
 (165.) Mazarin died in 1661, leaving behind him 
 an enormous property (forty millions of livres), and 
 Louis XIV. at once declared his intention of carry- 
 ing on the government without the assistance of a 
 minister. 
 
 B. Preponderance of France in Europe 
 during the administration of Louis XIV., 
 1661—1715. 
 
 (166.) The attempts of Louis were directed, 1. To 
 
166. § 19.] FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV. 81 
 
 tJie estahlishment of absolute sovereignty at home (I'etat 
 c'est iiioi). In pursuance of this object he governed 
 without a prime minister for fifty-four years, never con- 
 voked either the estates of the kingdom or the provincial 
 estates (except in the frontier provinces of Languedoc 
 and Britany), allowed the highest offices of state to remain 
 vacant (Prime Minister, Constable, Grrand Admiral), or 
 placed them in commission, and attached the nobles to 
 his person by conferring on them profitable offices, or 
 titles and orders, to which the rigid etiquette of the court 
 attached the highest importance. Even in ecclesiastical 
 matters he endeavored to establish an authority inde- 
 pendent of the Pope, by the publication of the four Arti- 
 cles of the G-allican Church, which, however, fell into dis- 
 use before the expiration of ten years. 2. To the mainte- 
 nance of his rank as the first sovereign of Europe^ ajid tJie 
 estahlishment of a sort of dictatorship throughout that 
 quarter of tJie globe. This end was attained, a. through 
 the weakness of the neighboring states, and the decline of 
 the house of Hapsburg since the peace of Westphalia and 
 of the Pyrenees. Although his endeavors to obtain the 
 imperial crown were unsuccessful, he was enabled, by 
 means of the so-called Rhenish confederacy, which was 
 often renewed, to exercise his authority as protector over 
 a great part of Germany, b. By the influence of French 
 civilization. c. By the administration of the great 
 Colbert, who had been appointed, on the recommenda- 
 tion of Mazarin, Controller-G-eneral of the Finances, 
 which had been in a disordered state since the dismissal 
 of Sully (1661 — 1683). Notwithstanding the expensive 
 wars in which Louis engaged, and the sums squandered on 
 buildings, fetes, mistresses, &c., the condition of the ex- 
 chequer improved under Colbert's administration ; indus- 
 try was aroused and encouraged ; existing colonies were 
 treated with consideration ; new settlements established, 
 and commercial companies formed for the East and West 
 India trade. But this improvement was in a great 
 measure effected by the imposition of fresh taxes, by mo- 
 nopolies, and by the so-called "commercial system" of 
 ., Colbert ; and the sums thus raised were expended for the 
 most part in the gratification of the King's ambition. 
 4* 
 
82 MODERN HISTORY. [167, 168 ^ 19. 
 
 Colbert constructed the canal of Languedoc, embellished 
 Paris, founded several academies for the arts and sciences, 
 patronized distinguished scholars, placed the courts of 
 justice and the police on a more efficient footing, and, 
 during the period of his service as minister of marine, es- 
 tablished a respectable navy. d. By the good fortune 
 which attended the arms of France under a succession of 
 distinguished commanders (Turenne, Conde, Luxembourg, 
 Catinat, Villars, Vendome, Vauban), and under the direc- 
 tion of such an able minister of war as Louvois (11691), 
 who involved the King in several aggressive wars, for the 
 purpose of proving, as it would seem, how indispensable 
 his services were. 
 
 (167.) First war of spoliation against tJie Sj^anish 
 Netherlands (1666 — 1668). After the death of his father- 
 in-law, Philip IV. of Spain, Louis XIV., as a set-off 
 against his wife's renunciation of her claims to the Span- 
 ish crown, brought forward a law which existed in some 
 of the Belgian provinces, by which the daughters of the 
 first marriage inherited, to the exclusion of sons of the 
 second marriage, and on the strength of this law laid claim 
 to the Netherlands, conquered Flanders and Hennegau, 
 and took possession of the free country of Burgundy. 
 Meanwhile, however, England and Holland, in order to 
 prevent the Netherlands becoming a province of France, 
 had formed, in conjunction with Sweden, and by the in- 
 tervention of the Dutch pensionary^ de Witt, a triple 
 alliance, which compelled Louis XIV. to conclude the 
 peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1668, and to content himself 
 with retaining the places which he had already conquered 
 in Flanders. 
 
 (168.) Second war of spoliation against Holland 
 (1672 — 1678). In order to avenge himself on the Dutch 
 for the share which they had taken in the formation of 
 the triple alliance, and at the same time to extort from 
 them a reversal of the decree by which the importation of 
 French merchandise into Holland was prohibited, Louis 
 
 ^ This was the title of the Prime Minister of Holland. He 
 held office for the term of five years, and was capable of re- 
 election. — S. 
 
168. ^ 19.] FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XIV. S3 
 
 gained over their allies the English and Swedes (as well 
 as Cologne and Munster. for the purpose of annoying the 
 Dutch on their eastern frontier), invaded Holland, which 
 at that time was distracted by party struggles, and was 
 only restrained from conquering the whole country by the 
 opening of the sluices and the consequent submersion of 
 the land, whilst at the same time a tremendous storm, ac- 
 companied with an extraordinary ebb tide, prevented the 
 English and French sailors (after a victory at sea) from 
 reaching the shore. Assistance was now promised to the 
 Dutch republic by the great Elector, Frederick William 
 of Brandenburg (through the influence of his nephew, the 
 Prince of Orange), who concluded an alliance with the 
 Emperor, and subsequently with Spain: so that France 
 was compelled to maintain a war on three of her frontiers 
 at once. The King of England, having obtained the ele- 
 vation of his nephew the Prince of Orange to the dignity 
 of Stattholder of Holland, and being unable to obtain any 
 more subsidies from his parliament, concluded a separate 
 peace with the Netherlands (as well as with Cologne and 
 Munster). Louis XIV. was now forced to act on the de- 
 fensive : a battle was fought (near Senef), without any 
 decisive result, between the French army under Conde 
 and William III. of Orange, whilst Turenne,- who had 
 manfully opposed the imperial general Montecuculi on the 
 Upper Rhine, was slain in the battle of Sasbach. An at- 
 tempt on the part of the Swedes to efi"ect a diversion, by 
 invading the territories of the great Elector from the side 
 of Pomerania, was successful, in so far as it compelled his 
 return from the Upper Rhine : but on the 18th June, 
 1675, they were defeated at Fehrbellin, and lost Pome- 
 rania. About the same time the French fleet was defeated 
 by the united fleets of Holland and Spain under de Ruy- 
 ter. These disasters compelled Louis to conclude the 
 peace of Ximeguen in 1678, by which France restored 
 to Holland all the places which she had taken in the war, 
 receiving in return fourteen partly fortified places in 
 Flanders, with Hennegau and the free country of Bur- 
 gundy (Franche-comte, which had been hitherto occupied 
 by Spain as a part of the Burgundian circle under Ger- 
 man supremacy), and of the German empire Freiburg and 
 
84 MODERN HISTORY. [169, 170. ^ 19. 
 
 Huningen. The Elector of Brandenburg, being now aban- 
 doned by bis allies, and threatened by the French with 
 the loss of his Rhenish and Westphalian territories, was 
 compelled to conclude with France and Sweden the peace 
 of St. G-ermain-en-Layein 1679, and to surrender all 
 his conquests except a narrow strip of land on the right 
 bank of the Oder. 
 
 (169.) The Reunions, 1680-81. During a period of 
 thirty years, France, now at the summit of her glory un- 
 der Colbert's administration, had considerably augmented 
 her territories by four treaties of peace; but, as the am- 
 bitious cravings of Louis XIV. were not yet satisfied, 
 Reunion-chambers were established (at Metz, Tournay 
 (Doornik), Breisach, and Besancon), for the purpose of 
 ascertaining what places had at any time belonged to the 
 territories ceded to France. The result of this inquiry 
 was, the re-annexation of several districts, and the occu- 
 pation by the French of the fortresses of Strasburg and 
 Luxembourg. The Emperor, who was at this time en- 
 gaged in a war with the Turks, was forced to conclude an 
 armistice with Louis for twenty years, and to leave him 
 in undisturbed enjoyment of his new possessions. Dur- 
 ing this armistice, Louis XIY., chiefly at the instigation 
 of his second wife, Madame de Maintenon, widow of the 
 comic poet Scarron, revoked the edict of Nantes in 1685, 
 forbade the public profession of Protestantism, and com- 
 manded that the children of Protestant parents should be 
 brought up in the Romish f\iith. Although the emigra- 
 tion of Protestants was forbidden under the severest pen- 
 alties, and all the frontiers were strictly watched, 50.000 
 Protestant families escaped into the neighboring states 
 and into Brandenburg. 
 
 (170.) Third ivar of spoliation, X^'^'^-^l . The im- 
 perial generals having driven the Turks out of Hungary, 
 and stormed the important Turkish fortress of Belgrade, 
 Louis XIV., under the most frivolous pretexts, violated 
 the armstice, and without any previous declaration of war 
 took possession of the capitals of the three spiritual elec- 
 tors (Mainz, Treves, and Bonn). This breach of the law 
 of nations was speedily followed by the devastation of the 
 Palatinate, notwithstanding the readiness with which the 
 
171, 172. ,§20.] GERMANY. 85 
 
 inhabitants yielded to the most unreasonable demands of 
 the French. Heidelberg, Mannheim, and all the towns 
 as far as the frontier of Alsace, with the imperial cities 
 of Spires and Worms, were reduced to ashes. 
 
 (171.) William of Orange having ascended the Eng- 
 lish throne, an alliance offensive and defensive was formed 
 between England and Holland against France, which had 
 afforded an asylum to the exiled King, James II. The 
 war by sea commenced with the invasion of Ireland by a 
 French force, for the purpose of replacing James on the 
 throne, and concluded with the destruction of their fleet 
 off Cape la Hogue. By land their arms were more suc- 
 cessful : three brilliant victories were gained by Luxem- 
 bourg ; over the Dutch at Fleurus, and over William 
 III. at Steenkirk and- Neerwinden; and Savoy, the 
 Duke of which had joined the alliance against France, 
 was conquered by a French army under General Catinat. 
 The exhausted state of his finances, and the diversion of 
 the ambitious plans of Louis XIV. into a new channel by 
 the immediate prospect of the death without issue of 
 Charles II. of Spain, on the one side, and the mutual 
 mistrust of the allies on the other, hastened the conclu- 
 sion of peace at Ryswick (a village near the Hague) 
 in 1697. By the terms of this peace Louis restored all 
 his conquests, and -all the re-united territories, except 
 Alsace, to their legitimate possessors (Freiburg and Brei- 
 sach to the house of Austria), and recognized William III. 
 as King of Great Britain, retaining eighty-two places 
 taken from the Spaniards in Belgium, and a part of the 
 island of St. Domingo. 
 
 § 20. Germany. 
 
 (172.) Ferdinand III. was succeeded by his son, 
 Leopold I., 1658 — 1705, King of Hungary and Bo- 
 hemia, who was obliged, at his election, to submit to still 
 further limitations of the imperial authority. ' The Em- 
 peror was now compelled to govern in co?ijunction ivith 
 the estates of the empire, the number of which, although 
 the limits of the empire were contracted, had been increas- 
 ed, by the elevation of inferior nobles, to 240, and after 
 
86 MODERN HISTORY. [173,174. §20 
 
 the peace of Westphalia had been divided, with reference 
 to religion, into two distinct corporations, viz., Corpus 
 Catholicorum and Corpus Evangelicorum. The diet now 
 sat perpetually (since 1663), and, instead of being visited 
 by the Emperor in person, and the great body of the 
 nobles, consisted of a congress of deputies. The G-erman 
 empire at this period of our history was reduced to the 
 condition of a powerless confederation, by the religious 
 and political divisions of its princes and estates. 
 
 (173.) Turkish war, 1683—1699. Whilst Louis 
 XIV. was conquering Alsace in the west, the Turks re- 
 appeared in formidable strength on the eastern frontier 
 of the empire. A system of oppressive taxation and re- 
 ligious persecution had produced an insurrection of the 
 llungarians, headed by the Protestant count, Emmerich 
 Tokely, and at their instigation, seconded by the persua- 
 sions of Louis XIV.j the Sultan had declared war against 
 Austria. 
 
 (174.) The Turks advanced without opposition (un- 
 der the grand vizier, Kara Mustapha.) as far as Vienna 
 (1683), which was abandoned by the Emperor, who fled 
 to Passau. His capital, which was heroically defended 
 by Count Stahrenberg, with 10,000 men, against the daily 
 assaults of 270,000 Turks, was chiefly indebted for its 
 preservation to John Sobieski, King of Poland, who. in 
 conjunction with the imperialists under Duke Charles (V.) 
 of Lorraine, defeated the besieging army, and saved not 
 only Austria, but the whole German empire. The war 
 with Turkey was now carried on so successfully, that 
 after the capture of their principal fortress, Belgrade, the 
 question of a partition of the Turkish provinces was agi- 
 tated ; but the policy pursued by France, and the third 
 war of spoliation undertaken by Louis XIV., prevented 
 the expulsion of the Turks from Europe. After the death 
 of Charles of Lorraine, Prince Lewis of Baden gained the 
 victory of Salenkemen ; but it was not until Prince Eu- 
 gene of Savoy had also been victorious at Zentha (1697), 
 that negotiations were commenced for the establishment 
 of peace, which was concluded at Carlowitz in 1699. 
 By this treaty Transylvania and the country between the 
 Danube and Theiss were assigned. to Austria, and the 
 
175 179. ^21.] BRANDENBURG AND PRUSSIA. 87 
 
 Morea, with several places in Dalmatia, to Venice, for the 
 assistance which she had rendered during the war. 
 
 (175.) Hungary, hitherto an electoral kingdom, was 
 created an hereditary monarchy at the diet of Presburg in 
 1687, and settled on the male line of the house of Aus- 
 tria. The Tyrol had belonged to the Emperor (by in- 
 heritance) since the year 1665, and Transylvania by treaty 
 since 1699. For the wars with France, see ^ 19. Eleva- 
 tion of Grerman princes — 
 
 1. The Romanist line of Pfalz Neuburg having suc- 
 ceeded to the Electorate of the Palatinate, the Protest- 
 ants were now in a minority in the electoral college. To 
 restore the balance of power, Hanover was erected into a 
 ninth electorate in 1692. 
 
 (176.) 2. After the death of John Sobieski, the Elec- 
 tor of Saxony was chosen King of Poland, under the 
 name of Augustus II. (1697), having previously qualified 
 himself by going over to the Church of Rome. 
 
 (177.) 3. The elevation of the Elector of Brandenburg 
 to the rank of King of Prussia, 1701. 
 
 ^21. Brandenhurg and Prussia to 1701, 
 
 (178.) 1. Frederick William, the Great Elec- 
 tor, 1640 — 1688. Out of the scattered provinces be- 
 tween the Niemen and the Rhine, which hitherto had 
 had no bond of union, except their common subserviency 
 to the same master, Frederick William formed a state, 
 which was raised by his son to a high rank among Ger- 
 man governments, and under his great-grandson became 
 a first-rate European power. This eminent position was 
 attained partly by the interference of Frederick the 
 Great in the politics of north-eastern Europe, and in an 
 inferior degree in those of the west, and partly by the 
 consummate skill with which he administered the inter- 
 nal afi'airs of his kingdom. 
 
 (179.) a. Participation in the Swedo- Polish war 
 (1655-60). The possession of the Swedish throne was 
 contested by the line of Vasa (at that time reigning in 
 Poland) with Charles Gustavus of Zweibriicken (Charles 
 X.), who had succeeded on the abdication of Christina, 
 
88 MODERN HISTORY. [180—185. §21. 
 
 (180.) In the war which followed, between Sweden and 
 Poland, both parties appealed to the Elector, who availed 
 himself of this circumstance to throw off his feudal al- 
 legiance to Poland. The conquest of Poland, and inva- 
 sion of eastern Prussia, by Charles X. having compelled 
 the Elector to form an alliance with Sweden, the united 
 armies engaged the Poles near Warsaw in 1656, and de- 
 feated them, after a battle which lasted three days. In 
 the following year, the King of Poland (by the conven- 
 tion of Welau) recognized the independence ofPrus- 
 s i a, which was finally established by the peace of Oliva, 
 near Dantzic, notwithstanding the opposition of the 
 Prussian nobles, who were adverse to the measure, partly 
 because they had not been consulted, and partly because 
 the grand object of the Elector was to emancipate him- 
 self from their authority, especially as regarded their 
 right of voting, or refusing the imposition of taxes. 
 
 For the war wit/i France and Sioeden^ see page 82. 
 
 (181.) b. Internal administration. The foundation 
 of all Prussia's greatness for the next century and half, 
 in her army, finances, agriculture, commerce, manufac- 
 tures, arts and sciences, was laid by the G-reat Elector. 
 
 (182.) aa. Immediately after his accession, he formed 
 the nucleus of a standing army, which was gradually in- 
 creased to 24,000 (?) men, who were strictly disciplined 
 and exercised in the use of different weapons. For the 
 support of this force he introduced, 
 
 (183.) bb. In addition to the ancient taxes and du- 
 ties, the excise on various articles of food and clothing, 
 as an extraordinary impost, which eventually became 
 perpetual, and extended over the whole country. At the 
 same time he endeavored to reform the financial ad- 
 ministration, by a more judicious system of exj^endi- 
 ture, and a better management of the electoral estates. 
 
 (184.) cc. Foreigners and discharged soldiers were 
 encouraged, by immunity from taxation for several years, 
 to colonize those portions of his dominions which had 
 been devastated by the thirty years' war. 
 
 (185.) dd. In order to facilitate inland commu- 
 nication, he united the Oder with the Spree, and also 
 with the Havel and Elbe by the Frederick William Ca- 
 
186 188. <5>22.] GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 89 
 
 nal (three miles in length). Encouragement was also 
 given to the formation of a c o m m e r c i a 1 m a r i n e. The 
 settlements on the coast of Gruinea disappointed the 
 expectation of their founders. The improvement in 
 manufactures was rather the result of the influx of 
 French artisans into Germany, after the revocation of 
 the edict of Nantes, than of the stringent prohibitory 
 laws passed for the protection, as it was supposed, of na^ 
 tive industry. 
 
 (186.) ee. He founded the University of Duisburg, 
 and the Royal Library at Berlin. 
 
 (187.) 2. Frederick III, as Elector, 1688—1701, 
 assisted the Austrians against the French (whom he de- 
 feated near Neuss) and the Turks. In return for these 
 services, the Emperor agreed to recognize the independ- 
 ence of Prussia. Berlin was enlarged and embellished 
 by the addition of the Friedrichsstadt, the University 
 of Halle founded (1694), and academies of sciences 
 (1701), of sculpture, and of painting, established at Ber- 
 lin. With consent of the Emperor, who was anxious, 
 now that the crown of Spain was vacant, to conciliate 
 the most powerful princes of the empire, Frederick pro- 
 claimed himself King of Prussia, and on the 18th of 
 January, 1701, placed the crown on his own head, and 
 that of his consort, at Konigsberg, and founded the or- 
 der of the Black Eagle, in commemoration of the event. 
 
 § 22. Gi-eat Britain and Ireland. 
 
 (1S8.) 1. Under the parliament, 1649-53. After the 
 execution of Charles I., the upper house of parliament 
 was dissolved, monarchy abolished, England proclaimed a 
 republic by the lower house, and the government placed 
 in the hands of a council of state consisting of fortj'-one 
 members. The son of the murdered king having been 
 proclaimed as Charles II., in Ireland as well as in Scot- 
 land, Cromwell reduced the Irish to submission, and then 
 marched into Scotland, where the King was residing, de- 
 feated the Scotch near Dunbar, and penetrated into the 
 Highlands. Meanwhile Charles, availing himself of Crom- 
 well's absence, attempted to surprise England, but was 
 
90 MODERN HISTORY. [189 191. ^22. 
 
 soon followed by tlie usurper, and compelled, after his de- 
 feat at Worcester, to wander in disguise, until at length, 
 after a series of romantic adventures, he landed in safety 
 on the coast of Normandy. 
 
 (189.) The new Commonwealth avenged itself on Hol- 
 land for the murder of its ambassador, by passing the 
 Navigation Act, which restricted foreign nations to 
 the importation of their own produce in their own vessels, 
 and thus annihilated the principal carrying trade of 
 Holland. 
 
 (190.) Cromwell, reckoning with certainty on the 
 support of the army, now dissolved the Rump Parliament 
 by force, and assembled another, called, in mockery, from 
 a fanatic leather-seller who played a principal part in its 
 proceedings, " Barebone's Parliament." After dissolv- 
 ing this parliament also, Cromwell was nominated by his 
 officers Protector of the three realms. 
 
 (191.) 2. Under the Protectorate of Oliver Crom- 
 well, 1653 — 1658. The executive authority was vested 
 in Cromwell and the legislative in the parliament, which 
 was called together every three years. The management 
 of the army was divided between them. The new navi- 
 gation act occasioned a war between England and the 
 united Netherlands, whose carrying trade was, as we have 
 mentioned, nearly annihilated by that measure. No 
 sooner was this war happily concluded, than a demand on 
 the part of Cromwell of a free trade to the Spanish colo- 
 nies produced a war with Spain, in which Jamaica and 
 Dunkirk fell into the hands of the English. The question 
 of ofiering the crown to the Protector, for which the par- 
 liament had been gradually and cautiously prepared, was 
 at length brought forward, and through the exertions of 
 his friends carried in the affirmative ; but Cromwell was 
 compelled by circumstances to refuse to accept the title 
 of King. The anxiety occasioned by repeated conspira- 
 cies and attempts on his life embittered the latter days 
 of the usurper, and hastened his death, which took place 
 on the 3d September, 1658. Cromwell was succeeded 
 in the Protectorate by his feeble-minded son Richard, 
 who was compelled by the army to dissolve the parliament, 
 and after a reign of eight months retired into private life 
 
1 192, 193. §22.] GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 91 
 
 I (1659). The state of anarchy which followed his resig- 
 I nation was terminated by General Monk, commander-in- 
 ' chief in Scotland, who returned to London, and estab- 
 lished a parliament, consisting of an Upper and Lower 
 House, which recalled Charles II. in 1660. 
 
 B. Under the last two Stuarts, 1660—1688. 
 
 (192.) Charles II. (1660—1685) proclaimed an almost 
 universal amnesty, appointed the wise Earl of Clarendon 
 his prime minister, and re-established episcopacy in Scot- 
 laud as well as in England. But the profligacy of his 
 manners, and the recklessness with which he squandered 
 the public money, soon disgusted the people, who wit- 
 nessed with indignation the sale of Dunkirk to France ; 
 the disgraceful termination of two wars with Holland, 
 which had been begun on the most frivolous pretences ; 
 the dismissal and banishment of Clarendon (whose place 
 was supplied by the C A B A L ^ ministry), and the fre- 
 quent prorogations of parliament. An act of toleration^ 
 which he had published on his own responsibility, was an- 
 nulled by parliament, who then passed the test-act (by 
 which Dissenters and Romanists were excluded from pub- 
 lic employments, and the latter also from parliament), and 
 the Habeas Corpus Act, by which the King's subjects 
 were secured from vexatious arrest. The debates respect- 
 ing the settlement of the succession brought the Whig or 
 opposition party into collision with the Tory or court 
 party. During the last years of his reign, Charles gov- 
 erned without a parliament, and steadily opposed the ex- 
 clusion of his Romanist brother James from the suc- 
 cession. 
 
 (193.) James IL (1685— 1688), who ascended the 
 throne without opposition, pursued with the most blind 
 and reckless eagerness his two favorite plans, of rendering 
 the authority of the crown absolute, and re-establishing 
 Romanism. The appointment of Romanists to important 
 civil and military ofl&ces, the attempt to abolish the test- 
 
 ' So called from the first letters of the names of its members, — 
 Cliflford, Ashley, Buckingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale. 
 
92 MODERN HISTORY. [193. §22. 
 
 act, and in Scotland to repeal all the laws against Ro- 
 manism, and the arrest gf the seven bishops who ventured 
 to resist his arbitrary proceedings, occasioned discontents, 
 which terminated (on the exclusion from the succession of 
 his Protestant daughters, Mary and Anne, by the birth of 
 a prince) in the English Revolution of 1688. 
 
194. ^22.] 
 (194.) 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 
 
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"94 MODERN HISTORY. [195 197. §23. 
 
 (195.) On the approach towards the capital of 
 William of Orange, the King's son-in-law, who had 
 been invited over from Holland by the malcontents, 
 James II. fled to France, and the throne was immediately- 
 declared vacant by the parliament. In the year 1689, 
 Mary and her husband William III. were proclaimed 
 King and Queen of England, the authority of the crown 
 being at the same time limited by the " Bill of Rights." 
 In the event of their dying without issue, it was settled 
 that the Princess Anne should succeed them on the 
 throne. 
 
 C. The house of Orange, 1689—1702. 
 
 (196.) The hopes which the exiled King entertained 
 of recovering his throne by the aid of the French were 
 annihilated by William III., who gained two decisive 
 victories (at the river Boyne in Ireland and la Hogue), 
 and punished the Irish for their support of James by 
 another confiscation of their estates. In Scotland, the 
 King and Queen were recognized, and peace in some 
 measure restored by the abolition of episcopacy. Im- 
 provements were efi"ected in the constitution by the estab- 
 lishment of ministerial responsibility, greater freedom of 
 the press, and the independence of the judges. William 
 was permitted to retain his hereditary dignity of Statt- 
 holder in the republic of Holland, and during the Spanish 
 war of succession exerted himself to maintain the balance 
 of power in Europe. 
 
 §23. Tlierepuhlic of Holland. 
 
 (197.) The republic of Holland, or seven United Pro- 
 vinces of the Netherlands, had reached its highest state 
 of prosperity about the middle of the seventeenth century, 
 when its independence was secured by the peace of West- 
 phalia : its commerce extended over the face of the globe, 
 and every sea was covered with its fleets ; its herring 
 fisheries were an unfailing source of wealth, and the car- 
 rying trade of almost every nation in Europe was in the 
 hands of its merchants. But the naval supremacy of the 
 republic was soon contested by Crownwell, whose Naviga- 
 
198, 199. § 24.] THE NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 95 
 
 tion Act inflicted a deatli-blow on its carrying trade ; and 
 the result of two wars with England (in which the Ad- 
 mirals Van Tromp and de Ruyter distinguished them- 
 selves) was only a very slight relaxation of the act. To 
 these causes of decay were added the domestic troubles 
 occasioned by the resistance of the Anti-Orange party 
 under the Pensionary, John de Witt, to the ambitious 
 designs of William II., whose death was the signal for the 
 abolition of the Stattholdership in five provinces. 
 Friesland and Groningen had their own Stattholder (Couni 
 William of Nassau). During the war with Louis XIV. 
 (occasioned by the anger of the French King on account 
 of the triple alliance), the Stattholdership was re- 
 established, at first in two, and subsequently in all the 
 five provinces, and the dignity conferred for life on Wil- 
 liam III. of Orange, in whose family it soon afterwards 
 became hereditary. The two brothers, John and Cor- 
 nelius de Witt, who had resisted this arrangement, were 
 assassinated by the mob at the instigation of the Orange 
 party. 
 
 (198.) The marriage of William III. with the Prin- 
 cess Mary, and his consequent elevation to the English 
 throne, enabled the two great naval powers of Europe to 
 act in concert against the ambitious plans of Louis XIY. ; 
 but this advantage was more than counterbalanced by the 
 additional restrictions imposed on the trade of Holland 
 by her powerful ally. This circumstance, and the con- 
 tinued residence of William in England, considerably 
 weakened the attachment of his Dutch subjects. After 
 his death (without issue) in 1702, the Stattholdership re- 
 mained vacant in the five provinces until the year 1747, 
 when the invasion of the Dutch territory by the French, 
 towards the end of the Spanish war of succession, occa- 
 sioned the restoration (in all the provinces) of the he- 
 reditary dignity of the house of Orange. In the inter- 
 val between the Spanish and Austrian war of succession, 
 the republic observed strict neutrality in all its foreign 
 relations. 
 
 § 24. The nm-th-east of Eurcype. 
 
 . (199.) Under the first three Kings of the house of 
 
96 MODERN HISTORY. [200. ^ 24. 
 
 Zweibriicken, Sweden occupied in northern Europe 
 a position similar to that of France in the south and 
 west, the possession of all the best harbors in the Baltic 
 haying placed her in the rank of a first-rate power from 
 the time of the thirty years' war. 
 
 (200.) The claims which the house of Vasa advanced 
 to the throne of Sweden afforded the ambitious Charles 
 (1654 — 1660) a welcome pretext for declaring war against 
 Poland. The rapidity with which his plan of invasion 
 was executed placed the greater part of the kingdom at 
 his disposal, and compelled the reigning sovereign (John 
 Casimir) to take refuge in Silesia, whilst Charles, in con- 
 junction with his ally, the G-reat Elector, defeated the 
 Poles in the battle of Warsaw, after three days of 
 hard fighting (1656). A confederation having been 
 formed about this time for the maintenance of the bal- 
 ance of power in the north of Europe, and war declared 
 against Sweden by the King of Denmark, Charles X. 
 withdrew his forces from Poland, and, after rapidly over- 
 running the Danish continent, crossed the frozen Belt, 
 and subdued the islands also. A peace was now conclud- 
 ed (at Roeskild, in 1658), by which the independence of 
 Bornholm and the southern provinces of Sweden was 
 recognized. But Charles soon repented of the facility 
 with which he had acceded to these conditions, and, land- 
 ing unexpectedly on the coast of Zealand, laid siege to 
 Copenhagen, which was enabled, by the assistance of a 
 Dutch fleet, to resist successfully all the attacks of the 
 Swedes. The death of the King, and the minority of his 
 son Charles XI. (1660 — 1697), induced the Swedish gov- 
 ernment to conclude a peace with Poland and her allies 
 at Oliva in 1660 (John Casimir renouncing his claims to 
 the Swedish throne, and giving up Esthonia, Orsel, and 
 the greater part of Livonia), and with Denmark at 
 Copenhagen. The conditions of the peace of Roeskild 
 were confirmed by the peace of Copenhagen, except as re- 
 garded Drontheim and Bornholm, which were restored to 
 Denmark. The participation of the Swedes in the war of 
 Louis XIV. against Holland and Brandenburg occasioned 
 the loss of their German possessions (after the battle of 
 Fehrbellin, in 1675), but most of these were afterwards 
 
201. ^24.] THE NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 97 
 
 restored (in 1679) by the peace of S. Germain-en-Laye. 
 During the minority of Charles XI., his ministers had 
 governed with absolute authority, and most of the estates 
 of the crown had been ajDpropriated by the higher nobility ; 
 but the unlimited powers conferred on him by the estates 
 of the kingdom, after he had obtained full age, enabled 
 him to recover the royal demesnes, which had been sold, 
 or otherwise alienated, by his predecessors. By this ac- 
 cession of revenue, he was enabled to place the finances, 
 army and navy, on a new and more efficient footing, and 
 to bequeath to his son, Charles XII. (1697 — 1718), a 
 flourishing kingdom and well-filled exchequer ; but the 
 fool-hardy and romantic projects of the new monarch soon 
 reduced Sweden to her original state of poverty. In 
 Denmark (under Frederick III., 1648 — 1670, and 
 Christian V., 1670 — 1699), the utter exhaustion of her 
 resources, occasioned by the war with Sweden and the 
 loss of territory at the peace of Roeskild and Copenhagen, 
 was followed by a change in the constitution ; the clergy 
 and commons, who were disgusted at the tyranny of the 
 nobles, declaring the monarchy hereditary (in the female 
 as well as the male line), and compelling the nobles to 
 recognize the King as an absolute hereditary sovereign. 
 (1660). In a fresh war with Sweden, undertaken by the 
 Danes as allies of the Great Elector, some conquests were 
 made, which were afterwards relinquished at the peace of 
 Lund. 
 
 (201.) Poland, at this time one of the most im- 
 portant empires of Europe, had exhibited a wretched pic- 
 ture of aristocratic tyranny since the establishment of an 
 elective government, which placed the supreme authority 
 in the hands of deputies chosen by all the nobles who had 
 attained full age, — a power being given to each individual 
 to annul the resolutions of the rest by his " liberum veto." 
 The last of the three kings of the house of Yasa, John 
 Casimir, was so disgusted at the turbulent state of his 
 kingdom, and his unsuccessful wars with Sweden and 
 Russia (cession of Smolensk, Kiev, and the Ukraine be- 
 yond the Dnieper), that he resigned his crown and retired 
 to France, where the revenues of two abbeys were settled 
 on him by Louis XIV. His next successor but one, the 
 5 
 
98 MODERN HISTORY. [201. §24. 
 
 brave John Sobieski (1673 — 1695), entered into an 
 alliance with the Emperor against the Turks (by whom 
 Austria and Poland were equally threatened), and com- 
 pelled them to raise the siege of Vienna (1683) ; but the 
 Turkish war was not terminated until the reign of his 
 successor Augustus II. (1697 — 1733), Elector of 
 Saxony, who concluded a peace at Carlowitz (1699), by 
 which Poland, through the intervention of Austria, re- 
 covered Podolia and the Ukraine. Russia, under the 
 able and energetic Czars of the house of Romanow, had 
 risen from an Asiatic into a European state. Not only 
 had the frontier of the empire been extended on the side 
 of Poland by Alexei, but the way had been prepared for 
 the introduction of European civilization (posts, manufac- 
 tures, &c). Under his son (Feodor III.) the Ukraine was 
 wrested from the Turks. After his death, his twa sons — 
 Ivan, who was of weak intellect and almost blind ; and 
 Peter, a prince of extraordinary ability — were raised to- 
 gether to the throne by the gtrelitzes,' under the guardi- 
 anship of their elder sister, Sophia (1682). The treacher- 
 ous policy of this princess, in suffering her brother Peter 
 to receive a foreign education for the purpose of render- 
 ing him unpopular among his subjects, laid the foundation 
 of his future glory. Sophia, who had excited an insur- 
 rection of the Strelitzes against her younger brother, was 
 sent to pass the rest of her days in a convent, whilst 
 Peter, leaving to his brother Ivan the empty title of 
 Czar (1689 — 1725), assumed the authority of sole mon- 
 arch (under the guidance of a Genevese named Lefort), and 
 commenced a complete revolution in the empire. The 
 army was remodelled after the European pattern, and 
 preparations were made for the creation of a navy. Azov, 
 the key of the Black Sea, was wrested from the Turks. 
 For the purpose at once of satisfying his curiosity, and of 
 acquiring a knowledge of European civilization, Peter, 
 after sending before him an embassy headed by Lefort, 
 travelled through Germany into Holland (1697), where he 
 
 * The Russian strelitzy were a large and powerful body of sol- 
 diers, who, lilce the Turkish janizaries, continually interfered with 
 the fi^overnment. — S. 
 
202. ^25.] W^R OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION. 99 
 
 worked in the dockyard at Saardam as a common ship- 
 Wright. Then he visited William III. in England, and 
 on his return through Grermany was on the eve of enter- 
 ing Italy, when a fresh insurrection of the Strelitzes, for 
 the purpose of resisting his innovations, recalled him to 
 Moscow. After punishing the guilty with barbarous 
 severity, and disbanding the corps of Strelitzes, Peter 
 established an army ofiicered exclusively by foreigners, 
 founded schools, introduced foreign manners (the German 
 style of dress, &c.), and, having abolished the office of 
 Patriarch, united in his own person the supreme spiritual 
 as well as temporal authority. ^ His project of extending 
 the boundaries of Russia to the shore of the Baltic, at the 
 expense of Sweden, involved him in the great northern 
 war (see ^ 2G). 
 
 II. To the French Revolution. 
 § 25. War of the Spanish succession^ 1701 — 1714. 
 
 (202.) No sooner was it known that Charles II., King 
 of Spain, son of Philip IV., and the last male descendant 
 of the Spanish- Austrian house, was likely to die without 
 issue, than several princes claimed the succession to the 
 Spanish throne. 1. Louis XIV. (as husband of the King's 
 eldest sister), on behalf of his grandson, Philip, Duke of 
 Anjou. In bringing forward this claim, Louis declared 
 his consort's renunciation (see page 80) null and void as 
 regarded her descendants. 2. Leopold I., as husband of 
 the younger sister of the King of Spain (who had never 
 renounced her claim to the Spanish crown), for his younger 
 son Charles. 3. The Elector of Bavaria, as immediate 
 descendant of Charles's younger sister. With the view of 
 anticipating a partition of the Spanish monarchy, as con- 
 templated by France and the maritime powers, Charles, 
 by will, declared the Elector of Bavaria, and (on his sud- 
 den demise, during the lifetime of the testator)^ the 
 Dauphin's second son, Philip of Anjou, universal heir to 
 
 ^ His supremacy over the Chui'ch was much the same as that 
 exercised by the king or queen of England. — S. 
 
100 MODERN HISTORY. [203,204. ^25. 
 
 all his dominions. On the 1st November, 1700, soon 
 after the death of Charles II., the Duke of Anjou assumed 
 the title of Philip V., King of Spain. To punish France 
 for this violation of the partition-treaty, the maritime 
 powers (or rather William III.) concluded with the Em- 
 peror the so-called Grand Alliance, pledging themselves 
 to recover for the house of Austria the Spanish posses- 
 sions in the Netherlands and Italy, and never to permit 
 the union of the French and Spanish crowns. The first 
 of the German princes who joined this alliance was the 
 King of Prussia. On the other hand, the Electors of 
 Bavaria and Cologne sided with their nephew, Philip 
 of Anjou. 
 
 A. Struggles in Italy and Germany, 1701 — 
 1704. 
 
 (203.) 1. In Italy. The Emperor, supported by 
 the two German princes, who were indebted to him for 
 their elevation to a higher rank (the King of Prussia and 
 the Elector of Hanover), despatched one army, under 
 Prince Lewis of Baden, to dispute the passage of the 
 miine with the French, and another under Prince 
 Eugene of Savoy (who had distinguished himself at 
 the raising of the siege of Vienna, and in the subsequent 
 Turkish wars, as well as in three wars with France) into 
 Italy, which had been already entered by a French army 
 under General Catinat. Eugene crossed the Tyrolese 
 Alps, defeated Catinat at Carpi, and took Villeroi (the 
 King's incapable favorite) prisoner at Chiari, but was 
 compelled to retire, after an indecisive engagement at 
 Luzzara, before the overwhelming force of the Duke of 
 Vendome. 
 
 (204.) 2. In Germany. Louis XIY. having recog- 
 nized the son of James II. as King of England, in the 
 hope of sowing the seeds of dissension in that country, 
 supplies were granted to William III. by his parliament, 
 for the purpose of commencing a war in the Spanish Ne- 
 therlands and the Electorate of Cologne, under the Earl 
 (afterwards Duke) of Marlborough. At the same time 
 Portugal and Savoy joined the Grand Alliance. Mean- 
 
205,206. §25.] war of the Spanish succession. 101 
 
 while the French, under Villars, had circumvented the 
 German army on the Rhine, and effected a junction with 
 the Elector of Bavaria. The Elector's plan of entering" 
 the Tyrol, and uniting his forces with the army of Ville- 
 roi on its return from Italy, was rendered abortive by the 
 bravery of the Tyrolcse (under Martin Sterzinger), and 
 both armies were forced to retreat. 
 
 (205.) In the year 1704, Marlborough unexpectedly 
 effected a junction with Eugene for the purpose of mak- 
 ing a combined assault on the Bavarian-French army. 
 Eugene covered the Rhine, whilst Marlborough (with the 
 Margrave of Baden) defeated the Bavarians on the Schel- 
 lenberg near Donauwerth ; but, being unable to hinder the 
 passage of the Rhine by a fresh detachment of French 
 troops (under Tallard), he rejoined Marlborough, and in 
 conjunction with him defeated the Bavarians and French 
 near Hochstadt and Blenheim with such terrible slaugh- 
 ter, that of an army of 60,000 men scarcely one-third 
 reached the Rhine after the engagement. The whole of 
 Bavaria was overrun by the conquerors, who treated the 
 inhabitants with the utmost severity ; the Electors of Ba- 
 varia and Cologne were set aside and placed under the bann 
 of the empire by the Emperor, 
 
 Joseph I. (1705—1711), 
 
 and the Upper Palatinate was restored to the Elector 
 Palatine. 
 
 B. Struggle in Spain, the Netherlands, and Ita- 
 ly, for the united Spanish monarchy, 1704 — 1710. 
 
 (206.) 1. In Spain itself the war began in 1704, on 
 the landing of the Archduke Charles on the coast of Por- 
 tugal with a body of ^English and Dutch soldiers. The 
 only important event of the first year was the re-capture of 
 Gribraltar from the English ; but no sooner had four prov- 
 inces (Catalonia, Valencia, Arragon, and Navarre) de- 
 clared for Charles III., than a civil war began, the horrors 
 of which are almost without a parallel in history. Philip 
 V. was driven from his capital, but soon afterwards re- 
 
102 MODERN HISTORY. [207. ^25. 
 
 turned, on finding that Charles liad neglected to take ad- 
 vantage of his flight. The war, however, still continued, 
 fostered by national hatred, between the Castilians and 
 A.rragonese ; the latter, after defeating the allies near Al- 
 manza, ravaged the province of Valencia. A reinforce- 
 ment of Grerman troops under the brave Stahremberg, and 
 the exhausted condition of France, enabled Charles III. 
 % second time to drive Philip V. out of Madrid ; but, 
 (vithin two months from the period of his triumphal entry 
 into his capital, the arrival of Yendome in Spain com- 
 pelled him again to seek safety in flight, and return (after 
 the death of his brother, JosejDh I., in 1711) to Grermany. 
 (207.) 2. In the Netherlands and Italy. After 
 the battle of Hochstadt, Eugene and Marlborough had 
 again parted company, the former returning to Italy, and 
 the latter to the Netherlands. The efforts of both gen- 
 erals were crowned with unexpected success. Bavaria, 
 as before, surrendered after a single battle, and the most 
 important Spanish provinces in the Netherlands fell into 
 the hands ■ of the allies. Marlborough, whose qualifica- 
 tions as a subtle diplomatist and accomplished courtier had 
 stood him in good stead in his negotiations with the courts 
 of Vienna and Berlin, again took the field against the 
 French, who were projecting the invasion of Holland, de- 
 feated near Ramillies an army of 60,000 men under 
 Villeroi (1706), subdued Brabant, Flanders, and a part of 
 Hennegau, and compelled those provinces to swear allegi- 
 ance to Charles III. In the autumn of the same year, 
 Eugene, assisted by the Prussians under Leopold of Des- 
 sau, defeated a French army of 80,000 men which was be- 
 sieging Turin, and obtained an enormous amount of 
 booty. After their defeat the French evacuated Lom- 
 bardy ; and Eugene, who had been nominated Viceroy of 
 Milan by Joseph I., compelled the principal inhabitants 
 of that province to swear allegiance fo Charles III. An 
 army, which he had despatched to Naples under the com- 
 mand of Count Daun, was received with every demonstra- 
 tion of joy by the Neapolitans. In the year 1708 the 
 English took possession of Sardinia ; so that of all her Eu- 
 ropean provinces there now remained to Spain only the 
 island of Sicily. After the termination of the war in It- 
 
208. § 25.] THE PEACE OF UTRECHT. 103 
 
 aly, Eugene re-entered Flanders, and in conjunction with 
 Marlborougli defeated the Frencli at Oudenarde on the 
 Scheldt (1708), and stormed the fortress of Ryssel (Lille), 
 the chef-d'oeuvre of the celebrated engineer Vauban, which 
 had been always considered impregnable. Meanwhile, 
 Louis XIV., dispirited by such a series of disasters, and 
 deprived of the resources necessary for a fresh campaign 
 by an unusually severe winter, was negotiating a peace (at 
 the Hague), and had already consented to relinquish the 
 pretensions of his family to the Spanish crown, and to 
 cede Alsace with certain fortresses on the frontier of Sa- 
 voy, when the allies, rendered insolent by success, de- 
 manded that he should send an army into Spain for the 
 purj)ose of deposing his own grandson. On receiving 
 this insult, Louis at once broke off the negotiations, and 
 by extraordinary exertions raised another army (under 
 Villars), which was defeated in 1 709 by Eugene and Marl- 
 borough at Malplaquet. The negotiations for peace 
 were then renewed, and Louis had already declared himself 
 ready to furnish a considerable portion of the funds ne- 
 cessary for the expulsion of his grandson, when the sim- 
 ultaneous occurrence of three important events entirely 
 changed the aspect of affairs. 
 
 C. Reverse of fortune. Peace concluded at 
 Utrecht, Kastadt, and Baden, 1711—1714. 
 (208.) 1. The fall of Marlborough (leader of the 
 Whig party in England), and the change of policy conse- 
 quent on the formation of a Tory cabinet by Queen Anne. 
 2. The death of the Bmxteror Joseph^ who was succeeded 
 on the imperial throne by the Archduke Charles ; and 3. 
 The victories of the DuJ^e of Vendome in Spain^ which en- 
 abled Louis, towards the end of his life, to conclude a 
 peace on terms unexpectedly ftivorable to France. In the 
 first place he concluded with the maritime powers, who 
 were opposed to the re-union of Austria with the Spanish 
 monarchy, the peace of Utrecht (1713), by which Philip 
 V. was recognized as King of Spain and her transalantic 
 colonies, it being at the same time stipulated that no re- 
 union of the French and Spanish crowns should ever take 
 place. 
 
104 MODERN HISTORY. [209—211. ^26. 
 
 (209.) In tliis peace Englmid obtained from France 
 the recognition of the Protestant succession, and posses- 
 sion of Newfouudhind, Nova Scotia, andHudson's Bay ; and 
 from Spain the island of Minorca and Gibraltar, with the 
 privilege of trading in slaves to Spanish America. Frus- 
 mt obtained Upper Guelderland, and the universal recog- 
 nition of her recently established monarchy ; and Savoy 
 the island of Sicily, which she soon afterwards exchanged 
 lor Sardinia. In the year 1714 a treaty was concluded 
 atRastadt between Charles VI. and the sovereigns who 
 had been parties to the peace of Utrecht, the Emperor 
 receiving the Spanish provinces, viz. the Netherlands, Na- 
 ples, Milan, and Sardinia (with the exception of Mantuaand 
 tlie Tuscan sea-ports), and the Electors of Bavaria and 
 Cologne being reinstated in their dignities. This treaty 
 which had been negotiated between Eugene and Villars' 
 was fully recognized at the peace of Baden, by which 
 the Grerman empire obtained merely the confirmation of 
 the treaties concluded at Munster, Nimeguen, and Eys- 
 wiek. '' 
 
 ^ 26. The northern tvar^ 1700 — 1721. 
 
 (210.) CoMses of the tvar. 1. The desire of Peter 
 the Great to re-conquer those provinces on the shores of 
 the Baltic which had been wrested from Ptussia by the 
 Swedes. 2. The anxiety of Augustus II., Elector of Sax- 
 ony and King of Poland, to recover Esthonia and Livonia, 
 and at the same time to repress domestic discontent by 
 employing his disaffected subjects in a foreign war. 3 
 The designs of the King of Denmark (Frederick IV.) on 
 the portion of Holstein at that time possessed by the Duke 
 of Holstein Gottorp, brother-in-law of Charles XII., and 
 his wish to recover the provinces which had been ceded to 
 Sweden by the peace of Copenhagen. At the instance of 
 Augustus II., a league was formed between Russia and 
 Denmark, the object of which was to take advantage of 
 the youth of Charles XIL, and compel him to restore the 
 provinces which had been wrested by his ancestors from 
 Russia, Poland, and Denmark. 
 
 (211.) 1. The Danish war, 1700, began with the 
 
212,213. §26. THE" NORTHERN WAR. 105 
 
 invasion of Holstcin Grottorp by the Danes, and of Livo- 
 nia by tlie Saxons. Addressing himself to the danger 
 which seemed the most imminent, the young King landed 
 on the island of Zealand, and advancing to the capital 
 compelled Frederick IV. (in a sepai^ate peace concluded 
 at Travendal in 1700) to renounce his alliance with Rus- 
 sia, and restore to the Duke of Holstein Gottorp all the 
 territory of which he had been deprived by the Danes. 
 
 (212.) 2. The Eussian-Saxon war, 1700—1706. 
 The Czar, Peter, having marched at the head of an enor- 
 mous force to the assistance of his ally the King of Po- 
 land, Charles XII., after forcing him (1700) to raise the 
 siege of Narva, drove the Russians and Saxons out of 
 Livonia, conquered the greater part of Lithuania, and, en- 
 tering Poland in triumph, compelled the Poles to depose 
 Augustus II., and elect in his room the Waiwode of Po- 
 sen, Stanislaus Lesczinsky (1704), whose general re- 
 cognition was the result of fresh victories over the Saxons, 
 and the invasion of Lithuania by the Swedes. Leaving 
 his most dangerous enemy, the Czar, to extend his con- 
 quests on the shores of the Baltic, and found a new capital 
 within the frontiers of Sweden herself (1703), Charles XII. 
 invaded Saxony, and compelled Augustus II. (in the peace 
 of Altranstadt, 1706) to recognize Stanislaus Lesczinsky 
 as King of Poland, renounce his alliance with the Czar, 
 and deliver up the Russian ambassador Patkul (the insti- 
 gator of the war), who was broken on the wheel by com- 
 mand of the conqueror. 
 
 (213.) 3. Russian war to 1709. Reverse of fortune. 
 
 All the fruits of these brilliant successes were 
 lost through the obstinacy and fool-hardiness of Charles. 
 Having received intelligence that the Czar had entered 
 Poland for the purpose of wreaking vengeance on Stanis- 
 laus and the Swedish party in that country, he quitted 
 Saxony, and, advancing by forced marches, drove the 
 Russians out of the Polish territories. Elated at his suc- 
 cess, Charles now conceived the design of dethroning the 
 Czar, whose innovations and cruelties had rendered him 
 odious, and had already forced his way through forests 
 and morasses to the banks of the Dnieper, and crossed that 
 river, when the Hetman of the Cossacks, Mazeppa, per- 
 5* 
 
106 MODERN HISTORY. [214. ^26. 
 
 suaded him (instead of advancing at once on Moscow, after 
 effecting a junction with General Lowenhaupt) to adopt 
 a circuitous route through the Ukraine for the purpose of 
 joining his new ally. Although he found the Cossack 
 leader abandoned by his own troops, Charles obstinately 
 persisted in advancing, notwithstanding the severity of the 
 weather, and engaging with the miserable remnant of his 
 army (15,000 men) 50,000 Russians at Pultawa, where 
 he was so utterly defeated, that he was compelled to cross 
 the Dnieper with a few attendants, and take refuge in the 
 Turkish city of Bender. 
 
 (214.) 4. Charles XII. in Turkey, 1709—1714. 
 The flight of Charles XII., and his five years' residence 
 in Turkey, afforded the Poles and Danes an opportunity 
 of violating the conditions of peace which he had com- 
 pelled them to subscribe. Augustus II. declared his ex- 
 torted abdication null and void, and having expelled Stan- 
 islaus from his dominions, re-ascended the Polish throne^ 
 whilst the Danes invaded the southern provinces of Swe- 
 den, where they sustained two disgraceful defeats, but 
 succeeded in wresting Schleswig from the Duke of Hol- 
 stein Gottorp. Meanwhile Peter, availing himself of the 
 absence of his enemy, conquered the Swedish provinces of 
 Livonia, Esthonia, and Finland, and at the same time pro- 
 ceeded with his plans for the civilization of the Russian 
 people. After various negotiations and intrigues, Charles 
 at length persuaded the Sultan to declare war against 
 Russia ; and Peter, who had endeavored to anticipate the 
 attack of the Turks, was surrounded by them on the 
 banks of the Pruth, and only escaped through the exer- 
 tions of his wife, Catherine, who bribed the Grrand Vizier 
 to grant a peace, by which the Russians were excluded 
 from the Black Sea. Charles, who still lingered at Ben- 
 der in the hope of persuading the Turks to renew hostili- 
 ties, was at length required to quit the Turkish territory, 
 and on his refusal was attacked in his fortified house, and 
 after an obstinate defence was compelled to yield himself 
 a prisoner. In the year 1714, after a succession of ro- 
 mantic adventures, Charles returned to Sweden. 
 
215,216. 1^26.] THE NORTHERN WAR, 107 
 
 5. Ivasion of Norway and death of Charles XII. 
 
 (215.) Meanwhile Frederick William I. , King of Prus- 
 sia, and George I., Elector of Hanover and King of Eng- 
 land, had joined the enemies of Sweden, which now lost 
 the last of her possessions in Grermany (Stralsund and 
 Wismar). Whilst Peter I. was kept in play by Count 
 von Grorz, who amused him with the prospect of obtaining 
 the Swedish Baltic provinces by negotiation, Charles took 
 advantage of the fresh courage with which his arrival had 
 inspired the Swedes, and prepared to invade Norway, in 
 the hope of recompensing himself for all his other losses 
 by wresting that country from the Danes. The first cam- 
 paign (1716) was a failure in consequence of the severity 
 of the weather, and in the third Charles fell in the isrenches 
 before the fortress of Friedrickshall, probably by the hand 
 of an assassin, and the victim of a conspiracy (1718, in 
 his thirty-sixth year). Passing over the nephew of the 
 late sovereign, the Duke of Holstein Gottorp, the conspir- 
 ators raised to the throne his younger sister, Ulrica 
 Eleanor a, wife of the hereditary prince of Hesse-Cassel, 
 who had declared herself ready to renounce all claim to 
 the succession in the female line, and to recognize the 
 right of the senate to enact laws, impose taxes, and settle 
 questions of war and peace. At a later period (1720) the 
 Queen resigned the reins of government into the hands of 
 her husband, who consented to make still further conces- 
 sions in order to secure the recognition of his title by the 
 estates of the realm. 
 
 (216.) 6. The war was terminated by treaties con- 
 cluded separately with the enemies of Sweden. 1. 
 Hanover obtained Bremen and Verden in return for a 
 payment of one million of thalers. 2. Prussia had the 
 whole of Pomerania between the Oder and Peene, with 
 Stettin and the islands of Usedom and Wollin (for two 
 million thalers). 3. Denmark received a portion of 
 Schleswig. 4. The Russians, by repeated descents on the 
 coast of Sweden, compelled the Swedes (in the peace of 
 Nystadt, 1721) to cede to them Livonia, Esthonia, Inger- 
 manland, and a part of Carelia (with the island of Oesel) 
 in return for the restoration of Finland. Thus Sweden 
 
108 MODERN HISTORY. [217,218. ^S 27. 
 
 lost her preponderance in the north of Europe, which was 
 now assumed by Russia. Stanislaus Lesczinsky, who had 
 found an asylum in France, was permitted to retain the 
 title of King by virtue of a convention between Sweden 
 and Saxony. 
 
 § 27. TheEmperw Charles VI. 1711—1740. 
 
 1. War of the Turks against Venice and Austria 
 (1714_1718). 
 
 (217.) Scarcely had the Turks concluded the Russian 
 war by the peace of the Pruth, when they availed them- 
 selves of a paltry pretext for wresting from the Venetians 
 the peninsula of the Morea, which had been ceded to them 
 by the peace of Carlowitz. On learning that the Emperor 
 Charles VI. was preparing to assist the Venetians, they 
 declared war against him also, and advanced towards the 
 Danube ; but in spite of their overwhelming force, they 
 were utterly routed by Prince Eugene near Petcrwar- 
 dein (1716), with the loss of their Grand Vizier, camp, 
 and military chest. Eugene then conquered the Banate 
 and a great portion of Wallachia, obtained a brilliant vic- 
 tory near Belgrade, and made himself master of that im- 
 portant fortress. The Emperor, whose Italian possessions 
 were assailed by Spain, was now anxious to conclude a 
 peace with the Turks, the conditions of which (signed at 
 Passarowitz in 1718) were as follows: That he should re- 
 tain all the territories wrested from the Turks during the 
 war (the Banate, Servia, and a portion of Wallachia, Bos- 
 nia, and Croatia), the Turks, on tlioir part, retaijiing the 
 Morea, which Charles had fruitlessly endeavored to recover 
 for Venice. 
 
 2. The quadruple alliance (1718). 
 
 (218.) No arrangement had yet been eifected between 
 the two principal claimants of the Spanish succession ; 
 Charles VI. still refusing to recognize Philip V. as King 
 of Spain, whilst on the other hand the Spanish minister, 
 Cardinal Alberoni, devised a plan for re-annexing the 
 Italian provinces to the crown of Spain, and, availing 
 
219,220. '^2^] THE EMPEROR CHARLES VI. 109 
 
 himself of the diversion caused by the Turkish war, took 
 possession of Sicily and Sardinia. France and England 
 (with a provision for the subsequent accession of Holland 
 to the treaty) concluded with the Emperor a quadruple 
 alliance for the maintenance of the peace of Utrecht ; and 
 after a short war compelled Philip (after the dismissal of 
 Alberoni) to restore Sicily and Sardinia, and renounce all 
 claim to the Spanish provinces in Italy, the Emperor, on 
 his part, consenting to recognize his title as King of 
 Spain. Savoy received Sicily from the Emperor in ex- 
 change for the kingdom of Sardinia. 
 
 3. The pragmatic sanction. 
 (219.) In order to prevent a war of succession after 
 his decease, Charles VI., who had no male issue, published 
 an edict (which was confirmed by the diet of the empire, 
 and received the name of the pragmatic sanction), 
 declaring his daughter Maria Theresa sole heiress of all 
 the Austrian states. During the remainder of his life, 
 the grand object of his government was to obtain from 
 foreign powers, as well as from his own subjects, the com- 
 plete recognition of this decree. 
 
 4. War of the Polish succession (1733—1738). 
 (220.) After the death of Augustus II. King of Po- 
 land, a majority of the Polish nobles were persuaded by 
 Louis XV. to restore his father-in-law, Stanislaus Lesczin- 
 sky, whilst at the same time another party, supported by 
 Russia and the Einperor, chose Augustus, Elector of Sax- 
 ony and son of the deceased King. Stanislaus having 
 been expelled by the Russians, Louis XV., and his rela- 
 tives the Kings of Spain and Sardinia, declared war 
 against the Emperor. Lorraine (the Duke of which coun- 
 try, Francis Stephen, was a candidate for the hand of 
 Maria Theresa), Austria, Lombardy, Naples, and Sicily, 
 were occupied by the allies until the year 1738, when a 
 peace was at last concluded at Vienna, after a long period 
 spent in negotiation. Stanislaus renounced his claim to 
 the crown of Poland, receiving as an indemnification for 
 this sacrifice the dukedoms of Lorraine and Bar, with an 
 understanding that after his death they would revert to 
 
^1^ MODERN HISTORY. [221. & 27. 
 
 France as the hereditary possessions of his daughter, 
 ^rancis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine, obtained the Srand 
 duchy of Tuscany, at that time vacant by the extinction 
 of the house of Medici (1737), and the crown of the two 
 feicdies was bestowed on the Spanish Infant Don Carlos 
 who relinquished to the Emperor the duchies of Parma 
 and Jriacenza. 
 
 5. War of the Turks against Russia and 
 Austria (1736—1739). 
 (221.) Availing herself of the opportunity afforded 
 by the breaking out of a war between the Turks and Per- 
 sians the Empress Anne took possession of Azov, which 
 
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222. §27.] THE EMPEROR CHARLES VL 
 
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112 MODERN HISTORY. [223 226. ^28. 
 
 (223.) Her ally, the Emperor Charles, was less for- 
 tunate, his armies (which since the death of Prince Eu- 
 gene [11730] had been commanded by incapable generals) 
 being defeated in three several engagements by the Turks, 
 who recovered (at the peace of B^elgrade, 1739) most 
 of the territory which had been wrested from them in for- 
 mer wars (the Austrian portion of Servia and Wallachia, 
 with Belgrade). The Empress Anne was also compelled 
 to relinquish all her conquests, and content herself with 
 the recognition of her title by the Sublime Porte. 
 
 ^ 28. Prussia under Iter first two Kmgs, 1701 — 1740. 
 (224.) 1. Frederick 1, 1701— 1713. For his elevation 
 to the rank of King, see page 89 ; for the part taken by 
 him in the war of the Spanish succession, see page 100. 
 By the death without issue of William III., King of Eng- 
 land, Frederick, as grandson of the Prince of Orange, 
 Frederick Henry, became possessed of the countries of 
 Lingen and Meurs, and after the extinction of the house 
 of Orleans, Longueville was recognized by the estates of 
 the principalities of Neuenburg and Valendis (Neufchatel 
 and Valengin) as rightful heir of the house of Nassau- 
 Chalons- Orange (1707). 
 
 (225.) 2. Frederick William I., 1713—1740. This 
 prince, who was frugal, moderate in his desires, and strict 
 even to^ severity, entirely banished from his court the lux- 
 ury which had reigned there during the lifetime of his 
 father, the only expensive amusement in which he indulged 
 being the collection from different countries of a regiment 
 of giants. 
 
 (226.) Frederick William amassed a considerable 
 treasure (more than eight millions of thalers), established 
 a new system of finance and justice, and at his death left 
 to his successor a well disciplined army of 72,000 men. 
 The population was increased by the protection afforded 
 to foreign settlers, new cities were built, and those which 
 already existed, especially Berlin and Potsdam, were en- 
 larged and beautified. At the peace of Utrecht he re- 
 ceived Upper Gruelderland as an indemnification for his 
 resignation of the principality of Orange, and at the peace 
 of Stockholm (at the close of the northern war, in which 
 
227, 228. § 29.] war of Austrian succession. 113 
 
 he took part with the enemies of Sweden), Pomerania, as 
 far as the P5t!ne, with Stettin and the islands of Usedom 
 and Wollin. For many years he lived on had terms with 
 his son Frederick, whose early passion for mnsic and po- 
 etry so disgusted his father, that he threatened to exclude 
 him from the succession. A plan laid by Frederick (dur- 
 ing a royal progress, in which he accompanied his father) 
 for escaping from .Wesel to England, having been betrayed 
 by his enemies, the unfortunate Prince was placed under 
 close arrest at Ktistrin, his accomplice Katte executed 
 before his face, and himself only rescued from a disgrace- 
 ful death by the intercession of some of the most distin- 
 guished officers and the remonstrances of several foreign 
 courts. Soon afterwards, however, he was reconciled to 
 his father in consequence of his marriage with the Prin- 
 cess of Brunswick-Bevern (Elizabeth Christina), and re- 
 ceived from' him the county of Kuppin and the little town 
 of Rheinsberg, where he resided in the midst of a circle 
 of scientific and learned men until his accession in 1740. 
 His favorite associate (for a time) was the philosopher 
 Voltaire, under whose direction he cultivated French lit- 
 erature with considerable success. 
 
 ^ 29. War of tJie Austrian succession^ 1740 — 1748, and 
 the tivo first Silesian tvars, 1740 — 1745. 
 
 (227.) On the accession of Maria Theresa (1740 — 
 1780) to the thrones of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia, 
 the Electors, Charles Albert of Brandenburg, and Augus- 
 tus III. of Saxony (who claimed the Austrian crown as 
 sons-in-law of the Emperor Joseph I.), were supported 
 by France and Spain, notwithstanding the pragmatic 
 sanction. 
 
 (228.) Frederick II. (the Great) availed himself of 
 this opportunity for reviving the ancient claims of Bran- 
 denburg to the Silesian duchies of Brieg, Liegnitz, 
 and Wohlau (which had belonged to her, by virtue 
 of a compact, since the extinction of the Piast line 
 in 1675, but had been taken possession of by the Em- 
 peror), and to the principality of Jilgerndorf (which 
 had belonged to the Margrave of Anspach, and been 
 
114 MODERN HISTORY. [230. §29. 
 
 seized by Austria in 1623). The refusal of Maria Theresa 
 to recognize these claims, occasioned 
 
 The first Silesian war, 1740—1742. 
 
 (229.) This war began with the rapid conc^uest of Sile- 
 sia and a victory gained by the Prussian troops near 
 Molwitz (at Brieg, April 10, 1741), through the skill 
 and valor of Field-marshal Schwerin, who continued the 
 engagement after Frederick had abandoned all hope of 
 success. In the following year Frederick overran Mora- 
 via and Bohemia, gained a second victory at Czaslau, and 
 obtained (at the peace of Breslau) almost the whole 
 of Silesia (except Teschen, Troppau, and Jagerndorf), 
 with the fortress of Grlatz. By these concessions the 
 Empress separated Frederick from her other enemies. 
 Meanwhile Charles Albert, supported by a French army, 
 had entered Austria, and caused himself to be proclaimed 
 Archduke of that country at Linz, and crowned King of 
 Bohemia at Prague, and Emperor (Charles YII.) at 
 Frankfort (1742—1745). The Saxons had entered Bo- 
 hemia and taken possession of Prague ; but Maria Theresa, 
 who had received supplies of money from England and 
 Holland, so inspirited the Hungarians by appearing in 
 person at the diet of Prcsburg, that they equipped two 
 armies simultaneously, and recovered possession of Bo- 
 hemia and Upper Austria. Charles VII. was driven out 
 of Bavaria by the Austrians, and Maria Theresa pro- 
 claimed at Munich, whilst at the same time Charles's 
 allies, the French, were defeated by the so-called pragmatic 
 army (composed of English, Hanoverians, and Hessians, 
 and commanded by George II. King of England) at 
 Dettengen on the Main. These events produced a fresh 
 alliance between France, the Emperor Charles, and 
 Frederick II., the last joining the confederacy because 
 he dreaded the success of the Austrian arms, and 
 commencing 
 
 The second Silesian war, 1744, 1745, 
 
 (230) with the invasion of Bohemia at the head of an 
 army of 80,000 men, Avhom he called " imperial auxilia- 
 
231. §30.] THE THIRD SILESIAN WAR. 115 
 
 ries," whilst at tlie same time the imperialists regained 
 possession of Bavaria. On the death of Charles VII., 
 soon after his return (which was accomplished by the aid 
 of his French allies), his son Maximilian Joseph re- 
 nounced all claim to the Austrian succession (at the 
 peace of Fussen in 1745), and the Grand Duke of Tus- 
 cany (husband of Maria Theresa) ascended the imperial 
 throne as Francis I., 1745 — 1765. England was com- 
 pelled to withdraw her troops from the continent to op- 
 pose the advance of the Pretender, who had landed on the 
 coast of Scotland, and overrun the greater part of that 
 country. Meanwhile, however, Austria had found a new 
 ally in Saxony ; and the Austrian general, Prince Charles 
 of Lorraine, had not only driven the Prussians out of 
 Bohemia, but even advanced into Upper Silesia, where he 
 was defeated (1745) near Hohenfriedberg by Frederick, 
 who followed him into Bohemia, and a second time over- 
 threw him at Sorr. A plan for invading the King's ter- 
 ritories in conjunction with the Saxons was also rendered 
 abortive by a victory gained by the veteran Dessau near 
 Kesselsdorf ; and the peace of Dresden confirmed 
 Frederick in the possession of Silesia and Grlatz. Mean- 
 while the French, under the command of Marshal Saxe, a 
 natural son of Augustus II., King of Poland, had made 
 themselves masters of the whole of the Spanish Nether- 
 lands, except Luxembourg, Limburg, and Geldern. The 
 French and Spanish armies also prosecuted the war in 
 Italy, but without any permanent results. In the year 
 1748, a Russian army of 30,000 men was despatched to 
 the Rhine by the Empress Elizabeth, and soon afterwards 
 peace was concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle, the French 
 relinquishing all their conquests in the Netherlands, 
 and Austria ceding Parma and Piacenza to the Spanish 
 Infant, Don Philip. 
 
 § 30. TJie third Silesimi or seven years^ war. 
 
 (231.) After the peace of Dresden, Maria Theresa, by 
 advice of her minister Count Kaunitz, employed all the 
 arts of diplomacy for the purpose of embroiling the King 
 of Prussia with the other European courts. During the 
 
116 MODERN HISTORY. [232,233. ^30. 
 
 war, slie had represented to the Empress of Russia the 
 danger to be apprehended even by first-rate powers from 
 the ambitious character of Frederick, and his infimate 
 connection with France; and in the year 1746 a secret 
 treaty was concluded between the two Empresses, who 
 pledged themselves, supposing Frederick to violate the 
 conditions settled at the peace of Dresden, to strain every 
 nerve for the re-conquest of Silesia and the abasement of 
 Prussia. The Saxon court, where Count Briihl, the per- 
 sonal enemy of Frederick, ruled with absolute authority, 
 seems to have been also a party to this treaty. Mean- 
 while, a dispute respecting the boundaries of their re- 
 spective possessions in America had occasioned a war be- 
 tween England and France ; and the former country, 
 anxious to secure her Grerman territories (Hanover) 
 against invasion, had concluded an alliance with Frede- 
 rick of Prussia. On the other hand, France allied herself 
 with Austria, in the hope of securing the neutrality of 
 that power during the maritime war between herself 
 and England. 
 
 The year 1756. 
 
 (232.) Frederick, who was well aware of the machina- 
 tions of his enemies, and the preparations which they were 
 making in Bohemia and Moravia, anticipated their move- 
 ments by suddenly entering Saxony at the head of 
 60,000 men, laying siege to Dresden, and blockading a 
 hastily-levied Saxon army of 17,000 men in their fortified 
 camp between Pirna and Konigstein. On the advance of 
 an Austrian army (under Brown) to the assistance of the 
 Saxons, Frederick divided his forces, and with only half 
 his army defeated the enemy near Lowositz (Oct. 1). 
 After this victory he returned into Saxony, where he 
 passed the winter, after compelling the Saxon soldiers, 
 who were blockaded at Pirna, to surrender as prisoners 
 of war. 
 
 The year 1757. 
 
 (233.) The invasion of Saxony by Frederick com- 
 pelled the French, however unwillingly, as parties to the 
 
233. ^30.] THE THIRD SILESIAN WAR. 117 
 
 peace of Westphalia, to conclude an alliance, offensive and 
 defensive, against Prussia, with Austria, Russia, and the 
 German empire. To this treaty Sweden also became a 
 party, in the hope of obtaining possession of Prussian 
 Pomerania. Leaving to his by no means numerous al- 
 lies (England, Hesse-Cassel, Brunswick, and Gotha) the 
 duty of keeping the French at bay, Frederick, after send- 
 ing a detachment to meet the Russians and Swedes, ad- 
 vanced at the head of his grand army against his bitter 
 enemies the Austrians, who prosecuted the war with more 
 rancorous pertinacity than the other powers, to most of 
 whom, especially the Protestant Princes, the aggrandize- 
 ment of Austria was by no means a desirable event ; nor 
 was a very determined opposition to be expected from the 
 King of Sweden, who was Frederick's own brother-in-law. 
 His enemies brought altogether 431,000 men into the 
 field, the Prussians and their allies 200,000. All the 
 troops quartered in Saxony advanced into Bohemia in 
 four divisions, and, uniting before Prague, defeated the 
 Austrian generals, Prince Charles of Lorraine and^Brown, 
 in the famous battle of Prague (May 6), where Field- 
 marshal Schwerin lost his life after rallying the wavering 
 Prussians for a final charge. The greater part of the de- 
 feated army took refuge in Prague, where they were be- 
 sieged by the Prussian army ; but on the advance of Field- 
 marshal Daun to the relief of the city, Frederick attacked 
 him in his strongly-fortified position at Kollin (June 
 18), and was for the first time defeated. This check, 
 which compelled him to raise the siege and retire into 
 Saxony, encouraged the hitherto inactive allies of Austria 
 to attempt a decisive stroke. The French (100,000 men), 
 who had already taken possession of the Prussian terri- 
 tories on the Rhine, now advanced as far as the Weser 
 (under the command of Marshal d'Estrees), and defeated 
 the allies of Frederick (40,000 men, under the Duke of 
 Cumberland) at Hastenbeck, in the territory of 
 Hameln (July 26) ; but instead of availing themselves 
 fully of the advantage thus gained, they were satisfied 
 with levying contributions in Hanover. The Russians 
 (104.000 men), under Apraxiu, marched into Eastern 
 Prussia, and defeated Field-marshal Lehwald near Gross- 
 
118 MODERN HISTORY. [234. ^30. 
 
 jagerndorf (August 30), but were unexpectedly recalled. 
 On receiving intelligence that the imperial army (under 
 the Prince of Hildburghausen), and (at the earnest so- 
 licitation of Austria) a second French army (under Sou- 
 bise, a favorite of Madame de Pompadour) were advancing 
 to the relief of Saxony, Frederick, leaving the Duke of 
 Bevern with 43,000 men in Lusace, advanced with 
 22,000 men to meet the combined imperial and French 
 troops (64,000 strong), and completely routed the ill- 
 assorted and badly-officered masses at Rossbach, on 
 the Saale (5th November)). For this victory Frederick 
 was mainly indebted to a desperate charge made by 
 Seidlitz at the head of his cavalry. Having thus secured 
 Saxony, the King advanced by forced marches into Si- 
 lesia, in order to effect a junction with the Duke of 
 Bevern, who had retreated into that country. To pre- 
 vent this, Prince Charles of Lorraine attacked the Duke 
 near Breslau (22nd November), and routed his army. 
 The Duke himself was taken prisoner, and soon after- 
 wards *he fortresses of Schweidnitz and Breslau surren- 
 dered to the conqueror. Frederick, who was resolved to 
 relieve Silesia at all hazards, now collected an army of 
 33,000 men,' composed of the remnant of Bevern's army, 
 and his own heroes of Rossbach, to whom he addressed a 
 spirited harangue. With tliis force he defeated, near 
 Lent hen, 5th December (after an engagement which 
 lasted only three hours), the Austrian army, 80,000 
 strong, under Charles of Lorraine and General Daun, 
 and regained possession of Silesia. During the winter, 
 several unsuccessful attempts were made by the King 
 to negotiate a peace. The campaign of 1758 was carried 
 on in the east by the King in person, against the Aus- 
 trians and Russians (whose union he effectually pre- 
 vented), and in the west by his allies, under Duke Ferdi- 
 nand of Brunswick, against the French. The latter 
 general opened the campaign by driving back the French 
 from the Elbe to the Rhine, and defeating them near 
 C refold (23rd June). 
 
 (234.) This disaster, as well as all the other failures 
 
 ^ Called by the Austrians, in derision, 'the Potsdam -parade." 
 
235. ^ 30. WAR OP AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION. 1 19 
 
 of the French, may be attributed partly to tbe incapacity 
 and petty jealousies of their generals ; and partly to the 
 policy of Louis XY., who was unwilling either that the 
 power of Austria should be increased, or Prussia be too 
 much weakened. Meanwhile Schweidnitz, the last Silesian 
 fortress in the occupation of the Austrians, had surrendered 
 to Frederick, who now marched into Moravia, for the 
 purpose of withdrawing the Austrians as far as possible 
 from the Russians ; but an irruption of the Russians into 
 Pomerania compelled him to return to Silesia. On the 
 25th August, he attacked a superior Russian force (at 
 Zorndorf, near Kustrin), which had set fire to the city 
 of Kustrin, and defeated them, after a hard-fought and 
 bloody engagement, in which his own loss was very con- 
 siderable. For this victory, also, Frederick was mainly 
 indebted to General Seidlitz. On his march to relieve 
 his brother Henry, who was closely pressed by General 
 Daun, in Saxony, Frederick was surrounded, in the mid- 
 dle of the night (in an unfavorable position near Hoch- 
 kirch), by a superior Austrian force, and compelled 
 to retreat, after sustaining a heavy loss. But this 
 disaster produced no further results, for Frederick 
 soon afterwards turned Daun's position ; and, after ex- 
 pelling the enemy first from Silesia, and then from 
 Saxony, had, before the end of the year, recovered all his 
 possessions except Prussia, which was still occupied by 
 the Russians. 
 
 (235.) The year 1759 was the most disastrous in 
 the whole war for Frederick. His resources were gradu- 
 ally becoming exhausted, for it was impossible that raw 
 recruits, or soldiers collected in haste from different 
 parts of his dominions, could supply the places of the 
 veterans who had fallen in the war ; and this difficulty 
 was increased by the necessity of distributing his forces 
 over a great extent of ground. Under these unfavorable 
 circumstances, the King was obliged to confine himself to 
 a defensive war. An attempt was again made to prevent 
 the union of the Russians and Austrians ; but the Rus- 
 . sian army under Soltikow, consisting of 70,000 men, 
 advanced to the Oder, and defeated (at Kay, near Zulli- 
 chau), General Weddell, who had been nominated dictator. 
 
120 MODERN HISTORY. [236. ^ 30. 
 
 and then effected a junction with the Austrians under 
 Laudou. On the Tith of August, Frederick attacked the 
 Russians at Kunersdorf, near Frankfort on the Oder, 
 and had already gained a considerable advantage, which 
 he persisted in following up, notwithstanding the weari- 
 ness and reluctance of his soldiers, when Laudon, who 
 had hitherto remained inactive, suddenly charged the ex- 
 hausted Prussians, and changed the fortune of the day. 
 Eighteen thousand Prussians, among whom was Ewald 
 von Kleist, the poet of the " Spring," were left dead on 
 the field. Had the conqueror listened to the advice of 
 Laudon, and marched at once to Berlin, the ruin of Prus- 
 sia would have been accomplished ; but it seems probable 
 that he had received secret instructions which prevented 
 his adopting this course. The prosecution of the war 
 was also retarded by disputes between Soltikow on the 
 one side, and Laudon and Daun on the other ; and at last 
 the removal of the Russians into winter quarters beyond 
 the Vistula and the Wartli, relieved Frederick from all 
 apprehension of an attack on his eastern frontier. In 
 Saxony, however, all the fortresses, including Dresden 
 itself, were surrendered to Greneral Daun ; and Fink, who 
 had endeavored to intercept the passes, and cut off Daun's 
 army from Bohemia, was himself blockaded near Maxen, 
 by an overwhelming body of Austrians, and compelled to 
 surrender himself a prisoner with 13,000 men. The al- 
 lies of Frederick, under tlie command of Duke Ferdinand 
 of Brunswick, were also unfortunate at the commencement 
 of the campaign, having been defeated by the French at 
 Bergen, near Frankfort on the Main. But this disgrace 
 was afterwards (August 1) obliterated by the brilliant vic- 
 tory of Mind en. 
 
 (236.) The commencement of the year 1760 
 was also disastrous for Frederick. The Russians, it is 
 true, although Austria had promised them East Prussia 
 as an indemnification for the expenses of the war, were in- 
 clined to relax in their exertions ; but, on the other hand, 
 General Foquc, whom the King had stationed at Land- 
 shut with 9000 men, for the defence of Silesia, was at- 
 tacked at three several points by a French army three 
 times as numerous as his own, and, after an obstinate re- 
 
237,238. <^ 30.J war. of Austrian succession. 121 
 
 sistance, was taken prisoner, with half his troops. The 
 King, after an ineffectual attempt to reduce Dresden, and 
 the surrender of the fortress of Grlatz to the Austrians, 
 marched into Silesia, and encamped, with 30,000 men, at 
 Liegnitz, on the Katzbach. The advance of the Rus- 
 sian army, and the scarcity of provisions, having com- 
 pelled him secretly to shift his quarters, he engaged and 
 defeated Laudon's army on the heights of Pfaffendorf 
 (15th August), and by the promptitude with which he fol- 
 lowed up this advantage, was enabled again to prevent the 
 junction of the Austrians and Russians (who had been 
 plundering Dresden for several days), and thus to rescue 
 Silesia. After a victory (for which he was in a great 
 measure indebted to General Ziethen) over the second 
 Austrian army, commanded by General Daun, at T organ, 
 on the 3d November, Frederick regained possession of 
 the whole of Saxony, except Dresden, and compelled the 
 Russians to retire into winter quarters in Poland. In 
 the west, the war was prosecuted without any important 
 results, and merely, as it would seem, for the sake of 
 appearances. 
 
 (237.) The hopes of peace, which were entertained at 
 the commencement of the year 1761, were destroyed by 
 the rejection, on the part of Austria, of the proposals of 
 Prussia and England, and the conclusion of her long- 
 desired alliance with Russia for the re-conquest of Silesia; 
 but the disagreement of their generals (Bulturlin and 
 Laudon), having prevented a combined attack on Freder- 
 ick's strongly-intrenched position at Bunzelwitz (near 
 Schweidnitz), the two armies soon separated. Scarcely, how- 
 ever, had the King escaped this danger, when the loss of 
 the fortresses of Schweidnitz and Kolberg (the former to 
 Laudon, the latter to the Russians), deprived him of the 
 half of Silesia and Pomerania. In the west, the French 
 appeared in imposing force, but no battle was fought, nor 
 any important undertaking attempted. 
 
 The years 1762 and 1763. 
 
 (238.) Frederick, who had been deserted even by 
 England, was unexpectedly extricated from his difficulties 
 
122 MODERN HISTORY. [239. §31. 
 
 by the death of the Empress Elizabeth (5th January) 
 and the accession of his enthusiastic admirer, Peter IL, 
 who not only concluded a peace with Prussia, but even 
 commanded the Kussian corps, which had hitherto acted 
 with the Austrians, to join the Prussian army in Silesia. 
 After reigning six months, the Emperor was assassinated, 
 and his successor, Catherine II., immediately recalled the 
 army of Silesia; but not until Frederick had availed him- 
 self of its presence at the battle of Burke rsdorf, near 
 Keichenbach (2 1 st July), where Daun was defeated. After 
 the re-taking of Schweidnitz by Frederick, the defeat of 
 the imperial troops, near Freiberg, by his brother Henry 
 (assisted by Greneral Seidlitz), and the surrender of Cassel 
 to the Duke of Brunswick, peace was concluded at Hu- 
 bertsburg, a Saxon hunting seat, on the 15th February, 
 1763, between Prussia, Austria, and Saxony, each party 
 being replaced in the position which it had occupied before 
 the war ; and the rank of Prussia being established as one 
 of the five great European powers. 
 
 § 31. TJie Emperor Joseph 11.^ 1765—1790. Frederick 
 the Great after the seven years' ivar. 
 
 (239.) 1. The first partition of Poland, 1772. 
 After the death of Augustus III. (1763), the Empress 
 Catherine II., supported by Frederick of Prussia, pre- 
 vailed on the Poles to elect, as their King, her favorite, 
 Count Stanislaus Poniatowski, and to grant to the co- 
 religionists of the two monarchs (Protestants and mem- 
 bers of the Greek Church) equal rights with the members 
 of the Church of Rome. The immediate effect of these 
 concessions was a terrible civil war between a confedera- 
 tion of malcontents assembled at Bar, in Podolia, on the 
 one side, and the new King (who was supported by Rus- 
 sia) on the other. Soon after the occurrence of these 
 events, a war broke out between the Russians and Turks, 
 in which the former greatly distinguished themselves, 
 both by sea and land, and obtained several important 
 advantages (independence of the Crimea, free navigation 
 of the Turkish seas, cession of Azov, &c.). This fresh 
 aggrandizement of a power already sufficiently formidable. 
 
240 242. ^31.] THE EMPEROR JOSEPH H. 123 
 
 having awakened the jealousy of Austria and Prussia, tne 
 former sent an "army into Pohmd (which was completely 
 governed by Russian influence), for the purpose of re- 
 deeming the province of Zips, which had been pledged by 
 Hungary to Poland in 1402 ; an example which was soon 
 followed by Prussia, under pretence of establishing a san-i 
 itary cordon against the plague. In order, however, to: 
 preserve the balance of power, it was at last agreed that 
 Poland should be divided between Russia, Prussia, and 
 Austria. 
 
 (240.) In this first partition of Poland (5th 
 August, 1772), Austria^ in addition to the province of 
 Zips, received Galicia and Lodomiria; Ritssia^ the eastern 
 part of Lithuania (as far as the Duna and the Dnieper), 
 and Prussia recovered West Prussia (with the exception 
 of Dantzic and Thorn), which had been ceded to Poland 
 at the peace of Thorn in 1466. The King and diet were 
 thus compelled formally to relinquish their right to a 
 third of the kingdom. 
 
 (241.) 2. Disputed succession in Bavaria, 
 1778, 1779. After the death (30th December, 1777.) of 
 Maximilian Joseph, the last Elector of Bavaria, of the 
 younger line of the house of Wittelsbach, Charles Theo- 
 dore, Elector Palatine, as head of the elder line, took pos- 
 session of the Bavarian dominions, in virtue of his feudal 
 right, and of certain family arrangements. To a portion 
 of this territory Austria had long ago advanced a claim, 
 which the Emperor Joseph now persuaded the Elector to 
 recognize; but to this convention the Duke of Zweibriicken 
 (heir presumptive to the Bavarian electorate), acting on. 
 the advice of Frederick II., refused to become a party. 
 The invasion of Bohemia by Prussian troops, and the 
 threats of the Empress of Russia to support Frederick, 
 induced the Emperor, at the peace of Teschen (in Aus- 
 trian Silesia), in 1779, to withdraw his claims on Bavaria, 
 retaining only the " the quarter of the Inn," i. e. the coun- 
 try between the Inn, the Danube, and the Salza, by the 
 annexation of which Austria obtained an uninterrupted 
 communication with the Tyrol. 
 
 (242.) 3. Joseph II. sole Emperor, 1780—1790. 
 The Empress Maria Theresa, whose character was a happy 
 
124 MODERN HISTORY. [242. ^31. 
 
 union of mildness and dignity, had shared her throne, first 
 with her husband, and subsequently with her son, Joseph 
 II., but the reins of government had virtually remained 
 altogether in her own hands. To this sovereign Austria 
 was indebted for the simplification of her legal code, the 
 regulation of her financial system, the abolition of torture, 
 and a considerable improvement in the social condition of 
 the serf. By the courage and perseverance of Maria The- 
 resa, she was also enabled to maintain her position among 
 the European powers, in spite of the opposition of her 
 enemies, who, at the commencement of this reign, were ex- 
 ceedingly numerous. It was only after his mother's death 
 that Joseph II., who, like Peter III., was an enthusiastic 
 admirer of Frederick of Prussia, was enabled to bring for- 
 ward his daring projects of reform. His understanding, 
 naturally acute, had been improved by study and extensive 
 foreign travel, which had given him an elevated opinion of 
 the dignity of human nature ; but the unreflecting eager- 
 ness with which he sought to carry out his plans for the 
 improvement of his own dominions, in most instances, in- 
 sured their failure. For example, his attempt to intro- 
 duce, without any previous preparation, the same form of 
 constitution and administration into every province from 
 Belgium to Transylvania, occasioned excessive discontent 
 among the people, whose local privileges were thus rudely 
 violated ; and his toleration of every religious sect, and 
 the admission of the Jews to the enjoyment of political 
 rights, produced disturbances in various quarters ; whilst 
 the suppression of several monasteries, and other sweep- 
 ing ecclesiastical reforms, involved him in a quarrel with 
 Pope Pius VI. The personal remonstrances of this pon- 
 tiff, during a visit which he made to the Emperor at 
 Vienna, in the hope of persuading him to abandon his 
 project, were treated with the most mortifying contempt, 
 although, after his departure, the plan was considerably 
 modified.^ In order to carry into effect his favorite scheme 
 of annexing Bavaria to the empire, he proposed (by ad- 
 vice of his minister Kaunitz), to the Elector, Charles 
 Tlieodore, an exchange of the Austrian Netherlands for 
 that country, promising, at the same time, to confer on 
 the Elector the title of King of Burgundy. This pro- 
 
243. <5»31.] ADMINISTRATION OF FREDERICK II. 125 
 
 posal, which was readily embraced by Charles Theodore, 
 was rejected by his heir presumptive, the Duke of Zwei- 
 brucken, who immediately applied for assistance to Fred- 
 erick II. A confederation was then formed (in 1785), 
 under the auspices of the King of Prussia, consisting of 
 the three Electors of Saxony, Brandenburg, and Han- 
 over, for the conservation of the actual territorial condi- 
 tion of the G-erman empire. This confederation, which 
 was called the League of the G-erman princes, was 
 afterwards augmented by the accession of other princes of 
 the empire. 
 
 (243.) 4. The administration and death of 
 Frederick II. The commanding abilities of Frederick 
 were displayed no less in the maintenance of peace for 
 twenty-three years, than in his previous long and success- 
 ful wars. Believing, as he did, that the most effectual 
 mode of securing to Prussia the uninterrupted enjoyment 
 of the rank which she had so recently assumed among the 
 nations of Europe, was to render her formidable to her 
 enemies, his first care was to keep on foot a well-disci- 
 plined army. For the support of this force a large sum 
 was raised by a stricter exaction of the indirect taxes, and 
 by several royal monopolies. At the same time he endea- 
 vored, by shortening the proceedings in the courts of 
 justice, and by the compilation of a new civil code (which 
 was not completed during his lifetime), to insure to his 
 subjects a speedy and impartial administration of the 
 laws. The welfare of his people was also promoted by 
 the encouragement afforded to agriculture, and the eager- 
 ness with which he set on foot j)lans for the introduction 
 and improvement of various manufactures. The unwearied 
 activity of the King, who reserved to himself the right of 
 ultimate decision on all questions of state ; the mental 
 energy which distinguished him above all the other mon- 
 archs of that period ; his honest zeal for the welfare of 
 his people ; the prudence invariably displayed in the for- 
 mation of his plans ; and the firmness with which he ad- 
 hered to a resolution once adopted ; these qualities never 
 abandoned him during the whole of his long reign of forty- 
 six years, although it must be acknowledged that the 
 means employed for the attainment of his objects were 
 
126 MODERN HISTORY. [244—246. §32. 
 
 not in all instances the most unexceptionable, nor the re- 
 sults always such as he had expected. But his greatest 
 protection was the extraordinary penetration with which 
 he discovered, and the tact with which he directed, the 
 political movements of other governments. Disdaining 
 the enjoyments of domestic life, -Frederick passed his lei- 
 sure hours either in the society of men of science and 
 distinguished talent, or in the cultivation of his poetical 
 and musical taste, and the study of philosophy and his- 
 tory. His preference of the French language will scarcely 
 surprise us, if we remember the wretched state of Grerman 
 literature at that period. 
 
 (244.) Frederick died on the 17th August, 1786, 
 leaving to his nephew, Frederick William II. (1786 — 
 1797), a kingdom which he had augmented by the annexa- 
 tion of 8ilesia, the country of East Friesland (after 
 the death of the last Count, in 1744), and West Prus- 
 sia, with six millions of subjects, an exchequer containing 
 seventy-two millions of thalers, and an army of 200,000 
 men. Since the annexation of AVest Prussia he had ex- 
 changed the title of " King i?i Prussia," for that of " King 
 o/' Prussia." 
 
 (245.) 5. The last years of Joseph II. Joseph's 
 ecclesiastical and political reforms, which were vehemently 
 opposed by the Belgians, headed by an advocate named 
 Van der Noot, occasioned the separation of the Bomanist 
 Netherlands from Austria, in 1790 ; but in the following 
 year (on the accession of Leopold IL, 1790 — 1792, who 
 restored all their privileges), the revolted provinces re- 
 turned to their allegiance. A Turkish war, which had 
 been undertaken by Joseph IL, in conjunction with Cath- 
 erine II. , and carried on with very indilFerent success, 
 was terminated by Leopold II. , who consented to restore 
 all tlie territory which his predecessor had wrested from 
 the Turks. 
 
 § 32. France. 
 
 (246.) Louis XIV., whose long wars had saddled the 
 country with a debt of 300 millions'of livres ($60,000,000), 
 and compelled him to mortgage the revenue for two years, 
 was succeeded by his third great-grandson. 
 
247,248. ^32.] - France. 127 
 
 (247.) Louis XV, 1715 — 1774, who commenced his 
 reign under the guardianship of the talented, but profli- 
 gate, Dake (Philip) of Orleans. By the advice of his 
 tutor and minister, the Abb' (afterwards Cardinal) Dubois, 
 and a Scotchman named Law, an attempt was made to 
 diminish the public burdens, by the establishment of a 
 bank of issue, and a joint stock Mississippi company (to 
 which the King made a grant of Louisiana) ; but the issue 
 of 6000 million of bank notes and actions [shares] occa- 
 sioned, as might have been expected, the bankruptcy of 
 the whole concern, notwithstanding the ingenious precau- 
 tions adopted to avert such a calamity. 
 
 For an account of the quadruple alliance ivith Eng- 
 land^ the Emperor and Holland^ see page 108. 
 
 (248.) After the deaths of Cardinal Dubois and the 
 Duke of Orleans, which happened about the same time 
 (tt 1723), Louis assumed the reins of government, and 
 married Mary, daughter of the dethroned sovereign, Stan- 
 islaus Lesczinsky. The maiiagenient of affairs was soon 
 left almost entirely to the King's tutor. Cardinal Fleury, 
 (1726 — Mio). whose rigid economy and love of peace, in 
 a great measure, relieved the country from the embarrass- 
 ments in which it had been involved by the long wars of 
 Louis XIV. It was with difficulty that his sanction could 
 be obtained to the participation of France in the Polish 
 war (see page 109), and the Austrian war of succession. 
 The first of these wars ended in the acquisition of the 
 duchies of Lorraine and Bar for Lesczinsky ; the other 
 commenced inauspiciously, in consequence of the niggard- 
 liness of Fleury ; but, after his death, all losses were re- 
 paired by the brilliant victories of Marshal Saxe (see page 
 115). The weak monarch was now governed entirely by 
 his mistresses : first, by the Marquise de Pompadour, who 
 exercised unlimited control over the exchequer and the 
 patronage of the crown, whilst she amused the King with 
 every sort of diversion (in the pare aux cerfs), and sensual 
 gratification. A complete change was now effected in the 
 system of French politics, by the conclusion of a treaty 
 with the court of Vienna, through the influence of Kaunitz 
 with Madame de Pompadour. Through this alliance, 
 France was involved in an expensive, but fruitless, war of 
 
128 MODERN HISTORY. [-249. ^32. 
 
 seven years's duration (see page 116), in addition to her 
 maritime war with England, which also lasted seven years, 
 and terminated in the loss of almost all the French colo- 
 nies. EflFects still more deplorable were produced by the 
 King's utter want of principle, and the general deprava- 
 tion of morals, and contempt of religion, introduced by 
 the so-called school of 2^hiloso2:>hers^ headed by Voltaire, 
 J. J. Rousseau, d'Alembert, and Diderot. Their grand 
 object, the subversion of religion and monarchy, and the 
 establishment, in their places, of infidelity and republican 
 equality, was steadily advanced by the publication of 
 works, in which all that had been hitherto esteemed sacred 
 was held up to ridicule, and by the influence which they 
 acquired (generally through the most unworthy means), 
 at court, among the ministers, and in various educational 
 establishments. In conjunction with the Jansenists, these 
 philosophers were also called encyclopccdists^ obtained from 
 the King and his parliament an ordonnance for the sup- 
 pression of the order of Jesuits in France^ their statutes 
 being declared to be incompatible with the constitution of 
 the kingdom (1764). Corsica ceded to France by G-enoa 
 (1768), see ^ 36. 4. Towards the close of his life, Louis 
 was entirely under the control of a low-born mistress, 
 whom he created Comtesse du Barry. The expenditure 
 of this profligate woman on herself and her favorites 
 (amounting in five years to 180 millions of francs), had 
 brought the nation to the verge of bankruptcy, notwith- 
 standing the imposition of heavy taxes, when the wretched 
 King died, to the great delight of his oppressed subjects, 
 who greeted his grandson and successor, 
 
 (249.) Louis XVI., 1774—1792, with the surname 
 of Le Desire. The good humour and straightforward 
 honesty of this monarch were but an indifferent substitute 
 for the ability and firmness required at such a crisis. The 
 constant changes of administration (Turgot, Necker, Ca- 
 lonne, Brienne, Necker) ; the lavish expenditure of the 
 Queen Marie xintoinette ; and the assistance rendered to 
 the revolted British colonies in North America, in the 
 hope of recovering at least a portion of the territory lost 
 by France during the seven years' war, had occasioned an 
 irremediable deficit (140 millions of livres annually) in 
 
250,251. ^33.] GREAT BRITAIN. 129 
 
 the public accounts. To tlie discontent produced by these 
 causes, the writings of the infidel philosophers, and the 
 republican and revolutionary notions imported from Amer- 
 ica by the soldiers who had served in that quarter of the 
 globe, may be attributed the outbreak of the French Re- 
 volution. 
 
 § 33. Great Britain. 
 
 (250.) William III. was succeeded by his sister-in- 
 law, Queen Anne (1702 — 1714), whose policy was dic- 
 tated, during the greater part of her reign, by the Whig 
 party, especially by the Duke of Marlborough and his 
 Duchess. Through the influence of these ministers, a 
 union was accomplished between England and Scotland, 
 which thenceforth had one parliament ; an equal system 
 of taxation ; and similar laws, in so far as this could be 
 efi'ected without trenching on private rights, or altering 
 her ecclesiastical constitution. For the participation of 
 England in the Spanish war of succession, by which her 
 colonial possessions, trade, and influence, were extended, 
 see ^ 25. The attempts of Anne, in conjunction with the 
 Tories (tfter the disgrace of Marlborough), to obtain the 
 settlement of the crown on her step-brother, the Pretend- 
 er, James (III), were frustrated by the Whigs, who in- 
 sisted on maintaining the Protestant succession, and, after 
 the deati of the Queen, raised to the throne 
 
 The House of Hanover (1714), 
 
 (251) Commencing with G-eorge I. (1714 — 1727), 
 Elector of Hanover, and . grandson of James I., on the 
 mother's side. Under the guidance of his minister, Wal- 
 pole, this sovereign frustrated the repeated attempts made 
 during lis reign to bring back the Pretender ; took part 
 in the nortliern war ; and joined the quadruple alliance. 
 His son. George II. (1727 — 1760), retained the services 
 of his fether's minister. Walpole. His participation in 
 the Austrian war of succession (see page 114), having oc- 
 casioned a misunderstanding between the crown and the 
 parliament, France availed herself of this opportunity for 
 a last attempt to restore the exiled Stuarts ; but the com- 
 6* 
 
130 MODERN llISTOFwY. [252,253. ^33. 
 
 plete overthrow (1746), of the Pretender (son of James 
 III.), on the moor of Culloden, near Inverness, in Scot- 
 land (the last battle fought on British ground), destroyed 
 for ever the hopes of the Jacobites. As an ally of Fred- 
 erick II., Greorge II. sent an army into Germany, for the 
 protection of his hereditary dominions of Hanover against 
 t]\e French ; whilst, at the same time, England carried on 
 the seven year 8^ %var against France^ 1756 — 1763. This 
 war, which had broken out, in the first instance, in North 
 America, in consequence of a dispute between the two 
 nations respecting the boundary line of their respective 
 colonies, soon extended to the other three quarters of the 
 globe. The first enterprises of the English were unsuc- 
 cessful ; but the superiority of their arms was restored by ' 
 Pitt (the elder), whose wise policy in the re-organization 
 of the army and fleet, the selection of competent com- 
 manders, and the preparation of a well-considered plan of 
 operations, produced the most brilliant results (defeat of 
 the French at Quebec, by General Wolf, &c.). A treaty was 
 concluded between the Bourbon courts of Spain, Naples, 
 und Parma, by whicli they pledged themselves to make 
 common cause with France ; and, in consequence of the 
 refusal of 
 
 (252.) George III. (1760— 1820), to sanction Pitt's 
 plans for an attack on Spain whilst that power was unpre- 
 pared for the war, the prime minister resigned his office. 
 Notwithstanding this untoward circumstance, however, 
 Buccess still attended the British arms ; and, in tlie peace 
 of Paris, in 1763, Spain surrendered Florida to England, 
 and France the whole of Canada, her settlements on the 
 river Senegal, and several of her colonies in the West In- 
 dies. By this accession of territory^- and the acquisition, 
 about the same time, of several important provinces in the 
 East Indies, England was placed in the elevated position 
 which she still occupies. 
 
 The North American War (the Revolution), 
 1775—1783. 
 (253.) The wars carried on by Great Britain on the 
 Continent had involved her very deeply in debt (the na- 
 tional debt at this date was about $700,000,000) The 
 
/ 
 
 253. §33.] GREAT BRITAIN. 131 
 
 Colonies in America had, of course, been partakers in the 
 disputes of England and France, and they had contributed 
 largely both money and men towards bringing to a suc- 
 cessful issue that war which rendered England predomi- 
 nant in North America (30,000 colonial soldiers had fallen ; 
 more than $16,000,000 had been expended, of which Par- 
 liament had reimbursed about $5,000,000). The mother 
 country had always exercised more or less control (though 
 not without protest) in regulating the trade, &c., of the 
 Colonies ; but she had never ventured upon that course 
 which her pecuniary necessities now impelled her to adopt. 
 She now claimed the right to levy taxes and collect reve- 
 nue in the Colonies, and accordingly the stamp act was 
 passed and attempted to be put in force in America (1765). 
 The Colonists, with one voice, declared that they never 
 would submit, as freemen, to any such measures ; for taxa- 
 tion without representation was virtually to make them 
 slaves. The act was denounced as unconstitutional, and 
 steadily resisted ; reluctantly and ungraciously parliament 
 the next year repealed the stamp duties. On the failure 
 of this plan, a duty was imposed on tea (and, in the first 
 instance, on glass, paper, and colors, 1767). This was 
 strenuously resisted by the Colonists, a party of whom, 
 disguised as Indians, boarded three ships laden with tea, 
 broke open 342 chests, and emptied their contents into 
 Boston harbor. The stringent measures adopted by Eng- 
 land, in consequence of this act (Boston Port Bill, subver- 
 sion of the ancient charter of Massachusetts, &c.), 
 aroused the Colonies, and a congress assembled at Phila- 
 delphia in September, 1774, who passed a resolution that 
 all commercial intercourse with the mother country should 
 be broken off. The British government now determined 
 to employ force, and hostilities having commenced with 
 rhe battle of Lexington (ten miles north-west of Boston), 
 April I9th^ 1775, and sdon after (June 17th), the battle 
 <-f Bunker's (Breed's) Hill, the thirteen United States 
 (New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecti- 
 cut, New- York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, 
 Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and 
 Georgia), declared themselves independent of 
 England, July 4th, 1776. The defective discipline of 
 
132 MODERN HISTORY. [254. ^33. 
 
 the American army was, in a great measure, counterbal- 
 anced by the extraordinary military talents of George 
 Washington, an officer who had already distinguished 
 himself in the French war. A defensive and commercial 
 league was soon concluded (by the exertions of Benjamin 
 Franklin) between France and America (1778), to which 
 Spain and Holland afterwards became parties ; whilst, at 
 the same time, the northern powers were persuaded by 
 Russia to unite for the maintenance of an " armed neu- 
 trality" (in which they were sujjported by Joseph II., Por- 
 tugal, and Sicily), for the protection of the commerce of 
 neutral powers against the belligerents. 
 
 (254.) In consequence of these movements, the war 
 was carried into the East and West Indies ; and the Ameri- 
 cans, emboldened by the encouragement and (to some ex- 
 tent) support afforded by their allies, refused to listen to 
 the proposals of the English government for the re-estab- 
 lishment of peace (1778), although the terms offered were 
 of so fiivorable a character, that two years before they 
 would have been readily embraced (representation in par- 
 liament, extension of privileges of trade, &c.) ; nothing 
 short of entire independence was now deemed satisfactory. 
 After twenty-one, for the most pa rt indecisive, engagements, 
 the English remained masters of the sea, the Spanish navy 
 having been nearly annihilated in a battle off Cape St. 
 Vincent ; and the French, after several successful encoun- 
 ters, sustaining a total defeat off the island of Guadaloupe 
 (1782). The attempts of the Spaniards and French to 
 re-take Gibraltar, by means of floating batteries, were 
 frustrated by the brave defence of General Elliot, who 
 fired red-hot balls on the enemy's vessels. Only Minorca 
 and West Florida were taken by the English. By land, 
 Washington, in conjunction with General Lafayette, de- 
 cided the event of the war by surrounding and taking pri- 
 soners a body of English troops, under Lord Cornwallis 
 (Oct. 17th, 1781); and at the peace of Versailles 
 (Jan. 20th, 1783), England was compelled not only to re- 
 cognize the independence of the thirteen United States, but 
 to restore Florida and Minorca to Spain, and Tobago to 
 France. On the other hand, the Dutch, who at last found 
 themselves fighting single-handed against the English, 
 
255. §33.] GREAT BRITAIN. 133 
 
 were compelled to purchase peace by the sacrifice of appor- 
 tion of their East Indian possessions (September, 1783). 
 At the close of the war, the United States found themselves 
 very deeply in debt (to foreign creditors $8,000,000 ; to 
 citizens and the army more than $30,000,000), and placed 
 in embarrassing circumstances in regard to the establish- 
 ment of the new government. The various difficulties 
 were happily surmounted by the wisdom and patriotism 
 of the noble men of those days, and, in September, 1787, 
 the Federal Constitution was elaborated and submitted to 
 the respective States for their adoption. Between Decem- 
 ber, 1787, and July, 1788, eleven States acceded to the new 
 Constitution, and it accordingly went into force after this 
 date. The Constitution made provision for the legislative, 
 judicial, and executive authority ; the first was vested in 
 Congress, consisting of the Senate (two from each State) 
 and the House of Representatives (the number of repre- 
 sentatives in proportion to the population of the State) ; 
 the second in the Supreme Court of the United States and 
 Circuit or District Courts for specific purposes ; and the 
 third in the President (aided by a cabinet and the advice 
 and consent of the Senate in certain cases). General 
 Washington was unanimously elected the first President 
 (1789 — 1797), and inaugurated on the 30th April, 1789, 
 in the city of New-York. 
 
 War in the East Indies (1767—1784). 
 
 (255.) Since the dismemberment of the empire of the 
 Great Mogul, through the defection of the Nabobs (1739), 
 several attempts had been made by European nations (the 
 French in the first instance, and then the English) to turn 
 the disputes of those petty sovereigns to their own advan- 
 tage. By the victories and conquests of Lord Clive, Eng- 
 land had not only been placed in an advantageous position, 
 as rei^^arded her rival, but had obtained possession of Ben- 
 gal fi-om the (titular) Great Mogul. In order to check the 
 progress of the British arms, a union was formed (not 
 without suspicion of French influence) between Hyder 
 Ali. Sultan of Mysore, the Marattas, and the Nizam of Gol- 
 conda, whilst, at precisely the same moment, the French 
 
134 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. [256,257. ^34. 
 
 concluded an alliance with the revolted British colonies in 
 North America. In this critical state of affairs, the su- 
 premacy of the East India Company was maintained, 
 through the prudent as well as energetic policy of the go- 
 vernor-general, Warren Hastings. The conclusion of a 
 separate peace with the Marattas and the re-establishment 
 of friendly relations with France having deprived Tippoo 
 Sahib, son and successor of Hyder Ali (tl782), of all his 
 allies, that sovereign -was compelled to purchase peace 
 (1784) by the sacrifice of his former conquests. 
 
 (256.) The attention of the British government hav- 
 ing been directed to the rapidly increasing power of the 
 East India Company, a bill (called the East India Bill) 
 was brought in by the younger Pitt (minister, 1 783—180 1 ), 
 which provided that thenceforward all the military, finan- 
 cial, and political business of India should be transacted 
 by a commission nominated by the Crown, the company 
 still retaining its direction of commercial affairs. An ad- 
 dition was made to the colonial possessions of England 
 by the discoveries of Captain James Cook (1768 — 1780), 
 who thrice circumnavigated the globe. In his first voy- 
 age, he visited the dangerous eastern coast of New Hol- 
 land ; in the second, he discovered several islands in tl]e 
 South Sea, but was disappointed in his expectation of find- 
 ing a southern continent, although he penetrated to the 
 7 1st' degree of south latitude; and in the third, he sur- 
 veyed Behring's Straits, and was slain by the natives of 
 Owyhee, one of the Sandwich Islands. 
 
 § 34. Spain under the Bourbons, from 1701. 
 
 (257.) At the peace of Utrecht, Spain had been com- 
 pelled to cede Naples, Sardinia, Milan, and the Nether- 
 lands to Austria, and Sicily to Savoy. The attempts of 
 Cardinal Albcroni to regain these possessions were frus- 
 tated by the quadruple alliance (see p. 108) ; but at the 
 close of the Polish war of succession the two Sicilies re- 
 verted to the Infant Don Carlos, and after the Austrian 
 Avar of succession Parma was settled on the Infant Don 
 Philip. Under Philip V. (1701 — 1746) the nation (with 
 the exception of Navarre and Biscay) lost all its constitu- 
 
258, 259. ^ 35.] house of ciiaganza. 135 
 
 tional privileges. Charles III. (1759 — 1788), who had 
 been involved in the seven years' war between France and 
 England, by the Bourbon family compact, and been un- 
 successful against Portugal by land, and England by sea, 
 was compelled, at the peace of Paris, to cede Florida to 
 England ; but at the peace of Versailles he recovered 
 both that province and Minorca. Two attacks on Algiers, 
 and an attempt to reconquer Gibraltar, produced only dis- 
 appointment and disgrace. In the year 1767 an ordon- 
 nance was issued for the expulsion of the Jesuits from the 
 Spanish dominions, an insurrection of the common people 
 at Madrid having been attributed to their machinations. 
 
 ^35. Po7~tugal under the House of Bragafiza^ from 1640, 
 
 (258.) Under the first kings of the House of Bra- 
 ganza, Portugal had not only maintained her independence 
 against Spain, but had recovered (at first by successful 
 wars, and subsequently by conventions) the colonies of 
 which she had been deprived by the Dutch (e. g. Brazil). 
 But the country, fettered by a commercial league with 
 England, and bankrupted by the extravagance of the court 
 of John v., notwithstanding its rich gold and diamond 
 mines of Brazil, was on the verge of utter ruin, when a 
 complete revolution in the commercial system was eftected 
 by the energetic measures of Carvalho, Marquis of 
 Pombal, minister of Joseph I. (1750 — 1777). 
 
 (259.) In the prosecution of his plan for rendering 
 Portugal independent of other countries for her supplies 
 of food, Pombal destroyed several vineyards in order to 
 promote the cultivation of wheat on a more extensive 
 scale ; whilst, at the same time, protection was afforded 
 to native industry by the imposition of prohibitory duties 
 on foreign produce. The western quarter of Lisbon, which 
 had been destroyed by a terrible earthquake on the 1st of 
 November, 1755, when 30,000 persons perished, was re- 
 built with greater magnificence and regularity. To meet 
 this and other expenses, considerable sums were raised by 
 the confiscation of estates in America, which had been 
 granted to the nobility at an earlier period. An attempt 
 on the king's life afi"orded the minister an excuse for rid« 
 
136 MODERN HISTORY. [260 — 262. ^ 36. 
 
 ding himself of his most active opponents, the Jesuits, 
 who were condemned as instigators of this treasonable 
 plot, and banished the country by a royal ordonnance in 
 1759. On the accession of Maria I. (daughter of Joseph 
 I.), Pombal was removed from his office, brought to trial, 
 and condemned to suffer death as a traitor, but was sub- 
 sequently pardoned. Almost all the ordonnances issued 
 during his administration were repealed, with the excep- 
 tion of the decree for the banishment of the Jesuits, which 
 remained in force, notwithstanding repeated attempts on 
 the part of the order to obtain its reversal. 
 
 § 36. Italy. 
 
 (260 ) 1. Tossesmons of the House of Hapsburg. — 
 Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and Milan continued to be de- 
 pendencies of Spain as long as the throne of that country 
 was occupied by the family of. Hapsburg ; but on the ac- 
 cession of the Bourbons, they were ceded, together with 
 Mantua, to Austria (at the peace of Utrecht). Sicily, in 
 the first instance, was given to Savoy, and soon afterwards 
 exchanged for Sardinia (1720). 
 
 (261.) At the termination of the war of the Polish 
 succession. 
 
 2. The kingdom of tJie two Sicilies regained its inde- 
 pendence under a collateral branch of the Spanish Bour- 
 bon family (1738). An earthquake in Calabria and Sicilv 
 Feb. 5th, 1783. ^' 
 
 ^ (262.) 3. y/?ei)z^cA2e5.— a. Savoy, which had fallen 
 into the hands of the French in Louis Fourteenth's third 
 war of spoliation, and again in the war of the Spanish 
 succession, obtained the kingdom of Sicily at the peace of 
 Utrecht; but was soon afterwards (172*0) compelled to 
 exchange it for Sardinia. The territories of the duchy 
 were afterwards augmented by the addition of Montferrat 
 and the annexation, at three several periods (in the Span- 
 ish, Polish, and Austrian wars of succession), of portions 
 of the duchy of Milan, b. Mantua, after the extinction 
 of the house of Nevers (1707), became a province of Aus- 
 tria, c. Modena remained subject to the house of Este. 
 d. Parma and Piacenza, after the extinction of the 
 
263—266. ^37.] Denmark. 137 
 
 house of Farnese. were settled on the Spanish Infant Don 
 Carlos ; and after his accession to the throne of the two 
 Sicilies, were annexed to Austria, which restored the two 
 duchies to a Spanish Infant (Don Philip) at the peace of 
 Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 (263.) 4. The Republics. — a. Venice was deprived 
 of Candia by the Turks ; but at the peace of Carlowitz 
 she obtained from them a great part of Dalmatia and the 
 peninsula of the Morea, which last was soon afterwards 
 again wrested from her (compare page 108). b. Grenoa, 
 with the assistance of the French, suppressed an insurrec- 
 tion of the ill-treated Corsicans, headed by Baron Theo- 
 dore von Neuhof, a Westphalian, who had been nominated 
 King of Corsica. Neuhof fled to London, where he died 
 in extreme poverty in 1756. A fresh insurrection, of a 
 still more formidable character, having broken out, under 
 the brave Paoli, the Grenoese senate sold the island of Cor- 
 sica to the French in 1768. This transfer was vehemently 
 opposed by the Corsicans ; but in the following year they 
 were compelled to submit, and Paoli, like his predecessor, 
 sought an asylum in England, which, at a later period, 
 aided him in an attempt to deliver his country from the 
 French yoke. 
 
 (264.) 5. The grand duchy of Tuscany^ after the ex- 
 tinction of the Medici family (1737) descended to Duke 
 Francis of Lorraine, and on his elevation to the imperial 
 throne, became a possession of the house of Austria. 
 When Joseph II. was elected Roman king, the grand 
 duchy was settled on his brother Leopold and his descend- 
 ants as the patrimony of the second sons of that house. 
 
 (265.) 6. Tlie states of the Church recovered Bene- 
 vento and Corvo from Naples. 
 
 ^37. Denmark. 
 
 (266.) Denmark, with Norway and Iceland, to which, 
 after the northern war, Schleswig was annexed by treaty, 
 and Greenland i?y colonization, enjoyed, after the termina- 
 tion of this war, uninterrupted peace during a period of 
 eighty years (under Frederick IV., Christian IV., Frede- 
 rick v., and Christian VII.) ; and, under the admirable 
 
138 MODERN HISTORY. [267. ^^ 38. 
 
 administration of Count Bernstorf, the Elder, became a 
 flourishing kingdom. But in t]ie reign of the feeble- 
 minded Christian VII. this able minister was supplanted 
 by the royal physician, Struensee, a favorite of the 
 Queen, who was elevated to the rank of £Ount and privy 
 counsellor, and exercised almost arbitrary authority, al- 
 though profoundly ignorant of the Danish laws, constitu- 
 tion and language. His ill-considered and violent inno- 
 vations occasioned universal discontent, and at the expira- 
 tion of two years the minister (with his friend Brandt) 
 ended his life on the scaffold (1772). The disputes be- 
 tween Denmark and the ducal line of Grottorp were ter- 
 minated by the cession of Oldenburg, which was erected 
 into a duchy and settled on the junior line of Gottorp, the 
 elder having been raised to the Russian throne. At the 
 same time Holstein was annexed to Denmark. 
 
 ^ 38. Sweden from the termination of the Northern War. 
 
 (267.) Sweden had not only lost her fairest provinces 
 in the northern war, but had sunk lower and lower during 
 the disputes of the aristocrats, who had governed the 
 kingdom since the accession of Ulrica Eleanora, and were 
 divided into the factions of the '' caps" and " hats ;" the 
 former being in the interest of Russia, the latter of France. 
 A precipitate attempt on the part of the " hats" (at the 
 instigation of France) to recover the provinces wrested 
 from Sweden by the Russians, occasioned the loss (in the 
 
 o 
 
 discreditable peace of Abo^, 1743) of a portion of Finland 
 (as far as the river Kymene), and the elevation to the 
 Swedish throne of a collateral branch of the house of 
 Holstein Gottorp (1751—1818). Under the first king 
 of this house (Adolphus Frederick, formerly Bishop of 
 Liibeck) the disputes of the nobles continued, and the 
 power of the crown was still further restricted by certain 
 additions to the constitution of 1720. The exchequer 
 was also drained by the expenditure incurred in conse- 
 quence of the participation of Sweden in the seven years' 
 war. But this aristocratic tyranny was successfully re- 
 
 ' Pronounced " Aubo." 
 
268. ^38. SWEDEN. 139 
 
 sisted by his brave and ambitious son, Gustavus III. 
 1771 — 1792), who effected a complete but bloodless revo- 
 lution by the aid of the military. The executive author- 
 ity was now vested in the king, but without the power of 
 levying taxes or engaging in aggressive wars without the 
 consent of the estates of his realm, who possessed also 
 the legislative authority. His voluntary renunciation of 
 absolute power, the affability of his manners, the improved 
 administration of justice, the general revival of national 
 prosperity, and the encouragement given to trade and man- 
 ufactures, as well as to the arts and sciences (establish- 
 ment of an academy of science), rendered this sovereign 
 exceedingly popular. The nobles alone persisted in their 
 opposition, which had already assumed a distinct and dan- 
 gerous character, when the king renewed (1789) the alli- 
 ance with the Porte, and, in defiance of the constitution, 
 took part with the Turks in the war against the Russians 
 (see page 108) without consulting the estates of his king- 
 dom. Probably his motive for this irregular proceeding 
 was a desire to re-conquer the eastern coast of the Baltic, 
 and to gain for Sweden a military reputation which might 
 increase her political influence among the powers of 
 Europe. 
 
 (268.) On the refusal of the generals of his army to 
 obey this unconstitutional order, Grustavus, notwithstand- 
 ing the vehement opposition of the nobles, persuaded a 
 Diet to pass an act, empowering the king to engage in an 
 offensive war without the consent of the estates. Mean- 
 while Russia had gained time for preparation : and the 
 war, both by land and sea, terminated ingloriously for 
 Sweden, whose public burdens were greatly increased by 
 the expense of carrying it on. The king now lost the af- 
 fection and confidence of his people, and before he could 
 execute his plan for the re-establishment of Louis XVI. 
 in the rights of which he had been deprived by the revo- 
 lutionists, fell by the hand of an assassin, named Anker- 
 strom, who had formerly been arrested on an unjust charge, 
 and now avenged himself by shooting the king at a 
 masqued ball in the opera-house at Stockholm. 
 
140 MODERN HISTORY. [269. §39. 
 
 § 39. Russia. 
 (269.) During the northern war Peter the Great 
 had made considerable progress in the civilization of his 
 subjects, and had built the city of St. Petersburg, which 
 was peopled by a forced immigration, and elevated to the 
 rank of the second capital of the Russian empire (1703). 
 He had also travelled a second time through most of the 
 countries of Europe. But on this, as on a former occasion, 
 the enemies of reform availed themselves of his absence 
 for a demonstration in favor of the ancient Russian insti- 
 tutions. At the head of this party was his own son 
 Alexei, who was condemned to death by a court assembled 
 soon after his father's return, and executed within a few 
 hours. After the war, Peter assumed the title of £?7i- 
 peror of all the Russias^ and by a law passed in 1722, se- 
 cured to the reigning sovereign the right of nominating 
 his successor without any regard to the claims of blood. 
 He died, the victim of his excesses, in the year 1725. 
 The short reigns of his wife, Catherine I., who was gov- 
 erned by her favorite, MenzikoflP (1725 — 1727), and of his 
 grandson, Peter II. (1727 — 1730), were followed by the 
 succession of a daughter of Ivan, elder brother of Peter 
 the Great. Anne (Ivanovna [daughter of Ivan] 1730 — 
 1740), under the guidance of her ministers, Munnich and 
 Ostermann, and her favorite Biron, laid the foundation of 
 the influence of Russia in Poland by her successful oppo- 
 sition to the restoration of Stanislaus Lesczinsky (see 
 page 110). Then she joined Austria in a war against the 
 Turks (see page 110); but, notwithstanding the superior- 
 ity of the Russian arms under Field-marshal Munnich 
 (the " Eugene of the North"), nothing was gained (in con- 
 sequence of the hasty conclusion of a separate peace by 
 Austria) beyond the recognition by the Porte of the Em- 
 press's title. The nephew and successor of Anne (Ivan 
 III.) was set aside, after reigning one year, in favor of 
 the youngest daughter of Peter the Great. 
 
270. ^40. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 141 
 
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14'2 MODERN HISTORY. [271 273. § 40. 
 
 (271.) Elizabeth (1741—1762) who banished Mun- 
 nich and others to Siberia, and placed herself under the 
 guidance of the Vice-Chancellor Bestuchef, until the year 
 1758, when he was also sent into exile. At the peace of 
 
 Abo, which terminated the war with Sweden, Elizabeth 
 added the eastern portion of Finland to her territories, 
 and exhibited Kussia for the first time in the character of 
 an influential European power, by sending an army to the 
 Rhine to resist her ally the Empress Maria Theresa, a 
 measure which hastened the conclusion of peace at Aix- 
 la-Chapelle. The bonds of this union with Austria were 
 strengthened during the seven years' war, by her personal 
 dislike of Frederick the G-reat. Elizabeth nominated as.. 
 her successor her sister's son Peter, duke of Holstein- 
 Gottorp. 
 
 House of Holstein-Grottorp, 1762. 
 
 (272.) Peter III. (1762), a personal friend of Frede- 
 rick the G-reat, concluded an alliance with Prussia, and 
 commenced his reign with several important reforms (the 
 abolition of torture, organization of the army after the 
 Prussian model, &c.) ; but six months had scarcely expired, 
 when he fell a victim to a conspiracy, headed by his own 
 wife, whom he had threatened with imprisonment in a con- 
 vent. He was succeeded by his widow, 
 
 (273.) Catherine II. (1762— 1796), who followed in 
 the footsteps of Peter the G-reat, endeavoring by a display 
 of external magnificence to obtain for her empire (the 
 most extensive in the world) an influential position among 
 the kingdoms of Europe. Poland^ which was distracted 
 by the struggles of opposing factions, was treated as a 
 Russian province by Catherine, who placed her favorite 
 Stanislaus Poniatowski on the throne, prevented any im- 
 provement in the constitution, and, under pretence of pro- 
 tecting the rights of the dissidents, excited a cruel civil 
 war between the confederation of Bar and the king, who 
 was supported hy the Russians. Of all the European 
 powers, the Forte alone acknowledged its apprehensions of 
 danger from the encroachments of Russia, and met the 
 
274,275. <^40. russia. 143 
 
 refusal of Catherine to withdraw her troops from Poland 
 with a prompt declaration of war. 
 
 (274.) In this first Russian- Turkish war (1768 — 
 1774) the Russians were for the most part superior to the 
 more numerous but badly officered and imperfectly disci- 
 plined troops of the Sultan ; and the whole Turkish fleet 
 was defeated off Scio, and burnt by a Russian squadron, 
 which had been dispatched to the Archipelago. In conse- 
 quence of these disasters, the Porte was compelled to seek 
 the intervention of Austria and Prussia, and through 
 their mediation an armistice was concluded between the 
 Turks and Russians ; but no sooner were the two medi- 
 ating powers pacified by tlw first partition of Poland 
 (1772), than the war broke out afresh. At first the Rus- 
 sians were unsuccessful against the Turks, whilst at the 
 same time their own country was distracted by a civil war 
 (which lasted two years), occasioned by the rebellion of a 
 Cossack named Pugatschew, who gave himself out as Pe- 
 ter III. ; but the blockade of the Grand Vizier in Schumla, 
 enabled them at length to negotiate a peace, which was 
 concluded at Kutschukkainardge, in 1774, on conditions 
 exceedingly favorable to Russia, the Turks conceding to 
 that power the free navigation of their waters, and the in- 
 dependence of the Tartars in the Crimea. In Poland also, 
 after the first partition of that kingdom, Catherine exerted 
 herself for the conservation of their ancient usages (an 
 elective monarchy, liberum veto, serfdom, &c.). Among 
 the avowed favorites of Catherine, was a man of coarse 
 manners and debauched character, named PotemJdn^ who 
 had been promoted from the rank of sergeant-major in the 
 imperial guard to that of minister of war, and been cre- 
 ated a prince of the German empire by Joseph II. For 
 sixteen years (until his death in 1791) this unworthy fa- 
 vorite continued to exercise the most despotic authority, 
 treating the nobles, and even his imperial mistress herself, 
 with insolence, squandering the public treasure, and put- 
 ting his fellow-subjects to death without the slightest 
 compunction. 
 
 (275.) Two magnificent projects Occupied the atten- 
 tion of Catherine after the first Turkish war, 1. The 
 establishment of an uninterrupted intercourse between 
 
144 MODERN HISTORY. [276,277. §40. 
 
 different nations, even in time of war. With this view 
 she instituted a system of armed tieutrality^ to which the 
 two northern powers, as well as the Emperor, Prussia, 
 and Portugal, became parties. 2. The expulsion of the 
 T'urks from Europe^ and the establishment of a netv Gheek 
 or eastern emjnre. The first step taken by Potemkin to- 
 wards the accomplishment of this plan (devised by Miin- 
 nich during his twenty years' banishment in Siberia), was 
 the incorporation into the Russian empire of the Crimea, 
 which had been independent since the last peace. During 
 a progress of the Empress through southern Russia, Po- 
 temkin persuaded her that this country, which he had 
 ruined and well-nigh depopulated, was in a flourishing 
 condition ; a deception which obtained for its author the 
 nickname of " the Taurian" (from the ancient name of the 
 Crimea — Taurica Chersonesus). It was during this 
 progress that Catherine and the Emperor Joseph II. 
 met at Cherson, a circumstance which excited the sus- 
 picion of the Sultan, who imagined that a partition of the 
 Turkish empire had been arranged between the two mon- 
 archs. Relying on the support of England, Prussia, 
 and Sweden, the Porte immediately declared war against 
 Russia. 
 
 (276.) In this second Russian- Turkish war {\1 ^7 — 
 1792) the Turks, who had at first obtained some advan- 
 tage, were defeated in two great battles by Potemkin and 
 his lieutenant Suwarrow, supported by an Austrian force 
 under the command of the Emperor himself ; but after 
 the death of Joseph II. a peace was concluded between 
 Austria and the Porte (with which Prussia had already 
 formed an alliance), and Gustavus III. of Sweden invaded 
 Russian Finland. The war was continued by Catherine, 
 notwithstanding the threats of England and Prussia, 
 but after the death of Potemkin, she was compelled 
 by the exhausted state of her exchequer to conclude 
 a peace (at Jassy) with the Porte, and content herself 
 with the territory between the Bug and Dniester. For 
 an account of the defensive war against Sweden^ see page 
 140. 
 
 (277.) The measures of domestic improvement com- 
 menced by Peter I. were carried out by Catherine with 
 
278,279. ^41.] the fkench revolution. 145 
 
 the same spirit which she had displayed in her intercourse 
 with foreign powers. She divided the empire into smaller 
 and more manageable governments ; limited the authority 
 of the governors (by intrusting the administration of the 
 laws and the collection of the revenue to commissioners 
 expressly appointed for that purpose, and commanding 
 that no Russian subject should be tried except by his 
 peers) ; and improved the condition of the serf The 
 number of the middle classes was increased by the settle- 
 ment of foreigners (principally Germans), in cities built 
 expressly for that purpose ; agriculture and manufacturing 
 industry were encouraged, the trade of the south of 
 Europe thrown open by the first peace with Turkey, 
 arrangements made for the education of all ranks, an 
 academy of sciences founded, the navy placed on a 
 respectable footing, and toleration granted to all religious 
 sects. 
 
 ,^41. The Ottoman^ or Osmcuiic Emjnre. 
 
 (278.) The inferiority of the Turks to their neighbors 
 in the arts of war as well as of peace, the weakness of 
 their Sultans, who passed their lives in the Seraglio, leav- 
 ing the administration of public afi'airs to unprincipled 
 viziers and favorites, and the wars with Russia and other 
 powers, in which they were almost invariably unsuccessful, 
 notwithstanding their numbers and personal bravery — all 
 these causes must necessarily have sapped the founda- 
 tions of the Osmanic empire, had it not been sustained 
 by the jealousy with which the European powers regarded 
 one another. 
 
 Third Period. 
 
 From the outbreak of the French Revolntion to the present time. 
 1789—1848, 
 
 ^ 42. Causes and immediate occasion of the Revolution. 
 
 (279.) I. Chief causes. 1. The enormous public 
 deht^ contracted in the reign of Louis XIV., augmented 
 
 7 
 
146 MODERN HISTORY. [280—283. §42. 
 
 to a fearful extent by the wars of Louis XV. and the 
 profligacy of his mistresses, and still furtlier increased 
 under Louis XVI. by the extravagance of Marie An- 
 toinette, and the expenses incurred in the Anaerican 
 war. 
 
 (280.) 2. The unequal distrilmtion of the public 
 hurdens^ which were borne almost exclusively by the 
 citizens and peasants ; the clergy and nobility, notwith- 
 standing their possession of the highest and most lucra- 
 tive offices, immense wealth and important privileges, 
 scarcely contributing any thing to the public purse. 
 
 (281.) 3. The persevering endeavors of the so-called 
 philosophers, or Encyclopaedists, to overthrow both Church 
 and State. (Comp. page 128.) 
 
 (282.) 4. The tyrannical and capricious government 
 of the kings and the tninisters since the time of Louis 
 XIV., especially as regarded the lettres-de-cachet (or 
 warrants for the secret arrest of persons obnoxious to the 
 court), with which the offices even of the inferior function- 
 aries of the state were abundantly supplied. 
 
 (283.) II. The immediate occasion of the revolution- 
 ary outbreak was the imjoossibility of avoiding a natioiuzl 
 bankruptcy^ the national debt having been greatly aug- 
 mented by the expenses of the American war ; during the 
 progress of which the French soldiers had taken up the 
 wildest notions of liberty and equality. To meet these 
 difficulties, Turgot, Louis Sixteenth's first minister of 
 finance, proposed the establishment of free trade in the 
 interior, the removal of all feudal burdens, a more equal 
 and just system of taxation, and greater economy in the 
 expenditure of the court ; but the opposition of the privi- 
 leged classes compelled him to resign. The same fate 
 awaited his successor Necker, who added the enormous 
 sum of 530 millions to the national debt. In the year 1 787, 
 Calonne, finding that the annual deficit now amounted 
 to 140 millions, and that no help could be obtained ex- 
 cept from the privileged classes, called together the 
 Notables, an assembly composed almost entirely of no- 
 bles and the superior clergy, and laid before them a plan 
 for a more general system of taxation, in which the privi- 
 leged classes were included. Through the influence of 
 
284. §43.] THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 147 
 
 the Queen, this minister also was removed from oflfiee, 
 and succeeded by the Comte de Brienne, Archbishop of 
 Thoulouse, who dismissed the intractable Notables, and 
 summoned a parliament, which also refused to sanction 
 the imposition of fresh taxes, the ri.o-ht of taxation being 
 vested, as they pretended, exclusively in the states gene- 
 ral. A proposal for a new loan having been equally un- 
 successful, and the embarrassments of the government 
 becoming daily more alarming, Brienne was dismissed, 
 and Necker persuaded a second time to accept the office 
 of minister of finance. As a last expedient, the states 
 general, which had not met since the year 1614, were 
 summoned to assemble at Versailles. But at their 
 very first meeting a dispute arose respecting the manner 
 of taking the votes : the third estate, which was more nu- 
 merous than the other two together,' contending that the 
 voting ought to be by numbers, not by estates. After 
 several fruitless negotiations, the third estate (by the ad- 
 vice of the Abbe Sieyes) declared itself a National 
 Assembly (June 17), a proceeding which may be con- 
 sidered the commencement of the Revolution. It was to 
 no purpose that the King, acting by the advice of the 
 other two estates, called on this assembly to dissolve 
 itself The president, Bailly, finding their usual place of 
 meeting beset by soldiers, adjourned the assembly to a 
 tennis-court, and persuaded the deputies to take an oath, 
 that they would not separate until they had given to 
 France a permanent constitution. 
 
 § 43. The constituent National Assembly. 
 
 From June 17, 1789, to Sept. 21, 1791. 
 
 (284.) A. At Versailles. Notwithstanding the 
 promises made by the King in a " royal session" (June 
 23), the separation of the estates was still opposed by the 
 tiers etat, who were soon joined by a majority of the 
 clergy. On learning this, the King issued a proclama- 
 
 * There were 308 deputies of the clergy, 285 of the nobles, and 
 621 persons of the third estate. The twenty-two representatives 
 of the nobility of Brittany did not appear. 
 
148 MODERN HISTORY. [285. ^43. 
 
 tion calling on the two first chambers to unite with tho 
 third, a command which they obeyed with evident reluc- 
 tance. The attention of tliis assembly was directed 
 rather to the formation of a comtitution than to a settle- 
 ment of the financial question. The assembling of a large 
 body of troops (30,000 men) between Paris and VersailleSj 
 and the dismissal of Necker, occasioned a rising of the 
 Parisian populace (13th and 14th July) who were excited 
 by the most inflammatory speeches delivered by Camille- 
 Desmoulins, Marat, and others ; a movement which was 
 speedily followed by the establishment of a National 
 Guard in Paris, and the storming of tJie Bastille. The 
 troops were then disbanded, Necker recalled, Lafayette 
 nominated commandant of the National Guard, and the 
 fickle populace appeased by the appearance of Louis XVI. 
 with the tri-colored national cockade, at the Hotel de 
 Ville. In the first panic produced by this " insurrection," 
 many of the higher nobility emigrated. The King's 
 second brother, the Comte d'Artois (Charles X.), and 
 many others, fled to Cologne, Sardinia, &c., and assem- 
 bled a force on the frontiers for the invasion of France 
 and restoration of the ancient order of things. The na- 
 tional assembly commenced their proceedings by the abo- 
 lition of the feudal system (4th and 5th August), and 
 all other privileges of the nobles and clergy, without 
 granting them any indemnification. Then followed a 
 declaration of the rights of man, as a preliminary 
 to the formation of a constitution. They next voted 
 themselves ?i permanent body, the assembly, consisting of 
 only 07ie chamber, to be renewed every two years, and a 
 veto to be allowed to the King, the efi"ect of which would 
 be the postponement of any decision for four years (two 
 sessions). To all these resolutions they demanded the 
 assent of the King. 
 
 (285.) Reports of a re-actionary movement on the part 
 of the court, combined with the refusal of Louis XVI. to 
 ratify, without modification, several articles of tlie consti- 
 tution, occasioned fresh discontents, which were aggra- 
 vated by the scarcky of food, and burst forth on Oct. 5, 
 when a tumultuous mob of 8000 fishwomen proceeded to 
 Versailles, and attacked the palace (Oct. 6.) although the 
 
286. ^ 43.] THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 149 
 
 King had supplied the capital with provisions, and signi- 
 fied his readiness to accept the disputed articles. By the 
 exertions of Lafayette, the King and Marie Antoinette 
 (whose danger was the most imminent) were rescued from 
 the fury of the rabble ; but the royal family were com- 
 pelled to follow the women to Paris, whither the national 
 assembly adjourned its session, after the defection of more 
 than 200 of its members. 
 
 (286.) B. In Paris. The questions which next oc- 
 cupied the attention of the assembly (the members of 
 which were now divided, according to the part of the 
 chamber in which they sat, into the right and left parties) 
 were the representation of the people and the 
 government of the country. The result of their 
 deliberations was the division of France into aighty-three 
 departments (subdivided into districts and cantons, with 
 orographical and hydrographical boundaries, in place of 
 the old provinces, which were connected in various ways 
 with the crown, and enjoyed peculiar privileges. The 
 primary elective franchise was conferred on persons of a 
 certain age, who possessed the requisite property qualifi- 
 cation ; but was not at first granted to the Jews. These 
 " active citizens," as they were called, chose electors, who 
 returned 745 representatives to the legislative assembly, 
 and acted at the same time as administrative counsellors 
 for the departments and districts. The municipal au- 
 thorities were chosen from the body of " active citizens." 
 To meet their pecuniary difficulties, it was resolved, on 
 the motion of Talleyrand (Bishop of Autun), and Mira- 
 beau, to appropriate all ecclesiastical property (3000 mil- 
 lions of francs) to the service of the nation^ the state un- 
 dertaking the maintenance of the clergy. In order to 
 hasten the sale of the church lands, it was also agreed, on 
 the recommendation of Mirabeau, to issue paper money 
 (assignats), which after a time became utterly valueless, in 
 consequence of the enormous quantity in circulation 
 (45,000 millions). Acts were passed forbidding conventu- 
 al vows, and suppressing all monastic orders^ except those 
 engaged in education and the care of the sick. A reform 
 was also effected in the administration of justice^ by a 
 separation of the judicial from the executive authority, 
 
150 MODEKN HISTOHY. [287. ^43. 
 
 and the establishment of trial by jury in criminal cases. 
 These sweeping measures were soon followed by the abo- 
 lition of hereditary nobility (with their titles, coats of 
 arms, and liveries), and the civil constitution of the clergy. 
 The King, who had already lost almost all the crown 
 lands, as well as the privilege of making war or concluding 
 peace without consulting his subjects, was now required to 
 ratify all the acts of the assembly, and on the anniversary 
 of the storming of the Bastille, at a grand national festival 
 in the Champ de Mars, took an oath to observe the new 
 constitution. Among the members of the national assem- 
 bly were formed Clubs, which met for the purpose of 
 preparing resolutions to be proposed in the assembly. 
 Of these the most important was the club of the Jaco- 
 bins (so called from their place of meeting, a monastery 
 belonging to the suppressed order of Jacobins at Paris), 
 which kept up a regular communication with the patriotic 
 clubs in the provinces, and at last became so powerful as 
 not merely to prepare resolutions, but to decide before- 
 hand what propositions should be adopted by the great 
 body of representatives. After the resignation of Necker, 
 in consequence of a popular commotion, the " right" sus- 
 tained a series of defeats in the chamber, and soon after- 
 wards the republican party, released from all restraint by 
 the death of Mirabeau, openly proclaimed its intention of 
 overthrowing the monarchy. 
 
 (287.) The King, who had ratified with manifest re 
 luctance some recent acts of the national assembly (respect- 
 ing the ejection of such of the clergy as refused to take 
 the civic oath, the abolition of his own right of pardoning 
 criminals, &c.), now attempted to escape to an encamp- 
 ment on the frontier, in order to commence a counter- 
 revolution ; but at Varennes he was recognized by the 
 postmaster (Drouet), and convoyed a prisoner to Paris. 
 Meanwhile the royal authority was suspended ; but after 
 a long discussion, a majority of tlie left side, in conjunc- 
 tion with the moderate party, resolved to retain a consti- 
 tutional monarchy, and replace Louis on the throne. On 
 this occasion, even the Jacobins opposed the republican 
 party. The national assembly terminated its labors by a 
 second revision of the constitution, and, after obtaining 
 
288,289. ^44.] the fkexnch revolution. 151 
 
 the assent of the King to all its proceedings, closed tho 
 session on Sept. 30. 
 
 ^ 44. The Legislative Assembly. 
 From Octf 1, 1791, to Sept. 21, 1792. 
 r288 ) In the new legislative assembly, which consisted 
 of one chamber and 745 deputies, the Femllants' or de- 
 fenders of constitutional monarchy, were the weaker, and 
 the republican JacoUns the stronger party. ihe G-z- 
 rondists (1. e. deputies from ^^^^ ,^'^^^^7^*^./^,,^^; 
 Garonne and Gironde) composed the moderate party, 
 whilst the Cm-deliers (so called from their place of meet- 
 Tn. in the church of the barefooted friars), under the 
 direction of Danton, Marat, Camille-Desmoulms, &c 
 disseminated their democratic and anarchical notions 
 and spoke more and more openly of a republic.^ The 
 highest places in the municipality and courts of justice 
 were filled with Jacobins, such as Petion, Manud, Rob- 
 espierre, Danton, &c. After several changes, the King at 
 last formed a Girondist administation (Dumouricz, Roland, 
 &c), which compelled him (in consequence of the demon- 
 strations of the emigrants on the German frontier, and 
 the appearance of an Austrian army of observation m 13el- 
 murnVto declare war (in conjunction with the national 
 fssembly)^ against Francis IL, "King of Hungary and 
 
 ^""^m^) On June 20, 1792, the King, who had refused 
 his assent to two acts of the assembly (for the banish- 
 ment of the nonjuring priests, and the f^yf^^^^on of a 
 camp in the neighborhood of Pans), was attacked by an 
 infuriated mob (the sans culottes), in the palace of the 
 Tuileries. The rapid advance of the enemy, and the pub- 
 lication of a threatening manifesto by the Duke of Bruns- 
 wick, so alarmed and irritated the populace, tba* they 
 besieged the King a second time (Aug. 10) m the Tuil- 
 eries; with the avowed intention of compelling him to 
 abdicate. Louis now threw h imself into the arms of the 
 
 1 So called from their place of meeting, f^^..^^Y^l^fcluh 
 Feuillants at Paris. They belonged ongmally to the Jacobin club, 
 from which they receded soon after the return of the King. 
 
152 MODERN HISTORY. [290. ^ 45. 
 
 national assembly, which passed a decree suspending 
 tlic royal authority, a2;recd to suiniuon a national 
 convention for the settlement of tlie future constitu- 
 tion, and committed the King and his family to the 
 Temple. Lafayette, who had attempted to escape from 
 the danger which threatened him in consequence of his 
 defence of the constitution, was arrested by the Austri- 
 ans on the fronl!h)r, and conveyed to Olmiitz. The Jaco- 
 bins, availing themselves of the discontents occasioned 
 by the surrender of Verdun to the Prussians, persuaded 
 the rabble to rid themselves of the imprisoned adherents 
 of the old regime (principally nobles and priests), by a five 
 days' massacre at Paris, Versailles, Lyons, &c. (2nd to 
 7tli Sept.) The legislative assembly, which had witnessed 
 these horrors in silence, now dissolved itself, and was suc- 
 ceeded by the national convention, consisting of'749 
 newly-elected deputies. 
 
 IL The Republic. 
 
 ^ 45. The National Convention. 
 From Sept. 21, 1792, to Oct. 26, 1795. 
 
 (290.) I. Trial and execution of the King. 
 
 The national convention was distracted by the strug- 
 gles of two opposite parties — the moderate party, or 
 Girondists., and the Montagnards^ or Jacobins^ led by 
 Robespierre, Danton, and Marat. From the very com- 
 mencement the Jacobins were the stronger party, not so 
 much on account of their numbers, as their courage, una- 
 nimity, and unscrupulous employment of the most despe- 
 rate means for the attainment of their object. . In the 
 first session of the convention the monarchy was 
 abolished, and France declared a republic, " one and 
 indivisible." In spite of the resistance offered by the 
 Girondists to the treasonable designs of the Montagnards, 
 Louis Capet, as they called the unhappy King, was com- 
 pelled to appear at the bar of the national convention, 
 who acted at onoe as judges and accusers. Almost all the 
 
291j292. ^45.] the republic. 153 
 
 acts of his government, from the suspension of the na- 
 tional assembly on the 20th June, 1789, being represented 
 as criminal, he was found guilty by a majority of 683 
 members to 38, of " conspiring against the liberty of the 
 nation, and endangering the public safety." Of the 721 
 deputies, 361 voted unconditionally for a sentence of 
 death. The remaining 360 were divided — the majority 
 voting for imprisonment or banishment, and the minority 
 for the infliction of capital punishment, but not immedi- 
 ately. The application of the King's counsel (Maleshcr- 
 bes, Dcseze, and Tronchet) for an appeal to the people 
 having been rejected, the sentence was carried into execu- 
 tion on the Place Louis XV., January 21, 1793. 
 
 (291.) The execution of the King excited the indig- 
 nation of foreign countries, as well as of a large party at 
 home. England and Spain having recalled their ambas- 
 sadors, the republic immediately declared war against 
 those countries, and also against the hereditary Statthold- 
 er of Holland, as an ally of England. At the same time 
 the French people in the departments south of the Loire, 
 particularly in La Vendee, were so irritated at a con- 
 scription, that they rose en masse against the republican 
 government, and for a long time made head against 
 the raw troops of the convention, whom they were 
 enabled to keep at bay by the swampy nature of the 
 ground. 
 
 (292.) 2. Overthrow of the Gironde. The 
 death of the King was the signal for a deadly struggle 
 between the two parties in the national convention, viz., 
 the Montagnards, or mountain party (a faction composed 
 of Cordeliers and Jacobins), and the Girondists. The 
 former having been foiled in their plan of nominating 
 their leader, Philip, Duke of Orleans (now called Philip 
 Egalito), protector of the republic, the convention intrust- 
 ed the entire executive authority to a committee of 
 public safety (April 6). The Montagnards, furious at 
 their defeat, now armed the rabble of Paris, who besieged 
 the members of the convention in their cliamber (1st and 
 2nd June), and compelled them to issue an order for the 
 arrest of thirty-four Girondists. Almost all the rest fled 
 into the departments, and organized a widely-ramified in- 
 7* 
 
154 MODERN HISTORY. [293,294. §45. 
 
 insurrection against the so-called Reign of Terror 
 which, had just commenced. 
 
 3. The reign of terror after the fall of the G-ironde. 
 From June 2, 1793, to July 24, 1794. 
 
 (293.) The national convention, after drawing up and 
 circulating in the departments the plan of a purely demo- 
 cratic constitution, now occupied itself with preparations 
 for the suppression of the insurrectionists and the trial of 
 the Girondist prisoners, as well as the few other members 
 of that party who were still resident at Paris. Meanwhile 
 Marat was murdered by a young woman named Charlotte 
 Corday. 
 
 (294.) At this period, when the arms of the republic 
 were almost every where unsuccessful both at home and 
 abroad, it was proposed by Carnot, immediately after his 
 appointment as a member of the committee of public 
 safety, that all male persons, between the ages of eighteen 
 and twenty-five, who were capable of bearing arms, should 
 be required to serve as soldiers. So promptly was this 
 edict carried into effect, that within a very short time 
 fourteen armies (1,200,000 men) were ready for the field. 
 The aspect of affairs was now completely changed ; Caen, 
 Bordeaux, and Marseilles, surrendered after a feeble re- 
 sistance ; Lyons was reduced almost to a heap of ruins ; 
 and Toulon, after a fierce struggle (in which Napoleon 
 Bonaparte won his first laurels), was re-conquered from 
 the English. In La Vendee the insurgents, notwithstand- 
 ing their obstinate courage, were several times defeated, 
 the prisoners cruelly murdered (Carrier's Noyades^ drown- 
 ings),^ and the country laid waste with fire and sword by 
 the twelve infernal columns, as they were called. At the 
 same time the republican armies on the frontiers, under 
 the command for the most part of young and untried 
 generals, were several times victorious over the allies (see 
 § 41), and the revolutionary government at home re- 
 
 * An infamous wretch, named Carrier, massacred in cold blood 
 those who had surretidered ; he sunk in the sea (at Nantes) boats 
 tilled with 1500 men, women, and children ; tied men and women 
 together, and threw them into the Loire ; &c. — S. 
 
295. § 45.] THE REPUBLIC. 155 
 
 moved its most active opponents by numerous and hasty 
 executions. Among the earliest victims were the 
 Queen, Marie Antoinette, the (twenty) Girondist pris- 
 oners, and the Duke of Orleans. Even of those Gri- 
 roudists, who had escaped from Paris, when their fellow- 
 deputies were arrested, the majority sooner or later lost 
 their lives. 
 
 (295.) The example of Paris was followed by the de- 
 partments, where revolutionary committees were formed, 
 amounting at last to the enormous number of 20,000, and 
 revolutionary armies, composed of thieves, robbers, and 
 murderers, marched from place to place, carrying with them 
 guillotines for the execution of persons condemned by the 
 revolutionary tribunals. In order to destroy every remi- 
 niscence of former times, a new republican calendar 
 was introduced, which commenced with Sept. 22, 1792, as 
 the first day of the republic, and contained twelve months, 
 to which they gave the names of Vendemaire, Brumaire, 
 Frimaire, Nivose, Ventose, Pluviose, Germinal, Floreal, 
 Prairial, Messidor, Thermidor, and Fructidor, The 
 churches were desecrated and plundered, the Christian 
 religion formally abolished, and the worship of the god- 
 dess of reason established in its place. At the same time 
 every monument of art, which could in any way remind 
 men of monarchy, was barbarously demolished ; the royal 
 vaults in the abbey of St. Denys were destroyed, and the 
 bodies of the kings mutilated and thrown into ditches. A 
 plan of Robespierre's for destroying the two parties op- 
 posed to his policy, by a collision with one another, was 
 attended with complete success, nineteen of the leaders of 
 the Jacobin party being condemned and executed for 
 taking part in the insurrection, whilst on the other hand 
 Danton and his friends, Desmoulins, Lacroix, &c., were 
 guillotined for alleged treasonable practices against the 
 republic. By thus rendering his opponents objects of 
 suspicion, and at the same time parading his own virtue, 
 unselfishness, and honesty, before the eyes of the French 
 peo])le, Robespierre became dictator of France (April 1 
 to July 27, 1794). The moderate party having been by 
 these means annihilated, the convention proceeded to 
 pass a law, dispensing with the evidence of witnesses on 
 
156 MODERN HISTORY. [296. ^45. 
 
 the trials of persons accused of treason against the repub- 
 lic. The result of this iniquitous enactment was the exe- 
 cution of 1400 persons in the forty-j&ve days between the 
 passing of the law and the fall of Robespierre. At length, 
 the discontent caused by these arbitrary proceedings burst 
 forth in the convention itself Robespierre was charged 
 with conspiring against the republic, arrested, condemned 
 without being heard in his own defence, and guillotined, 
 with twenty-two of his adherents, on the following day 
 (July 28). 
 
 (296.) 4. The Re-action. The fall of the Terror- 
 ist chief produced an immediate re-actionary movement. 
 The struggle continued, it is true, for a time between the 
 Moderates (Thermidorians) and Terrorists ; but after the 
 execution of Carrier, and the institution of an inquiry 
 into the conduct of the most notorious Terrorists, the mod- 
 erate party obtained the ascendency. The two committees 
 (of public welfare and public safety) were now entirely in 
 their hands, the Jacobin club was suppressed, seventy- 
 three G-irondists, who had survived the massacre of their 
 brethren, were recalled into the convention, freedom of 
 religious belief and of the press were established, and a 
 commission, with Sieyes at the head, was appointed to 
 draw up a less democra,tic constitution. The Royalists, 
 after the death of Louis XVII., a child of ten years old, 
 who died in the Temple, in consequence of ill-treatment 
 received from a shoemaker named Simon, had conferred 
 the title of King (Louis XVIII.) on a brother of Louis 
 XVI., then resident at Verona, An army of emigrants, 
 which had landed from British ships, on the coast of Brit- 
 tany, near Quiberon, and joined the Chouans in La Ven- 
 dee, was almost annihilated by General Hoche. By the 
 new (third) constitution, the executive power was lodged 
 in a directory of five, and the legislative in two cham- 
 bers, viz., the council of 5 00 which proposed the laws, 
 and the council of (250) Ancients, who examined and 
 confirmed them. The members of the council of An- 
 cients were required to be at least forty years old. In 
 order to frustrate the attempts made by the royalists to 
 obtain a majority in the legislative and executive 
 bodies, it was ordered that at the next election the elec- 
 
297. ^46.] THE REPUBLIC. 157 
 
 tors should return at least two-thirds of the present mem- 
 bers of convention. Some attempts were again made by 
 the royalists to overthrow the republic, but their forces 
 were defeated by a detachment of troops under Napoleon 
 Bonaparte. The councils were then formed without oppo- 
 sition on the plan proposed by the convention, and the new 
 constitution established. 
 
 5» 46. Tlie first Coalition against France (1792 — 1797). 
 
 (297.) 1, Commencement of the War with 
 Austria and Prussia (1792). — A declaration of their 
 readiness to adopt measures for the emancipation of Louis 
 XVI. having been signed at Pillnitz, by Leopold II. and 
 Frederick William II., and speedily followed by the con- 
 clusion of a formal alliance for the protection of the Ger- 
 man empire against the encroachments of France ; the un- 
 happy French monarch was compelled by his rebellious 
 subjects to declare war against Francis II., the successor 
 of Leopold on the imperial throne (see page 151). The 
 whole conduct of this war was confided to his ally, Frede- 
 rick William II., by the Emperor, who promised to assist 
 the Prussians with detachments of Austrian troops. 
 The grand army, composed entirely of Prussian soldiers, 
 advanced, under the command of Duke Ferdinand of Bruns- 
 wick, along the left bank of the Moselle, towards Cham- 
 pagne. After the capture of Longwy and Verdun by the 
 Prussians, the command in chief of the French army was 
 conferred on Dumouriez, whose vigorous measures, aided 
 by the long-continued rains, and the sickliness and starva- 
 tion of the Prussian troops, compelled the enemy to retire, 
 after unsuccessfully attacking the French at Valmy. The 
 Prussians having retreated across the Bhine, Dumouriez 
 next attacked the Austrians (who had entered France from 
 Belgium, and made an unsuccessful attempt on Lisle) ; 
 and, after an engagement which lasted two days, in the 
 neighborhood of Jemappcs (near Mons), the French 
 army, numbering, it is said, 80,000 men (against 14.000?), 
 became masters of the Austrian Netherlands The French 
 then penetrated (by Aix-la-Chapelle) as far as Boer. 
 Meanwhile another French force had conquered Savoy and 
 
158 MODERN HISTORY. [298, 299. § 46. 
 
 Nice from tlie King of Sardinia (who had joined the coa- 
 lition), and (under Custine) had tak'en the fortified city of 
 Mainz (Mayence), 
 
 (298.) 2. War against the grand coalition, to 
 the peace ofBale (1793 — 1795). — After the execution 
 of Louis XVI., all the European powers, with the excep- 
 tion of Sweden, Denmark, Turkey, and the Swiss confed- 
 eration, formed a grand coalition against France, 
 headed by England (under the administration of Pitt). 
 
 (299.) a. The war in Belgiimi^ on the Loiver Rhine 
 and in Holland. — The Austrians opened the campaign of 
 1793 with the re-conquest of Belgium. Whilst Dumouriez 
 was invading Holland from Belgium, the Austrians (under 
 the Prince of Coburg) had defeated the French (who had 
 penetrated as far as Roer), near Aldenhoven (March 1), 
 and driven them back to the Maas. Having received in- 
 telligence from Paris of this movement, Dumouriez quitted 
 Holland, and advanced to the assistance of the defeated 
 army. On the 18th of March he lost the battle of No- 
 erwinden, and, in consequence, the whole of Belgium; 
 whilst the Prussians (under Kalkreuth) regained posses- 
 sion of Mainz. Dumouriez, who had long been dissatis- 
 fied with the proceedings of the Mountain party, proposed 
 to his army the restoration of monarchy in France, and, 
 on their refusing to follow him, went over to the Austri- 
 ans, and soon afterwards took refuge in England. The ad- 
 vantage which the French derived from their superior 
 numbers (in consequence of the conscription), and from 
 the revival by Carnot of the old system, of forming in 
 masses instead of lines, enabled Jourdan, after twice de- 
 feating the Austrians at Wattignies (Oct. 15 and 16, 1793), 
 and once at Fie urus (where the Austrian position was 
 watched from an air-balloon), gradually to drive the Aus- 
 trians out of the Netherlands, and compel them to recross 
 the Rhine. Having reached the Main, the Austrian army 
 halted, gave battle to Jourdan (near Hochst), and com- 
 pelled him to return across tlie Ftliine into France. From 
 Belgium", Picliegru, taking advantage of an unusually se- 
 vere winter^ and the support of an anti-Orange party, in- 
 vaded Holland, and, after the flight of the hereditary 
 Stattholder, established (1795) a Batavian Republic, 
 
300,301. ^46.] THE REPUBLIC. 159 
 
 which concluded an alliance offensive and defensive with 
 France. 
 
 (300.) b. In the war on the Upper and Middle Rhine 
 the French were at first unfortunate : but a dispute soon 
 afterwards arising between the Austrians and Prussians, 
 and the Prussian army being weakened by the sending 
 several detachments into Poland, whilst, on the other 
 hand, the French had united the armies of the Moselle 
 and Rhine, the allies were compelled, notwithstanding 
 some advantages gained in the neighborhood of Kaiserlau- 
 tern, to abandon all their conquests except Luxemburg 
 and Mainz (which remained in the hands of the Germans), 
 and recross to the right bank of the Rhine. Prussia con- 
 cluded a separate peace (1795) at Bale, and consented to 
 leave her trans-Rhenish provinces in the hands of the 
 French, until peace was proclaimed between France and the 
 empire. Tuscany had already (Feb. 9) concluded a peace 
 with the republic ; and was followed by Spain, on the ad- 
 vance of the French to the borders of Old Castillo. The 
 Spanish government not only consented to recognize the 
 French republic a European power, but was mean enough 
 to purchase the withdrawal of the French troops from 
 Spain, by the cession of the Spanish portion of St. Do- 
 mingo. For his services in negotiating this peace, the 
 King conferred on his favorite Grodoy, the title of " Prince 
 of the Peace" (" Principe de la Paz"). In the naval war 
 alone, which began with the capture of Toulon by an 
 English and Spanish fleet, the French were compelled to 
 acknowledge the superiority of the English^ who defeated 
 a French fleet off Ushant, and wrested from the republic 
 most of its colonies in the East and West Indies (and, for 
 a short time, Corsica). 
 
 (301.) 3. Continuation of the war against Aus- 
 tria, the German empire, England, Naples, and 
 Sardinia (1796 — 1797). — In order to compel Austria 
 and the empire to conclude a peace, the Directory renewed 
 the war, at the suggestion of Carnot, with a threefold at- 
 tack on Austria. In the spring of 1796, two armies 
 marched from France into Germany ; the first (the army 
 of the Sambre and Meuse), under Jourdan, from the 
 Lower Rhine into Franconia ; the second, under Moreau 
 
160 MODERN HISTORY. [302, 303. ^ 46. 
 
 (who had replaced Pichegru, in consequence of the sus- 
 picious conduct of the latter at the siege of Mainz), across 
 the Upper Rhine through Swabia and Bavaria ; whilst a 
 third (under Napoleon Bonaparte) was ordered to advance 
 from Italy into Austria, through the Tyrol. 
 
 (302.) The campaign of the French in Germany be- 
 gan auspiciously, the two armies advancing rapidly as far 
 as Bavaria; but here the Archduke Charles (brother 
 of the Emperor Francis II.), who had concentrated his 
 forces by judiciously retreating before Jourdan, as far as 
 the frontiers of Bohemia, and had also received reinforce- 
 ments from the interior, assumed the offensive, and defeated 
 Jourdan at Amburg and Wurzburg so decidedly, that the 
 French general was unable to rally his scattered forces, 
 until he reached the Sieg, where he laid down the command. 
 The Archduke now directed his march against Moreau, 
 who avoided an engagement with a superior force by a 
 masterly retreat to the Upper Rhine. In the year 1797, 
 Hoche (near Neuwied) and Moreau again crossed the 
 Rhine, but the intelligence of the armistice concluded by 
 Napoleon (see page 163) checked their further advance. 
 
 (803.) In Italy ^ the triumph of the French arms was 
 complete, under Napoleon Bonaparte (then in his 
 twenty-seventh year), who had received from the Director 
 Barras the hand of the widowed Duchess Josephine Beau- 
 harnais, together with the command in chief of the Italian 
 army. At the head of an army of 40,000 men, Napoleon 
 entered Italy between the Alps and Apennines, defeated 
 a more numerous and better appointed Austrian force (un- 
 der Beaulieu, a veteran of seventy-two), at Montenotte 
 (April 12) separated by the victory of Mi lie si mo (a col- 
 lective name for the battles fought between April 13 and 
 15) the Sardinian from the Austrian army, and compelled 
 (after the victory of Mondovi) the King of Sardinia (Vic- 
 tor Amadous) to cede Savoy and Nice to the republic, and 
 admit French garrisons into all the most important for- 
 tresses of Piedmont. 
 
304,305. §46] 
 
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 (305.) Napoleon then pursued the retreating Austri- 
 ans across the Po, stormed the bridge of Lodi, and entered 
 Milan. The Dukes of Modena and Parma purchased an 
 insecure armistice by heavy contributions, and the sacri- 
 fice of several treasures of art. Having driven back Beau- 
 lieu as far as the passes of the Tyrol, Napoleon (during 
 the interval which must elapse before he could procure a 
 
162 MODERN HISTORY. [306. 307. § 46. 
 
 battering train sufficiently strong for an attack on Mantua, 
 the only fortress still remaining in the hands of the Aus- 
 trians) marched into central Italy, a movement which com- 
 pelled the court of Naples to declare itself neutral, and 
 forced the Pope, who was threatened with an attack in his 
 own capital, to purchase the forbearance of the French, by 
 the sacrifice of considerable sums of money and treasures 
 of art, together with the cities of Ferrara and Bologna. 
 The Austrians were still in possession of Mantua, which 
 stands in the midst of a lake formed by the waters of 
 the Mincio, and is surrounded by extensive marshes. 
 After four ineffectual attempts had been made to raise the 
 siege, General Wurmser deemed further resistance useless, 
 and surrendered the city to the French, on Feb, 2, 1797. 
 The first of these attempts were made by the veteran 
 Wurmser, who quitted Mantua, in order to form a junction 
 with Quosdanowich, but was defeated near Castiglione, 
 and driven back to the valley of the Etsch ; the second 
 by Wurmser and Davidowich, the former of whom was de- 
 feated at Ba ssano, the latter at Boveredo. Wurmser 
 then threw himself into Mantua, which was closely invested 
 by the French. In the third attempt, the armies of Al- 
 vinzi and Davidowich were defeated before they could ef- 
 fect a junction; the first at Areola (where Napoleon, 
 with a standard in his hand, stormed the bridge at the 
 head of his grenadiers), the other at Bivoli. After the 
 defeat of a fourth army with immense loss, in a second en- 
 gagement at Bivoli, the garrison of Mantua capitulated. 
 
 (306.) During this siege, the Duke of Modena was 
 accused by Napoleon of having supplied the garrison with 
 provisions, and deprived of his duchy, which now formed, 
 in conjunction with the two papal legations of Ferrara 
 and Bologna, a French province, called the Cispadane Bc- 
 public. After the surrender of Mantua, the Pope, who 
 had been making preparations for an attack on the French, 
 was compelled to purchase an inglorious peace (at Tolen- 
 tino), by the sacrifice of Avignon and the Bamagna, and 
 the payment of fifteen millions of livres. 
 
 (307.) Having thus secured his rear, Napoleon ad- 
 vanced to meet the Archduke Charles, who retired before 
 him through Carinthia and Styria to Judenburg (within 
 
308.809. §47.] the republic. 163 
 
 eighteen German miles of Vienna) ; but, being cut off 
 from Italy in consequence of insurrections in the Tyrol 
 and the Venetian states, the republican general concluded, 
 first an armistice (at Leoben), and then, after long negoti- 
 ations, a peace with Austria, at Campo Formio, on Oct. 
 17, 1797. The Netherlands were given up to the French, 
 and Lombardy, with a part of the Venetian territory, Mo- 
 dena, and the three legations, became the Cisalpine Re- 
 public, which was governed by a board of five directors. 
 In return for these sacrifices the Emperor received the 
 republican city of Venice, with its continental territory, 
 ar far as the E.tsch, and was permitted to retain Istria and 
 Dalmatia, which had been wrested from the Venetians by 
 Austria during the armistice. 
 
 (308.) The Venetian islands on the coast of Greece 
 (Corfu, Zante, Cephalonia, &c.) were ceded to France. 
 The Duke of Modena received the Breisgau from Austria, 
 as a compensation for the loss of his duchy. It was also 
 agreed that a congress should be held at Rastadt, for the 
 conclusion of peace between France and the German em- 
 pire. Genoa was compelled to receive a democratic con- 
 stitution, and was styled the Ligurian Republic. The 
 war with England was carried on languidly, in consequence 
 of the wretched state of the French marine. 
 
 § 47. Eastern Europe. 
 
 (309.) 1. Fall of Poland. — Russia, being engaged 
 at the same time in wars with Turkey and Sweden, the 
 Poles deemed this a favorable opportunity for emancipat- 
 ing themselves from the Russian yoke, and remedying the 
 defects of the constitution, which had been guaranteed to 
 them by Russia. Encouraged by the promise of assist- 
 ance from Prussia, the Polish nation proclaimed, on May 
 3, 1791, a new constitution, by which the Liherum veto was 
 abrogated, and the throne declared hereditary ; but no 
 sooner had Russia concluded a peace with the Porte, than 
 the Empress instigated the enemies of Polish independ- 
 ence (Potocki aud others), to form a confederation for the 
 restoration of the ancient constitution. At the same 
 time, Poland was invaded by a Russian army, to which 
 
164 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. [310,311. ^ 47. 
 
 the undisciplined troops commanded bj Joseph Ponia- 
 towski (nephew of the king), and Thaddc^us Kosciuszko 
 offered a feeble and ineffectual resistance. Terrified by 
 these hostile demonstrations on the part of Russia, the 
 King became a party to the confederation of Taro-owitz 
 forbade any further resistance, and gave his absent %o the 
 abrogation of the new constitution. 
 
 (310.) Meanwhile the King of Prussia, anxious to 
 avoid a war with Russia and France at the same time, not 
 only refused to render further assistance to the Poles but 
 even invaded their country, with the avowed obiect of 
 stemming the tide of Jacobinism, and issued a proclama- 
 tion, stating that the safety of his dominions required the 
 restriction withm nai-rower bounds of the territory of the 
 Polish republic. To encourage Prussia in her resistance 
 to the in-ench revolutionists, and prevent her entertainino- 
 any further thoughts of rendering assistance to the Poles 
 a second partition of Poland was arranged between 
 Russia and Prussia (1793), the former power receiving the 
 half of Lithuania (4000 sq. [German] miles), and the lat- 
 ter the greater part of Great Poland (southern Prussia), 
 with the cities of Dantzic and Thorn (altogether 1000 sq 
 miles).' Early in the following spring, the Poles again 
 took up arms, put to death or made prisoners the Russian 
 soldiers who composed the garrison at Warsaw, and chose 
 Kosciuszko to be their leader. 
 
 1- ^P-} ^.r^,"^. "'^'^y'^S intelligence of this outbreak, 
 Frederick William II. immediately entered Poland at the 
 head of a Prussian army, defeated Kosciuszko and stormed 
 Cracow, but was compelled to abandon the siege of War- 
 saw, m consequence of an insurrection in Southern Prussia 
 Meanwhile Poland was invaded by a considerable Austri- 
 an torce and two Russian armies, under Fersen and Su- 
 warrow. To prevent tlie junction of these Russian ar- 
 mies. Kosciuszko attacked General Fersen. at Maciejowice, 
 iSi ^T^' defeated and taken prisoner (f in ' Switzerland, in 
 181/) The city of Prague was stormed by Suwarrow, 
 and the strugg le terminated by the capitulation of War- 
 
 'The German mile is of two descriptions, the lon^ and the short • 
 the long mile is equal to 10,126 yards; the short, G^SO yards.-S. ' 
 
312 — 314. ^48.] EASTERN EUROPE. 165 
 
 saw, and the abdication of King Stanislaus Poniatowski 
 (t 1798, at St. Petersburg), At length, after protracted 
 negotiations, a third and final partition of Poland 
 was arranged between the three powers (1795), the Vistula 
 to separate Prussia and Austria ; the Bug, Austria and 
 Kussia ; and the Niemen, Prussia and Russia, Warsaw 
 was given to Prussia. 
 
 (312.) 2. Prussia.— Frederick William II. 
 (1786 — 1797) took an active part in the disastrous war 
 against France in 1792, as well as in the Polish war of 
 1794. The former cost him his possessions on the left 
 bank of the Rhine ; whilst in the latter he acquired, be- 
 sides the cities of Dantzic and Thorn, a fresh portion of 
 Poland, out of which were formed the provinces of South- 
 ern and New Prussia, separated from one another by the 
 river Vistula. A small part of this territory was added to 
 Silesia. Frederick became possessor also of the princi- 
 palities of Anspach and Baireuth, which had been ceded 
 to the electoral line by the last Brandenburg-Franconian 
 Margrave, in 1792. Frederick William II. was succeeded, 
 iu 1797, by his son, Frederick William III., who en- 
 deavored, by the maintenance of peace, to replenish the 
 exchecjuer, which had been exhausted by the wars of his 
 predecessor. 
 
 (313.) In Russia, Catherine 11. was succeeded by 
 her son, Paul I. (1796 — 1801) ; and in Sweden, Gusta- 
 vus III. by his son, Gustavus IV. (1792—1809). 
 
 ^ 48. The French Directwy. 
 (Oct. 27, 1795— Dec. 15, 1799.) 
 
 (314.) The five directors (among whom were Rewbel, 
 Barras, and Carnot) found the finances of the republic 
 completely exhausted, the assignats having become value- 
 less since the termination of the reign of terror. To meet 
 this difficulty, a new description of paper money (territo- 
 rial mandates, i. e. bills exchangeable for portions of the 
 national landed property) was issued, to the extent of 
 :^400 millions. But the public had long since abandoned 
 all confidence in paper money, and after a few montlis tlie 
 mandates lost even the slight value which they had origi- 
 
166 MODERN HISTORY. [315 317. ^48. 
 
 nally possessed, and occasioned a second time the ruin of 
 thousands, 
 
 (315.) The failure of these measures, and the con- 
 tempt in which the directory was held, on account of its 
 wavering policy, occasioned the formation, in the councils 
 of the Ancients and of the 500, of a royalist opposition, 
 composed of adherents of the constitution of 1791. At 
 the same time, a party was formed in the directory itself, 
 by Carnot and Barthelemy, against their three colleagues. 
 After a long and violent struggle between the re-action 
 party and tlie republicans, the latter, with the assistance 
 of the army, arrested and banished all their adversaries 
 (except Carnot and Barthelcmy, who saved themselves by 
 flight), and annulled several of the acts passed by the 
 royalist re-action party. 
 
 (316.) Finding it necessary to engage the nation in 
 foreign wars in order to withdraw public attention from 
 the ruin which threatened them at home, the directory 
 broke off the negotiations which it had commenced with 
 England, and voted the establishment of an " army of 
 England," under Greneral Bonaparte, whom they hoped to 
 withdraw from the capital, by giving him a distant com- 
 mand. Whilst the assemblage of troops in all the sea- 
 port towns of the northwest of France seemed to indicate 
 an intention of invading England, Bonaparte was secretly 
 making preparations in the southern ports for an expedi- 
 tion against Egypt, intending, after subduing and coloniz- 
 ing that country, to attack the English in the East Indies, 
 where Tippoo Sahib had renewed the war, which termi- 
 nated (1799) in the ruin of the kingdom of Mysore, and 
 the extension of the British dominions in India. 
 
 Bonaparte^ s Expedition against Egypt ami Syria, 
 
 (1798 and 1799.) 
 
 (317.) On May 19, 1798, Bonaparte, at the head of 
 35 000 men, the flower of his victorious Italian army, 
 sailed from Toulon, accompanied by his brother Louis, 
 G-enerals Berthier and Kleber (who were afterwards joined 
 by Dcssaix), and a host of distlnguislied savants and art- 
 ists. Notwithstanding the vigilance of Nelson, the French 
 
318. ^48. EASTERN EUROPE. 167 
 
 fleet was joined by flotillas from Corsica and Civita Vec- 
 cliia. and Bonaparte, after wre^ing Malta from the Knights 
 of St. John, landed at Alexandria on July 1, and stormed 
 the city. After enduring many fatigues and hardships in 
 crossing the desert, the French army reached Cairo, which 
 they occupied, after defeating, in the battle of the Pyr- 
 amids, the Mamelukes (descendants of slaves from the 
 Caucasus), whose twenty-three Beys governed Egypt as 
 vassals of the Porte. Meanwhile Dessaix advanced as far 
 as the southern frontier of Egypt, towards Syene : and 
 Napoleon was already occupied in the organization of the 
 conquered territory, when intelligence reached him that 
 the French fleet had been annihilated by Admiral Nel- 
 son, in the great battle of Aboukir (Aug. 1), and that the 
 French army, in conscc|uence of this disaster, was cut off 
 from all communication with France. About the same 
 time the populace of Cairo, irritated beyond endurance by 
 the extortions and cruelties of the French, rose en masse 
 against their oppressors, but were defeated with terrible 
 slaughter. The Porte having declared war against France, 
 in consequence of these proceedings, Bonaparte, anticipat- 
 ing the mov%ments of Achmet Djezzar, the blood-thirsty 
 pasha of Syria (who was making preparations for an in- 
 vasion of Egypt), entered that country (February, 1 799) 
 and stormed Jaffa (where 3200 Turkish prisoners were 
 massacred), but was foiled in his attempts on Acre, the 
 key of Syria, which was defended by the English Com- 
 modore, Sir Sydney Smith, and two French engineers. 
 After eight unsuccessful attacks, Bonaparte, who had re- 
 ceived intelligence of an insurrection in Upper Egypt, and 
 the appearance of a Turkish fleet on the coast, withdrew 
 his army, which had suffered grievously from the plague, 
 and returned across the Syrian desert to Egypt. 
 
 (318.) Having defeated the Turkish army, which had 
 landed at Aboukir, Bonaparte quitted Egypt in August, 
 1799, leaving Kleber in command of the army, and, after 
 a second time bafiiing the vigilance of the British admiral, 
 arrived in France. Kleber, after gaining a brilliant vic- 
 tory (with 10,000 men) over the Grand Vizier, who had 
 advanced from Syria as far as Heliopolis, at the head of 
 more than 70,000 men, was assassinated (on the day of 
 
168 MODERN HISTORY. [393,320.^48. 
 
 tlie battle of Marengo, June 14, 1800), by a fanatic named 
 Solyman, of Aleppo. Meanwliile Dessaix had returned 
 to France. 
 
 (319.) Establishment of new republics. — The- 
 vielent proceedings of the directory had produced a fresh 
 coalition of the European powers against France. At 
 Rome, the death of a French general (Duphot), during a 
 popular insurrection which he had headed, afforded the di- 
 rectory a welcome pretext for sending an army, under Ber- 
 thier, to occupy the States of the Church ; and establish- 
 ing (with the consent, as they pretended, of the Roman 
 people) a Roman Republic, governed, after the French 
 model, by six consuls, a senate, and a tribunate. Soon 
 after this revolution the Pope, Pius VI., was removed to 
 Valence, in France, where he died in 1799. Measures 
 equally unjustifiable were adopted for the destruction of 
 the Swiss Confederation. The inhabitants of the 
 Pays de Vaud were encouraged to renounce their allegi- 
 ance to the aristocratic Canton of Berne (the capital of 
 which was occupied by a French garrison), and the whole 
 of Switzerland (with the exception of Geneva, which was 
 incorporated into the French republic as the^dcpartment 
 of Leman) was proclaimed a republic, with a democratic 
 government of directors, a senate, and a grand council. 
 In conformity with a secret article introduced, with the 
 consent of Austria, into the treaty of Campo Formio, the 
 G-erman empire was deprived of all its possessions on 
 the left bank of the Rhine, and Piedmont was taken from 
 the King of Sardinia, For the war of the second 
 Coalition against France, see ^ 49. 
 
 (320.) Dissolution of the Directory. — Under 
 the administration, at once feeble and despotic, of a gov- 
 ernment so incapable as the French directory, the discon- 
 tent produced by the imposition of the most oppressive 
 taxes, as well as by the insecurity of property, the stagna- 
 tion of their home trade, the corrupt administration of 
 justice, and the destruction of their ecclesiastical estab- 
 lishment, had rapidly increased during the absence of Bo- 
 naparte in Egypt. On the arrival, therefore, of that gen- 
 eral in France, the nation eagerly welcomed him as their 
 deliverer, and empowered him, in conjunction with Sieyes, 
 
821. ^49. EASTERN EUROPE. 169 
 
 and a majority of the council of Ancients, to effect such 
 a change in the constitution as should place the supreme 
 power in his hands. An attempt, which was discovered 
 and frustrated, to overthrow the new constitution, fur- 
 nished the two councils with an excuse for adjourning 
 their session to St. Cloud, which was guarded by a mili- 
 tary force under Bonaparte. Of the five directors, two 
 (Sieyes and Roger-Ducos) supported Bonaparte, on condi- 
 tion of their being appointed consuls ; Barras resigned ; 
 and the two others were thrown into prison, on the 18th 
 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799). On the following day, the con- 
 test between the republicans and Bonapartists was carried 
 on with such violence in the assembly of Five Hundred, 
 of which Lucien Bonaparte was president (for the month 
 Brumaire), that Napoleon almost despaired of success ; 
 but. by the exertions of himself and his brother Lucien 
 (who spread a report that the republicans intended to as- 
 sassinate the general), the co-operation of the army was 
 secured, and Bonaparte, at the head of a large force, en- 
 tered the hall in which the Five Hundred were assembled, 
 and compelled them to terminate their session. The three 
 directors were then nominated a provisional government 
 by their adherents in the two councils, and a commission 
 was appointed to prepare a new (fourth) constitution. On 
 Dec. 24, Bonaparte was appointed first Consul for 
 ten years, with two colleagues, Cambaceres and Lebrun, 
 who were to act merely as his advisers. All projects of 
 law were to be submitted by the Consuls to a tribunate 
 of 100 members, for their advice ; and to a legislative 
 corps of 300, for confirmation or rejection (without 
 debate). 
 
 ^ 49. War of the second Coalition against France. 
 
 (1799—1802.) 
 
 (32 1 . ) The Emperor had ceded, as we have already men- 
 tioned, the left bank of the Rhine to France, in-accord- 
 ance with the secret articles in the treaty of Campo For- 
 mio, Salzburg and a considerable portion of Bavaria being 
 promised to him as a compensation. An imperial deputa- 
 tion, which protested against this alienation of German 
 
170 MODRRN HISTORY. [322. ^ 49. 
 
 territory at the congress of E-astadt, was compelled not 
 only to acquiesce in the decision of the congress, but even 
 to sanction the secularization of all the ecclesiastical seign- 
 ories of Germany, by way of indemnification to the impe- 
 rial cities and princes on the left bank of the Rhine. 
 Meanwhile a new, and, in some respects, unnatural coali- 
 tion had been formed (during the absence of Bonaparte 
 in Syria and Egypt) between England, the Russian Em- 
 peror Paul (on whom the Knights of Malta had con- 
 ferred the grand mastership of their order after their ex- 
 pulsion from the island), the Porte (in consequence of 
 the attack on Egypt), Austria (on account of the estab- 
 lishment of republics in the States of the Church and in 
 Switzerland), and Naples. In consequence of the forma- 
 tion of this coalition, the negotiations for peace were bro- 
 ken off, and the Congress of Rastadt terminated with the 
 mysterious assassination of the French plenipotentiaries 
 (1799) — Bebret, Bonnier, and Roberjot. Most of the 
 German princes of the empire, especially the spiritual, 
 who saw no other chance of reversing the secularization, 
 determined to take part in the war, whilst the northern 
 sovereigns, including Frederick William III. of Prussia, 
 observed a strict neutrality. 
 
 (322.) The plan of the allies was to send a Russo- 
 -4^^s^r^a?^ army, under Suwarrow and Melas, into Italy; 
 a Russo- English, under the Duke of York, into the N e- 
 therlands; and an Austricm, under the Archduke 
 Charles, into Southern Germany and Switzerland; 
 for the purpose of expelling the French from all those 
 countries. The Neapolitans (under Mack) commenced the 
 war with an invasion of the Roman republic, from which 
 they were soon compelled to retire. On the advance of 
 the French, the King of Naples fled to Sicily, leaving his 
 capital in the hands of General Championnet, who changed 
 the kingdom into a Parthenopoean Republic (Jan. 25, 
 1799). The directory then declared war against the allies, 
 and dispatched an army to the Rhine, under Bcrnadotte ; 
 another to the Danube, under Jourdan (who was soon fol- 
 lowed by Moreau) ; a third into Italy, under Scherer ; and 
 a fourth into Switzerland, under Masseua, who wrested the 
 country of the Grisons from Austria, and established a 
 
323. ^ 49. EASTERN EUROPE. 171 
 
 communication between the French armies in Italy and in 
 Southern Grermany. Macdonald was also stationed at Na- 
 ples, and Brune in Holland. 
 
 (323.) 1. The War in Italy.— Before the arrival 
 of the Russians, the Austrian army, under G-eneral Kray, 
 had defeated Scherer, who was endeavoring to force the 
 passage of the Etsch, and were in the act of attacking his 
 successor Moreau, near Cassano, when the arrival of Su- 
 warrow completed the discomj&ture of the French. Lom- 
 bardy and Piedmont were occupied by Russian troops ; the 
 Cisalpine republic abolished ; and a French army, under 
 Macdonald (who had quitted Naples, in the hope of effect- 
 ing a junction with Moreau), was defeated after three days' 
 hard fighting on the banks of the Trebia : whereupon the 
 ancient constitution was re-established at Naples, and soon 
 afterwards at Rome (under Pius VII.), and in Tuscany. 
 After defeating a French army, under Joubert, who fell in 
 the action, Suwarrow crossed the Alps, for the purpose of 
 driving the French otit of Switzerland. At the end of the 
 year, 1799, nothing remained to the French of their Ital- 
 ian conquests except Grenoa ; but in the following year 
 Berthier, assisted by Bonaparte (in the famous campaign 
 of forty days), led an army of reserve, as it was called, in 
 several divisions over the passes of the two St. Bernards, 
 the Simplon and the St. Grothard, into Italy (where Mas- 
 sena was blockaded in Grenoa), and took the Austrians in 
 the rear, whilst Bonaparte entered Milan, and re-estab- 
 lished the republic. No choice therefore remained for 
 Melas, but to throw himself into Grenoa (of which the Aus- 
 trians had obtained possession), or cut his way through 
 Bonaparte's army. Having resolved to adopt the latter 
 course, he engaged the French at Marengo, near Ales- 
 sandria, and had already repulsed the enemy, when the 
 battle was renewed by Dessaix, whose death served only to 
 stimulate his soldiers to greater exertions. ^ The Austri- 
 ans now gave way in their turn, and their discomfiture was 
 completed by the arrival of Kellerman, who suffered Melas 
 to withdraw the remains of his army from the field, on 
 condition of his evacuating all the fortresses of Piedmont, 
 Grenoa, Lombardy, and the Legations, and retiring to 
 Mantua. Bonaparte now established provisional govern- 
 
172 MODERN HISTORY. [324,325. §49. 
 
 ments in Milan, Turin, and Genoa, and, having nominated 
 Massena commander-in-chief of the army of Italy, returned 
 to Paris. 
 
 (324.) 2. The War in Grermany and Switzer- 
 land. — Here, also, the Austrians were at first victorious. 
 The Archduke Charles drove the army of the Danube 
 across the Rhine, and compelled Massena, who had entered 
 the country of the Grisons, to retreat beyond Zurich. 
 Meanwhile Suwarrow, after several obstinate combats with 
 the French (in the valley of the Reuss, at the Devil's- 
 bridge, &c.), had entered Switzerland by the pass of St. 
 Gothard; but finding the country in the occupation of 
 Soult and Massena (who had defeated a division of the 
 Austrian army and a Russian army under Korsakow), he 
 was compelled, after a succession of skirmishes and ha- 
 rassing marches, to withdraw his exhausted troops into 
 the country of the Grisons, and return to Russia through 
 Upper Swabia. In the year 1800, Moreau drove the Aus- 
 trians (under Kray) back to the Inn, and after defeating 
 the Archduke Charles in the forest of Hohenlinden (Dec. 
 3), advanced to within twenty German miles of Vienna. 
 
 (325.) On Feb. 9, 1801, peace was concluded at Lu- 
 neville, the Emperor, on the part of Austria, ratifying 
 all the essential conditions of the peace of Campo Formio, 
 repeating the stipulations entered into at Rastadt, and 
 leaving the left bank of the Rhine in possession of the 
 French. A deputation of eight princes (five of whom 
 were Electors), appointed to consider the question of in- 
 demnification to those princes who had been deprived of 
 their dominions during the war, was compelled, after two 
 years spent in negotiation, to accept a plan proposed 
 by the French and Russian governments. By this 
 arrangement the hereditary princes of the empire were 
 indemnified for their losses, partly by a grant of secular- 
 ized Church lands, and partly by forty-two mediatized ^ 
 imperial cities; the Grand Duke of Tuscany received 
 Salzburg as a compensation for the cession of his territory 
 
 1 The smaller German sovereignties were annexed to larger con- 
 tiguous states; this is what is meant by mediatization. They 
 were mediately though not immediately dependent on the empire. 
 
326. ^49.] EASTERN EUROPE. 173 
 
 to the Duke of Parma, and the Duke of Modena obtained 
 the Breisgau. In this division, the countries most favored 
 were Prussia, Bavaria, Hesse-Darmstadt, Baden, and 
 Wurtemberg. For the two last, with the new grand 
 duchy of Salzburg and Hesse-Cassel, four new electorates 
 were founded, making the total number of electors ten 
 (Cologne and Treves having been deprived of the dignity). 
 The unmediatized cities were Hamburg, Liibeck, Bremen, 
 Frankfort, Nurnberg, and Augsburg. 
 
 (326. ) 1 . Prussia received the bishoprics of Prader- 
 born and Hildesheim, the portion of Thuringia belonging 
 to Mainz, a part of Miinster, several abbeys (Quedlinburg, 
 Essen, Werden, &c.) and imperial cities (Muhhausen, Nord- 
 hausen, Groslar, &c.). 2. Bavaria in return for the pal- 
 atinate (on both sides of the Bhine), and the duchies of 
 Julich and Zweibrucken, obtained the bishoprics of Wurz- 
 burg, Bamberg, Freisingen, and Augsburg (the city of 
 Augsburg remained unmediatized). 3. Hesse shared 
 with Nassau all that remained of the archbishoprics of 
 Cologne, Treves, and Mainz. 4. Baden was indebted to 
 the relationship between its Grand Duke and the Emperor 
 of Russia for the whole of the palatinate on the right 
 bank of the Rhine, the bishopric of Constance, and the 
 remains of the bishoprics of Spires, Basle, and Stras- 
 burg. 5. Wurtemberg was more than indemnified 
 for her losses in Alsace, by receiving several Swabian 
 bishoprics and imperial cities. 6. Austria obtained the 
 bishoprics of Trent and Brixen, as an indemnification for 
 her cession of the Breisgau. 7. The Duke of Parma 
 received Tuscany, with the title of King of Etruria, 
 as a compensation for the cession of his hereditary do- 
 minions to France. 8. Naples purchased peace by the 
 sacrifice of some portion of her territory, and consented 
 to close her ports against the English, and admit French 
 garrisons into some of her maritime towns (in order to se- 
 cure a place of embarkation for Egypt). Bonaparte was 
 appointed president of the Cisalpine (now called the Ital- 
 ian) republic. In Switzerland, six new cantons, viz., the 
 Grisons, Aargau, Vaud, St. Gall.' Thurgau, and Tessin were 
 added to the thirteen which already existed. Yallais was an- 
 nexed to France, on account of the road across the Simplon. 
 
174 MODERN HISTORY. [327, o28. §50. 
 
 (327.) 3. The War with England.— After the 
 establishment of the Batavian republic, and the escape of 
 the hereditary Stattholder to England, the commerce of 
 Holland had been grievously crippled by the English, 
 whilst at the same time the country itself was distracted 
 by the contentions of the republican and Orange parties. 
 At this crisis an English fleet, with the Prince of Orange 
 on board, having appeared off the mouth of the Helder, the 
 Batavian fleet immediately joined the invaders ; but the in- 
 capacity and dilatoriness of the Duke of York, who arrived 
 soon afterwards with an Angio-Kussian fleet, occasioned 
 the failure of the whole undertaking. The supremacy of 
 England in the Mediterranean was secured by the con- 
 quest of Malta, and the evacuation of Egypt by the French, 
 in accordance with the capitulation concluded by Menou, 
 in 1801; but the refusal of the English government to de- 
 liver up Malta to the Emperor Paul, as Grrand Master of 
 the Order, having produced a rupture with Russia, that 
 power immediately revived the armed maritime neutrality 
 (in conjunction with Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia), and 
 England avenged herself by the bombardment of Copen- 
 hagen. The sudden death of the Emperor Paul (who was 
 succeeded by Alexander I. 1801 — 1825), and the resigna- 
 tion of Pitt, afforded a favorable opportunity for the ter- 
 mination of hostilities. In October, 1801, peace was con- 
 cluded by Russia with France and England, and on March 
 25, in the following year, the English government, at the 
 peace of Amiens, relinquished (in return for the recog- 
 nition by France of the republic of the seven Ionian isles) 
 all her conquests except Trinidad and the Dutch settle- 
 ments in Ceylon, engaging, at the same time, to restore 
 Malta to the Order, a promise which was never fulfilled. 
 To this treaty the Porte became also a party on June 25. 
 
 § 50. The Consular Governynent of Napoleon Bonaioarte. 
 
 (From Nov. 9, 1799, to May 18, 1804.) 
 
 (328.) After securing peace with foreign powers on 
 terms exceedingly advantageous and honorable to France, 
 the first Consul next directed his attention to the restora- 
 tion of tranquillity at home, and endeavored by a wise 
 
328. § 50.] EASTERN EUROPE. 175 
 
 moderation to reconcile tlie various parties in the state. 
 At the same time, however, it daily became more apparent 
 that his ultimate object was to establish an absolute mon- 
 archy Libertyof speech and writing was more and more 
 restricted, whilst the discovery of conspiracies, such, for 
 instance, as the attempt of tfie Chouans to assassinate 
 the first Consul by means of the infernal machine, tur- 
 nished him with a pretext for the banishment of 130 re- 
 publicans. The tribunate was divided into three sections, 
 an amnesty proclaimed, which enabled most of the emi- 
 grants (more than 100,000) to return, and the Roman 
 Catholic worship re-established by virtue of a concordat 
 with Pope Pius YII. An improvement was effected m 
 the education of the higher classes, which was placed un- 
 der the control of the government, a new statute-book pub- 
 lished, called the " Code Napoleon," public credit re-estab- 
 lished by iijeans of a sound financial system, and a tormi- 
 dable army kept on foot. Measures were now adopted for 
 e-radually changing the consulship into an absolute mon- 
 archy The establishment of a new order of knighthood 
 (the legion of honor), with a fixed endowment, prepared 
 the way for the restoration of hereditary nobihty ; and, 
 immediately after the conclusion of peace at Amiens, Na- 
 poleon was elected Conml for life, by the voices of three 
 and a half millions of the people, and a new constitution 
 (the fifth) proclaimed, by which absolute authority was 
 given to the consul, in conjunction with a senate, of which 
 all the members were his creatures. At the same time 
 the legislative corps and tribunate were reduced to insig- 
 nificance, their duties being restricted to the settlement, 
 without debate, of questions of civil law and taxation A 
 conspiracy set on foot by Pichegru and Georges (who 
 landed from English ships and proceeded to Pans by un- 
 frequented roads), for the purpose of assassinating the farst 
 Consul, furnished an excuse for still more daring encroach- 
 ments on the liberties of the French people. The con- 
 spirators, whose arrest was effected with difficulty, m con- 
 sequence' of the vagueness of the information furnished to 
 the government, were brought before the tribunal ot the 
 Seine, the trial by jury being suspended m all cases ot at- 
 tempts on the life of the first Consul. Piohegru died m 
 
176 MODERN HISTORY. [329,330.^51. 
 
 prison, probably by his own hand : Greorfres was executed, 
 with eleven others ; and the sentence on Moreau. who had 
 been condemned to two years' imprisonment, was commuted 
 to banishment to America. At the same time the Duke 
 d'Enghien (the last Bourbon Prince of the line of Conde) 
 who had been arrested on agicharge of holding treasonable 
 communication with some English agents at Ettenheim, 
 in the territory of Baden, was condemned without proof, 
 and shot at Vincennes. Previously to these trials, the 
 tribunate (with the exception of Carnot) and the senate 
 had conferred the title of hereditary Emperor of the 
 French on N apoleon Bonaparte, who was anointed 
 by the Pope Dec. 2, 1804, and placed the imperial crown 
 on his own head and that of his consort. The constitu- 
 tion was so modified as scarcely to deserve the name of a 
 limited monarchy, although a shadow of the representa- 
 tive system was retained in the legislative corps and the 
 tribunate, which was divided as before into three sections. 
 
 III. The Empire (1804—1814 and 1815). 
 § 51. The tJiird Coalition against France. 
 
 (329.) Mutual complaints of the non-fulfilment of the 
 conditions of the peace of Amiens (especially as regarded 
 the surrender of Malta to the Knights of St. John) pro- 
 duced a rupture between France and England, in the year 
 1803. The British government having declared war, Bo- 
 naparte immediately took possession of Hanover, prohib- 
 ited the importation of British manufactures and colonial 
 produce into France (commencement of the contiiwntal 
 system)^ and made preparations at Boulogne for the inva- 
 sion of England. 
 
 (330.) To meet this danger, Pitt proposed the forma- 
 tion of a fresh coalition, the operations of which were fa- 
 cilitated by the ambitious policy adopted by Napoleon 
 himself; who established an hereditary kingdom of 
 Italy, in place of the Italian republic, and placed on his 
 own head the iron crown of Lombardy, at Milan, in the 
 year 1805. At the same time his step-son, Eugene Beau- 
 harnais, was nominated Viceroy of Italy, and his brother- 
 
331. §51.] THE EMPIRE. 177 
 
 in-law, Bacciochi, Duke of Lucca. The separate govern- 
 ments of Parma and Piacenza were suppressed, and the 
 Ligurian republic incorporated with France. On the 
 formation of this third coalition (to which England, 
 Russia, and, at a later period, Austria, were parties) Bo- 
 naparte broke up his camp at Boulogne, and proceeded by 
 forced marches to the Rhine, where he was joined by the 
 Electors of Bavaria, Baden, and Wurtemberg. 
 
 (331.) 1. The War in Germany (1805).— In Aus- 
 tria (where the measures adopted by the Archduke Charles 
 for remodelling the army were still incomplete, and the 
 plan of the Archduke John for raising an enormous militia 
 force was unfavorably received by the nation) two armies 
 were raised, the larger of which (120,000 men) marched 
 into Italy, under the command of- the Archduke Charles, 
 to await the arrival of Napoleon, whilst the smaller (80,- 
 000 men), under the incapable Mack, proceeded through 
 Bavaria, towards the Black Forest. Having dispatched 
 Massena into Italy, Napoleon himself took the command 
 in Germany, and concentrated his forces on the Upper 
 Danube, where he was joined by Bernadotte, who had 
 marched from Hanover through the margravate of Ans- 
 pach, notwithstanding the neutrality of Prussia. After 
 a succession of skirmishes, the French entered Bavaria, 
 blockaded Mack in Ulm, and compelled him to surrender 
 that fortress, with its garrison of 30,000 men. Napoleon 
 now entered Austria almost without opposition, and Murat 
 took possession of Vienna, whilst the scattered remnants 
 of the Austrian army were endeavoring to effect a junc- 
 tion with the Russians. On Dec. 2, 1805 (the anniversary 
 of his coronation). Napoleon defeated the united forces 
 of the Austrians and Russians, in the so-called battle of 
 the three Emperors, at Austerlitz ; and soon afterwards 
 peace was concluded at Presburg, the Emperor giving 
 up the Venetian territory (which had been awarded to 
 him at the peace of Campo Formio) to the kingdom of 
 Italy, the Tyrol to Bavaria, and his possessions in Swabia 
 to the Electors of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden, all 
 of whom were declared independent sovereigns, the two 
 first with the title of King. Prussia, which had joined the 
 coalition conditionally, and threatened France with a de- 
 
178 MODERN HISTORY. [332. §51. 
 
 claration of war, was required to surrender Anspach, 
 Cleves, aud Neufchatel, in exchange for Hanover. The 
 King of Naples, who had permitted a Russian and Eng- 
 lish army to land during the war, was deprived of all his 
 dominions (except Sicily), which were conferred, together 
 with the title of King, on Napoleon's elder brother Jo- 
 seph. The papal seignories of Benevento and Ponte- 
 Corvo, were granted, as principalities, to Talleyrand and 
 Bernadotte. The Batavian republic was named the king- 
 dom of Holland, and given to the Emperor's brother 
 Louis, the duchies of Cleves and Berg to his brother-in- 
 law Joachim Murat, and the principality of Neufchatel 
 to Marshal Berthier. On Jnly 12, 1806, the German 
 e m p i r e w a s dismembered, sixteen princes in the south 
 and west of Grermany (Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, the electoral 
 arch-chancellor of Mainz, who resided at Batisbon, the 
 elector of Baden, the Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt, the 
 Duke of Cleves-Berg, the Princes of Nassau, &c.) separa- 
 ting themselves from the empire, and forming the B hen- 
 is h confederacy, of which Napoleon declared himself 
 the protector. Each of these princes renounced the ti- 
 tle which indicated his connection with the empire, the 
 arch-chancellor being thenceforth styled the Prince Pri- 
 mate, the Elector of Baden, Grand Duke, &c. The busi- 
 ness of the confederacy was to be transacted at a meeting 
 to be held at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, under the presiden- 
 cy of the Prince Primate. Each of the confederates 
 pledged himself, in the event of a continental war, to as- 
 sist France with a contingent proportionate to the extent 
 of his dominions. Francis II., who had assumed, in the 
 year 1804, the title of Francis Z, hereditary Finpcror of 
 Austria, having now ceased to be head of the German em- 
 pire, the imperial chambers at Wetzlow and Vienna, as 
 well as the imperial diet at Batisbon, were dissolved. A 
 number of hitherto unmediatized states were declared me- 
 diatized, and subjected, by the aid of French troops, to 
 the sovereignty of members of the confederacy, notwith- 
 standing tlie remonstrances of the people (the bookseller 
 Palm shot). 
 
 (332.) 2. The maritime War with England. — 
 The combined Spanish and French fleets were enticed out 
 
179 
 
 333.^52.] THE EMPIRE. 
 
 Slaln'^oTt'oomi.-ce, by closing the ports of the 
 coutment. 
 
 § 52. The fourth Coalition against Frawx. (1806-7). 
 
 (■^■^■\ \ Prussia which had at first refused to ratify the 
 coui n in SeThy her ambassador Haugwit. at Schon^ 
 Wnn, was n?w compelled -ot only to tak S^ — ^°^ 
 
 on^ the Main » »'"["/ gf^fCa (X'r T skirmish near 
 '^"'ifd'^wMLpA^ce'LouTs Ferdinand of Prussia 
 
 SSfd tfwo g-a^tor :5'a? ""ir:^^ 
 iSo^orfr^^^^^^^ 
 
 feated by Napoleon at Jena ^"^^^^7^^^ The Duke, 
 Brunswick by M-'^'^^lf^^'^'^J'^'^ "'rtX wounded in the 
 a veteran of seventy-two, ^^« '"^'J?; ^ ^^^ The Blec- 
 battlc, and died soon afterwards ^t O tensen^ 
 tor of Saxony obtamed P^f^'^talrf tie Saxon Dukes, 
 return for his own '^dberenoe and that ot the 6 .^^^^ 
 
 to the Rhenish confederacy. ^^ . *"\/",°V„,./ ^hioh 
 Prussian fortresses (with the ^-^j|°; ;if .^^'^'^ ttLck, 
 was bravely defended b^, «f '^^ '^^S we™ su^e^dered 
 and some strong places in Uppei ^ '''^'^^ '^^ q„ Oct. 27, 
 
180 MODERN HISTORY. [334. §52. 
 
 Prussian provinces, as far as the Oder, into four depart- 
 ments, and published his famous Berlin decree^ by which 
 all commercial intercourse with England was prohib- 
 ited, and the British ports declared to be in a state of 
 blockade. 
 
 (334.) As the French troops approached the Vistula, 
 they were joined by the Poles, who looked to Napoleon 
 for the restoration of their independence ; whilst, on the 
 other hand, the remains of the Prussian army joined the 
 Russians, who were now, through French influence, in- 
 volved in a war with Turkey. After several obstinate and 
 sanguinary, but indecisive engagements (at Pultusk, Goly- 
 min, &c,), the two armies went into winter quarters, with 
 the exception of the left wing of the French army, under 
 Ney, which marched from the Lower Vistula against K6- 
 nigsl)erg. On learning the intention of the Russian Gen- 
 eral Benningsen to attack this division, relieve Graudenz 
 and Dantzic, and open a communication with Colberg, Na- 
 poleon broke up his winter encampment at Warsaw, and 
 engaged Benningsen at Eglau (Feb. 7 and 8). The bat- 
 tle, though protracted and sanguinary, was by no means 
 decisive, for both parties abandoned the field, and retired 
 again into winter quarters. After an armistice of four 
 months, during which Dantzic and Schweidnitz capitulated, 
 and Napoleon received reinforcements from Poland, the 
 Rhenish confederacy, and even from Spain, the war was 
 terminated by a decisive victory gained by the French at 
 Friedland (June 14), and Napoleon, after a personal in- 
 terview with Alexander, on the Niemen, concluded a peace 
 at Tilsit, with Russia on July 7, and Prussia on the 9th. 
 " Out of especial regard for the Emperor of Russia," Na- 
 poleon consented to restore to Prussia all her provinces 
 on the right bank of the Elbe, on condition of her giving 
 up — 1. All the territory formerly belonging to the king- 
 dom of Poland, to the King of Saxony, under the name 
 of the Duchy of Warsaiv (Dantzic with its territory was 
 declared a free state under the protection of Prussia and 
 Saxony). 2. All the territory between the Elbe and the 
 Rhine, which, with the addition of Brunswick, Hesse- 
 Cassel, and a part of Hanover, formed the kingdom of 
 Westphalia, for Jerome Bonaparte, the Emperor's young- 
 
335. ^53.] THE EMPIRE. 181 
 
 est brother. 3. All Prussian ports were to be closed against 
 the English. The restoration of the Prussian territory 
 was not carried into effect until the year 1808, after pay- 
 ment of a contribution of 140 millions of francs. The 
 Rhenish confederacy was now extended to Mecklenbui-g, 
 and comprehended the whole of the ancient German em- 
 pire, with the exception of Prussia (including the marck of 
 Brandenburg, Pomerania, and Silesia) and Holstein. Rus- 
 sia evacuated Moldavia and Wallachia, and concluded an 
 armistice with the Porte. Siveden, as a member of the 
 fourth coalition, was obliged to surrender to France the 
 island of Rugen and Stralsund, the last of her possessions 
 in Germany. At the peace of Tilsit, the two Emperors 
 had agreed that Denmark, Sweden, and Portugal, should 
 be invited to co-operate in their measures against England ; 
 taking, therefore, for granted, that France would obtain 
 possession of the Danish fleet, the British government re- 
 solved to anticipate such a proceeding, by demanding that 
 it should be delivered up to them as a pledge of neutral- 
 ity, and, on the refusal of the Danes, bombarded Copen- 
 hagen (2d — 5th September), and carried off the whole fleet. 
 In consequence of this violent proceeding, Russia declared 
 war against England, and Denmark concluded an alliance 
 with France, and obtained from that country an army for 
 the defence of her territory. 
 
 ^ 53. Tlie War in Portugal and Spain (1808—1814). 
 
 (335.) Portugal, in consequence of her refusal to close 
 her ports against the English, was occupied by a French 
 army under Junot, who assumed the title of Duke of 
 Abrantes, and proclaimed himself regent in the name of 
 the French Emperor, after the departure of the Portu- 
 guese royal family for Brazil. In pursuance of his favor- 
 ite object, the destruction of English commerce. Napoleon 
 not only extended his continental system to Portugal and 
 Italy (as far as the latter country was dependent on 
 France), but even formed a plan for the subjugation oi 
 Spain; and under pretence of protecting that country 
 against an English invasion, crossed the Pyrenees at the 
 head of 100,000 men. Charles IV., who a short time be- 
 
182 MODERN HISTORY. [336,337. ^53. 
 
 fore (in consequence of an insurrection against his con 
 temptible favorite, Godoy, Prince of the Peace) had re- 
 signed his crown in favor of his son, Ferdinand VII., no 
 sooner witnessed the entry of the French into Madrid, 
 than he desired to recall his abdication. Under pretence 
 of settling the dispute, Napoleon invited the whole party to 
 meet him at Bayonne, and having made himself master of 
 their persons, compelled the Bourbon family to resign the 
 Spanish crown, and placed his brother Joseph on the 
 throne. The vacant kingdom of Naples was then conferred 
 on Murat, and the grand-duchy of Berg destined for the 
 Crown Prince of Holland. Against the sovereign thus 
 treacherously imposed on them, the whole Spanish nation 
 rose as one man; and Joseph, after an unsuccessful at- 
 tempt to conciliate his new subjects by granting them a 
 liberal constitution, was compelled to quit Madrid and re- 
 tire to Burgos. 
 
 (336.) An English army, commanded by Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley, landed in Portugal, and drove the French out 
 of that country ; the means of returning to France being 
 secured to Junot and his army by the Convention of C in- 
 tra. At the same time, another French army, under Du- 
 pont, was surrounded and captured in the south of 
 Spain. The French had already fallen back on the Ebra, 
 when Napoleon (to whom the Emperor Alexander, in a 
 personal interview at Erfurt, had promised assistance in 
 the event of a war with Austria) appeared in Spain at the 
 head of 335,000 men. 
 
 (337.) After a victorious progress from the Ebro, the 
 French Emperor entered Madrid, and immediately abol- 
 ished the inquisition, the feudal system, and the Council 
 of Castile (which had recalled its consent to the abdica- 
 tion of Charles IV.), and reduced the number of convents 
 to one-third. Having, in conjunction with Soult, com- 
 pelled the English to evacuate Portugal, Napoleon returned 
 to France to make preparations for a fresh war witli Aus- 
 tria. On the 21st February, 1809, the fortress of Sara- 
 gossa (which had been twice heroically defended by the 
 Spanish General Palafox, with the loss of 53.000 men) 
 surrendered to the French ; and the cause of Spanish in- 
 dependence seemed utterly ruined ; for the brilliant vie- 
 
338. §53.] THE EMPIRE. 183 
 
 tory of Talavera (27th and 28th of July), obtained by 
 Sir Arthur Wellesley ^ over King Joseph, was neutralized 
 by the defeat of an army recently raised by the Junta of 
 Seville, which was almost annihilated by Soult, at Ocano. 
 (338.) The monks, to whose influence King Joseph 
 attributed the general insurrection of the Spanish nation 
 against the French, were punished by the suppression of 
 all the monastic orders. Whilst the French, although per- 
 petually harassed by swarms of irregular troops, called 
 Guerillas, were still advancing steadily towards the south, 
 the Junta had retired to Seville, and assembled the 
 Cortes (1810), which drew up (and proclaimed in 1812) 
 a new constitution, by which the monarchical power was 
 greatly restricted. The repeated attempts of the French 
 (especially under Massena) to regain a footing in Portugal, 
 were as unsuccessful as their attacks on Cadiz, which was 
 strongly fortified and protected by a combined Spanish 
 and English fleet. In the year 1812, the French force in 
 Spain having been reduced to 168,000 men, by the with- 
 drawal of a large number of the best soldiers and gene- 
 rals for the Russian campaign, the whole population of 
 several provinces were encouraged to take the field, and 
 the Guerillas (under Mina, the Curate Merino, Mendiza- 
 bal, &c.) became daily more numerous and daring. The 
 fortresses of Ciudad Rodrigo and Badajoz were stormed 
 by Lord Wellington, who separated the armies of Mar- 
 mont and Soult, defeated the former near Salamanca, 
 compelled Joseph to quit Madrid, and then, on the ap- 
 proach of the French, retreated to the Portuguese fron- 
 tier. Soult having been recalled from Spain by Napoleon, 
 after his disastrous campaign in Russia, the English gen- 
 eral compelled King Joseph a second time to abandon his 
 capital, and retire to the Ebro, and in the year 1813 de- 
 cided the fate of Spain, by a brilliant victory over Jour- 
 dan at Vittoria. Joseph escaped being taken prisoner, 
 by a precipitate flight into France. Soult, who had re- 
 entered Spain by command of Napoleon, was compelled to 
 recross the Pyrenees by Lord Wellington, and the war was 
 
 ^ Immediately after this battle, Sir Arthur Wellesley was cre- 
 ated Lord Wellington. 
 
184 MODERN HISTORY. [339,340.^55. 
 
 terminated by the battle of Thoulouse, in April, 1814, 
 the EmiDeror Napoleon having previously abdicated, and 
 Ferdinand VII. being released from his imprisonment at 
 Valencay. 
 
 ^ 54. Suppression of the temporal authority of the Pope 
 (1809). 
 
 (339.) Soon after his coronation, Napoleon had con- 
 ceived the idea of depriving the Pope of his temporal 
 power, and transporting him to Paris, where the influence 
 of the Sovereign Pontiff might be advantageously em- 
 ployed for the promotion of his own ambitious designs. 
 After a succession of annoyances and threats. Napoleon 
 demanded that the Pope should accede to the continental 
 system, close his ports against the English, and conclude 
 an alliance, offensive and defensive, with France, at least 
 against the Infidels, by which title he designated the 
 Turks and all the Protestant powers. On the refusal of 
 the Pope to entertain this proposal, the Emperor took 
 possession of Rome, and annexed to the kingdom of Italy 
 four provinces belonging to the States of the Church. 
 These measures were speedily followed by the publication 
 of a decree (dated from Schonbrunn), in which tlie tempo- 
 ral authority of the Fope ivas declared to be at an end ; 
 and in the following year (1810) the rest of the States of 
 the Church were incorporated into the French empire. 
 Pius VII., who had excommunicated the originators and 
 perpetrators of these acts of violence, was carried off by 
 force to Grenoble, and thence removed to Savona, where 
 he remained three years a prisoner, refusing with exem- 
 plary firmness to resign his temporal authority, and estab- 
 lish his residence at Paris. In the summer of 1812, he 
 was removed to Fontainebleau, for the purpose of negoti- 
 ating a fresh concordat, and returned to Rome after the 
 abdication of Napoleon, in 1814. 
 
 ^55. War of Austria against Napoleon (1809). 
 
 (340.) After the peace of Tilsit, an attempt was made 
 by the Austrian government to re-establish its political 
 
341. ^55.] THE EMPIRE. 185 
 
 influence in Europe. Witli this view the army was re- 
 organized ; and when Napoleon, in consequence of this 
 movement, called on the members of the Rhenish Con- 
 federacy to hold themselves in readiness, the Austrians 
 resolved to anticipate his attack. A proclamation was ac- 
 cordingly issued by the Emperor's brothers, the Arch- 
 dukes Charles and John, as commanders-in-chief of the 
 army destined to act in Bavaria and Italy, calling on the 
 German nation to co-operate with Austria in her struggles 
 for the liberty of their common fatherland ; but scarcely 
 any effect was produced by this appeal. The army command- 
 ed by the Archduke Charles, which had entered Bavaria, 
 was defeated in a series of engagements, which lasted from 
 the 19th to the 23d of April (at Abensberg, Landshut, 
 Eckmiihl, and Eatisbon), by a force composed almost en- 
 tirely of Germans, and compelled, after sustaining immense 
 loss, to cross the Danube, and retreat towards Bohemia. 
 
 (341.) On the 13th of May, Vienna was a second time 
 taken by the French ; Napoleon, who had advanced by 
 forced marches for the purpose of preventing the relief of 
 Vienna by the Archduke Charles, was d^eated for the 
 first time (21st and 22d of May), near the villages of 
 Asp em and E sling. He then formed a junction with 
 the Italian army under Eugene Beauharnais, a second 
 time crossed the Danube, and defeated the Archduke 
 Charles in the sanguinary battle of W a gram (5th and 
 6th of July). The two armies met again at Znaim, in 
 Moravia, and victory had already begun to incline to the 
 side of the French, when hostilities were suspended by 
 the arrival of Prince Lichtenstein, who was empowered 
 by the Emperor to arrange the terms of an armistice. 
 After this battle, and an unsuccessful attempt of the Eng- 
 lish to effect a diversion, by landing on the island of Wal- 
 cheren, in Holland, the Austrian war was terminated on 
 the 14th October by the peace of Vienna. By this 
 treaty Austria lost 2000 square miles of territory, with 
 three and a half millions of inhabitants ; Salzburg and 
 several neighboring districts being ceded to Bavaria, west- 
 ern Galicia to the duchy of Warsaw, a district of eastern 
 Galicia to Russia, and her possessions along the Sau 
 to Napoleon, as King of Italy. Out of this last-mention- 
 
186 MODERN HISTORY. [342. ^56. 
 
 ed province, with Dalmatia, Istria, and Ragusa (which 
 were separated from Italy), and the Greek* islands (ceded 
 by Russia in 1807), Napoleon formed the new state of the 
 seveyi lUyrimi jy^'ovinces (Carinthia, Carniola, Istria, Dal- 
 matia, Ragusa, Civil and Military Croatia), of which Mar- 
 mont was appointed governor. A short time before the 
 breaking out of this war, the Tyrolese, irritated beyond 
 endurance by the extortion and oppression of the Bava- 
 rian government, had revolted to their ancient masters 
 the Austrians, and under the command of an innkeeper 
 named Andreio Hofer (and Speckbacher), had thrice 
 cleared their country of the French and Bavarian troops 
 (in April, May, and August). But after the conclusion 
 of peace at Vienna, an overwhelming force was sent into 
 the Tyrol : and Hofer, who had taken refuge in an Alpine 
 hut near Passeger, was betrayed by one of his country- 
 men, conveyed a prisoner to Mantua, and shot by sentence 
 of a court-martial. The Tyrol was now divided into three 
 portions, of which one was assigned to Bavaria, another 
 (the southern) annexed to the kingdom of Italy, and a 
 third (the eastern) incoporated with Illyria. As an in- 
 demnification for this sacrifice of territory, Bavaria 
 received Baireuth and Ratisbon ; the prince primate 
 (Charles of Dalberg) of Ratisbon, being created Grand 
 Duke of Frankfort (a sovereignty formed for that purpose 
 out of Frankfort, Fulda, Hanau, Wetzlau, and AschalFen- 
 burg), with a stipulation that his successor should be 
 Eugene Beauharnais, the viceroy of Italy. Several at- 
 tempts were made by individuals to arouse the dormant 
 patriotism of the German nation, but without success. A 
 Prussian major, named Schill^ commander of a volunteer 
 corps raised by him in 1806, marched a hussar regiment 
 of 600 men out of Berlin, under pretence of exercising 
 them, and proceeded to Stralsund, where he was slain with 
 most of his soldiers. Eleven officers were taken prisoners 
 and shot by the French. 
 
 ^56. Napoleon at tlm summit of his power (1810 — 1812). 
 
 342. In the hope of obtaining an heir to his throne, and 
 of imparting, in some sort, a legitimate character to his dy- 
 
342. §56.] THE EMPIRE. 187 
 
 nasty, Napoleon repudiated Josephine, and married (2d of 
 April, 1810) Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor 
 Francis of Austria. On the 20th of March, 1811, the 
 new Empress was delivered of a son, who was immediately 
 created King of Rome. His brother Louis having de- 
 clared his readiness to abdicate in favor of his son, rather 
 than ruin Holland by enforcing a rigid observance to the 
 continental system, Napoleon annexed the ivhole of that 
 country to France. Under the same pretext, and in the 
 face of his own repeated declarations, that he wished the 
 Rhine to be the boundary of his dominions, the Emperor 
 incorporated into the French empire the maritime pro- 
 vinces of northern Gi-ermany, a great part of the kingdom 
 of Westphalia, the Hanse Towns, the grand duchy of 
 Berg, Oldenburg, and East Fricsland : as he had already 
 annexed Tuscany, the States of the Church, and the Can- 
 ton of Vallais (department of the Simplon), in Switzer- 
 land. The empire at this time numbered 130 depart- 
 ments, and extended along the coast of western and 
 southern Europe, from the mouth of the Elbe to Trieste 
 and Corfu. The imperial government now became every 
 day more absolute: the sittings of the legislative body, 
 which had long since been a mere farce, were suspended : 
 the duties of the senate were confined to the appearance 
 of its members on great occasions in the suite of the Em- 
 peror, and the passing of acts confirmatory of his decrees 
 for the annexation of fresh territory. All public func- 
 tionaries were entirely dependent on the crown : a system 
 of espionage was established in every part of the empire, 
 and arrests on the most frivolous pretexts occurred daily : 
 liberty of the press was annihilated by the censorship and 
 other restrictions, the population of half France remained 
 uneducated, notwithstanding the increase in the number 
 of schools, and even the arts were cultivated solely for the 
 purpose of imparting additional lustre to the military 
 glories of the empire. Meanwhile the continental system 
 was ruining commerce, in spite of the encouragement af- 
 forded to manufacturing industry, by the establishment 
 of prizes and institutions, and the formation of roads and 
 canals, and Napoleon at last found himself obliged to 
 grant licenses for the importation, in certain cases, of 
 
188 ■ MODERN HISTORY. [343. §57. 
 
 English goods. These grievances, in conjunction with the 
 unceasing conscription, were rapidly prockicing discontent 
 and bitterness, in the place of those feelings of devoted 
 affection with which the government of Napoleon was at 
 first regarded by the people, as well as the cabinets of 
 many European nations. 
 
 § 57. Napoleonh Russian Campaign (1812). 
 
 (343.) The conviction that the continental system 
 would be ruinous to her commerce, and that Napoleon 
 would never rest until he had destroyed her influence as 
 a first-rate European power, was soon forced on Kussia, 
 which had wrested Finland from Sweden in 1808, and ex- 
 tended her dominions to the Pruth, by the peace of Bu- 
 charest, concluded in 1812, after a six years' war with the 
 Turks. The first coolness between Alexander and Napo- 
 leon was occasioned by the annexation of Galicia to the 
 duchy of Warsaw, a measure which was regarded with sus- 
 picion by the Russian Emperor, as tending towards the 
 re-establishment of Poland as a kingdom. Other causes 
 of offence followed in rapid succession ; on the one side 
 Napoleon, who had already annoyed the Emperor by de- 
 priving the Duke of Oldenburgh (husband of Alexander's 
 aunt by the mother's side) of his dominions, now demanded 
 the rigid enforcement of the continental system by Rus- 
 sia ; whilst, on the other, the union of Warsaw (as a pro- 
 vince) with Saxony, and the evacuation of the Prussian 
 dominions, were strongly urged on France by the Russian 
 government. The refusal of each party to accede to the 
 demands of the other at length produced a war, which was 
 commenced in 1812 by Napoleon, who collected an army 
 of 400,000, or, according to some writers, of 000,000 men, 
 from almost every country in south-western Europe. To 
 oppose this formidable armament, the Russians assembled 
 372,000 men. With his accustomed rapidity of move- 
 ment, Napoleon crossed the Niemen into Lithuania, and 
 advanced by forced marches to Smolensk, with scarcely 
 any opposition on the part of the Russians, who were un- 
 willing to hazard a general engagement until they had 
 formed a junction with the troops from the interior. Af- 
 
343. ^58.] THE EMPIRE. 189 
 
 ter defeating the Russians at Smolensk, and again at Bo- 
 rodino, on the Moskwa, Napoleon (on the 1 4th of Septem- 
 ber) entered Moscow, which was entirely abandoned by 
 the inhabitants ; and soon after his arrival a fire broke out 
 (occasioned probably by the Russian governor Rostopchin), 
 which raged six days, and destroyed nine-tenths of the 
 city. Notwithstanding this calamity. Napoleon lingered 
 five weeks among the ruins of Moscow, endeavoring to ne- 
 gotiate a peace; but discovering his error when it was 
 too late, he broke up his quarters on the 18th of October, 
 and commenced his retreat with an army now reduced to 
 104,000 men. The winter had already set in with a seve- 
 rity almost unprecedented at that early season, the ther- 
 mometer (Reaumur's) steadily indicating 18 — 20 degrees 
 of cold ;* and the whole of the country between Moscow 
 and Beresina, an extent of 150 (German) miles, presented 
 the appearance of a desert, the inhabitants of the villages 
 having removed or destroyed all their agricultural produce. 
 At length the army, reduced by famine and the unceasing 
 attacks of the Russians and Cossacks to 30,000 men capa- 
 ble of bearing arms, reached the Beresina, where the pas- 
 sage of the river was forced by Ney and Oudinot, with 
 8500 men, in the face of 25,000 Russians. The retreat 
 now became a flight, in consequence of the intensity of 
 the cold (26 — 27 degrees).! and the abandonment of his 
 army by Napoleon, who had placed himself in a sledge, 
 when all was lost, and proceeded to Paris (arrived 18th 
 December), where his presence was rendered necessary by 
 the unsettled state of public affairs (attempt of Mallet to 
 re-establish the republic). General Ney, who had dis- 
 tinguished himself in the battle of the Moskwa, and done 
 good service by the masterly manner in which he had con- 
 ducted the retreat, was created Prince of the Moskwa. 
 The first step towards the emancipation of Prussia, was 
 the conclusion of a convention of neutrality between the 
 Prussian general Diebitsch and General York, who was 
 sent to cover the retreat of the left wing of the French 
 army under Macdonald. This proceeding on the part of 
 
 * Equal to 8^—13^'^ below zero of Fahrenheit.— S. 
 t " " 26i— 29<^ below zero of Fahrenheit.— S. 
 
190 MODERN HISTORY. [344—346. ^58. 
 
 the Prussian general was stigmatized by Napoleon as an 
 act of the grossest treachery, and the chief cause of his 
 subsequent misfortunes. 
 
 § 58. The War of Liberation (1813—1814). 
 
 (344.) Frederick William III. of Prussia, after is- 
 suing from Breslau a manifesto, in which he called on his 
 people to rise and defend their liberties against the en- 
 croachments of the French, now concluded an alliance 
 with Russia for the re-establishment of the Prussian mo- 
 narchy, and having been subsequently joined by Sweden 
 and England, commenced his preparations for the forma- 
 tion of a national militia in Prussia. 
 
 Campaign in the Spring of 1813. 
 
 (345.) In the month of March, the Prussian grand 
 army under Bliicher, marched through Silesia to Dresden, 
 where it awaited the arrival of a Russian force commanded 
 by Kalish. A second Russo-Prussian army was also sent 
 from Berlin to join the two other corps. The allied army, 
 under Wittgenstein, now numbered 85,000 men, and 
 that of the French 120,000, most of whom were raw con- 
 scripts. 
 
 (346.) Towards the end of April, Napoleon re-ap- 
 peared in Germany and advanced to Leipzic, where he was 
 compelled to engage the enemy at G-rossgorschen, or, 
 as he himself named the battle, at Lutzen, on the 2d of 
 May : but notwithstanding the disadvantage under which 
 they labored, in being unprepared for the attack, and the 
 heavy loss which they sustained in the battle, the French 
 were victorious : and the allies retreated by way of Dres- 
 den into Lusatia. Sharnhorst died at Prague of the 
 wounds which he had received in the battle. Soon after- 
 wards Napoleon appeared at Dresden, and compelled the 
 wavering King of Saxony to place the resources of his 
 kingdom at the disposal of tlie French. On the 20th of 
 May Napoleon attacked the allies at Bautzen, forced the 
 passage of the Spree, and completed his victory on the 
 following day, at Wurschen, where he sustained a consi- 
 
347. §58.] THE EMPIRE. 191 
 
 derable loss in killed and wounded. As the allies directed 
 their retreat towards Silesia instead of Berlin, in order to 
 efiect a junction with the Austrians, the conqueror, who 
 wished to prevent a meeting of the three powers, as well 
 as to gain time for fresh levies, consented to an armistice 
 (4th of June to 10th of August), in the hope that Austria 
 would eventually join the French. A short time previously 
 to these events, the city of Hamburgh, which had been 
 abandoned by the French officials on the approach of a 
 Russian army, under Tetterborn, was retaken by Davoust, 
 and mercilessly pillaged, because the inhabitants were 
 unable to pay a forced contribution of 48 millions of 
 francs. 
 
 B£Sumptio7i of the War after the Armistice. 
 
 (347.) The congress of Prague having terminated unsa- 
 tisfactorily, in consequence of the unreasonable demands of 
 Austria, and the unwillingness of England to become a 
 party to a treaty of peace, war was declared by the Aus- 
 trian government against Napoleon, whose subsequent 
 overtures were treated with contempt. The allies had 
 made the best use of the breathing time allowed them by 
 the armistice. A subsidy of eleven millions, granted by 
 England, enabled them to equip at least 600,000 men, who 
 formed three divisions, viz., 1. The grand army of Bohe- 
 mia, under Schwarzenberg, in whose camp were the three 
 allied monarchs and Greneral Moreau. 2. The army of 
 Silesia, under Blucher. 3. The army of the North, under 
 the Crown Prince of Sweden, Charles John Bernadotte. 
 Against this enormous force Napoloon brought into the 
 field about 350,000 men ; and notwithstanding his infe- 
 riority in point of numbers, commenced hostilities with 
 an attack on the army of Silesia, which retreated beyond 
 the Katzbach. Meanwhile, however, Schwarzenberg had 
 marched upon Dresden, and Napoleon was compelled to 
 proceed by forced marches to that city (leaving General 
 Macdonald in Silesia). On the 26th and 27th of August, 
 Napoleon gained his last victory (at Dres den), on Ger- 
 man ground; amidst torrents of rain. Moreau was mortally 
 wounded in this battle, and died soon afterwards. This 
 
192 MODERN HISTORY. [347. §58. 
 
 advantage gained by Napoleon, was however almost neu- 
 tralized, by the failure of the other divisions of the French 
 army. 1 . u d i n o t, who should have marched on Berlin, 
 and effected a junction with Davoust, was defeated by 
 Blucher at Grossbeeren, on the 23rd of August. 2. 
 Macdonald was compelled by Blucher to re-cross the 
 Katzbach, near the village of Wahlstatt, on the 26th of 
 August. In consequence of this victory, Blucher obtained 
 the name of Marshal " Forwards," and was created Prince 
 of Wahlstatt. 3. Yandamme (who had received orders 
 to cut off the retreat of the army of Bohemia), being un- 
 supported by Napoleon, was defeated and taken prisoner, 
 with 10,000 men, by the Russian guard under Ostermann, 
 supported by an unexpected reinforcement of Prussians 
 under Kleist (30th of August), at Kulm, near Toblitz. 
 4. Ney, who after the defeat of Oudinot had been dis- 
 patched against the army of the north, with orders to take 
 possession of Berlin, was himself defeated at Denuewitz, 
 on the 6th of Sept., by Bulow and Tauenzien. The 
 Silesian and northern armies having crossed the Elbe 
 (where Bertrand was defeated by York, near Wartenberg,) 
 in order to effect, if possible, a junction with the army 
 of Bohemia in Napoleon's rear, the French Emperor 
 quitted Dresden, and drew together all his forces at 
 Leipzic, where the great "^««/e of tlie nations'^ was 
 fought on the 16th, 17th, and 18th October. Towards the 
 end of this battle, the Saxons and Wiirtembergers went 
 over to the allies. On the first day Napoleon engaged the 
 main body of the allies, under Schwarzenberg, on the plain 
 southwards of Leipzic, near Wachau, but without any de- 
 cisive result ; whilst at the same time Blucher defeated 
 Marmont, on the northern side of the city, near Mockern. 
 On the 17th there was no general engagement. Napoleon 
 having communicated to the Emperor of Austria his- will- 
 ingness to purchase peace, by the relinquishment of his 
 sovereignty over Warsaw, Illyria, and the Rhineland, and 
 to withdraw his troops to the other side of the Rhine, as 
 soon as an armistice was concluded. Meanwhile, however, 
 a reinforcement of more than 100,000 men had joined the 
 allied army, which now numbered 300,000, whilst the 
 French had scarcely 130,000. Under these circumstances 
 
348. ^ 58.] THE EMPIRE. 193 
 
 the battle was renewed on the 18th October. After losing 
 more than 30.000 men (including Prince Poniatowsky, a 
 nephew of the last King of Poland, who was drowned in 
 the Elster). the defeated army, which still numbered 
 1 00.000 men. commenced its retreat, and fought its way to the 
 Rhine, where 70,000 men crossed the river at Mainz. Dur- 
 ing this retreat, the French were attacked on theUnstrutby 
 York, and at Hanau by the Bavarians, under Wrede, 
 and were incessantly harassed by bands of Cossacks. The 
 immediate consequences of this victory were — 1. The 
 breaking up of the Rhenish confederacy. 2. The dissolu- 
 tion of the kingdom of Westphalia and the grand duchies 
 of Frankfort and Berg. 3. The surrender of all the 
 French garrisons as prisoners of war, with the exception 
 of the garrison of Hamburg, which held out, under Da- 
 voust, until the 26th of May, 1814. 4. The re-conquest, 
 by Bulow, of Holland, where the people, who had been 
 more forward than any other nation in their resist- 
 ance to the continental s^^stem, proclaimed the Prince of 
 Orange sovereign of the Netherlands. 5. Denmark, on 
 account of its alliance with Napoleon, was invaded by the 
 Crown Prince of Sweden, and compelled, after a short 
 winter campaign, to cede Norway to Sweden in exchange 
 for Swedish Pomerania and Riigen. 6. Illyria and the 
 Tyrol were restored to Austria, after a long and bloody 
 struggle. In the south, Murat, King of Naples, the Em- 
 peror's brother-in-law, formed an alliance with the Aus- 
 trians for the expulsion of the French from Italy, the Em- 
 peror of Austria undertaking to guarantee to him the un- 
 disturbed possession of his dominions. On the other 
 hand, Switzerland, too feeble as yet to throw off the French 
 yoke, concluded a treaty of neutrality with Napoleon, 
 •who deemed this the best mode of protecting his weakest 
 frontier. 
 
 Invasion of France hy the Allies (1814). 
 (348.) Wellington, being now prepared to enter France 
 from Spain, and the allied army from the Rhine, Napole- 
 on, who had rejected the offers of peace made to him by 
 the allies, demanded a fresh conscription of 300,000 men, 
 and prorogued the legislative assembly, which had Yen- 
 
194 MODERN HISTORY. [349. § 58. 
 
 tured to present liim an address describing, in strong lan- 
 guage, the misery and exhaustion of France. At the 
 commencement of the year 1814 the allies entered France, 
 the grand army under Schwarzenberg traversing a portion 
 of neutral Switzerland, and crossing the frontier at Basle, 
 whilst the force under the command of Blucher crossed 
 the Rhine, on new year's eve, at Mannheim, Caub, and 
 Coblenz. In the hope of preventing a junction, Napole- 
 on attacked Blucher near Brienne, and forced him to re- 
 treat ; but, in spite of this check, the united armies at- 
 tacked the French at la Bothiere, and drove them across 
 the Aube. The two corps then separated, the grand army 
 under Schwarzenberg proceeding along the banks of the 
 Seine, and the army of Silesia along the Maine, in the di- 
 rection of Paris. No sooner was Napoleon aware of this 
 separation, than he several times (10th — 14th of February) 
 attacked the army of Silesia, and compelled it to retire 
 northwards, and then (18th of February) defeated the 
 grand army at Montereau. A congress was now held at 
 Chatillon, but without any result except the temporary 
 suspension of hostilities. In order to prevent Napoleon 
 from following the grand army, Blucher continued his 
 march on Paris, and defeated the French near Laon. 
 Then Napoleon attacked the grand army at Arcis-sur- 
 Aube, and being compelled to retire before a superior 
 force, conceived the desperate design of leaving the road 
 to Paris open, attacking the enemy in the rear (from Lor- 
 raine), and drawing together all the garrisons of the east- 
 ern fortresses for a final struggle. With equal courage 
 the allies continued their march towards the capital, and 
 after defeating Marshals Marmont and Mortier, at la Fere 
 Champenoise, and storming the heights of Montmartre, 
 entered Paris (in consequence of a capitulation) on the 
 31st of March, with the Emperor Alexander, King Fred- 
 erick William, and Prince Schwarzenberg, at their head. 
 No sooner had the capital fallen, than the senate was per- 
 suaded by Talleyrand to declare the throne forfeited by 
 Napoleon and his family^ and the nation absolved from 
 its oath of allegiance. 
 
 (349.) Napoleon, who had reached Paris a few hours 
 too late, signed his abdication on the 11th of April, at 
 
350,351. §58.] THE EMPIRE. 195 
 
 Fontainebleau, renouncing for himself and heirs all claims 
 to the throne of France, Italy, or any other country ; the 
 allies, on their side, engaging to confer on him the sover- 
 eignty of the island of Elba, with a pension of two mil- 
 lions of francs, to grant to his wife the duchies of Parma, 
 Piacenza, and Gruastalla, with succession to her son and 
 his descendants, and to provide for his relations. 
 
 (350.) On the very day of Napoleon's landing at El- 
 ba (14th of May), Louis XVIII. entered Paris, replaced 
 the constitution hastily drawn up by the provisional gov- 
 ernment by another formed on the English model, with 
 two chambers, one of peers and one of deputies, and con- 
 cluded with the allies (30th of May) the peace of 
 Paris, by which it was settled that the boundaries of 
 France should be the same as they were before the Revo- 
 lution, with the exception of some unimportant extensions 
 towards the east and north-east. 
 
 (351.) For the definitive settlement of European 
 affairs, especially as regarded Germany, a Congress 
 was held at Vienna (1st of November, 1814 — 9th of 
 June, 1815), which was attended by the Emperors of 
 Russia and Austria, the Kings of Prussia, Denmark, 
 and Wiirtemberg, and several other princes, statesmen, 
 and generals. After protracted negotiations, which 
 were only brought to a conclusion by the intelligence 
 of Napoleon's escape from Elba, it was resolved: — 1. 
 That Austria should have the Illyrian provinces, and 
 (in addition to Milan, which had belonged to her before 
 the Revolution) should be indemnified for the cession of 
 Belgium by receiving Venice, Salzburg, and the Tyrol. 
 2. To Russia was assigned the greater part of the duchy 
 of Warsaw, under the name of The Kingdom of Poland — 
 Cracow was declared an independent state. 3. Prussia 
 obtained a portion of the duchy of Warsaw (had the grand 
 duchy of Posen), with Dantzic, Swedish Pomerania, and 
 Riigen (in exchange for Lauenburg), the restoration of 
 her ancient possessions in Westphalia and Neufchatel, and 
 as an indemnification for the provinces which she had lost, 
 the grand duchy of the Lower Rhine and a part of Saxo- 
 ny. 4. England had Malta, Heligoland, a portion of the 
 colonies which she had conquered in the war, Hanover 
 
196 MODERN HISTORY. [351. ^58. 
 
 (with the addition of East Friesland) as a German king- 
 dom, and the protectorate of the republic of the Ionian 
 isles. 5. Holland was re-united to Belgium, the Statt- 
 holder of Holland being created King of this " kingdom 
 of the Netheilands^'' with the title of William I. 6. A 
 Germanic confederation was substituted for the German 
 empire, the position of the different members remaining 
 in all essential particulars the same as in 1806, when the 
 empire was dissolved, and the Rhenish confederacy estab- 
 lished. The number of states was limited to thirty-eight, 
 each of which was required to send representatives to a 
 federal diet, which held a permanent session at Frankfort- 
 on-the-Main, for, the settlement of all questions affecting 
 the general interests of the Confederation. With this ex- 
 ception, each state was declared to be sovereign and inde- 
 pendent. Weimar, Oldenburg, Mccklenburg-Schwerin, 
 and Mecklenburg-Strelitz, became grand duchies : Frank- 
 fort-on-the-Main, Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen remained 
 independent cities. To the German confederacy belonged 
 also two foreign sovereigns, viz., the King of the Nether- 
 lands (as Grand Duke of Luxemburg), and the King of Den- 
 mark (as Duke of Holstein and Lauenburg). 7. Denmark 
 received Lauenburg as an indemnification for the cession 
 of Norway to Sweden. An attempt on the part of the 
 Norwegians to establish an independent kingdom, under 
 a Danish prince, was resisted by all the European pow- 
 ers ; but a separate constitution was granted to Norway, 
 in consequence of the movement. Sivitzerland, at the 
 conclusion of a war in which she had taken no part, ob- 
 tained (in addition to the nineteen cantons assigned to 
 her by the Act of Mediation of 1803) the Cantons of Ge- 
 neva, Vallais, and Neufchatel. The Bourbon dynasty in 
 Spain (and subsequently in Naples)^ as well as the Fope^ 
 the King of Sardinia and the Duke of Modena were re- 
 instated in the positions which they had respectively oc- 
 cupied before the war, the King of Sardinia receiving, in 
 addition, the city and territory of Genoa. Lucca was 
 given to the Queen Dowager of Etruria and her son Don 
 Carlos ; Parma, Piacenza^ and Guastalla, to Maria Lou- 
 isa (consort of Napoleon), for her life, the reversion of 
 the three duchies being secured after her death to the pos- 
 
352—354. ^59.] the empire. 197 
 
 sessor of Lucca ; the whole eventually to be annexed to 
 Tuscany. 
 
 § 59. Escape of Napoleon from Elba. — The Hundred 
 Baijs (1815). 
 
 (352.) A spirit of disaffection had already hegun to 
 manifest itself in France, in consequence of the mal-ad- 
 ministration of the government, and the insolence of those 
 classes which had enjoyed peculiar privileges before the 
 Revolution. Encouraged by the reports which he received 
 of the prevalence of discontent, especially among the sol- 
 diers, and the difficulties in which the Congress of Vienna 
 was involved by the Polish and Saxon questions, Napoleon 
 escaped from Elba, landed with 2000 men at Cannes on 
 the 1st of March, and being joined by all the troops sent 
 to oppose his progress and by Marshal Ney, entered Paris 
 on the 20th, amidst the acclamations of the people, and 
 immediately established his head quarters at the Tuileries. 
 Meanwhile Louis XVIII. had fled to Ghent. 
 
 (353.) Napoleon, by a proclamation dated from Lyons, 
 had already summoned the electoral colleges of the empire 
 to hold an extraordinary meeting (Champ de Mai) in 
 Paris, for the improvement of the constitution ; but the 
 popularity obtained by this apparent concession to the 
 wishes of the people, was in a great measure lost in conse- 
 quence of these ameliorations being eventually decreed by 
 the emperor himself, without the intervention of a repre- 
 sentative body. Notwithstanding repeated attempts on 
 the part of Napoleon to re-open negotiations with the em- 
 perors of Austria and Russia, the Congress of Vienna 
 proclaimed him an outlawed traitor on the 13th of March, 
 renewed their alliance for the restoration of Louis XVIII., 
 and engaged to raise a force, which eventually amounted 
 to 900,000 men. On the other hand, Napoleon was una- 
 ble to complete the number which he had intended to 
 bring into the field (560 000 men). 
 
 (354.) Death of Murat. The Bourbon coui'^ hav- 
 ing opposed the recognition of Murat's title by the con- 
 gress of Vienna, a proclamation was issued by that sove- 
 reign, soon after the landing of Napoleon, calling on the 
 
198 MODERN HISTORY. [355. ^ 59. 
 
 people of Italy to unite witli him in a patriotic struggle 
 for the utter extinction of foreign domination in Italy. 
 Murat advanced as far as the Po ; but being defeated by 
 the Austrians in several engagements (especially at Tolen- 
 tino), he fled to France, leaving his throne to King Fer- 
 dinand. In the following October he landed in Calabria, 
 where he was taken prisoner, and shot ■ by sentence of a 
 court-martial. 
 
 The last battle of the allies, 15 — 18 June, 1815. 
 
 (355.) Napoleon now determined to commence hosti- 
 lities by attacking simultaneously the allied troops (Eng- 
 lish, Dutch, Belgians, Hanoverians, Brunswickers, Nas- 
 sauers, &c.), which were dispersed through Belgium under 
 the command of Wellington, and the Prussians under 
 Bliicher; and thus preventing a junction of the two 
 armies. The Prussian army, which had not yet had time 
 to concentrate itself, was defeated at Ligny ; whilst Ney 
 meanwhile marched northwards as far as Quatrebras, 
 for the purpose of preventing the advance of Wellington 
 to relieve the Prussians. Here an indecisive battle was 
 fought, in which Duke William of Brunswick lost his life. 
 Instead of falling back on Namur, as Napoleon had ex- 
 pected, the Prussians now endeavored to effect a junction 
 with Wellington by Wavre. Having dispatched Marshal 
 Grouchy to intercept Blucher, Napoleon attacked Wel- 
 lington on the 18th of June, at Mont S. Jean, or la 
 belle Alliance,^ where the English, after bravely 
 fighting throughout the day, were beginning to waver to- 
 wards evening, when Blucher (who had left Thielemann 
 to oppose Grouchy at Wavre), appeared on the field, and, 
 in conjunction with Wellington, completely routed the 
 French army, which fled in disorder, pursued by the Prus- 
 sians. After a succession of victorious skirmishes, Blucher 
 arrived, on the 22d of June, at Paris, where Napoleon 
 had a second time abdicated, in favor of his son. Napo- 
 leon tjten fled to Rochefort, with the intention of embark- 
 ing for America 5 but finding the harbor beset by English 
 
 * Better known to English readers under the name of Wa- 
 TEULOO. — S. 
 
356—357. ^60.] the empire. 199 
 
 cruisers, he surrendered himself to Capt. Maitland, of the 
 Bellerophou, and was conveyed a prisoner to St. Helena, 
 where he died, after nearly six years' suffering, on the 5th 
 of May, 1821. 
 
 (356.) The allies, accompanied by Louis XVIIL, a 
 second time entered Paris, where they levied a contribu- 
 tion of 100,000,000 of francs, by way of indemnification 
 for the expenses incurred in the war, and obtained the 
 restoration of those treasures of art which had been stolen 
 from their respective capitals by Napoleon. A demand was 
 also made by Prussia for the cession of all the provinces 
 which had formerly belonged to Germany ; but this claim 
 was set aside by Talleyrand, whose successor in the admi- 
 nistration, RichelieiT, expedited the conclusion of the 
 peace of Paris (20th November), by which all the reso- 
 lutions of the Congress of Vienna were confirmed, and 
 the limits of the kingdom (as settled by the first peace) 
 considerably contracted. The two fortresses of Philippe- 
 ville and Marienburg on the northern frontier, with the 
 duchy of Bouillon, were ceded by France to the Nether- 
 lands, Saarlouis to Prussia, Landau (the third Grerman 
 fortress in point of importance) to Bavaria, and the west- 
 ern part of Savoy to Sardinia. She was also required to 
 pay 700,000,000 of francs for the expenses of the war, and 
 maintain an army of 150.000 allied troops, under Wel- 
 lington, for five years in her frontier provinces and for- 
 tresses. The Bonaparte family were banished from France, 
 and forbidden to return thither, on pain of death. The 
 two emperors and the King of Prussia then concluded a 
 fraternal league, called the HolyAlliance, by which they 
 bound themselves to support each other on all occasions, 
 and in the administration of their respective governments, 
 no less than in their political intercourse with foreign 
 states, to be guided by the precepts of the Christian reli- 
 gion, and the rules of justice, charity, and peace, rather 
 than by the dictates of worldly policy. 
 
 ^ 60. France. — A. The Restoration of the Bourbons. 
 (1815—1830.) 
 
 (357.) Before his return to Paris, Louis XVIII. 
 
200 MODERN HISTORY. [358. § 60. 
 
 (1815 — 1824) had issued a proclamation from Cambray, 
 granting a free pardon to all who had taken part in the 
 Rovolution, with the exception of its chief authors, and 
 constituted a liberal administration under Talleyrand ; 
 which, however, was speedily overthrown by the court 
 party, headed by the king's brother, the Comte d' Artois. 
 An act was then passed by the ultra-royalist majority iu 
 the chambers, excluding from the amnesty, and condemn- 
 ing to perpetual banishment, all who had taken part in 
 the murder of Louis XVI. {regicides). 
 
 (358.) Ney was arraigned before the chamber of peers, 
 found guilty of high treason and shot. Louis XVIII. 
 having been persuaded to dissolve the chambers [chambre 
 introuvable)^ some projects of law, of a more liberal cha- 
 racter (respecting elections, liberty of the press and per- 
 son, &c.) were carried through the new chambers by the 
 Due de Kichelieu, who also obtained at the congress of 
 Aix la Chapelle, 1818, the withdrawal of the army of occu- 
 pation, and a remission of some portion of the debt still 
 due from France to the allies. In return for these con- 
 cessions Louis XVIII. joined the holy alliance. Un- 
 der the two succeeding administrations, the liberal party 
 obtained a decided majority in the chamber of deputies, 
 and the utter defeat of the ultra-royalists seemed inevi- 
 table, when the assassination of the Due de Berri (second 
 son of the Comte d'Artois) by a saddler named Louvel, 
 furnished them with an excuse for demanding the dismis- 
 sal of the premier (Decazes) who resigned in order to 
 escape being arraigned as an accomplice. Then they al- 
 tered the law of election so as to secure the ascendency of 
 their party, and finally compelled the king to form an 
 ultra-royalist administration, with Villele at its head. 
 Notwithstanding the opposition of the liberal party, and 
 almost in defiance of the king's wishes, and the remon- 
 strances of their president, the new ministry carried a re- 
 solution, that France should undertake the re-establish- 
 ment of the absolute monarchy in Spain, as settled at the 
 congress of Verona. (See § 68.) Emboldened by their 
 success in this instance, the ultra-royalists now exerted 
 themselves to obliterate every trace of the Revolution, and 
 re-establish the privileged classes in all their former splen- 
 
359. ^60.] THE EMPIRE. 201 
 
 dor : a plan whicli they pursued with great zeal and suc- 
 cess under 
 
 (359.) Charles X. (1824— 1830). But the indigna- 
 tion of the people was at length excited by the pertinacity 
 with which they endeavored to increase the influence of 
 the priesthood, and by their granting an indemnification 
 to the extent of 1,000,000.000 of francs to the emigrants, 
 whose estates had been confiscated by the revolutionary 
 government. In conjunction with these unpopular mea- 
 sures, the disbanding of the national guard, which had de- 
 clared itself favorable to the dismissal of Villele, and the 
 establishment of a censorship of the press produced such 
 an eff'ect upon the elections, that Charles X. was compelled 
 to dismiss his ministers. The next administration (Mar- 
 tignac's) sent a French army under Maison, to clear the 
 Morea of Turkish troops ; but soon afterwards was com- 
 pelled to resign in consequence of the dissatisfaction occa- 
 sioned by two projects of law. An ultra-royalist admi- 
 nistration was then formed by Polignac, all the mem- 
 bers of which were vehemently opposed to the constitu- 
 tion. Public discontent was now at its height. The ma- 
 jority of the chamber of 1830 (221 deputies) presented an 
 address to the king, in which they declared plainly, that 
 the policy pursued by the government was utterly at va- 
 riance with the wishes of the nation. An attempt was 
 made by the king to withdraw the attention of the people 
 from domestic politics, by sending an expedition against 
 the Dey of Algiers, who had insulted the French consul. 
 At the same time the chamber was dissolved, and a new 
 election ordered. But these measures were utterly inef- 
 fectual. The intelligence of the capture of Algiers 
 by Bouenwall was coldly received by the people, and 207 
 out of the former majority of 221 opposition deputies were 
 returned in defia.nce of an open warning from the king. 
 Finding themselves again in a minority, the ministry now 
 persuaded the king to sign the fatal Ordonnances of 
 25th of July, by which the liberty of the press was sus- 
 pended, the recently elected chamber dissolved, the number 
 of deputies diminished, and the mode of election altered. 
 This open violation of the constitution produced the 
 
 (360.) Revolution of July,-— 27th of July— 7th of 
 
202 MODERN HISTORY. [361. ^60. 
 
 August, 1830. — Some of the royal troops having joined the 
 revolutionists, and the remainder been driven out of the 
 city after three days' hard fighting (27th — 29th of July), 
 Charles X. abdicated at Rambouillet on the 2nd of Au- 
 gust, in favor of his grandson, the Due de Bordeaux. 
 Several unsuccessful atteaipts had already been made to 
 proclaim a republic : and on the 30th of July the peers 
 and deputies, who happened to be resident at Paris, had 
 met and nominated as regent the Duke of Orleans (de- 
 scendant of a brother of Louis XIV.), by whose represen- 
 tations Charles was induced to quit the kingdom, and seek 
 an asylum in Scotland. On the 7th of August, the Duke 
 of Orleans was proclaimed hereditary " King of the French^'' 
 by the chambers, and on the 9th swore fidelity to the 
 charter of 1 830, in which the sovereignty of the people 
 was fally recognized. The national guard was re-estab- 
 lished and placed under the command of Lafayette. The 
 following alterations were made in the charter of Louis 
 XVIII. It was no longer recognized as a royal gift ; nor 
 was the king permitted to dispense with any of its provi- 
 sions, to release others from observance of the laws, or to 
 take foreign troops into his pay. The initiative in legis- 
 lation was given to the chambers, as well as the king, and 
 the restoration of the censorship and establishment of ex- 
 traordinary tribunals, strictly prohibited. 
 
 B. JJnder the House of Orleans, 1830—1848. 
 
 (361.) The .first care of Louis Philippe was to 
 obtain the recognition of his title by foreign powers ; an 
 object which was eff'ected without much difiiculty, as he 
 founded his claim on his legitimate right to the throne 
 (the elder branch of the Bourbons having abdicated) rather 
 than the choice of the people. But this disavowal of the 
 principle on which he had been chosen king of the French, 
 however satisfactory to foreign cabinets, was exceedingly 
 distasteful to the people, and the cause of serious disturb- 
 ances. His ministers, who were repeatedly changed, were 
 engaged in a perpetual contest with the Republicans on the 
 one side, and the adherents of the ancient dynasty (Legi- 
 timists or Carlists) on the other ; and in the chamber of 
 
362, 363. ^ 60.] the empire. 203 
 
 deputies a formidable opposition, specially organized for 
 resistance to- the ''juste milieu^^ system' of Gruizot, intro- 
 duced by Casimer Perier, compelled the government to 
 consent to the abolition of the hereditary peerage, and 
 the diminution (but not entire removal) of the electoral 
 qualification. 
 
 (362.) The Carlists or Legitimists, who considered 
 Henry V. (the Duke of Bordeaux) the rightful sovereign 
 of France, had many adherents, especially in la Vendee, 
 where the Duchesse de Berri, who personally exerted her- 
 self on behalf of her son, was arrested and banished the 
 country. On the other hand, the Repicblicans endeavored 
 to effect the overthrow of the ministry, if not of the throne 
 itself, by means of societies, trades-unions, conspiracies, 
 and emuetes in Paris, Lyons, and other cities. Several at- 
 tempts were also made to assassinate the king (Fieschi's 
 infernal machine, Alibaud, Meunier, Hubert, Darmes, 
 Henry), The appearance of Louis Napoleon (a son of 
 the ex-king of Holland) at Strasburg, in 1837, and at 
 Boulogne in 1840, produced no important results. In 
 order to preserve peace with foreign poivers, Louis Phi- 
 lippe adopted a system of non-intervention, which he was 
 compelled to violate on several occasions by the clamors 
 of the opposition party (occupation of Ancona as a coun- 
 terpoise to the invasion of Italy by the Austrians, sending 
 a fleet to Lisbon, support afforded on two occasions to the 
 Belgians against Holland, &c.). 
 
 (363.) The manner in which the mediation of France 
 was employed in a dispute between the Pacha of Egypt 
 and the Porte afforded Thiers an opportunity of attack- 
 ing the foreign policy of the government so fiercely, that 
 the king was obliged to dismiss his advisers, and form a 
 liberal administration (1840), which well nigh involved 
 France in a war with the four great powers, on account 
 of the Eastern question. Louis Philippe then formed a 
 new administration (Soult-Guizot), which directed all its 
 efforts towards the maintenance of peace, and persuaded 
 the chambers to sanction the fortification of Paris. 
 
 * The object of this system was the neutralization of the two 
 extreme parties, by means of the centre or moderate party (tiers- 
 parti.) 
 
204 MODERN HISTORY. [364—366. §60. 
 
 (364.) Considerable additions were made by conquest 
 to the new colony of Algiers; but the colonists were 
 perpetually harassed by the attacks of the Bedouins and 
 Kabyles ; among whom the most conspicuous was Abd-el- 
 Kader, emir of the Arabian tribes of the province of 
 Uran, who endeavored to eflfect a general rising of all the 
 tribes, from the borders of Morocco to the city of Algiers 
 After a war, which was carried on with various success 
 for three years (1834-37), peace was concluded on terms 
 very favorable to the emir, the whole of the French force 
 (under Bugeaud) being required for the reduction of Con- 
 stantina, a city m the western part of the province. Dur- 
 ing this period preparations were made by Abd-el-Kader 
 tor the renewal of the war, which took place in 1839 on 
 account of an alleged violation of his territory by 'the 
 J^rench. Tribe after tribe was subdued, and the emir him- 
 selt was compelled to take refuge in the territory of Mo- 
 rocco from which he sallied forth from time to time, until 
 (m 184/) he was at last obliged to surrender to the French 
 who conveyed him a prisoner to France. 
 
 (365.) The support afforded to Abd-el-Kader by the 
 population of Morocco, involved the sultan of that state 
 1 q7. ^ Abderrahman) in a war with France in the year 
 1 844. Tangier and Mogador were bombarded by a French 
 fleet, commanded by the Prince de Joinville, and a vic- 
 tory gained by a land force under Marshal Bugeaud, on the 
 banks of the river Isly. A peace was then concluded, 
 the sultan engaging to prevent, as far as possible, any 
 tresh outbreaks; but in the following year (1845) Abd-el- 
 Kader crossed the frontier, and gained several victories 
 over the French. 
 
 (366.) The attempts of Louis Philippe to render him- 
 selt independent of the nation, his selfishness with regard 
 to the fepanish marriage, and the closeness of his political 
 connection with the absolute European powers, had ren- 
 dered it impossible for him to obtain a majority in the 
 chambers, except by bribery ; and as this could only be 
 effected as long as the number of electors was limited, he 
 resisted with his usual obstinacy every proposal for the 
 extension of the franchise. This policy disgusted all who 
 looked to a reformed system of election, as the only means 
 
367, 368. ^ 60.] the empire. 205 
 
 of improving the administration, and greatly increased 
 the numbers of the moderate Republican party. 
 
 (367.) Even the eyes of those who had been slow to 
 credit the corruption of the government, were at last 
 opened by the trial of two ex ministers (Cubieres and 
 Teste) for bribery, and the desire for reform became 
 universal. An order of the government for the suppres- 
 sion of reform dinners, founded, as they pretended, on a 
 law passed at the beginning of the first revolution (1790), 
 and especially an attempt on the part of the police, to 
 prevent by force the holding of a reform banquet at Paris, 
 provoked the opposition party (headed by, Odillon Barrot) 
 to propose the impeachment of ministers, a motion which 
 was carried in the chamber of deputies after a stormy de- 
 bate. The national guard and some of the troops of the 
 line, having refused to act against the people (who had 
 taken up arms on the 22d of February), Louis Philippe 
 dismissed the Guizot ministry on the 23d, and tranquilli- 
 ty seemed to be completely restored ; but on. the evening 
 of the same day fresh disturbances broke out, in conse- 
 quence of some troops stationed in front of the foreign 
 office having fired on the unarmed populace. Throughout 
 the whole of that night the inhabitants of Paris were oc- 
 cupied in constructmg barricades, and making prepara- 
 tions for active resistance on the morrow. Meanwhile, 
 however, the king, alarmed at the increasing disaffection 
 of his troops, and fearing an attack on the Tuileries, had 
 abdicated in favor of the Comte de Paris, and quitted 
 his palace, which was immediately plundered by the 
 populace. 
 
 (368.) The Duchess of Orleans, accompanied by her 
 two sons, having proceeded to the chamber of deputies for 
 the purpose of obtaining their recognition of the Comte 
 de Paris as king, and herself as regent, an armed multi- 
 tude burst into the hall, and compelled the deputies to 
 sanction the establishment of a provisional government, 
 which proclaimed a republic at the Hotel de Ville. and 
 again on the Place de la Bastille, subject to the approba- 
 tion of the great body of the people. 
 
206 MODERI^ HISTORY. [369, 370. ^ 60. 
 
 C. Second French Republic (1848). 
 
 (369.) The provisional government commenced its 
 proceedings hy calling together the electoral colleges and 
 a constituent assembly. The elective franchise was 
 extended to all Frenchmen who had attained their twenty- 
 first year, and all above twenty-five years of age were de- 
 clared eligible as deputies, of whom about 900 were re- 
 turned to the chamber. The constituent assembly having 
 met on the 4th of May, and the republic having been again 
 proclaimed, the provisional government dissolved itself, and 
 was succeeded by an executive commission composed of 
 five of its members (Arago, G-arnier, Pages, Marie, Lamar- 
 tine, and Ledru Rullin). The most formidable opponents 
 of these commissioners were the workmen (ouvriers), and 
 the leaders of the communists (Barbes, Blanqui, Louis 
 Blanc). The Revolutionists of February had pronounced 
 it to be the duty of the state to provide employment for 
 its citizens, and had followed up this declaration by the 
 establishment of national workshops, with a view to the 
 " organization of labor." The failure of this impractica- 
 ble scheme produced great discontent among the workmen ; 
 and after a fruitless attempt (15th of May) on their part 
 to overthrow the government, and extort contributions 
 from the wealthier classes, the workshops were closed, and 
 the men sent into the provinces. A sanguinary struggle 
 ensued, in the course of which the Archbishop of Paris 
 was shot, whilst addressing words of peace to the insur- 
 gents from one of the barricades. After four days' hard 
 fighting (23d — 26th of July), the malcontents were utterly 
 defeated by General C a vaignac, formerly governor of 
 Algiers. The city of Paris was then declared in a state 
 of siege, and the powers of the ^ecutive commission trans- 
 ferred to Cavaignac, who immediately formed an admi- 
 nistration, of which he declared himself president. More 
 than 4000 of the insurgents were banished to the French 
 settlements beyond seas, the national workshops suppress- 
 ed, and the public clubs placed under the surveillance of 
 the police. 
 
 (370.) By the new Constitution, France was de- 
 clared to be a democratic republic, one and indivisible. 
 
371. ^61.] HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 207 
 
 The legislative authority was committed to a single as- 
 sembly of 750 members, elected by all Frenchmen who 
 had attained their twenty-first year. All citizens above 
 twenty-five years of age were eligible as representatives, 
 with the exception of paid government functionaries. The 
 executive authority was vested in a "President of 
 the Republic," who was required by the constitution to be 
 thirty years old, and a native of France. He was chosen 
 for four years, by the direct sufi'rages of all the electors. 
 
 ^61. Holland and Belgium. 
 
 (371.) At the suggestion of the English government, 
 it had been settled by the Congress of Vienna, that the 
 Austrian Netherlands (Belgium), and the Republic of 
 Holland, should form together the Kingdom of the 
 Netherlands, under William I. , who received the grand 
 duchy of Luxemburg as an indemnification for the Grer- 
 man territory ceded by the house of Orange, and granted 
 a representative constitution to the united kingdom. But 
 the difl^erences in character, language, and manners be- 
 tween the two nations, were too decided to admit of amal- 
 gamation ; and the difficulty was still further increased by 
 the arrogance of the Dutch, and the ill-judged attempts of 
 the government to alter the laws and language of Bel- 
 gium. After fifteen years of nominal union, during which 
 complaints without number were made of the preference 
 shown to natives of Holland, and the interference of the 
 government in Church afikirs, the Belgians, at length, in- 
 stigated by the example of the French, broke out into 
 open insurrection on the 25th of August, 1830, and de- 
 manded a separation of the two countries, as regarded 
 laws and government. No sooner was this demand granted 
 by the states-general, than the Belgians required national 
 independence ; and, finding that the Dutch were concen- 
 trating their troops in Brussels and Antwerp, again raised 
 the standard of revolution in the capital ; and established 
 a provisional government ; at the head of which they 
 placed one De Potter, a political writer, who had been 
 banished by the government. After four days' hard fight- 
 ing (23d — 26th Sept.), the Prince of Orange, who had en- 
 
208 MODERN HISTORY. [372,373. ^61. 
 
 deavored to appease the revolutionists by several important 
 concessions, was compelled to quit Brussels and retire to 
 Antwerp The insurrection having extended itself to the 
 whole of Belgium, the Dutch garrisons were every where 
 forced to capitulate, except at Antwerp, where General 
 Chasse retained possession of the citadel, and suppressed 
 an insurrection, by bombarding the city. A conference^ 
 consisting of plenipotentiaries of the five great European 
 powers, then assembled in London, at the request of the 
 King of the Netherlands, and, having persuaded the con- 
 tending parties to conclude an armistice, decided that the 
 boundaries of the kingdom of the Netherlands should be 
 the same as those of the Dutch republic previously to 
 1790, with the addition of the grand duchy of Luxem- 
 burg. 
 
 (372.) Meanwhile a national Congress, which had as- 
 sembled at Brussels, and proclaimed the independence of 
 Belgium, and the exclusion of the house of Orange from 
 the Belgian throne, had framed a new constitution, and 
 chosen Prince Leopold of Saxe Coburg hereditary 
 King of the Belgians (1831). Whilst the Conference 
 of London was occupied in fruitless endeavors to settle 
 the boundary question between the two nations, the King 
 of Holland renewed the war, but was prevented from car- 
 rying his plans into eflfect by the appearance of a French 
 army in Belgium. A new protocol was then issued by 
 the conference, proposing the partition of Luxemburg 
 and Limburg between Holland and Belgium, and charging 
 Belgium with a share of the Dutch national debt. These 
 conditions being rejected by the King of Holland, it was 
 resolved to have recourse to coercive measures : and in 
 the year 1832 Marshal Gerard re-entered Belgium at the 
 head of a French army, and compelled Chasse, after a 
 brave defence, to surrender the citadel of Antwerp. It 
 was not, however, until the year 1839, that a treaty of 
 peace was signed between the two nations. Luxemburg 
 and Limburg remained divided. 
 
 (373.) In the Netherlands, the states-general hav- 
 ing demanded a full statement of the financial condition 
 of the country, as well as various reforms in the constitu- 
 tion and the establishment of ministerial responsibility, 
 
374 376. §61.] Holland and Belgium. 209 
 
 the king (who was unwilling to comply with these requisi- 
 tions, and had also refused to dismiss his unpopular mis- 
 tress the Countess d'Oultremont) abdicated m 1840, m 
 favor of his son, William 11.,^ and, ha.ving married the 
 countess, retired to Berlin, where he died (as Count of 
 Nassau), in 1843. On his accession, the new king issued 
 a proclamation declaring ministers responsible for their 
 public acts ; and sanctioned the imposition of a property 
 tax, as the only practicable mode of improving the finan- 
 cial affairs of the nation, which were in a state of alarm- 
 ing depression. . j . 
 
 (374.) In the year 1848, the government presented to 
 the chambers the plan of a constitution, by which a direct 
 election of representatives was substituted for the many 
 indirect modes previously in use. The property qualifi- 
 cation for electors was. however, still retained. 
 
 (375.) Since the revolution of 1831, Belgium has en- 
 ioyed almost uninterrupted tranquillity, notwithstanding 
 the struggle for ascendency between the liberal and Ro- 
 man Catholic parties. During that period, several great 
 industrial enterprises have been successfully carried out, 
 and railways constructed, by which the country is tra- 
 versed in every direction. The French revolution of 
 1848 produced no effect on Belgium. 
 
 (376) The chief articles of the Belgian constitu- 
 tion are as follows: equality of all Belgians before the 
 law • abolition of hereditary distinctions ; the right ot 
 assembling and forming associations ; freedom of speech, 
 of education, and of religious worship ; complete separa- 
 tion of the church from the state ; hereditary succession 
 to the throne in the male line ; legislation by two cham- 
 bers with a low qualification for electors ; publicity ot ju- 
 
 1 William I. (1815—1840.) 
 
 William II. 
 
 Fredericlc Marianne 
 
 ^ ^ A , m. Prince 
 
 William. Alexander. Henry. Sophia. Louisa. Mary. Albert of 
 I t 1848. Hereditary . Prussia. 
 
 ^ A , G. Duchess 
 
 William. Maurice, ofSaxe 
 
 Weimar. 
 
210 MODERN HISTORY. [377 — 382. ^62. 
 
 dicial proceedings ; trial by jury in criminal and political 
 cases, and in all prosecutions of the press. 
 
 § 62. Great Britain.^ 
 
 (377.) George lY. (1820—1830.) George Can- 
 ning, prime minister. Recognition of tlie free States 
 of America. Maintenance by the English Grovernment of 
 the Constitution in Portugal. Election of O'Connell to 
 a seat in parliament, who, though a Koman Catholic, 
 threatens to take his seat in defiance of the Test Act. 
 
 (388.) Act for the Emancipation of the Roman 
 Catholics carried by the Wellington Administration, 
 receives the royal assent. (1829.) 
 
 (379.) William lY. (brother of George lY.) A whig 
 ministry formed with Earl Grey at its head. Parliament 
 dissolved, and the Reform-Bill twice thrown out by the 
 House of Lords. Reform Act receives the royal assent. 
 The monopoly hitherto enjoyed by the East India Com- 
 pany is abolished by Lord Melbourne's administration. 
 
 (380.) Yictoria (daughter of the Duke of Kent; 
 niece of George lY. and William lY., 1837). Marries 
 Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg. Hanover (where fe- 
 males are excluded from the succession by the Salique 
 law) separated from England, and made an independent 
 kingdom under the Duke of Cumberland (Ernest Augus- 
 tus), brother of William lY. 
 
 (381.) War with Persia (1838—1843). Two wars 
 with China (1840—1842 and 1846, 1847) end in the ces- 
 sion of Hong-Kong to the British government, and the 
 admission of British subjects into China. 
 
 § 63. Germany. 
 
 A. Germany, a confederacy of states. 
 (1815—1848.) 
 
 (382.) Considerable difference of opinion had arisen, 
 
 ^ I have thought it best to give a mere chronological outline of 
 this part of English history, as the events are, perhaps, too recent, 
 and men's opinions too divided with regard to their nature and 
 character, to warrant a fuller statement in a book intended for 
 young persons. R. B. P. 
 
382. §63.] GERMANY. 211 
 
 during the session of the Congress at Vienna, respecting 
 the future constitution of Grermanj, the smaller princes 
 desiring the restoration of the empire under a common 
 head, whilst Austria and Prussia advocated the establish- 
 ment of a federal union of independent states. The un- 
 expected return of Napoleon compelled the German states 
 to unite for mutual defence, but no assimilation of insti- 
 tutions was attempted. In Prussia, where the prime 
 minister, Baron von Stein (1807, 1808),* and the Chancel- 
 lor Hardenberg(1810 — 1812), had already effected several 
 importartant reforms (abolition of hereditary serfdom, 
 equalization of taxes, removal of all restrictions on indus- 
 try, &c.), the constitution was still further liberalized, and 
 preparations were made for the establishment of a repre- 
 sentative government ; whilst in Austria, on the contrary, 
 a system was pursued by Prince Metternich, the chief 
 object of which was the maintenance of the imperial pre- 
 rogative. After a time, this system was also adopted by 
 Prussia, whilst in Baden, Bavaria, Wurtemburg, and sev- 
 eral of the smaller states, the tardiness with which the 
 governments carried into effect the plans of constitutional 
 reform recommended by the diet of the -confederation, 
 excited the suspicions of the liberal party, and produced 
 demonstrations (at the Wartburg festival, in 1817 — assassi- 
 nation of Kotzebue,^ by a student named George Sand, in 
 1819), which compelled their rulers to adopt a reactionary 
 policy. A conference of ministers was accordingly 
 summoned (1819), by Prince Metternich, to meet at 
 Carlsbad, where resolutions were passed condemnatory 
 of these " demagogue attempts," and a plan proposed for 
 establishing a surveillance of university professors and 
 students by government commissioners, and for restricting 
 the liberty of the press. In the following year (1820), a 
 ministerial Congress assembled at Vienna, and 
 adopted measures of a still more arbitrary character. 
 Meanwhile Hanover, Brunswick, and Hesse-Darmstadt 
 had also received representative constitutions. In Prussia, 
 by a law passed during the Hardenberg administration, the 
 
 ' A dramatic writer, and editor of a political journal, in which 
 the " liberal" party were held up to public contempt. 
 
212 MODERN HISTORY. [383, 384. § 63. 
 
 debt of 180 millions of Prussian dollars was declared to 
 be balanced, and the raising of fresh loans was made de- 
 pendent on the consent of the estates ; but after the death 
 of that minister, in 1823, provincial estates, in which the 
 influence of the great landed proprietors preponderated, 
 were substituted for those of the kingdom. For a period 
 of ten years the German nation continued to enjoy unin- 
 terrupted tranquillity both at home and abroad, but im- 
 mediately after the Paris revolution of July, insurrection- 
 ary movements took place in some of the states. In 
 Bru7isivick^ the Duke (Charles), whose capricious tyranny 
 had rendered him universally odious, was deposed, and 
 his brother William raised to the throne : in the kingdom 
 of Saxony, as well as in Hesse- Cassel and Hanover, the 
 sovereigns were compelled to grant constitutions ; whilst, 
 in the constitutional states of the south of Germany, the 
 restoration of the liberty of the press was demanded by 
 the representatives of the people. 
 
 (383.) As long as the result of the French outbreak 
 seemed uncertain, and the territories of the two great Ger- 
 man powers were threatened by the Poles, the confederation 
 abstained from any aggressive movement ; but no sooner 
 was intelligence received of the fall of Warsaw, than the 
 diet (1832), at the suggestion of Austria, adopted a series 
 of resolutions, by which the development of the constitu- 
 tional system was still farther restricted (censorship of the 
 press ; prohibition of political unions, and public meet- 
 ings, &c., &c.). The only effect produced by these political 
 demonstrations was the enactment of still more tyrannical 
 laws by the diet, which now constituted itself a court of 
 appeal in all disputes between the executive and represen- 
 tative powers, 
 
 (384). How little security the people possessed for the 
 continuance of their constitutional governments was seen in 
 the instance of Hanover, where King Ernest Augustus 
 repudiated the law of 1833, on the ground of its having 
 been passed without receiving his assent, as heir-pre- 
 sumptive to the crown, and summoned the estates to form 
 a new constitution (founded on that of 1819), which was 
 at last voted, after a severe struggle and several adjourn- 
 ments. 
 
385, 386. § 63.] Germany. 213 
 
 (385.) In Austria, after the death of the Emperor 
 Francis I., the absolute system was rigidly maintained by 
 his son, Ferdinand I. ; whilst in Prussia, where an im- 
 portant step towards the establishment of German unity 
 had been taken in the formation (1833) and subsequent 
 extension of the Zollverein (commercial league), several 
 concessions were made by Frederick William IV., im- 
 mediately after his accession in 1840. Among these we 
 may mention as the most important, the relaxation of the 
 censorship, the summoning of provincial diets every two 
 (instead of every three) years, publicity of courts of jus- 
 tice (granted in ] 846), publication of an edict respecting 
 religious toleration, and lastly (in 1847), the formation 
 out of the provincial diets of a " united national diet," 
 with the power of contracting loans and imposing taxes, 
 but with only the power of advising on questions of legis- 
 lation. 
 
 (386.) On the 11th of April, 1847, the first session of 
 the " united national diet" was opened with a speech from 
 the throne, which annihilated the hopes of those who had 
 expected some intimation of the king's readiness to grant 
 a constitution. In the following year (12th of Feb. 1848), 
 a proposal (which had originally been brought forward in 
 1814, and again by Welcher, in 1831), for the establish- 
 ment of a German parliament in place of the federal 
 diet, was submitted to the chamber of Baden, and de- 
 nounced by the government as " utterly impracticable ;" 
 whilst nearly at the same time disturbances took place at 
 Munich, in consequence of an order for the suppression of 
 the university, which the King of Bavaria had been per- 
 suaded to issue by his mistress, a Spanish dancer, named 
 Lola Montes, whom he had created Countess of Lansfeld, 
 and who had procured the dismissal of the minister Abel, 
 in 1847. After a struggle, which lasted several days, the 
 order was revoked, and Lola Montes was compelled to 
 quit the country. Whilst the political affairs of Germany 
 were in this unsettled state, intelligence arrived of the third 
 French revolution, and the overthrow of a throne which 
 had seemed too firmly established to be shaken during the 
 lifetime of Louis Philippe. 
 
214 MODERN HISTORY. [387. §63. 
 
 B. Grermany a federal state(1848), 
 
 (387.) The first effects of this intelligence manifested 
 themselves in the frontier states of Baden and Hesse- 
 Darmstadt, where the chambers were assembled, and 
 freedom of the press, and the establishment of a national 
 guard, were granted by the government, in consequence 
 of their energetic representatives. A body of fifty-one 
 representatives, from the south-western states, also assem- 
 bled at Heidelberg, for the purpose of inviting the attend- 
 ance at Frankfort of deputies from all the states ; whilst, 
 at the same time, a proposal was brought forward in the 
 chamber at Darmstadt, by Henry von Gagern, for the 
 convocation of a national representative assembly, and the 
 nomination of a head of the confederacy. In W ii r t e m- 
 b e r g the government yielded at once, and unconditionally, 
 to the wishes of the people, and called together the cham- 
 bers (which had been prorogued a short time before), for 
 the purpose of submitting to them the plan of a new con- 
 stitution. The initiative in a project for relieving the 
 people from feudal burdens, was taken by the nobles them- 
 selves, the chambers undertaking to indemnify them for 
 any loss which they might sustain. In Bavaria and 
 Nassau the chambers were convoked, and extensive 
 schemes of reform submitted to them. At Munich, fresh 
 disturbances having taken place, in consequence of a report 
 that the Countess of Lansfeld (386) had returned to Ba- 
 varia, the king was induced to abdicate in favor of his son, 
 Maximilian II., who immediately opened the chambers, 
 and gave his assent to an act embodying all the reforms 
 which had been promised to the nation. In Hesse- 
 C ass el, the movement commenced, not in the capital, but 
 in that portion of the principality which lay nearest to the 
 disturbed southern states, where the demands of the people 
 were granted, in consequence of the representations of a 
 deputation from Hanau. In Saxony, Hanover, and most 
 of the smaller states, the transition from the old to the 
 new state of things was accomplished with comparative 
 facility, whilst in Austria and Prussia the attempts of the 
 reform party produced the most fearful convulsions : in 
 Austria, the Hungarian diet, on receiving intelligence of 
 
388. 5 63.] GERMANY. 215 
 
 the French revolution, demanded, at the suggestion of 
 Kossuth, a real representative system for all parts of the 
 empire, and a separate responsible administration for 
 Hungary. All these demands were granted through the 
 influence of the Archduke Stephen. Meanwhile the 
 students of Vienna, supported by a large body of insur- 
 gents, had compelled the estates of Lower Austria (on the 
 day of their assembling, March 13th), to appoint a com- 
 mittee for the purpose of communicating the wishes of the 
 people to the emperor ; but their demands for freedom of 
 the press, and the establishment of a national guard, 
 were not granted, until several deputations had been 
 sent by the university, and Metternich had resigned his 
 office. 
 
 (388.) A progress of the emperor through the city, 
 during which he was loudly cheered by the people, was fol- 
 lowed by the distinct promise of a constitution (15th of 
 March), the formation of a responsible administration 
 (18th), and a general amnesty for all political offences 
 (20th). In Hungary, the nobles gave up their privilege of 
 exemption from taxation, and other feudal rights. Mean- 
 while, however, the joy occasioned by the supposed success 
 of this almost bloodless revolution was well-nigh changed 
 into despair, by the appearance of a government scheme 
 for the formation of a single chamber, to be composed ex- 
 clusively of nobles, who were to be elected by persons pos- 
 sessing a considerable property qualification. After con- 
 senting (in consequence of a monster petition presented 
 on the 15th of May) to the establishment of a consti- 
 tuent imperial diet, consisting of one chamber, and a 
 revision of the law of election, the emperor fled to the 
 Tyrol, in the hope of more effectually combating, from that 
 distant locality, the designs of the revolutionary party. 
 The diet was opened by the Archduke John, on the 22nd 
 of July, and soon afterwards the emperor returned to his 
 capital. Almost contemporaneously with the occurrence 
 of these events in Austria, an attempt was made by the 
 Milanese to throw off the Austrian yoke. This revolu- 
 tionary movement was abetted by Charles Albert, King 
 of Sardinia, who placed himself at the head of the insur- 
 gent Lombards, and drove back the imperial troops as far 
 
216 MODERN HISTORY. [388. §63. 
 
 as the Adige. Meanwhile a republic had been proclaimed 
 at Venice. But after the defeat of the insurgents by- 
 General Kadetzky (at Custozza. between Milan and Villa 
 Franca), and the recapture of Milan by the Austrians, an 
 armistice was concluded between the contending parties. 
 
389 
 
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218 MODERN HISTORY. [390. ^63. 
 
 (390.) "Whilst this contest was still undecided, a strug- 
 gle of an equally determined character commenced be- 
 tween the two nations whose union formed the kingdom 
 of Hungary, the Magyars and Slaves (or Sclavonians). 
 The latter of these tribes, considering itself aggrieved by 
 the adoption of the Magyar language at the Hungarian 
 diet, had formed a plan for the establishment of an inde- 
 pendent southern Sclavonian empire, which they deter- 
 mined, in case of necessity, to place under the protection 
 of Russia ; but a different direction was given to the 
 movement by Jellachich, Ban of Croatia, who proposed a 
 union with Austria, for the purpose of depriving the 
 Magyars of their hegemony in Hungary. At the com- 
 mencement of the revolution, the Ban had been outlawed 
 by the Austrian government ; but the struggles of the 
 Magyars for complete independence had now become so 
 formidable, that the emperor, after receiving a visit from 
 Jellachich, at Innsbruck, agreed to nominate him com- 
 mander-in-chief in Hungary, and issued a proclamation 
 dissolving the Hungarian diet. This alliance with the 
 Slavish nation having occasioned a fresh revolution at 
 Vienna (6th of October), the emperor, after the march of 
 the Imperial troops against the Hungarians had been 
 opposed by the national guard, and the minister of war 
 (Latour) sacrificed to the fury of the populace, a second 
 time quitted his capital, and fled to Olmutz. The com- 
 mand in chief of the troops in all the imperial states was 
 now conferred on Prince Windischgratz, who had distin- 
 guished himself in the previous June by the suppression of 
 an insurrection at Prague. After a three days' bombard- 
 ment, and an ineffectual attempt on the part of the Hun- 
 garians to throw themselves between Windisgratz and 
 Jellachich, the city of Vienna surrendered uncondition- 
 ally (1st of November), and the insurgent leaders (Mes- 
 senhauser, commandant of the national guard, Robert 
 Blum, one of the representatives in the imperial diet, and 
 several other persons) were put to death. The emperor 
 now abdicated in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph 
 I., a youth of eighteen. Windischgratz and Jellachich 
 united their forces and again attacked the Hungarians. 
 
391,392. ^63.] Germany. 219 
 
 The diet was prorogued, and its place of meeting changed 
 to Kremsier, in Moravia. 
 
 (391.) In Prussia, a Committee (unrecognized bj a 
 portion of the representative body) was busily engaged in 
 preparing the project of a new criminal law, when intelli- 
 gence arrived of the French revolution, and the success 
 which had attended the movements of the liberal party in 
 all the countries of South-western Grermany. Under such 
 circumstances, the consent of the government to the regu- 
 lar convocation of the united diet, under certain restric- 
 tions, and in its ancient form, as well as the ambiguous 
 terms in which freedom of the press was promised, occa- 
 sioned more uneasiness than satisfaction. Tumultuous 
 meetings were held in the capital, and dispersed one after 
 another by the military, and whilst the agitation of the 
 popular mind was at its greatest height, accounts were re- 
 ceived of insurrections in the provinces, and the triumph 
 of the revolutionary party at Vienna. The government 
 now deemed it the most prudent course to make several 
 important concessions (18th of March), which were re- 
 ceived the more readily by the people, because a prospect 
 was held out to them of obtaining the complete re-organi- 
 zation of the German constitution, and the establishment 
 of one federal state in the j)lace of a confederacy of inde- 
 pendent states ; but the refusal of the government to 
 withdraw the military from Berlin soon occasioned a fresh 
 outbreak, and a sanguinary barricade skirmish took place 
 (18th, 19th of March), in the streets of that city, which 
 ended in the removal of the troops, the dismissal of the 
 ministry, the establishment of a national guard, and a 
 general amnesty for all political offences. These conces- 
 sions were speedily followed by the appointment of a 
 responsible administration, in which Camphausen, Hanse- 
 mann, von Auerswald, and the Count Yon Schwerin (all 
 leading men in the first united diet) filled the most im- 
 portant offices. 
 
 (392.) The second united diet, which lasted only from 
 the 2nd to the 10th of April, restricted itself to the dis- 
 cussion of a few indispensable measures of finance, and 
 certain details of the proposed new constitution. On the 
 22nd of May, the representative assembly opened its ses- 
 
220 MODERN HISTORY. [393,394. §63. 
 
 sion, and appointed a committee to frame a new constitu- 
 tion ; the plan proposed by the government being consider- 
 ed unsatisfactory. Scarcely, however, had their delibera- 
 tions commenced, when the session was adjourned to Bran- 
 denburgh, in consequence of the unsettled state of the 
 capital. An attempt on the part of a majority of the 
 chamber to continue the session at Berlin was put down 
 by force ; but the result of this dispute between the 
 representative body and the government was the attend- 
 ance at Brandenburg of a very small number of members, 
 and the dissolution of the chamber by the king, who him- 
 self granted a constitution (5th of December), subject 
 to the revision of two chambers, to be chosen by indirect 
 election. 
 
 (393.) Foundation of a federal state. — Whilst 
 such changes as these were taking place in individual states, 
 a preliminary parliament, convened on the recom- 
 mendation of the deputies assembled at Heidelberg (31st 
 of March), had agreed that a general constituent assembly 
 should be held at Frankfort, to which deputies should be 
 sent (one for every 50,000 inhabitants) from every part of 
 G-ermany, including East and West Prussia, and Schles- 
 wig. The election of these deputies was to be conducted 
 according to a plan arranged by the government of each 
 state, it being merely stipulated that no pecuniary qualifi- 
 cation should be required for electors. Until the meeting 
 of this assembly, the nation was to be represented by a 
 committee of fifty individuals. At the suggestion of Prus- 
 sia, a portion of the grand duchy of Posen was included 
 in "the Grerman confederacy. 
 
 (394.) The constituent assembly commenced its 
 session in the church of St. Paul, at Frankfort, on the 18th of 
 May, and immediately passed a resolution declaring all its 
 acts binding on every state of Germany, and voted a sum 
 of three million Prussian dollars for the formation of the 
 '• nucleus " of a German fleet. Before the question of the 
 constitution was brought forward, the assembly passed an 
 act for the establishment of a central government for all 
 Germany, and on the 29th of June elected the Archduke 
 John of Austria imperial stattholder of Ger- 
 many, and the diet dissolved itself, after engaging in the 
 
395. §64.] RUSSIA. 221 
 
 names of the different states, that the title of the statt- 
 holder should be recognized by them immediately after 
 his election. The assembly, under the direction of Henry 
 von Gagern, then occupied itself with questions affecting 
 the privileges of the German people, and the discussion of 
 plans for the establishment of a constitution. A resolu- 
 tion, carried by a feeble majority, approving the conclusion 
 of an armistice by Prussia with Denmark, in the name of 
 the central government, occasioned an emeute in Frankfort 
 (iSth of September), in which two deputies of the right 
 (Prince Lichnowsky and Colonel von Auerswald) were 
 murdered. 
 
 § 64. Russia* 
 
 (395.) During the reign of Alexander I. 1801 — 
 1825), considerable additions were made to the Russian 
 empire, by the annexation of Finland (1809), Bessarabia, 
 and a part of Moldavia (at the peace of Bucharest, in 
 1812), and the kingdom of Poland (at the Congress of 
 Vienna, in 1815). The attention of the emperor was also 
 directed to measures of domestic improvement, during the 
 periods of comparative tranquillity which preceded and 
 followed the great war with Napoleon. For example, pre- 
 parations were made for the abolition of serfdom through- 
 out the empire, a plan which was actually carried into 
 effect on the estates belonging to the crown ; universities 
 were founded at Dorpat, Charho\^, Kasan, Warsaw, and 
 St, Petersburg ; the ancient code was amended and new 
 laws enacted, many abuses in the administration were re- 
 moved, attempts were made to facilitate the maintenance 
 of a large standing army by the establishment of military 
 
 ' Paul, t 1801. 
 
 Alexander, Constantine, Grand Duchess Queen Nicholas. Michael. 
 t 1825. t 1831. of of the I 
 
 Saxe Weimar. Netherlands. 
 
 Alexander, Grand Crown Constantine, Nicholas. Michael. Cathe- 
 Duchess Princess mar. rine. 
 
 of of Alexandra 
 
 Leuchten- Wiirlem- of Saxe- 
 berg. berg. Altenberg. 
 
 Alexandra. Nicholas. 
 Alexander. Wladimir. 
 
222 MODERN HISTORY. [396 — 398. ^64. 
 
 colonies, and commerce and manufacturing industry were 
 encouraged in various ways. The emperor, who frequently 
 visited even the most remote provinces of his empire, was 
 surprised by death during one of these progresses (at 
 Taganrog), and succeeded by his brother Nicholas I., 
 his brother Constantine having previously renounced all 
 claim to the succession, in consequence of his second mar- 
 riage with a lady of inferior rank. 
 
 (396.) The commencement of the new reign (in 1825) 
 was signalized by the suppression of a military conspiracy, 
 set on foot for the purposeof replacing Constantine on the 
 throne, and establishing a constitutional government. 
 Through the unwearied exertions of the emperor, many 
 important reforms were effected in the administration of 
 public affairs. In the year 1833, a general code of laws 
 was published, under the auspices of Nicholas, who en- 
 deavored to excite a feeling of nationality by the extension 
 of the Russian language, and the Russo-Greek church. 
 
 (397.) Tlie Russian- Persian ivar ( 1 826 — 1 828), occasion- 
 ed by the invasion of the Russian territory by the Persian 
 Crown Prince Abbas Mirza, for the purpose of reconquering 
 some tracts of country which had formerly been ceded to 
 Russia, was terminated by Paskewitsch (who conquered 
 Erivan and Taurus). A peace was concluded on terms 
 exceedingly favorable to Russia, the provinces of Eviran 
 and Nahitschewan being ceded to her, and united under the 
 name of Armenia, and the free navigation of the Caspian 
 being also secured. • 
 
 (398.) The Russian-Turkish loar (1828, 1829).— The 
 obstinate refusal of the Porte to fulfil all the conditions of 
 the peace of Bucharest, and the subsequent convention of 
 Akjerman (by which Moldavia and Wallachia were ren- 
 dered almost independent), involved that power in a fresh 
 war with Russia, at a time when the destruction of the 
 corps of Janizaries had deprived Turkey of her best and 
 bravest soldiers. Moldavia and Wallachia were occupied 
 by Wittgenstein, who was compelled, after storming Varna 
 and other Turkish fortresses, to raise the siege of Silis- 
 tria, and retire beyond the Danube ;. but in the year 1 829 
 his successor, General Diebitsch, after gaining a decisive 
 victory over the grand vizier, crossed the Balkan (called 
 
399— 401. §64.] RUSSIA. 223 
 
 by the Turks Sabalkanski. the impassable)^ and advanced 
 to Adrianople ; whilst Paskewitsch, after the capture of 
 Erzerum, penetrated farther and farther into the heart of 
 Asia Minor, 
 
 (399. ) The sultan now sued for peace, which was concluded 
 at Adrianople, in 1829. It was agreed that the Pruth 
 and Danabe should thenceforth form the boundary line 
 between the two nations ; that Russia should take pos- 
 session of certain fortresses in Asia, and enjoy the free 
 navigation of the Danube, Black Sea, and Straits ; and 
 that Moldavia, Wallachia, and Servia should still pay tri- 
 bute to. the Porte, but be governed by princes of their own, 
 under the protection of Russia. 
 
 (400.) The Russian-Polish ivar (1830, 1831).— The 
 new kingdom of Poland, created by the Congress of Vi- 
 enna, in 1815, had received from the Emperor Alexander 
 a representative constitution and a government of its own ; 
 but the Polish nobles still yearned after national inde- 
 pendence, and offered every opposition in their power to 
 the government of the Archduke Constantino. Under 
 such circumstances, the effects of the July revolution soon 
 manifested themselves in Poland. An insurrectionary 
 movement, commenced by about twenty students of the 
 military school of Warsaw, on the 29th of November, 
 1830, rapidly extended itself to every part of the kingdom. 
 The Archduke Constantino narrowly escaped assassina- 
 tion, the house of Romanow was set aside, the throne of 
 Poland declared vacant, and a provisional government es- 
 tablished under the presidency of Prince Czartoryski. 
 
 (401.) In the following February, General Diebitsch, 
 at the head of 120,000 men, crossed the Bug, and after 
 sustaining several checks (at Grochow, Bialolenka, &c.), 
 and being cut off from all communication with Russia, by 
 insurrections in Lithuania and Podolia, at length defeated 
 Skrzynecki, in the battle of Ostrolenka (26th of May, 
 iS31). Two days after this victory, Diebitsch died of the 
 cholera (which also carried off the Grand Duke Constan- 
 tine) ; but his successor, Paskewitsch, crossed the Vistula, 
 near Thorn, and invested Warsaw, which capitulated on 
 the 8th of September. Of the Polish insurgents, some 
 were compelled to lay down their arms within the Prus- 
 
224 MODERN HISTORY. [402 — 404. ^65. 
 
 sian and Austrian frontiers, whilst others fled to France 
 and England, or embarked for America. Poland was de- 
 prived of her constitution, and reduced to the condition 
 of a Russian province ( 1 832), retaining, however, her own 
 code of laws, which was administered by a governor nomi- 
 nated by the emperor. The first governor was Count 
 Paskewitsch Erivanski, who was created Prince of War- 
 saw. A subsequent conspiracy (1846), the ramifications 
 of which extended over the whole of Prussian and Aus- 
 trian Poland, was discovered before the plans of the con- 
 spirators were fully matured, and easily crushed. 
 
 (402.) A war carried on by Eussia against the moun- 
 taineers of the Caucasus, especially the Circassians, pro- 
 duced no important results. The republic of Cracow, 
 being too weak to resist the political attempts of the Polish 
 exiles, was incorporated into the Austrian empire, with 
 consent of the three great northern powers ( 1 846). 
 
 § 65. 77^e Ottoman, or Osmanic Empire and Greece. 
 
 (403.) The Osmanic empire, which had been gradu- 
 ally declining during the reign of Mahomet II. (1808 — 
 1839). was indebted for its preservation from utter de- 
 struction to the mutual jealousies of the great European 
 powers. The pashas, especially those at a distance (in 
 Janina, Aleppo, and Egypt), set at nought the authority of 
 the sultan, and governed their respective pashalics as in- 
 dependent princes. 
 
 (404.) Greek War of liberation (1821—1828).— 
 In the year 1821, Alexander Ypsilanti, son of a ban- 
 ished prince of Moldavia, issued, as president of the He- 
 taeria (originally a literary, and subsequently a political 
 association), a proclamation calling on the Greeks to throw 
 oflF their allegiance to the Turkish government, which was 
 at that time occupied in putting down an insurrectionary 
 movement headed by Ali, pasha of Janina. Unfortunate- 
 ly, however, for the success of the Greek cause, assistance 
 was refused by the Emperor Alexander, on whose co-oper- 
 ation the insurgents had confidently reckoned. The pa- 
 triot army having been betrayed into the hands of the 
 Turks, their leader, Ypsilanti, fled to Vienna, where he 
 died in 1828. 
 
405. ^ 65.] OSMANIC EMPIRE. 225 
 
 (405.) Insurrections in Wallachia and Moldavia were 
 suppressed at the same time. Notwithstanding this check, 
 however, the Greek patriots, irritated by the revolting cru- 
 elties practised by the Turkish government even on these 
 ,who had taken no part in the movement {hanging of the 
 Patriarch of Constantinople and his bishops over the prin- 
 cipal door of their cathedral), again raised the standard of 
 revolt in the Morea, Hellas, Thessaly, and several of the 
 islands : and in the year 1 822 a national Congress^ assem- 
 hied at Epidaurus, 2^'>'oclawied tJie independence of Greece^ 
 and piibli&lied the outline of a constitittioji. The Greek 
 patriots were soon joined by large bodies of Philhellenes 
 from every part of Europe, whilst, on the other hand, the 
 Porte was assisted (1825) by a considerable force under 
 the command of Ibrahim Pacha, son of Mohammed Ali, 
 pasha c^f Egypt, who had been induced to send this rein- 
 forcement by the fair promises of the Turkish govern- 
 ment. The invader soon overran the greater part of the 
 Morea ; and in the following year ( 1 826) the garrison of 
 Missolunghi (commanded by Noto Bozzaris) was com- 
 pelled by famine to surrender, after making a brave de- 
 fence, and the Acropolis of Athens also fell into the hands 
 of the enemy. The Greek cause now seemed utterly ru- 
 ined, when a convention was entered into m Lojidon (1827), 
 by George IV., Nicholas I., and Charles X., for the pacifi- 
 cation of Greece: and tranquillity was re-established (for 
 seven years), by the election of the ex-minister of state^ 
 Count Capo cVIstrias^ to the office of president of Greece. 
 The mediation of the three great powers having been re- 
 jected by the Porte, a combined Russian, French, and Eng- 
 lish fleet (under Heyden, de Rigny, and Codrington) was 
 dispatched to the Morea, and on the 20th of October, 
 1827, the Turco-Egyptian fleet was utterly destroyed in 
 the battle of Navarino. Soon after this victory a 
 French army, under Maison, landed in the Morea, and 
 compelled Ibrahim to re-embark his troops, and return to 
 Egypt. The three protecting powers then declared 
 Greece an independent kingdom, settled its north- 
 ern boundary along a line drawn from the gulf of Volo to 
 that of Arta, and*ofi"ered the crown to Prince Leopold of 
 Saxe-Coburg. This off"er being rejected, and the presi- 
 
226 MODERN HISTORY. [406. ^ 65, 
 
 dent, Capo d'Istrias (whose severity had rendered him ex- 
 ceedingly unpopular), having fallen by the hand of an as- 
 sassin, the great powers nominated, as hereditary King 
 of Greece, Prince Otho of Bavaria (1832), who was 
 immediately accepted by the Greek national assembly, and 
 recognized by the Porte in 1834. After a short sojourn 
 at Nauplin, the new sovereign jQxed his residence at Ath- 
 ens. In the year 1835, Otho himself assumed the reins 
 of government, which had been held by a council of re- 
 gency during his minority. Meanwhile, however, the ele- 
 ments of civil discord were at work. Not only had each 
 of the three protecting powers its partisans in Greece, but 
 the whole nation was also split into two great parties (the 
 national and foreign), in consequence of the hatred with 
 which a great part of the nation regarded the German 
 civil and military functionaries. Between these five par- 
 ties the government perpetually vacillated ; and, notwith- 
 standing the grant of a new constitution, in consequence 
 of an insurrection at Athens, in 1843, the struggle still 
 continued, and every plan for the welfare of the country 
 was rendered abortive, by the emptiness of the exchequer, 
 and the universal prevalence of anarchy and discontent. 
 Whilst the Porte was engaged in the contest with Greece, 
 the resistance of the corps of Janizaries {the flower of 
 the Turkish infantry) to the military reforms of the sul- 
 tan occasioned the dissolution and partial destruction of 
 that force. 
 
 (406.) Scarcely was the ivar with Russia "(see i^ 64) 
 ended, when revolts occurred in several provinces. Among 
 these, the most formidable was that of the Viceroy cf 
 Egijpt^ Mohammed AH (1831 — 1833), whose son Ibrahim 
 conquered Syria, and, after defeating the grand vizier at 
 Konieh, was advancing on Constantinople, when a Russian 
 force, sent by the Emperor Nicholas I. to the assistance 
 of his former enemy, landed in Asia Minor, and prevented 
 the further progress of the Egyptian army. A peace was 
 then concluded on terms very favorable to Mohammed 
 Ali, who was permitted to retain his vice-royalty of Egypt 
 and .Candia, and to occupy Syria, on payment of a tri- 
 bute. Relying on the discontents occasioned by the ad- 
 ministration of Ibrahim in Syria, the sultan, in the last 
 
407,408. ^66.] italy. 227 
 
 year of his reign (1839), again attempted the subjugation 
 of Mohammed Ali ; but the Turkish army was utterly de- 
 feated at Nisib, and in the following year Mohammed Ali 
 obtained from the sultan (1839), 
 
 (407.) Abdul Medschid (a lad of sixteen), a grant 
 of the hereditary vice-royalty of Egypt. His demand 
 that all the territory subject to his control should be 
 granted to him on the same terms was refused, in conse- 
 quence of the armed interference of the three great powers 
 (Syria conquered by the Austrians and English). At the 
 court of the young sultan, whose excesses soon reduced 
 him to a state of almost hopeless debility, considerable in- 
 fluence was acquired by a liberal party, headed by Keschid 
 Pasha, who carried into effect several important reforms. 
 Security for life, property, and honor was guaranteed to 
 all the subjects of the Porte, without regard to their reli- 
 gious creed or country, an equitable system of taxation 
 was promised, and the several provinces were invited to 
 send deputies to Constantinople, for the purpose of delib- 
 erating on the best mode of carrying the plans of the gov- 
 ernment into effect ; but the apathy and ignorance of the 
 people rendered these liberal measures almost nugatory. 
 Repeated but unsuccessful attempts to throw off the Turk- 
 ish yoke were made by the Christian population in the 
 provinces of the southern Danube, 
 
 § 66. Italy. 
 
 (408.) Italy was indebted to the French for several 
 important legislative and constitutional reforms, all of 
 which were cancelled on the return of her former rulers. 
 Even in Sicily, which had preserved its independence 
 throughout the whole period of the French usurpation, a 
 constitution had been granted by the king in J 812, at the 
 instance of the English government ; but, on the return 
 of Ferdinand to Naples, this concession was revoked. In 
 the year 1820, the Carbonari, a political society whose pro- 
 fessed object was the union of all the Italian states under 
 one constitutional sovereign, were encouraged by the ac- 
 counts which they received of the revolutionary movement 
 in Spain to attempt the re-establishment of the constitu- 
 
228 MODERN HISTORY. [409,410. §66. 
 
 tion of 1812. The king having unwillingly granted their 
 demands, it was resolved, on the motion of Prince Metter- 
 nich. by a Congress of Sovereigns (which was opened 
 at Troppau and adjourned to Laibach), that an Austrian 
 army should be dispatched to Naples. Immediately after 
 the return of the king from Laibach, the constitution of 
 1812 was replaced by one of a less liberal character, with 
 two chambers, the members of which were nominated by 
 the government. Similar insurrections were also sup- 
 pressed by the Austrians in Piedmont, Modena, Parma, 
 and the States of the Church, in which seven provinces 
 had renounced their allegiance to the pope (Gregory XVI ). 
 
 (409.) Immediately after the French Revolution of 
 February, 1848, the absolute system was broken up in It- 
 aly. The first step in this direction was taken by Pope 
 Pius IX. (elected in 1846), who established a council of 
 state, sanctioned the formation of a national guard, and 
 admitted laymen to offices in the administration. 
 
 (410.) At Naples, in consequence of an insurrection 
 in Sicily (12th of January, 1848), a constitutional govern- 
 ment was established ; an example which was soon fol- 
 lowed by Sardinia, Tuscany, and Rome. By the constitu- 
 tions of all these states the legislative authority is vested 
 in two chambers ; the members of the first being nomi- 
 nated for life by the sovereign. The Sicilians alone de- 
 manded a separate government and the constitution of 
 1812; but, after a severe (and, at one time, nearly suc- 
 cessful) struggle, were compelled to return to their alle- 
 giance. In Parma, where the Duke of Lucca (who had 
 resigned Lucca to the Grand Duke of Tuscany) succeeded 
 Maria Louisa in 1847 — and in Modena the sovereigns 
 were driven from their thrones in consequence of their 
 refusing to comply with the demands of the people. 
 Meanwhile, Lombardy had also revolted from the Aus- 
 trians. and the city of Milan had expelled the Austrian 
 garrison ; but after a three months' struggle, Charles Al- 
 bert, King of Sardinia (who had supported the insur- 
 gents), was defeated by the Austrian general, Radetzky, 
 at Custozza, near Mantua ; Milan capitulated, and the ex- 
 iled dukes returned to their dominions. On the other 
 hand, the pope, in consequence of an emeute at Rome, 
 
411,412. ^ 67. J SWITZERLAND. 229 
 
 which was immediately followed by the assassination of 
 the minister Rossi, was compelled to nominate an admi- 
 nistration recommended by the republican party (Mamia- 
 ni-Sterbini), and immediately afterwards quitted the papal 
 states. ^ 
 
 § 67. Sivitzerland. 
 
 (411.) Since the year 1814 the government had been 
 almost exclusively in the hands of the patricians ; but 
 here, as elsewhere, the French revolution of July occa- 
 sioned the general establishment of democratic constitu- 
 tions, which had always existed in the three original can- 
 tons (Uri, Schwys, and Unterwalden). In the canton of 
 Basle a civil war broke out, and caused the separation of 
 the city from the country (each having half a vote at the 
 diet)/ Fresh disturbances were produced on the one side 
 by the suppression of several monastic establishments in 
 the canton of Aargau ; and on the other, by the admission 
 of the Jesuits into Lucerne. Two attacks on the city of 
 Lucerne, by parties of exiles and adventurers from the 
 neighboring cantons, for the purpose of compelling the 
 government to expel the Jesuits, miscarried in conse- 
 quence of their want of military skill ; but, on the other 
 hand, the " Sonderbund" (' separate confederacy'), which 
 Lucerne had formed (1845) with the three original can- 
 tons of Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, as well as with the 
 cantons of Zug, Freiburg, and Vallais, for self-defence 
 against the attacks of the free corps, was pronounced by 
 the diet to be unconstitutional, and, after a short struggle, 
 was broken up (1847) ; whereupon the Jesuits were ban- 
 ished from Switzerland. 
 
 (412.) In the year 1848 the federal constitution was 
 revised, and two chambers established by the diet. Ac- 
 cording to the new arrangement, the assembly consists of 
 a national council of 111 members (one for every 20.000 
 inhabitants), and a council composed of forty-four depu- 
 ties of cantons. The supreme executive authority is 
 vested in a federal council, consisting of seven members, 
 
 * He returned to Rome, in 1850, after the city had been stormed, 
 and for a long time occupied, by French troops. 
 
230 MODERN HISTORY. [413,414. ^67. 
 
 chosen (for three years) out of the two councils, with a 
 president elected for one year by both chambers. This 
 constitution was accepted by all the cantons except Uri, 
 Uuterwalden, Schwyz, Appenzeil, and Basle (country). 
 The sessions of the federal assembly are held at Berne. 
 
 (413.) The connection of Neufchatel with Prussia was 
 dissolved. 
 
 ^ 68. Spain. * 
 
 (414.) Ferdinand YII.i (1814—1833), after his return 
 from France, had abolished the constitution, re-established 
 absolute sovereignty, and crushed all attempts of the 
 ' liberal' party with the most unrelenting severity. After 
 the failure of a series of isolated insurrectionary move- 
 ments, a revolution broke out in the year 1820, commenc- 
 ing with the army destined to reduce the revolted pro- 
 vinces in South America, and soon extending itself to the 
 capital, and compelling the king to restore the constitu- 
 tion of 1812 and convoke the Cortes. Whilst Spain was 
 distracted by the attempts of the reactionary party to re- 
 establish absolutism, and of the ultra-liberals to introduce 
 a republic, the Congress of Sovereigns at Verona 
 determined to reinstate the king in the position which he 
 had occupied before the revolution, and intrusted the ex- 
 ecution of their design to the King of France. Almost 
 without opposition, a French army, under the command 
 of the Due d'Angouleme, marched through Spain to 
 Cadiz, whither the Cortes had forcibly conveyed the king, 
 and compelled that body to dissolve itself Absolutism 
 was then re-established ; and, notwithstanding the promise 
 of an amnesty, many of the liberal leaders were executed, 
 
 1 Charles IV. 
 
 Ferdinand VII., Don Carlos. Francesco de Paula. 
 
 mar. secondly, , ^ ^ ^ ^ 
 
 Christina of Naples. Charles. John. Francis, Henry Ferdi 
 
 r C7^~^i — ^ — : Ferdinand. mar. nand.' 
 
 Isabella 11., Lonisa, Isabella II. 
 mar. mar. 
 Francis, the Duke 
 
 de Montpensier. 
 
414. ^68.J SPAIN. 231 
 
 banished, or thrown into prison. Fresh discontents were 
 excited by the abrogation of the Salic law (intro- 
 duced by Philip V. in 1713, with consent of the Cortes), 
 a measure which Ferdinand was persuaded by his second 
 wife Christina to adopt, without consulting either the heir 
 presumptive or the Cortes. Ferdinand died in 1833, and 
 was succeeded by his daughter Isabella II. (a child of 
 three years old), who commenced her reign under the 
 guardianship of her mother, Maria Christina. Meanwhile, 
 however, her uncle, Don Carlos, had assumed the title of 
 king, and been recognized by the Basque provinces, where 
 great irritation prevailed in consequence of the withdrawal 
 of many of the privileges (feuros) which they had enjoyed 
 from time immemorial. Under these circumstances, a 
 fearful civil war commenced (1833 — 1840), in which the 
 Chri^tinos (under Bodil, Mina, Cordova, and Espartero,) 
 were supported by English and French volunteers, but 
 were unable, from want of funds, to put down the Car- 
 lists (under Zumalacarreguy, Villareal, Moreno, Cabrera, 
 &c.) until the year 1840, when Don Carlos and his parti- 
 sans were driven across the frontier into France. In re- 
 turn for the restoration of their privileges by the Cortes, 
 the Basque-Navarrese provinces recognized Isabella as 
 queen. In 1845, Don Carlos abdicated in favor of his 
 eldest son, the Prince of Asturia. Meanwhile, the queen- 
 regent, after a continued struggle with the ' liberal' party, 
 was compelled, in consequence of a mutiny among the 
 troops (1835), to receive the constitution of 1812, with 
 certain modifications introduced by the Cortes (establish- 
 ment of a second chamber, grant of an unconditional veto 
 to the crown, &c.) ; but the passing of an unpopular mu- 
 nicipal law occasioned fresh disturbances, which compelled, 
 the regent to resign her office in 1840. After the short 
 regency of Greneral Espartero, who was supported by an 
 unnatural union of the republicans and Carlists, the 
 Cortes (in 1843) declared the queen of age (in her Tthir- 
 teenth year), and in 1845 granted increased powers to the 
 crown by a new constitution. In the following year (1846) 
 the queen married her cousin, the Infant Don Francisco 
 d'Assisi, and gave her sister to the Due de Moutpensier, 
 son of Louis Philippe, king of the French. 
 
2^2 MODERN HISTORY. [415,416. §69. 
 
 § 69. Portugal. 
 
 ^ (415.) King John VI., » who had remained in Brazil 
 since the expulsion of the French from Portugal, leaving 
 the government of his European dominions to the Pa- 
 triarch of Lisbon and Lord Beresford, was induced, in 
 consequence of a 7nilitary revolution which broke out at 
 OjDortom 1820 (immediately after the Spanish revolution), 
 to return to Lisbon, where he was compelled to swear 
 tidelity to a constitution of a still more democratic char- 
 acter than that which had been established in Spain- but 
 this oath he was soon persuaded to violate by the court 
 party, headed by his wife and his second son. Don Miguel 
 At the same time, his eldest son, Don Pedro, wno'^had 
 been left behind in Brazil, proclaimed that province an 
 %mlependent empire, and assumed the title of Emperor of 
 Brazil m 1822. After the death of his father (1826) he 
 granted a new and tolerably liberal constitution to Por- 
 tugal, and then resigned the crown of Portugal in favor 
 ot his daughter (a minor), 
 
 (416.) rjonna Maria da Gloria (1826), who was be- 
 trothed to her uncle, Don Miguel. After setting aside 
 the constitution granted by his brother, Miguel convoked 
 the so-called ancient Cortes (of Zamego), which proclaim- 
 ed him absolute king in 1828; but in the year 1833 
 Don Pedro, who had resigned the crown of Brazil in favor 
 ot his son, Don Pedro II., arrived unexpectedly in Eu- 
 rope, and reconquered Portugal for his daughter. The con- 
 
 ' John VI. 1 1826. 
 
 -/^. 
 
 P«dro_L_-M834. Maria, ^^el, 
 
 MnriTiT ^ ^"7" TT ..J^^S^^^ Kin^ of Portugal 
 
 ^Zl''-' ^^^::. (1826-1828). (1828-1834)^ 
 
 Emperor of 
 
 1. Aug:nstus of Brazil. 
 Leuchtenberg. 
 
 2. Ferdinand of 
 Saxe-Coburg-, 
 
 Mro Louis Philippe, Jolin, Ferdinand. 
 Duke of Duke of Duke of 
 
 Braganza. Oporto. Beja. 
 
417—419. §71.] DENMARK. 233 
 
 stitution of 1822 was re-established, and remained in 
 force, with some modifications (a chamber of peers, royal 
 voto, &c.) until the year 1842, when an insurrection at 
 Oporto compelled the government to restore Don Pedro's 
 charter (of 1826). Another attempt, on the part of the 
 Miguelites, produced a fresh civil war (1846, 1847), which 
 was terminated through the interference of England. 
 
 § 70. Siveden. 
 
 (417.) Grustavus lY. (in whose reign Finland was given 
 up by Sweden to Russia) was compelled, by a bloodless 
 revolution (in 1809), to abdicate in favor of his uncle, 
 Charles XIII. (1809—1818.) A new constitution was 
 publislied, declaring the throne hereditary in the male line : 
 and, after the sudden death of the <3rown prince, an act 
 was passed by the estates, nominating, as the king's suc- 
 cessor, Marshal Bernadotte, Prince of Montecorvo, who 
 had been favorably known during the period of his com- 
 mand in the north of Germany, and was also recommended 
 by his family connection with Napoleon. ' For the union 
 of Norway with Sweden, with a constitution of its own, 
 see p. 196. 
 
 The House of Bernadotte since 1818. 
 
 (418.) Bernadotte, who had assumed the name of 
 Charles (John) XIV. on his accession, fully justified 
 the choice of the nation by the wisdom and firmness of his 
 government, and the judicious reforms which he intro- 
 duced into every branch of the administration. He was 
 succeeded (in 1844) by his son, Oscar I. 
 
 § 71. Denmark. 
 (419.) Denmark, which had been poorly indemnified 
 
 ^ Bernadotte had married a sister of Joseph Bonaparte's wife. 
 
234 MODERN HISTORY. [419. ^71. 
 
 for the loss of Norway by receiving Lauenburg,^ enjoyed 
 a period of uninterrupted tranquillity from the year 1814 
 to the end of Frederick Vlth's reign (1839), and was di- 
 vided into four provinces : viz., the Danish Islands, Jut- 
 land, Schleswig, and Holstein with Lauenburg, each of 
 which returned representatives of the National Council. 
 Under his successor, Christian VIII. (1839 — 1848), a pro- 
 posal was made by the Danish party, at the provincial 
 diet of Roeskild (1844). to incorporate the duchies of Hol- 
 stein and Lauenburg with Denmark, and to introduce into 
 those countries. the principle of succession to the throne 
 of the female line, which had existed in Denmark since 
 1660: whilst the Grerman provinces, on the other hand, 
 demanded a complete administrative and military separa- 
 tion from Denmark. A declaration on the part of the 
 king of his intention to sanction the proposed alteration 
 in the succession produced the greatest excitement in both 
 duchies. In the year 1848, immediately after the acces- 
 sion of Frederick VII., a general assembly having been 
 convoked for the purpose of framing a constitution for the 
 whole Danish empire, the movement in Holstein com- 
 menced with the establishment of a provincial government, 
 which was recognized by the assembly of the Schleswig- 
 Holstein estates as well as by the G-erman diet, and ac- 
 cepted a proposal for the admission of Schleswig into the 
 G-erman confederacy. At the suggestion of the diet, 
 Prussia engaged to maintain the male succession in the 
 
 1 Frederick V., 1 1766. 
 
 Christian VII., Frederick, 
 
 1 1808. Hereditary Prince, 1 1805. 
 
 Frederick VI., Christian VIIL, Charlotte, Ferdinand, 
 1 1839. 1 1848. mar. the Crown Prince. 
 
 ,• ^ N Landgrave 
 
 Frederick VII. William of 
 
 Hesse. 
 
 Caroline, Wilhelmina, 
 
 mar. the mar. Charles, Frederick. 
 
 Crown Prince Duke of 
 
 Ferdinand Holstein-Glucksburg. 
 of Denmark. 
 
420,421. ^72.] AMERICAN STATES. 
 
 235 
 
 German provinces, and the union of Schleswig with Hol- 
 stein. The Prussian and other German troops having 
 driven back the Danish troops into Jutland, Denmark 
 made reprisals by blockading the ports of northern Ger- 
 many. An armistice for seven months was at last ar- 
 ranged, and a provisional government (established with 
 the consent of the King of Denmark on the one part, and 
 the German central administration on the other), under- 
 took the administration of the two duchies (1848) until a 
 definite peace could be concluded. 
 
 § 72. The American States. 
 
 (420.) 1. The United States of America have 
 increased from the original thirteen to thirty, besides 
 which there are several territories and one federal dis- 
 trict (District of Columbia). They extend from the Bri- 
 tish possessions on the line of the great lakes on the north 
 to the Gulf of Mexico and Mexico on the south, and from 
 the Atlantic to the Pacific on the east and west, thus 
 ranging through 26° of latitude and 58° of longitude. 
 The frontier line has an extent of almost 10,000 miles, 
 and a line drawn from N. E. to S. W., would measure 
 2,800 miles. 
 
 (421.) The names of the States are as follows : 
 
 Maine, 
 
 New Hampshire, 
 
 Vermont, 
 
 Massachusetts, 
 
 Rhode Island, 
 
 Connecticut, , 
 
 New-York, . 
 
 New-Jersey, . 
 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Delaware, 
 
 Maryland, . 
 
 Virginia, . 
 
 North Carolina, 
 
 South Carolina, 
 
 Georgia, 
 
 Florida, . 
 
 Alabama, 
 
 Mississippi, 
 
 Louisiana, 
 
 Texas, 
 
 Eastern, or New England 
 ^ States. 
 
 Middle States. 
 
 Southern States. 
 
236 
 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. [422 4 
 
 Ohio, . 
 
 Kentucky, 
 
 - 
 
 
 Tennessee. 
 Indiana, 
 
 
 
 Illinois, 
 Michigan, 
 
 .'.'.*. 
 
 > Western States 
 
 Missouri, 
 
 . 
 
 
 Arkansas, 
 Wisconsin, 
 Iowa, 
 
 . 
 
 
 425. ^ 72. 
 
 (422.) The territories are, 
 
 Minnesota, Missouri, Indian, Oregon, together with New 
 Mexico and Upper California. 
 
 (423.) The United States have been increased (since 
 1783) partly by voluntary annexation and partly by pur- 
 chase (Louisiana from France, 1803), or convention (Flo- 
 rida ceded by Spain in 1819), and now rank next to 
 England as a maritime and commercial power. In the 
 construction of steamboats and railways, they have ad- 
 vanced with a rapidity unknown to the inhabitants of the 
 Old World, and in the general diffusion of knowledge, and 
 in general prosperity, they are unequalled throughout the 
 world ; on the other hand, negro slavery, though abolished 
 in the northern and western States, is still tenaciously ad- 
 hered to by the southern States. After obtaining an un- 
 interrupted communication with the Pacific (by the set- 
 tlement of the Oregon question in 1843), and the conse- 
 quent prospect of a direct intercourse with China and the 
 Indian Archipelago, the United States, in a war with 
 Mexico, added to its already vast extent of territory, Up- 
 per California and New Mexico, with several excellent 
 harbors in the Pacific (1848). 
 
 (424.) A brief abstract of the history of the United 
 States since the adoption of the Federal Constitution, is 
 all that the limits of the present manual will admit. For 
 fuller information the student will of course consult the 
 larger and standard histories of the United States. 
 
 (425.) George Washington entered upon the du- 
 ties of President of the United States on the 30th April, 
 1789. Various and important questions arose and had to 
 be settled, and the administration was encompassed with 
 difficulties such as only the blessing of God upon the wise 
 
425, ^ 72.] AMERICAN STATES. 237 
 
 and patriotic efforts of the Father of his Country could 
 remove. Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, 
 proposed a plan to Congress for maintaining the public 
 credit ; he recommended that the foreign and domestic 
 debt (amounting to about $30,000,000) be assumed by the 
 United States, which was accordingly done, and thereby a 
 great impetus afforded to activity and enterprise. In 
 1791, after vigorous opposition, the first Bank of the 
 United States was incorporated by act of Congress, with 
 a capital of $10,000,000. The difficulties with the In- 
 dians on the northwestern frontier resulted, in the au- 
 tumn of 1791, in the disastrous defeat of the entire force 
 under G-eneral St. Clair. On the 4th March 1793, 
 Washington entered upon the second term of the office to 
 which he had been unanimously elected. John Adams 
 was also again elected Vice-President. This year France 
 declared war against England and Holland, and thereby 
 created new and very vexatious difficulties for the govern- 
 ment of Washington. The French Minister, M. G-enet, 
 presuming upon the enthusiastic feelings entertained to- 
 ward France for her aid in the Revolution, had the auda- 
 city to despise the proclamation of strict neutrality, issued 
 by Washington, and undertook to fit out privateers, &c., 
 in American ports. The President insisted upon his re- 
 call, and next year the successor of M. Genet assured the 
 government that France entirely disapproved of Genet's 
 conduct. In 1794, General Wayne defeated the In- 
 dians, and laid waste their country. A naval force began 
 to be raised, and difficulties with England occurred, which 
 however were amicably adjusted by the efforts of John 
 Jay, the negotiator of the very important treaty of amity, 
 commerce, and navigation, with Great Britain, which was 
 ratified by the Senate and signed by the President, August 
 14, 1795. Treaties v^ere also made, this year, with Spain, 
 with Algiers, and with the Indians in the west. Wash- 
 ington signified his determination to retire from public 
 life at the close of his presidential term, and took occasion 
 to issue his Farewell Address to his countrymen, an ad- 
 dress which ought to be studied by every American for its 
 profound wisdom, and cherished as the inestimable legacy 
 of the Father of his Country. Excepting the difficulties 
 
238 MODERN HISTORY. [426, 427. § 72. 
 
 with France, arising out of the pique and disappointment 
 at the refusal of America to be involved in European wars 
 and politics, and the unjustifiable measures adopted by 
 the French, the country was in a very prosperous condi- 
 tion at the close of Washington's administration ; not only 
 was public and private credit restored, and ample provi- 
 sion made for the payment of the public debt, but trade 
 had gone on steadily and rapidly increasing ; the exports 
 were trebled, the imports about the same, and the revenue 
 from imports exceeded the most sanguine calculations. 
 The population had increased from three and a half to 
 five millions, and agriculture and industrial arts generally 
 were in a flourishing state. 
 
 (426.) On the 4th March, 1797, John Adams entered 
 upon the office of President of the United States. The 
 difficulties with France, which had been attempted to be 
 settled by negotiation, had kept on increasing ; constant 
 spoliations upon American commerce were made, and war 
 seemed to be the inevitable result. Congress took vigo- 
 rous measures for the defence of the country, and Wash- 
 ington was appointed Commander-in-Chief. Several en- 
 gagements at sea took place ; but after the overthrow of the 
 French Directory, and the assumption of the government 
 by Bonaparte, negotiations were successful, and peace was 
 concluded (Sept. 30th, 1800). Afew weeks before this (Dec. 
 14th, 1799), George Washington died, after a short illness ; 
 every testimonial of affection and reverence was exhibited 
 by the people, and the whole nation to a man was plunged 
 in profound grief His memory can never die ; his ex- 
 ample never lose its influence, while patriotism shall exist 
 among his countrymen, while freedom shall be loved, and 
 purity and goodness be reverenced among men. During 
 Mr. Adams's administration, the lines of party began to be 
 drawn more definitely than had been the case while Wash- 
 ington was at the head of affairs. Several of the Presi- 
 dent's measures (alien and sedition laws) excited strong 
 opposition, and at the following election he was defeated, 
 and the democratic candidates obtained the suffrage of the 
 majority, 
 
 (427.) On the 4th March, 1801, Thomas Jeffer- 
 son became President of the United States, and Aaron 
 
428. §72.] AMERICAN STATES. 239 
 
 Burr, Vice-President. Louisiana was purchased from 
 France for $15,000,000, and possession taken in Dec, 
 1803. Mr. Jefferson was re-elected, and entered upon a 
 second term of office (March 4th, 1805), George Clinton, 
 of New- York, being Vice-President. During this year, 
 the war with Tripoli, which had been signalized by many 
 gallant exploits of our navy, was brought to a close. 
 Aaron Burr, in 1806, was detected in designs of a trea- 
 sonable character, which had for their object the founding 
 a new empire, west of the Alleghany range, with New 
 Orleans as the capital. He was seized and brought to 
 trial, but was discharged for want of evidence to convict 
 him ; nevertheless, the general sentiment of the people 
 was, that he was guilty, and he was ever after regarded 
 with feelings of contempt and indignation, more espe- 
 cially as General Hamilton had fallen by his hand in a 
 duel, Jtily, 1804. The wars in Europe, consequent upon 
 the ambition. of Napoleon, led to various measures ope- 
 rating very injuriously upon the commerce of the United 
 States, who maintained a strict neutrality between the 
 belligerent powers. In 1806, England declared the blockade 
 of all the ports and rivers from the Elbe to Brest, and a 
 number of American vessels, trading to that coast, were 
 captured and condemned. Bonaparte retaliated by the 
 famous 5e/-/m r/ecree, which declared all the British islands 
 in a state of blockade. These and similar measures 
 (orders in council, Milan decree, 1808) were seriously hurt- 
 ful to American trade and commerce, and the country be- 
 gan to demand redress for these outrages, particularly as 
 the independence of the nation had been insulted by an 
 unprovoked attack upon the frigate Chesapeake, and the 
 taking away by force from her some of the crew, on the 
 ground of their being British subjects. In December, 
 1808, Congress decreed an embargo, which, not having ob- 
 tained from France and England an acknowledgment of 
 American rights, was repealed (March 1st, 1809), and a 
 law was passed prohibiting all trade and intercourse with 
 those countries. 
 
 (428.) James Madison succeeded Mr. Jefferson 
 (March 4th, 1809). The difficulties with France and Eng- 
 land still continuing, and the commerce of the country being 
 
240 MODERN HISTORY. [429, 430. ^ 72. 
 
 sadly crippled and injured (between 1803 and 1811, it is 
 stated 900 vessels had been captured), other measures 
 were deemed advisable. Bonaparte having revoked the 
 hostile decrees, intercourse with France was resumed (Nov. 
 1810) ; but England, persevering in her course of hostility 
 (in June, 1812), ivar ivas declared against Grreat Britain. 
 A considerable portion of the country (mostly those of the 
 federal party) was opposed to the war, and denounced it 
 as impolitic and wrong. It lasted for three years ; on land 
 the operations of the army were frequently unsuccessful ; 
 but at sea, the navy gained imperishable glory, and brought 
 this arm of the service into general favor. The particu- 
 lars of the war must be sought for in larger histories. A 
 treaty of peace was concluded at Ghent, in Dec, 1814, 
 and ratified by the President and Senate (Feb., 1815). A 
 Bank of the United States was chartered, with a capital of 
 $35,000,000, early in 1816, the charter to continue in 
 force twenty years. 
 
 (429.) Mr. Madison was succeeded by James Mon- 
 roe (March 4th, 1817). The state of the country, on Mr. 
 Monroe's accession, was by no means prosperous, — com- 
 merce had not yet revived, and the manufacturing inte- 
 rests of the community were greatly depressed by the 
 influx of foreign merchandise. In 1818, in a war with 
 the Seminoles, G-en. Jackson entirely subdued the Indian 
 territory. In 1819, Spain ceded to the United States 
 East and West Florida, and the adjacent islands. The 
 admission of Missouri into the Union (1821) aroused the 
 whole country on the subject of slavery ; a compromise 
 was finally effected, and the question has since been com- 
 paratively at rest. Mr. Monroe was re-elected in 1821, 
 and in 1824, Lafayette revisited the United States, and 
 received everywhere that attention and regard which he 
 so deservedly merited. At the next election for President 
 no one of the four candidates received a majority of the 
 electoral votes. The choice therefore devolved upon the 
 House of Representatives. 
 
 (430.) John Quincy Adams was inaugurated Pre- 
 sident of the United States, March 4th, 1825. A con- 
 troversy with Georgia, respecting certain lands held by 
 the Cherokees and Creeks in that State, at one time threat- 
 
431,432. §72.] American states. 241 
 
 ened serious difficulties, but was jfinally settled in a satis- 
 factory manner. Ex-Presidents Adams and Jefferson 
 died July 4tb, 1826. As the time for a new election ap- 
 proached, everywhere party spirit began to develop itself, 
 with unusual virulency, and Mr. Adams was defeated, and 
 General Jackson elected by a large majority. 
 
 (431.) Andrew Jackson entered upon the duties 
 of his office, March 4th, 1829. With this administration 
 began the system of proscription for political opinions, 
 and removals from office were made to a very large ex- 
 tent. In 1832, a bill for the re-charter of the Bank of 
 the United States passed both Houses, but was vetoed by 
 the President. He also opposed internal improvements 
 by appropriations of the public money. South Carolina 
 having arrayed herself against the protective tariff mea- 
 sures passed by Congress, civil war was at one time feared, 
 but a compromise was effected, and the danger avoided — 
 the firmness of the Executive was deserving of all praise. 
 In 1833, General Jackson removed the deposits of public 
 money in the Bank of the United States, and placed them 
 in several of the State banks ; this measure was se- 
 verely censured by the Senate (June' 9th, 1834). The 
 French indemnity appropriations not having been met, 
 the President recommended reprisals upon French com- 
 merce ; a war was feared for a time, but happily the mat- 
 ter was settled, by the French government the next year 
 making provision to fulfil its stipulations. 
 
 (432.) Martin Van Bur en succeeded General Jack- 
 son (March 4th, 1837), and carried out the same line of 
 policy as his predecessor. At the commencement of his 
 administration the whole country was involved in unpre- 
 cedented and terrible mercantile distress. In the city of 
 New- York alone, during the months of March and April, 
 failures took place to the astonishing amount of nearly 
 $100,000,000 ; all confidence seemed to have taken flight, 
 and credit was at an end, and the banks almost every- 
 where suspended specie payments. An extra session of 
 Congress was called, and various measures adopted for 
 public relief The war in Florida, with the Seminoles, 
 was still carried on, during this administration, with no 
 very satisfactory results. In 1840, the independent trea- 
 
242 MODERN HISTORY. [433 — 438. ^ 72. 
 
 sury bill, the great financial measure of this administra- 
 tion, was passed and became a law. The election, which 
 took place this year, was the most exciting ever known, 
 and both parties exerted themselves to the utmost — Mr. 
 Van Buren was defeated. 
 
 (433.) William Henry Harrison was inaugurated 
 President, March 4th, 1841. Just one month after this 
 he died, and the Vice-President, according to the pro- 
 visions of the constitution, succeeded him in his high 
 office. 
 
 (434.) John Tyler's administration was the first 
 during which a man not elected for the office was in- 
 trusted with its high powers and responsibilities. The 
 sub-treasury bill was repealed," and a general bankrupt law 
 passed in 1841. The north-eastern boundary treaty was 
 concluded at Washington, September, 1842. Disturb- 
 ances occurred in Rhode Island, which threatened blood- 
 shed, but happily they were repressed without this dread al- 
 ternative, and law and order prevailed. In 1844, through 
 the influence of the President, Texas was annexed to the 
 United States. 
 
 (435.) James K. Polk became President, March 
 4th, 1845. A treaty with China was effected this year. 
 In 1846, war with Mexico broke out. June 18th, 1846, 
 the Oregon treaty signed at London. July 6th, Commo- 
 dore Sloat took possession of California. Treaty of peace 
 with Mexico signed at Guadaloupe Hidalgo, Feb. 22d, 
 1848. Emigration from Europe this year (1848) to the 
 United States, 300,000. 
 
 (436.) Zachary Taylor was inaugurated Presi- 
 dent, March 4th, 1849. He died July 9th, 1850, and 
 was succeeded by Millard Fillmore, who now (1851) 
 fills the office of President of the United States. 
 
 (437.) 2. Hayti, or St. Domingo, became an empire 
 after the expulsion of the French in 1803, and finally (in 
 1820) a republic, into which the Spanish portion of the 
 island was incorporated in 1822. Souloque elected Pre- 
 sident, March 2d ; proclaimed Emperor of Hayti, August 
 24th, 1849. 
 
 (438.) 3. What was formerly Spanish America 
 consisted of four vice-royalties : viz., Mexico or New Spain, 
 
438. §72.] AMERICAN STATES. 243 
 
 New G-ranada or Fe de Bogota, Peru, and Buenos Ayres 
 or Kio de la Plata ; and five general captainates : viz., 
 Guatimala, Venezuela, Chili, Havana or Cuba, and Porto- 
 Rico. The people of Spanish America having refused to 
 acknowledge Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain, or re- 
 ceive the viceroy sent out by the usurping government, 
 expected, not unreasonably, that at the restoration the 
 Cortes, in framing a constitution, would place the faithful 
 inhabitants of their colonies on the same footing as those 
 of the mother country. This expectation having been 
 miserably disappointed, the provinces of the American 
 continent declared themselves independent, and established 
 republican governments. The resistance of Ferdinand 
 VII. to these revolutionary proceedings occasioned the 
 Great American War of Liberation against 
 Spain (1811 — 1824), which was carried on with almost 
 uniform success on the side of the Americans, especially 
 those under the command of Simon Bolivar (f 1830), 
 and ended in the establishment of six (afterwards nine) 
 republics in South America. 
 
 a. Paraguay^ a theocratic state, founded by the Je- 
 suits in the seventeenth century, declared itself indepen- 
 dent in 1811, and chose as its dictator an advocate named 
 Dr. Francia (f 1840), who governed with almost absolute 
 authority. The republic now has a president. 
 
 b. La Plata, or the Argentine Republic (1816). 
 
 c. C/w7i(1818). 
 
 d. Colombia (1818), formed by the union of Venezuela 
 (or Caracas) and New Granada, under the President 
 Bolivar. This republic (to which Quito was annexed in 
 1821) was divided in 1831 into three confederate states: 
 viz., Venezuela, New Chrmacla, and Ecuador. 
 
 e. Peru (1824), where the Spaniards maintained their 
 authority longer than in any other state, was at length 
 liberated by the aid of Bolivar ; and in the year 1825 was 
 divided into two republics ; the six provinces which com- 
 pose Upper Peru having separated themselves from the 
 others, and established an independent republic under the 
 name of Bolivia. 
 
 f. Uruguay (1828), which formerly belonged to the 
 Spanisli vice-royalty of Rio de la Plata, was taken pos- 
 
244 MODERN HISTORY. [439. ^ 72. 
 
 session of by Brazil in 1817, but declared independent, 
 through the intervention of England, in 1839. The in- 
 terference of the Argentine republic in disputes respect- 
 ing the election of a president in Uruguay occasioned a 
 war (1839) between the two states, which, notwithstanding 
 the mediation of England, is not yet terminated. 
 
 g. In Mexico the first insurrectionary movements were 
 suppressed by the Spaniards, but the revolution in the 
 mother-country encouraged the Mexicans to make a fresh 
 attempt. The throne of Mexico, as an independent em- 
 pire, was at first offered to Ferdinand VII. for himself or 
 one of the younger princes ; and, on his refusal. Colonel 
 Augustin Iturbide was proclaimed hereditary emperor ; 
 but he had scarcely reigned a year, when the opposition 
 party, headed by General Santa Anna, compelled him to 
 abdicate. After a succession of party struggles, and the 
 expulsion of all the ancient Spanish families, a Mexican 
 Union was established (consisting of nineteen states), 
 which has ever since been distracted by the disputes of 
 the two parties respecting the election of a president. 
 Texas separated itself from the Mexican Union in 1836, 
 and was annexed to the United States in 1844. 
 
 (439.) War with the United States.— The Uni- 
 ted States of America, between which country and Mex- 
 ico friendly relations had been for some time suspended 
 in consequence of various acts of aggression on the part 
 of the Mexican government, had not only recognized the 
 independence of Texas, but incorporated that state into 
 their union. Hostilities commenced in consequence of a 
 dispute between the two countries respecting the boundary- 
 line of Texas, and after the capture of the Mexican capi- 
 tal peace was concluded on terms exceedingly favorable to 
 the Americans, the Kio Grande del Nord being fixed as 
 the boundary of Texas, and Upper California and New 
 Mexico given up to the United States. 
 
 h. The Jive provinces of central America (Guatimala, 
 Honduras, San Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costarico.) after 
 remaining faithful to the mother-country longer than any 
 of the other provinces, at length declared themselves inde- 
 pendent (m 1823), and established the republic of the 
 United States of Central America. Guatimala 
 separated itself from the union in 1847. 
 
440,441.^73.] AMERICAN STATES. 
 
 245 
 
 (440.) 4. In Brazil (the only monarchy of the New 
 World) a struggle between monarchy and democracy com- 
 menced soon after its separation from Portugal. In the 
 year 1831, in consequence of a revolution occasioned by 
 disputes between the government and the chambers, Don 
 Pedro I. abdicated in favor of his son, Don Pedro II., 
 who attained his majority in 1840. Notwithstanding, 
 however, this arrangement, several of the provinces con- 
 tinued to be the scene of revolutionary movements. 
 
 § 73. Religion J Arts^ Sciences^ SfC, during the Third 
 Period. 
 
 I. RELIGION. 
 
 (441.) The exertions of both Protestants and Roman- 
 ists for the propagation of the Gospel in foreign countries 
 are still continued. The Church of England has now di- 
 vided her immense colonial possessions into the following 
 dioceses : — 
 
 Diocese. Colony. 
 
 r Nova Scotia. 
 Nova Scotia . . . ^ Cape Breton. 
 
 ( Prince Edward's Island. 
 , . New Brunswick. 
 
 Fredericton 
 Quebec . . . 
 Toronto . . . 
 
 Newfoundland 
 
 Jamaica . 
 
 Barbados. 
 Antigua. 
 Guiana,, 
 Cai^cutta . 
 Madras . 
 Bombay . 
 Colombo 
 
 Capetown 
 
 Sydney 
 
 Newcastle 
 
 Melbourne 
 
 Adelaide . 
 
 New Zealand 
 Tasmania . 
 
 Canada East. 
 
 Canada West. 
 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 Bermudas. 
 
 Jamaica. 
 
 Bahamas. 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 Madras. 
 
 Bombay. 
 
 Ceylon. 
 ( Cape of Good Hope. 
 \ St. Helena. 
 
 > New South Wales. 
 
 ( South Australia. 
 \ Western Australia. 
 New Zealand. 
 Van Diemen's Land. 
 Seychelles. 
 Hong Kong,* 
 ' To this number two more are just about to be added : 1850. 
 
246 MODERN HISTORY. [442 — 445. ^73. 
 
 (442.) The Churcli in these dioceses is mainly sup- 
 ported by the Society for tJie Propagation of the Gosjjel 
 in Foreign Parts (incorporated in 1701), assisted by the 
 Society for the Promotion of Christian Knoivledge. The 
 Church Missiofiary Society (founded about a century 
 later) is now in the annual receipt of a vast income (above 
 100.000/.), and does not confine its operations to the 
 English colonies. 
 
 (443.) The Roman Catholic missions, which have 
 spread over the countries of the Levant, India, China, 
 America, and Australia, are under the direction of the 
 Propaganda at Rome, and are supported in a great measure 
 by religious associations in France. There are also several 
 Protestant missionary societies (in London, Holland, Bos- 
 ton, New-York, Basle, Berlin, and Berne) which are as- 
 sisted in their labors by the Bible Societies : their opera- 
 tions are very extensive. 
 
 (444.) The Roinan Catholic ecclesiastical constitution 
 was established afresh after the fall of Napoleon, by means 
 of concordats concluded by the several temporal sovereigns 
 with the pope. The order of Jesuits, which had been re- 
 established by Pius VII., and expelled from Russia about 
 the same time, was admitted, with other monastic orders, 
 into several Roman Catholic countries, but subsequently 
 suppressed in Portugal, Spain, and France. A union of 
 the Lutheran and Reformed (i. e. Calvinistic) Commu- 
 nions, under the name of the Evangelical Churchy was 
 eflFected in Prussia in 1817, and adopted at a later period 
 in other German states. In Russia, the inhabitants of 
 the westerly provinces were required to conform to the es- 
 tablished religion (in 1836), and the Roman Catholic and 
 United Grreek worship were suppressed by force. 
 
 II. Constitutional History of tJie Period. 
 
 (445.) In no period of modern history have so many 
 changes of constitution occurred (in Italy, France, Spain, 
 and Portugal.) as in the present century, both during and 
 since the revolutions. In some states, as Austria, Sardi- 
 nia (in part), Sweden, the two Mecklenburgs, and some of 
 the smaller German states, the old mediaeval constitutions 
 
446, 447. ^ 73.] science, literature, and art. 247 
 
 (of estates) have been retained ; whilst in others, such as 
 France, the Netherlands, Poland (until 1831), Norway, 
 Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, most of the German states, 
 Lucca. Greece, the states of America (after the example 
 of the United States of America), a representative system 
 has been established. Prussia and Denmark have provin- 
 cial councils. Russia, the rest of the Italian states, and 
 three of the smaller German states (Oldenburg, Schwarz- 
 burg-Sondershausen, and Hesse-Homburg), were governed 
 as before, without constitutions. The most remarkable 
 effects of the French revolution, not only in France, but 
 to a certain extent in other countries, were : — a. In the 
 Jinancial administration. The establishment of a sys- 
 tem of equal taxation, the right of self-taxation by the 
 estates (budgets, civil lists), and in the constitutional states 
 the enormous increase of their national debts, b. In the 
 administration of justice. Equality of all before the law, 
 publicity of courts of justice, adoption by several German 
 states of the Code Napoleon, which, however, was abol- 
 ished after the Restoration by all of them except Rhenish 
 Prussia, Rhenish Hesse, and Rhenish Bavaria, c. In 
 'military affairs. The establishment (in the continental 
 states) of national guards, communal guards, and militias, 
 (Landwehren), together with the standing armies, compul- 
 sory service of all citizens, instead of the old system of 
 recruiting, increase in the number of the troops and ar- 
 tillery, impi-ovements in strategy, military tactics, and the 
 art of fortification. 
 
 III. Science^ Literature, and Art. 
 
 (446.) In the German speculative ^^z/oso^Ay (which in 
 modern times has extended its influence to all other sci- 
 ences), after the publication of Immanuel Kant's Critique 
 on the Intellect (Vernunft-Critic, 1804), commenced a re- 
 volution, which was completed by J. G. Fichte (f 1814). 
 To both these systems Schelling opposed his natural 
 philosophy, on which Hegel (f 1831) founded an absolute 
 idealism. In England, C ole ridge ; in France, Cousin. 
 
 (447.) b. Philology also flourished during this pe- 
 riod, especially in Germany, where Heyne (f 1812), F. A, 
 
2^S MODERN HISTORY. [448—450. 4 73. 
 
 Wolf (f 1824), G. Hermann, Buttmann (f 1829). Beb- 
 
 (t 840), and several others distinguished themselves as 
 entieal scholars. In E.igland, Porson, Elmsley. Do- 
 bree, Blomfield, Gaisford, Monk, Clinton, Thirl- 
 
 ahva The study of general grammar was pursued by 
 W. Von Humboldt (t 1835 ; that of Oriental 1 terature by 
 Gesenius, Von Hammer, .Rodiger, Ewald, the French 
 writer Sylvester de Sacy, the English Profe'ssor Lee, and 
 others. Sanscrit by Bopp, A. W. Von Schlegel (f 1845) 
 Wilson, Mill ; ancient German literature by the two Ba^ 
 
 fZT^ ^T'^i,^'''?, <t 1841), Lachmann, &c. 
 «;„ ,} Excellent German translations of the best for- 
 e gn au hors were pubhshed by J. H. Voss, Schleiermacher 
 (t 1834) who was equally eminent as a philologist and the- 
 ologian A. W Von Schlegel, Gries, Kannegiesfer, Kockert 
 Streckfuss, Dzez, and others. The principal Englsh trans- 
 lation, and that a nearly perfect one, is Carey'! ' Dante ' 
 Very iniportanteifects resulted from the profonnd study 
 of philology, biblical exegesis (which has been, howevej 
 snirmTn^' *°" gf^^-^Uy ^to^ducted in a rationa/i2 
 sp rit), and jurisprudence ; that of jurisprudence has been 
 cultivated with great success by Savigny and others 
 
 (44y.) c Misioncaltnvestigatwns were puisned with 
 ;',7;--^„-'i-t^y and great acuteness ^ NiebX 
 Wlken'SVt h'^' ^"-^'^ Kaumer,^Schlosser, 
 n\^97^ ^r>i>^' X Too??'?,"''"'' Hullmann, Leo, Eichhoru 
 (t 1827) Pfister (f 183a , Eanke, Wachsmuth, K. A Men- 
 zel, Voigt Lnden, Dahlmann,' Aschbach, Lappenberg 
 
 hterature was cultivated by Guizot, Thierry, Sismondi 
 Michaud, Lacretelle, Thiers, Capefigie ; Enllish Sry 
 
 TurnerTrn o d M "'°, ^''^f'^' «''"-»' ^^^ ^ahon^ 
 croft SBfrKn-wT'?^' American by Grahame, Ban^ 
 crott Sparks, Hi dreth, &o. ; Italian by Botta (+1802)- 
 Swedish by Geijer and Lundblad; Polish by Lelewe j 
 and Russian by Karamsin (f 1826). ' 
 
 (450.) d. Geography was elevated to the rank of a 
 distmct science by C. Ritter, and its sphere enlarged by 
 
451 — 453. § 73. science, literature, and art. 249 
 
 the French expedition into Egypt, and the discoveries of 
 several travellers. 
 
 (451.) The most important travels were those of 
 Mimgo Park (t 1811), Clapperton (f 1827), the brothers 
 Lander on the Niger, A. Von Humboldt in the equinoc- 
 tial countries of America, and into Siberia, Burckhardt 
 (t 1817) in Arabia and Nubia, Gau in Nubia and Abys- 
 sinia, de Laborde in Arabia and Syria, Prince Max of 
 Neuwied, in Brazil and to the sources of the Missouri. 
 To these we must add the circumnavigations of the globe 
 by Krusenstern and Kotzebue ; the expeditions to the 
 North Pole of Captains Parry and Ross ; and the Ameri- 
 can South Sea Exploring Expedition, and Captain Lynch's 
 Dead Sea Expedition. 
 
 (452.) e. Natural science was greatly promoted by 
 these travels, especially those of A. Von Humboldt and 
 the Prince of Neuwied, by the discovery of galvanism 
 (by Galvii^i, an Italian), and of the four smaller planets, 
 and by the annual meetings of German and Swiss, and at 
 a later period of English, French, and Italian naturalists. 
 The most distinguished naturalists of modern times were 
 — the Zoologist Cuvier (f 1832), Dr. Owen, the chemist 
 Berzelius, Sir Humphrey Davy, Faraday, the botanists 
 A. L. de Jussieu and Decandolle, and the astronomer La- 
 place (t 1827), Herschell, Airy, Adams. The most remark- 
 able discoveries in ?7iec/zcz/ze were Gall's (f 1822) craniology, 
 and Hahnemann's homoeopathic system. Invention of gal- 
 vano-plastic by Jacobi, of Dorpat. 
 
 (453.) f Poe^/^.— In Germany, Schiller (t 1805), 
 and Goethe (f 1832), during their ten years' residence 
 together at Weimar (1795 — 1805). At the same time 
 there arose, in opposition to the sentimentality of lyric 
 poetry (revived by Matthison, Salis, and Tiedge), and the 
 dramas of real life of Mand (f 1814), and Kotzebue 
 (t 1819), a romantic school, founded by the brothers 
 Schlegel (Aug. William, \ 1845, and Frederick, f 1829), 
 and Tieck, who adopted as their model the romantic po- 
 etry of the middle ages, and distinguished themselves by 
 their critical productions no less than by their poetical 
 works and translations. The patriotic wars in which Ger- 
 many was engaged inspired Korner (f 1813), Von Schenk- 
 
250 MODERN HISTORY. [454. ^ 73. 
 
 endorf (f 1817), Arndt and Riickert (Freimand Reimar), 
 whQse songs of war and victory were suggested by the 
 events of those stirring times. Patriotic songs were also 
 written by W. Miiller (t 1 827), to celebrate the Greek 
 revolution. Since that time lyric poetry has been es- 
 pecially employed to commemorate the events of the day, 
 by Uhland, Count Platen {j 1835), Chamicso (f 1838), 
 Zedlitz, and Lenau; and during the last ten years has as- 
 sumed a polemical character, in the disgraceful writings of 
 Heine, Anastasius Grrun^ Hoffman of Fallersleben, Freili- 
 grath, K. Beck, and Herwegh. In epic poetry, German 
 literature has been much less fruitful than in lyric. Epic 
 poems of considerable length have been attempted by E. 
 Schulze (t 1817), Archbishop Pyrker, and Lenau. In bal- 
 lads and romances, the Swabian poetical school of Uhland, 
 G. Schwab, and Kerner, is the most distinguished. Dra- 
 matic poetry, which had attained its highest degree of ex- 
 cellence in the days of Schiller, was cultivated with dif- 
 ferent success by his successors, H. Von Kleist (f 1811), 
 Z. Werner (f 1823), Milliner (f 1828), Grabbe (f 1836), 
 Immermann (f 1840), Raupach, Zedlitz, and Gutzkow. 
 Romances and novels were written by Jean Paul Frede- 
 rick Richter (f 1825), L. Tieck, Immermann, and a crowd 
 of authors and authoresses. Several translations of for- 
 eign romances were also published. 
 
 (454.) In France, a host of poets, following the ex- 
 ample of Chateaubriand, threw off the trammels im- 
 posed on poetry by the academy, and formed a " modern 
 romantic school," in opposition to the old classical school, 
 as it was called. Among these the most celebrated is 
 Victor Hugo. A. de Lamartine has distinguished 
 himself as a religious lyric poet, and Be ranger as a 
 writer of popular songs. An attempt to unite the two 
 schools was made by the lyric and dramatic poet Cas. * 
 Delavigne. Among the dramatic poets, the most pro- 
 lific are Scribe and Alex. Dumas. Of the numerous 
 writers of romance, Victor Hugo, Chateaubriand, Mad- 
 ame de Stael (f 1817), Janiu, Nodier, Balzac, Madame Du- 
 devant (George Sand), Paul de Kock, and Eugene Sue, 
 enyoy the highest reputation, though the works of the last 
 three are a disgrace to the nation that produces and toler- 
 ates such writings, 
 
455— 457. ^ 73.] SCIENCE, LITERATURE, AND AET. 251 
 
 f455 ) In England, Lord Byron (t at MissolongM 
 in 1824) surpassed all liis contemporaries m liTelmess ot 
 maginationand ardent poetic feeling. . Wordsworth 
 whose loss we are now deploring (1850), is a "Umer 
 as well as a far purer poet, than Lord Byron C « 1 er i dge 
 was equal, if not in some respects superior, '^P«ft'« f« 
 nius- but executed comparatively li"l«- ^ "™''^P/'!*f 
 Sted by Prof. Putz) are Walter Scott Southey, 
 Kyson, Keble, Mrs. Hemans. . The lus oi^al ro- 
 mances of Sir Walter Scott are unrivalled for the hdel- 
 Uy and brilliancy of their delineations English do.nes^ 
 d romance has been revived by Sir E L. Bulwer, ana 
 Charles Dickens. In America, Bryant, Longfellow, Hal- 
 leck Dana, Willis, Mrs. Sigourney, and others have done 
 much for true poetry. Among the modern poets of Italy, 
 the most renowned, as lyric and f^g'^.^^f ^ "^f £- 
 zoni and Silvio Pelico. In Sivedm,^ ^tZiI%ZhtL 
 tinguished himself as an epic, and in ^'''?^'/^'f^"t 
 (t 1837), as a lyric poet. IheAmert^an writers, Cooper 
 and Washington Irving, have also acquired a Emo 
 pean reputation _^^^ ^^ ^, 
 
 whilh before the revolution was limited to England, has 
 ten exttded since the introduction of tWep-sena 
 tive svstem to France and some of the German states 
 The i;st distinguished o-tors of ino em t.^es are, thos 
 nf Eno-land viz , the younger Pitt (t 180b), J^ox q i^uo;, 
 BrougC'O'Co'nnellfsirllobert Peel,&c.; next to them 
 rank the orators of Fra,nce, viz, Manuel (1823) toy 
 (+1824) Beni. Constant (t 1830 , Lamarque (t 1832), 
 Bover CoBard. Casimir P&ier (t 1832), Chateaubriand 
 Guizot, Dupin; OdiUon Barrot, Thiers, Lamartme, &c. , 
 in America, Calhoun, Clay, Webster &c. 
 
 (457 ) h. In the/M« arts, great advances were made 
 by Prance during the'reign of Napoleon, and by Gemany 
 and Belgium after the restoration of peace The great 
 ZjXal works with which Paris, Berlin (by Seb-Ul) 
 and Munich (by Klenzi), have been adorned, indicate tne 
 revival of a study of the antique, which has been greatly 
 ' nromoted by the recent examination and measurement of 
 ?he monurnents of Grecian art, and the introduction into 
 
^^^ MODERN HISTORY. [458,459. §73. 
 
 the museums of Europe of some of the most valuable 
 treasures of Grecian sculpture (the Elgin marbles, &c.). 
 Others have endeavored to revive the Gothic style of the 
 middle ages. In sculpture, the most successful imitators 
 of classical models have been the Italian, C a n o v a (+ 1 822) 
 
 ^it\^I'^^^^^''l\^f^'^'t ^*^^^) *^^ ^^^^ Thorwaldsen, 
 1^1 -f^ % Schadow, Ranch, Chr. Tieck, Schwanthaler 
 ^avid, a Frenchman, Chantrey and Gibson, Englishmen 
 Powers and Greenough, Americans ' 
 
 f.^tlf t? ^J^^'^/^'^^^^^^^^ beenmani- 
 
 Tf™ ^' T t' ^'^^'^'' "^ ^^'^ ^'^- I^^ England, 
 Turner,SirT. Lawrence, and others. In Germany, we 
 
 v^Ja r i^^^'^'r f ^'^^' ^'^^ ^' ^«^ Cornelius (lince 
 
 ZatTw^ ?f '^'^ "t ^'^ ^^^^' ^^^ '^^' «f Dusseldorf, 
 under W. Schadow. In France, Horace Yernet, P. Dela- 
 roche, &c., are distinguished as historical painters. Their 
 great aim has been to give individuality to their subiects 
 m contradistinction to the classical style of J. L. David 
 (t 1825), and his pupil Gerard (f 1837). In Belgium, 
 Wappers and de Keyser are celebrated as historical 
 painters and Jerboekhoven as a painter of animals. The 
 iTtlf. ^^'^ ^^^ ^}\^^^ V^^omoted by the establishment 
 of museums (Musee Napoleon in the Louvre, museums at 
 Berlin and Versailles), and the erection of magnificent 
 SsT f^'^^^^^t^ fresco painting, by command of 
 Lewis I., at Munich. A taste for art was also diffused 
 |r and wide by the establishment, in almost every great 
 European city, of art-unions. Lithography was invented 
 by Sennefelder of Munich (1796) ; steel-engraving by 
 Heath, m England; and the Daguerreotype in Frlnce 
 byDaguerre (1839); P/..^.g.mc drawing by H. F. Talbo ,' 
 n England, at thesame time. A great improvement in 
 land^ engraving on wood was also efi-ected in Hol- 
 
 , (459.) i. In Music, Germany produced the most illus- 
 trious masters. W. A. Mozart (t 1791) Jos HavTn 
 t 1809), Ludw Von Beethoven^ f I82V), fnd a^l: Jt'of 
 other composers such as C. M. Von Weber (f 1826), 
 
 t&^rZi^v'''. ^t?^'')' ^'^^^ Mendelssohn-Ba : 
 tholdy (tl848), Ferd. Bies (f 1838), Fesea (f 1826) A 
 Romberg (f 1821), Marschner; Schneider, Meyerbeer, ^fcc.' 
 
460. ^ 73.] SCIENCE, LITEP^ATUREj AND ART. 253 
 
 In France, Clierubini, Mehul (f 1817), Boyldieu (f 1834), 
 and Auber. In Italy, Rossini and Bellini, both cele- 
 brated as composers of operas. Academies of singing 
 are established in Germany, and conservatories of music 
 in Paris and Prague. Grreat musical festivals are held in 
 Germany and England, and societies are established in 
 Holland for the advancement of musical science. The 
 taste for operatic representations has also contributed in 
 no small degree to the improvement of musical compo- 
 sition. 
 
 TV. Trade, Mamifacturing Industry, Agriculture. 
 
 (460.) The colonial trade of the French, Dutch, and 
 Spaniards, was transferred, during the war, to England or 
 some neutral nation, such as the United States, which 
 began to rival Great Britain as a maritime power. Eng- 
 land indemnified herself for the loss of her trade with 
 the European continent, consequent on the introduction of 
 Napoleon's continental system, by extending her dominion 
 in India, and drawing more closely the bands of her com- 
 mercial intercourse with Brazil, and the revolted Spanish 
 colonies of South America. A brisk trade was also car- 
 ried on with the Spanish peninsula, during the period of 
 British ascendency in Spain and Portugal. The peace of 
 Paris restored to France and Holland their ancient colo- 
 nies, but not their former commercial prosperity. Manu- 
 facturing industry in France, the Netherlands, Germany, 
 and Russia, was encouraged by the exclusion of English 
 wares under the continental system, and subsequently by- 
 enormous import duties : but, on the other hand, agri- 
 culture in the north-east of Europe and Germany was al- 
 most ruined by the English corn-laws. The circulation 
 of bills of exchange and promissory notes, and the trade 
 in government securities, were carried on with unprece- 
 dented spirit. The resolution of the Congress of Vienna 
 for the abolition of slavery was gradually carried into 
 execution. The interests of commerce were promoted by — 
 a. greater facilities of communication by means of canals, 
 steamers (Fulton, on the Hudson river, first succeeded in 
 applying steam to the propelling of vessels, 1807) ; rail- 
 ways (first introduced as of great importance, in England, 
 
254 MODERN HISTORY. [460. ^ 73. 
 
 1826-30 ; in the United States, 1827-35) ; telegraphs (in- 
 vented by Chappe, a Frenchman, in 1793 ; the electric tele- 
 grajjli by Professor Morse, 1832, patented 1837, first 
 practically used, 1844 ; Cooke and Wheatstone's patent 
 in England, 1840 ; b. commercial leagues ; c. the free 
 navigation of the German rivers, and establishment of the 
 great German commercial league (Zollverein). England, 
 on the other hand, has adopted the opposite principle, 
 and abolished or greatly lessened all restrictive duties, 
 Abolition of the Corn Laws by Sir Robert Peel. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 FIRST PERIOD. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1492—1648. From the discovery op America to the peace op 
 Westphalia. 
 
 1492. Discovery op America, by Christopher Columbus. 
 
 1493 — 15197 Maximilian I., Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1493—1496, Second voyage of Columbus. Discovery of the An- 
 tilles and Jamaica. 
 
 1495. Establishment op the Imperial Chamber. 
 
 Naples occupied for a short time by the French, 
 
 1498. Discovery op a passage by sea to the East Indies, by 
 Vasco di Gama, 
 
 1498—1500. Third voyage of Columbus, Discovery of Trinidad 
 and the Continent of South America. Francisco de Boba- 
 dilla. 
 
 1498. CoNauEST op Milan, by Louis XII. 
 
 1500. Cabral discovers Brazil. 
 
 1501. CoNauEST OP Naples, by the French and Spaniards, The 
 
 city remains in the occupation op the latter. 
 1502—1504. Fourth voyage of Columbus. 
 1566. Death of Columbus. 
 
 1568, 1509. War of the league of Cambray against Venice, 
 1509—1515. Alfonso Albuquerque, Portuguese Viceroy in the East 
 
 Indies. 
 1509—1547. Henry VIII., King of England. 
 
 1511. Holy league for the expulsion of the French from Italy. 
 
 1512, Germany divided into ten circles. 
 1515^1547. Francis I., King of Fr^ce, 
 
 1515. Francis I. regains Milan by the victory of Marignano, 
 1516—1556. Charles I., King of Spain. 
 
 1517. Beginning of the Reformation. Luther's ninety-five 
 
 theses. 
 
 1518. Diet of Augsburg, Luther appears before Cardinal Caietan. 
 
 1519. Interregnum in Germany, after the death of Maximilian. 
 
 CorTEZ CONaUERS MeXICO. 
 
 1519—1656, Charles V., Emperor op Germany. 
 
256 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1520. MAGELLiiN DISCOVERS A PASSAGE INTO THE SoUTH SeA 
 
 . .^r. I^^ther burns the Pope's bull. Massacre of Stockholm. 
 1520—1556. Solyman II., Turkish Sultan. 
 
 1521. Luther appears before the diet of Worms, and is placed under 
 
 the ban of the empire. 
 1521—1526. First war between Charles V. and Francis I. 
 1523. Gustavus Vasa separates Sweden from the Union of 
 
 Calmar. 
 1525. Peasants' war in Germany. They are defeated at Franken- 
 
 hausen. 
 
 Prussia, a temporal Duchy. 
 
 1525, Francis I. taken prisoner in the battle of Pavia. 
 
 1526. Convention of Madrid. 
 
 1526—1532. War of Charles V. with the Turks 
 
 Battle of Mohacz. 
 1527—1529. Second war between Charles V. and Francis I. Rome 
 taken and plundered. 
 
 1529. Ladies' peace concluded at Cambray. 
 Siege of Vienna by the Turks. 
 
 Diet of Spiers (Protestants). 
 
 1530, Diet of Augsburg. Confession of Ausgburg 
 
 Charles V. gives Malta, Gozzo, and Tripoli, to the Knights 
 
 -1CO-, o 1^ ,;• ■^^J^'^- ^'^^^ coronation of an Emperor by the Pone 
 15ol, Schmalkaldian league. ^ 
 
 Zwingli falls in the battle of Kappel. 
 1532. The Turks advance a second time against Vienna 
 
 Religious peace at Nurnberg. 
 1535. Sect of the Anabaptists suppressed at Munster 
 ■iroc Successful expedition of Charles V. against Tunis. 
 1536—1538. Third war between Charles V. and Francis I 
 1538, An armistice concluded at Nice. 
 1540. Society of Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola 
 l-;i- V^^o^^il^^^""^ campaign of Charles V. against Algiers, 
 1042—1568, Mary Stuart, Queen of Scotland. 
 1542—1544. Fourth war between Charles V. and Francis I 
 , ^ . . ^^he Duke of Cleves subdued. 
 1544, Peace of Cressy. 
 1545—1563. Council of Trent, 
 
 1546. Death of Martin Luther. 
 
 Schmalkaldian war betjveen the Emperor Charles V and the 
 Schmalkaldian league. 
 
 1547, The Elector of Saxony defeated at Miihlberg. The electoral 
 
 dignity transferred from the Ernestine to the Albertine 
 
 line. 
 Philip of Hesse taken prisoner at Halle. 
 1552, Maurice attacks the Emperor at Innsbruck. 
 Convention of Passau. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 257 
 
 A. D, 
 
 1552—1556. War of Charles V. with Henry II. of France. The 
 
 French lose Metz, Toul, and Verdun. 
 1555. Rkligious peace op Augsburg. Reservatum ecclesiasticum. 
 
 1555. Charles V. gives up Milan, Naples, and the Netherlands, to 
 
 his son. 
 
 1556. Abdication of Charles V. 
 1556—1598. Philip II., King of Spain. 
 1556—1564. Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany. 
 1558 — 1603. Elizabeth, Queen of England. 
 
 1559. Long war between Spain and France, terminated by the 
 peace of Chateau-Cambresis. 
 
 1559—1567. Margaret of Parma, vice-sovereign of the Netherlands. 
 
 1560 — 1598. Religious wars in France. 
 
 1564 — 1576. Maximilian II., Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1566. The Turks invade Hungary. Solyman II. dies before Sigeth. 
 
 1567 — 1573. The Duke of Alva Governor in the Netherlands. 
 Execution of Egmont, Hoorn, &c. Massacre. 
 
 1571. Don Juan, of Austria, defeats the Turks at Lepanto. 
 
 1672. Poland, an electoral Kingdom. 
 
 Massacre of St. Bartholomew's eve. 
 William of Orange nominated royal Stattholder of the Neth- 
 erlandish provinces. 
 
 1573—1576. Zuniga y Requesens, Stattholder in the Netherlands. 
 
 1576 — 1578. Don Juan d' Austria, Stattholder. 
 
 1578 — 1592. Alexander Farnese, of Parma, Stattholder of the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 1579, The seven northern provinces of the Netherlands re- 
 nounce THEIR allegiance TO THE SPANISH CROWN IN THE 
 
 Union of Utrecht. 
 1581 — 1646. Portugal under the dominion of Spain, 
 
 1583. The Gregorian Calendar. 
 
 1584. William of Orange assassinated. He is succeeded by his son 
 
 Maurice, 
 
 1587. Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots. 
 
 1588, Destruction of the Invincible Armada, 
 
 1589—1792. The house of Bourbon in France. 
 
 1589—1610. Henry IV., King of France. Sully. 
 1598. Edict of Nantes. 
 
 Extinction of the house of Ruric, in Russia. 
 1600. English East India Company. 
 1602, Dutch East India Company, 
 
 1603 — 1649, The house of Stuart in Great Britain and 
 Ireland, 
 
 1605. Discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. 
 
 1608. Union of the Protestant Princes of Germany. 
 
258 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1609. Letter of Majesty for the Bohemian and Silesian Protestants, 
 
 Armistice between Spain and the United Netherlands. 
 Romanist league. 
 
 1610. Henry IV. assassinated by Ravaillac. 
 1610—1643. Louis XIIL Mary de Medici Regent. 
 1611—1632. Gustavus (IL) Adolphus, King of Sweden. 
 1612 — 1619. Matthias, Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1613 — 1762. The house of Romanow, in Russia. 
 1618. Prussia united to Brandenburg. 
 
 1618. Disturbances in Prague on account of the destruction of the 
 
 Letter of Majesty. 
 1618 — 1648. Thirty years' war in Germany. 
 1618 — 1623. Bohemian-Palatine period of the thirty years' 
 
 war. 
 1619 — 1637. Ferdinand IL, Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1619. The Protestant estates of Bohemia choose the Elector Pala- 
 
 tine, Frederick V., to be their King. 
 
 T620. Frederick defeated on the White Mountain. Bohemia sub- 
 dued. 
 
 1623. The electorate of the Palatinate (conquered by Tilly), con- 
 ferred on Maximilian of Bavaria. 
 
 1624 — 1642. Richelieu, Prime Minister in France. 
 
 1625 — 1629. Danish period of the thirty years' war. 
 
 1626. Wallenstein defeats Count Mansfield at the Bridge of Des- 
 
 sau. Christian IV. defeated by Tilly at Lutter on the 
 Barenberg. 
 
 1627. Conquest of Lower Saxony. Siege of Stralsund. 
 
 1629. Peace concluded with Denmark at Lubeck. Restitution 
 
 Edict. 
 
 1630. Diet of Ratisbon. Wallenstein deprived of the command-in- 
 
 chief Dissolution of the Hansa. 
 1630 — 1634. Swedish period of the thirty years' war. 
 
 1630. Gustavus Adolphus lands in Pomerania, and advances as far 
 
 as Brandenburg. 
 
 1631. Magdeburg stormed and sacked by Tilly. Gustavus Adol- 
 
 phus, with a reinforcement of Saxon troops, defeats Tilly 
 near Leipzic, and advances into Western and Southern 
 Germany. 
 Gustavus Adolphus and [Wallenstein encamped near Niirn- 
 berg. 
 
 1632. Battle of Lutzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus and Pap- 
 
 penheim. 
 1632—1654. Christina, Queen of Sweden. 
 
 1634. Wallenstein murdered at Eger. The Austrians victorious at 
 
 Nordlinger over Bernard of Weimar and Gustavus Horn. 
 Swedish-French period of the thirty years' war. 
 
 1635. Peace concluded at Prague by the emperor and Saxony 
 
 with the Protestant estates of central and Northern Ger- 
 many. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, 259 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1636. Baner defeats the Saxons at Wittstock. 
 
 1637 — 1657. Ferdinand III., Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1639. After the death of Bernard of Weimar, France regains pos- 
 
 session of his conquests on the Rhine. 
 1640—1688. Frederick William the Great, Elector of Brandenburg. 
 
 1640. Separation of Portugal from Spain. The house of Braganza 
 
 raised to the throne. 
 1642. Torstenson defeats the imperialists near Leipzic. 
 1643—1714. Louis XIV., King of France. 
 1643 — 1661. Mazarin Prime Minister in France during the minority 
 
 of Louis XIV. 
 
 1645. Torstenston victorious at Zankau. 
 
 1646. 1647. Bavaria twice attacked by Wrangel and Turenne. 
 
 1647. Massaniello's insurrection at Naples. 
 
 1648. The Peace of Westphalia. 
 
 War of the Fronde against the court of Louis XIII. and 
 Mazarin. 
 1648 — 1789. From the Peace of Westphalia to the French 
 Revolution. 
 
 1649. Execution of Charles I., King of England. 
 1649—1660. England a Republic. 
 1653—1658. Oliver Cromwell, Protector of England. 
 1654 — 1751. The house of Zweibrucken reigns in Sweden. 
 
 1655 — 1660. Swedish-Polish war ; in which the Great Elector takes 
 
 part. 
 1656. Battle of Warsaw ; the Swedes, assisted by the Great Elector, 
 
 ^ defeat the Poles. 
 1658—1705. Leopold L, Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1659. Peace of the Pyrenees, between France and Spain. Richard 
 
 Cromwell resigns the Protectorate at the end of eight 
 months. Charles II. brought back by General Monk. 
 1660—1668. England under the two last Stuarts, Charles II., and 
 James II. Act of toleration (afterwards repealed). Test 
 act. Habeas corpus. 
 
 1660. Sweden concludes a peace with Poland at Oliva, and with 
 
 Denmark at Copenhagen. 
 Denmark becomes an absolute monarchy. 
 
 1661—1683. Colbert, French minister. 
 
 1663. The German diet becomes a permanent congress of deputies. 
 
 1666—1668. Louis XlVth's first war of spohation against the Span- 
 ish Netherlands. Triple alliance. 
 
 1668. Peace concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle. 
 
 1672—1676. Louis XlVth's second war of spoliation against Hol- 
 land. Dissolution of the triple alliance. 
 
 1675. Frederick William of Brandenburg defeats the Swedes at 
 Fehrbellin. 
 
 1678. Peace of Nimcguen. 
 
 1679. The Great Elector is compelled to restore almost all his con- 
 
 quests to Sweden at the peace of S. Germain en Laye. 
 1680—1684. Louis XlVth's " re-unions." 
 
260 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1683. The last siege of Vienna by the Turks. 
 
 1685. Revocation of the edict of Nantes. The Protestants quit 
 France and establish themselves in other countries, espe- 
 cially in Brandenburg. 
 
 1687. Hungary a hereditary kingdom. 
 
 1688—1697. Louis XlVth's third war of spoliation. The Palati- 
 nate ravaged. 
 1688—1701. Frederick III. last Elector of Brandenburg. 
 
 1688. The EngHsh Revolution. Expulsion of the Stuarts. 
 1789—1702. The house of Orange in England. William III. 
 1690. Marshal Luxemburg defeats the Dutch at Fleurus, 
 1692. Hanover created a ninth electorate. 
 
 1697. Prince Eugene defeats the Turks at Gentha. 
 
 Saxony and Poland united. Peter the Great visits Holland 
 and England. 
 
 Peace of Rvswick. 
 1697—1718. Charles XII., King of Sweden. 
 
 1699. Peace with the Turks at Carlowitz. 
 1700—1721. The Northern War. 
 
 1700. Denmark compelled to conclude a peace at Travendal in 
 
 consequence of the landing of Charles XII. on the island 
 of Zealand. 
 Charles XII. defeats the Russians at Narva. Extinction of 
 the house of Hapsburg in Spain. 
 
 1701. The Elector of Brandenburg assumes the title of King of 
 
 Prussia. 
 1701 — 1713. Frederick I., King op Prussia. 
 1701 — 1714. War of the Spanish succession. 
 1701. War in Italy. Attack on Milan. 
 1702 — 1714. Anne, Queen of England. 
 
 1703. Peter the Great lays the foundation of Petersburg. 
 
 1704. Stanislaus Lesczinsky, King of Poland. 
 Gibraltar taken by the English. 
 
 Eugene and Marlborough defeat the French at Hochstadt 
 1705 — 1711. Joseph I., Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1706. Augustus II. resigns the crown of Poland at the peace of 
 
 Altranstadt. 
 Marlborough victorious at Ramillies, and Eugene, by the aid 
 of the Russians, at Turin. 
 
 1707. Neucnburg [Neufchatel] and Valendis annexed to Prussia; 
 England and Scotland united, with one parliament. 
 
 1708. Eugene and Marlborough victorious at Oudenarde. Nego- 
 
 tiations for peace. 
 
 1709. The two commanders victorious at Malplaquet. Charles 
 
 XII., defeated at Pultowa, takes refuge in Turkey. 
 1709—1714. Residence of Charles XII. in Turkey. Conquest of 
 
 the Swedish Baltic provinces by Peter. The Russian 
 
 army surrounded by the Turks on the banks of thePruth. 
 
 Escape of Peter. 
 1711—1740. Charles VI., Emperor of Germany. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 261 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1712. Fall of the Marlborough administration, 
 1713—1740. Frederick William I., King of Prussia. 
 
 1713. Peace of Utrecht. Philip V. recognized as King of Spain and 
 
 her foreign possessions. 
 
 1714. Peace concluded at Rastadt and Baden. Charles VI. obtains 
 
 the Spanish provinces in Europe. The house of Hano- 
 ver RAISED to thk English throne. 
 Return of Charles XII. from Turkey. 
 
 1714 — 1716. Three campaigns of Charles XII. against Norway. 
 
 1614 — 1718. War of the Turks against Venice and Austria. 
 
 1715—1774. Louis XV., King of France, Regency of the Duke of 
 Orleans under the management of Dubois. 
 
 1716, Prince Eugene victorious at Peterwardein. 
 
 1718. Charles XII. slain at the siege of Friederichshall. Quad- 
 ruple alliance for maintenance of the peace of Utrecht 
 against Philip V, Sardinia given to Savoy in exchange 
 for Sicily. 
 
 1721. Peace at Nystadt between Russia and Sweden, 
 
 1726—1743. Cardinal Fleury at the head o*f the administration in 
 France. 
 
 1735. The kirigdom of the two Sicilies again independent. 
 
 1733—1738. War of the Polish succession, 
 
 1736 — 1739. War of the Turks against Russia and Austria. 
 
 1737. Extinction of the house of Medici. 
 
 1738. Peace concluded at Vienna. Stanislaus resigns the crown of 
 
 Poland, and receives Lorraine and Bar as an indemnifica- 
 tion. 
 
 1739. Peace of Belgrade. 
 
 1740 — 1780. Maria Thkresa Empress of Germany in consequence 
 
 of the pragmatic sanction. 
 1740—1788. Frederick (II.) the Great, King in (afterwards of) 
 
 Prussia. 
 1740 — 1748. War of the Austrian^uccession. 
 1740—1742. First Silesian war. 
 1741—1762. Ehzabeth Empress of Russia. 
 1742. Frederick victorious at Czaslau. Peace of Breslau. 
 1742—1745. The Emperor Charles VII. Maria Theresa at the 
 
 diet of Presburg receives aid from Hungary, Charles 
 
 VII. loses Bavaria. The French defeated at Dettingen. 
 
 1744. East Friesland annexed to Prussia. 
 1744 — 1745. Second Silesian war, 
 
 1745. After the death of Charles VIL his son relinquishes his 
 
 claims to the Austrian succession. 
 1745 — 1806. The house of Lorraine in Germany and Austria. 
 1745—1765. Francis I., Emperor of Germany. 
 1745 — 1764. The Marquise de Pompadour governs France. 
 1745. Frederick II. victorious at Hohenfriedberg, Sorr, and Kes- 
 
 selsdorf Peace concluded at Dresden between Austria 
 
 and Prussia. 
 
262 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1746. Maria Theresa enters into an alliance with Elizabeth against 
 Frederick 11. 
 The Pretender, Charles Edward, defeated at Culloden. 
 1748. Peace concluded at Aix-la-Chapelle between Austria and 
 
 France. 
 1750—1777. Administration of Pombal in Portugal. 
 1751 — 1818. The house of Holstein-Gottorp in Sweden, 
 
 1755. Earthquake at Lisbon. 
 
 1756 — 1763. Third Silesian, or seven years' war. 
 
 1756 — 1763. Maritime war between France and England, occa- 
 sioned by disputes respecting the boundaries of their 
 American possessions. 
 
 1756. Frederick invades Saxony. Occupation of Dresden. Block- 
 
 ade of the Saxon army. Victory at Lowositz, in Bohemia. 
 
 1757. Frederick victorious at Prague. Defeated at Kollin. The 
 
 French defeated at Hasten beck, and the Russians at Gross- 
 jagerndorf. Defeat of the French and imperial troops at 
 RossBACH, anel the Austrians at Lkuthen. 
 
 1758. The French defeated at Crefeld, the Russians at Zorn- 
 
 DORF, and Frederick at Hochkirch. 
 
 1759. The Austrians victorious at Kunersdorf. Fink taken pris- 
 
 oner at Maxen. Ferdinand of Brunswick victorious at 
 Minden. 
 
 1760. Fougiie taken prisoner at Landshut. 
 Frederick victorious at Liegnitz and Torgau. 
 
 1761. Frederick encamped at Bunzelwitz. 
 
 1762. Elizabeth succeeded on the throne of Russia by Peter III,, 
 
 who was followed at the end of six months by 
 1762—1796. Catherine II. 
 
 1762. Frederick victorious at Buckersdorf, and his brother Henry 
 
 at Freiberg. 
 
 1763. The two seven years' wars terminated by the peace of Hab- 
 
 ertsburg and Paris. 
 Stanislaus Poniatowski, King of Poland. Confederation at 
 
 Bar against the Russians. 
 1765—1790. Joseph II., Emperor of Germany. 
 1767—1784. War of the English in the East Indies. 
 1768—1780. Three voyages of Cook round the world. 
 1768—1774. Russo-Turkish war. 
 
 1768. Corsica annexed to France. 
 
 1769. Napoleon Bonaparte born. 
 
 1772. First partition of Poland between Austria, Russia, and Prus- 
 
 sia. The minister Struensee executed. 
 
 1773. Order of the Jesuits suppressed by Pope Clement XIV. 
 
 1774. Peace at Kutschuk-Kainardge between Russia and the Porte. 
 1774—1792. Louis XVI., King of France. 
 
 1775 — 1783. North American war of liberation. 
 1776. Thirteen North American provinces declare themselves in- 
 dependent of England. 
 1776 — 1791. Potemkia's administration. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 263 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1778. France takes part in the North American war. Armed 
 
 neutrality of the northern powers. 
 1778 — 1779. War of the Bavarian succession. Frederick II. in- 
 vades Bohemia, and compels the Emperor 
 
 1779. in the peace of Teschen to relinquish all claims on Bavaria. 
 1780 — 1790. Joseph II. introduces several reforms. 
 
 1783. Peace concluded at Versailles betv^een England and the 
 
 North American states. 
 1785. Confederacy of the Gei-man Princes, founded by Frederick 
 
 II., against the ambitious designs of Austria. 
 1786—1797. Frederick William II., King of Prussia. 
 1787 — 1792. War of the Porte with Russia and Austria. 
 1788 — 1790. War between Sweden and Russia. 
 1789. Constitution of the United States of America. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 A. D. 1789 — 1848. From the outbreak of the French Revolu- 
 tion TO the present time. 
 
 1789. The states-general assembled at Versailles. Dispute 
 respecting the manner of taking the votes. The third 
 estate votes itself a national assembly, and directs its at- 
 tention chiefly to the drawing up of a constitution. 
 
 1789 — 1791. The constituent national assembly. Storming of 
 the Bastille. Abolition of the feudal system. The na- 
 tional assembly adjourns from Versailles to Paris. New 
 division of the kingdom. Assignats. Suppression of the 
 monastic orders and the hereditary nobility. Formation 
 of Clubs (Jacobins). Flight of the King. Completion of 
 the first constitution. 
 
 1790—1792. Leopold II., Emperor of Germany. 
 
 1792 — 1806. Francis II., the last German Emperor. 
 
 1792—1804. France a republic. 
 
 1792 — 1795. The national convention. 
 
 1792. Duraouriez victorious at Jemappes. He conquers the whole 
 
 of Belgium. 
 
 1793. Execution of Louis XVI. Committee of public safety. FaU 
 
 of the Gironde. 
 
 1793—1797. War of France against the first coalition. 
 
 1793. Battle of Neerwinden. Belgium re-conquered by the Aus- 
 trians. 
 
 1793 — 1794. Reign of terror. Second constitution. A large 
 force raised for resistance to foreign as well as domestic 
 enemies (La Vendue). Public worship abolished. Exe- 
 cutions en masse. Fall of Robespierre. 
 
 1793. Second partition of Poland between Prussia and Russia. 
 
 1794. The French, after the victory of Fleurus,. regain possession 
 
 of Belgium, 
 Re-action against the Terrorists. Third constitution. 
 
264 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1795. Third partition of Poland between Russia, Prussia, and 
 
 Austria, 
 Separate peace concluded at Ba.sle with Prussia. 
 1795—1806. Holland a Batavian republic. 
 1795—1799. Government of the French Directory. 
 
 1796. Jourdan and Moreau defeated by the Archduke Charles. 
 1796—1799. Napoleon's campaigns in Italy. Victories at Mon- 
 
 tenotte, Millesirao, Mondovi, Lodi. Mantua taken. Cis- 
 padane republic. Peace of Campo Formio. Cisalpine 
 and Ligurian republics. 
 1797—1840. Frederick William III, King of Prussia. 
 
 1797, 1798. DiflSculties between the United States and the French 
 
 Directory, Preparations for war, 
 
 1798, 1799. Bonaparte's campaign in Egypt and Syria. The 
 
 French take Malta. Battle of the Pyramids. The French 
 fleet annihilated by Nelson in the bay of Aboukir. Storm- 
 ing of Jaffa. Unsuccessful siege of St. Jean d' Acre, The 
 Turkish army defeated on their landing at Aboukir. 
 
 1798. Helvetic and Roman republics, 
 
 1799. Washington died, Dec. 14th, aged 68. 
 1799—1802. War of the second coalition against France. 
 
 1799. Fall of the Directory. Bonaparte first consul. Fourth 
 
 constitution. 
 Naples a Parthenopoean republic. 
 Disastrous war of the French in Germany, Switzerland, and 
 
 Italy, 
 
 1800. Napoleon recovers Upper Italy, by the victory of Marengo. 
 Moreau's victory at Hohenlinden occasions 
 
 1801. The peace of Luneville between France and Austria, 
 The French evacuate Egypt. 
 
 1801—1825. Alexander I., Emperor of Russia. 
 
 1802. Peace of Amiens between France and England, 
 Napoleon Consul for life. 
 
 1804 — 1825. Napoleon hereditary Emperor op the French. 
 
 1805. Napoleon King of Italy. Eugene Beuharnais Viceroy. 
 The third coalition against France. 
 
 Mack capitulates in Ulm, Nelson slain in the battle of Tra- 
 falgar. Murat invests Vienna. Battle of the three Em- 
 perors at AusTERLiTz. Peace concluded at Presburg. 
 Bavaria and Wiirtemberg made kingdoms. Tyrol annexed 
 to Bavaria. 
 
 1806—1808. Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples. 
 
 1806—1810. Louis Bonaparte King of Holland, 
 
 1806. Dissolution of the German Empire, 
 
 1806—1813. The Rhenish confederacy under the protection of 
 
 •Napoleon. 
 1806 — 1835. Francis I., Emperor of Austria, 
 1806. The fourth coalition against France, 
 
 Defeat of the Prussians at Jena and Auerstadt. 
 
 Napoleon begins the continental system. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 2&5 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1807. Indecisive engagement at Eylau, 
 
 Commencement of the reforms in Prussia, under Stein's ad- 
 ministration. 
 Tlie Russians defeated at Friedland. Napoleon concludes 
 a peace at Tilsit with Russia and Prussia. Duchy of 
 "Warsaw annexed to Saxony. 
 
 1807 — 1813. Jerome Bonaparte King of Westphalia. 
 
 1807. Portugal invaded by the French. The royal family fly to 
 Brazil. 
 
 1808 — 1814. War op the French in Spain. Joseph Bonaparte 
 King of Spain. Murat King of Naples. 
 
 1809. Saragossa taken. Wellesley victorious at Talavera. 
 Austrian war against Napoleon. Vienna a second time 
 
 taken. Napoleon defeated, for the first time, at Aspern 
 and Essling. Victorious at Wagram. Peace of Vienna. 
 Suppression of the Pope's temporal power. 
 
 1809—1810. Insurrection of the Tyrolese. Andrew Hofer shot at 
 Mantua. 
 
 1810—1814. Holland united to France. 
 
 1810. Napoleon divorces Josephine, and marries Maria Louisa, 
 
 Archduchess of Austria. 
 1810 — 1822. A revolution in the government of Prussia effected by 
 
 the Chancellor Hardenberg. 
 1810—1813. Greatest extension of the French empire, 
 1811 — 1824. The American provinces revolt from Spain. 
 1812. Declaration of war by the United States against England 
 
 (June 4th). 
 
 1812. Napoleon's Russian Campaign. Victories of Smolensk and 
 
 Borodino. Conflagration of Moscow. Retreat and de- 
 struction of the French army. Ney and Oudinot force the 
 passage of the Beresina. 
 
 1813. Grand conflict or the allied powers with Napoleon. 
 
 Frederick William III. issues a proclamation to his people 
 and army. Prussian lev6e en masse (Landwehr und Land- 
 sturm). Napoleon defeats the Prussians and Russians at 
 Grossgorschen or Lvitzen, and again at Bautzen and 
 Wurschen. Armistice. Austria takes part in the war. 
 Napoleon victorious at Dresden. His generals defeated, 
 viz., Oudinot at Grossbeeren, by Biilow. Macdonald at 
 Wahlstatt, by Bliicher. Vandamme at Culm, and Ney at 
 Dennewitz. 
 Decisive battle or the nations, at Leipzig. Battle of 
 Hanau. Wellington defeats the French at Vittoria. 
 
 1814. The allies enter France. Bliicher defeats the French at 
 
 la Rothi^re and Laon. Paris taken. Napoleon abdicates 
 
 and retires to Elba. 
 First peace of Paris. 
 Congress of Vienna. 
 The order of Jesuits restored by Pius VII. 
 
266 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A, D. 
 
 1814. Treaty of Peace between the United States and England 
 
 (signed at Ghent, Dec. 24th). 
 
 1815. Napoleon returns from Elba. The hundred days. 
 Last Conflfct of the allies with Napoleon. 
 
 Blucher defeated at Ligny. Ney victorious at Quatrebras. 
 Wellington and Blucher terminate the war by the victory 
 at Waterloo. Second abdication of Naj)oleon. 
 1815 — 1830. Restoration of the Bourbons. 
 
 The Holy Alliance between Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 
 1815. Second peace of Paris. 
 1817- The Prussian evangelical Church formed by the union of the 
 
 Lutheran and Reformed Communions. 
 1818. Congress of sovereigns at Aix-la-Chapelle. It is resolved to 
 withdraw the army of occupation from France. 
 Bernadotte Crown Prince of Sweden. 
 
 1820. Military revolutions in Spain, Portugal, and Italy. Con- 
 
 gresses assembled, in consequence of these movements, at 
 Troppau, Laibach, and Verona (1820—1823.) 
 
 1821. Napoleon dies at St. Helena. 
 
 1821 — 1828. The Greeks throw off the Turkish yoke. 
 
 1822. Brazil revolts from Portugal. 
 1827. Battle of Navarino. 
 
 1828 — 1829. Russian-Turkish war. Peace of Adrianople. 
 
 1829. Emancipation of the Roman Catholics in England. 
 
 1830. Algiers taken by the French. Revolution of July at Paris. 
 
 Louis Philippe, king of the French. 
 Separation of BelgiunT from Holland. Leopold I., King of 
 
 the Belgians. 
 1830—1881. The Polish revolution. 
 
 Disturbances in Brunswick, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, 
 
 and Switzerland. 
 1831—1833. Mohammed Ali declares himself independent of the 
 
 Porte. 
 1832. Otho I., King of Greece. 
 
 1832—1834. Contest between Don Pedro and Don Miguel. 
 1833—1840. War of the Spanish succession. 
 
 1834. The German commercial league (Zollverein) established. 
 
 1835. Ferdinand I., Emperor of Austria. 
 1837. Hanover separated from England. 
 
 1839—1841. Second war between the Porte and Mohammed Ali. 
 1840. Frederick William IT., King of Prussia. 
 1843. Oregon treaty. 
 
 1845. Don Carlos relinquishes his claim to the Spanish throne in 
 favor of his eldest son the Prince of Asturias. 
 
 1845. Texas annexed to the United States. 
 
 1846. Pius IX. pope. His reforms. 
 Cracow annexed to Prussia. . 
 
 1847. First united diet in Prussia. 
 
 War of the Swiss diet against the Sonderbund of the seven 
 Roman Catholic cantons. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 267 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1847. Parma, after the death of Maria Louisa, subject to the Duke 
 
 of Lucca. 
 Abd-el-Kader surrenders to General Lamoriciere. 
 
 1848, (Jan.) Insurrection at Palermo. 
 
 (Feb.) The Mexican union cedes Upper Cahfornia and New 
 Mexico to the United States. 
 
 A constitution given to the kingdom of the two Sicilies, 
 
 Constitution for Tuscany. 
 
 Revolution at Paris. Resignation of Guizot. Flight 
 of Louis Philippe. Monarchy abolished. Provisional 
 government. Proclamation of the second French 
 
 REPUBLIC. 
 
 (March.) Important political privileges granted to the people 
 in most of the Germam states. 
 
 The connection of Neufchatel with Prussia dissolved. 
 
 Meeting of the fifty-one at Heidelberg for the purpose 
 of convoking a German national representative assembly. 
 
 Petition of the states of Lower Austria at Vienna, 
 
 Resignation of Metternich. Concessions. 
 
 A constitution granted to the states of the Church, 
 
 Abolition of the censorship in Prussia. Combat in 
 THE STREETS OF BERLIN. Further concessions. 
 
 Insurrection at Milan. 
 
 Louis I., of Bavaria, abdicates in favor of Maxi- 
 milian II. 
 
 Provisional government established at Venice. 
 
 Hungary obtains a ministry of its own. 
 
 The preliminary parliament at Frankfort. 
 (April.) Second united diet in Prussia. 
 
 War of the Austrians against the Lombards and Sar- 
 dinians. 
 
 War of the Danes against Schleswig-Holstein and its 
 German allies. 
 
 The province of Prussia and a part of the province of 
 Posen admitted into the German confederacy. 
 (May.) Opening of the Assembl^e Nationale at Paris. Elec- 
 tion of an executive commission. 
 
 A constitutional diet, with one chamber, granted to 
 Austria. 
 
 Opening of the constituent ' German national 
 
 ASSEMBLY AT FrANKFORT. 
 
 (June.) Opening of the first parliament at Rome. 
 
 Disturbances among the ouvriers at Paris. The 
 executive authority intrusted to General Cavaignac. 
 
 Resolution of the German national assembly respect- 
 ing the establishment of a provisional central govern- 
 ment FOR Germany. 
 
 The Archduke John of Austria elected administra- 
 tor OF THE German empirk. 
 
 ^ Verfassungsgebende ; constitution-giving. 
 
268 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1848. (July.) Opening of the diet at Vienna (in the absence of the 
 
 emperor) by the Archduke John. 
 
 Radetzky defeats the Sardinians at Custozza. 
 (Aug.) Milan retaken by Radetzsky. 
 (Sept.) The new constitution proclaimed in Switzerland. 
 
 War between the Croatians and Hungarians. 
 (Oct.) A fresh revolution at Vienna accasioned by the resist- 
 ance offered by the national guard to the march of the 
 imperial troops against the Hungarians. Flight of the 
 emperor to Olm.iitz. 
 (Nov.) Vienna retaken by Windischgratz and Jellachich, 
 The diet removed to Kremsier. 
 A new constitution for Holland proclaimed. 
 The Prussian assembly removed from Berlin to Bran- 
 denburg. 
 
 Flight of the Pope to Gketsi. 
 TDec.) Abdication of the Emperor Ferdinand I. in favor of 
 his nephew Francis Joseph I. 
 
 Louis Napoleon elected President of the French 
 Republic. (Dec. 10th.) 
 
 1849. Roman Republic proclaimed, Feb. 9th. 
 (July 3) Rome surrendered to the French. 
 
 1850. (April.) The Pope returns to Rome. 
 
 1850. Gen. Zachary Taylor, President of the United States, died 
 July 9th. 
 Louis Philippe, ex-king of the French, died, Aug. 26th., in 
 England. 
 
QUESTIONS 
 
 ^ 1. Discoveries, Co7iquests. and Colonies, of the Europeans in other 
 quarters of the Globe. 
 
 (3.) By what nations were voyages of discovery undertaken 
 towards the close of the fifteenth century 1 By what circumstance 
 were they induced to undertake these voyages 1 What object did 
 they hope to attain % In what direction did they respectively steer 1 
 
 (A.) Enumerate the discoveries and conquests of the Spaniards. 
 
 (5.) Who was Columbus '? To what parties did he apply in the 
 first instance 1 With what success 1 To whom did he then address 
 himself? What encouragement did he at last receive, and from 
 whom 1 From what port and in what year did he sail 1 What 
 countries did he discover % What name did he give to one of these 
 islands % What discoveries did he make in his second and third 
 voyages 1 Under what circumstances did he return to Spain after 
 his third voyage ? What discovery did he attempt in his fourth 
 voyage, and with what success ? Where and in what year did he 
 die % From whom did the newly-discovered continent receive its 
 name '? What work did he publish '? What country was soon 
 afterwards discovered by the Spaniards 1 
 
 (6.) By what Spaniard was the next voyage of discovery under- 
 taken ] From what island did he sail, and where did he land % 
 What was the result of this invasion 1 What disaster followed, and 
 by what circumstance was it occasioned 1 What dignity was con- 
 ferred on him, and by whom '? For what purpose did he return 
 to Spain 1 How was he received by the king % What office was 
 he permitted to retain 1 What discovery did he make '? Where 
 and of what disease did he die 1 
 
 (7.) By whom, and in what year was a passage into the South 
 Sea discovered 1 What name was given to this channel 7 What 
 name did he give to the South Sea 1 What was his fate % What 
 exploit was performed by his crew ? 
 
 (8.) By whom was Peru discovered 1 Had he any colleagues 1 
 What circumstance facilitated the conquest of Peru 1 What narne 
 was given to the new capital '? By whom was the conquest of Chili 
 undertaken % What circumstance occasioned his execution 1 What 
 was the fate of Pizarro 1 
 
270 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [9 18. 
 
 (9.) To what body was the government of these provinces in- 
 trusted 1 Where did they sit 1 What local government was estab- 
 lished 1 By what measures was civilization promoted 1 What 
 were the chief obstacles to their success 1 What benefit was de- 
 rived from these settlements 1 By whom were the mines worked 1 
 At whose suggestion 1 What unjust restrictions Avere imposed on 
 the colonists '? How were disputes with Portugal avoided 1 By 
 whom was this boundary established '? Through what degrees of 
 longitude was it drawn 1 
 
 (10.) By whom was the Cape of Good Hope discovered'? By 
 what Portuguese sovereign were fresh attempts made to find a 
 passage by sea to the East Indies 1 By whom, and in what year 
 was this passage discovered'? Where did he land 1 
 
 (11.) By what nations was the supremacy of Portugal in the 
 East Indies disputed'? How was this supremacy maintained'? 
 What city was the central point of these establishments 1 By whom 
 were they chiefly planned 1 
 
 (12.) By whom was Brazil discovered, and in what year was it 
 colonized 1 With what countries were commercial treaties con- 
 cluded by Portugal '? 
 
 (13.) By what circumstances were the Dutch induced to imder- 
 take an expedition to India 1 What was the result of this expedi- 
 tion 1 In what year did this event occur 1 In what year was the 
 Dutch East India Company formed'? What advantages did it 
 enjoy by the terms of its charter 1 Where were the principal 
 Dutch settlements '? In what city was the seat of government estab- 
 lished '? On what island was it situated 1 In what year was the 
 Dutch West India Company established 1 What conquests did it 
 achieve ^ Was it able to retain these conquests '? 
 
 (14.) By whom, and in what year was the discovery of a north- 
 western passage to India attempted 1 Who endeavored to discover 
 a north-eastern passage 1 Was either of these adventures success- 
 ful '? By what sovereign, and in what year, was the English East 
 India Company chartered 1 What territories did it possess 1 By 
 what other nation were settlements formed in the West India 
 islands 1 
 
 § 2. The Reformation. 
 
 (16.) To what causes do you mainly attribute the rapid prog- 
 ress of the Reformation in the sixteenth century % 
 
 (17.) From what period do you date the decline of the papal 
 influence '? Enumerate the causes of this decline. Which of the 
 popes were particularly disreputable 1 In what country was the 
 feeling of hostility to the papal see most bitter "? Can you mention 
 any other causes 1 
 
 (18.) What was the immediate cause of the Reformation in Ger- 
 many '? By what pope, and for what purpose, was this system 
 sanctioned '? By whom was it opposed 1 Where, and in what year 
 was he born '? What was his first act of aggression against the 
 papal system % Mention the date of this event. What doctrine 
 did he maintain in his theological treatises % In what language 
 
J 9 23.1 OF MODERN HISTORY. 271 
 
 were they w-men 1 What ™ea-es we^ adopted^by the popejn 
 
 rthe-RX„»rfc..st,^^^^^^^ 
 
 ™Xf°t.^"onfi en.2"" Wh was' ^Cfnls appointed as the 
 ^.^e^s rem"'eStive" What was the result of his confei-ence w, h 
 Tu Lr ' Wh" e ancl in conjunction «itl, whom, djd Luther hoM 
 ^"<Ctation with D.E*. What h^ 
 pope 'n=°"XriWha writes s^^^^^^^^^^ same fate % What 
 
 ™\i?l^*:L';^She%tfoSdl'ctSfl"n'danahle defender, 
 
 S^SK'^rorlir^^^^^^ 
 :HSlStis^si^i^»^o-hJSd^ 
 
 did it adopti From what circumstance were the Reformers called 
 ^"fSTwith what view did the emperor assemble the diet of 
 
 ^ iovHpQ to the leaffue'i To what course of action did tney 
 
 waVitknown^ By whom was the calm disturbed ^ Where did 
 
 '^'^rstwir^re the leaders. In what year did Matthe^^^^^^^^ 
 Miinster ^ What was his fate, and by wham was he succeeded . 
 
27'2 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [24 29. 
 
 ants refuse to appear before tlie council 7 What demand did they 
 make -? What etlect did the thrcat.s of the emperor produce on 
 some of the Protestant leaders 1 Who were their principal sup- 
 porters 1 What course did they pursue ? What measures were 
 adopted by the emperor in consequence of these proceedings 'i 
 
 (24.) In what year did the Schmall^aldian war commence i To 
 what cn-cumstance was Charles indebted for his escape -? Where 
 did he engage the Schmalkaldian confederates, and with what suc- 
 Svaded^^ '''^'''^ '''^''*' ^^^ territories of the Elector of Saxony 
 
 (25.) Where was the elector defeated, and what disastrous con- 
 !?T ww\'''^''^- ?;!h«se favor was he compelled to abdi- 
 cate 1 What became of the Landgrave of Hesse 7 To what place 
 did the council of Trent adjourn ] What decree was issued by the 
 
 rP«fT w^^'^'^'^'^.r."'''''^ '^^' ^^'^ ^^^^-^e known, and for what 
 reason ? Why was this arrangement distasteful both to the Pope 
 • Zt f^^f ^^t««^^^^^« What city distinguished itself by its oppo i, 
 tiouto the emperor's decree? By whom was it taken ^ What 
 circumstance occasioned a change in the aspect of aflairs 7 What 
 excuse did he make for this act of treachery 7 By what sovereie-ns 
 ITJVvZTf W^""'' ''' of aggressioi was cVmS by fhe 
 King of France 7 Where was the emperor at this time, and what 
 
 IZ'iV^' ^' ^T'^ '^ ^^"P^ • ^" '''^'^' t^™^«^ ^"d in what j^ar 
 r.nrWn''°Tw'''" ""^P^f^"-' Concluded 1 What became of the 
 Landgrave of Hesse and the Elector of Saxony ] What attemot 
 
 S Tff ^f '^ '"^^f '""^' ^"^ '''''^ ^^l^^t «^^^«e^« ^ In what y^a^r 
 wfjf] 7^^ /esult, was the battle of Sievershausen fought 
 
 W erP inS'f^'S^'^^'''^^ ^'^ "^^^'^""^ ^^'^""^ed in this baftle 7 
 wii /' On wif J^;'"'' ^^' ^^' ^'^'-"^'^'^^ diet opened 7 In what 
 yeai 1 On what terms was a peace concluded '2 Bv what name 
 was It known 7 What was the only subject of disput J^ ^ 
 
 {Zb.) How many years did the session of the council of Trent 
 
 ''^97\' wi^^. ''^'f ■"^J'^^^^^ ^'^ ''' "-^^^ direct its attention ' 
 
 (27.) \\^hat religion was adopted by the sovereig-ns of the 
 Scandinavian kingdoms 7 What advantage did they gain by tliis 
 change ? By what abuses were the inhabitants of «fe North of 
 Europe rendered discontented with the old system 1 
 borni'^^;!^ ^''^''' Zwingli? Where, and in what year, was he 
 ^h doctSS rl-rr^^';.P^"^''^? ^"^ ^^f ^''' ^I^P«^^^ What Rom- 
 tonsrfL\Xr n.SV^^'TT^',,^"^"^' • ^^™P^^^ the Reforma- 
 tions ot Luther and Zwmgli 7 What was the grand subiect of dis- 
 pute between the two Reformers 7 Mention the oSn of each 
 of them respecting the Holy Eucharist. By what Swiss cantons 
 was the doctrine of Zwingli embraced? What can tonVretcted it ? 
 
 t^rbatu: ^^Vo wl"^^"^"^^* • . ^'''} ^^^^« ^^- immediate' iSt of 
 mfnt of P, otpTf. r * circumstance do you ascribe the estabhsh- 
 mcnt of Piotestantism m French-Switzerland '« Where were the 
 head-quarters of the reformed belief^ ' 
 
 borl^f^A^J^^'? was Calvin 7 Where, and in what year, was he 
 asylum i WH^mJ''' ?'^^/°^^ f T-^l'^^^ • ^here did h^ seek an 
 asylum! What important work did he publish 7 What befell him 
 
30 42.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 273 
 
 at Geneva'? Mention his peculiar doctrines'? "What form of 
 Church government was established at Geneva 1 Into what other 
 countries, and by whom, was it introduced '? 
 
 (30.) Into what other countries did the teaching of Calvin 
 spread '? By what name were the Protestants distinguished in 
 France 1 In whose reigns did they form a powerful party 1 
 
 (31.) To what circumstance do yau attribute the rapid progress 
 of the Reformation in the Netherlands '? 
 
 (32.) What occasioned the separation of the seven northern 
 provinces from Spain 1 
 
 (33.) What form of Protestantism was established in these 
 provinces '? 
 
 (34.) Why did Henry VIH. quarrel with the Pope ] What 
 title did he assume *? What punishments were inflicted on those 
 who refused to recognize his supremacy "? What sweeping plans 
 of spoliation were carried into effect in fengland 1 By whom, and 
 in whose reign, were the doctrines of the Reformation first intro- 
 duced into England '? Who re-established the connection with 
 Rome 1 What cruelties were now inflicted on the Protestants 1 
 What was the fate of Archbishop Cranmer '? By whom was 
 Protestantism restored'? What was the constitution of the re- 
 formed Anglican Church 1 By what party was this arrangement 
 opposed 1 Whence did they derive their name 1 What other 
 sect sprang up in the reign of Charles 1. 1 What tenet was main- 
 tained by these schismatics '? 
 
 (35.) To what circumstance do you attribute the success of the 
 Reformers in Scotland ■? Who was the most vehement opponent of 
 the Church of Rome in that country 1 
 
 (36.) What attempts were made to establish Protestantism in 
 Ireland 1 With what success 1 
 
 (37.) Into what countries did the Reformation extend from 
 Germany 1 
 
 § 3. Germany under Maximilian I. and Charles V. 
 
 (38.) On what condition did the estates of the empire grant a 
 subsidy to the emperor for carrying on the Italian war 1 Where 
 did Maximilian hold a diet, and what important change was made 
 in the constitution 1 In what year was it held 1 With what au- ■ 
 thority was the imperial chamber invested '? By whom was the 
 president of this court nominated'? By whom were the other 
 members elected 1 Where did the chamber now hold its sittings 1 
 Was the place of its meeting ever changed 1 In what year was it 
 dissolved 1 What measure was adopted for the better main- 
 tenance of peace '? At what diet, and in what year, was this 
 arrangement made 1 Name the ten circles, and enumerate the 
 countries comprehended in each. 
 
 (39.) In the Austrian circle. 
 
 (40.) The Bavarian. 
 
 (41.^ The Swabian. 
 
 (42. ) The Franconian. 
 
274 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [43 57. 
 
 (43.) The Upper Rhenish. 
 
 (44.) The Electoral, or Lower Rhenish. 
 
 (45.) The Burgundian, 
 
 U6.S The Westphalian. 
 
 (47.) The Lower Saxon. 
 
 (48.) The Upper Saxon. 
 
 (49.) How many states were comprehended in these circles "^ 
 Was the attendance of members at the diet in proportion to the 
 number of states 1 Why not 1 What countries were excluded 
 from this arrangement? What privilee^es were conferred on 
 Switzerland 1 What became of Italy "and the kingdom of 
 Aries 1 
 
 (50.) On what did Charles VIIL of France found his claims to 
 the Neapolitan throne 1 In what year did he obtain possession of 
 Naples ? What circumstance occasioned the formation of a 
 league against him, and who were the parties to that league 1 
 What was the result of this movement '? 
 
 (51.) By what French king, and in what year, was Milan con- 
 quered 1 On what did he found his claims 1 By whom were the 
 French expelled 1 What was his fate 1 
 
 (52.) With whom, and for Avhat purpose, did Louis XII. King 
 of France, form an alliance'? By what circumstance had his 
 power been augmented 1 What became of the reigning sovereign 
 of Naples 1 By whom, and in consequence of what dispute, was 
 Louis compelled to relinquish his claims 1 
 
 (53.) With what sovereigns, and for what purpose, did Louis 
 XII. enter into a confederacy in the year 1508 1 Why do you con- 
 sider this a proof of his weakness 1 By what name was this treaty 
 known ^ What were its provisions 1 Where, and with what re- 
 sult, was the first battle fought ? Under what circumstances was 
 the confederacy broken up 1 With what powers did the Vene- 
 tians then form a league 1 For the attainment of what object 1 
 
 (54.) By what name was it distinguished ? What heavy loss 
 was sustained by the French ? In what year ? What celebrated 
 French general fell in the battle of Ravenna ? By whom was 
 Milan then garrisoned 7 By whom, and where, were the French 
 defeated soon after the battle of Novara 1 By whom was Milan 
 taken for the fourth time 1 In conpmction with what allies ? 
 After what victory 1 In what year 1 What became of Maximilian 
 Sforza 1 
 
 (55.) To what marriages was Maximilian indebted for an ac- 
 cession of territory 1 What title did he adopt 7 In consequence 
 of what circumstanced At what period of their reign did his 
 successors assume the imperial dignity'? Was there no ex- 
 ception '? 
 
 (56.) Trace the pedigree of the house of Hapsburg in Germany 
 and Spain '? 
 
 (57.) How many candidates for the imperial crown presented 
 themselves after the death of Maximilian? On what favorable 
 circumstances did Francis rely for success '? What was the result 1 
 What instrument was the newly elected emperor required to sign \ 
 
58 62.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 275 
 
 How was France affected by this union of the Spanish and German 
 crowns 1 In what year, and from whose hands, did Charles re- 
 ceive the imperial and Italian crowns 1 
 
 (58.) What was the immediate occasion of a war between 
 Charles and Francis I. ? From what princess, and by whom, had 
 the duchy of Burgundy been wrested 1 By whom had the king- 
 dom of Navarre been conquered 1 What untoward circumstance 
 occasioned the loss of Milan 1 On whom was it conferred 1 What 
 heavy loss was sustained by Francis during his preparations for its 
 reception 1 To what circumstance do you attribute the defection 
 of the Constable Charles de Bourbon 1 What renowned French 
 general lost his life during the retreat from Milan 1 
 
 (59.) Of what opportunity did Francis avail himself for a last 
 attempt at Milan '? What advantage did he gain 1 By what gen- 
 eral were the imperialists commanded at the battle of Pavia % 
 What was the issue of this battle ? In what year was it fougljt 1 
 What became of Francis I *? By what concessions did he purchase 
 his liberation 1 On what grounds did he refuse to fulfil these con- 
 ditions "? What consequences followed this refusal 1 With what 
 powers did the pope form an alliance 1 By whom were the im- 
 perial troops commanded 1 What was his fate "? By what troops 
 was Rome stormed '? Who was their general 1 What M'as his fate 1 
 In what fortress did the pope take refuge 1 On what conditions 
 M-as he released 1 By whom, and in what year, was the kingdom 
 of Naples conquered 1 Who was Andrew Doria, and what service 
 did he render to the Neapolitans 1 What misfortune befell the 
 French besieging ai-my 1 In what year was the peace of Cambray 
 concluded 1 By what name was it known, and why ? What con- 
 cessions were made by Francis 1 What territory did he retain 1 
 
 (60.) By whom was Solyman II. invited to enter Hungary 1 
 Wliat battle was fought in that country, and with what result 1 
 By whom was Lewis King of Hungary succeeded 1 Was there any 
 other candidate for the Hungarian crown 1 By whom was he pro- 
 tected ] What city did Solyman besiege, and why did he with- 
 draw his army 1 Which of the rivals remained King of Hungary 1 
 To what circumstance was he indebted for his success 1 In what 
 year did Solyman a second time enter Hungary 1 With what 
 force 1 What unexpected check did he receive "? Were there any" 
 other reasons for his retreat 1 
 
 (61.) Who was Hayraddin Barbarossa 1 What sovereign had 
 he deposed, and where had he established himself? By whom 
 were his acts of piracy unsuccessfully resisted 1 What fiefs had 
 been granted to this order 7 By whom, and on what conditions'? 
 What measures were adopted by the emperor for the reduction of 
 Tunis 1 With what success '? To whom was the greater part of 
 the conquered territory restored 1 
 
 (62.) What districts were excepted? What circumstance en- 
 couraged Francis I. to attempt the re-conquest of Milan 1 In what 
 year was this attempt made '? From whom did Francis demand a 
 free passage through his territories '? What provinces did he now 
 enter, and against whom did he declare war 1 With whom did he 
 
27'6 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [63 69. 
 
 form an alliance ^ What country was invaded by Charles V t- 
 With what success 1 In what year, and at what place was an ar- 
 mistice concUided 1 On what conditions 1 
 
 (63.) What was the occasion of Charles's expedition against 
 Algiers 7 In what year was it undertaken 1 By what accident 
 were his plans frustrated 1 
 
 (64.) What circumstances seemed favorable for the re-assertion 
 of his claims by Francis 1. 1 Of what pretext did he avail him- 
 self? Who were his allies 1 
 
 (65.) Into whose hands did Christian Hungary fall after the 
 death of Zapolya 1 By whom were the Netherlands invaded 1 In 
 what sea, and by whom, were naval operations carried on '? Which 
 of his enemies was first defeated by Charles V. 7 To what circum- 
 stance do you ascribe his overthrow 1 From what powers did the 
 empire receive assistance 1 By what movement was the peace of 
 Crespy hastened 7 In what year was it concluded 1 To what con- 
 ditions did the two sovereigns pledge themselves '? What claims 
 were at the same time renounced by Francis 1 
 
 (66.) Of what German cities did Henry II. obtain possession -? 
 By what means '? By whom, and with what result, was an attempt 
 made to re-conquer those cities 1 
 
 (67.) What was the immediate occasion of the abdication of 
 Charles V. 1 When, and to whom, did he resign the sovereignty 
 of Naples Milan, the Netherlands, and Spain 1 In whose favor 
 did he abdicate the imperial dignity 7 Whither did he retire 'i 
 How was his time occupied in his retirement 7 When did he 
 
 ^ 4. Spam. 
 
 (68.) What circumstances laid the foundation of a union between 
 the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile ? What kingdoms were ad- 
 ded to these possessions, and by whom ? What was the grand 
 object of the two sovereigns 1 What measures were adopted for 
 the promotion of this object 7 What use was made of the newly- 
 established mquisition 7 What advantage did the crown obtain 
 by the banishment of the Jews 1 What remarkable events hap- 
 pened during the reign of Ferdinand 1 In what conquests, and 
 under what commander, was reputation gained by the warriors of 
 bpain] By whom was Isabella succeeded in the sovereignty of 
 Castile 1 How long did Philip reign 1 What happened to his 
 widow after his death 1 What measure was adopted by Ximenes 
 in consequence of this event 1 
 
 (69) By whom was Ferdinand succeeded 1 Under whose 
 guardianship did Charles I. commence his reign ? What was the 
 fate of this minister ? Who was appointed regent of the king- 
 dom during the absence of Charles 7 What measures were adopt- 
 ed by the cities of Castile, in consequence of his oppressive con- 
 auct What name was given to their confederation 1 Bv wiiom 
 was their army commanded 1 What was his fate 1 What mea- 
 sures were adopted by Charles on his return'? In what condition 
 was the Cortes 1 
 
70 75.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 277 
 
 (70.) What dominions had Charles inherited from his ancestors 1 
 What addditions had he made to these possessions 1 To whom did 
 he resign the greater part of this territory ] What countries were 
 excepted ? 
 
 (71.) Whom did Philip II. marry? Wliat was his character 1 
 What circumstance rendered him unpopular in the Netherlands 1 
 AVliat war did he carry on 1 By whom was he assisted, and how- 
 was the war terminated 1 Where was peace concluded, and on 
 what conditions 1 To what city was the royal residence transfer- 
 red in this reign 1 What was the political state of Spain at this 
 period 1 How were the Moors treated by Philip 1 What was the 
 effect of this treatment 1 Where, and by what nations was the 
 nav^al power of the Turks annihilated 1 By whom was the com- 
 bined fleet commanded 1 
 
 (72.) What severe loss was sustained by Spain at this period 1 
 What province was annexed to the Spanish crown "? Under what 
 circumstances 1 By what aggressions on the part of Queen Eliza- 
 beth was Philip provoked to invade England 1 What name was 
 given to the invading fleet 1 What was its fate 1 What effect had 
 this disaster on the power of Spain 1 What became of Philip's son, 
 Don Carlos '? 
 
 (73.) What narrow-minded policy was pursued by Philip III., 
 and what was its effect '? In what year, and for how long, was an 
 armistice concluded with the Netherlands 1 
 
 (74.) By what sovereign was the ruin of Spain further accele- 
 rated 1 To whom did he abandon the government of the country '? 
 What was the policy of this minister, and what w^as its effect > 
 How did they resist 1 By whom was Olivarez succeeded 1 By 
 what long measures were fresh discontents occasioned in the prov- 
 inces 1 What circumstance occasioned an insurrection at Naples 1 
 By whom was it headed, and what was his fate 1 What was the 
 result of this violence '? In what peace was the independence of 
 the United Netherlands fully recognized by Spain 7 
 
 ^ 5. The Netherlands. 
 (75.) To what kingdom did the Netherlands belong during the 
 mediaeval period'? After the partition of that kingdom, to what 
 country were they annexed 1 Were there any subsequent changes 1 
 Whose property "did thoy eventually become 1 How many Nether- 
 landish provinces did Charles the Bold possess 1 By what mar- 
 riage, and in whose reign, were they annexed to Austria 1 Were 
 any provinces subequently added to them 1 By what sovereign 1 
 What privileges were obtained by the Netherlandish States 1 What 
 monarch took an oath to respect these privileges 1 Whom did 
 Philip leave as his representative when he quitted the Netherlands 1 
 By whom was she assisted '? On what native nobles were impor- 
 tant offices conferred 1 How were these popular measures neutral- 
 ized 1 On whom was the archbishopric of Mechlin conferred 1 
 By what circumstance was the discontent, occasioned by these pro- 
 ceedings, aggravated 1 Against what laws was a protest presented 
 to the duchess-regent by '' les gueux V Explain the meaning of 
 
278 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [76 82. 
 
 the term (note 10). How was this petition received 1 What effects 
 followed the popular movement 1 Were these concessions satisfac- 
 tory to all 1 What became of the Prince of Orange and his adher- 
 ents 1 Under whose commands, and in what j'ear, was a Spanish 
 armv sent into the Netherlands 1 What circumstances led to the 
 resignation of the Regent Margaret 1 To what country did she 
 retire"? Who was then appointed sole governor of the Nether- 
 lands 1 What commission did he establish, and against whom did 
 it commence proceedings'? What punishment was inflicted on 
 Egmont and Hoorn 1 
 
 (76.) What measures were now adopted by the Prince of 
 Orange 1 By whom was he assisted 1 Was this attempt success- 
 ful 1 What act of oppression occasioned a fresh insurrection 1: By 
 whom was it headed 1 What title was conferred on him '? By 
 whom was Alva succeeded in the government of the Netherlands 1 
 What was the policy of the new governor 7 Was it successful 1 
 Where, and for what purpose, was a confederation of the Nether- 
 landish provinces formed 1 Who was then appointed governor of 
 the Netherlands 1 How long did he hold the office, and by whom 
 was he succeeded'? 
 
 (77.) What doctrines were embraced by the seven northern 
 provinces '? Where did they form a union, and in what year 1 On 
 whom did they intend to confer the hereditary countship of the 
 Netherlands '? What circumstance prevented the execution of this 
 plan '? To whom was the government of the Seven United Prov- 
 inces then committed '? 
 
 • (78.) Of what cities did Alexander of Parma obtain possession 1 
 In what siege did both parties distinguish themselves 1 To what 
 sovereign did the states-general apply for assistance '? Who was 
 then appointed general stattholder"? What circumstance occa- 
 sioned his resignation 7 By whom, and with what intention, was 
 the "Invincible Armada" fitted ouf? By what power were the 
 United Provinces assisted 1 What town Avas taken by the Spanish 
 general, Spinola 7 What Avas the result of their continued resist- 
 ance "? When, and under what circumstances, was their independ- 
 ence recognized by Spain '? 
 
 (79.) Into how many parties were the Dutch Protestants 
 divided at this time 1 On what subject did they differ ? In what 
 year, and by what synod, was the doctrine of the Arminians con- 
 demned 1 What treatment did they receive from their opponents '? 
 Who were the principal sufferers 1 
 
 ^ 6. Portugal. 
 
 (80.) Under what rulers was Portugal most prosperous 1 To 
 what circumstances do you chiefly attribute this prosperity 1 
 
 (81.) In what battle was King Sebastian defeated "? By whom 
 was he succeeded 1 In what year did Portugal become a Spanish 
 province "? Was she permitted to retain her own constitution 1 
 
 (82.) By how many pretenders was the crown claimed in suc- 
 cession 1 Is it certain that the fourth of these pretenders was an 
 impostor ] What loss did Portugal sustain under Spanish domina- 
 
83 89.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 279 
 
 tion 1 Of what privileges was she deprived 1 Mention some of 
 her grievances 1 How was this state of slavery terminated 1 Who 
 was then raised to the throne 1 Were any attempts made on the 
 part of Spain to reconquer Portugal 1 
 
 ^ 7. France. 
 
 (83.) Who succeeded Charles VIII. on the throne of France? 
 To what circumstances do you attribute the important position at 
 that time occupied by France % Was her territory more or less 
 extensive at that time than it is at present 1 
 
 (84.) What was the character of Francis I. '? What was the 
 first act of his reign % To what victory was he indebted for the 
 attainment of this object 1 With whom was he engaged in four 
 wars, and what was the result 1 To what circumstances do you 
 attribute this disaster 1 By what* evils was it followed % What 
 advantages did he gain at home'? How was he enabled to dis- 
 charge his foreign mercenaries % To whom was legislation for the 
 most part intrusted 1 What title was conferred on Francis I., and 
 for what reason '? 
 
 (85.) By whom was he succeeded 1 By what favorites was the 
 new king governed '? What war did he renew, and on what 
 grounds 1 What was the ostensible reason, and how do you prove 
 its inconsistency % What cities were betrayed into the hands of 
 the French 1 Who distinguished himself by his defence of one of 
 of these cities'? When did the French recommence hostilities'? 
 Where, and by what forces, were they defeated % 
 
 (86.) When, and where, was peace concluded, and on what 
 terms '? What town was retained by the French 1 From whom 
 had it been recaptured 1 
 
 (87.) How old was Francis H. when he ascended the throne 1 
 When did he marry 1 What was his character '? To what parties 
 was the regency an object of ambition '? On what grounds did 
 each of these parties cfaim the office % Which of them was suc- 
 cessful '? By whom were the military and civil administrations of 
 the kingdom successively undertaken '? 
 
 (88.) By whom was Francis II. succeeded '? How old was the 
 new sovereign when he ascended the throne 1 By whom was the 
 regency now undertaken 1 Who was appointed lieutenant of the 
 kingdom '? What privilege was granted to the Huguenots 1 For 
 how many years was France distracted by religious wars '? By 
 what circumstances was the first of these wars occasioned % 
 
 (89.) What success attended the military movements of the 
 Huguenots in the three first wars '? By whom were they com- 
 manded at different periods 1 By what peace was each of these 
 wars terminated 1 What terms were obtained by the Huguenots 1 
 To what circumstance do you ascribe this 1 By what favorable pros- 
 pect were the Protestants induced to visit Paris % What atrocious 
 act was perpetrated by the government 1 Who escaped this mas- 
 sacre '? By whom was it planned ? What sanguinary orders were 
 at the same time issued % Were they disobeyed in any instance '? 
 What stronghold of the Huguenots was besieged in the fourth re- 
 
280 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [90 93. 
 
 lig-ious warl "When, and on what conditions, was peace con- 
 cluded 1 By whom was Charles IX. succeeded '? Of what country 
 had he been previously king 1 
 
 (90.) What was the character of this prince '? By whom was 
 he influenced, and what policy did he pursue 1 To what circum- 
 stance do you attribute the formation of the Catholic league 1 At 
 whose instigation was it formed ? What was the ostensible, and 
 what the real, object of this league ] By whom was it headed, 
 and what was his motive'? What act of tyranny occasioned a 
 fresh war ? By whom were the Huguenots commanded 7 What 
 was the object of the league which was now formed, and by what 
 name was it known 1 What became of Henry of Guise '? Who 
 shared his fate 7 What name was given to the day on which the 
 king fled from Paris 1 What line of policy was now pursued by 
 Henry III. 1 What was his fate 1 Whom did he recommend as 
 his successor '? 
 
 (91.) How long did the struggle continue between the league 
 and Henry IV. 1 What victories did he gain 1 What change took 
 place in his religious profession 1 By what edict were the re- 
 ligious wars terminated 1 How long had they lasted 1 
 
 (92.) What privileges were granted to the Protestants by this 
 edict 1 How was this period of tranquillity employed by Henry 7 
 By whom was he assisted in carrying out his plans 7 What policy 
 was now adopted by Henry, and with what object 7 What wild 
 plan did he devise 1 What was his object in proposing such a 
 planl Of how many states was this confederation to be com- 
 posed 1 What result w^as expected from this combination ^ What 
 was the fate of Henry IV. 7 
 
 (93.) By whom was he succeeded'? Under whose guardianship 
 did the new king commence his reign 1 What minister was dis- 
 missed'? After his dismissal, what course was pursued by the 
 Queen Mother 1 Under whose direction 1 How was this extrava- 
 gant course checked '? By whose interposition was a w^ar betw^een 
 the king and his mother averted 1 What was the policy of this 
 minister'? What became of the Queen Mother? Mention the 
 grand objects of Richelieu's administration 1 How was the first of 
 these objects effected'? In what countries were his political 
 measures, for the extension of French influence, most successfully 
 adopted '? By what circumstance was the Mantuan war of suc- 
 cession terminated '? What plans were successfully carried out in 
 Germany ? By what circumstance was the last of these measures 
 rendered imperative 1 To what position did the foreign power of 
 Richelieu raise France 7 What plans of domestic improvement 
 were devised 1 For the establishment of w^hat institution is 
 France indebted to him'? To whom did Louis XIII. leave 
 his kingdom'? How old was the new king when he ascended 
 the throne 1 
 
94 99.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 281 
 
 ^ 8. England and Ireland under the house of Tudor. 1485-r-1603. 
 
 (94.) By whom, and in what battle, was the war between the 
 houses of York and Lancaster terminated'? To what circum- 
 stance do you attribute the feebleness of the opposition ex- 
 perienced by Henry VII. % What Avas his policy, and what 
 important measures were carried into effect during his reign ? 
 
 (95.) Explain the genealogical table of the houses of Tudor 
 and Stuart 1 
 
 (96.) By whom was Henry VII. succeeded ? Whom did the 
 new king marry 1 How did he expend the treasures bequeathed 
 to him by his father 7 To whom did he leave the management of 
 public affairs ? How was his own time occupied '? What work 
 did he publish, and what title of honor did he receive from the 
 pope in consequence % On what ground did he quarrel with the 
 pope % What course did he adopt, as soon as the refusal of the 
 pope was communicated to him? What issue had he by this 
 second wife 1 What title did he now assume % Who was pun- 
 ished with death for resisting this claim 7 What became of Anna 
 Boleyn % Whom did he marry immediately after her death % 
 What issue had he by his third wife % What act was now 
 passed by the parliament '? Who was Henry's fourth wife, 
 and what became of her % Who was his fifth, and on what 
 pretence was she beheaded % Who was his sixth wife, and for 
 what offence was she condemned to death? Was this sentence 
 executed % 
 
 (97.) By whom was Henry VIII. succeeded ? How old was the 
 new king when he ascended the throne ? Who was his guardian % 
 What was the fate of Somerset, and to whom was the administra- 
 tion of public affairs committed after his death % Whom did the 
 king declare heiress to the crown % Who assumed the crown im- 
 mediately after Edward's death % How long did she retain it, and 
 in whose favor did she abdicate % 
 
 (98.) Whom did the new sovereign marrj'? What punishment 
 was inflicted on Northumberland, and for what offence 1 What 
 became of Jane Grey and her husband % What circumstances at- 
 tended the re-establishment of Romanism in England ? Name 
 some of the most distinguished Protestants who suffered death 
 during the reign of Queen Mary. Under whose influence did 
 Mary act on this and other occasions % In what war did she 
 engage by his persuasion 1 What English possession on the con- 
 tinent did she lose ? By whom was the title of Queen of England 
 assumed after the death of Mary % 
 
 (99.) Who actually ascended the throne % What was the 
 character of the new sovereign ? By whom was she recognized as 
 supreme head of the Anglican Church % What do you understand 
 by this title % (note 6.) Who were her ministers % To what cir- 
 cumstances do you attribute the prosperous condition of England 
 during her reign 1 By what invention were the operations of 
 manufacturing industry extended"? How was foreign commerce 
 
282 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [100 104. 
 
 promoted 1 What great commercial company was incorporated 
 in this reign 1 What circumstances occasioned the sending out of 
 the Invincible Armada 1 By whom was this fleet commanded 1 
 With what squadron was it proposed that this fleet should form a 
 junction 1 How was this prevented 1 What completed the de- 
 struction of the Armada 1 What measures were adopted by Eng- 
 land immediately after this victory 1 What country was more 
 closely united to England than before '? What portion of this 
 country had previously belonged to England 1 What promise was 
 made to the Irish by the Earl of Essex % Was this promise ful- 
 filled 1 What was the condition of England at this period of her 
 history 1 At what period of Elizabeth's reign was Scotland united 
 to England and Ireland 1 
 
 ^ 9, Scotlaiid under the Stuarts. 
 
 (100.) By what family had Scotland been governed since the 
 year 1371 1 What misfortunes befell the five kings of the house of 
 Stuart 1 
 
 (101.) By whom was James V. succeeded "l Where was the 
 young queen educated 1 By whom was Scotland governed during 
 her absence '? What title did Mary Stuart assume after the death 
 of Mary, Queen of England '? By whom was the Scotch Reforma- 
 tion commenced "? When did Mary return to Scotland 1 Whom 
 did she marry, and what was his fate 1 Who was her second hus- 
 band, and what were the results of this marriage 7 Who was ap- 
 pointed regent of the kingdom 1 Whither did Mary flee 1 On 
 what grounds was she deprived of liberty by Queen Elizabeth 1 
 How long was she detained in prison 1 What was her fate 1 In 
 consequence of what accusation 1 By whom was she succeeded on 
 the Scottish throne 1 
 
 (102.) By how many regents was Scotland governed during the 
 minority of James VII How many of them escaped a violent 
 death 1 What triumph was obtained by the Presbyterians during 
 his reign 1 What title was assumed by James after the death of 
 Queen Elizabeth 1 In what year was the complete union of the 
 two kingdoms efiected 1 
 
 ^ 10. G?-eat Britaiyt and Ireland tinder the two first Stuarts. 
 
 (103.) Mention the causes of James's unpopularity among his 
 English subjects. What was the object of the Gunpowder Plot 1 
 How was this conspiracy discovered 1 
 
 (104.) By whom was James I. succeeded 1 What were the 
 grounds of his quarrel with the parliament ? What important 
 privileges were secured by the "Petition of Right 1" For how 
 many years was the government cari'ied on without a parliament '? 
 What became of the Duke of Buckingham'? How did the king 
 violate the " Petition of Right 1" For what i)urpose was this tax 
 imposed 1 What occasioned the formation of the •' Solemn League 
 
105 112.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 283 
 
 and Covenant " in Scotland, and what was its object 1 What meas- 
 ures were adopted by Charles in consequence of this movement 1 
 What extravagant demands were made by the new parliament 1 
 Who were sacrificed to their fury 1 What officer soon distin- 
 guished himself in the parliament army 1 How often did they 
 engage the royal forces, and with what results 1 Where did the 
 king then seek an asylum 1 On what pretence was he delivered 
 up to the parliament 7 Between what parties did disputes arise at 
 this time 1 Which of these parties obtained possession of the king's 
 person 1 By whom was an attempt made to rescue him 1 What 
 name was given to the parliament after the expulsion of the Pres- 
 byterians 1 What sentence was passed on Charles 1. 1 When and 
 where was it executed 1 
 
 ^ 11. Italy. 
 
 (105.) How was the political equipoise, established in the fif- 
 teenth century between the different states of Italy, destroyed in 
 the sixteenth 1 What kingdom was added to Sicily and Sardinia 
 by Ferdinand the Catholic 1 To whom, and after the extinction 
 of what house, was Milan granted as a fief by Charles V. 
 
 (106.) What changes took place in the duchies of Savoy, Man- 
 tua, and Modena 1 To whom did the duchies of Parma and Pia- 
 cenza belong at different periods 1 
 
 (107.) What territories were possessed by the republic of Ven- 
 ice at this time 1 To what circumstance do you attribute her wars 
 with the Southern Italian powers, and what was the result of those 
 wars'? What injuries were inflicted on her by the Turks'? To 
 what do you attribute the ruin of her commerce '? To what nation 
 did Genoa at first belong, and by whom was it twice conquered 1 
 How did the republic obtain its independence '? What form of 
 government was established, and how long did it last "? What 
 was the object of Fiesco's conspiracy, and why did it mis- 
 carry 1 
 
 (108.) To what house did Tuscany remain subject '? Under 
 what forms of government 1 
 
 (109.) What territories were added to the States of the 
 Church 1 
 
 ^ 12, Germany, from the abdication of Charles V. to the peace of 
 
 Westphalia. 
 
 (110.) What oath was required from the Emperor Ferdinand I. 
 on his accession '? What was his character '? What success at- 
 tended his wars with France and Turkey 1 
 
 (111.) To what do you attribute his death 1 How did he pro- 
 pose to effect a reconciliation of the two confessions '? By whom 
 was he succeeded '? 
 
 (112.) In what war did the new emperor engage 1 How was 
 this war terminated '? What murderer was put to death by this 
 emperor % 
 
284 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [113 120. 
 
 (lis.) By whom was Maximilian II, succeeded'? What was 
 the character of this sovereign 1 By what disputes was his reign 
 distracted 1 Mention the circumstances which increased the es- 
 trangement between the two parties 1 What advice was given to 
 the Protestant princes by the Elector Palatine 1 What was the 
 professed object of this union 1 
 
 (114.) By whom was the Romanist "League" headed 7 To 
 what house did the leaders of both parties belong ? What impor- 
 tant privileges were granted to the Protestants in Bohemia 1 What 
 do you mean by the term " Utraquists 7" (note 1.) What letter 
 was published by the emperor 1 
 
 (115.) What war of succession broke out in 1609, how long did 
 it rage, and by what convention was it terminated 1 What division 
 was made of the territories of the late duke '? In whose reign did 
 the thirty years' war begin 1 
 
 (116.) From what circumstance do you date its commence- 
 ment 1 By what disputes was this insurrection occasioned 1 What 
 act of violence was committed by the insurgents 1 
 
 a. Bohemian Palatine period. 1618 — 1623. 
 
 (117.) By whom were the Bohemian Protestants supported *? 
 Who commanded this army 7 
 
 (118.) By whom was the EmperOr Matthias succeeded 1 Whose 
 grandson was he 1 By whom was his election opposed, and whom 
 did they place on the throne "? With whom, and on what grounds, 
 did the Elector of Saxony form an alliance 1 By whom, and where, 
 were the forces of Frederick routed 1 What were the immediate 
 consequences of this victory 1 By whom, and in what manner, was 
 the ban of the empire against Frederick carried into effect % 
 Whom did he defeat '? On whom was the vacant electorate con- 
 ferred 1 What advantage did the Romanists derive from this ap- 
 pointment % What reward was given to the Elector of Saxony 1 
 In what year was the Union dissolved ] What became of the Elec- 
 tor Palatine's library at Heidelberg 1 
 
 b, Danish period. 1625—1629. 
 
 (119.) By whom were hostilities recommenced 1 In what char- 
 acter did he come forward 1 By whom was he assisted '? By what 
 private individual was the emperor supported 1 Whom did he 
 defeat 1 Where, and over whom, did Tilly obtain a victory % With 
 whom did he effect a junction '? For what purpose % What prov- 
 inces were conquered by the two generals 1 On what pretence 
 were the Dukes of Mecklenburg expelled from their dominions ] 
 What fortress refused to receive an imperial garrison 7 By whom 
 were they assisted, and what success attended their resistance ] 
 For what reason, and on what terms, was a peace concluded at 
 Lubeck 1 Between what parties 1 What pledge was given by the 
 King of Denmark 1 
 
 (120.) What compensation was given to the Elector of Bavaria 
 
121 123.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 285 
 
 and Wallenstein 1 What demand was made by the emperor 1 By 
 whom was he supported, and what was his object in making this 
 demand 1 What intolerant decree was at the same time issued 1 
 By whom, and in conjunction with what troops, was this decree 
 carried into effect 1 What was the result of these proceedings 1 
 By whom was the discontent which they excited most loudly ex- 
 pressed 1 
 
 c. Swedish period. 1630—1635. 
 
 (121.) By what favorable circumstances were the Protestants 
 encouraged 1 Mention some of the causes by which Gustavus 
 Adolphus was induced to take up arms against the emperor'? 
 With what power did he form an alliance 1 In what year did he 
 land in Germany 1 On what part of the coast 1 How far did he 
 advance 1 What city was invested by Tilly ? By whom was he 
 supported '? What was its fate 1 What was Tilly's next move- 
 ment 1 Where, and by whom, was he defeated 1 What ambitious 
 design did this success suggest to the mind of Gustavus Adolphus 1 
 What plan of operations was now arranged between Gustavus and 
 the Elector of Saxony 1 How was this plan carried into execution 1 
 Whom did Gustavus leave behind him when he advanced into 
 Bavaria 1 
 
 (122.) By whom was the passage of the Lech disputed, and 
 what was his fate 1 Whither did Gustavus Adolphus then march 1 
 How was Wallenstein engaged at this time 1 What success at- 
 tended his operations 1 Before what place, and for how long a 
 time, did the Swedish and Imperial armies remain opposite to one 
 another 7 Whither did Gustavus Adolphus return '? In what 
 direction did Wallenstein march 7 For what purpose '? What 
 effect had the intelligence of this movement on the plans of Gus- 
 tavus 1 Where, and with what success, did the Swedes engage 
 the Imperialists 1 What was the fate of Gustavus Adolphus 1 
 What became of .Pappenheim 1 By whom was the prosecution of 
 the war then undertaken 1 In conjunction with whom 1 What 
 was Richelieu's object in thus supporting the Protestant part)'- 1 
 What character did the war now assume '? 
 
 (123.) By whom was the command of the Swedish army as- 
 sumed after the death of Gustavus^ How did he employ himself? 
 Who acted as his second in command '? How was Wallenstein en- 
 gaged at this time 1 Of what conviction was this conduct the 
 result 1 With what groimds of accusation were his enemies fur- 
 nished "? What punishment was inflicted on him by the emperor 7 
 What was his fate ? By whom was he succeeded in the command 
 of the Imperial forces 1 Who was his lieutenant 1 By whom was 
 the new commander-in-chief supported 1 Where, and with what 
 result, did he engage the two Swedish generals 1 What became of 
 Bernard of Saxe Weimar and General Horn 1 What districts were 
 now occupied by the imperial troops 1 By what sacrifice were the 
 Protestants of South- Western Germany compelled to purchase the 
 protection of France 1 
 
QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [124 — 130. 
 
 d. Swedish- French period. 1634—1648, 
 
 (124.) In what spirit were negotiations set on foot by the Elec- 
 tor of Saxony '? What was the result of those negotiations '? What 
 were the terms of this peace, and by whom were they sub- 
 scribed'? What act of treachery was committed by the Saxons 
 in the following year'? Where, and by whom, were they de- 
 feated 1 
 
 (125.) What circumstance enabled Bernard of Saxe Weimar to 
 recross the Rhine '? Where was he victorious, and what general 
 fell in the battle '? What became of his conquests after his death 1 
 On whom did the command-in-chief of the Swedish army de- 
 volve after his death % What was the character of this general '] 
 What advantage did he gain over the Imperialists '? What cir- 
 cumstance recalled Torstenson from Germany '? Where did he ob- 
 tain a victory '? What reverse befell him before the walls of 
 Vienna '? Why did he resign his command % By what powers was 
 the war now carried on on the banks of the Rhine 1 With what 
 success 1 Who succeeded Torstenson in the command 1 With 
 what general did he eifect a junction 1 For what purpose '? How 
 far did he advance 1 Where was the peace of Westphalia con- 
 cluded '? 
 
 (126.) What were its conditions with respect to ecclesiastical 
 matters 1 
 
 (127.) What advantages were obtained respectively, by 
 France, Sweden, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, Hesse-Cassel, and 
 the Elector Palatine % For whose benefit was an eighth elector- 
 ate founded '? What advantage was gained by Switzerland and 
 the United Netherlands 1 What regulations were adopted with 
 regard to measures of legislation, M^ar and peace, taxation, »fec. 1 
 On what conditions was the sovereignty of the princes secured to 
 them '? 
 
 ^13. Prussia. 
 
 (128.) How long had the Teutonic Order governed Prussia, and 
 what was its fate % By whom, and at what diet, was Eastern 
 Prussia received as a temporal duchy 1 Of what kingdom was it 
 to be held as a fief? 
 
 (129.) By whom was he succeeded'? In what year, and by 
 whom, was the duchy annexed to Brandenburg 1 
 
 ^ 14. Scandinavia. 
 
 (130.) Since what event had Denmark, Norway, and Sweden 
 formed one kingdom 1 In what reign were the kings of the house 
 of Oldenburg acknowledged in Sweden 1 By what cruel act did he 
 endeavor to confirm his authority'? What important personage 
 escaped the massacre ? By whom was he supported in his resist- 
 
131 136.] OP MODERN HISTORY. 287 
 
 ance to the Danes'? What success attended his eflfbrts for the 
 liberation of Sweden 1 
 
 (131.) What loss was occasioned by the ambition of the house 
 of Oldenburg 1 What territories did the kingdom of Denmark 
 then comprise ? By whom were they seized "? 
 
 (132.) By whom, and in what manner, was the Reformation in- 
 troduced into Sweden 1 By what acts of injustice was its intro- 
 duction accompanied '? By what declarations, on the part of the 
 king, were the estates induced to grant his demands 1 What was 
 the policy of Gustavus, and by whom was it fully carried out 1 
 What was the fate of this sovereign 1 On what plea was Sigismund 
 deposed ] By whom was he succeeded, and what great work did 
 he complete 1 By whom was Charles IX. succeeded 1 
 
 (133.) In what condition did he find his kingdom 1 With what 
 nation, and on what terms, was a peace concluded '? By whom was 
 he succeeded 1 Under whose guardianship did she commence her 
 reign 1 What sort of education did the young queen receive 1 
 On what terms was the peace concluded with Germany and Den- 
 mark 1 What circumstances occasioned the abdication of Christi- 
 na 1 In whose favor did she abdicate 1 What religion did she em- 
 brace after her abdication 1 For what purpose did she revisit 
 Sweden ] For what crown did she become a candidate 1 Where 
 did she die 1 
 
 ^ 15. Poland. 
 
 (134.) Under what dynasty did Poland become the most im- 
 portant state of Eastern Europe 1 What provinces were annexed 
 to Poland, and what were now the limits of the kingdom 1 What 
 element of dissolution existed amidst all this apparent pros- 
 perity'? What concessions did they at last extort from the 
 king"? 
 
 (135.) Whom did the nobles now elect, how did he reign, and 
 for what purposes did he quit Poland '? By whom was he succeed- 
 ed 1 What three kings followed him on the throne, and in what 
 war did they involve Poland '? By what peace was it terminated '? 
 What province was ceded to Sweden by this peace 1 What ad- 
 vantage was gained by Prussia 1 How long had the nominal su- 
 premacy of Poland over the Moldau been lost '? 
 
 ^ 16. Russia. 
 
 (136.) From what event do you date the advancement of Rus- 
 sia in power and civilization '? Under what rulers '? What pro- 
 vinces were added to her territories 1 What important political 
 and military improvements were effected 1 With what country 
 was a commercial treaty concluded 1 By what events was Rus- 
 sia distracted after the extinction of the race of Ruric ? What 
 advantages were gained by Poland and Sweden in these wars 1 
 In what year, and in what family, did the throne become heredi- 
 
288 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [137 144. 
 
 tary 1 By what sacrifice did Russia purchase peace with Poland 
 and Sweden 1 
 
 ^ 17. The Ottoman or Osmanic Empire. 
 
 (137.) What was the extent of the empire in 1500 1 What 
 countries were added to' this territory by Selini I. '? Under what 
 sovereign did the Turkish power attain its highest elevation '? To 
 what quality of their commanders were his fleets and armies in- 
 debted for victory '? What was their first conquest 1 By whom 
 was the island garrisoned '? What was the amount of the loss sus- 
 tained by the Turks ') Where did the knights find an asylum % 
 How many times did Solyman visit Hungary % Describe these sev- 
 eral expeditions ? What remarkable events occurred between 
 these campaigns 1 What were the limits of the Osmanic empire in 
 the reign of Solyman % What important reforms did he effect 1 
 What was the character of bis successors 7 By whom was the 
 kingdom actually governed ^ By whom was Cyprus wrested fVom 
 the Turks 1 In what battle was the naval power of Turkey anni- 
 hilated '? With what power was she engaged in an almost perpet- 
 ual war 1 
 
 ^18, Religion, Arts, Sciences, d^c, during the First Period. 
 
 (138.) To whom is the credit chiefly due of propagating Chris- 
 tianity among the heathen during this period '? In what countries 
 were they principally employed 1 Which of the orders was most 
 conspicuous for zeal, courage, and self-denial 1 What institutions 
 were founded at Rome for the promotion of such missions 1 By 
 whom were they established 1 
 
 (139.) What American state was founded by the missionaries 1 
 What new orders and congregations were established, and with 
 what result '? By whom, for the attainment of what object, and in 
 what year was the Society of Jesus founded 1 Under the sanction 
 of what pope 1 What additional vow was taken by the members 
 of this order '? What were their especial duties 1 
 
 (140.) Where did the general of this order reside, and what 
 were his powers 1 Over what countries did it spread, and how 
 many countries did it eventually comprehend 1 
 
 (141.) On what subject did Jansenius publish five theses 1 On 
 what ground were they condemned by the pope 1 
 
 (142.) What remarkable political change took place in the Ger- 
 manic kmgdoms 1 
 
 (143.) Describe the various causes by which this effect was 
 produced in France 1 In Spain 1 In Germany 1 In most of the 
 Protestant countries '? What additional advantage had the sover- 
 eign in England, Denmark, and Sweden 1 Mention another cause 
 of absolutism in Sweden ? By what means was the change effected 
 generally throughout Europe 1 
 
 (144.) What power was exercised by the nobles in Poland after 
 the establishment of an elective monarchy ? What form of govern- 
 
145 154.] OP MODERN HISTORY. 289 
 
 ment existed in Italy, Switzerland, and the Netherlands 1 What 
 was the system in Hungary, Russia, and Turkey 1 
 
 (145.) By whom were the laws administered ? "Was this the 
 case in every country of Europe 1 In what manner were the pro- 
 ceedings carried on 1 On what law were most of their codes 
 founded 1 What atrocious cruelties were practised in Spain and 
 Germany 1 
 
 (146.) By what circumstances was the system of warfare con- 
 siderably modified 1 To what do you attribute the more profound, 
 as well as active, scientific investigations of this period 1 
 
 (147.) In what places were universities and schools estabhshed'? 
 
 (148.) What study was considered the groundwork of a learned 
 education 1 In what country, and during- what period, had this 
 study been revived 1 In what country, and by whom was it culti- 
 vated as an independent science 1 Of what sciences was it also 
 considered the handmaid 1 Mention the most renowned " Human- 
 ists" of Germanj^ What country was the great seat of classical 
 learning ? Name its most distinguished etymologists, grammarians, 
 and critics. 
 
 (149.) What influence had the study of classical antiquity on 
 philosophy 1 By what studies was the scholastic philosophy of the 
 middle ages in a great measure supplanted 7 Who was the chief 
 professor of the mystic philosophy 1 By what name does he call 
 himself? How long did the struggle continue, and how many new 
 schools did it produce 1 Describe these schools. 
 
 (150.) What discoveries were made by Copernicus, Keppler, 
 and Galileo 1 By whom, and in what country, was the telescope 
 invented 1 What were the inventions of Torricelli 1 What study 
 was the groundwork of the physical sciences 1 Describe minutely 
 the principles on which the calendar was reformed by Pope Greg- 
 ory XIII. In what year was this alteration of the style adopted in 
 England '? [See note.] 
 
 (151.) Who were the most able expounders of political sci- 
 ence 1 
 
 (152.) To what practice do you attribute the imperfect method 
 of treating universal history which prevailed during this period 1 
 Name some of the most distinguished writers in the department of 
 particular history. By whom were the most celebrated memoirs 
 written '? Where, and in what year, was the earliest political jour- 
 nal published 1 Who laid the foundation of literary history, of 
 chronology, and of numismatics 1 
 
 (153.) In what part of Europe was poetry most successfully 
 cultivated during this period 1 Mention the principal epic poems 
 published during this period in Italy and Portugal. Name the 
 most distinguished romantic and dramatic writers in Spain. France, 
 and England. What sorts of poetry were most successfully culti- 
 vated in Germany during this period 1 What were the most re- 
 markable novelties in German literature 1 By whom was the High 
 German language created "? To what school do you attribute the 
 first corruption of the German language 1 
 
 (154.) In what works had the modern Italian school of archi- 
 
290 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [155 161. 
 
 tecture been engaged since the fifteenth century 1 What models 
 did they copy 1 At wliat period did churcli building assume a 
 prominent position 7 Who were the most distinguished profes- 
 sors ] What style of architecture was gradually displaced by the 
 Italian 7 
 
 (155.) Where were the most distinguished sculptors found 1 
 Who was the most renowned worker in metals 1 
 
 (156.) Name the most distinguished Italian, German, and Flem- 
 ish painters. 
 
 (157.) By what great composer was the Flemish school thrown 
 into the shade 1 Of what school was he the founder, and what 
 celebrated men did it produce 1 To what circumstance do you 
 ascribe the formation of a better style of vocal and instrumental 
 music 1 
 
 (158.) What great revolution was effected in the commerce of 
 the world by the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to 
 the East Indies 1 What great commercial states fell into decay in 
 consequence of this change "? What became of the German 
 Hansa 1 By what circumstance were the operations of commerce 
 greatly facilitated 1 To what countries did Europe now export 
 largely 1 In whose hands was the East India trade at first 1 By 
 what union did Spain become possessed of the trade of both hemis- 
 pheres 1 By what country was this commerce soon shared? In 
 what extensive undertakings were the Dutch engaged 1 
 
 (159.) Enumerate the circumstances favorable to trade during 
 this period. Mention the new products 7 What new trade was 
 established 7 
 
 (160.) What manufactures flourished in Spain 1 Mention some 
 of the most important inventions. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 A. D. 1648 — 1789, From the peace of Westphalia to the French 
 Revolution. 
 
 ^ 19. France under Louis XIV. 
 
 (161.) How old was Louis XIV. when his father died '? To 
 whom was the guardianship of the young king intrusted 1 By 
 whom were the actual functions of government discharged '? By 
 whom was this minister recommended ] By what circumstances 
 was his unpopularity increased 1 What was his object in engaging 
 in a war with Germany and Spain '? By what conduct had the 
 parliament rendered itself obnoxious to the court 7 How did the 
 queen avenge herself 7 By what circumstance was she encouraged 
 to commit this act of violence ? How were the proceedings of 
 Cond6 arrested 1 What do you mean by the Fronde '? By whom 
 was this party headed'? Against whom did they declare warl 
 What became of the queen-mother and Mazarin 1 By whom was 
 peace ^-established ? What conduct on the part of this general 
 
162 — -169.] OF MODHUN HISTORY. 291 
 
 occasioned his arrest 1 What part did the populace take in this 
 dispute 1 What became of Mazarin 1 
 
 (162.) With whom did Cond^ now form an alliance 1 Against 
 whom did he declare war 1 By whom were the royal troops com- 
 manded ] Where did Cond^ seek an asylum 1 What became of 
 Mazarin after the overthrow of Cond6 1 
 
 (163.) Give an account of the termination of the war by the 
 peace of Westphaha.^ 
 
 (164.) When did the war with Spain break outl After what 
 battle was it terminated 1 By what peace 1 By whom was this 
 peace negotiated ? What territories did France acquire by this 
 peace 1 What honors w^ere conferred on Cond^ 1 Whom did 
 Louis XIV. marry 1 What claims did she renounce for herself and 
 heirs 1 
 
 (165.) What declaration was made by Louis XIV, immediately 
 after the death of Mazarin i 
 
 (166.) To what objects were the attempts of Louis XIV. di- 
 rected 1 How was the first of these objects effected 1 By what 
 means did he endeavor to establish an independent authority in 
 ecclesiastical matters ? How was his second object attained '? To 
 what office was Colbert appointed 1 What improvements were ef- 
 fected under his administration 7 What public institutions did he 
 found 1 How was his third object achieved 1 Who was Louvois, 
 and what was his policy 1 
 
 (167.) Against what country was the first war of spoliation car- 
 ried on 1 What law was brought forward by Louis XIV. after the 
 death of his father-in-law 1 To what territories did he lay claim 
 in consequence of this law 1 Between what powers was an alliance 
 formed at this time 1 What was their object 1 What peace was 
 Louis XIV. compelled to conclude 1 On what terms 1 
 
 (168.) Against what country was his second war of spoliation 
 undertaken 1 What was his motive for undertaking this war 1 
 Whom did Louis XIV. gain over '? How was he restrained from 
 conquering the whole of Holland 1 By what circumstances were 
 the French and English prevented from landing 7 By whom was 
 assistance now promised to the Dutch republic 1 Through whose 
 influence 1 With what powers did the republic conclude an alli- 
 ance 1 What embarrassment did this occasion to France '? With 
 whom did the King of England conclude a peace '? What were 
 his reasons for terminating the war 1 Where and with what result 
 was a battle fought 7 What was the fate of Turenne 1 What at- 
 tempt was made by the Swedes, and how far did it succeed 1 
 Where were they defeated, and what loss did they sustain in con- 
 sequence of this defeat 1 By what admiral was the French fleet 
 defeated 1 What peace was now concluded by Louis 1 On what 
 terms 1 Under what circumstances was the Elector of Brandenburg 
 compelled to conclude peace ? On what terms was the peace of 
 St. (xermain-en-Laye concluded 1 
 
 (169.) Under whose administration, and by how many treaties 
 had France considerably augmented her territories'? For what 
 purpose were the re-union chambers established 1 What was the 
 
292 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [170 177. 
 
 result of this inquiry 1 What fortresses were occupied by the 
 French '? How was the emperor engaged at this time 1 At whose 
 instigation did Louis XIV. revoke tlie edict of Nantes 1 What was 
 the immediate effect of this measure 1 
 
 (170.) How did Louis XIV. commence the third war of spolia- 
 tion 1 What Turkish fortress had previously fallen into the hands 
 of the Imperialists 1 Of what capitals did Louis take possession 1 
 By what act of violence was this violation of the law of nations 
 followed 1 Name the German towns which were destroyed by the 
 French. 
 
 (171.) Who was King of England at this time 1 With whom 
 and against what power did England form an alliance 1 On what 
 pretence ? How did the war by sea commence 1 How did it con- 
 clude 7 Name the three victories gained by Luxembourg. What 
 advantage was obtained by General Catinat 1 Mention the causes 
 which hastened the conclusion of peace at Ryswick. On what 
 terms was this peace concluded '? 
 
 ^20. Germany. 
 
 (172.) By whom was Ferdinand III. succeeded 1 Of what 
 countries was he already king 1 What concessions was he obliged 
 to make 1 Name the two corporations into which the estates of 
 the empire had been divided since the peace of Westphalia 1 What 
 change took place in the constitution of the diet 1 To Avhat con- 
 dition was the German empire now reduced 1 To what circum- 
 stance do you attribute this change 7 
 
 (173.) In what manner did the Turks take advantage of the ab- 
 sence of Louis XIV. 1 By what acts of cruelty Avas the Hungarian 
 insurrection occasioned 1 By whom was it headed 1 At whose in- 
 stigation had the sultan declared war against Austria 1 
 
 (174.) By whom were the Turks commanded, and how far did 
 they advance 1 Where was the emperor at this time 1 By whom 
 was the capital defended 1 What number of men had he, and what 
 was the amount of the Turkish force 1 To whom was Vienna chiefly 
 indebted for its preservation 1 What question was agitated after 
 the capture of Belgrade 1 What circumstances prevented the ex- 
 pulsion of the Turks from Europe ? In consequence of Avhat victo- 
 ries was peace concluded 1 What were the conditions of this 
 treaty 1 Why was Venice rewarded 1 
 
 (175.) In what year was Hungary made an hereditary mon- 
 archy 1 On what family was the crown settled 1 To whom did the 
 Tyrol and Transylvania belong 1 For what reason was Hanover 
 erected into a ninth electorate 1 
 
 (176.) What dignity was conferred on the Elector of Saxony 1 
 In what manner had he previously qualified himself for the office 1 
 
 (177.) To what rank was the Elector of Brandenburg elevated 7 
 
178 191.] OP MODERN HISTORY. 293 
 
 ^21. Brandenburg and Prusna to 1701, 
 
 (178.) Out of what provinces did the great elector form a state ? 
 By whom was this state raised to a high rank among German gov- 
 ernments % Under whom did it become a first-rate power 7 By 
 what means was this eminent position attained 7 
 
 (179.) By whom was the possession of the Swedish throne con- 
 tested '? 
 
 (180.) To whom did both parties appeal '? What advantage did 
 the elector take of this circumstance "? With whom did he form an 
 alliance % Where, and with what success, did the united armies 
 engage the Poles % By what treaty was the independence of Prus- 
 sia finally established '? By whom was this recognition opposed *? 
 Why were they adverse to the measure 1 
 
 ri81.) Who laid the foundation of Prussia's future greatness 1 
 
 (182.) What military force did he establish '? 
 
 (183.) In what manner did he raise funds for the maintenance 
 of this army 1 What reform did he effect in the financial adminis- 
 tration 1 
 
 (184.) Describe the manner in which he established military 
 colonies. 
 
 (185.) How was inland navigation facilitated 1 Where were 
 settlements established, and did they answer the expectation of 
 their founders 1 To what cause do you chiefly attribute the im- 
 provement in manufactures 1 
 
 (186.) What literary institutions did he establish 1 
 
 (187.) Against whom did Frederick III. assist the Austrians*? 
 In what manner did the emperor recompense those services 1 
 What public buildings were erected in this reign, at Berlin and 
 elsewhere % What consideration induced the emperor to recog- 
 nize Frederick III. as king of Prussia "] When and where was he 
 crowned, and what order was founded in commemoration of that 
 event 1 
 
 ^ 22. Greai Britain and Ireland. 
 
 (188.) What changes were made in the English constitution imme- 
 diately after the execution of Charles I. % Why did Cromwell at- 
 tack the Irish "? Was the title of Charles II. recognized in any other 
 part of the British dominions '? Where did Cromwell defeat the 
 Scotch '? What attempt Avas made by Charles during the absence 
 of Cromwell in Scotland '? Where was the king defeated, and what 
 course was he compelled to adopt after that battle 1 
 
 (189.) In what manner, and for what offencCj did the new Com- 
 monwealth avenge itself on Holland '? 
 
 (190.) What measures were now adopted by Cromwell? On 
 the support of what body did he reckon with certainty 1 From 
 whom did the parliament derive its nickname 1 What title was 
 now given to Cromwell by his officers 1 
 
 (191.) In whom was the executive authority vested 1 How 
 often was the parliament called together, and what authority did 
 
294 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [192 197. 
 
 it possess 1 To whom did tlie management of the army belong 1 
 What circumstance occasioned a war between England and the 
 united Netherlands ? Wliat proceeding on the part of Cromwell 
 produced a war with Spain 1 What territories were acquired by- 
 England in this war 1 Describe the manner in Avhich parhament 
 was prepared for the question of offering the crown to the pro- 
 tector 1 Was the offer accepted or declined 1 When did Cromwell 
 die 1 To what do you in a great measure attribute his death 1 
 By whom was he succeeded ? How long did he reign 1 What 
 measure was he compelled to adopt ? By whom and in what man- 
 ner was the state of anarchy terminated ^ 
 
 (192.) What measures were adopted by Charles II. on his ac- 
 cession 1 Whom did he appoint prime minister 1 How did he 
 disgust the people 1 What political acts especially excited the 
 indignation of his subjects '? By whom was Clarendon's place 
 supphed 1 What do you mean by the Cabal 1 [See note.] By 
 whose authority was an act of toleration passed 1 By whom was 
 it repealed 1 What was the effect of the Test Act 1 What privi- 
 lege was secitred to the king's subjects by the Habeas Corpus Act 1 
 By what circumstance was tlie Whig party brought into collision 
 with the Tories 1 
 
 (193.) In what manner did Charles govern during the last 
 years of his reign 1 Did he support or oppose the exclusion of his 
 brother from the succession '? By whom was Charles II. suc- 
 ceeded 1 What plans did he eagerly pursue 1 To what griev- 
 ances do you ascribe the discontents which terminated in the 
 English Revolution 1 From what event may its commencement be 
 dated 1 
 
 (194.) Explain the pedigree of the houses of Stuart and Han- 
 over. 
 
 (195.) Who was invited over by the malcontents 1 In conse- 
 quence of what proceeding on the part of James was the throne 
 declared vacant '? In what year were the new king and queen pro- 
 claimed 1 By what act was the authority of the crown limited 1 
 Who was appointed their successor in the event of their dying 
 without issue 1 
 
 (196.) By what decisive victories were the hopes of James II, 
 annihilated 1 How were the Irish punished for their support of 
 James 1 By what measure was peace in some degree restored in 
 Scotland 1 What improvements were effected in the constitution '? 
 What dignity was William permitted to retain '? What was his 
 policy during the Spanish war of succession *? 
 
 ^ 23. The Republic of Holland. 
 
 (197.) By what name was the republic of Holland generally dis- 
 tinguished 1 At what period had it reached its highest state of 
 prosperity '? By what peace was its independence securejj 1 Men- 
 tion the chief sources of its wealth. By what measure was its 
 carrying trade ruined 1 What was the result of two wars with 
 England 7 What Dutch admirals distinguished themselves in 
 
198 201.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 295 
 
 these wars 7 Were there any other causes of decay 1 What im- 
 portant office Avas abohshed immediately after the death of Wil- 
 liam II. 7 Did any of the provinces retain their stattholder '? 
 When was the office re-established "? On whom was the dignity 
 conferred 1 For how long a period 1 Who were the brothers 
 de Witt, and what was their fate 1 At whose instigation was this 
 atrocious act perpetrated '? 
 
 (198.) What advantage did Holland gain by the marriage of 
 William III. with an English princess '? How was this advantage 
 neutralized 1 By what circumstances was the affection of his 
 Dutch subjects towards William considerably weakened 1 What 
 circumstance occasioned the restoration of the hereditary statt- 
 holdership '? How long had it been in abeyance 1 What was the 
 foreign policy of the republic during the interval between the 
 Spanish and Austrian war of succession 1 
 
 ^ 24. The north-east of Europe. 
 
 (199.) What position did Sweden occupy in northern Europe 
 under the three first kings of the house of Sweibriicken 7 From 
 what period do you date her elevation to the rank of a first-rate 
 power % 
 
 (200.) What circumstance afforded Charles a pretext for de- 
 claring war against Poland 1 In what battle did he defeat the 
 Poles 1 Who was af. that time king of Poland, and what became 
 of him ? For what purpose was a confederation formed about this 
 time ? Against what power did the King of Denmark declare 
 war ? What measures were adopted by Charles X. in consequence 
 of this declaration % What were the conditions of the peace of 
 Roeskild 1 By whom were these conditions violated '? What city 
 did he attack, and with what success 1 By whom were the Danes 
 assisted '? What circumstances induced the Swedish government 
 to conclude a peace with Poland ? What were the conditions of 
 this peace 1 Did the Swedes conclude a peace with any other 
 power 1 Of what peace did it confirm the conditions "? What 
 places were restored to Denmark ? What conduct on the part of 
 the Swedes occasioned the loss of their German possessions 1 Af- 
 ter what battle 1 When were most of these possessions restored to 
 Sweden % What vigorous policy was adopted by Charles XI. 
 after he had attained full age % How did he employ this addi- 
 tional revenue 1 By whom was he succeeded '? What was the 
 result of the new sovereign's policy 1 What change took place in 
 the Danish constitution 1 By whom, and in what year, was 
 this change effected'? On what grounds did the Danes recom- 
 mence hostilities against Sweden'? Did they retain their con- 
 quests '? 
 
 (201.) Describe the constitution of Poland at this period 1 
 Who was the last king of the house of Vasa, and why did he re- 
 sign his crown 1 To what country did he retire, and how was he 
 supported there 1 Who was John Sobieski '? With whom, and 
 against what power, did he form an alliance '? What siege did he 
 
296 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [202 205. 
 
 compel them to raise 1 In whose reign was the Turkish war 
 terminated 7 Where, and through the intervention of what power, 
 was peace concluded 1 Describe the progress of Russian civiliza- 
 tion under the house of Romanow. By whom was the Ukraine 
 wrested from the Turks 1 Who were raised together to the throne 
 after his death 1 What was the character of each of these princes 1 
 Under whose guai'dianship were they placed 1 Wliat treacherous 
 policy was pursued by this princess 1 What was its result "? 
 What punishment was inflicted on Sophia 7 What authority was 
 assumed by Peter, and what changes did he effect in the adminis- 
 tration of affairs'? Who enjoyed the title of czar? By whom 
 were the counsels of Peter directed 1 What improvements were 
 ■effected in the organization of the army 1 What important sea- 
 port was wrested from the Turks 1 What countries did Peter 
 visit, and for what purpose 1 What occurrence prevented his 
 visiting Italy 1 Who was King of England when Peter visited that 
 country 1 How were the Strelitzes punished for tlieir treason % 
 On what footing was the Russian army then placed 1 What 
 ecclesiastical office did Peter usurp 1 What project involved hira 
 in the great northern war 1 
 
 ^ 25. War of the Spanish successio7i. 
 
 (202.) By whom, and on what grounds respectively, was the 
 succession to the Spanish throne claimed 1 Whom had Charles 
 11. declared his heir 1 Who was nominated on the decease of this 
 prince 1 With what view did Charles make this arrangement '? 
 By whom was the title of King of Spain assumed soon after 
 Charles's death 1 By what powers, and for what purpose, was 
 the grand alliance concluded 1 To what conditions did they 
 pledge themselves 1 Which of the German princes was the first 
 to join this alliance 1 With whom did the Electors of Bavaria and 
 Cologne take part 1 
 
 (203.) By what German princes was the emperor supported 1 
 What were their reasons for thus supporting him 1 Under whose 
 command did he dispatch an army to dispute the passage of the 
 Rhine with the French 1 Who commanded the army of Italy 1 
 Where had he already distinguished himself? By what French 
 general had Italy been already entered 7 Whom did Eugene defeat, 
 and why was he at last compelled to retire 1 
 
 (204.) By what con-duct, on the part of the French king, was 
 the English parliament induced to grant supplies for carrying on a 
 war in the Si)anish Netherlands 1 Who commanded the English 
 troops ? By what powers was the Grand Alliance joined at the 
 same time? What successful manoeuvre had been carried into 
 effect in the mean time by the French army on the Rhine 1 With 
 whom had Villars effected a junction 1 
 
 (205.) By whom was the elector's plan of entering the Tyrol 
 frustrated? For what purpose did Marlborough effect a junction 
 with Eugene at the commencement of the year 1704 ? What sta- 
 tions were then assigned to the two armies respectively ? By what 
 
206 209.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 297 
 
 circumstance was Eugene compelled to rejoin Marlborough 1 
 What great battle was fought by the allies '? Against whom, and 
 with wliat success 1 How were the inhabitants of Bavaria treated 
 by the conquerors '? What punishment did the emperor inflict on 
 the electors of Bavaria and Cologne % How was the Elector Pala- 
 tine rewarded 1 
 
 (206.) In what year did the war begin in Spain"? By whom 
 was a descent made on the coast of Portugal 1 What important 
 event occurred in the first year of the war 1 From what circum- 
 stances do you date the commencement of the Spanish civil war 1 
 What was its character "? Between what provinces did the war 
 continue after the return of Philip IV. to his capitaU What ad- 
 vantage was gained by the latter 1 What circumstances enabled 
 Charles to drive Philip out of Madrid 1 By whom was Charles 
 compelled to fly 1 To what country did he return 1 
 
 (207.) How had Marlborough and Eugene disposed of their 
 forces after the battle of Hochstadt 1 What successes attended the 
 operations of the allies in Bavaria and the Netherlands '? At what 
 courts had Marlborough distinguished himself as a diplomatist 1 
 Where did he defeat the French 1 By whom was their army com- 
 manded 1 What provinces did he subdue 1 To whom did he com- 
 pel those provinces to swear allegiance 1 Where did Eugene de- 
 feat a French army in the autumn of the same year 7 By whom 
 was he assisted 1 What was the amount of the French force 1 
 Wliat advantage did the allies gain by this victory 1 To what of- 
 fice was Eugene nominated by the Emperor, and what use did he 
 make of his authority 7 How did the Neapohtans receive a de- 
 tachment of the allied army 1 Of what island did the English 
 take possession in 1708 "? What now remained to the Spaniards of 
 all their European possessions 1 Whither did Eugene march after 
 the termination of the war in Italy ? Where, and in conjunction 
 with whom, did he defeat the French 1 What fortress did he 
 storm 1 By what celebrated engineer had it been constructed 1 
 What circumstances induced Louis XIV. to sue for peace 1 What 
 conditions did he propose "? By what unreasonable demand, on 
 the part of the allies, were the negotiations broken off? By whom 
 was his newly raised army commanded 1 Where, and by whom, 
 was this general defeated 1 
 
 (208.) By the occurrence of what events was the aspect of af- 
 fairs entirely changed "? On what terms was Louis now enabled to 
 conclude peace 1 With whom was the peace of Utrecht concluded 1 
 Who was recognized as king of Spain by this peace '] What stipu- 
 lation was at the same time made 1 
 
 (209.) What important concessions did England obtain from 
 France and Spain 1 What was gained by Prussia 1 For what 
 island did Savoy exchange Sicily "? Between what parties, and in 
 what year, was the treaty of Rastadt concluded 1 What provinces 
 did the emperor receive '? What princes were reinstated in their 
 dignities 1 Between what generals had this treaty been negotiated 1 
 At what peace was it fully recognized 7 What treaties were con- 
 firmed by this peace 1 
 
298 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [210 216. 
 
 ^ 26. The northern loar. 
 
 (210.) Enumerate the causes of this war. At whose instance 
 was a league formed between Russia and Denmark 1 What was 
 its object 1 
 
 (211.) With Avhat acts of aggression did the Danish war begin 1 
 What advantages were gained by Charles XII. 1 With whom, and 
 where, did he conclude a separate peace '? On what conditions 1 
 
 (212.) To whose assistance had the Czar Peter marched 1 
 What siege was he compelled to raise by Charles XII. 1 What 
 conquests were then achieved by Charles 1 Whom were the Poles 
 compelled to elect as their king in the place of Augustus II. 1 Of 
 what circumstances was his general recognition the result 1 What 
 imprudent act was committed at this time by Charles XII. 1 In 
 what year, and where, did Peter found his new capital ? What 
 were the conditions of the peace of Altranstadt 7 What punish- 
 ment was inflicted on the instigator of the war '? 
 
 (218.) Through whose obstinacy were the fruits of these bril- 
 liant successes lost 1 For what purpose had the czar entered Po- 
 land 1 What design was conceived by Charles XII. after the ex- 
 pulsion of the czar from Poland 1 Who was Mazeppa, and what 
 advice did he give to Charles 1 What force did Charles bring 
 into the field at Pultowa 1 What was the amount of the Russian 
 force 7 What was the result? In what city did Charles take 
 refuge after his defeat 1 
 
 (214.) How long did Charles XII. reside at Bender 1 What 
 opportunity was afforded by his absence to the Poles and Danes 1 
 What declaration was made by Augustus II., and how was it fol- 
 lowed up 1 What advantage was gained by the Danes 1 What 
 conquests were achieved by Peter during the absence of his enemy'? 
 With what plans did he at the same time proceed 7 By whom was 
 the sultan persuaded to declare war against Peter ? From what 
 danger was Peter rescued with difficulty 7 On what conditions did 
 he obtain peace 1 What happened to Charles at Bender after his 
 refusal to quit the Turkish territory 1 In what year did he return 
 to Sweden 1 
 
 (215.) By what sovereigns were the enemies of Sweden now 
 joined 1 What loss was sustained by the Swedes 1 How was 
 Peter I. employed at this time 1 What country did Charles XII. 
 now invade 1 What was the result of the first campaign 1 Where, 
 and in what manner, did Charles XII. lose his life? Who suc- 
 ceeded him on the throne ? What concessions were made by this 
 sovereign 1 Into whose hands did the queen afterwards resign the 
 reins of government"? With what view were further concessions 
 made by the king 1 
 
 (216.) By what treaties was the war terminated '? What terri- 
 tories were acquired respectively by Hanover, Prussia, Denmark, 
 and Russia? What was the position of Sweden at this time? 
 What indulgence was granted to Stanislaus Lesczinsky ? 
 
217 225.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 299 
 
 ^ 27. The Emperor Charles VI. 
 
 (217 ) What important possession was wrested from Veiiice by 
 the Turks 1 Why did they declare war against Charles VL '? By 
 whom and where, were they defeated^ What great Turkish 
 officer lost his life-? What advantages were gained by Eugene 
 after this victory 1 What were the conditions of the peace con- 
 cluded between the emperov and the Turks 1 What provmce had 
 Charles fruitlessly endeavored to recover for Venice^ 
 
 (218) What was the state of affairs in Spain at this time'? 
 What plan was devised by Cardinal Alberoni and how did he 
 attempt to carry it into execution 1 Between what Parties was the 
 Quadruple alliance concluded ^ What was its chief object^ What 
 ?oncessSns did it extort from Philip ^ What became of Alberoni % 
 How was Philip in some degree recompensed for these concessions j 
 What exchange of territory was effected between the Emperor and 
 
 ^^Tlll ) Why did Charles VI. publish the pragmatic sanction 1 
 Whom did he declare heiress of the Austrian states '?_ W^at was 
 the grand object of his government during the remainder of his 
 
 ^^^^r\20) Who persuaded the Polish nobles to restore Stanislaus 
 Lesczinsky'? By whom was the Elector of Saxony supported | 
 What became of Stanislaus 1 What princes declared war ^mst 
 the emperor in consequence of his expulsion'? What countries 
 were occupied by the allies^ In what year, and where was a 
 peace at lalt concluded 1 What indemnification did Stanislaus re- 
 ceive for the renunciation of his claims to the crown of Poland 1 
 On whom was the grand duchy of Tuscany settled 7 By the ex- 
 tinction of what house had it become vacant 1 On whom was the 
 crown of the two Sicilies bestowed^ What territories did he re- 
 
 ''T2lN%f''wirt'Tu^ish province did the Empress Anne take 
 possession ^ By whom and at what peace had it been ceded to the 
 
 "^^^^22.) Explain the genealogical table of the house of Bourbon 
 in France, Spain, the two Sicilies, and Parma. 
 
 (223 ) By whom and in how many eri^agements were the 
 armies of the Emperor Charles defeated 1 To what circumstance 
 do you attribute these defeats^ What concessions were made to 
 the Porte at the peace of Belgrade by the Austrians and the 
 Empress Anne of Russia 1 
 
 ^ 28. Prussia under her two First Kings. 
 
 (224.) Of what territories did Frederick L become possessed 
 after the death of William III. of England J By what states and 
 after the extinction of what house, was he recognized as heir of 
 the house of Nassau-Chalons-Orange Jl . , „r.n;„^ t l Whnf 
 
 (225.) What was the character of Frederick William I. '? What 
 was his only expensive amusement. 
 
300 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [226 230. 
 
 (226.) What amount of treasure was amassed by Frederick 
 "William 1 'What sort of an army did he leave to his successor 7 
 What improvements did he effect 1 What indemnification did he 
 receive at the peace of Utrecht 1 For what sacrifice 1 What ter- 
 ritories did he acquire by the peace of Stockholm 1 On what 
 terms did he live with his son Frederick 1 For what oflenee was 
 Frederick imprisoned at Kiistrin 1 What punishment was inflicted 
 on his accomplice Katte 1 By whose intercession was Frederick 
 himself rescued from death 1 In consequence of what marriage 
 was he reconciled to his father '? Where did he reside until his 
 accession in 1740 1 Who was his favorite associate 1 
 
 § 29. War of the Austrian succession, and the two first Silesian wars. 
 
 (227.) By whom was the accession of Maria Theresa opposed 1 
 On what grounds ? By whom were they supported 1 
 
 (228.) What ancient claim was revived by Frederick the Great 1 
 What war was occasioned by the refusal of Maria Theresa to re- 
 cognize these claims 1 
 
 (229.) What country was conquered at the commencement of 
 the war 1 In what battle were the Prussian troops victorious > 
 Through whose skill and valor ? What countries did Frederick 
 overrun in the following year '? Where did he gain a second vic- 
 tory 1 What increase of territory did he obtain at the peace of 
 Breslau 1 What advantage did the empress gain by these conces- 
 sions ? By whom was Charles Albert supported ? Of what coun- 
 tries did he assume the sovereignty "? What assistance did Maria 
 Theresa receive from England and Holland 1 What effect was pro- 
 duced by her appearance at the Hungarian diet 1 Of what coun- 
 tries did they recover possession 1 Out of what country was 
 Charles VII. driven by the Austrians % Where was Maria Theresa 
 proclaimed % Of what nations was the pragmatic army composed 1 
 By whom was it commanded 1 In what battle did it defeat the 
 French % What fresh alliance was produced by these events 1 
 Why did Frederick II. join the confederacy 1 
 
 (230.) What country did Frederick invade at the commence- 
 ment of the second Silesian war 1 What name did he give to his 
 troops 7 Of what country did the Imperialists regain possession at 
 the same time 7 By whom was Charles VII. succeeded on the im- 
 perial throne ? Who had previously renounced all claim to the 
 Austrian succession 1 For what purpose was England compelled 
 to withdraw her troops from the continent 1 Where had the Pre- 
 tender landed'? In what power did Austria find a new ally 7 
 What advantage had been gained by Prince Charles of Lorraine 1 
 By whom and where was he afterwards defeated ] What plan was 
 rendered abortive by the victory of Kesselsdorf ? What advantage 
 did Frederick gain by the peace of Dresden 1 Of what country 
 had the French in the mean time obtained possession % By whom 
 was their army commanded 1 What provinces remained uncon- 
 quered 1 By what forces was the war in Italy prosecuted 7 With 
 what result 1 By what sovereign was an army dispatched to the 
 
231 234.] OF MODERN HISTORY, 301 
 
 Rhine in 1748'? On what terms was peace concluded at A ix-la- 
 Chapelle 1 
 
 ^ 30. The Third Silesian ; or, Seven Years' War. 
 
 (231.) What was the policy of Maria Theresa after the peace 
 of Dresden 1 Who was her adviser 7 What representation had she 
 made to the Empress of Russia 1 What was the substance of the 
 secret treaty concluded between the two empresses'? Was any 
 other court a party to this treaty 1 Who was prime minister at 
 this court 1 What misunderstanding occasioned a war between 
 England and France '? Why did England conclude an alliance with 
 Frederick of Prussia *? With what power did Austria ally herself? 
 What was her object in forming this alliance '? 
 
 (232.) How did Frederick anticipate the movements of his ene- 
 mies % To what city did he lay siege '? Where did he blockade 
 the Saxon army '? With what force and where did he defeat the 
 enemy 1 Why did he divide his forces'? Where did he pass the 
 winter 1 What became of the Saxon troops blockaded at Pirna '? 
 
 (233.) What circumstance compelled the French to conclude 
 an alliance against Prussia % With what powers was the alliance 
 concluded 1 Did any other power become a party to this treaty 1 
 With what view '? To whom did Frederick now leave the duty of 
 keeping the French at bay 1 Against whom did he advance 1 
 What support did Austria receive from the other powers ? What 
 amount of force was brought into the field by the Austrians and 
 Prussians respectively '? What generals were defeated in the battle 
 of Prague 1 What Prussian officer of rank lost his life in the bat- 
 tle 1 Where did the greater part of the defeated army take 
 refuge 1 Where and by whom was Frederick for the first time de- 
 feated '? What course did this check compel him to adopt 7 With 
 whom were the French engaged at "the battle of Hastenbeck '? 
 What was the result of that battle 1 Who commanded the allies of 
 Frederick'? Did the French avail themselves of the advantage 
 which they had gained % Between whom and with what result 
 was the battle of Grossjagerndorf fought '? Which party was vic- 
 torious in the battle of* Rossbach '? To whom was Frederick mainly 
 indebted for this victory "? How was he prevented from forming a 
 junction with the Duke of Bevern 1 What fortresses fell into the 
 hands of the conqueror 1 With what amount of force did Freder- 
 ick attempt the reconquest of Silesia '? How many men had the 
 Austrians '? What was the event of the battle of Leuthen 1 What 
 important advantage did Frederick gain by this victory '? How 
 was the king employed during the winter'? Against whom was the 
 campaign of 1758 carried on in the east and west % Who com- 
 manded the Prussians and their allies '? How did the Duke of 
 Brunswick open the campaign '? Which party was victorious at the 
 battle of Crefeld 1 
 
 (234.) To what circumstance do you attribute this disaster as 
 well as the other failures of the French 1 What important fortress 
 now fell into the hands of the Prussians % For what purpose did 
 
302 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [235 239. 
 
 Frederick march into Moravia ? Why did he return to Silesia 1 
 Where did he attack the Russians, and with what results To 
 whom was he mainly indebted for this victory 1 What disaster 
 befell Frederick at Hochkirch 1 Did this misfortune produce any 
 further results 1 
 
 (235.) Enumerate the circumstances which compelled Frederick 
 to confine himself to a defensive war in 1759. What operations 
 were carried on by the Russians on the bank of the Oder 1 Where 
 did Frederick attack the Russians, and with what success 1 Who 
 changed the fortune of the day 1 What distinguished poet fell in 
 this battle '? What advice was given by Laudon to the conqueror 1 
 What reason had he in all probability for not adopting this course '? 
 By what disputes was the prosecution of the war retarded '? How- 
 was Frederick relieved from all apprehension of an attack on his 
 eastevn frontier 7 To whom were the fortresses in Saxony surren- 
 dered 1 Wliat disaster befell General Fink 7 By whom and 
 where was Duke Frederick of Brunswick defeated at the com- 
 mencement of the campaign 1 By what victory was this disgrace 
 afterwards obliterated ] 
 
 (236.) What misfortune befell the Prussian troops at the com- 
 mencement of the year 1760'? What city did Frederick ineffec- 
 tually attempt to reduce 1 What fortress did he surrender to the 
 Austrians^ Where did he encamp, and why did he shift his 
 quarters '? Where and with what result did he engage Laudon 1 
 How was he enabled to rescue Silesia 1 To whom was Frederick 
 in a great measure indebted for his victory at Torgau 1 What 
 were the consequences of this victory 1 For what purpose was the 
 war prosecuted in the west ? 
 
 (237.) By what events were the hopes of peace destroyed in 
 1761 1 What heavy loss was sustained by Frederick at this time 1 
 
 (238.) By what event was Frederick unexpectedly extricated 
 from his difficulties 1 What assistance did he receive from Peter II. 1 
 How long did this «mperor reign, and what was his fate ? By 
 whom was he succeeded 1 What battle was fought previously 
 to the withdrawal of the Russian troops from Silesia ^ Who was 
 defeated in that battle 1 What important event occurred between 
 the date of this battle and the conclusion of peace 1 Where, be- 
 tween what parties, and on what terras was peace concluded'? 
 What rank was now assigned to Prussia '? 
 
 ^ 31. The Emperor Joseph II., 1765—1790. Frederick the Great 
 after the Seven Years' War. 
 
 (239.) Who succeeded Augustus III. on the throne of Poland 1 
 By whom was he elected, and at whose instigation 1 What privi- 
 leges were granted to the Protestants and members of the Greek 
 Church "? By whose advice % What was the immediate effect of 
 these concessions '? Between what parties was this civil war car- 
 ried on '? Between what nations did a war break out soon after- 
 wards '? Which of these parties was generally victorious 1 Men- 
 tion some of the important advantages gained by them. What 
 
240 245.] OP MODHRN HISTORY. 303 
 
 measures were adopted by Austria in consequence of this aggran- 
 dizement of Russia 1 Under what pretence was this example fol- 
 lowed by Prussia 1 What plan was at length adopted for preserv- 
 ing the balance of power 7 
 
 (240.) Among what powers was Poland divided, and what 
 provinces did each receive 1 What province did Prussia recover"? 
 Of how great a portion of the kingdom was the king deprived by 
 this arrangement 1 
 
 (241.) Who took possession of the Bavarian dominions after the 
 death of the last elector? On what were his claims founded 1 
 Whose claims to a portion of this territory were allowed by the 
 Elector Palatine 1 By whom was this compact disputed 1 On 
 whose advice did he act 1 At what peace, and in consequence of 
 what circumstances, did the emperor withdraw his claim on Bava- 
 ria 1 Did he retain any portion 1 What advantage did Austria 
 gain by the annexation of this territory '] 
 
 (242.) What was the character of Maria Theresa 1 With whom 
 had she shared her throne '? In whose hands had the reins of gov- 
 ernment virtually remained "? For what benefits was Austria in- 
 debted to this sovereign 1 How was she enabled to maintain her 
 position among the European powers 1 What plans were brought 
 forward by Joseph II. immediately after his mother's death ] What 
 was the character of this new monarch 1 To what cause may we 
 attribute the failure of most of his plans'? Give one or two in- 
 stances. What was the ground of his quarrel with Pope Pius VI. 1 
 How did he treat the remonstrances of the pope'? Were his plans 
 afterwards modified'? What was his favorite scheme, and what 
 proposal did he make for the purpose of carrying it into effect '? 
 By whose advice was this proposal made"? What promise was 
 made to the elector 1 By whom was this proposal rejected 1 
 Under whose auspices was a confederation formed in 1785, and of 
 what sovereigns did it consist '? What was its object 1 What 
 name was given to this confederation? Was the number of its 
 members ever increased? 
 
 (243.) For how long a period did Frederick II. maintain peace 1 
 What measures did he adopt for securing to Prussia the rank which 
 she had recently assumed among European nations '? How was 
 this force supported "? What important reforms did he effect "? 
 How long did Frederick reign? Give a sketch of his character. 
 In what particulars was he worthy of censure? What was his 
 greatest protection against the designs of other governments? 
 How did Frederick pass his leisure hours ? To what circumstance 
 do you ascribe his preference of the French language ? 
 
 (244.) When did Frederick II. die, and by whom was he suc- 
 ceeded ? What provinces had he annexed to Prussia? What 
 amount of treasure did he leave to his successor ? What number 
 of soldiers ? What title had he assumed since the annexation of 
 West Prussia ? 
 
 (245.) By what people were the political and ecclesiastical re- 
 forms of Joseph II. opposed? By whom were they headed? 
 What was the result of this opposition? Under what circum- 
 
304 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [246 250. 
 
 stances, and in whose reign did the revolted provinces return to 
 their allegiance 1 By whom, and in conjunction with what ally, 
 was a Turkish war undertaken '? With what results'? By whom 
 and on what terms was peace concluded 1 
 
 ^ 32. France. 
 
 (246.) In what sort of difficulties was France involved by the 
 wars of Louis XIV 7 
 
 (247.) By whom was he succeeded'? Under whose guardian- 
 ship did he commence his reign 1 By whose advice was a bank of 
 issue established "? What joint-stock company was established at 
 the same time '? What grant did the king make to this com- 
 pany % What circumstance occasioned the bankruptcy of the 
 company 1 
 
 (248.) In what year, and after whose death, did Louis assume 
 the reins of government '? Whom did he marry '? To whom did 
 he leave the entire management of affairs 1 What was the effect 
 of this minister's policy 1 How did the first Austrian Avar of suc- 
 cession end '? To what do you ascribe the inauspicious commence- 
 ment of the second war '? How were these losses repaired "? By 
 what favorite was the king now governed 1 Through whose influ- 
 ence was a treaty concluded with the court of Vienna, and what 
 was its effect on French politics 1 In what war was France in- 
 volved through this alliance "? Was she engaged in any other war 
 at the same time % How long did it continue, and how did it 
 terminate 1 Of what persons was the so-called school of philoso- 
 phers composed '? and what effect had their teaching on the 
 morals of the French people 1 What was their grand object, and 
 how was it advanced 1 What other name had these philosophers % 
 In conjunction with whom did they obtain an ordonnance from 
 the king ? For the suppression of what order '? On what 
 grounds '? By whom was Louis governed towards the close 
 of his life '? What effect had her extravagance on the ex- 
 chequer '? 
 
 (249.) By whom was Louis XV. succeeded'? What was the 
 character of this monarch '? State at length the causes to which 
 we may ascribe the outbreak of the French Revolution. To 
 what circumstances do you attribute the large annual deficit in 
 the public accounts ■? 
 
 ^ 33. Great Britain. 
 
 (250.) By whom was William III. succeeded 7 By what po- 
 litical party ,was her policy dictated during the greater part of 
 her reign ■? Who were her most influential advisers 1 On what 
 terms was the union between England and Scotland accomplished '? 
 By whom were the attempts of Anne to obtain the settlement of 
 the crown on her step-brother frustrated '? On what ground did 
 they oppose the wishes of the queen "? 
 
251 255.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 305 
 
 (251.) What family did they place on the throne after her 
 death 1 Who was the first sovereign of this dynasty 1 How was 
 he related to the house of Stuart 1 Who was his prime minister 1 
 Whom did George II. retain as his prime minister 1 Of what op- 
 portunity did France avail herself for a last attempt to restore the 
 Stuarts 1 Where was the pretender defeated 1 Why did George 
 II. send an army into Germany 1 What war was at the same time 
 carried on by England 1 Where had this war broken out in the 
 first instance 1 In consequence of what dispute 1 By whom was 
 the superiority of the British arms restored 1 Mention one of the 
 most important victories gained by the British in America. Be- 
 tween what courts was a treaty concluded 1 For what purpose 1 
 Who succeeded George II. 1 
 
 (252.) Why did Pitt resign his office 7 What important acces- 
 sion of territory did Great Britain obtain at the peace of Paris 1 
 Did she acquire any other provinces 1 
 
 (253.) State the condition of England, and how brought about. 
 What part had the colonies in the matter '? What had they con- 
 tributed, and to what extent '? What control had the mother 
 country exercised 1 What new claim was now set up 1 What 
 measures were attempted 7 How did the colonists act 1 What 
 other duties were attempted to be imposed 1 What was done with 
 the cargoes of tea 1 What did England do 1 Where and when did 
 the first Congress assemble 1 When and where did hostilities 
 commence 1 What were the original thirteen United States 1 
 When was independence declared 1 Who commanded the Ame- 
 rican troops 1 What was his military character 7 In what war 
 had he already distinguished himself? Through whose exertions 
 was an alliance concluded between France and America 1 What 
 powers afterwards became parties to this league 1 At whose in- 
 stigation, and for what purpose, did the northern powers form a 
 league 1 By whom were they supported 7 
 
 (254.) Into what quarters of the world was the war carried in 
 consequence of these movements 1 What proposal was made by 
 the English government, and why was it refused 1 How many 
 engagements were fought '? What great naval battles were fought, 
 and what was the result ? How were the attempts of the Spaniards 
 and French to retake Gibraltar frustrated 1 What places were 
 taken by the English ? By whom and in what battle was the 
 event of the American war decided 1 Where and in what year 
 was peace concluded 1 To what terms was England compelled to 
 submit 1 What sacrifice of territory was made by the Dutch 1 
 What was the condition of the United States at the close of the ' 
 war 1 When was the Federal Constitution adopted 1 In whom 
 is the legislative authority vested 1 The judicial "? The execu- 
 tive 1 Who was the first president ? When and where inaugu- 
 rated 1 
 
 (255.) What attempts were made" by European nations in 
 India '? From what events do you date the commencement of 
 these attempts 1 Of what province had England obtained posses- 
 sion 1 Through whose victories'? Between what Indian powers. 
 
306 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [256 260. 
 
 was a league formed against Great Britain 1 With whom did the 
 French conclude an alliance at the same time 1 Through whose 
 prudence and energy was the supremacy of the East India 
 Company maintained at this crisis 1 Who was Tippoo Sahib 1 
 Under what circumstances was he compelled to purchase peace 1 
 By what sacrifices 1 
 
 (256.) Under what circumstances, and by whom was the East 
 India bill brought forward 1 What were its provisions '? By whose 
 discoveries was an addition made to the colonial possessions of 
 England 1 How often did he sail around the world 1 What coast 
 did he visit in his first voyage '? What countries did he discover 
 in the second '? How far did he penetrate, and in what expecta- 
 tion was he disappointed 1 What straits did he survey in his third 
 voyage, and what was his fate 7 
 
 ^34. Spain under tlie Bourbons, from 1701. 
 
 (257.) What possessions were given up by Spain at the peace 
 of Utrecht 7 By whom were attempts made to recover them 1 
 How were these attempts frustrated '? To whom did the two Si- 
 cilies revert % At the close of what war '? On whom was Parma 
 settled % Under what sovereign was the nation deprived of its 
 constitutional privileges % Were any provinces excepted 1 In what 
 war was Charles III. involved 1 In consequence of what compact 1 
 Against what powers had he been unsuccessful 7 What province 
 was he compelled to cede at the peace of Paris '? When did he 
 recover if? What fortified places did he attack, and with what 
 success '? Why were the Jesuits expelled from the Spanish do- 
 
 mmions 
 
 ^ 35. Portugal under the house of Braganza, from 1640. 
 
 (258 ) What was the condition of Portugal under the first kings 
 of the house of Braganza 1 What colonies did she recover 1 To 
 what circumstance do you attribute her decline 1 By whom was 
 her commercial system reformed 1 
 
 (259.) What measures did he adopt for the protection of native 
 industry 1 By what calamity had a portion of Lisbon been de- 
 stroyed 1 When was it restored 7 How was money raised to meet 
 these expenses 1 What occurrence afforded, the minister an excuse 
 for banishing the Jesuits ? By whom was Joseph I. succeeded ? 
 How did she treat Pombal 7 Which of the ordonnances issued 
 during his administration remained in force ? 
 
 ^36. Italy. 
 
 (260.) What countries continued to be dependencies of Spain 
 as long as the throne of that country was occupied by the family 
 of Hapsburg ? To what power were they ceded at the peace of 
 Utrecht ? What became of Sicily 1 
 
261 267.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 307 
 
 (261 ) When and under whom did the kingdom of the two Si- 
 cilies regain its independence '? What calamity befell Calabria and 
 
 (262 ) What accession of territory did Savoy obtain at the 
 peace of Utrecht '? For what island was she compelled to exchange 
 It 1 By the addition of what provinces were her territories subse- 
 quentlv augmented 1 Of what country did Austria become a 
 province 1 To what family did Modena remain subjects On 
 whom were Parma and Piacenza settled 1 After the extinction ot 
 what family 1 To what country were they afterwards annexed 1 
 To whom were the duchies restored at the peace of Aix-la-Lha- 
 
 ^^ (^263 ) Of what island was Venice deprived by the Turks 1 
 What provinces did she obtain from them at the peace of Carlo- 
 witz 1 What insurrection was suppressed by Genoa } With the 
 assistance of what power '? By whom was the insurrection headed 1 
 What became of him 1 By whom was a subsequent insurrection 
 headed^ What step was taken by the Genoese senate in cxjnse 
 quence of this insurrection^ What became of Paoh ^ What 
 attempt did he make at a later period, and by whom was he as 
 
 ^''^(364.) To whom did the grand duchy of Tuscany descend after 
 the extinction of the Medici family 1 Of what family did it after- 
 wards become a possession '? On whom was the grand duchy set- 
 tled, when Joseph 11. was elected Roman king 1 , , „ ^^ +1,^ 
 (265.) What provinces were recovered by the states ot the 
 Church 'I 
 
 ^37. Denmark. 
 (266.) What countries belonged to Denmark 1 What provinces 
 were subsequently acquired 1 From what date, and during how 
 many years%id Denmirk enjoy peace ^ Under what sovereigns^ 
 Under whose administration did Denmark become a flour shing 
 k ngdom 7 By whom, and in what reign, was this minister sup- 
 plafted'? What was his fate 1 By what arrangement were the 
 dsputes terminated between Denmark and the ducal Ime of Got- 
 torp 'i On whom was the duchy of Oldenburg settled % What prov- 
 ince was annexed to Denmark at the same time 1 
 
 ^38. Sweden. 
 (267.) What was the condition of Sweden at the cl^Dse of tbe 
 northern war 1 By what names were the f^^^^ions distinguish^<lj 
 What attempt occasioned the loss of a portion of Finland ^^^ 
 was the first king of the house of Holstein-C^ottorp 1 How^^^^^^^^ 
 the powers of the crown restricted m his rcign'? ^ f ^^.J^ 'L^^J^^^^^ 
 diture was the exchequer drained 7 By whom wa this ar^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 tyranny successfully resisted 1 In whom ^\^^,,^J,^f.//r To what 
 thority now vested? How were his powers ^X f>ntetbe noDU- 
 combination of favorable circumstances do you attribute the popu 
 
308 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [268 274. 
 
 larity of this sovereign 1 By whom was he perseveringly opposed 1 
 Wliat alliance did he renew 1 What was his probable motive for 
 this irregular proceeding 1 
 
 (268.) What act did he persuade the diet to pass 1 In conse- 
 quence of what opposition 1 How did the war terminate ] What 
 was the fate of Gustavus III. 1 
 
 ^39. Btissia. 
 
 (269.) What city was built by Peter the Great during the 
 northern war ? How was it peopled 1 To what rank was it ele- 
 vated 1 By whom were his reforms resisted 1 Who was at the 
 head of this movement 1 What punishment was inflicted on him 1 
 What title did Peter assume after the war'?* What law was passed 
 in 1722 1 In what year did Peter die 1 What was the immediate 
 cause of his death 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 What was the 
 name of her favorite ? Who succeeded her '? By whom and in 
 what manner was the foundation laid of Russian influence in Po- 
 land '{ Who were her ministers 7 In what war did she join Aus- 
 tria 1 Who was the commander-in-chief of the Russian forces, 
 and by what name was he distinguished 1 To what circumstance 
 do you ascribe the inglorious termination of the war 1 Was any 
 advantage gained by Russia 1 By whom was Anne succeeded 1 
 How long did he reign, and in favor of whom was he set aside 1 
 
 ^ 40. The houses of Rovianow and Holstein- Gottorp, in Russia. 
 
 (270.) Give the pedigree of these houses. 
 
 (271.) What punishment did Elizabeth inflict on the ministers 
 of the late sovereign 1 Under whose guidance did she then place 
 herself 7 What became of him 1 By what peace was the war with 
 Sweden terminated 7 What accession of territory did Elizabeth 
 obtain by this peace 1 By what act on the part of the Russian 
 government was the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle hastened 1 By what 
 personal feelings were the bonds of Elizabeth's union with Austria 
 strengthened during the seven years' war 7 Whom did Ehzabeth 
 nominate as her successor 1 
 
 (272.) Of what monarch was Peter III. a personal friend 7 With 
 what power did he conclude an alliance 1 With what reforms did 
 he commence hjs reign ? How long did he reign, and what was his 
 fate? 
 
 (273.) By whom was he succeeded 1 What great sovereign 
 did she choose as her model 7 Whom did she place on the throne 
 of Poland 1 Between what parties did her policy excite a civil 
 warl By whom was the king supported! Which of the Euro- 
 pean powers declared war against Catherine 7 On what grounds ? 
 
 (274.) Which of the two belligerents was for the most part 
 successful in this war 1 From what cause ? When and by whom 
 was the Turkish fleet destroyed 1 Through whose mediation was 
 an armistice concluded 1 What circumstance occasioned a re- 
 
275 283.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 309 
 
 newal of the war 1 By what troubles was the Russian empire at 
 this time distracted ] Where Avas a peace concluded 1 What 
 favorable occurrence enabled the Russians to negotiate this 
 peace % On what terms was it concluded 1 What benefits did 
 Catherine confer on Poland after the first partition of that king- 
 dom 1 Who was the principal favorite of Catherine, and what was 
 his character ] To what rank had he been raised by Joseph II. '? 
 For how many years and in what manner did he exercise his au- 
 thority 1 
 
 (275.) What projects occupied the attention of Catherine after 
 the first Turkish war '? How was the first of these projects pro- 
 moted ] What was the first step taken by Potemkin towards the 
 accomplishment of the second plan 1 By whom had it been de- 
 vised 1 What deception did Potemkin practise, and by what nick- 
 name was he distinguished in consequence 1 Between what sove- 
 reigns did a meeting take place during this progress 7 What was 
 the immediate consequence of this meeting ^ By what powers was 
 the Porte supported 1 
 
 .(276.) By whom and in how many battles were the Turks de- 
 feated 1 After what event was peace concluded between Austria 
 and the Porte 1 What country had already formed an alliance 
 with the Turks 1 What province of the Russian empire was in- 
 vaded, and by Avhom 1 By what powers was Catherine threatened 1 
 After whose death, and in consequence of what circumstances, was 
 she compelled to conclude a peace 1 With what territory was she 
 now obliged to content herself? 
 
 (277.) By whom were the measures of improvement com- 
 menced by Peter I. fully carried out 1 Give an account of her re- 
 forms. From what country chiefly were colonists brought into 
 Russia 1 
 
 ^41, The Osmanic Empire, 
 
 (278.) To what causes do you attribute the decay of the Os- 
 manic empire ? How was its utter ruin prevented ] 
 
 ^ 42. Causes and immediate occasion of the French Revolution. 
 
 (279.) In what reign was the enormous public debt contracted, 
 and how was it augmented 1 
 
 (280.) By what classes were the public burdens almost exclu- 
 sively borne 1 
 
 (281.) To what object were the endeavors of the Encyclopae- 
 dists directed % 
 
 (282.) What do you mean by " lettres de cachet ?" 
 
 (28.3.) What was the immediate occasion of the revolutionary 
 outbreak 1 What notions had been acquired by the French sol- 
 diers during the American war? Who was first minister of finance 
 at this time, and what plan did he propose ? By whom was he 
 succeeded, and what was the result of his policy ? What body 
 
310 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [284 286 
 
 was called together by Calonne , and what plan did he lay before 
 them 7 Of what classes was this assembly chit-fly composed? 
 Through w'hose influence was this minister removed from office'? 
 By whom was he succeeded '? What body did he call together, 
 and what was the result ? Under what circumstances was Brienne 
 dismissed, and by whom was he succeeded '? What body was now 
 summoned to assemble at Versailles 1 What dispute arose at their 
 first meeting 1 What extraordinary proceeding was adopted by 
 the third estate 7 By whose advice 1 Of what great movement do 
 you consider this the commencement 1 What plan was adopted by 
 Bailly, in consequence of an attempt on the part of the king to 
 prevent the meetings of this assembly 1 
 
 ^ 43. The constituent National Assembly. 
 
 (284.) By which of the estates was the separation still opposed 1 
 Were they joined by any other estate 1 What proclamation was 
 issued by the king 1 To what subject was the attention of this as- 
 sembly chiefly directed 7 What circumstances occasioned an in- 
 surrection on the 13th and 14th of July 1 By whom were the in- 
 surgents addressed ? What were their first acts 1 What measures 
 were then adopted by the government 7 By what concession on 
 the part of Louis XVI. were the populace appeased 1 What course 
 was adopted by some of the nobility at the commencement of the 
 Revolution 7 By whom was an army assembled on the frontier 1 
 With what act did the national assembly commence their proceed- 
 ings 1 What declaration followed 1 What further resolution did 
 they pass 1 
 
 (285.) By what circumstances were fresh discontents occa- 
 sioned 7 What act of violence was committed on the 6th of 
 October 1 By whose exertions were the king and queen rescued 1 
 To what place did the national assembly now adjourn its session 1 
 
 (286.) What questions next occupied the attention of the as- 
 sembly 7 Into what parties were the members divided 1 What 
 was the result of their deliberations 1 On whom was the primary 
 elective franchise conferred 7 To whom was it at first refused 1 
 By what name were these primary electors known, and whom did 
 they elect 7 What number of representatives was returned to the 
 national assembly 7 By whom were they elected 1 Did they act 
 in any other capacity 1 From what body were the municipal au- 
 thorities chosen 1 What measure of finance w^as adopted by the 
 assembly 1 At whose suggestion ? What attempt was made to 
 hasten the sale of Church lands 7 Did this plan succeed 1 What 
 acts were passed respecting the religious orders 1 What reform 
 was effected in the administration of justice 7 What acts were 
 passed of a still more republican character 7 What concessions 
 was the king required to make 7 What oath did he take 7 What 
 political societies were formed by the members of the national as- 
 sembly 7 For w'hat purpose did they meet 7 Which was the most 
 importaut of these societies 7 From what circumstance did they 
 
287 292.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 311 
 
 derive their name 1 "What sort of influence did they exercise 1 
 What occurrence occasioned the resignation of Necker ? What was 
 the immediate consequence of this resignation 1 What intention 
 was soon afterwards proclaimed by the republicans '? After whose 
 death 1 
 
 (287.) What attempt was now made by the king 1 For what 
 purpose ? How was this attempt frustrated 7 What resolution was 
 I>assed by the assembly, after the return of the king to Paris 1 By 
 what party were the Republicans opposed on this occasion 1 With 
 what act did the national assembly terminate its labors 1 
 
 ^ 44. The Legislative Assembly. 
 
 (288.) Of how many deputies did the new legislative assembly 
 consist 1 Whence did the Feuillants derive their name 1 [See 
 note.] Which was the strongest party in the assembly 1 Who 
 composed the moderate party ] Who were the Cordeliers, whence 
 did they derive their name, and who were their leaders 1 By whom 
 were some of the highest places in the courts of justice filled 1 
 What administration was at last formed by the king, and what 
 measures was he compelled to adopt 1 
 
 (269.) To what acts of the assembly did the king refuse his as- 
 sent 1 What was the immediate consequence of this refusal 1 What 
 occasioned the second attack on the Tuileries 1 To whom did Louis 
 now intrust himself? What decrees were passed by the assembly 1 
 How did they treat the king himself? What misfortune befell La- 
 fayette 1 By whom and under what circumstances were the Pa- 
 risian populace persuaded to massacre the adherents of the old 
 regime 1 After the dissolution of the legislative assembly, what 
 was the form of government '? Of how many deputies did this 
 convention consist 1 
 
 ^ 45. The National Convention. 
 
 (290.) By what parties was the national convention distracted 1 
 By whom were the Jacobins headed 1 Which of these parties was 
 the stronger 1 To what circumstances do you attribute their su- 
 periority '? What change in the form of government was proclaimed 
 by the convention in their first session 1 By what party was an at- 
 tempt made to protect the king 1 On what charges was he ar- 
 raigned, and what was the result of his trial 7 What appeal was 
 rejected ? When and where was the sentence of the court carried 
 into execution ? 
 
 (291.) What feeling was excited by this act of treason 1 Against 
 what countries did the republic declare war 7 In what part of 
 France did the people rise against the government 1 By what act 
 of oppression had they been irritated 1 
 
 (292.) Between what parties did a struggle now commence 1 
 Under what circumstances was a committee of public safety esta- 
 blished 1 What order was issued by the assembly '? By whom was 
 it compelled to issue this order '? Whither did the great body of 
 
312 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [293 299. 
 
 Girondists fly, and against what government did they organize an 
 insurrection 1 
 
 (293.) What plan was drawn up and circulated by the conven- 
 tion 1 With what preparations did the convention then occupy it- 
 self? What was the flite of Marat 7 
 
 (294.) What proposal was made by Carnot at this time 1 How 
 was this edict carried into effect 1 What cities surrendered to the 
 ' republican forces '? Where did Napoleon win his first laurels 1 
 What cruelties were practised towards the insurgents in La Ven- 
 due ? What success attended the operations of the republican ar- 
 mies on the frontiers 1 What distinguished persons were put to 
 death by the government 7 What became of the Girondists who 
 escaped from Paris 1 
 
 (295.) What measures were adopted in the departments t In 
 what manner did the republican government endeavor to destroy 
 all reminiscences of former times 1 What acts of sacrilege were 
 committed 1 What plan of Robespierre's was successfully carried 
 out 1 Who were guillotined for alleged treason against the Re- 
 public 1 To what important office was Robespierre raised 1 What 
 were his apparent qualifications for this office 1 What law was 
 next passed by the convention 1 What was the result of this ini- 
 quitous enactment % What was the fate of Robespierre 1 
 
 (296.) What eflect was produced by his death 1 In whose 
 hands were the two committees at this time 1 What acts were 
 passed 1 For what purpose was a commission appointed, and who 
 was placed at its head ? Where and how did Louis XVII. die 1 
 On whom did the Royalists confer the title of king after his 
 death 1 Where was he resident at that time 1 Where and by 
 whom was an army of emigrants almost annihilated 1 In what 
 body was the executive power lodged by the new constitution 1 
 To whom was the legislative authority intrusted '? What was the 
 qualification for a seat in the council of ancients 1 What attempts 
 were made by the Royalists, and how were they frustrated 1 By 
 what general were their forces defeated 1 On what plan were the 
 councils then formed *? 
 
 ^ 46. The first coalition agai7ist France. 
 
 (297.) Against whom and for what reasons was Louis XVI. 
 compelled by his subjects to declare war 1 To whom was the con- 
 duct of this war confided by the emperor 7 Of what troops was 
 the grand army entirely composed 1 By whom was it commanded '? 
 What was its line of march '? On whom was the command in chief 
 of the French army conferred 1 By what circumstances were his 
 operations against the Prussians aided % What was the result '? 
 Whom did he next attack 7 Where was a battle fought, and with 
 what result % What advantages were gained by the French in other 
 parts of Europe 1 
 
 (298.) Of what European powers did the grand coalition con- 
 sist 1 By what power was it headed % 
 
 (299.) With what achievement did the Austrians open the cam- 
 
300 305.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 313 
 
 paign of 1793 1 How was Dumouriez occupied at this time ; and 
 why did he quit Holland 1 In what battle was he defeated 1 Of 
 what fortified town did the Prussians regain possession 1 What 
 step was taken bj^ Dumouriez in consequence of the refusal of his 
 soldiers to follow him 1 What plan had he proposed to them 1 
 To what circumstances do you chiefly attribute the success of 
 Jourdan 1 What victories did he gain 1 Did any thing remarkable 
 occur during the battle of Fleurus 1 What battle was fought after 
 the Austrians had re-crossed the Rhine 1 With what result 1 
 What country did Pichegru invade ? By what party was he sup- 
 ported 1 and of what circumstance did he take advantage 1 What 
 change was effected in the form of government 1 By what name 
 was the new commonwealth distinguished 1 
 
 (300.) Under what circumstances were the allies compelled to 
 abandon all their conquests on the Upper and Middle Rhine 1 
 Between what powers was a separate peace concluded 1 On what 
 terms 1 Did an}^ other governments conclude a peace with the 
 Republic 1 What concessions were made by the Spanish govern- 
 ment 1 What Spanish statesman took an active part in the nego- 
 tiations 1 How was he rewarded 1 In what war were the French 
 unsuccessful 1 Where and by the ships of what nation were they 
 defeated 1 What colonies did they lose 1 
 
 (301.) Why did the directory renew the war *? What nation 
 did they first attack 1 By whom were the three French armies 
 respectively commanded ; and what was the destination of each 1 
 
 (302.) Into what country did two of the armies advance 1 By 
 whom was the offensive now assumed 1 Where did he engage the 
 French, and with what result 1 Against whom did the archduke 
 now direct his march 1 How did Moreau avoid an engagement 1 
 What French generals crossed the Rhine in 1797 1 What intelli- 
 gence checked their farther advance 7 
 
 (303.) By what general was the French army in Italy com- 
 manded 1 Whom had he recently married 1 By what pass did 
 Napoleon enter Italy 1 Where did he first defeat the Austrians 1 
 By what victories did he separate the Sardinian from the Austrian 
 army '? What concessions did he extort from the King of Sar- 
 dinia 1 
 
 (304.) Give the pedigree of the Bonaparte family. 
 
 (805.) What bridge did Napoleon storm, and what city did he 
 enter 1 By what sacrifices did the Dukes of Modena and Parma 
 purchase an armistice 1 How did Napoleon employ the interval 
 which must elapse before he could procure a battering train for an 
 attack on Mantua 1 What effect had this movement on the coun- 
 cils of the King of Naples 1 By what sacrifices did the Pope pur- 
 chase the forbearance of the French '? Of what city were the Aus- 
 trians . still in possession 1 What is its situation 1 By whom was 
 the garrison commanded'? How many attempts were made to 
 raise the siege '? What was the fate of the city at last 1 By whom 
 was the first of these attempts made, why did he quit Mantua, and 
 where was he defeated 1 By whom was the second attempt made '? 
 Where were they defeated 1 What other victories were gained by 
 
314 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [306 312. 
 
 the French ? After what battle did the garrison of Mantua ca- 
 pitulate 1 
 
 (306.) In consequence of what accusation was the Duke of Mo- 
 dena deprived of his duchy 1 Of what republic did it form a part 1 
 By what sacrifice was the Pope compelled to purchase peace after 
 the fall of Mantua 1 
 
 (307.) Into what countries did Napoleon then advance 1 With 
 what power did he conclude an armistice '? When and where was 
 a peace afterwards concluded 1 What countries were given up 
 to the French 1 Of what countries was the Cisalpine Republic 
 composed '? What territory did tlie emperor receive in return 
 for these sacrifices '? What provinces was he permitted to 
 retain 1 
 
 (308.) What islands were ceded to France 1 What compensa- 
 tion did the Duke of Modena receive for the loss of his duchy "i 
 For what purpose was a congress held at Rastadt 1 What name 
 was given to Genoa and its territory 1 What was the condition of 
 the French marine at this time 1 
 
 ^ 47. Eastern Europe. 
 
 .) What circumstances encouraged the Poles to rise against 
 their Russian rulers 1 By what government were they encouraged 1 
 What were the most important articles of their new constitution 1 
 By whom and at whose instigation was a confederacy formed for 
 the restoration of the ancient constitution 1 By what troops was 
 Poland at the same time invaded 1 Who commanded the Polish 
 army 1 What concessions were made by the king in consequence 
 of these hostile demonstrations 7 
 
 (310.) Wliat was the avowed object of the King of Prussia in 
 invading Poland 7 What was the purport of his proclamation 1 
 Between what powers, and with what motives, was a second 
 partition of Poland arranged ■? What portion did each of 
 those powers receive ? Whom did the Poles choose to be their 
 leader 1 
 
 (311.) What measures were adopted by William II. on receiv- 
 ing intelligence of this outbreak 1 What city did he storm, and 
 why did he abandon the siege of Warsaw 1 By what armies was 
 Poland now invaded 1 By whom was an attempt made to prevent 
 the junction of these armies 1 What became of Kosciusko 1 What 
 city was stormed by Suwarrow 1 With the capitulation of what 
 city did the strue-gle terminate 1 What became of King Stanislaus 
 Poniatowski 1 Between what powers, and in what year, was a 
 third partition of Poland arranged 1 What were now the iDOunda- 
 ries of those countries'? 
 
 (312.) In what wars did Frederick William II. take an active 
 part *? What loss did he sustain in the first of these wars, and 
 what advantage did he gain in the second 7 What provinces 
 were formed out of his newly-acquired territory 1 By what 
 river were they separated from one another'? Of what other 
 
313 319.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 315 
 
 territories did Frederick become possessor 1 By whom was he 
 succeeded 1 What was the poHcy of the new monarch 1 
 
 (313.) By whom were Catherine II. and Gustavus III. suc- 
 ceeded '? 
 
 ^ 48, The French Directory. 
 
 (314.) In what condition did the five directors find the finances 1 
 How did they endeavor to meet this difliculty'? Did this plan 
 succeed 1 
 
 (315.) What circumstances occasioned the formation of a royal- 
 ist opposition % By whom was a party also formed in the directory 
 itself? Which of the two parties triumphed % What became of 
 Carnot and Barthelmy 1 
 
 (316.) Why were the negotiations with England broken oflf? 
 Who was appointed commander-in-chief of the " army of Eng- 
 land 1" How was Bonaparte occupied at this time '? Had he 
 any object in view beyond the conquest of Egypt % By whom 
 was the Indian war renewed 1 In what year, and how did it 
 terminate 1 
 
 Bonaparte's expedition against Egypt and Syria. 
 
 (317.) What number of men had Bonaparte under his com- 
 mand 1 From what port did he sail '? By what generals was he 
 accompanied 1 By whom were they afterwards joined 1 Were 
 any distinguished civilians attached to the army '? By whom was 
 the English fleet in the Mediterranean commanded at this time 1 
 What island did Bonaparte conquer in his voyage from Toulon to 
 Egypt '? At what Egyptian sea-port did he land 1 Who were the 
 Mamelukes, where were they attacked by the French, and what 
 was the result of the battle % In what' direction did Dessaix 
 advance 1 What disastrous intelligence now reached Napoleon 1 
 On what day was this battle fought 1 What was the immediate 
 effect of this disaster '? By whom were the French attacked at 
 Cairo, and with what result 7 By what power was war declared 
 against France in consequence of these proceedings'? What coun- 
 try did Bonaparte invade 7 By whom was Acre defended 1 What 
 was the result of his attempts on that city 1 How many times did 
 he attack it 1 In consequence of what intelligence did he withdraw 
 his army 1 
 
 (318.) Where did the Turkish army land, and what was its 
 fate 1 In what year did Bonaparte return to France 1 Whom did 
 he leave in command of 'the army 7 What victory was gained by 
 Kleber, and what was his fate "? 
 
 (319.) What effect was produced by the violent proceedings of 
 the directory 1 What pretext was afforded them for sending an 
 army into the States of the Church 1 What form of government 
 did they establish at Rome % What became of Pope Pius VI. 7 
 What measures were adopted for the destruction of the Swiss 
 Confederation 1 Under what name was Switzerland incorporated 
 into the French republic 1 What secret article was introduced 
 7 
 
316 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [320 323. 
 
 into the treaty of Campo Formio 1 With consent of what power 1 
 What was its effect 1 
 
 (320.) In what condition did Bonaparte find the nation on his 
 return from Egypt 1 What powers were intrusted to him '? Who 
 was appointed his coadjutor 1 What event furnished the councils 
 with an excuse for withdrawing to St. Cloud 1 How many of the 
 directors supported Bonaparte 7 On what condition 1 What he- 
 came of the others 1 By whose exertions was Bonaparte enabled 
 to dissolve the assembly of Five Hundred 7 What sort of a govern- 
 ment was then established '? What title was conferred on Bona- 
 parte '? For how many years was he appointed 1 Who were his 
 colleagues 1 To what bodies were the consuls required to submit 
 aU projects of law 1 
 
 ^ 49. War of the second coalition against France. 
 
 (321.) What territories had the emperor ceded to France? In 
 accordance with the terms of what treaty 7 What places were 
 promised to him as a compensation ? Who protested against this 
 alienation of German territory 1 To what conditions were they 
 forced to submit 1 Between what powers had a new coalition been 
 formed 1 Who was grand-master of the Knights of Malta at this 
 time 1 State the reasons which induced the Porte and Austria to 
 become parties to this alliance. With what atrocious act was the 
 peace of Rastadt terminated 1 Which of the German princes took 
 part in the war 7 What was the policy of the northern sovereigns 7 
 
 (322.) What plan of military operations was agreed on by the 
 allies 1 By whom were these armies respectively commanded 1 
 For what purpose were they sent into those countries 7 How did 
 the Neapolitans commence the war 1 By whom were they com- 
 manded 1 Was the attempt successful 7 What Italian sovereign 
 fled on the approach of the French 7 In whose hands did he leave 
 his capital 1 What new name was given to his dominions 7 Against 
 whom did the directory tlien declare war ? What were the desti- 
 nations of their four armies, and by whom were they commanded 1 
 What success attended the operations of Massena in Switzerland 1 
 What generals were stationed at Naples and in Holland 1 
 
 (323.) By whom was Scherer defeated 7 Whose arrival com- 
 pleted the discomfiture of the French 1 By what troops were 
 Lombardy and Piedmont occupied 7 Between what parties, and 
 with what result, was a battle fought on the banks of the Trebial 
 What were the immediate consequences of this victory 1 What 
 French general was defeated by Suwarrow. and for what purpose 
 did he cross the Alps % What portion of their Italian possessions 
 remained in the hands of the French at the close of the year 1799 1 
 By whom was the French army commanded in the campaign of tlie 
 following year 1 How long did this campaign last 1 By what 
 passes did they cross the Alps 1 What city Avas entered by Bona- 
 parte 1 Where did General Melas engage the French 7 By whom 
 was the battle renewed % What was his fate '? By what occur- 
 rence was the discomfiture of the Austrians completed 1 On what 
 
324 327.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 317 
 
 conditions was Melas allowed to withdraw the remains of his array 
 from the field 7 In what cities did Bonaparte now establish provi- 
 sional governments 1 Whom did he nominate commander-in-chief 
 of the army of Italy 1 
 
 (324.) What success attended the operations of the Archduke 
 Charles in Germany and Switzerland 1 By what pass did Suwarrow 
 enter Switzerland '? By what circumstance was he compelled to 
 withdraw his troops into the country of the Grisons 1 Through 
 what country did he return to Russia'? What victories were 
 gained by Moreau in the year 1800'? How near to Vienna did he 
 advance 1 
 
 (325.) On what day, and where was peace concluded'? Be- 
 tween what parties, and on what conditions 1 For what purpose 
 was a deputation appointed, and what was the result of their labors 1 
 In what manner were the hereditary princes of the empire indem- 
 nified for their losses 1 What compensation did the Grand Duke 
 of Tuscany and the Duke of Modena receive 1 What countries 
 were most favored in this division '? For whom were new elector- 
 ates founded 1 What was now the total number of electors 1 
 What princes had been deprived of the electoral dignity '? What 
 cities remained unmediatized '? 
 
 (326.) What territories were added to Prussia 7 What did 
 Bavaria receive 1 What territory did Hesse share with Nassau 1 
 What portion fell to the lot of Baden 1 To what circumstance was 
 the grand duke indebted for this accession of territory 1 What 
 compensation did Wiirtemberg receive for her losses in Alsace 1 
 What indemnification was received by Austria for her cession of 
 the Breisgau 1 What sacrifice had been made by the Duke of 
 Parma, and what compensation did he receive 1 By what sacrifice 
 did Naples purchase peace '? To what office in Italy was Bonaparte 
 appointed '? How many new cantons were added to those already 
 existing in Switzerland 1 Which of the Swiss cantons was annexed 
 to France 1 For what reason 1 
 
 (327.) By what nation was the commerce of Holland crippled? 
 By what parties was the country itself distracted '? What eflfect 
 was produced by the appearance of the Prince of Orange off" the 
 Helder at this crisis 1 To whose incapacity do you attribute the 
 failure of the whole undertaking '? By what conquest was the 
 supremacy of England in the Mediterranean secured 1 In accord- 
 ance with what capitulation was Egypt evacuated by the French 1 
 What refusal on the part of England produced a rupture Avith Rus- 
 sia 1 In conjunction with what powers did Russia revive the armed 
 neutrality'? How did England avenge herself? What occur- 
 rences afforded a favorable opportunity for the termination of hos- 
 tilities 1 Who succeeded Paul on the Russian throne 1 In what 
 month and year was peace concluded 1 Between what powers 1 
 What possessions were relinquished by England at the peace of 
 Amiens '? What compensation did she receive for this sacrifice I 
 What government afterwards became a party to this treaty 7 
 
318 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [328 331. 
 
 ^ 50. The consular government of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 
 (328.) To what objects did the first consul now direct his atten- 
 tion 1 What was his ultimate design 1 What proof have you of 
 this 1 What conspiracy was discovered, and for what severe meas- 
 ure did the discovery afford a pretext 1 Into how many sections 
 was the tribunate divided 1 By what act on the part of the French 
 government were the emigrants enabled to return to France'? 
 What plan was adopted by Bonaparte for the establishment of the 
 Roman Catholic worship 7 What improvement was effected in the 
 education of the middle classes'? What was the "Code Napo- 
 leon'?" By what measure was public credit re-established '? De- 
 scribe the manner in which Bonaparte prepared the way for the 
 establishment of absolute monarchy. To what office was Napo- 
 leon elected immediately after the conclusion of peace 1 In whom 
 was absolute authority vested by the new constitution 1 In con- 
 junction with what body 1 By what restrictions were the legisla- 
 tive corps and tribunate reduced to insignificance'? What dis- 
 covery furnished an excuse for still further encroachments '? By 
 what court were the conspirators tried '? Why was this '? How 
 many of them were executed'? What became of Pichegru and 
 Moreau 1 On what charge was the Duke d'Enghien arrested '? 
 What was his fate 7 What title was conferred on Bonaparte pre- 
 viously to these trials 1 When and by whom was he anointed '? In 
 what manner was the constitution modified 1 What vestige of the 
 representative system remained? 
 
 ^ 51. The third coalition against France. 
 
 (329.) What circumstances produced a rupture between France 
 and England in 1803 '? Which of these governments declared war '? 
 What British possession was immediately seized by Bonaparte'? 
 What do you mean by the continental system '? What prepara- 
 tions were made at Boulogne % 
 
 (330.) In what manner did Pitt meet this danger "? By what 
 circumstance were the operations of this coalition facilitated'? 
 What form of government did Bonaparte substitute for the Italian 
 republic % Where and in what year was he crowned % Who was 
 nominated viceroy of Italy % What dignity was conferred on his 
 brother-in-law, Bacciochi '? What republic was incorporated with 
 France 7 What measures were adopted by Bonaparte on the for- 
 mation of this third coalition % What powers were parties to the 
 coalition '? By whom was Bonaparte joined '? 
 
 (331.) What force was raised by Austria in 1805'? By whom 
 was the larger army commanded, and into what country did it 
 march '? Who commanded the smaller % What was its destina- 
 tion '? Whom did Napoleon dispatch into Italy "? In what country 
 did he himself take the command of the army? Where did he 
 concentrate his forces '? By what general was he joined '? What 
 country was entered by the French, and what fortress did they 
 blockade and take '? Who commanded the garrison % What 
 
332 334.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 319 
 
 country did Napoleon now enter 1 Of what city did Murat take 
 possession 1 How were the Austrians employed in the mean time 1 
 On what day was the battle of Austerlitz fought '? By what name 
 is it known 1 Who were defeated in that battle 1 Between what 
 parties was the peace of Presburg- concluded"? What sacrifices 
 were made by the emperor 1 What dignities were conferred on 
 the electors of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden ? What territo- 
 ries were surrendered by Prussia, and what did she receive in ex- 
 change ] What penalty was inflicted on the King of Naples 1 How 
 had he displeased Napoleon 1 On whom was the kingdom of Na- 
 ples conferred 1 To whom were the papal seignories of Benevento 
 and Ponte-Corvo granted 1 What name was given to the Batavian 
 repubUc, and on whom M'as the sovereignty conferred 1 To whom 
 did Napoleon give Cleves, Berg, and Neufchatel ] In what month 
 and year did the dismemberment of the German empire take place 1 
 How many princes separated themselves from the empire 7 What 
 confederacy did they form '] Who declared himself its protector^ 
 What titles did these princes renounce 1 Where was the business 
 of the confederacy to be transacted ? Who was the president 1 
 To what did each of the confederates pledge himself? What title 
 had Francis H. assumed in 1804 1 What imperial institutions were 
 broken up when Francis ceased to be head of the German empire 1 
 What arbitrary policy was pursued by the confederation 1 By 
 what troops were they supported ? Who was punished with death 
 for resistance to their tyranny 1 
 
 (332.) By whom and where were the Spanish and French fleets 
 destroyed 1 Who lost his life in the engagement 1 To what 
 aggressive measures against England did Napoleon now direct his 
 attention 1 
 
 () 52. The fourth coalition against France. 
 
 (333.) What hostile measures was Prussia compelled to adopt 
 against England ? What was the immediate result of this proceed- 
 ing ? What plan did Napoleon adopt in the hope of still further 
 widening the breach ? What measure was unanimously recom- 
 mended by the Prussian generals 1 By what circumstance was 
 Napoleon enabled to concentrate a force on the Main % What was 
 the amount of that force 1 What royal personage fell in a skirmish 
 near Saalfeld ? Where did Napoleon engage the two grand divi- 
 sions of the Prussian army ? Who commanded the two divisions'? 
 By whom were the two divisions of the French army commanded 1 
 What was the event of both these battles 1 What became of the 
 Duke of Brunswick? How was the Elector of Saxony rewarded 
 for his adherence to the Rhenish confederacy 1 To whom were the 
 Prussian fortresses surrendered ? By whom were some of them 
 bravely defended 1 What city did Napoleon enter in triumph 1 
 Into how many departments did he divide the conquered Prussian 
 provinces % What decree did he publish, and what was its effect 1 
 
 (334.) By whom were the French joined as they approached 
 the Vistula '? Whom did the Prussians join % In what war were 
 the Russians involved at that time 1 Through whose influence 1 
 
^20 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [335 33/ 
 
 .t!f op1v7^^^ ""'^J "^'^ Ney's division march 1 What became of the 
 est of the French army 1 What intelligence induced Napoleon to 
 break up his winter encampment at Warsaw ? What Russian s-en- 
 eral did he engage, and where 1 Was the battle decisive i What 
 cities capitulated during the armistice 1 By what victory was the 
 
 clud d"" W? V ^'''IT^ ^n^^-" what'parties wasfeaceVon! 
 eluded? What reason did Napoleon assign for restoring to Prus- 
 sia all her provmces on the right bank of the Elbe ^ What con 
 cessions were made by Prussia in return for this indulgence ^ In 
 Pff.nl fwrf ^''^ restoration of the Prussian territory Carried into 
 fZL T -^ '"^r i"r^ ^^' "'^^""* °f *'^« ^l^^"i«h confederacy, and 
 what territories did it comprehend 1 What countries were evacu- 
 ated by Russia! What possessions were surrendered by Sweden'^ 
 peace TtZT Wh 'T^ »f^« between the two empe^rors Tile 
 t^l^ D.nil fl. ; 1^^L'\'^ '\^ ^"§^^^'^ government demand that 
 the Danish fleet should be delivered up to England 1 What ban- 
 pened in consequence of the refusal of Denmark to compt Sh 
 tins demand 1 What was the consequence of this proceediCi 
 £?terTS/r"' ^'^ ^^""^^^^ «^^^^°^^" ^'^y for the"^ defence If 
 
 ^ 53. The ivar in Portugal and Spain. 
 
 (335.) Why was Portugal occupied by a French armv i Rv 
 mrXri '' ^^"^r^i^d ! What litle did he assume TTJ whose 
 name did he proclaim himself regent 1 What had become of the 
 Por uguese royal family? To what countries did Napoh^on ex! 
 tend his continental system ? For the subjugation of what coun 
 
 Kes'?'wmi^;;:i';? f^^"'?- tf^ ^^^^^^ dld^L^c^ossTe" 
 lll\^\ Lu l\ ^^at force? Who was at that time Kin? of 
 Spain ? Why had Charles IV. resigned his crown ^ What desii^ 
 FrT.?'T't^^/-¥o^^-'^^"^*"^<^"«'^q"«"ce of the en IT of tie 
 Jumv 7 W. ^^^rVl ?^ ^^^^ treacherous act was Napoleon 
 ^^ L 1 ^^^T ^'^ ^^ P^^c® on the throne of Spain '^ On whom 
 
 (336.) What government sent an army into Portup-aH "R^ 
 
 wt'crmanZT'F' " T^^ ^^^^^"^'^ aLnded itfo^pTrition!? 
 of him m.f H F'T^ f™7 ^" Portugal, and what became 
 01 mm ? What disaster befell the French army in Soain i Rv 
 
 ^o'CnrW^r ^h^d'tf • . ^""^ ^^^^- P^-^-^-^ assistTnce to N^! 
 what WpIh M 1^ ^^'^ ^'^^ sovereigns met? At the head of 
 
 7qo? ^ %,^J^ Napoleon appear in Spain ? 
 f>w}oA\:\^ ?• ^^ '^'^ Napoleon enter, and what changes did he 
 
 to^'vULte Po7u1T""f ""'l'^" "^^^ '''' English irmpelled 
 France iRv't^^^^ • ^.f '^,^^^ P^^'P^s^ did Napoleon return to 
 Vhoml'.Al ^^"^ T\^^^r. fo'^^'^^^ of Saragossa defended ? To 
 whom did It surrender ? Over whom and where did Sir Arthu? 
 
338 341.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 321 
 
 Wellesley obtain a brilliant victory'? By what disastrous events 
 
 did he defeat 1 Where was the battle fo^ght^ In what fluent on 
 bf Hlat ^nTS^-lSrS Tafthl ^I'oTt^ 
 
 emperor "i What became of Ferdmand VII. 1 
 
 ^ 54 Suppression of the temporal authority of the Pope. 
 
 Sov'^'d^ \: St Fo^wS *?p-1 Vhrd-^ne return 
 to Rome 1 
 
 ^ 55 War of Austria against Napoleon. 
 
 artH^ 1^. ^^TlrVhatettaf £^n,f=^ 
 
 ''Ts4l\ What city was a second time taken by the French 1 
 Wh^e't 2nd by whom was Napoleon ^^^'Iflt^'th: A^Muke 
 then form a junction '? Where did he defeat the AicnouKe 
 CrrJ^Whlre did the two --i- agam^^^^^^^^ 
 arrival were hostihties suspended'? ^hat att^^^^^^^ J_ 
 
 the English'? Was it successful '? By wliat peact^ w»b 
 
322 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [342,343. 
 
 trian war terminated 1 What extent of territory did Austria lose 
 by the peace of Vienna 1 What provinces was she compelled to 
 relinquish 1 To what powers were they ceded 1 Out of what 
 provinces was the new state of the seven Illyrian provinces formed'? 
 Who was appointed governor of these states 1 By whom was the 
 Tyrolese insurrection headed 1 What was his fate '? Into how 
 many portions was the Tyrol now divided ? To what king- 
 doms or provinces were they annexed '? What indemnification 
 did Bavaria receive for this sacrifice of territory '? Out of what 
 provinces was the new grand duchy of Frankfort formed, and to 
 whom was it granted 1 With what stipulation 1 What attempt 
 was made by Schill, and what was the result 1 
 
 ^ 56. Napoleon at the summit of his power. 
 
 (342.) Whom did Napoleon marry after his divorce from 
 Josephine 1 What title was conferred on the empress's infant son 1 
 Why did Napoleon annex the whole of Holland to France 7 What 
 further acts of aggression did he commit 1 How many depart- 
 ments did the French empire number at this time 7 What was its 
 extent '? What was now the policy of the imperial government *? 
 What was the condition of France at this time '? What eflTect had 
 the continental system on commerce 1 What encouragement did 
 Napoleon afford to native industry '? In what particular was the 
 strictness of the continental system sometimes relaxed 1 What 
 effect did these grievances produce on the feelings of the French 
 people 1 Was discontent excited in any other quarters 1 
 
 ^ 57. Napoleon's Russian campaign. 
 
 (343.) What conviction was soon forced on Russia ] What ad- 
 ditional territory had she acquired by the peace of Bucharest 1 
 By what occurrence was the first coolness occasioned between 
 Alexander and Napoleon 1 Why was this measure regarded with 
 suspicion by Russia ? Mention the other causes of offence. By 
 whom and in what year was the Russian war commenced 1 What 
 number of men did he bring into the field 1 What was the 
 amount of the Russian force 1 Where did Napoleon first defeat 
 the Russians 1 Where did he gain a second victory 1 On what 
 day did he enter Moscow 1 What fearful calamity occurred soon 
 after his arrival^ By whom was it probably occasioned 7 How 
 long did Napoleon remain at Moscow 1 On what day and with 
 how many men did he commence his retreat 1 What was the 
 state of the weather at this time 1 In what condition was the 
 country through which the French army passed ? By whom were 
 they repeatedly attacked 1 By whom was the passage of the 
 Beresina forced 1 Why did Napoleon abandon his army ? What 
 service had Ney rendered, and how was he rewarded 1 What was 
 the first step towards the emancipation of Prussia 1 What was 
 Napoleon's opinion of this proceeding 1 
 
344—348.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 ^ 58 The War of liberation. 
 
 issue a manifesto 1 What was us p f ^^ ^^^^.^ j^e 
 
 ^^LtlvSHoSt^wS Srruitary Vcedid .0 or,an.e .n 
 
 (846.) When d,d Njoleon^e app ^^ ^^ compelled to engage 
 what place did he advance . ""' . , ^„^ jid Napoleon 
 
 tory termination of the ^Zf^l\.^^ J^^^^T ^j ^\,^t v^^^r ^^s 
 amount of the subsidy granted t^ the alhes^. ^y^ ^^^^ ^.^.^.^^^ 
 it granted^ What force ^^^ they eqmp^ ^^^.^^ ^^^. 
 
 did they form '? By what general was eacnji ^.^ ^^_ 
 
 rnded' and what was its des^nat^onj How -^^^^^.poleon 
 poleon bring into ^^^^f ^ ^ ,Xd%eneral was mortally wounded 
 his last victory'? What celebrateci S^" ^e^e the ad van- 
 
 tions" fought^ How l^'^^^.f^^^.'^Xo? the battled Who were 
 over to the albes towaids the^ncl ot^^^ ^ ^^^^^ ^ 
 engaged on the hrst ^^^^ ^ly was ^ H^^^S'of 
 
 on the second day t vvnaL ic , ..^ renewed on the loth ot 
 
 Under what circumstances was the battl^^^^^^^ .^ ^^^ ^^^^^^, 
 
 October^ W.^^MT?hfSefeSarliyTetreat1 How many men 
 In what direction did the dfeated army attacked dunng 
 
 crossed the Rhine J By whom we^^ett^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^.^ 
 
 this retreat ^_ What were J^e immecUate i^^^^.^^ fo^man 
 
 liSe^^ XattoTntrrcoVuS of neutrality with 
 
 ^^7348) What measures were now adopted by Napoleon for ttie 
 
 s^^i^nr^Ssiat^ 
 
 H\±/aX:ilb^wht^:^u^- Was\e able to prevent a 
 
^^ QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [349 354 
 
 junction of the allied armies ? In what direction did each of the 
 tvvo divisions of the allied army march ^ Where did Napoleon 
 engage the grand army, and with what success 1 Where aSdwi?h 
 what result was a congress held? Where were the French de 
 feated by Bliicher 7 What desperate design did ^Coleon^^^^^ 
 ceive af er the battle of Arcis-sur-Aube ? What FrS marsS" 
 were defeat^ed by the allies 1 What heights did they storm ' On 
 
 Wh^f Z t^ *.- ^ ^"^'' '"^'' P^"^ • ^y ^'h«^ vvere they headed? 
 What^ declaration was now made by the senate 1 By whose 
 
 finif ^^w ^^^^ ^^l ^"^ "^^^^^ ^'^ Napoleon sign his abdica- 
 
 wTnU^^.''^-'^'^'^'^'^^"*^ '^^'^ conferred on him by the aS 
 
 AVo'7wr'f ^T f^^^t^d to his wife and her descendants ' 
 
 hisSrUrParis? ^^ "^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^^ Louis XVIII. establish on 
 
 loni^diH^ if !^?7 ^i^ ^% T^^* P'''P°'^ '^^' ^ ^^"g^-es« held 7 How 
 ong did It sit 7 By what sovereigns was it attended ? By what 
 intelligence were the negotiations brought to a conclusion ^^at 
 resolutions were adopted with regard to the territorv to be as- 
 signed to Austria, Russia, Prussil, and England^ Of what new "^ 
 kingdom was the stattholder of Holland created king ? What con 
 federacy was substituted for the German empire 1 Of how many 
 Fo The t; l''"'^f > f '^f'^ '^'^ "^^ ''^''^' ^^iet hold its sesS^on^ 
 were crea odT WW '"^l^' ^"'''^"1 : ^^at new grand duchies 
 were created 1 What cities remained independent 1 What foreio-n 
 sovereigns belonged to the German confederacy 1 Wha indemni- 
 fication did Denmark receive for the cession of Norway What 
 fa^h^v^^'"''^'^^'^."^"^•^^-^^^"^^ WhatadvantlgedidThey 
 fbtain^. ' Wh'or'"''"' • ^^^^ ^^^"y "^^ ^^^t^"« did Switzer and 
 obtain ? What sovereigns were reinstated in the positions which 
 they had respectively occupied before the war 1 What add on 
 
 LSccr.l:en^''"wr;'7T 
 
 J.ucca given '? What duchies were settled on Maria Louisa 1 To 
 whom was the reversion of those duchies secured 1 To what' state 
 were they to be eventually annexed 1 u . xo wnat state 
 
 ^59. Escape of Napoleon from Elba.— The hundred days. 
 
 in £5?i?^5'^'^\^\"^.^^ had a spirit of disaffection been excited 
 mak,^ ?,• .1 ^..'"^'"'^.o''^^ M^^""'^ ™ Napoleon encouraged to 
 Sen' Rv wl ''^"^"^I^t^ Whe^e did he land, and with how^many 
 w1 -1 I '^.^'t"' '''-''" he joined 1 On what day did he enter Paris ^ 
 Whither had Louis XVIII. fl.ed in the mean time ? ' 
 
 Whit wi iTZZlf, ""^Si ^^^ Napoleon issued a proclamation 7 
 wnat was its purport 1 Why was not this arrangement in all rp 
 spects satisfactory to the people 1 What steps wfrtTken by the" 
 congress of Vienna in consequence of theS-eturn of Napoleon ' 
 mJn Tm ^\ '^"^ • ""* '^^^ ^'^^'^^ '•^'^ed hy the allies ? How many 
 troXleS^nrSf ' ^^ '^^"^ ^^^^ ^^^ ^^'^ ' W- ^-hl^ 
 (354.) What proclamation was issued by Murat 1 How far did 
 
355 359.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 325 
 
 he advance 1 By whom and where was he defeated '? Whither did 
 he fly 1 To whom did he leave his throne 1 What attempt did he 
 make in the following year, and what was his fate 1 
 
 (365.) Of what nations were the allied army composed 1 By 
 whom were the two divisions commanded 1 When and with what 
 result did Napoleon engage the Prussians 1 Who lost his life in 
 the battle of Quatrebras 1 What attempt was now made by the 
 Prussians 1 For what purpose was Grouchy's division detached 
 from the main army'? When and Avhere did Napoleon attack 
 Wellington 1 What was the event of this battle 1 By whom was 
 the French army pursued '? To what place did Napoleon then 
 fly 1 With what intention 1 To whom did he surrender himself, 
 and to what place was he conveyed 1 When and where did he 
 die'? 
 
 (356.) What contribution was levied by the allies immediately 
 after their second entry into Paris 1 Of what treasures did they 
 obtain the restoration 1 What demand was made by Prussia '? 
 By whom was this claim set aside '? Who succeeded Talleyrand in 
 the administration 1 On what terms was the peace of Paris con- 
 cluded 1 What important fortresses were ceded by France to the 
 Netherlands, Prussia, and Bavaria 1 To what power was the west- 
 ern part of Savoy given up 1 What indemnification was France 
 required to pay for the expenses of the war '? For how many 
 years was she required to maintain an army on her frontiers '? By 
 whom was this army commanded 1 What became of the Bona- 
 parte family '? What league was then concluded between the two 
 emperors and the King of Prussia 1 To what did they pledge 
 themselves 1 
 
 ^60. France. 
 A. The Restoration under the Bourbons. 
 
 (357.) What proclamation had Louis XVIII. issued previously 
 to his return to Paris ? Under whom was a liberal administration 
 formed 1 By what party was it overthrown 1 Who headed that 
 party '? What persons were excluded from the amnesty '? 
 
 (358.) What punishment was inflicted on Ney 1 What projects 
 of law were carried through the new chamber 1 By what minister 1 
 What indulgence did he obtain from the congress of Aix-la-Cha- 
 pelle 1 What return did Louis XVIII. make for these concessions 1 
 What disastrous occurrence furnished the ultra-royalists with an 
 excuse for demanding the dismissal of the premier '? What altera- 
 tion did they effect in the law of election 1 Who was at the head 
 of the new administration '? What resolution was carried by 
 them ■? By whom was this measure opposed '? What attempt was 
 now made by the ultra-royalists '? 
 
 (359.) By what conduct on the part of the government was the 
 indignation of the French people excited 7 What effect did this 
 feeling produce on the elections "? What course was Charles X. 
 compelled to adopt '? What was the fate of the next administra- 
 
326 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [360 — 367. 
 
 tion 1 Under whom was the next administration formed, and what 
 was its policy 1 On what subject was an address presented to the 
 king 1 In what manner did the king attempt to withdraw the at- 
 tention of the people from domestic politics % Was this expedition 
 successful 1 How did the people receive the news of the capture 
 of Algiers 1 What fatal coui'se was now adopted by the ministers 1 
 What was the result 1 
 
 (360.) In favor of whom did Charles X. abdicate? Who was 
 nominated regent of the kingdom 1 What dignity was afterwards 
 conferred on him 1 Under whose command was the national guard 
 placed 1 What alterations were made in the charter of Louis 
 XVIII. 1 
 
 B. Under the Hotise of Orleans. 
 
 (361.) What was the first care of Louis Philippe 1 How did he 
 effect this object 1 Were his people also satisfied ? With what 
 parties were his ministers engaged in a perpetual contest 1 By 
 whom was the "juste milieu" system of Guizot introduced 1 By 
 whom was it resisted, and what was the consequence of this oppo- 
 sition 1 
 
 (362.) In what part of France had the Carlists the greatest 
 number of adherents 1 By whom were they encouraged 1 By 
 what means did the republicans endeavor to overthrow the min- 
 istry 1 What attempts were made on the king's life 1 What 
 prince of the Bonaparte family attempted to overthrow the gov- 
 ernment 1 What was the result of these attempts '? What sys- 
 tem did Louis Philippe adopt in order to preserve peace with for- 
 eign powers 1 On what occasions was he compelled to violate it 1 
 
 (363.) What circumstance afforded Thiers an opportunity of 
 attacking the foreign policy of the government '? What was the 
 result of this opposition ? What great error was committed by 
 the liberal administration ? What was the policy of the Soult- 
 Guizot ministry 1 
 
 (364.) By whom were the colonists in the new colony of Algiers 
 perpetually harassed 1 How long did the war last '? On what 
 terms was peace concluded 1 What circumstance compelled the 
 French to accept these conditions 7 When and by whom was the 
 war renewed 1 Where was the emir compelled to take refuge 1 
 In what year did he surrender himself a prisoner, and whither was 
 he conveyed 1 
 
 (365.) By what circumstance was the Sultan of Morocco in- 
 volved in a war with France 7 What cities were bombarded by a 
 French fleet 1 By whom was the fleet commanded '? Who com- 
 manded the land army 1 On what conditions was peace concluded 1 
 Were they observed 7 
 
 (366.) To what circumstances do you attribute the unpopu- 
 larity of Louis Philippe 1 What proposal did he obstinately re- 
 ject '? What was the effect of this refusal 1 
 
 (367.) By what occurrence were the eyes of the people com- 
 pletely opened 1 What proceeding on the part of the government 
 
368 373.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 327 
 
 was the immediate cause of the revolution 1 By whom was the 
 opposition headed 1 What was the result of his motion 1 Why 
 did Louis Philippe dismiss the Guizot ministry ? What happened 
 on the evening of the 23d 1 How were the inhabitants of Paris 
 employed during the whole of that night 1 What course was now 
 adopted by the king '? In whose favor did he abdicate 1 
 
 (368.) What bold step was taken by the Duchess of Orleans'? 
 Was it successful^ By whom were the deputies compelled to 
 appoint a provisional government 7 What form of government did 
 it proclaim 1 Subject to whose approbation 1 
 
 C. Second French Rep%Mic. 
 
 (369.) In what manner did the provisional government com- 
 mence its proceedings '? To whom was the elective franchise ex- 
 tended '? When did the provisional government dissolve itself, 
 and by what was it succeeded 1 Who were the five members who 
 composed the executive commission 1 Who were the most formi- 
 dable opponents of this commission % What had the revolutionists 
 of February declared to be the duty of the state, with regard to 
 the employment of the people, and what scheme was formed 1 
 What were the consequences of the failure of this scheme 1 Who 
 was shot during the struggle which ensued 1 By whom were the 
 malcontents defeated '? To whom were the powers of the execu- 
 tive commission transferred, and what were his first acts 1 
 
 (370 ) What did the new constitution declare France to be 7 To 
 whom was the legislative authority committed '? Who were eligible 
 as representatives 1 What exception was there to this rule 1 In 
 whom was the executive authority vested 1 By whom, and for how 
 long, was the president elected % 
 
 ^61. Holland and Belgium. 
 
 (371 ) Of what provinces had the congress of Vienna settled, 
 that the kingdom of the Netherlands should be formed % To whom 
 was this kingdom given % How long did the union last % W hen 
 did the Belgians break out into open insurrection 1 What demand 
 did thev make % What was the result of the granting of this de- 
 mand f How far did this insurrection extend 1 What were the 
 results of it i Of whom was the conference assembled in London 
 composed 1 What did they decide with regard to the kingdom of 
 the Netherlands '? ,,1x01- 
 
 (372 ) What had the national congress assembled at Brussels 
 proclaimed in the meanwhile % When did the King of Holland 
 renew the war % What prevented him from carrying his plans into 
 effect % What did the conference then propose 1 What were the 
 consequences of the refusal of the King of Holland to comply with 
 these conditions % When was the treaty of peace signed between 
 the two nations 1 , . r, ^.x. ^ - • 
 
 (373.) What were the causes of the abdication of the king m 
 
328 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [374 385. 
 
 the Netherlands ? In favor of whom did he abdicate, and to what 
 place did he retire 1 What proclamation did the new king issue on 
 his accession 1 
 
 (374.) What plan of a constitution was presented by the gov- 
 ernment to the chambers in 1848 1 
 
 (375.) What has been the condition of Belgium since the revo- 
 lution of 1831 7 Did the French revolution of 1848 produce any 
 effect on Belgium 1 
 
 (376.) What is the character of the 'Belgian constitution 7 What 
 are its chief articles 7 
 
 § 62. Great Britain. 
 
 (377.) In what year did George IV. begin his reign ? Who was 
 his prime minister 1 What were his most remarkable measures '? 
 In defiance of what acts did O'Connell threaten to take his seat in 
 the house of commons 1 
 
 (378.) In what year and by what administration was the Roman 
 Catholic Emancipation carried '? 
 
 (379.) By whom was George IV. succeeded 7 Who was at the 
 head of the whig administration 7 What important act received 
 the royal assent in this reign 7 By whose administration was the 
 monopoly of the East India"Company abolished'? 
 
 (380.) Who succeeded William IV. 7 Whom did she marry'? 
 Why was Hanover separated from England 1 Who became King 
 of Hanover % 
 
 (381.) What wars have been carried on by Great Britain in this 
 reign 7 With what results % 
 
 ^ 63. Germany. 
 
 A. Germany^ a confederacy of states. (1815 — 1848.) 
 
 (382.) What diflferences of opinion arose during the session of 
 the congress of Vienna, with regard to the future constitution of 
 Germany % What reforms were effected in Prussia by Baron Von 
 Stein and the Chancellor Hardenburg 1 What was the aim of the 
 system pursued in Austria by Prince Metternich 1 Was this sys- 
 tem adopted any where else 7 When and by whom was Kotzebue 
 assassinated ? What measures did Prince Metternich then adopt 1 
 For how long did the German nation enjoy tranquillity 1 What 
 were the effects of the Paris revolution of July 1 What events 
 occurred in Brunswick at this time 1 In what states were the 
 sovereigns compelled to grant constitutions "? What demands did 
 the people of the constitutional states of the south of Germany 
 make'? 
 
 (383.) What was the conduct of the confederation after the faU 
 of Warsaw '? 
 
 (384.) On what ground did King Ernest Augustus repudiate the 
 law of 1833, in Hanover '? 
 
 (385.) Who succeeded the Emperor Francis I. in Austria 1 In 
 what year did Frederick William IV. ascend the throne'? What 
 concessions did he make to the people 1 
 
386 395.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 329 
 
 (386.) What was the cause of the disturbances in Munich in 
 1848 1 What was the issue of the struggle '? 
 
 B. Germany, a federal state (1848). 
 
 (387.) What were the effects of the intelligence of the third 
 French revolution 1 What report occasioned fresh disturbances in 
 Munich 1 What course was the king compelled to take 1 What 
 was the first act of the new king 1 What demands did the Hun- 
 garian diet make 1 Through whose influence were they granted 1 
 What measures did the students of Vienna take to have their de- 
 mands granted '? 
 
 (388.) What results followed the progress of the emperor 
 through the city 1 What was the conduct of the nobles of Hun- 
 gary 1 What were the consequences of the government scheme for 
 the formation of a single chamber 1 When did the emperor return 
 to the capital '? Who aided the Milanese in their attempts to throw 
 off the Austrian yoke 1 What was the result of this insurrection 1 
 
 (390.) What two nations formed the kingdom of Hungary 1 
 What was the cause of the rupture between the Magyars and 
 Sclavonians 7 Why did Jellachich propose a union with Austria 1 
 Whom did the emperor nominate commander-in-chief in Hungary 1 
 What occasioned the second flight of the emperor from his capital 1 
 Who was Prince Windischgratz ? What was the fate of the insur- 
 gents 1 When did the emperor abdicate 1 In favor of whom did 
 he abdicate 7 To what town was the place of meeting of the Hun- 
 garian diet changed ] 
 
 (391.) What was the occupation of the Prussian government 
 when the intelligence of the French revolution arrived 1 What 
 were the effects of this intelligence 7 What course were the gov- 
 ernment compelled to pursue 1 What were the results of the re- 
 fusal to withdraw the military from Berlin '? Did the government 
 at last comply Avith this demand 1 
 
 (392.) When did the representative assembly open its session 7 
 What was the first act of this assembly 1 Why was the session re- 
 moved to Brandenburg 1 What dispute arose between the repre- 
 sentative body and the government 1 What was the result of this 
 dispute 1 
 
 (393.) Where was the general constituent assembly to be held 1 
 How was the number of the deputies to be arranged 1 From what 
 states were the deputies to be sent 1 
 
 (394.) When did the constituent assembly commence its ses- 
 sions 1 What was the first resolution passed by the assembly 1 
 Who was elected imperial stattholder of Germany % Who directed 
 the assembly 1 What was the occasion of the emeute of the 18th 
 of September, in Frankfort 1 Who were murdered during this 
 Emeute 1 
 
 ^ 64. Russia. 
 (395.) What additions were made to the Russian empire during 
 the reign of Alexander I. '? What domestic improvements did this 
 emperor effect 1 Where did death surprise the emperor 1 By 
 
330 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [396 407. 
 
 Whom was he succeeded 7 Why did not his brother Constantine 
 succeed him ? 
 
 (396.) What conspiracy was formed early in this rei^n ^ What 
 measures did Nicholas take to excite a feelin- of nationality ^ 
 yxrS '-■> ^^^^ ^^^ *^® occasion of the Russian-Persian war'? 
 What were the terms of the peace concluded between the two 
 nations ' 
 
 (398.) What was the occasion of the Russian-Turkish war^ 
 What success had Wittgenstein against the Turks 1 What advan- 
 tages did Generals Diebitsch and Paskewitsch gain i 
 ^xrSf^-^ YJ"^^ "^^""^ *^® conditions of the peace of Adrianople-^ 
 What was the occasion of the Russian-Polish war 1 
 wt^^"^ By whom was the insurrection in Poland commenced '^ 
 What were the results of this insurrection 1 
 
 (401.) What victory did Diebitsch gain over Skrzynecki i What 
 occasioned the death of Diebitsch ^ Who succeeded him in the 
 TZ'^T^wt the army 7 What was the fate of the Polish insur- 
 gents? What became of Poland after this- insurrection i What 
 was the result of the conspiracy of 1846 7 
 
 (402.) What were the results of the war carried on with the 
 mountaineers of Caucasus 1 
 
 ^ 65. The Osmanic empire and Greece. 
 
 _ (403.) What were the causes of the decline of the Osmanic em- 
 pire during the reign of Mahomet II. i 
 
 (404.) Who was Alexander Ypsilanti 1 What proclamation did 
 
 WhTZl ff/J '"fv^^"."^^^'^ ^f the failure of the Greek caused 
 What was the fate of Ypsilanti ? 
 
 i\rS}?^'}x^^^^ ''t^^'' insurrections were suppressed at the same 
 time ? What measures induced the Greeks to rise again ^ Where 
 did they raise the standard of revolt i Who joined the Greek 
 patriots? By whom was the Porte assisted? Who commanded 
 the garrison of Missolonghi ? What was the fate of this garrison? 
 7 whose intervention was tranquillity re-established? Who was 
 elected to the office of president of Greece ? What was the cause 
 tme^ttf ^^^^™o\ Which party was victorious in this 
 battle ? What success had Maison over Ibrahim Pacha ? By whom 
 ^^^ Greece declared to be an independent kingdom ? What was the 
 firit nSri'.^^''' w7 f this kingdom? To whom was the crown 
 fiist offered? What was the fate of Capo d'Istrias? Who was 
 
 ^l^^t^Cv'V ''"-^ '^ ""l'.'"'' ^h^^ ''^' he nominated 
 When did the Porte recognize him ? Where did he fix his resi- 
 
 meT.' Wh^? ^^^'^ king himself assume the reins V govern, 
 ment ? What were the new causes of discontent in Greece i What 
 occasioned the dissolution of the Janissaries i 
 
 a^aimt^hin7^*'''n'^'''w''J'^"'™^^ ^^' • ^ho aided the sultan 
 against h m ? On what terms was peace concluded between the 
 auXfo^f Mohammed Ali ? What Ivere the results of the second 
 attempt of the sultan to subjugate Mohammed Ali i 
 
 (407.) What grant did Mohammed Ali obtain from Abdul 
 
408 414.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 331 
 
 Meschid 1 What reforms were effected by the liberal party in the 
 reign of Abdul Meschid 7 Who headed the liberal party 1 
 ^ 66. Italy. 
 (-408 ^ For what benefits was Italy indebted to France 1 When 
 was a constitution granted to Sicily 1 At whose instance was it 
 rentes "who wire the Carbonari^ What did they attempt 
 to re-establish '? Did the king grant their demands 1 What res- 
 olution did the congress of sovereigns pass'? At whose motion 
 was it passed 7 What event followed the return of the king from 
 
 ^^409) When was the absolute system broken up in Italy'? 
 When was Pope Pius IX. elected '? What course did he Wp^^^ 
 
 (-410 ^ When was a constitutional government established at 
 Naples'? Where was this example followed'? What success had 
 the Sicilians in their attempts to emancipate the inland'? What 
 events passed at this time in Parma and Modena 1 What was the 
 rpsnlt of the revolt of Lombardy '? Where, and by whom was 
 CharLsAlLrt defeated 1 What was the cause of the departure 
 of the Pope from the papal states '? 
 
 <^ 67. Switzerland. 
 (-411 ^ In whose hands had the government been since 1814'? 
 What were the consequences of the French revolution f July 1 In 
 what cantons had democratic constitutions always existed 1 What 
 were the consequences of the civil war m the canton of Basle % 
 What were the the causes of the disturbances m Aargau and Lu- 
 cerne 1 What success attended the arms of the insurgents m their 
 atJacks on Lucerne 1 What was the Sonderbund ^ What was its 
 
 ^^^^^^12 ^ When was the federal constitution revised 1 How many 
 chambers were established by the diet^ Of how many members 
 does the assembly consist 7 In whom is the supreme executvve 
 authoritv vested i Was this constitution accepted by alUhe can- 
 tons 1 Where are the sessions of the federal assembly held 1 
 ^ 68. Spain. 
 (iU ) What were the first acts of Ferdinand VIT after his re- 
 turn from France 7 Where did the revolution of 1820 coname^ce J 
 Between what parties was Spain distracted at this time ^^ What 
 resolution did the Congress of Sovereigns pass at Verona'? lo 
 whom did they intrust the execution of their design^ Who com- 
 manded the French army 1 What were the results of this expedi- 
 So^^ mat ^s the fate of the liberal leaders^ When was the 
 ^cl.>v introduced^ Who persuaded Ferdinand to ab^og^^^^^^^ 
 lawi What feelings did this measure excite J When did J^eidi- 
 nand die i By whom was he succeeded 7 What course had Don 
 SlosTn'the meanwhile pursued 7 What were the consequences 
 of these d visions'? By whom were the Christinos commanded 
 ^nd wTo asSd them' By whom were th^.C-l^^^s co"^^^^^^^^^ 
 Which party was victorious 1 On what conditions did the Basque- 
 
332 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [415 419. 
 
 Navarrese recos^nize Isabella as their queen 1 When and in favor 
 of whom did Don Carlos abdicate ^ What concessions was the 
 queen-regent compelled to make 7 When was she compelled to 
 resign the regency '? Who succeeded her in the regency 1 When 
 was the queen declared to be of age 1 When and whom did she 
 marry 1 To whom did the queen give her sister 1 
 
 ^69. Portugal. 
 
 (415.) Where had John VI. remained since the expulsion of the 
 French from Portugal ] To whom had he left the government of 
 his European dominions 1 When was he forced to return to Lis- 
 bon '? What oath was he compelled to take 1 Did he keep this 
 oath 7 Which of his sons had he left in Brazil 1 What was the 
 conduct of this son 1 When did John VI. die 1 By whom was he 
 succeeded '? What line of pohcy did he pursue 1 In favor of 
 whom did he resign the crown of Portugal 1 
 
 (416.) To whom was Donna Maria betrothed 1 What was the 
 conduct of Don Miguel 1 By whom and when was he proclaimed 
 absolute king 1 How did he lose the crown 1 In favor of whom 
 did Don Pedro resign the crown of Brazil 1 For how long did the 
 constitution of 1822 remain in force after its re-establishment in 
 1833 1 What reason compelled the government to restore the 
 charter of 1826 ? Through whose interference was the war of 
 1846-47 terminated '? What was the cause of this war '? 
 
 ^ 70. Siaeden. 
 
 (417.) In whose reign was Finland given up to Russia 7 By 
 what means was Gustavus IV. compelled to abdicate the throne 1 
 In whose favor did he abdicate 7 What new constitution was pub- 
 lished in this reign 7 What act was passed after the death of the 
 crown prince 1 What connection was there between Napoleon and 
 Bernadotte 1 
 
 The House of Bernadotte since 1818. 
 
 (418.) What name did Bernadotte assume on his accession 1 
 Did he justify the choice of the nation 7 When did he die, and by 
 whom was he succeeded 1 
 
 ^ 71. Denmark. 
 
 (419.) How had Denmark been indemnified for the loss of Nor- 
 way 7 For how long a period did this country enjoy tranquillity 1 
 Into how many provinces was it divided 7 What proposal Avas 
 made by the Danish party in the reign of Christian VIII. 1 What 
 proposal did the German provinces make on the other hand 7 
 Which of the two propositions did the king favor % What events 
 succeeded the accession of Frederick VII. 1 What engagement did 
 Prussia make'? At whose suggestion was it made 7 " Why did 
 Denmark blockade the ports of Northern Germany 7 For how long 
 was an armistice at length arranged 1 With whose consent was a 
 provisional government established 1 
 
420 429.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 333 
 
 ^ 72. Tlie American States. 
 
 (-490 ^ 1 What is the number of the United States of North 
 America -? Name the extent of the United States. Through how 
 many degrees of latitude and longitude do they range % What is 
 the extent of sea-coast % . -, . j 
 
 (421.) Give the names of the states m their order. 
 
 (422.) Which are the territories % 
 
 (423 ) How have the United States increased 1 When was 
 Louisiana purchased '? When was Florida ceded to the United 
 States 'i What is the rank of the United States as a maritime 
 power ^ What progress has been made in railways, steamboats, 
 &c. -? In diffusion of knowledge '? In general prosperity 7 Where 
 is slavery retained % What advantages resulted from the Oregon 
 treaty '? What from the war with Mexico 1 
 
 (424.) What is said of American history '? ^ ^.^ .^ ^. „ 
 
 (425 { Who was the first president '? What difficult questions 
 stood in his way from the first % [Financial ones particularly ; to 
 various sectional interests, &c.] Who ™ «?%^T'SnwPd^ 
 Treasury 7 What plan did he propose 7 What effect followed 1 
 What caused difficulties with the French^ Who defeated ttie 
 Indians'? What important treaty was concluded and by whom | 
 What have you to say of Washington's Farewell Address 1 What 
 was the state of the country on Washington's retirement^ _ 
 
 (426.) Who was the second president 1 When was he maugu- 
 rated-? What was the state of the question with France -? What 
 measures did Congress adopt 1 What caused a change m the 
 Frencl policy % When did Washington die ^ What was the effect 
 on the peopll'? State in few words his character What have you 
 to say of party during this administration % What measures ex- 
 cited opposvtwn^^^ the next president 1 When did he enter upon 
 office -? Who was vice-president -? What tract of country was 
 purchased^ From whom 1 What did the navy do, and where 7 
 Give an account of the conspiracy. Why was Burr not convicted 1 
 What was the general conviction % What measures of European 
 policy led to serious injury and difficulty 1 What was the Berhn 
 fecrie^ Orders in Council? Milan decree? Give the dates. 
 What happened in the case of the Chesapeake 7 What was done 
 in 1808 1 What the next year 1: . 
 
 r428 ) Who was the fourth president 1 When inaugurated 1 
 State of the question with France and England | How many ves- 
 sels lost between 1803 and 1811 1 Which country resumed inter- 
 course first ^ At what date ^ What resulted m case of England 1 
 When was war declared 1 Was the war popular 1 Whatpaity 
 opposed iti How long did the war last '? Operatious on land-? 
 On sea ^ Date of treaty of peace ? When was the Bank of the 
 United States chartered ^ For how longj _ 
 
 (429.) Name the fifth president. When inaugurated 7 State 
 of the country 1 What war broke out in 1818 '? Name the gen- 
 era W ha country ceded to the United States'? By whom^ 
 
234 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [430 438. 
 
 ^^®o->1 ,^i^^^u" question, whaf? Who visited the United States 
 m 1824'? How many candidates for president 1 Was either 
 elected i 
 
 (430.) Who was the sixth president 1 Date of his entrance 
 upon office'? What was the controversy with Georg-ia'^ How 
 settled 7 Who died on 4th July, 1826? What was the 'state of 
 party at this date 1 Was Mr. Adams re-elected 1 
 
 (431.) Name the seventh president ^ Date -? What policy did 
 the new president introduce 1 What did he do with respect to the 
 United States Bank ? How did he regard internal improvements i 
 What happened in South Carolina 1 How did the executive act ^ 
 What did he do m respect to the " deposits V What was the 
 benate s action 1 State why trouble occurred with France How 
 was the matter settled '? 
 
 ,' ^??;)v,^^° "^f? *^® ^^^^*^ president "? Date of his inaugura- 
 tion '? What was his policy '? State of the country -? In the city of 
 ?T:P'"t ^?^ ^^"^ failures occurred 1 To what amount '? What 
 did the banks do 1 What did the extra session do 1 What bill 
 passed, and when 1 What great excitement arose -? Was the pre- 
 sident re-elected '? ^ 
 
 r ^^^^^L^*^™® *K® "^"^^ president. Date 1 How long did he 
 live 1 Who succeeded him "? 
 
 (434.) What was remarkable in this administration ^ What 
 bill was repealed 1 What treaty formed 7 When and where i 
 Texas ^^^^^^'^^^ ^^ ^^^^® ^^^^"^ ^ ^^^^ was done in regard to 
 (435 ) Name the eleventh president. Treaty made with whom i 
 War with whom -? Treaty signed, where and when 1 California 
 when taken possession of 1 By whom 1 When was peace con- 
 cluded '? Amount of emigration '? 
 
 (436.) Who was the twelfth president ? Date-? Died when -i 
 Who succeeded him 1 Who is president now (1851) i 
 
 (437.) 2. What other name has Hayti '? When did this island 
 become an empire 1 When did it become a republic ^ When was 
 
 /^^q"^^^^ portion of the island incorporated into the republic i 
 Ai-^^u^ ^^ ^'^^^ provinces did Spanish America consist i What 
 did the people of Spanish America expect after their refusal to ac- 
 knowledge Joseph Bonaparte as king of Spain? What measures 
 did they adopt when their expectations were disappointed "t What 
 was the war of Ltberatioyi 7 Which was the successful party ^ 
 (a) How did this war terminate 1 What state was Paraguay '^ Bv 
 whom and when was it founded 1 When did it declare itself inde- 
 pendent '? Whom did it choose as dictator '? (b) When was the 
 republic of La Plata established % (c) When was the republic of 
 Chih established 7 _(d) When was the republic of Colombia estab- 
 lished ? By the union of what provinces was it formed "^ When 
 was Quito annexed to it % Into what states was it divided in 1831 1 
 (e) When was the republic of Peru established 1 By whose aid 
 7cf' '. ^'^tl^i^^ ^l'""'"^ the Spaniards ] What division took place in 
 •: X V ^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^ Uruguay formerly belonged ? By whom 
 was It taken possession of in 1817 ? Through whose intervention 
 
439 448.] OF MODERN HISTORY. 335 
 
 and when was it declared independent 1 What was the occasion 
 of the war between La Plata and Uruguay ] (g) What induced 
 the Mexicans to make fresh attempts after their first insurrectionary 
 movements had been suppressed by the Spaniards'? To whom 
 was the throne of Mexico first offered 1 Who was proclaimed em- 
 peror on the refusal of this prince 1 How long did he reign 1 Why 
 was he compelled to abdicate the throne '? What was the result 
 of a succession of party struggles 1 When did Texas separate 
 itself from Mexico 1 To what state, and when was it subsequently 
 annexed 1 
 
 (439.) Why had friendly relations been for sometime suspended 
 between Mexico and the United States of North America 1 What 
 was the cause of open hostilities ? When was peace concluded 1 
 On what terms was this peace concluded 1 (h) What are the five 
 provinces of central America'? When did they declare themselves 
 independent "? What republic did they establish 1 When did 
 Guatimala separate itself from the union % 
 
 (440.) Which is the only monarchy of the New World ? Why 
 and when did Don Pedro I. abdicate '? In whose favor did he 
 abdicate 1 
 
 ^73, I. Religion, arts, sciences, <^c., during the Third Period. 
 I. Religion. 
 
 (441.) Into how many dioceses has England divided her colonial 
 possessions % 
 
 (442.) By what Society is the Church in those dioceses mainly 
 supported 1 
 
 (443.) Over what countries are the Roman Catholic missions 
 spread 1 Under whose direction are they 1 Where are the Protest- 
 ant missions established 1 
 
 (444.) By what means was the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical 
 constitution re-established 1 By whom had the order of Jesuits 
 been re-established 7 When was this order expelled from Russia 1 
 What union was effected in Prussia in 1817 % What worship was 
 suppressed by force in Russia '? 
 
 II. Constitutional history of the Period. 
 (445.) What different constitutions have been established 
 in the different countries of Europe during this period 1 What 
 were the most remarkable effects of the French Revolution '? 
 
 III. Science, literature and art. 
 
 (446.) What was the effect of Kant's Critique on the Intel- 
 lect 1 
 
 (447.) b. Who distinguished themselves in Philology during 
 this period 1 By whom was the study of general grammar pur- 
 sued'? By whom were the studies of Oriental, Sanscrit, and 
 Ancient German literature pursued 1 
 
 (448.) By whom were excellent Gennan translations of the best 
 foreign writers made '? 
 
336 
 
 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK, ETC. [449 460. 
 
 (449.) By whom were historical investigations pursued in 
 Germany, France, England, Sweden, Poland, and Russia 1 
 
 (450.) d. What progress was made in Geography during this 
 period ? 
 
 (451.) Name the most important travels of this period'? By 
 whom were expeditions made to the North Pole ? 
 
 (452.) e. In what manner was natural science promoted by 
 these travels'? Who were the most distinguished naturalists 
 of modern times 1 What were the most remarkable discoveries in 
 medicine 1 By whom was galvano-plastic invented 1 
 
 (453.) f Who were the greatest poets of this period in Ger- 
 many 1 Mention some of their different styles 1 Who were the 
 most celebrated writers of romances and novels 1 
 
 (454.) Who were the most celebrated French poets of this 
 period 1 Who are the most celebrated writers of romance 1 
 
 (455.) Where did Lord Byron write'? Who were the most 
 celebrated English writers of this period 1 Who are the most re- 
 nowned of the modern Italian poets 1 What writers distinguished 
 themselves in Russia and Sweden '? Who are the most celebrated 
 North American romance writers '? 
 
 (456.) g. What country can boast the most distinguished 
 modern orators'? Who are the most celebrated French ora- 
 tors'? 
 
 Tin,^^^"^'^ ^' -^^^ ^^^ *^® study of the antique been promoted '^ 
 Who have been the most successful imitators of classical models 
 of sculpture 1 
 
 (458.) What schools of painting have we in Germany '^ Who 
 were at the head of these schools ? What has been the great aim 
 of the French painters, Horace Vernet, P. Delaroche. &c. '? Who 
 are the most celebrated painters in Belgium '? How has the study 
 of the fine arts been improved '? By whom was lithography invent- 
 ed '? Who was the inventor of steel engraving '? Where was the 
 daguerreotype invented 1 
 
 (459.) i. Which country has produced the most illustrious 
 masters m music'? Who were the most celebrated German com- 
 posers ] Who are the most celebrated French composers i How 
 and where have Rossini and Bellini distinguished themselves'? 
 By what means has the musical science been advanced in 
 Europe '? 
 
 (460.) To whom was the colonial trade of the French, Dutch 
 and Spaniards transferred during the war 1 How did England 
 mdemnify herself for the loss of her trade with the European 
 contmenf? How was manufacturing industry encouraged in 
 France, the Netherlands, Germany, and Russia 1 Hovv were 
 the mterests of commerce promoted ? What commercial prin- 
 ciple has been adopted by England 1 Mention an instance of 
 
 t.his 
 
 this 
 
 THE END, 
 
MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY AND HISTORY. 
 
 BY WILHELM PUTZ, 
 
 PRINCIPAL TUTOR IN THE GYMNASIUM OF DURRN 
 
 Translated from the German. 
 EDITED BY THE REV. THOMAS K. ARNOLD, M i., 
 
 AUTHOR OF A SERIKS OF "GREEK AND LATIN TEXT-BOOKS." 
 
 One volume, 12nio. $1. 
 
 - At no period has History presented sucli strong claims upon the attention of the J^arneJ, «a 
 .t thrn -p^ent dav • and to no people were its lessons of such value as to tho.se of the Uni ed 
 Safes P WUh iS^past of our own to revert to, the great masses of our better educated are emp ed 
 S overlook a scieice. which comprehends all others in Us grasp. , J" P'^^j^^^^.j^ '«^^t.^,"^' ^^^^ 
 ,MU D resent a full, clear, and accurate view ol the ancient world, )ts geogiaphy, its polmcal, 
 riv 1 ^orhf leli- ous staie. must be the result only of vast industry and learning. Our exami- 
 n7fo\fonem4"4n volume leads us to believe, that as a tcxt-book on Ancient History, for Col- 
 KranlAca^iemTesJitii the best compend yet published. It bears marks in its methodical 
 anan'^nemand^condensation of materi'als, of the untiring patience of German scholarship ; and 
 fn i^^nm-iess throu-h the English and American press, has been adapted for acceptable use in 
 ou be' Uututions ■' A notic<rabl^ feature of the book, is its pretty complete list of sources o 
 "nfonmnS upon the nations which it describes. This will be an invaluable aid to the student 
 in his future course of reading." 
 
 " Wilhelm Piitz the author of this 'Manual of Ancient Geography and History,' is Principal 
 TutowKve/r/r) in th^ of Duren, Germany. His book exhibits the advantages o 
 
 Kp -man mcthotfof trea History, in its arrangement, its classification, and Us rigid analy- 
 £ ThTta%Xritpm-ports tobe.'a clear and definite outline of the history of the 
 nHnr^nal iSions of antiquity,' into which is incorporated a concise geography of each country 
 ^hfwWis aTextbook ; to be studied, and not merely «arf. It is to form the groundwork ol 
 J^h^P^nent htstodcannv'esti-ation,-the materials of which are pointed out, at the proper places, 
 fn^fpSua Tn carefuTie Irences to the works which treat of the subject directly under con- 
 «^P^-atiJr The iS of re erences (especially as regards earlier works) is quite complete,-thu3 
 sfppS thit desideratum in Ancieift History and Geography, which has been supplied so fully 
 by Dr. J. C. I. Gieseler in Ecclesiastical History. 
 
 "TbP nitions whose history is considered in the Manual, are : in Asia, the Israelites, the In- 
 Hi.ri^Sie BabvTot^ans the Assyrians, theMedes,the Persians,_the PhcBnicians, the Statues of As^a 
 
 nological .Tablf ':/"^/,7,^JSf S^^^^^ accent a^e given with remarkable correctness. 
 
 St^pynSlic'cSw'cmlo'no^ 
 
 ui,.e every thing wlnchr^ceeds from tl. edu^ 
 this Manual appears ^« be we l suited to the rfj'g^J^^^J^^^.^^,^ ,„j academies thoughout the 
 doubtedly, secuie foi "^^^J^f^P'^^J?- ,'^,'^°j^^^t^ry of the ancient nations, from the earliest ages to the 
 
 rrSlatiTSSrcStsto^^^^^^^^^^ geography in their connection witSTeach 
 
 other. 
 
 Sfc'fn !"w'il"w,S[efp«lc5 bt telVeSrge W. Gra,.>., Teacher of Modem Language, ,, 
 Brown University."— Proi?. Journal. 
 
HAND BOOK 
 
 MEDIJIVAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 
 
 WILHELMPUTZ, 
 
 PRINCIPAL TUTOR IN THE GYMNASIUM OF DUREN 
 
 Translated from the German by 
 REV. R. B. PAUL, M. A., 
 
 Vicar of St. Aug^istine's, Bristol, and late Fellow of Exeter Collect, Oxford. 
 I volume, 12mo. 75 cts. 
 
 HEADS OF CONTENTS, 
 
 I. Germany before the Migrations, 
 II. The Migrations. 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 First Period.- -From the Dissolution of tlie Western Empire to the Accession of the CariorIft< 
 gians and Abbasides. 
 
 Second Period.— From the Accession of the Carlovingians and Abbasides to the first Crusade. 
 
 Third Period. — Age of the Crusades. 
 
 Fourth Period. — From the Termination of the Crusades to the Discovery of America. 
 
 " The characteristics of this volume are : precision, condensation, and luminous arrangement. 
 It is precisely what it pretends to be— a manual, a sure and conscientious guide for the student 
 through the crooks and tangles of Mediaeval hisioiy. * * * * All the great principles of this 
 ex'ensi e Peiiod are carefully laid down, and the most important facts skilfully grouped around 
 them. There is no period of History for which it is more difficult to prepare a work like this, 
 an-l none for which it is so much needed. The leading lacts are well established, but they are 
 scattered over an immense space; the principles are^ascertained, but their development was 
 slow, unequal, and interrupted. There is a general breaking up of a great body, and a parcelling 
 of it out among small tribes, concerning whom we have only a few general data, and are left to 
 analogy and conjecture for the details. "Then come successive attempts at organization, each 
 more or less independent, and all very imperfect. At last, modern Europe begins slowly to 
 emerge from the chaos, but still under "forms which the most diligent historian cannot always 
 comprehend. To rcduc3 such materials to a clear and definite form is a task of no small diffi- 
 culty, and in which partial success deserves great praise. It is not too much to say that 't has 
 never been so well done within a compass so easily mastered, as in the little volume wh.x,h is 
 now offered to (he public."— Extract J rom American Preface. 
 
 "This translation of a foreign school-book embraces a succinct and well arranged body of 
 facts concerning European and Asiatic history and geography during the middle 'ages. It is 
 furni.shed with printed questions, and it seems to bs well adapted to its purpase, in all respects. 
 The mediaeval period is one of the most interesting in the annals of the world, and a knowledge 
 of its great men, and of its progress in arts, arms, government and religion, is particularly im- 
 portant, since this period is the basis of our own social polity." — Commercial Advertiser. 
 
 "This is an iinmense amount of research condensed into a moderatelv sized volume, in away 
 which no one has patience to do but a German scholar. The beauty of the work is its luminous 
 arrangement. It is a guide to the student amidst the intricacy of Medieval History, the most 
 difficult nariod of the world to understand, when the Roman Empire was breakin? up and par- 
 celling out into smaller kingdoms, and every thing was in a transition state. It was a period of 
 chaos from which modern Europe was at length to arise. 
 
 The author has briefly taken up the principal political and social influences whicl". were 
 acting on society, and shown their bearing from the time previous to the migrations of the 
 Northern nations, down through the middle agea to the sixteenth century. The notes on the 
 crusades are particularly valuable, and the range of observation embraces not only Eurcpe but 
 the East. To the student it will be a most valuable Hand-book, saving him a world of troubl* 
 b) bunting up authorities and facts."- -Rev. Dr. Kip, in Albany State Register. 
 
(Eiiglislj. 
 A MANUAL 
 
 OP 
 
 GRECIAN AND ROMAN ANTiaUITIES. 
 
 BY DR. E. F. BOJESEN, 
 
 Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in the University of Sora 
 
 Translated from the Gernu^rn. 
 
 EDITED, WITH NOTES AND A COMPLETE SERIES JF QUESTIONS, BY THB 
 
 REV. THOMAS K. ARNOLD, M. A. 
 RE\'ISED WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 
 
 One neat volume, 12mo. Price $1. 
 
 The present Manual of Greek and Roman Antiquities is far superior to any ifring on tb« 
 same topics as yet offered to the American public A principal Review of Germany says :—• 
 " Small ao \e compass of it is, we may confidently affirm that it is a great improvement on all 
 preceding wor^s of the kind. We no longer meet with the wretched old method, in which sub- 
 jects essentially distinct are herded together, and connected subjects disconnected, but have a 
 simple, systemati". arrangement, by which the reader easily receives a clear representation ol 
 Roman life. We ">> longer stumble against countless errors in detail, which though long ago 
 assailed and ^xtirpJ,led by Niebuhrand others, have found their last place of refuge in our IMa- 
 nuals. The recent investigations of philologists and jurists have been extensively, but carel'ully 
 and circumspectly used. The conciseness and precision which the author has every where 
 prescribed to himself, prevents the superficial observer from perceiving the essential superiority 
 of the book to its predecessors, but whoever subjects it to a careful examination will discover 
 this on every page." 
 
 The Editor sai/s : — "I fully believe that the pupil will receive from these little works a 
 correct and tolerably complete picture of Grecian and Roman life; what I may call the poli- 
 tical portions— the account of the national constitutions and their etfects — appear to me to be 
 of great value; and the very moderate extent of each volume admits of its being thoroughly 
 mastered — of its being got up and retained." 
 
 "A work long need h1 in our schools and colleges. The manuals of Rennet, Adam, Potter, 
 and Robinson, with ..-e more recent and valuable translation of Eschenburg, were entirely too 
 voluminous. Here is ne .her too mtich, nor too little. The arrangement is admirable — every 
 subject is treated of in its proper place. We have the general Geography, a succinct historical 
 view of the general subject; the chirography, history, laws, manners, customs, and religion o( 
 each State, as well I'^the points of unfon for all, beautifully arranged. We regard the work aa 
 the very best adjun*^ \o classical study for youth that we have seen, and sincerely hope that 
 teachers may be bri ^ht to regard it in tjie same light. The whole is copiously digested into 
 ••ppropnate questions."— (S*. Lit. Gazette. 
 
 Fro7n Professor Lincoln, of Broion University. 
 " I found on my table after a short absence from home, your edition of Bojecen's Greek and 
 Roman Antiquities. Pray accept my acknowledgments for it. I am agreeably surprised to 
 find on examinhig it, that within so very narrow a compass for so compreliensiye a sucjecc, the 
 book contains so nmch valuable matter; and, indeed, so far as I see, omits noticing no topics es- 
 sential. It will be a very useful book in Schools and Colleges, and it is fa«- superior to any thing 
 that I know of the same kind. Besides being cheap and accessible to all students, it has the 
 great merit of discussing its topics in a consecutive and connected manner." 
 
 Extract of a letter from Professor Tyler, of Amherst College. 
 " I have never found time till lately to look over Bojesen's Antiquities, of which you were 
 kind enough to send me a copy. I think it an excellent book ; learned, accurate, concise, and 
 perspicuous ; well adapted for use in the Academy or the College, and comprehending m a 
 ••nail compass, more that ie valuable on the subject than many extended treatises." 
 
 a 
 
fugltsji. 
 COURSE OF MA,THEMATICAL WORKS, 
 
 BY GEORGE R. PERKINS, A.M., 
 
 Professor of Mathematics and Princijjal of the State Normal School 
 
 I. PRIMARY ARITHMETIC. Price 21 cts. 
 
 A want, with young pupils, of rapidity and accuracy in performing operations upon wruten 
 numbers; aii imperfect knowledge of Numeration ; inadequate conceptions of the nature and 
 relations of Fractions, and a lack of familiarity with the pruiciples of Decimals, have induced 
 the author to prepare the Primary Arithmetic. 
 
 The first part is devoted to Mental Exercisb." and the second to Exercises on the State 
 and Blackboard. 
 
 While the minds of young pupils are disciplined by mental exercises (if not wearisomely 
 prolonged), they fail, in general, in trusting to "head-work" for their calculations; ..jid m re- 
 eorting to written operations to solve their difficulties, are often slow and inaccurate fn-m a want 
 of early familiarity with such processes : these considerations have induced the Author ic devota 
 part of his book io primary written exercises. 
 
 It has been received with more popularity than any Arithmetic heretofore issued. 
 
 II. ELEMENTARY ARITHMETIC. Price 42 cts. 
 Has recently been carefully revised and enlarged. It will be found concise, yet lucid. It reaches 
 the radical relations of numbers, and presents fundamental principles in analysis and examples. 
 It leaves nothing obscure, yet it does not embarrass by rtiultiplied processes, nor enfeeble by 
 minute details. 
 
 In this work all of the examples or problems are strictly practical, made up as they are in a 
 great measure of important statistics and valuable facjs in history and philosophy, which are 
 thus unconsciously learned in acquiring a knowledge of the Arithmetic. 
 
 Fraction." are placed iir.mediately after Division ; Federal Money is treated as and with De- 
 cimal Fractions; Proportion is placed before Fellowship, Alligation, and such rules as require 
 its application in their solution. Every rule is marked with verily and simplicity. The an- 
 swers to all of the examples are given. 
 
 The work will be found 'to be an improvement on most, if not all, previous elementary 
 Arithmetics in the treatment of Fractions, Denominate Numbers, Rule of Three, Interest, Equa- 
 tion of Payments, Extraction of Roots, and many other subjects. 
 
 Wherever this work is presented, the publishers have heard but one opinion in regard to its 
 ntierits, and that most favorable. 
 
 III. HIGHER ARITHMETIC. Price 84 cts. 
 
 The present edition has been revised, many subjects rewritten, and much new matter added ; 
 and contains an Appendix of about GO pages, in which the philosophy of the more diffictU 
 operatioud and interesting properties of ntimbers arc fully discussed. The work is what its name 
 purports, a Higfier Arithmetic, and will be found to contain many entirely new principles which 
 nave never before appeared in any Arithmetic. It has received the strongest recommendations 
 from hundreds of the best teachers the country allbnls. 
 
 IV. ELEMENTS OF ALGEBRA. Price 84 cts 
 This work is an introduction to the Author's "Treatise on Algebra," and is designed eape 
 cially for the use of Common Schools, and universally pronounced ''admirably adapted to th* 
 purpose." 
 
 V. TREATISE ON ALGEBRA. Price $1 50. 
 
 This work contains the higher pans of Algebra usually taut;ht in Colieses ; a new method 
 of cubic and higher equation- as \-ell as (he Theorem of Sturm, by which we may at once 
 determine the number of real roots of any Algebraic Equation, wivh much niord ease than by 
 previously discovered method. 
 
 In the present revised edition, one entire chapter on the subject of Comtinited Fractionb 
 has been added. 
 
 VI. ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY, with Practical Applications. SL 
 
 The author has added throughout the entire Work, Practical Applications, which, in the 
 estimation of Teachers, is an important consideration. 
 
 An eminent Professor of Mathematics, in speaking of this work, says : " We have adopted 
 it, because it follows more closely the best model of pure geometrical reasoning, which ever has 
 been, and perhaps ever will be exhibited ; and because the Author has condensed some of the 
 important principles of the great r.taster of Geometricians, and more eepeciai. has shown that 
 his theorems are not mere Uieory, ty many practical applications : a quality" m a text book »* 
 VU8 science no less uncommon than it is important." 
 
 6 
 
PEOF. MANDEVILLE'S READmG BOOKS. 
 
 I. PRIMARY, OR FIRST READER. Price 10 cents. 
 
 II. SECOND READER. Price 16 cents. 
 
 These two Readers are formed substantially on the same plan ; am the second is a continual 
 tion oC the first. The design of both is, to combine a knowledge of the meaning and pron^^1<;la• 
 jon of words, with a knowledge of their grammatical functions. The parts of speech are in- 
 iwuced successively, beginning with the articles, these are tbllowcd by the demonstrative pro« 
 Bouns ; and these agam by others, class after class, until all that are requisite to form a sentence 
 Oive. been separately considered ; when the common reading lessons begin. 
 
 The Second Reader reviews the ground passed over in the Primary, but adds largely to the 
 amount of information. The child is here also taught to read writing as well as printed matter; 
 and i;>. the reading lessons, attention is constantly directed to the different ways in which 
 sentences are formed and coruiected, and of the peculiar manner in which each of them is deliv 
 ered. All who have examined these books, have pronounced them a decided and important ad- 
 vau'-e on every other of the same class in use. 
 
 m. THIRD READER. Price 25 cents. 
 
 IV. FOURTH READER. Price 38 cents. 
 
 In the first two Readers, the main object is to make the piipil acquainted with the meaninf 
 and functions of words, ana to impart facility in pronouncing them in sentential connection : th« 
 leadnig de-sign of these, is to form a natural, flexible, and varied delivery. Accordingly, th« 
 Third Reader opens with a series of exercises on articulation and modulation, containing numer- 
 ous examples for practice on the elementary sounds (including errors to be corrected) and on th« 
 different movements of the voice, produced by sentential structure, by emphasis, and by the pa» 
 sions. The habits formed by these exercises, which should be thoroughly, as they can be easily 
 mastered, undoj- intelligent instruction, find scope for improvement and confirmation in the 
 reading lessons which follow, in the same book and that which succeeds. 
 
 Tliese lessons have been selected with special reference to the following peculiarities: IsU 
 Colloquial character; 2d, Variety of sentential structure; 3d, Variety of subject matter; 4th 
 Adaptation to the progres.siv> development of the pupil's mind; and, as far as possible, 5tli, 
 Tendency to excite moral and religious emotions. Great pains have been taken to make the 
 bookb in these respects, which are^in fact, characteristic ol the whole series, superior to any 
 oJiere in u.se ; with what success, a brief comparison will readily sliow. 
 
 V THE FIFTH READER; OR, COURSE OF READING. Price 75 cents. 
 
 VI THE ELEMENTS OF READING AND ORATORY. Price $1. 
 
 These books are designed to cultivate the literary taste, as well as the understandmg and voca. 
 powers of the pupil. 
 
 Ths Course of Reading comprises three parts ; the first part containing a more elaborate 
 description of elementary sounds and the parts of speech grammatically considered than waa 
 deemed necessary in the preceding works ; here indispensable : part second^ a complete classifi- 
 cation and description of every sentence to be found in the English, or any other language ; ex- 
 amples of which in every degree of expansion, from a few words to the half of an octavo page 
 in length, are adduced, and arranged to be read ; and as each species has its peculiar delivery a« 
 well as structure, both are learned at the same time ; part third, paragraphs ; or sentences in 
 their conne-tion unfolding general thoughts, as in the common reading books. It may be ob- 
 served that i.)e selections of sentences in part second, and of paragraphs in part third, comprise 
 some of the finest gems in the language : distinguished alike for beauty of thought and facility 
 of diction. If not (ound in a school' book, they might be approprately called " elegant extracts " 
 
 The Elements of Reading and Oratory closes the series with an exhibition of the whole 
 theory and art of Elocution exclusive of gesture. It contains, besides the classification of sen- 
 tences a "ready referreu lO, but here presented with fuller statement and illustration, the laws of 
 pu'iiciuation and delivery deduced Irom it: the whole follov/ed bj carefully selected oieces for 
 semeiiiial -inalysis and vocal practice. 
 
 The Re.sult.— The stuuent who acquaints himself thoroughly with the contents of thia 
 book, will, as numerous experiments have proved ; 1st, Acquire complete knowledge of the 
 structure of the language ; 2d, B 3 able to designate any sentence of any book by name at a 
 glance ; 3d, Be able to declare with equal rapidity its proper pur.ctuntion ; 4Lh, Be able to delare, 
 and witii sufficient practice to give Its proper delivery. Such are a few of the genera! character- 
 istics of the series of school books which the publishers now otTer to the friends and patrons 
 of a sound common school and academic education. For more particular information, reference 
 is respectfully made to the "Hints," which may be found at the beginning of each volume. 
 
 N. B. The punctuation in all these books conforms, in the main, to the sense and proper d© 
 livery of every sentence, and is a guide to both When a departure from the proper punctuation 
 occurs, the proper delivery is indicated. As reading book? are usually punctuated, it is a metlei 
 of surprise that children should learn to read at all. 
 
 • * The above series of Reading Books are already very extensively introduced and com- 
 menced by tne most experienced Teachers in the country. " Prof MandeviUe's system is emi- 
 Denily original, scientific and practical, and destined wherever it is introduced to supersede at 
 once all others." o 
 
THE SHAKSPEARIAN READER; 
 
 k COLLECTION OF THE MOST APPROVED PLAVS OF 
 
 SHAKSPEAEE. 
 
 Carehilly Revised, with Introductory and Explanatory Notes, and a Memoir 
 
 o the Author. Prepared expressly for the use of Classes, 
 
 and the Family Reading Circle. 
 
 BY JOHN W. S. HOWS, 
 
 Professor of Elocution in Columbia College. 
 
 The Man, whom Nature's self hath made 
 
 To mock herself, and Truth tr. imitate. — Spenser. 
 
 One Volume, l2mo, $1 26. 
 
 At a period when the fame of Shakspeare is "striding the world like & co/.issus," and edi 
 tioni5 of his works are multiplied with a profusion that testifies the desire awakened in all classes 
 Df society to read and study his imperishable compositions, — there needs, j^erhaps, but little 
 apolosy for the followins selection of his works, prepared expressly to render them unexcep- 
 tionable for the use of Schools, and acceptable for Fainily reading. Apart from the fact, that 
 Shakspeare is the "well-spring" from which may be traced the origin of the purest poetry in 
 our language, — a long course of professional experience has satisfied me that a necessity exists 
 for the addition of a w^rk like the present, to our stock of Educational Literature. His writings 
 are peculiarly adapted for the purposes of Elocutionary exercise, when the system of instruction 
 pursued by the Teacher is based upon the true principle of the art, viz. — a careful analysis of 
 the structure and meaning of language, rather than a servile adherence to the arbitrary and me- 
 chanical rules of Elocution. 
 
 To impress upon the mind of the pupil that words are the exposition of thought, and that in 
 reading, or speaking, every shade of thought and feeling has its appropriate shade of modulated 
 tone, ought to be the especial aiin of every Teacher; and an author like Shakspeare, whose 
 every line embodies a volume of meaning', should surely form one of our Elocutionary Text 
 Books. * * * Still, in preparing a selection of his works for the express j)urpose contem- 
 plated in my design, I have not hesftated to exercise a severe revision of his language, beyond 
 that adopted in any similar undertaking — " Bowdler's Family Shakspeare " not even excepted;— 
 and simply, because I practically know the impossibility of introducing Shakspeare as a Claaa 
 Book, or as a satisfactory Heading Book for Families without this precautionary revisnn.— 
 Extract from the Preface. 
 
 l^rnfBBsnr §nmi'% Indnriral $ixim. 
 
 (NEARLY READY.) 
 
 MANUAL or THE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 translated tVom the Fren(?h of M. Des Michels, Rector of the College of Roneu, 
 with Additions and Corrections. 
 
 BY G. W. GREENE, 
 
 Professor of Modern Languages in Brown University. 
 
 Accompanied with Numerous Eng?-avings and Maps. One Volume, iSma 
 TO BE FOLLOWED BY 
 
 A Marnial of Modern History, down to the French Revolution^ 
 A Manual of Ancient History. 
 A History rf Rome. 
 
 *.* Great pains will be taken to adapt these books to the practical puiposev of the Olau 
 B4>om and for th« guidance of private students. 
 
 10 
 
A MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, 
 
 r O AI P K I S I N G : 
 
 I. Ancient Historv, containing the Political History, Geographical Position, and Sociai 
 State of the Principal Nations ol" Antiquity, carefully digested from the Ancient Writers, and U- 
 lustraied by the discoveries of Modern Travellers and Scholars. 
 
 II. Modern Hi5 r orv, containing the Rise and Progress of the principal European Nationt 
 thf-ir Political History, and the changes in their Social Condition: with a History of the Colonies 
 Founded by Europeiins. By W. COOKE TAYLOR, LL.D.,cfTrinity College, Dublin. Revised, 
 with Additions on American History, by C. S. Henry, D. D., Professor of History in the Univer 
 •ity of N. Y., and Questions adapted for the Use of Schools and Colleges. One handsome voj., 
 8%'o, of SOO pages, S:J,25 ; Ancient History in 1 vol. $1,25, iilodern History in 1 vol., $1.50. 
 
 The Ancient Iiistory division comprises Eighteen Chapters, which include the general 
 outlines of the History of Egypt— the Ethiopians— Babylonia and Assyria— Western Asia— Pal- 
 estine — Uie Empire of the Medes and Persians— Phoenician Colonies in Northern Africa — FouncV 
 ation and History of the Grecian States— Greece— the Macedonian Kingdom and Empire— tlie 
 State.s that arose irom the dismemberment of the Macedonian Kingdom and Empire— Ancient 
 Italy— Sicily— the Roman Republic— Geographical and Political Condition of the Roman Emoire 
 —History of the Roman Empire— and India— with an Appendix of important illustrative articles. 
 
 This portion is one of the best Compends of Ancient History that ever yei has appeared. It 
 contauis a complete lex' for the collegiate lecturer; and is an essential hand-book for the student 
 who is desirous to become acquainted with all that is memorable in general secular archasology. 
 
 The Modern History portion is divided into Fourteen Chapters, on the following general 
 subjects :— Consequences of the Fall of the Western EmjMre— Rise and Establishment of the 
 Saracenic Power— Restoration of the We.stern Empire— Growth of the Papal Power — RevivaJ 
 of Literature — Progress of Civilization and Invention— ReformatioH, and Commencement of the 
 States System in Europe— Augustan Ages of England and France— Mercantile and Colonial Sys- 
 tem — Age of Revolutions — French Empire — History of the Peace — Colonization— China— the 
 Jews — with Chronological and Historical Tables and other Indexes. Dr. Henry has appended a 
 new chapter on the History of the United States. 
 
 This Manual of Modern History;, by Mr. Taylor, is the most valuable and instructive work 
 concerning the general subjects which it comprehends, that can be found in the whole department 
 of historical literature. Mi. Taylor's book is fast superseding all other compends, and is already 
 adopted as a text-book in Harvard, Columbia, Yale, New-York, Pennsylvania and Brown UnJ» 
 versilies, and several leading Academies. 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 MODERN HISTORY. 
 
 By THOMAS ARNOLD. D.D., 
 
 Regius Professor of Modern, Historij in the Universiltj of Oxford^ and Head 
 
 Mastrr of Ruglry School. 
 
 EDITED, WITH .A PRKF.ACE AND NOTKS, 
 
 By HENRY REED, LL.D., 
 Profeaaor of English Literature in the University of Pa. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. $1,25. 
 
 Extract from the American Editor's Preface. 
 
 ta preparing this edition, I have had in view its use, not only for the general reader, but also 
 Bb d. text-book m education, especially in our college course of study. • * • • The introduction of 
 th-e work as a text-book I regard as important, because, as far as my information entitles me to 
 epeak, there is no book better calculated to inspire an interest in historical study. That it has 
 this power over the minds oijstudeHts I can say from experience, which enables me also to add, 
 thai I have found it excellelfly suited to a course of college instruction. By intelligent and en. 
 l«rprisijig members of a class especially, it is studied as a text-book with zeal and animation. 
 
fuglisl. 
 
 HISTORICAL 
 
 AND 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 BY RICHMALL MANGNALL. 
 
 first American, from the Eighty-fourth London Edition. With large Aadilion* 
 
 Embracing the Elements of Mythology, Astronomy, x\rrhitecture, 
 
 Heraldry, &c. Adapted for Schools in the United States 
 
 BY MRS. JULIA LAWRENCE. 
 
 Illustrated with numerous Engravings. One Volinne, 12mo. $1. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 A Short View of Scripture History, from the Creation to the Return of the .Jews — Qupstions 
 from the Early Ages to the time of Julius Caesar— Miscellaneous Questions in Grecian ILstorv 
 —Miscellaneous Questions in General History, chiefly Ancient— Questions containing a Sketch 
 of the most remarkable Events from the Christian Era to the close of the Eighteenth Century- 
 Miscellaneous Questions in Roman History — Questions in English History, from the Invasion of 
 Caesar to the Reformation — Continuation of Questions in English History, from the Reformation 
 to the Present Time — Abstract of Early British History — Abstract of English Reigns from the 
 Conquest — Abstract of the Scottish Reigns — Abstract of the French Reigns, from Pharamaad to 
 Philip I— Contmuation of the French Reigns, from Louis VI to Louis Phil lippe— Questions Re- 
 iati-ng to the History of America, from its Discovery to the Present Time— Abstract of Roman 
 Kin^s and most distinguished Heroes— Abstract of 'the most celebrated Grecians— Of Heathen 
 Mythology in general— Abstract of Heathen Mythology — The Elements of Astronomy- Expia- 
 tion of a few Astronomical Te'rms- List of Constellations— Questions on Common Subjects — 
 fiuestions on Architecture — Questions on Heraldry— Explanations of such Latin Words and 
 Phrases as are seldom Englislied — Questions on the History of the Middle Ages. 
 
 " This is an admirable work to aid both teachers and parents in instructing children and youth, 
 iind there is no work of the kind that we have seen that is so well calculated " to awaken a spirit 
 of laudable curiosity in young minds," and to satisfy that curiosity when awakened." 
 
 HISTOHY OF ENGLAND, 
 
 From the Invasion of Julius Caesiir to tlie Reign of ^ucen Victoria. 
 
 BY MRS. MARKHAM. 
 
 A new Edition, with Questions, adapted for Schools in the United States. 
 
 BY ELIZA ROBBINS, 
 
 Author of '•'■American Popular Lessons," " Poetry for Schools," Sfc. 
 
 One Volume, l2mo. Price 75 cents. 
 
 There is nothing more needed in our schools than good histories ; not the dry compeniils ii 
 present use, but elementary works that shall suggest the moral uses of history, and the provi 
 dence of God, manifest in the affairs of men. 
 
 Mr. M.irkham's history was used by that model for all teachers, the late Dr. Arnold, mastoi 
 of the great English school at Rugby, and agrees in its character with his enlightened and piciui- 
 View^ of leaching history. It is now several years since I adajTted this history to the form and 
 price acceptable In the schools in the United States. I have recently revised it, and trust that i' 
 may be extensively serviceable in education. 
 
 The prmcipal alterations from the original are a new and more conveiiient tlivision of pam 
 gr>*phs, and entire omission of the conversations annexed to the chapters. In the place of these 
 I have affixed questions to every page that may at once facilitate the work of the teacher and 
 Ihti pupil. The rational and moral features of this book first commended it to me, and I haw 
 used it eucceesfully with my own tichola.rs.— Extract fro7n the A7nerican Editor's Pr^ace. 
 
 12 
 
£%\v4* 
 
 THE 
 
 FIRST HISTORY OF ROME, 
 
 WITH QUESTIONS. 
 
 BY E. M. SEWELL, 
 
 Author of Amy Herbert &c.,&c. One vo! ame, ICmo. 50 cW. 
 Extract from Editor's Preface. 
 
 ;'eiiable-.4urL-es, .he ^^^ "3'^°^-P°^;f '^^ /'Ct to bf cTea^^^^^ ^^ ^'^^^^ for whom she 
 
 Sese kims we think she has been emmently successlul. 
 
 Noifolk Academy, Norfolk, Va. 
 
 I ^ust thank you ibr a -Py.*^ ''^S^ ^"^^w eSS^o a^^^cimprehen^ 
 long needed just such a work : ^oV^V^.^r^rh s m/ Yermost pupils are construmg ^^uihors be- 
 of flie classics is a knowledge of <^°''f,*^;^fi""Se elaborate wo[ks we Imve lieretolore had upon 
 fore reaching an ^ge to put into hen hand^^^^^^^^^^ them ma 
 
 Ancient History. Miss S^^^^^^'J^^^^^^S^^^^^^ youthful mind, 
 
 style at once pleasing and compiehensiwe to me y ^ Tschudi, 
 
 Prof of Anc't Languages. 
 
 THE 
 
 MYTHOLOGY OP ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY, 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 BY THOMAS KEIGHTLEY. 
 
 One vol. 16mo. 42 cts. 
 
 young student." - — - 
 
 aENER AL 
 
 HISTORY OF Civil IZATION IN EUROPE, 
 
 ' PROM THE FALL OF THE ROMAN .MPmE TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 
 EigMh A.e*.„. .„„, ,he ..JZ^'^^^ li-H occ,*,.. No«..y C, S. H.^^V.O.B 
 
 One volume, l2mo. 75 cts. 
 
 ability."— .^osion Traveller. 
 
 ^ rn. ...* .. -^ -.^r-?*. ^'---* «»" '"'"" """'"'"' '' 
 
 Pen^lvama, Netc- York University, i^c. (J-c-^ 
 
ENGLISH SYNONYMES, 
 
 CLASSIFIED AND EXPLAINED, 
 
 WITH 
 
 .PEACTICAL EXERCISES. 
 
 DESIGNED FOR SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE TUITION. 
 BY G. F. GRAHAM, 
 
 Aiithor of ' English, or the An of Composition,' &c. 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION AND ILLUSTRATIVE AUTHORITIES, 
 
 BY HENRY REED, LL.D., 
 
 Prof, of English Literature in the University of Penn. 
 
 One neat Vol. l2mo. $1. 
 
 CONTENTS.— Section I. Generic and. Specific Synonymes. II. Active 
 and Passive Synonymes. III. Synonymes of Intensity. IV. Positive 
 and Negative Synonymes. V. Miscellaneous Synonymes. Index to 
 Synonymes. General Index. 
 
 Extract from American Introduction. 
 
 "This treatise is republished and edited with the hope that it will be found useful as a fexl 
 booK in the study of our own language. As a subject of instruction, the study of the English 
 tongue does not receive that amount of systematic attention which is due to it, whether ft be 
 combined or no with the study of the Greek and Latin. In the usual courses of education, it has 
 no larger scope than the study of some rhetorical principles and practice, and of grammatical 
 rule.'?, which, for the most part, are not adequate to the composite character and varied idiom of 
 English speech. This is far from being enough to give the needful knowledge of what is the 
 living language, both of our English literature and of the multilbrm intercourse — oral and writ- 
 ten— of our daily lives. The language deserves better care and more sedulou.s culture ; it needs 
 much more to preserve its purity, and to guide the progress of its life. The young, instead of 
 having only such familiarity with their native speech as practice without method or theory gives, 
 should be so tausht and trained as to accjuirc a habit of using words — whether with the voice or 
 the pen— fitly and truly, intelligently and conscientiously." 
 
 '•For such training, this book, it is believed, will prove serviceable. The ^ Prar.fical Exer- 
 cispfi,' attached to the explanations of the words, are conveniently prepared for the routine of 
 instruction. The value of a course of this kind, regularly and carefully completed, will be more 
 than the amount of information gained resnecting^^the words that are explained. It will tend to 
 produce a thoughtful and accurate use of language, and thus may be acquired, almost uncon- 
 sciously, that which is not only a critical but a' moral habit of mind — the habit of giving utter- 
 ance to truth in simple, clear and precise terms — of telling one's thoughts and feelings in words 
 that express nothing more and nothmg less. It is thus that we inay learn how to escape the 
 evils of vagueness," obscurity and perplexity — the manifold mischieis of words used thought- 
 lessly and at random, or words used in ignorance and confusion. 
 
 '' In preparing this edition, it seemed to me that the value and literary interest of the book 
 might be increased by the introduction of a series of illustrative authorities. It is in the addi- 
 tion of these authorities, contained within brackets under each title, and also of a general index 
 to facilitate reference, that this edition differs from the orisinal edition, which in other respects 
 IS exactly reprinted. I have confined my choice of aiuhorities to poetical quotations, chiefly be- 
 cause it is in poetry that language is found in its highest purity and perfection. The selections 
 have been made from three of the English poets— each a great authority, and each belonging to 
 a different period, so that in this way some historical illustration of the language is given at 
 llw same time. The quotations from Shakspeare (born a. d. 1564, died 161G) may be considered 
 as illustrating the use of the words at the close of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century; 
 those from Milton (born 1608, died 1674) the succeeding half century, or middle of the 17th 
 century ; and those from Wordsworth (born 1770) the contemporary use m the 19th century. 
 
 14 
 
A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 3'DNTAINING THE PRONUNCIATION, ETYMOLOGY, AND EXPLANATION OF ALL AV0RD8 ATJ. 
 THORIZED BY EMINENT WRITERS ; 
 
 To which are added, a Vocabulary oi" the Roots of English Words, and an Accented 
 List of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names 
 
 BY ALEXANDER REID, A. M«, 
 
 Rector of the Circus SchcoU Edinburgh. 
 
 With a Critical Preface, by Henry Reed, Professor of English Literature in the University 
 
 Pennsylvania, and an Appendix, showing the Pronunciation of nearly 30tX) of 
 
 the most important Geographical Names. One volume, 12mo. 
 
 of nearly 600 pages, bound in Leather. Price $1 
 
 Ainong the wants of our time was a good dictionary of our own language, especially adapted 
 for academies and schools. The books "which have long been in use were of little value to the, 
 junior stutlents, being too concise in the definitions, and immethodical in the arrangement 
 Reid's English Dictionary was compiled expressly to develop the precise analogifcsi ana various 
 properties of the authorized words in general use, ty the standard authors and orators who use 
 our vernacular tongue. 
 
 Exclusive of the large number of proper names which are appended, this Dictionary includes 
 four especial improvements— and when their essential value to the student is considered, the 
 sterling character of the work as a hand-book of our language will be instantly perceived. 
 
 The primitive word is distinguished by a larger type ; and when there are any derivatives 
 from it, they follow in alphabetical order, and the part of speech is appended, thus furnishing a 
 complete classification of all the connected analogous words of the same species. 
 
 With this facility to comprehend accurately the determinate meaning of the English word, ia 
 conjoined a rich illustration for the linguist. The derivation of all the piimitive words is dis- 
 tinctly given, and the phrases of the languages whence they are deduced, wiiether composite or 
 simple ; so that the student of foreign languages, both ancient and modern, by a reference to 
 any word, can ascertain the source whence it has been adopted into our own form of speech. 
 This is a great acquisition to the person who is anxious to use words in their utmost clearness 
 of iKaa.oing. 
 
 To these advantages is subjoined a Vocabulary of the Roots of English Words, which is of 
 peculiar value to the collegian. The fifty pages which it includes, furnish the linguist with a 
 wide-spread field of research, equally amusing and instructive. There is al.'io added an Ac- 
 cented List, to the number of fifteen thousand, of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names. 
 RECOMftlENDATIONS. 
 
 Reid's Dictionary of the English Language is an admirable book for the use of schools. 
 Its plans combine a greater number of desirable conditions for such a work, than any with 
 which I am acquainted: and it seems to me to be executed in general with great judgment, 
 fidelity, and accm-acy. 
 
 '' -^ C. S. HENRY, 
 
 Professor of Philosophy, History, and Belles Lejtres, 
 in the University of the City of New- York. 
 
 Reid's Dictionary of the English Language is compiled upon sound principles, and with 
 judement and accuracy. It has the merit, tooj^of combining much more than is usually looked 
 for in Dictionaries of small size, and will, I believe, be found excellent as a convenient manual, 
 for general use and reference, and also for various purposes of education. 
 
 HENRY REED, 
 
 Professor of English Literature in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 After a careful examination, I am convinced that Reid's English Dictionary has strong 
 claims upon the attention of teachers generally. It is of convenient size, beautifully executed, 
 and seems well adapted to the use of scholars, from the common school to the university. 
 
 D. H. CHASE, 
 
 Principal of Preparatory School. 
 
 MiDDLETOWN, Ct 
 
 A-'^'er a thorough examination of" Reid's English Dictionary," I may safely say that I con 
 sider it superior to any of the School Dictionaries with which I am acquainted. Its accurate 
 and concise definitions, and a vocabulary of the roots of English words, drawn from an authoi 
 of such authority as Bosworth, are not among the least of its excellencies. 
 
 ' M. M. PARKS, 
 
 Chaplain and Professor of Ethics, U. S. Military Academy, West Point 
 
 15 
 
1^ 
 
 §mk mi Ifltin. 
 
 AR.NOLD'S CLASSICAL SERIES. 
 
 I. 
 A FIRST AND SECOND LATIN BOOK 
 
 &.ND rUACTICAL GRAMMAR. Hy Thomas K. Arnold, A. M Revised and caitfUlly 
 
 Ccirccied, by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. rimn., 75 ci.s. 
 
 II. 
 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION : 
 
 A Practical Iiitrcduction to Laiin Prose Composition. By Thomas K. Ar.NOLD, A.. M- 
 Revised and Corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., $1. 
 
 III. 
 
 FIRST CIIIEEK BOOK; 
 
 WM> Eaeiy Extrcicoo and V^ocabulary. By THoaiAs K. Arnold, A. M. ReViseu aiid Cot- 
 reeled by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12tno., 63 cts. 
 
 IV. 
 
 GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION: 
 
 A Practical Introduction to Greek Prose Composition. By Thomas K. Arnold, A.M. 
 Revised and Corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. 12mo., 75 cts. 
 
 V. 
 
 GREEK READING BOOK, 
 
 For the Lse of Schools; containing: the substance of the Practical Introduction to Greek CrOn- 
 
 struing, and a 1 realise on the Greek Particles, by the Rev. Thomas K. Arnold, 
 
 A. M., and also a Copious Selection from Greek Authors, with English 
 
 Notes, Critical and Explanatory, and a Lexicon, by 
 
 J. A. Spencer, A. M. I2mo., SI 50 
 
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 CORNELIUS NEPOS; 
 
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 Professor of ihe Latin Language in the University of the Ciiy of 
 
 New-York. l'2ino. A new, enlarged edition, wiiii 
 
 Le.vicon, Index, «&c., ^1. 
 
 "Arnoid's Greek and Latin Series.— The publication of this valuable collection of 
 clEssicdl school books may be regarded as the presage of better things in respect to the mode oi 
 teaching and acquiring languages. Heretolbre boys have been condemned to the drudgery of 
 going over Latin and Greek Grammar without the remotest conception of the value of What 
 t)iey were learning, and every day becoming more and more disgusted with the drj^ and un- 
 meaning task ; but now, by Mr. Arnold's ailmirable method— substantially the same with that oi 
 Ollendorff— the moment they take up the study of Latin or Greek, they begin to learn sentences. 
 to acquire ideas, to see how the Romans and Greeks expressed themselves, iiow their mode of 
 expression difiereil from ours, and by degrees they lay up a stock of knowledge which is utteriy 
 astonishing to those who have dragged on month alter month in the old-fashioned, dry, and 
 tedious way of learning languages. 
 
 "Mr. Arnold, in fact, has" had the good sense to adopt the system of nature. A child leama 
 his own language by imilating wlial he hears, and constantly rp.jjeaiiug u till it is fasteneJ iD 
 the memory ; in the same way Mr. A. puts the pupil immediately to work a: Exercises in Latin 
 and Greek, involving the elementary principles of the language— words are su{fplied— the mode 
 of putting them together is told the pupil— ne is S^iown how the ancients expres.«eri their ideas ; 
 and then, by repealing these things again and again — iterum ileru7nque—im docile pupil haa 
 r.hcm indelibly imprcs-^cd upon his memory and rooted in liis understanding. 
 
 "The American Editor is a thorough classical scholar, and has been a practical teacher for 
 yeara in liiis city. lie has devoted the utmost care to a complete revision of xMr. Arnold's works, 
 has corrected several errors of inadvertence or otherwise, has rearranged and improved variom 
 matters in the early volumes of the series, and has attended most diligently to the accurate prinv 
 im and mechanical execution of the whole. We anticipate most confidently the speedy adoption 
 ofthese works in our schools and colleges." 
 
 *,' Arnold's Scries of Classical Works has attained a circulation almoBt unparalleled, being 
 introduced inro nearly all the Colleges and.Ieaduig Educational Inetitutions in the Umted States 
 
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