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Cloth, 12mo. pp. 376 i 25 Latham (Henrv ) On the Action of Examinations, 12mo. pp. 400 1 5o Laurie (S. S.) John Amo'i Compnius . 16mo pn. 272. Manilla. 50 cts.; Cloth, 1 00 liawrence (E. 0.) Recreations in Ancient Fields. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 177... 100 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY DESIGNED FOR USE IN TEACHERS' CLASSES, NORMAL SCHOOLS. AND INSTITUTES, AND AS A GUIDE FOR ALL STUDENTS OF AP- PLIED PSYCHOLOGY. / Henry Gv Williams, A. M. Superintendent Schools, Lynchburg, Ohio, and author of a Series of Outlines for Teachers and Advanced Students. THIRD EDITION. /^^Iq^'^^IGHt ^ ^AbG 3 1895 SYRACUSE. N. Y. XCo^^ OUdO C W. BARDEEN, Publisher. 1895. ^■^l-^ Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1894, and 1895, by Henry G. Williams, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. Electrotyped by C. J. Krehbiel & Co. 248 Walnut Street, Cincinnati, O. PREFACE. THIS little book does not pretend to be a treatise on Psychology, but an outline of principles log- ically arranged so that the student of Psychology an'd of the theory of teaching may use it as a guide-book in directing his investigations upon this subject. Defi- nitions and principles are not here extensively eluci- dated, but the facts of the science are plainly stated in their relation to each other, with ample suggestions to the student who desires to make further investigations. It has been the aim of the author to incorporate the cardinal principles that underlie all empirical psychol- ogy, and to show the inseparable relationship existing between these principles and the successful practice of the teacher. As '' science is knowledge properly clas- sified," it has been the aim of the author to show the coordination and subordination of every topic, sug- gesting also the order in which each should be studied. That there is a philosophy of education is now gener- ally admitted, though not universally. The application of universal principles to teaching is based upon such a philosophy. To aid the young teacher to discover and realize that Psychology is not an isolated science, the author has appended other outlines and suggestive articles, showing the application of psychological prin- 3 4 PREFACE. ciples. The demand for this little book on the part of teachers and students in all parts of the country has been such since issued, onl}'- a few months ago, that the author feels that it has been gladly welcomed by the teaching profession. It has been necessary to make new plates, and the author has taken the oppor- tunity thus afforded to make several additions to the work. That it may continue to meet the approval of an ever-advancing profession is the hope of the author. Henry G. Wii^liams. Lynchburg, O., March, 1895. A SYNOPSIS OF THE SUBJECT. Every student shQuld acquaint thonself ^^ with some method by which thon can positively correlate the facts of thons knowledge. The author believes a sys- tematic and logical classification of the truths of a science necessary to make knowledge scientific. With that end in view he has attempted to embody, in a logical outline, the fundamental facts of this impor- tant science. If the student of these pages be not entirely familiar with this system of outlining, thon will do well to study carefully the following brief synopsis of the more extended outline that follows. It will be noticed that the larger figures represent coordination when placed one above the other in a vertical column, and subordination when placed one column to the right. The exponents placed to the right and at the top of the numerals indicate the order and extent of the sub- divisions made. A little careful study will enable the student to comprehend readily the entire scheme, and to observe the manifest superiority of the exponential numeral system above all others. "As the English language lacks a pronoun for the third person, singular number, common gender, the author hopes he will be pardoned for using the above new word. He also hopes the word will soon become euphonious to many a student of English. Declined : Nominative, tlwn ; possessive, thons; objective, tlwn ; compound, nominative and objective, thons elf. 5 THE SYNOPSIS. Psychology. 1 2 Definition. — Psychology is the science of the phe- nomena of the soul. 2 2 Methods of study. i^ The introspective, or subjective, method. — The study of self by means of consciousness. 2^ The inferential, or objective, method. — The study of the mind by observation of the words and acts of others, and by biography, history, literature, etc. 3^ The physiological. — The study of the rela- tions between physical conditions and mental phenomena. 4^ The textbook method. — If teachers expect to learn the science, they must study the gener- alizations resulting from observ^ation and in- ference. 3 2 The powers of the soul. i^ Its general powers — 3 in number. I* Consciousness. — See outline. 2* Attention. — See outline. 3* Conception. — See outline. 2^ Its individual powers — 3 in number. I* Intellect. I ^ Def. — The power of the soul to know. 2' Intellectual powers. THE SYNOPSIS. 7 i'' Presentative. — The powers or channels through which the soul gains knowledge. See outline. i^ Self-Consciousness. 2^ Sense-Perception. 3' Intuition. 2^ Representative. — The powers to represent and reknow objects, their qualities and rela- tions, by concepts, ideas, or images. i^ Phantas}', or fancy. — See outline. 2^ Imagination. — See outline. 3^ Memory. — See outline. 3^ Thought, or Cognitive Powders. — Powders by which we form and rationally apply general conceptions. i"^ Conceptive generalization. See outline. 2^ Judgment. — See outline. 3^ Reason. — See outline. 2* Sensibility. i^ The corporeal feelings. i^ Sensations. — General and special. 2^ Appetites. — Natural and acquired. 2^ The psychical feelings. i^ Affections. — Beneficent, defensive, and malefi- cent. 2^ Emotions. — Instinctive and rational. 3*^ Desires. — For property, liberty, knowledge, etc. 3^ Will. i^ Def — The .soul's power to execute. 2^ Classification of wnll powers. 3'^ Moral training. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. ii Definition. — Psychology is the science of the phe- nomena of the soul. Gordy says it is the science of mental facts. Steele says, " Psychology is the science of the human soul," and so say a large ma- jority of authorities, but a close study of the facts will convince one that the science is based upon a study of the phenomena, or activities, of the soul. 2^ Ktj^mology. — From the Greek psyche, meaning soul, and logos, meaning discourse. 3^ Province. — The mind and its activities. 4^ Reasons why it should be studied, i^ By all who desire a good education, i^ It develops the intellect. 2^ It teaches the importance of a study of hu- man nature in order to win success in an}'- vocation or profession. 3^ It enables one to know how best to develop his own mind. 4^ It is of great value to all who would influence their fellowmen to moral excellence and the best use of their faculties. 2 2 By teachers and prospective teachers. i^ It aids the teacher in striving for that which is best within himself. 8 ' OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 9 2^ It enables hiui to teach scientifically. 3^ With the mind the teacher deals, concerning mind he should know. 4* " On earth there is nothing g^eat but man, and in man there is nothing great but mind." 5* It enables the teacher to direct with a pur- pose and to a definite end the early develop- ment of the child mind. 3^ By all professional persons. i^ " The proper study of mankind is man." 2^ A knowledge of human nature is indispens- able to the lawyer, the doctor, or the minister. 51 The Soul. I- Def — The soul is that part of man's being which feels, knows, and wills. 2^ Synonyms. — Mind, ego, self, spirit, etc. The term 7ni7zd is used as almost identical with the term soul, 3'et there should be a difference in their application. (See 4^ below.) Ego means the self, as distinguished from all material creation — the individual soul : I, myself. The ego is the subjective as distinguished from the objective. Other synonyms are : conscious subject, human consciousness, and spirit. 3^ Distinction between soul and spirit. — Hewett makes this distinction : The word soid includes in its meaning such of the lower psychical pow- ers as the nobler brutes possess in some degree in common with man. The spiritual part of man's psychical nature includes personality, morality, and responsibility, while the soul attri- butes possessed by the higher orders of the 30 OUTLINKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. lower animals do not include reason, conscience, and a free will, hence no personality, moralit}^ and responsibilit}^ 42 Distinction between mind and soul. — I look upon the mind as being finite, while the soul is in- finite, because immortal, hence infinite in extent and infinite in content. The soul is capable of indefinite improvement in progression, while the growth of the mind is rendered finite by death. Soul includes all that mind does, while it also includes the spiritual nature, the function of im- mortal being. 5^ The powers or faculties exercised by the soul. — Sensibility, intellect, and will. I ^ This classification was first made by Sir Wil- liam Hamilton, about 1840. 2^ Divisions. I* Sensibility. — The power of the soul to feel ; includes physical as well as psychical feel- ings, because the former can be recognized only by the conscious subject, the soul. 2* Intellect. — The power of the soul to know. 3* Will. — The power of the soul to do or execute. ^1 Psychology proper. 1 2 Classification. i^ Empirical psychology. — That which restricts itself to observation and experience, and does not speculate upon the nature of the princi- ples involved. All psychology proper is em- pirical, and to this branch of the subject teachers should devote particular attention. OUTLINES uF PSYCHOLOGY. II 12^ Rational psychology. — That which deals with the nature of the soul and deduces philoso- phies from the underlying principles discov- ered in the study of phenomena. Empirical psy- chology gives but greater prominence to phe- nomena of the soul with the conditions and laws of the same, while rational psychology gives prominence to the faculties implied by these phenomena. The terms cognition, feeling, and Abolition apply directly to the first, while the terms intellect, sensibilit}', and will are more properly used in the classification of the second. 2 2 Methods of study. i-^ The study of self, or by means of conscious- ness. i^ The method. i^ We know that we think, feel, and will. 2^ We know that w^e see, hear, smell, taste, and touch. 3^ We know that we perceive, imagine, re- member, judge, and reason. 2* Consciousness. — The mind knowing itself and its own activities and states. 3'* Causes. — We can study the causes that ex- cite certain feelings in the mind. Psychical feelings are here referred to. 4* Circumstances. — We can observe under what circumstances we feel pain and pleasure, joy and sorrow, indignation and pity, etc. S'* Difficulties encountered by this method. — This method of introspection, as it is called, is at finst quite difficult, but becomes easier 12 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. b}^ practice. A mental act of any kind is a. fleeting phenomenon, and while we attempt to concentrate our thoughts upon any mental act it becomes a past act. However, memory comes to our assistance and ,calls up our past mental phenomena, thus in part obviating the difficulty. 6* Extent of this method. — We can thus study only isolated mental facts, hence the method gives us- knowledge only of individual facts. To obtain, a law of mental activit}^ we must connect these individual facts : laws are the results of infer- ence. It can thus be seen that we use also, to a slight extent, the inferential method in the study of our own minds. 2^ The study by observation. I* Application. — While the first method may be- called the introspective, or subjective, the study of the mind by observation may be called the in- ferential, or objective, method. 2* Advantage. — We have, in the schoolroom and out. of it, all the steps in the child's progress in de- velopment, together with the real and apparent influences and the environments. 3* Difficulty. — One can not study a single mind, long enough or under a sufficient variety of cir- cumstances to arrive at definite conclusions.. The same child is not under the direct observa- tion of a teacher long enough for him to make a. series of observations that shall discover for him a law of mental growth. The present insecure- tenure of teachers only aggravates this difficulty.. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 1 3 -4* Relation to introspective method. — In the study and collection of individual facts j-ou can use the introspective method without the inferential, but the latter can not be used at all without the former. When we make an inference it is be- cause we know by introspection that we have certain mental activities when certain circum- stances exist. 5* How^ the method is used. i^ Through a study of the words and acts of others. 2'^ By observation we may trace the growth of a child's mind. 3^ We may learn the traits, motives, and beliefs of men from a study of the auxiliary branches : i^ Biology, the science of life. 2^ Sociology, the science of society. 3^ Biograph}^ the history or narrative of an individual life. 4^ Anthropology, the science which treats of man in his relation to the animal kingdom. 5^ Physiology, the science which treats of the functions of man's individual organ- ism. 6^ History, when studied in the light of cause and effect. 7^ Literature, when studied in the light of the history of language and the growth of thought. 3^ The study of psychology from books. I* It is a necessary method, but should not be used exclusively. 14 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2* Dijfi&culty. — The different nomenclatures used. by different authors tend to confound the learner. (To remove this difficulty the author has thought it best to use synonymous terms where such terms have come into general use. To illustrate : " Introspective," from the Latin, meaning to look withiii, is synonymous to "subjective"; the student should have this relation impressed upon the mind by seeing them together.) 3^ Importance. — Teachers must study psychol- ogy from books if they expect to learn the science. Only in this way can they profit by the experience and wisdom of those who have given much time to the study. It is neces- sary to study books on this subject in order to know the generalizations that have been made as the results of centuries of observa- tion, and to learn the scientific terms that have been thus evolved. 3 2 Psychology as a science. — Inductive, because its laws are founded upon, and formulated from, the observation of related mental activities. 42 Relation of the psychical to the physical. i^ Reasons for this relation. — As there can be no mental activity without a living organism sup- plied with a nervous system, the study of psy- chology is necessarily closely connected with that of physiology. 2^ What the relation is. — Neither reflection nor ob- servation will reveal the exact relation between soul and body. Reflection, consciousness, and OUTI.IXES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 1 5 intuition are alike unable to solve the problem. The doctrine of their connection is simply theo- retical, and as such does not belong to applied psycholog}'. Herbart says: "The whole nerv- ous system in the human body serves a single soul, and by means of this system the soul is im- planted ill this body, more a burden than a help to it, for the body lives as a plant for itself, provided nourishment and a suitable place be given it, as sometimes has to be done for idiots. Stories of some who were idiots from birth give rise to the thought that they may be merely vegetating bodies without souls." It will be of interest to the student to sketch an outline of the Theories or philosophies arising from the relation of the soul and body. — Monism and Dualism. I* Monism. i^ Def. — The assumption that the soul and body are each material, and of one substance. 2} Etymology. — From the Greek word vionos, meaning one. 3^ Forms of monism. — Materialism, Idealism, and Agnosticism, i^ Materialism. i^ Def. — The doctrine that denies the ex- istence of spiritual elements, and re- gards the soul as a function of matter in motion. 2'' Example of materialists. — Alexander Bain, a Scotch philosopher, born iSiS, who called the body a double-faced unity, with mind on one side and matter 16 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. on the other, acting much as an electrical mol- ecule. 2^ Idealism. I ^ Def. — The doctrine that admits no other reality than ideas, regarding all known objects as the products of psychical action, and the soul as immaterial. It denies the physical facts that correspond to sensations, and teaches that sen- sation is not a proof of anything without. 2^ Idealists. — George Berkeley, Irish metaphysi- cian, 1 684-1 753, was probably the founder of idealism, though John lyOcke, 1 632-1 704, author of"Kssayon the Human Understanding," as- serted that experience is the sole ground of knowledge. David Hume, 1711-1776, carried Locke's theory to startling consequences. John Stuart Mill, English political economist, 1806- 1873, was an idealist. He defined mind as a series of feelings, and matter as a permanent possibility of sensations. 3® Agnosticism. I'^Def. — The doctrine that the existence of a per- sonal deity can neither be asserted nor denied, neither proved nor disproved, owing to the necessary limits to the human mind. 2'^ Agnostic. — Herbert Spencer, English philoso- pher, born 1820, who refers the phenomena of both mind and matter to a substance which is both unknown and unknowable. He rejects all evidence that is not positive and conclu- sive. His great work, '* Education : Moral, Intel- lectual, and Physical," should be read by all teach- ers, but with a clear, discriminating judgment. OUTLINES OF PSVCHOLOCxY. 1 7 Dualism, (i-* Monism.) i^ Dei'. — The doctrine that man is constituted of two original and independent elements, matter and spirit. 2^ Etymology. — From the Latin duo, meaning two. 3^ Forms. — Mysticism and Dualistic Realism. i'^M3'sticism. — The doctrine of preestablished harmony in all things, and the direct commu- nication of the soul with the divine spirit. The French philosopher, Nicholas Male- branche, 1 638-1 715, and the German philos- opher, G. W. Leibnitz, 1646-1716, were dual- ists. It seems that dualists themselves, al- though believing the doctrine in the main as stated above, could never agree as to the ex- tent of the soul's vision in comprehending the divine spirit. Leibnitz's theory of pre- established harmon}^ supposes that the Creator has ordered the activities of mind and mat- ter to run parallel, but without connection. 2^ Dualistic Realism. i' Def. — The belief in the clear apprehension of the soul by self-consciousness, and in a knowledge of the body and the world of matter through sense-perception. 2^ Its validity. — This theory, or philosophy, adheres to the facts and rejects arbitrary h3'potheses. It does not pretend to un- ravel all the mysteries of soul, determine its locus, or disbelieve all things because it can not see all things. It is ready to con- fess ignorance when there are no means for further knowledge. l8 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 3^ Believers in dualistic realism. — Since the time of Thomas Ried, a Scotch philoso- pher, 1 7 10-1796, this doctrine has been the leading one held by the great body of advanced thinkers of Europe and Amer- ica. James McCosh, an American philos- opher^ of Scotch birth, who was born in 181 1, and died November 16, 1894, was probably the greatest leader in this philos- ophy, of the nineteenth centur3^ It would be well, for those who have the inclination, to secure the works of the authors men- tioned in this outline of the various philos- ophies of the soul, and study their bear- ing upon the development of thought in this advanced age. For a list of works see " The lyiterature of Psychology," in this volume. 4^ The nerv^ous system as the intermediate factor in all sensations. (See 3^ and 4^ to observe the con- nection of this topic.) i^ The processes in every complete sensation. 1 5 The external excitant, or physical excitant, as it is sometimes called. It is that which when presented to the nervous system under proper conditions will produce a physical sen- sation. To illustrate : A bright light placed before the eyes will produce a certain change in the opdc nerve, which is a physical sensa- tion. The light is the external excitant. 2^ The sensorium, or that part of the nervous system engaged in conveying and receiving OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 19 sensation ; the eye, the optic nerve, and the brain, in the illustration. 3^ The mental, or psychical, excitement, sometimes called the sensorial excitement. It is probably better to say that the sensorial excitement is in the sensory nerves and that part of the brain used in receiving sensations, while the psychical excitement is the sensation proper, and is in the soul. This distinction shows that there are physical, or corporeal, sensations, and psychical sensations. By those who use unscientific speech the former is meant when sensation is referred to. 2* Analysis of the nervous system. 1 5 Cerebro-spinal system. i^ Def. — That part of the nervous sj^stem com- prised in tke brain, spinal cord, their nerves, and the ganglia belonging to them. 2^ Parts. i^ The Brain, or encephalon. I® Weight. — In the male adult, 49 to 50 ounces; in the female adult, 44 to 45 ounces. 2^ Parts. I ^ Cerebrum. — The portion of the brain occupying the top and front part of the cranium. Gray matter to the depth of }{ to }i of an inch covers the outer part, constituting the cor- tex of the cerebrum. Beneath it is the white matter consisting of nerve- fibers. It is estimated that the num- 20 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOIvOGY: ber of nerve-cells in the cerebrum alone is about 900,000,000, while the number of fibers is probably about 4,500,000,000. The cerebrum is the seat of intelligence, and has control of all the voluntary movements of the body. (See outline below.) 2^ Cerebellum. — Called the " little brain." It is situ- ated in the posterior part of the cranium, beneath the cerebrum, or brain proper, and is composed of gray and white matter in about the same propor- tions and relations as in the cerebrum, but is only about }i as large. Its function is not definitely known, but it is generally believed that the cerebel- lum has a coordinating power with the cerebrum in controlling voluntary muscular movements. As the cerebrum is the seat of thought, it can not be doubted that all voluntary muscular movements must be under the control of *the cerebrum, so far as the will is concerned, but it is believed that the will of the cerebrum is carried out by the cerebel- lum. But the fact that the cerebrum may some- times carry out these acts alone in case of an in- jury to the cerebellum, leads scientists to conclude that the exact function of the latter is not yet definitely known. 3^ Medulla Oblongata.— This is really an enlarged portion of the spinal cord, situated just above the foramen magnum, at the base of the skull. It is about one inch and a quarter long by three quarters of an inch wide, and weighs about one ounce. Its weight is a little greater in females than in males. Its function is to control wholly or in part the ac- tions of the heart, lungs, and blood-vessels, and all OUTLINES OF rSYCIIOLOGY. 21 vital actions. Although respiration is to some extent under the control of the will, yet ordi- narily we breath by reflex action. 3^ Intellectual power and size of brain. i*^ The rule. — Great intellectual power is usually associated with a large brain, especially a large cerebrum. Examples are Abercrom- bie, Cuvier, Turgeneiff, Webster, Disraeli, and others. 2^ The exceptions. i^*^ The weight of the brain is relativel}^ greater at birth and in childhood than in youth or manhood and womanhood. But it is a well-established fact that brain growth attends proper, mental exercise. JThe brain is largest from the ages of 40 to 50 years, when a gradual decrease in size sets in. 2^^ A few cases of imbecility have been no- ticed where the brain was very heavy, usually abnormally heav}'. 2*7 Nerves of the brain=system. (i? The brain.) I* Sensory. — Those that carry sensations to the brain. They are also called afferent nerves, be- cause of the direction in which they carry sensa- tion. The term scnsatioii is here used in its physical sense, as used in pliysiolog}^ 2^ Motor. — Those that carry impulses, or sensations, from the brain. They are also called efferent nerves. Sensory nerves are sometimes called centripetal nerves, because center-seeking, and motor nerves for the similar reason are called 22 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOLOGY. centrifugal nerves. As their names indicate, the former are nerves of sensation proper, while the latter are nerves that control the motions of the body or of any part of it. 3^ Mixed or compound. — Several of the cra- nial nerves are compound, or dual, in their functions, such as the trifacial, which arises from a sensory and a motor root. 3^ The spinal cord, (i'^ Brain. 2? Nerves.) i^ Of w^hat it consists. — A gray axis sur- rounded by white matter, and investing membranes, occup3dng the spinal canal. Its length is about eighteen inches ; weight, one and a half ounces, or -^ of the weight of the brain. 2^ Its functions. — It acts as a conductor to and from the brain, and by reflex action controls the movements of the limbs and exerts a certain control over the organs of digestion, respiration, and circulation. 25 Sympathetic system. — (i^ Cerebro-spinal system.) i^ Of what it consists. — A double chain of ganglia situated on either side of the spinal cord and connected with the nerves of the spinal cord and the nerves of the brain by means of transverse connecting nerves. These ganglia are also con- nected with the organs of the chest and abdo- men. 2? Function. — To regulate the processes of organic life, the inhibitory and vital processes. 3^ The Special Senses in their relation to psychology. OUTLIXKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2$ i*^ The Sense of Smell. i' The nerve of smell. — Olfactory, ^vhich arises froQi the anterior portion of the base of the cerebrum and is spread out upon the surface of the turbinated bones. It is peculiar, in that it is the only nerve in the body known to con- tain gray matter in its axis. Its sensorial end- plates are known as the olfactory bulbs. 2" The excitant. — The floating particles of odor- ous matter coming in contact with the delicate Schneiderian membrane, which invests the nos- trils. 3^ The result. — The nerve is irritated and the sen- sorial excitement is the sensation of smell. 2*^ The Sense of Taste. I " The nerves of taste. i^ The inferior branch of the trifacial nerve, also called the ''gustatory nerve," wdiicli supplies the front half of the tongue. 2^ The glosso-pharyngeal, so called because dis- tributed to both tongue and throat. 2^ The excitant. — Matter in a state of solution, passing over the tongue. 3^ The result, or sensorial excitement. — The sensa- tions of flavors and tastes. 4'' Peculiarities. i^ Modifications of the sense of taste. — Sweet- ness and sourness, detected in particular by the gustatory nerve ; and saltness and bitter- ness, detected by the glosso-pharyngeal. Po- tassium chloride, sodium sulphate, and other substances are exceptions. 24 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2^ Sensations of touch detected by the tongue. — Roughness, smoothness, oiHness, pungency^ starchiness, etc. 3^ Sensations ot smell apparently detected by the tongue. — In the case of articles having an aroma the smell seems closely allied with the taste, but by closing the nostrils while tasting such substances the deception will be ob- served. (See the subject of "acquired per- ceptions.") 36 The Sense of Hearing. i^ The nerve. — The auditory nerve, which arises from the medulla oblongata and supplies the in- ternal ear. 2^ The excitant. — The vibrations of the media in which the sensorial end-plates of the auditory nerves are situated, caused by the vibrations of the external air, which have been induced by the sudden change in position of some material ob- ject. 3'^ The result. — The sensorial excitement in this case results in a knowledge of the many varie- ties of sound. By experience we gain concepts of the direction, distance, and intensity of the differentiated energy producing the sound weaves. 46 The Sense of Sight, i^ The nerve. — The optic nerve, w^hich has its origin in the anterior portions of the cerebrum, and whose sensorial end-plates terminate in the retina. The olfactory and the optic are the only cranial nerves arising directly from the cerebrum. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 25 2^ The excitant. — The waves of ether, which occu- pies the interstellar space and the intermolecular spaces of the atmosphere. For a clear discus- sion of the cause of light and how it is com- municated, the student is referred to any good work on physics. 3" The result. r^ Primarily considered, it gives us a knowl- edge of color and form. 2^ When assisted by touch, hearing, and expe- rience it gives us notions of size, distance, roughness, smoothness, and many other qual- ities of objects. This is probably the most remarkable and wonderful of the senses when considered from a psychological standpoint. (See "acquired perceptions.") The Sense of Touch. i' Nerves of touch. — They have no special names, although sometimes called tactile nerves. They belong to the spinal cord, hence, to the cerebro- spinal system. The}^ end in peculiar sensorial end-plates in the cutis and other investing mem- branes. 2^ The excitant. — Properly, touch involves pres- sure or actual contact of objects with portions of the body supplied with these nerves, the fingers being most .sensitive to touch. The tip of the tongue, however, possesses this power to a very high degree. 3^ The result. — The information thus derived is probably the most extensive and diverse of all we gather by sense-perception. 26 OUTlvINKS OF PSYCHOIvOGY. 4^ A general observation. — It will be noticed that in this outline of the special senses three things were in each case considered : the excitant, the part of the sensorium particularly affected, and the sensorial ex- citement, or the sensation proper. These are the three necessary antecedents of sense-perception. 5^ Conclusion of this topic. — It will now be noticed that all the outline from 4^, page 14, to this point has dealt with the topic, " The relation of the soul and body." We now take up the study of the powers of the soul, but shall have frequent need to think of this relation of the soul, that which really know\s, feels, and wills, to the body, that of which we are so prone to think as knowing, feeling, and willing. 52 The Powers of the Soul. i^ Its General Powers. — Consciousness, iVttention, and Conception. i^ Def. — Those powers of the soul distinguished from the faculties, not coordinate with them, but connected with them all; in conscious- ness the sensibilit}^ is usuall}' exercised; in attention, the will usually assists the sensibil- ity and the intellect. 2* General Functions. — They can not act sep- arately from each other nor from some one or more of the intellectual faculties. 3* Distinction. — K facility is a power under the control of the will, having some particular work of its own to do. — Hewett. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 27 4"* Analysis. r5 Consciousness. — See*' Self-Consciousness." See page 41. i*^ Def. — Consciousness is the general power ot the soul by which it knows its own acts and states, and itself as the knower. 2^ Authors quoted. — Consciousness can not be defined. — Hill. Consciousness is the power the mind has to know its own acts and states, and to know them as belonging to the Ego. — Hewett. Consciousness is the immediate knowledge the soul has of its own phenom- ena. — Schu3'ler. Consciousness is the inner perception, the perception of our thoughts and feelings. — Putnam. Consciousness is the power of the mind by which it knows its own acts and states. — Baker. 3*^ Use of the term. — Denotes both an act and the power to which the act is referred. 4^ Etymology. — L- con and scio, indicating that along with knowing an object, I know also the knowing. 5*" Objects of consciousness. — The}' are all psy- chical phenomena, actual and present. i^ Distinction. i^ Consciousness is immediate knowledge. 2^ Knowledge of external objects is medi- ate. 12} Classes of objects of consciousness. i^ The Ego. — We are conscious of the Ego as thinking, feeling, and willing. — Hewett. We are not con.scious of the 28 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. soul, nor of the soul as knowing, feeling, and willing, but of the knowing, feeling, and will- ing. — Schuyler, with whom I agree on this point. I can not conceive of a consciousness of the soul itself, but I certainly can be con- scious of the knowing, feeling, and willing of the soul. 2^ Acts or states. — We may be conscious of the activity of the mind in perceiving, remember- ing, etc. 3^ All psychical phenomena, — The soul is con- conscious of all its phenomena. The realiza- tion of these phenomena is the state of con- sciousness. 4^ The non-Ego. — Sir William Hamilton held that we may be conscious of the non-Ego, which is generally denied. 5^ Products. — We may be conscious of our thoughts and feelings, which are the results of psychical action. 6^ As to time of consciousness. — Consciousness can neither be before nor after a phenomenon. We are conscious of a phenomenon only at the instant of its occurrence. We are not conscious of things w^e re- member, but of the concepts of them, which must be immediately before the mind. We may also be conscious of a present concept of that which is future. 7^ To w^hich special faculty of the soul most closely connected. — It is itself an act of the intellect, thousrli implied by all psychical phenomena — cognitions,, feelings, and volitions. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 29 •8^ Kinds of consciousness. — Schuyler. i^ Natural consciousness. — Immediate knowledge of all three classes of psychical phenomena. 2^ Etliical. — Reflection applied to moral states. 3^ Abnormal. — As exhibited by persons who im- agine others are noticing their awkwardness, dress, etc. i^ Due to morbid sensitiveness. — Hewett. 2^ To a real or supposed feeble condition of bod}'. 3^ To undue pride or self-love. 4^ To a knowledge of unworthiness. ^^ Degress of consciousness. i^ Of certain organic phenomena, such as appe- tites, w^e are scarcely conscious. 2'^ The stronger the cause which induces psychical activity, the stronger the degree of conscious- ness. 30^ General conditions of consciousness. i^ A living subject who is conscious. 2'^ A faculty of consciousness. 3^ A psychical phenomenon, the only kind of ob- jects of consciousness. 31^ Relation of Consciousness and Attention. i^ By attention, any of the degrees of conscious- ness may arise into the region of clear con- sciousness. — Baker. 2."^ Attention is often spontaneous. In this it is like consciousness, and may be termed "volun- tary consciousness." :i2^ Relation of consciousness and cerebration. i^ Unconscious mental activity. — Strictl}- speak- 30 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOLOGY. ing, there can be no unconscious mental ac- tivity, but many cases have been cited where there seems to have been mental activity without consciousness. 2^ Unconscious cerebration. — In such cases of apparent mental activity it is not improba- ble that brain activity may be unaccom- panied by mental activity. Brain activity may become reflex, like muscular habits. It is not improbable that mental activity may be started in a certain direction and become so intense that it will continue unconsciously to work in that line until the result is ac- complished, when the cerebration becomes conscious again. 13^ Cultivation. — Consciousness can not be- culti- vated, as it is not under the control of the wilL 2^ Attention, (i^ Consciousness.) i^ Etymology. — ly. ad, meaning toward, and ten- der e, to stretch. 2^ Def. — It is the concentration of consciousness in one direction and upon one object. 3^ Authors quoted. — The self-governing intelli- gence applying itself to what it wills. — Com- payre. The power the mind has to bring all its forces to bear on one thing. — Hewett. The voluntary directing of the energy of the mind toward an object or an act. — Steele. The power of exercising active self-direction. — ^White. At- tention is conscious or unconscious. — Day. Although under the control of the will, it pro- duces no result alone, and of itself — Hewett. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 3 1 It is not a special intellectual faculty. — Hill. The voluntary determination of the intelligence to ob- jects of knowledge. See Dewy and James. 4*^ How the term is applied. i" As applied to external objects it is known as ob- servation, which includes both stages of cog- nition — perception and judgment. 2^ As applied to subjects of our own consciousness it may be designated reflection, which includes intuition and judgment. For an explanation of these terms, see outline. 5^ Classes of attention. — Voluntary and involuntar}'. i^ Voluntar3\ i^ Et3'molog3\ — From L- volens, the will. 2^ Def — The active direction of the mind toward any object of knowledge, either external ob- jects or objects of consciousness. 3^ Elements of voluntary attention. i^ The mind must have had experience in order to perceive relations. 2^ The mind must Have sufficient develop- ment to interpret that experience. 4^ Age at w^hich first experienced by the child. — About 3 to 6 months. — Gordy. 5^ Functions. 1 9 Development of interest in things not nat- urally attractive to us, but beneficial to us. 2^ Development of continuous attention, con- centration, that the mind may direct its owm energies. 2^ Involuntary. i^ Etymology. — L. in, without, and volcns. 32 OUTI^INKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2^ Def. — That attention which resuhs from the influence exerted upon the mind by the thing attended to, in and of itself. 3^ Also called n on- voluntary. 4^ Causes in children. — Gordy. i^ The quality of sensations, or their char- acter as pleasurable or painful. 2^ The intensity of the sensation. 6^ Knowledge depending on attention. i^ The objects of knowledge to which attention may be directed include ever5^thing, material ob- jects and objects of consciousness, upon which mental force may be made to bear. 2^ Dr. Gordy says what we are conscious of de- pends upon attention, as does also what we per- ceive, remember, recollect, believe, feel, and will. (The student should determine in what ways what we feel depends upon attention. Is seeing a feeling? Is heariJig?) 76 Relation of attention to mental activity. — When our brain activities are thoroughly habitual there is no attention, but it is doubtful if there is any me7i- tal activity in such cases. Authors generallj^ ad- mit that there can be no mental activity without at- tention. Can we attend to more than one thing at a time? ''In a case of perfect attention the mind's forces are all brought to bear upon one thing, but experience shows that in imperfect attention the mental force is divided." — Hewett. It is said that we could reach no conclusion in comparing two things unless the mind have both before it at once. But we believe it possible for the attention to vi- OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 33 brate from one to the other in rapid succession. Try it in close analysis or comparison, and see if the attention must not be wholly upon the one while it is forming concepts of it with which to compare the concepts formed of the other. Sir William Hamilton saj'S, however, that the mind can attend to as many as six things at once, but. that the intensity is weakened in proportion to the number of objects before the mind. See Steele, Schuyler, Hewett, Gord}^ Sully, Dewey, Hamilton, Royce, James. 8'^ Laws of attention. I' Especially with children, whatever is curious, odd, bright, noisy, etc., attracts the attention and develops it. 2^ Whatever occasions strong emotions of pleasure or of pain claims the attention. 3" The degree of the attention will vary with the exciting cause or stimulus. 4" Variety of related objects attract the attention. 5" Attention is more likel}^ to be aroused if the ob- ject accords with one's tastes and tendencies. — Baker. 6' Weber's Law. — In order that a sensation may increase in quantity in arithmetical progression, the stimulus must increase in geometrical pro- gression — which expresses a general truth. 9^^ Conditions unfavorable to attention. I' Too frequent repetition. 2^ Abrupt or rapid transition from one subject to another. 3^ Prolonging an effort to weariness. 3 34 OUTLINES OP PSYCHOLOG-Y. 4^ External influences that are more exciting stimuli than those designed to be kept before the mind. 5^ Mental agitation from fear, etc. 6^ Tasks too difficult to comprehend. 7^ 111 health causing bodily pain. io<5 Motives proper to employ to secure it. I ^ On the part of the pupil. I ^ The fear of pain, in exceptional cases. 2^ The love of praise. To be used with caution. 3^ The hope of future good. 4^ The desire to excel in merit. 5^ The motives of duty: do the right because it is right. 6^ All proper incentives to study. The Roj-al Seven.— Dr. White, i^ A desire for standing or rank. 2^ A desire for the approbation of equals and of superiors. 3^ A desire for activity and power. 4^ A desire for knowledge. 5^ The hope of future good. 6^ A sense of honor. 7^ A sense of duty. 2^ On the part of the teacher. I ^ You must be interested in your subject. 2^ Speak in your natural tones ; be careful that you do not speak loud. 3^ Express your thoughts clearly — do not con- fuse by too many words. 4^ Usually stand before your class. 5^ Direct your next question to the most inat- OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 35 tentive pupil, if the attention is good with few exceptions. 6^ Ver}" seldom teach with a book in your hand and 3'our CN'es on the book. 7^ Set the example of close attention. 116 Growth of attention. i^ The early life of a child is almost a continual exercise of this power, the stimuli being pre- sented through the senses, especially of sight, touch, and hearing. 2'^ Cultivation. — As the attention is under the control of the will it can be cultivated. This may be done by a persistent exercise of the will power over the mind's movements. Like the law of habit, it grows by repetition under proper circumstances. 3^ Rules for cultivating the attention. i^ Have your pupils to observe objects closel3\ 2^ Have your pupils to write long sentences from dictation. (Length of sentence de- pends very largely upon grade of pupils.) 3^ Have your pupils carry out lengthy cal- culations in mental arithmetic. 4^ Have them reproduce all anal3^ses given by the teacher. 4^ Results of concentrated and prolonged effort. — Genius is simply a persistent, continuous attention. Without it, the greatest natural genius is doomed to failure. With it, any student can command success. Conception. See Consciousness, Attention. 36 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOLOGY. I ^ Etymology. — From L. coii, meaning with, and capere, to take, signifying a taking or grasping together. 2^ Varied use of the term. I ^ Formerly used to denote the power, the process, and the product of forming general ideas. 2^ Recent authors have chosen cojicept to denote the product of conception. 3*^ Def — Conception is the process of forming a gen- eral notion, or idea, through the operations of anal- ysis, abstraction, and generalization. 4*^ Authors quoted. — That process of elaboration by which the intellect forms general notions of classes of objects having common attributes. — Schuyler. The process of forming abstract or general ideas. — Hill. The process of forming a general notion of a class of similar objects. — Baker. The power by which we see with the mind's eye. — Hewett. The whole mental activity by which the complex proc- ess of analysis, abstraction, and generalization is performed. — Putnam. 56 Processes, or steps of conception. i^ Presentation. — That step in the formation of ideas which consists in presenting the objects of knowledge through sense-perception. Some call this step observation. 0^ Comparison. — That step by which objects of knowledge are presented to the mind by noting their points of similarity. 3*^ Abstraction. — From \^.-ab, off or from, and tra- here^ to draw. That process by which we " draw off" for further attention, the common character- istics of the objects examined. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 37 4^ Generalization. — L,. gcjius, meaning kind. That process in conception b}' which we select the common attributes found in an entire class of objects. It embraces synthetic specification, or the formation of species from individuals; and generification, or the formation of genera from species. 5'' Denomination. i^ Def. — That step by which we assign names to the classes formed by generalization, and these classes, with the concepts of them, become embodied in verbal signs. 2^ What it embraces : Nomenclature. — The col- lection of the names applied to the classes of objects grouped in a science. Terminolog^^ — The collection of the names of these parts and properties of individual objects belonging to a science. (Condensed from Schuyler.) 6** Relation of conception to classification. i^ Classification is forming groups of objects having common qualities, 2^ While conception is forming a general notion of the class of such objects. 7*^ What the term conception embraces. i^ It is not a faculty. — It is a general power of the soul, largely under the control of the will, but it accompanies each of the mental powers, and pro- duces no specific result alone. 2^ The act cf the mind and the product of this act. 37 Concepts. i^ Def. — A concept is a combination of common attributes into a single term, but it is a men- tal product, iwDt a verbal or written expression. 38 OUTlvINE^S OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2^ Classes. I ^ Simple concepts. — The simple mental products of the representative power ; see images and ideas. 2^ General concepts. — The mental notions of a class of objects. The simplest act of thinking is the forming of the general concept, or notion. — White. 3^ Other terms. — Simple concepts are called individual concepts, and general concepts are called logical concepts. 4^ Difference between them. — The former represent individual things, or objects, while the latter represent "a bundle of at- tributes that belong to every one of a class to which the terffi may be applied." 8*^ Cultivation of conception. i^ Why it may be done. — Because the will has al- most exclusive control over our conceptions. 2^ How it maybe done. — Hewett. i^ Avoid "parrot" recitations, for in them j^ou have words without their accompanying con- cepts. 2^ Avoid mechanical reading and meaningless mathematical work. 3^ Induce accurate perceptions of objects studied through the senses; hence, cultivate sense- perception. 9^ Relation of conception to education. I ^ It is essential to scientific knowledge. — Not an accumulation of isolated facts, but of facts grouped in classes according to ^known laws, and known by a suitable nomenclature. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 39 2* Steps of conception necessan- to a scientific knowl- edge. — Abstraction and generalization in particular. 3^ Conception is developed by linguistic stud}-. i^ Language is made up largely of general terms, hence conception is developed. 2^ It calls forth the habit of comparing. 4* It affords a criterion for the order of stud}'. In the growth of the mind there are three essential proc- esses : i^ Apprehension of facts. — For example, objects must be presented to the senses. 2^ Analysis of facts. — For example, the parts of things studied must be separated. 3^ Synthesis of relations. — The common character- istics of things studied must be united under general terms. 5' The method of developing abstract ideas. — Con- densed from "Bain's Education as a Science." I ^ The selection of particulars should be such as to show all extreme varieties. 2^ The instances cited should bring out the agree- ments. 3^ The accumulation of the facts should be continu- ous, until the effect is produced. 4^ A sudden flash of agreement between things in many respects different is what is aimed at. 5^ Aid can be derived from tracing the cause and effect. This is the crowning notion of science. 6^ The number of instances necessary varies with the character of the things. 7^ The name and the definition should be given along with the general notion, when it is formed. 40 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2^ The Soul's Individual Powers, commonly called the psychical powers (but general powers are also psy- chical). See General Powers, page 26. i4 The Intellect. 1 5 Def.— The faculty of knowing.— Hill. The soul possessing or exercising the power to know. — White. To think is the same thing as to know and comprehend. — Compayre. 2^ Etymology. — From L- iytter, between, and legere, to gather; indicating that knowledge is gathered in the transition from one expe- rience to another. 3^ Its functions.— Sully. I ^ Discrimination. — The knowing of differ- ences. 2^ Assimilation. — The knowing of resem- blances. 4^ The product of knowing. — Knowledge. i^ Def. — That condition of certitude in the soul that arises when realities or relations are consciously apprehended. — Hill. 2^ Objects of knowledge. — White. i^ Subjective, or subject-objects. — The acts and states of the soul and their products. 2'^ Objective, or object-objects. — External material objects. 3^ Relational, or relation-objects. — The re- lation of objects, whether discerned in- tuitively or by thought. 36 Kinds of knowledge. I ^ As to manner in which known. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 41 i^ Scientific. — Kno\vledge properly classified. 2 ^ U n s c i e n t i fi c. — Unclassified knowledge, simply information. 2^ As to its stage in the soul. i^ Primitive. — Crude, first knowledge, as gained b}' the use of the perceptive pow- ers alone. 28 Developed. — Knowledge in which the sig- nificance, relation, and use of what has been gathered by the perceptive powers are centralized and classified by the apper- ceptive powers, and known by conception. 3^ As to powers of Intellect, by which known, i^ Presentative knowledge. — The knowledge- the soul has of itself and things immedi- ately about it through self-consciousness, sense-perception, and intuition. 2^ Representative. — Knowledge the soul has of objects and their qualities when nei- ther is actually present to the senses, but re-presented by ideas. 3^ Elaborative. — Presentative knowledge worked out b)^ purely psychical processes into higher and more general forms. — Hill. 4^ Constitutive. — Knowledge acquired b}' an examination of postulates and hypotheses. 55 Intellectual powers. — Three classes. i*^ Presentative powers. — Three in number. The presentative powers may be called the acq ids i- tional powers, since only by their use can the soul acquire knowledge. 1 7 Self -Consciousness. — Authors generally 42 OUTLINK6 OF PSYCHOLOGY. make no distinction between consciousness and self-consciousness. For a study of the former, see " General Powers." There may be the following distinction : i^ Consciousness includes the three elements in every act of knowledge : The knowing subject, the object of knowledge, and the states of the soul as affected by the object of knowledge. But self-consciousness is limited to the soul's knowl- edge of itself in the act of consciousness. 2^ Forms of self-consciousness. — Hill. i^ Spontaneous. — May be called inherent, such as savages possess — a consciousness without an inquiry into cause and effect. 2^ Reflective. — "That energetic realization of self-existence acquired by profound reflection upon the nature and cause of our beings." I ^ ^ Its normal forms. — The philosophical and the ethical. 2^^ Its abnormal forms. — The precocious, the egotistic, and the hypochondriacal. 3 7 Sense=perception. i^ Def. — The soul's power to know material ob- jects, to know the non-Ego. It is the founda- tion of all our knowledge, but not the immedi- ate source of all knowledge, as we ma}^ gain knowledge by intuition and self-consciousness also. As indicated by the term itself, it is per- ception through the senses. 2^ Etymology. — From Ivatin/>^r, meaning through, and capere, to take. This implies taking in knowledge through one or more of the senses. OUTI^INES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 43 .3^ Uses of the term. i^ To designate a power. — We speak of the per- ception possessed by the soul. 2 9 To designate an act. — As " your peroeption of sound is not acute." 3^ To designate the thing perceived. 4^ The physical conditions of sense-perception. i^ Material object, or external excitant, capable of furnishing an impression. 2^ The nervous organism, or sensorium, adapted to receiving and conveying impression. 3^ The sensorial excitement, or the actual excita- tion of the sensorium. These three conditions of perception may be called the antecedents of perception. 5^ The psychical elements of sense-perception. i^ Perception proper. — The act by which the e^^- temal object is known. An act or process of the mind immediately successive to a sensation, by which we refer this seUvSation to something external as its cause. — Steele. 2^ Sensation. — A state of mind produced by some external object or influence operating on the sensorium. The pleasures or pains which im- mediately follow a material phenomenon. — Com- payre. A cognized affection of the nerves. — Hewett. 6^ Classes of sense=perceptions. i^ An original perception is one that is obtained from the excitation of a single sense, and that the one exercised. 2^ An acquired perception is given by one sense as a sign of knowle-dge usually gained by another. 44 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. i^^ Examples. — By the sound in the stetho- scope the physician knows the condition of the heart, though he can not see it. By rap- ping on a barrel we know by the sound whether it is empty, partly filled, or entirely filled. Here the sense of sound gives us an acquired perception that might be given by the sense of sight. (I^et the student give six other examples of acquired perceptions.) 2^^ Classes of acquired perceptions. 1^1 Those of touch are the most valuable. To the artisan they are a kind of me- chanical conscience. 2^^ Of smell. — The odor of a peach wnll cause us to identify the object. 3^^ Of taste. — By taste we have perceptions of objects commonly known to us by smell. 4^^ Of hearing. — We have perceptions of a person by the familiar sound of his foot- step. 5^ ^ Of sight. — We judge of distance by sight, also the intensity of color and distinct- ness of outline. We judge of the mag- nitude of objects by distance and by comparing them with other objects known to us or in the same view with other objects. (Why does the sun ap- pear larger when near the horizon than at midday ?) 7^ Classification of the Senses. i^ Molar, or dynamical senses. — Tactile, the sense: of touch, and acoustic, the sense of hearinof. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 45 2 9 Molecular, or chemical senses. — Dialytic, the sense of taste, and catalytic, the sense of smell. 3^ Intermolecular, or etheric senses. — Thermic, the sense of temperature, and photic, the sense of sight. (The student should tell why each of these terms is so used.) ^8 Percepts. I ^ Def. — A percept is a simple and single presenta- tion of sense-perception — an isolated fragment of knowledge. Any object of knowledge as known by us is a group of percepts. Putnam says a percept is a complete mental product of the act of perceiving. It is the individual notion we get of an object by our senses w^hile we are ex- ercising our senses upon it. (See Dewey, Mc- Cosh, Lindner.) 2^ Difference between percept and concept. — When our senses cease to act upon an object, the no- tion that persists or returns is a concept of it. — Hewett. When several successive and related percepts are united into one psychical whole the result is a concept, particularly a sense-concept. 3^ Difference between percept and image. — A sense- concept, or a percept revived by an act of the memory, is usually called an image, but it is doubtful if percepts of smell, sound, and taste may be revived into images. They may be called sense-concepts, however. ^8 Relation of perception to education. I ^ Sense-perception furnishes the crude material for all mental activity, except that mentioned in in- tuition and the soul's knowledo:e of itself in self- 46 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. c®.nsciousness, which together include much less than sense-perception. 2^ The growth of the perception is the growth of our discriminative power ; that is, our consciousness of differences and agreements. 3^ A stud}^ of the laws of perception teaches us that the earliest studies of childhood should be objective and presentative. (See chapter on ''Observation of Children.") 4^ Concrete facts and not abstract ideas should be im- parted, and by actual observation whenever possi- ble. 5^ The method of study should be that of object les- sons. 6^ The improvement of sense-perception is attained by exercise. 7 ^ The degree of education and the kind of knowledge the child has already obtained through sense-percep- tion before he enters school should be recognized there, and his training continued according to the laws of mind growth. The perceptive faculty should continue to be exercised. 8^ These facts are the basis of Kindergartenism, which was founded by Frederick W. Froebel, a German thinker, 1 782-1852, who borrowed the idea from John H. Pestalozzi, a Swiss educator, 1 746-1 827. The etymology of the word kindergarten really means a children's garden, a place where the child- mind can be naturally developed by exercise in the lines of activity in which the child-mind delights. Here is an all-important thought for teachers of primary grades. OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOIvOGY. 47 37 Intuition. — See i^ Self-consciousness, etc. I ^ Def. — That power of the soul by which we know certain fundamental things without being taught. — Hewett. The power of mind which makes us acquainted with simple, primary ideas and truths. — Putnam. 2^ Relation. — Knowledge that appears to come of itself by some law of mind, but not by any proc- ess of reasoning. 3^ What intuition embraces. — Ideas and truths. 1 9 Intuitive Ideas. I ^ ^ Def. — Ideas that spring from the mind's own energy. 2^^ Classes of intuitive ideas. i^^ Ideas of space. — Evidently space is not known through the senses, nor by self-consciousness. 2^^ Ideas of duration are intuitive. 3^^ Ideas of time are intuitive. 4^ ^ Ideas of being. — All men naturally, intuitively, believe in their own exist- ence. 5^^ Ideas of right and wrong. — Children naturally have an idea of right and wrong at a very early age. Teachers should place much stress upon this fact in dealing with the young child. Some authors deny that ideas of right and wrong are intuitive. The student should attempt to answer the follow- ing questions : Does a little child have an idea or conception of right 48 OUTlvINKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. and wrong without being taught? Have savages ideas of right and wrong? 6^^ Ideas of personal identit3^ — I can not rid myself of the idea that I am the same person I always was. No testimony, evi- dence, or argument could change my con- viction ; hence the idea is intuitive. 3^^ Nature. — A knowledge of intuitive ideas is in- nate, and for that reason intuition may be called natural reason. Idiots are lacking in intuition, while an insane person may lose thons intuition and still reason logicall3\ (Explain how this can be possible.) 39 Intuitive Truths. i^^ Def. — Truths which every sane and sound mind apprehends at once, without the aid of mem-, ory, judgment, or reason. 2^^ Synonyms. — Necessary truths, self-evident truths. 2,^^ Characteristics, or tests. — If a truth possesses the following characteristics it is intuitive : I ^ ^ Universality. — It must be the truth, every- where and at all times. 2^^ Self-evidence. — They can not be demon- strated. No amount of evidence can make them more distinct. 3^^ Necessity. — To contradict any intuitive truth is at once manifestly absurd. We can not disbelieve them. 4^ ^ Singleness. — No intuitive truth can be re- solved into other truths — they can not be analyzed into simplicity. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 49 4^ ^ Examples of such truths. i^^ Two things can not occupy the same space at the same time. 2^^ The whole is equal to the sum of all its parts. 3^^ All axiomatic truths. Representative Powers. See i^ Presentative. i^ Def. — Those intellectual powers by which ob- jects, their qualities and relations, not actually present to the senses, are represented by con- cepts, ideas, and images. Let the student see the definition of each of these terms. -2^ Illustration. — A year ago I witnessed a memora- ble scene in Chicago. At that time I had imme- diate or presentative knowledge of the objects about me. To-day I have a representative idea of that scene that still gives me a distinct knowl- edge of it. 3^ May very appropriately be called \.\iq expressio7ial powers, since by their use it is made possible to express what the soul has acquired. 4^ Classification. 18 Phantasy. (2^ Imagination. 3^ Memory.) 1 9 Def. — The power of the soul to reproduce its past acts and states spontaneously and involuntarily. The images thus repro- duced are not recognized as products of past experience, and usually seem as pres- ent realities; They are not reproduced as they existed in the reality. 2^ Etymology. — From the Greek phantazehiy to cause to appear. 50 OUTI^INES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 3 9 When exercised. — When the other intellectual powers and the will are at least partially passive. It occurs in reverie, dreaming, delirium, som- ■ nambulism, hypnotism, and insanity. The first is the simplest form. 4^ Distinction between phantasy and memory. I ^ ^ The function of phantasy is to reproduce. 2^^ That of memory is to recognize. 5^ Causes. — ''A heat-oppressed brain," disordered stomach, anticipation of future pleasures, brood- ing over real or imagined wrongs, and various forms of disease. 6^ Characteristics of the idea reproduced by phan- tasy. I ^ ^ It is less vividly realized than the original, because not a true reproduction. 2^^ The ideas are slowly combined. 3^^ The representative image usually contains fewer elements than the original. 7^ The modes of reproducing images. I ^ ^ By physical stimulation. — Hill says sounds have been known "to ring" in the ears for fifteen days after a musical concert. 2^^ By physiological stimulation. — By over- working the body, by sleeping too soon after a meal, or as the result of disease. . ' 3^^ By psychical stimulation. — In phantasy the images may magnify or minify the reality beyond a possibility ; stimulation as a re- sult of excessive feelings of pleasure or of pain — in the former case we may be led to build " air-castles." OUTLINES OE PSYCHOLOGY. 5 1 Imagination. i^ Def. — The power to modify and recombine im- ages and ideas. Sense-concepts are not repro- duced in imagination. (Why?) 2^ Activities of the imagination. — Ruskin. I ^ ^ Associative, as exercised by the painter who imagines an object less than its real size. 2^^ Penetrative, when one seeks out the central idea in connection with an object. 3^^ Contemplative, when one is led to employ other images in connection with an object. 3^ Limits. — Imagination recombines truthful con- cepts into complex images and pictures unlike anything known, but still within the limits of possibility, while phantasy combines without re- gard to law or possibility. Baker says " Phan- tasy simply recalls, memory recognizes, but im- agination constructs," to which we would add, Phantasy recalls and reconstructs without regard to the possible. 4^ Varieties of imagination. — Hill. i^ ^ Scientific, in which the end is to realize more completely the true relation of things. It has three forms — mathematical, mechanical, and philosophical. 2^^ Artistic, the end being to realize such rela- tions as will give pleasure to our aesthetic nature, under the guidance of sensibility. Its forms are, poetical, pictorial, and archi- tectural. 3^^ Ethical, the end being the realization of an ideal character and conduct, such as will 52 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOIvOGY. satisfy the convictions of conscience, under the guidance of the will. This last form is bj^ no means the least important. It should be the constant aim of the teacher to cultivate thons own ethical imagination, and to hold up con- stantly to the pupils' view the ideal manhood and womanhood. Here is one of the most fer- tile fields in which the teacher may sow the seeds of right moral training. 5^ Relation of imagination to education. I ^ "^ Used in acquiring knowledge. I ^ ^ In reading we must exercise the imagina- tion in combining into mental pictures the elements of thought suggested. 2^^ In listening we must do the same. Com- paratively few people can listen well. 3^^ In studying science. — For instance, in chemistry : atoms and molecules are invisi- ble. In astronom}^ : the solar system as a whole is not presented to the senses. In geology : we can picture geological periods only in succession. In geometry : we can comprehend figures by the aid of the imag- ination. 4^^ In acquiring immediate knowledge we must use it. The senses give us only frag- ments of knowledge, which must be com- bined and unified in the mind. 2^^ Used in rhetorical production. — In composition it aids us to grasp the subject ; to form a plan ; in the search for material ; in arranging this to meet a purpose ; in the selection of figures of speech. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 53 ^^^ Other uses of imagination. — Hewett. i^i For pure enjoyment. How can its exercise afford us enjoyment? 2^1 Imagination may lighten life's burdens.— In leading us into the contemplation of new scenes, in leading us into fancy, in leading us to anticipate better things in this hfe and a better life to come. 3^ 1 It gives vividness and force to language. 4^ ^ It is essential to success in some of the most practical affairs of life. Illustrate. 5^1 It makes possible all that art gives us, both of enjojanent and of culture. 6^^ It gives us the idea of personal excellence toward which we strive. 7 1 1 To the teacher, it may be of great service in imparting knowledge ; it may assist greatly in governing, especially in the case of small chil- dren. The successful building of good char- acter is not possible without appeal to the imagination. 4^ ^ General laws of imagination. I ^ 1 In imagination we use the materials derived from our experience. 2^^ We only imagine particular and concrete no- tions, while we may think abstract and gen- eral notions. 3^^ The imagination tends toward the production of ideals only. 4^ ^ The imagination constructs according to the laws of association, which see under " Mem- ory." 54 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY^ 5'^^ The training of the imagination, i^^ The characteristic of an undisciplined mind. — Superfluity of images and ideas, disorderly, lacking in unity and design. 2"^^ Aim of the educator. — To prune away redun- dancies, to supply deficiencies, and restore . unity and order in the mental storehouse. 3^^ Means of training. 1^2 By having pupils observe nature. — "In her visible forms she speaks a various language." I^ead pupils to interpret this language. The schools have not yet placed sufficient stress upon this obser- vation work to be done by the pupil. Possibly it is because teachers have not yet sufficiently observed the c/ii/d. 2 ^ ^ By practicing the paraphrasing of poems. 3^ 2 By the study of imaginative literature. 4^ ^ By having pupils practice waiting on sub- jects purely imaginative, construct ques- tions and problems, and make efforts at poetry. This wonderful faculty is very active in children, and should be carefully " drawn out " by the teacher. 6^^ Phases of imagination. — White. I ^ ^ Modifying phase. — Appears very early in the child's life, and includes, ist, the imagining of one thing to be another known thing; 2d, the imagining of a known object, material or spiritual, to be enlarged or diminished, or oth- erwise changed. 2^^ Constructive phase. — Eminently the school OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 55 phase, and is used in teaching reading, geograph}', histor}-, etc. In this phase the imagination recombines the con- cepts formed by reading or ''hearing- language" into possible wholes consist- ent with the subject imaged. 3^^ Creative phase. — The imagination that furnishes the artist, inventor, and dis- coverer with their ideals, and character- izes the dramatist, poet, and novelist. riemory. (i^ Phantasy. 2^ Imagination.) i^ Def. — That representative power which brings before the mind concepts of absent objects, caus- ing us to recognize and reknow them as once known. 2^ Authors quoted. — The soul's power to represent and reknow objects previously known or experi- enced.— White. The power of the mind to re- tain, to reproduce, and to recognize its previous acquisitions. — Putnam. The capacit}^ to retain, and the power to recall, represent, and recognize our previous cognitions. — Schu5der. That in- tellectual function which preserves and renews inner states of consciousness. — Compayre. The reproduction of some idea once present in the mind but not now so, with a reference of it to its proper place in time. — McLellan. See James. 3« The acts of memory. — Three in number, i^^ Retention. i^^ Def. — That function of the memory w^hich produces a continuation of con- cepts in a passive state of intelligence. 56 OUTlvINKS OF PSYCHOIvOGY. 2^^ Its importance. — Recollection or reproduc- tion depends upon retention. Retention depends upon the degree of attention mainly. 2^^ Reproduction. i^^ Def. — That function of memory which brings again into consciousness the con^ cepts of objects once known but not now present. 2^^ Importance. — Our acquisitions of knowl- edge are of no use to us unless we can recall them with readiness and accuracy when we will. See " Laws of Association," page 58. 3^^ Recognition. 1 1 ^ Def — That function of memory which re- knows concepts when recalled as beings former acquisitions of the intellect. 2^^ Importance. — It is the last and completing act of memory. Retention and reproduc- tion would both be useless without recog- nition. 4^ Varieties of memory. I ^ ^ Perfect and imperfect. — In perfect memory we recognize the time and place ; /. e., when and where the object was formerly known. Very few of our acts of memory are perfect. 2^^ Voluntary and involuntary " memory." — These terms are more properly applied to recollection or reproduction. Voluntary recollection is the recalling of past acquisitions through an effort of the will. This recognizes a very important OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 57 law, that the power of recollecting is increased by exercise. Involuntary recollection is the recalling of concepts through their association with ideas already in the mind, and without an. effort of the will. 59 Conditions on which to improve memory. i^° Make your acquisitions under the most favor- able circumstances of physical and mental states. 2^*^ Preserve the vigor of the mind by exercise. 3^^ Frequently repeat your cognitions and recol- lections. 4^*^ Make frequent and accurate reproductions of your acquisitions through the medium of lan- guage — write them and speak them. 5^^ Always ascertain relations of objects, and store up concepts of them as classified knowledge. 6^^ Always strive to identify reproduced ideas, un- derstand what you may think you know but in reality only seem to know. 6^ Forgetfulness. i^*^ Amnesia. — A loss of memory; caused by dis- eases or wounds affecting the brain, old age, excessive use of the memory, or by anaesthet- ics. 2'^^ Degrees of forgetfulness. — Schuyler. I ^ ^ When the displacement is momentary. 2^^ When the withdrawal of attention is vol- untary. 3^^ When the recollection requires an effort. 4I ^ When we can not, at present, recall. 5^^ When repeated efforts to recall have failed. ^8 OUTI.INKS OF PSYCHOIvOGY; 79 The Laws of Association. I ^ ^ Def. — They are laws governing the relaticxi of impressions. They were first laid down b}^ Aristotle. (See " History of Kducation.") 2^° Classification. I ^ ^ Primary, or objective, laws. — Refer to the relations existing between thoughts, or the objects of thought. — See McCosh's Psychol- ogy, also James, Dewey, Royce. i^^ The I^aw of Similarity. — Objects or thoughts which resemble each other tend to recall each the other. 2^ ^ The Law of Contrast.— Contrasted ideas tend to recall each other. Many ob- jects, also, when presented to the mind tend to recall other objects in contrast with them. 3^2 The Law of Contiguity. — Objects and ideas associated in time or place tend to recall each other, i^^ Contiguity of time. — Very impor- tant in school instruction. We as- sociate Washington and the Revo- lution; Lincoln and emancipation ; and many of the most important facts in history. 2^^ Contiguity of place. — Events are associated with the places at which they occurred ; the metals with the mountainous countries ; the grains with the fertile soil, and numerous other examples in history and ge- ography. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 59 .2^^ Secondar}^, or subjective, laws. — Refer to conditions of both mind and body which contribute to make the association of ideas more complete. .1^2 ^jig relation of cause and effect. — By reason the mind wdll arrive at a con- clusion when a cause is knowm, or ac- curately presume the cause when the effect is known. The tendency of many teachers is to pass hurriedly from effect to cause or from cause to effect ^thout having pupils determine or theorize upon probable cause or proba- ble effect. Not only is memory greatly 'Strengthened by the careful observ- ance of this lav;, but the reason also is strengthened. 2^^ Exclusive attention and clear discrim- ination during the acquisition of knowl- edge will tend to fix that knowledge. 3^2 Familiar objects and thoughts often re- viewed tend to make knowledge more permanent — hence, the importance of repetition, even though it be merely mechanical with children. Review I 4^^ If our individual feelings, habits, and tendencies are favorable, ideas will be most permanent. 5^2 '^\iQ more recent the experience the more readily it may be recalled. $>^ Cultivation of the memory. i^° General rule. — If the teacher or the student ad- here strictly to the application of the laws of as- 6o OUTIvINKS OF PSYCHOIvOGY. sociation in their connection with at- tention and reproduction, a sound and vigorous memory will be the reward. 2^^ Special rules. i^^ Skillful questioning brings the mind in close contact with the re- lations between facts, and these re- lations become the bonds of associ- ation for the memory. — Dr. Baker. 2^^ For the greater part, memory should be a memory of ideas rather than of words. 3^ ^ Interest is the mother of attention, and attention is the mother of memory ; hence, cause an interest to spring up in the mind of the student. 3^^ Mnemonic devices. — Simonides, a Greek poet of 500 B. C, was the first to use this method. The value of mnemonics is questionable. In some instances they assist what may be called the mechanical memory. The stanza concerning the number of da5^s in each month is a servicable mnemon- ic. Also the stanza concerning the Presidents. See Sully's Hand-Book for an excellent treatise upon the sub- ject of memory culture. 3^ Thought Powers. 2^ Representative. I ^ Def. — The powers of intellect by which we form and rationally apply general conceptions. OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 6 1 12^ May also be called the relational powers of the in- tellect, since by their use the soul apperceives the relation between the percepts resulting from the presentation of the facts of knowledge to the soul through the acquisitional powders. This power to correlate percepts into the concepts of the ex- pressional is called apperception. See article on "The New Pedagogics" in this volume. 3^ Classification. — Conceptive Generalization, Judg- ment, and Reason. 1 8 Conceptive Generalization, or Conception. — The author thinks this one of the intellectual powers inseparably connected with the other functions of the intellect, hence has classed it as a General Powder, which see, page 35. :2fi Judgment. i^ Def. — The process of asserting agreement or disagreement between ideas. — Hill. 2.^ A judgment. — The psychical product of judg- ing when expressed iii a proposition is called a judgment. i^*^ Parts of judgments. — Every judgment embraces the expression of two related ideas. One of these is the subject, the other the predicate. They are joined by the copula. These are the three neces- sary parts of a proposition. 2^ ^ How a judgment is obtained. — By affirm- ing or denying one thing of another. It can only be arrived at by comparing the agreements, relations, and differences be- tween ideas or thino-s. 62 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 3^ What judgment implies. — No one can form a judg- ment without a preexisting knowledge of the agree- ments or differences between the things to be judged. This knowledge may be obtained almost immediately before making a judgment concerning: them, but it must be known. 4^ Age at which judgment is first developed. — It is an. earlier faculty than reason, and is probably mani- fest in observing children at the age of 3 or 4 years. Dr. White thinks that the judgment awakens at the age of 3 and reason at the age of 6, generally. See view expressed under "Reason," on page 64. 59 Classification of Judgments. I ^ ^ As to origin. i^^ A primitive judgment. — Not derived front any other judgment, and may be intuitive or a mere assumption. 2^ ^ A derivative judgm^ent. — One derived from other judgments, and may be called demon- strative when capable of proof, and prob- lematical when incapable of proof. 2^^ As to relation of their two ideas. I ^ ^ Affirmative. — When the two ideas are con- sonant, or possess agreement; as, "The man is insane." 2^^ Negative. — When the two ideas are not compatible, or possess disagreement; as, "The man is not insane." As to their scope, or quantity. I ^ ^ Singular, or particular. — Those made about single things or parts of a class ; as, " This man is insane." 10 OUTI.INES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 63, 2^^ Universal. — Those relating to classes or the whole of a subject; they must be true at all times and in all places ; as, " No work of man is enduring," showing also that singular and universal judg- ments may be afiirmative or negative. 4I ^ As to form. i^^ Categorical. — When the relation is ex- pressed without qualification by con- ditions; as, ''Man is mortal," ''Some men are wealthy." 2^^ Conditional. — In which the judgment is conditioned on an hypothesis, an alter- nativCj or both ; as, " If Mars is a fixed star, it is a sun." 69 Relation of judgment to education. I ^ ^ How far can we encourage independence of judgment in the learner? Hill says " To de- velop power without conceit is the teacher's difficult task." The teacher should lead out and guide the self-confidence of the pupil, but give thon to see that thons judgments must be subject to the revision and correc- tion of the teacher. 2^^ Cultivation of the judgment. — The exact sci- ences and experiments in the laboratory are the best means of cultivating the judgment. All lessons gained by experience strengthen the judgment. 38 Reason. See Conception and Judgment. 1 9 Def. — The process by which we prove the truth or falsity of a proposition. •64 OUTI.INKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2^ Authors quoted. — A process of inference in which a new judgment is derived from other known judg- ments. — Hill. A combination of judgments brought together in such a way that the result is a legiti- mate conclusion of the comparison. — Compayre. The process of comparing judgments. — Putnam. 39 When do children begin to reason ? — I believe that children reason at a much earlier age than we have been wont to believe. The very fact that the child is inquisitive is sufficient evidence that the child reasons. I would say there are three stages of reasoning (by this I do not mean abstract rea- soning) : ii*^ The ''What" period.— Usually about the age of two years the normal child asks a great many whats about almost everything thon sees. ^10 'j^he '' Why " period.— By the time the child is four years of age many whys are asked. 310 O^he "How" period.— Before the child is six thon asks how, and if a boy, he will be attempt- ing to find out how things are done, even though he must destroy the object to learn the answer to his question. 4^ The forms of reasoning. — When expressed in full, the process of reasoning is expressed in a regular series of judgments. i^"^ Implicit. — When the grounds for the conclu- sion are assumed as understood and admitted. See enthymeme. 2^^ Explicit. — When the whole series of necessary judgments are formally expressed. See syllo- gism. OUTI.INKS OF PSYCHOLOGY. 65 Methods of reasoning. i^^ Induction. I ^ ^ Def. — The process of inference, or the proc- ess of inferring general judgments from particular instances. 2^^ Authors quoted. — The process of rising from particular truths to general truths. — Compayre. The operation of reaching a general truth by an examination and com- parison of facts. — Sully. Reasoning from individuals or particular classes to general facts. — Steele. In short, it may be called proceeding from the known to the un- known, from fact to law. 3^^ Its form. — One of the three terms may be omitted, but three propositions may be used in induction. The conclusion reached by induction may be used as a premise in deduction, which see. 4^ ^ Basis. — *' The belief in the uniformity of the laws of nature is the ground upon which we argue from the known to the unknown." — Dr. Baker. See Ladd, Baldwin, De Gar- mo, and James. 5^^ Processes of complete induction. 1^2 Observation, or experiment. 2^2 Stating an hypothesis. 3^2 Reversing by deduction, and verifica- tion. 310 Deduction. i^^ Def. — An act of judgment by a mediate process in which we arrive at a particular conclusion based* on a general law. 5 66 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 2^^ Authors quoted. — The process by which we derive a particular truth from a general truth. — Hewett. Deduction descends from principle to consequence. — Compayre. Reasoning from a general fact to a particular fact. — White. See Baldwin. 5^1 Forms of deduction. 1 1 2 The enthymeme. — An enthymeme is an abridged syllogism, a statement in which a conclusion is reached by omitting one of the three propositions of the syllogism. The omitted statement must be evidently true in order that the conclusion may be undeniable. 2i2 The syllogism. i^^ Def. — That form of deduction in which the conclusion is reached by means of three related propositions. 2^3 Parts. i^* Major premise. — The proposition con- taining the major term and expressing an affirmation of the class; "All men make mistakes." 2^* Minor premise. — The proposition that states that the individual in question belongs to the class named in the •major premise; '' Charles Brown is a man." 3I * Conclusion. — The proposition express- ing the resulting judgment based on a comparison of the two premises ; "Therefore, Charles Brown makes mistakes." 3^^ The terms. — The subject of the conclusion OUTLINES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 6/ is the Minor Term ; the predicate of the conclusion is the Major Term ; the term with which these two are compared is the Middle Term. 4^^ Illustration. — In the example giv- en, " Charles Brown " is the minor term; "makes mistakes" is the major term; "man" is the middle term. 6^ Relation of reason to education. — In- ductive reasoning is best developed by a study of the natural sciences, while deductive reasoning is greatly improved by a study of mathematics. The im- portance of developing the reasoning powers of pupils can hardly be overes- timated by the teacher. 2* Sensibility, (i^ Intellect, page 40.) i^ Def. — The soul exercising the power to feel. 2^ What it includes. — Corporeal feelings and psy- chical feelings. 3^ The sensibilities. — The term is applied to the various states of feeling. 4^ Classification. i^ Corporeal feelings. — Outlined in connection with the nervous system and sense-percep- tion. 26 Psychical feelings. i^ Def. — States of consciousness induced by the influence of external objects upon the nature of the soul itself. 2^ Classes. 68 OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. i^ The Emotions. i^ Def. — Simple feelings arising in the mind in con- sequence of some knowledge of certain facts, or some general consciousness of condition.— Steele, p. 174. 2^ Classification. i^*^ Instinctive. — Those feelings of joy or sor- row experienced especially by young chil- dren, usually aimless, and occasioned by an accumulation of energy or a lack of energy. 2^^ Rational. — Those feelings that arise in the soul in consequence of some activity of the intellectual powers. They may be excited through the senses, or by recollection, or by anticipation, i^^ Egoistic emotions. — Pertain to self. 1^2 Joy and sorrow. — These terms in- clude many forms of gladness and depression, tnirthfulness and melan- choly, etc. 2^2 Content and discontent. — May be made to include satisfaction and dis- satisfaction. 3^2 Pride and humiliation. — With the first might be placed self-love, self- respect, etc. 4I 2 Hope and fear. — May be subdivided. 2^^ Altruistic emotions. — Pertain to others. I ^ 2 Sympathy and antipathy. 2^2 lyove and hatred. — These may be classed under the affections, which see. OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 69 3^1 Esthetic emotions. 1 1 2 Wit, humor, the ludicrous, etc. 2^2 Beauty, grandeur, sublimity, etc. 4I ^ Ethical emotions. 1^2 Emotions of right and wrong. 2^2 Of duty, responsibility, obligation, etc. The Affections. I® Def. — They are feelings of the soul directed toward external objects, such as the love of God> of home, of country, of kindred, etc. 2^ Classification. I ^ ^ The beneficent affections. — Feelings of good- will toward those we wish to benefit in some way. i^^ Domestic affections, such as parental love, filial love, and fraternal love. 2^^ Social affections, very numerous. 1^2 Friendship, gratitude, sympathy, compassion, etc. 212 Patriotism and philanthropy. — Pa- triotism is that feeling which causes us to place first in our affections the ethics of our families, then of our neighbors, then our state, and next our country. Philanthropy is a feel- ing of good-will going out to the human race in general with a de- sire to make all mankind better. 210 'j^^ie defensive affections. — Putnam, p. 138. i^^ Def. — Feelings that prompt to self-de- fense or the protection of others. — Same. 70 OUTIylNES OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 2^ ^ Resentment. — " It springs up in the soul when we believe ourselves to have been insulted, injured, or wantonly wronged by deliberate intention, and when the injury or wrong may work serious harm to us in person, property", or reputation." — Same, p. 139. 3^1 Indignation. — The feeling which prompts one to protect and defend oth- ers who have been unjustly injured or wronged. 3^*^ The maleficent affections. I ^ ^ Def. — Those feelings directed toward others with the intent to do them harm. 2^^ Some of the forms. — Anger, hate, prej- udice, jealousy, envy, revenge, malice. 3^ Importance of the affections. — The teacher should strive to understand human nature. A careful study of the affections in their relation to the work of the school is of vast importance to every teacher. (See *' Observation of Children.") 38 The Desires. i^ Def. — The longings of the soul for some real or supposed good not possessed. 2^ Classification. 1 1 ^ Desire for property. — The mainspring of in- dustry, all advancement and civilization de- pend on it. 2^^ Desire for knowledge. — This springs directly from the feeling excited by curiosity. Its stimulus must not be overlooked in the edu- cation of a child. OUTI.INKS OF PSYCHOI.OGY. 7 1 3^*^ Desire for self-preservation. — It may be instinctive or voluntary. Needs no illustration. No prin- ciple in our beings is stronger than this one. 4^ ^ Desire for power. — This desire is strong and natural, and should sometimes be curbed and some- times encouraged. 5^^ Desires for liberty, happiness, esteem, and general worthiness. 34 The Will. (2 4 Sensibility, i* Intellect.) i^ Def. — The soul's power to do, or to exert con- scious action toward some definite end. 2^ Forms of activity. i^ Non-voluntary or reflex. — Does not include functions of the will as the term is ordinarily used, but functions of the doi?ig power of the soul nevertheless. All our random, reflex, and instinctive movements come under this head. 2^ Voluntary, activity of the will proper, i^ Steps in the process. i^ Objects are presented to the mind, through, the sources of desire, motive, or sense-perception; the objects may be physical or mental. 2^ Examination and anatysis. — The mind requires some time to perceive rela- tions before an act of the will is com- pleted. This step includes the excita- tion of a feelinof. 72 OUTLINES OP PSYCHOLOGY. ' 3^ Choice. — Desire prompts the possession of the object, while aversion prompts rejec- tion. Here perfect freedom of choice is exercised. 4^ Executive volition. — The final act of the will, by which desires culminate into re- ality of possession. 2'^ This voluntary activity alone subject to train- ing. 35 floral training. i^ Depends upon the training of the will. 2® Methods. i^ As knowledge tends to awaken feeling, it is all-important that right feelings be awakened. In some children these feelings may be dor- mant, but by skillful training the feelings may be awakened, then directed. 2^ Stories effectively told, biographies beauti- fully expressed, some fairy tales judiciously told, all may tend to cultivate the moral na- ture. 3^ Feelings may be ennobled by use of liter- ary gems, songs, and works of art. School- rooms should be adorned with suitable pic- tures. For outlines of lessons on " Moral Training" see Dr. E. E. White's ''School Management." 4^ By example. — Moral instruction from mouth to ear will hardly reach the heart — it must come from the heart and the life of the teacher. (See " Qualifications of the Teacher '" in Outlines of Pedagogy, page 74.) OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 73. OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. ii Definition.— See '' History of Education," following this outline. 2^ Synonyms. — Science of Teaching, Paideutics, Sci- ence cf Education. 3^ Basis of Pedagogy. — The one comprehensive end of pedagogy is to prepare man, a being of capaci- ties, susceptibilities, and possibilities, for the most complete fulfillment of the purposes for which he was created. 4I Means of accomplishing these purposes. — Physical, Psychical, and Technical, or power, knowledge, and skill. 5^ Kinds of education based on the means. 1 2 Physical education. — The development and train- ing of the bodily powers. 2^ Moral education. — The development and train- ing of the moral faculties, with a view of forming character. 3 2 Intellectual education. — The development and training of the intellectual powers along the laws governing the processes in the acquisition of knowledge. 61 The elements. — Knowledge, power, and skill. 1 2 Knowledge as a result of teaching. 74 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. i^ Original. — Obtained without the aid of a teacher, by observation and reflection, chiefly from nature. 2^ Recorded. — Knowledge obtained from books, paintings, sculptures, newspapers, etc. 3^ Tuitionary. — That obtained directly from the teacher. In each case the mind can receive knowledge only when it puts forth an inner energy. 2 2 Power. i^ Inherent. — The capacity of the intellectual, moral, and physical natures to receive ability from without, or their capability for doing when called into activit3^ 2^ Acquired. — These intellectual, moral, and physical powers developed into lines of activ- ity they would not have taken without tuition. 3^ Skill, or educated and trained powder. I ^ School phase. — The trained power to practice the arts embraced in school instruction, such as writing, reading, singing, and use of lan- guage and numbers. See Parker's " Peda- gogics." 2^ The technical phase. — Includes manual train- ing and the practice of power in the mechanic arts. 71 Conditions of the application of principles to school government. 1 2 Subjective. 1 3 The teacher. i4 Thons qualifications. i^ Good scholarship. — Thons knowledge must be thorough, fresh, and progress- ive. OUTI^INES OF PEDAGOGY. * 75 ^^ A thorough knowledge of the human mind. — An}^ artisan would be foolish to undertake a work without knowing his material. A doctor might as properly administer to the sick without knowing the body, as the teacher without know- ing the mind. The time is rapidly approaching when teachers will be required to make special professional training for the great work of the teacher before they will be allowed to enter the profession. 3^ A thorough knowledge of methods. — Although teachers must not blindly adopt the methods of others, yet in all professions and trades one must know what methods have been most successful in the hands of others. 4^ Skill in government. — Executive abilit}^ and tact. ,5^ Thoroughness of discipline. — Coming from a knowledge of human nature and of the end to be reached. 6^ Must understand thons pupils personally. — Must know their wants — moral, intellectual, and phys- ical. 7^ Heart power. — Thon must have love for thons pupils, and a kindness not feigned. 8^ Self-control. — Thons control of thonself must be complete and thons motives always pure. 9^ Positive morality. — Thons character should be above reproach, thons life pure, that thons exam- ple may be worthy. 30^ Respect for the profession. — Not only a thorough scholar, but a lady or a gentleman of dignity, who has a strong desire for professional improvement, and to create a healthy sentiment for the profes- sion on the part of all intelligent people. 76 • OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 2* Thons authority. I ^ Must possess a certificate. 2^ Must be legally employed. 3^ Must have the support of thons board of edu^ cation. 4^ Must be vested with all the authority neces- sary to carry out every detail of school man- agement. 5^ Must, though in the least conspicuous man- ner possible, let it be known that thon is in authority. 2^ The pupils. 1 4 Their rights. — To equal attention, equal confi- dence, equal immunities (unless privileges are abused), and equal personal rights. 2* Their duties. — To themselves, to be cleanly and neat in attire ; to their teacher, to be kind, re- spectful, and obedient ; to each other, to keep the Golden Rule; to school property, a careful preservation; to the community, respectful. 3* Their offenses. i^ Against themselves. — In tearing and soiling their books or clothing ; in idleness ; in bad manners ; in saying and doing immoral things. 2^ Against the teacher. — In disobedience and disrespectful obedience; in slandering the teacher in conversation with schoolmates or others. 3^ Against other pupils. — Encouraging them to do wrong; accusing them falsely; trying to create a sentiment of dislike upon the part of OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 77 their teacher or their schoolmates; injuring their books, clothing, or playthings. 4^ Against the community. — Making a noise ; throwing stones ; molesting property ; disrespect and rudeness toward the public. 5^ Against God. — Profane language; vulgar lan- guage and conduct ; scoffing at religion and re- ligious customs ; general immoral conduct. ^* Their rewards. i^ The approbation of teachers, parents, and friends. 2^ Promotion in school or in society. 3^ Successful life resulting from discipline. 4^ Present material gain, such as prizes and other gifts. 5^ A feeling of satisfaction and pleasure at having done every duty assigned. 3* Their punishment. i^ Deprivation of privileges in school, on the play- grounds, or private immunities. 2^ Private or public reproof; teacher may some- times use sarcasm, but with care. .3^ Confinement, in schoolroom or solitary ; from privileges of school or play. -4^ Additional duties and repairing damages. .5^ Public and private acknowledgment of offense, with petition for pardon and for reinstatement in class and in the confidence of the teacher and school. ^^ Corporal punishment, private or public, usually the former ; must accomplish purpose for which intended, or it wall be harmful. 78 OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGY. 7^ Suspensions and expulsions. — Severe, but sometimes necessary. The claims of jus- tice and the good of the school and of society demand protection. 22 Objective conditions — the environments, i^ The schoolroom. i^ It should be attractive and convenient. 2^ It should be well heated and ventilated. 3^ It should be adorned with pictures. 4^* The light should enter from left and rear. 5* It should not be overcrowded. 2^ The furniture. I* Desks should be single, and of pattern de- signed on sanitary principles. 2* Recitation seats should afford ample accom- modations. 3* The teacher's desk should be provided with a waste-basket. 4^ The blac^kboards, pencils, erasers, etc., should be the best, and always kept in order. 5* Heating and ventilating appliances should be perfect, and kept in good order. A reliable thermometer and an accurate timepiece should be supplied to every schoolroom. 3^ The apparatus. I* Should have a good globe. 2* Good wall maps and special charts. 3* Appliances for illustrating practical princi- ples of weight, measures, mensuration, etc. 4* If grade of school is advanced, physical and chemical laboratories are essential. 5* A good school library. — No teacher can fully OUTIylNKS OF PEDAGOGY. 79 comprehend the disadvantages to which thons school is subject without a good li- brary, until teacher and school have had free and frequent access to one. Every school should have a library of carefully selected books. Teachers should encour- age the organization of school libraries. Boards of education may appropriate money annually for this purpose. Pupils can not be led to independent and thorough investigation without books. 4^ An educational sentiment. i^ The community must appreciate the efforts of her earnest educators. 2* The economy in public administration should not all be visited on the schools. 3* Boards of education need to possess more than average intelligence. An institution as sacred as the public school needs to be in the hands of earnest, thoughtful, pro- gressive men or women. 8^ Some Universal Principles. 1 2 Formulated by Joseph Payne, I^ondon, Kng. 1 3 First. — "Mind and body are mutually in- terdependent, and cooperate in promoting growth." 2^ Second. — " Faculty of whatever kind grows by exercise." 3^ Third — " Exercise involves repetition, which, as regards bodily actions, ends in habits of action, and as regards impressions received by the mind, ends in clearness of perception." ^O OUTI^INKS OF PEDAGOGY. 4^ Fourth. — " The exercise of the child's own pow- ers, stimulated but not superseded by the edu- cator's interference, ends both in acquisition of knowledge and in the invigoration of the powers for further acquisition." 5^ Fifth. — '' Natural education consists in the de- velopment and training of the learner's powers, through influences of various kinds, which are initiated by action from without and met by cor- responding action from within." :22 Formulated by Dr. E. E. White in his Ped- agogy." i^ First. — " Teaching, both in matter and method, must be adapted to the capability of the taught." 2^ Second. — "There is a natural order in which the powers of the mind should be exercised, and the corresponding kinds of knowledge taught." ^3 ^hii-(^ — ''A true course of instruction for ele- mentary school cuts off a section of presentative, representative, and thought knowledge each year." 4^ Fourth. — " Knowledge can be taught only by oc- casioning the appropriate activity of the learner's mind." 5^ Fifth. — " The primary concepts and ideas in every branch of knowledge must be taught ob- jectively in all grades of school." 6^ Sixth. — *' The several powers of the mind are de- veloped and trained by occasioning their natural and harmonious activity." 7^ Seventh. — " In the teaching of any school art, clear and correct ideals should inspire and guide practice." OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY. OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY, Definition. — That division of the science of educa- tion that treats of the principles of teaching as appHed to schoolroom practice. Kxtent. — Methodology belongs to both the science of teaching and the art of teaching. See " lyaurie's Institutes of Education." Universal Principles of Instruction. I " Make instruction practical, and find some good in everything. i^ Call for the reproduction of ever3^thing j^ou teach and a practical application to the wants of a successful life. 2^ Proceed from the known to the unknown by making everything known useful in obtaining new knowledge. 2 2 Follow the natural order of development of the faculties, as laid down in the subject of Psychol- ogy. 3 2 Cultivate sense-perception in every lesson. — If the thing taught can not be presented to the senses directly, then you should use represent- ative knowledge, and appeal to memory and imagination. If the subject be still more ab- stract, judgment and reason must aid conception in formulating correct ideas. 82 OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY. 4^ The true secret in the acquisition of knowledge is the self-activity of the pupil ; hence, teach to do b}' having the pupil do. 5 2 Teach one thing at a time, and that v^ell. Never leave one subject for another until the pupil un- derstands the first. 6 2 Practice your pupils in the analysis ol complex things and in the synthesis of individual things into wholes. Kspecially applicable in language and mathematics. 7^ Have your pupils understand distinctly what you wish them to do; they can do best what they see and hear j/^z^ do. Be careful lest you do too much. Do not be overzealous. 8 2 Cultivate the imagination by frequent practice in composition, etc. 9^ Cultivate the memory by applying the laws of association and by practice. 41 riethods in study. 1 2 Objects. i^ For discipline. — It develops and quickens all the intellectual activities, trains the sensibili- ties, and refines the affections. 2^ For the acquisition of knowledge. — Stores the mind with facts and classifies them ; increases the power to think and investigate ; gives us an intellectual capital. Banks may fail, houses may burn, winds may destroy, friends may deceive, but an educational capital can not be touched by these. 3^ For professional purposes. — We are thus pre- pared for our professions; it improves our OUTLINES OF MKTHODOI.OGY. 85 chances for success ; helps us to originate and discover. 22 Incentives. i^ The benevolent desire. — To please parents, teachers, or friends ; to do good and secure happiness ; to perfect our knowledge and de- velop the soul. 2^ The selfish desire. — To outrank others; to receive the praise of others ; to increase our wealth; to make labor easier. 3 3 The involuntary incentives. — Pleasing stories ; fascinating developments or discoveries ; arti- ficial stimulation through the senses. 32 flanner. I ^ A clearly-defined purpose urges the will. 2^ Attention, perception, and conception must be awake. 3^ Investigations by analysis, induction, and de- duction should be made. 4^ Students should note facts learned, and store them away analytically ; i. e., place them upon the proper " shelf " of the mind, properly la- beled. 5^ Should study to know, not to recite. The recitation. 1 2 Objects. i^ To ascertain extent of pupil's preparation. 2^ To have pupils reproduce, express their knowledge. 3^ To ascertain how well the pupil comprehends. 4^ To correct wrong impressions formed in study. 84 OUTI^INES OF METHODOLOGY. 5^ To repeat and fix knowledge in the mind. 6^ To enable the teacher to supply the deficiencies in the student s mind by giving thon further di- rections. 7^ To cultivate power of expression and to quicken the pupil's perception by immediate contact with other minds. 22 Mode of conducting. i^ Depends much upon the branch of study, age of pupil, number in class. 2^ By questions propounded in consecutive order, to the entire class, or promiscuously ; generally the last. 3^ By "Socratic Method"; see ''Socrates." 4^ Seldom use " leading " questions, or questions that suggest the answer. Timid pupils should sometimes be encouraged by this method. 5^ By topical outlines, blackboard drills, etc. 6^ By topical recitation by pupil. 7^ By requiring answers in complete sentences. 8^ Sometimes by essays, lectures, illustrative les- sons, experiments, etc. 9^ No answer should be allowed to pass if not ex- actly correct and logical, lo^ Skill in conducting recitations reveals the teach- er's power as an instructor. THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 85 THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. Pedagogy. — The theory or science of education, which embraces an inquiry into the principles upon which the art of teaching is based, and inquires into the vahdity of methods when applied to the laws of mental growth. Didactics. — The practical application of the princi- ples of pedagogy and psychology to the wants of the growing mind, in helping it to obtain the best food in the best way and at the best time ; in short, the art, or practice, of education. Teaching a profession. — Is it ? Education is looked upon by many people as expensive. For this reason cheap (?) teachers are often employed in country dis- tricts and in primary grades. They are unqualified professionally, hence fail. By their failures they cast a cloud of disrepute over the profession, which subjects even professional teachers to a want of confidence from patrons. As a result, they are placed on a level with those who are only seeking a pittance for a liveli- hood, and their salaries are weighed in the same bal- ance. These conditions, and the insecure tenure of teachers, are largely the results of professional ignor- ance. What is Education? — It is the development and training of the learner's whole nature by means of the conscious and persistent energy and influence of the 86 THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. instructor. Much of our education, however, comes from the unconscious tuition of nature, individuals, and institutions. History of Education. — A complete history of ed- ucation would be coextensive wdth the history of the development of the human race. Civilization is the direct product of education. The history of education sets forth the influences that have moulded the human race, and records the cause and effect of every step of advance or retreat in human progress. It is the true basis of all history. Its Importance. — Every educator should study ed- ucational history. It is too generally neglected, even by professional teachers. It inspires every educational worker with greater zeal and professional enthusiasm by citing thon to the examples and methods of the world's most renowned educators. China and Japan. — Although we find little of im- portance outside the history of the Caucasian race, and, outside of Greece and Rome, little of ancient his- tory bearing on the history of education, yet a few nations should be studied. In the Chinese we find the opposite of our educational aims most clearly crystal- lized. Kong, whose name was lyatinized into Con- fucius, and who lived about 500 B. C, declared that man's destiny and whole duty was to perfect himself In China all deviation from the customs of tradition is looked upon with disfavor, so that their system is adapted to perpetuate an exclusive national existence. Recent developments prove the Japanese to be a much more progressive people. Many English and Amer- ican works are translated for use in their schools. THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 87 Persia. — Zoroaster, who lived in the sixteenth cen- tury B. C, discovered the dualism in all nature — the right and the wrong — and conceived of two coexistent spiritual beings, Ormuzd at the head of the kingdom of light, and Ahriman at the head of the kingdom of darkness. His doctrine did much to moralize Persia. The Magi w^ere the learned class. It is said that much of the learning of Pj^thagoras was borrowed from them. Egypt. — Here, perhaps, is the oldest civilization of the world. She made her highest attainment in the mechanic arts. Psammetichus introduced the Greek and Phoenician elements into Egyptian civilization. Greece. — Homer tells us that during the Heroic Age, prior to iioo B. C, education was chiefly patri- archal. With the Dorian Migration family life gave w^ay to state life, hence state education. Dorian, or Spartan, culture made physical strength and warlike skill the objective points in order to maintain the per- petuation of the ruling class. Lycurgus. — Also a Dorian, who lived about 850 B. C. His laws were very stringent. Children be- longed to the state. Boys, if strong, w^ere educated by the state; if weakly, they were destroyed. Girls were left in the parental home. Solon. — Ionian culture was based on the laws of Solon, born 639 B. C. He favored intellectual pur- suits, forbade the sale of girls, and required boys to learn some pursuit. Parents who failed to educate their boys had no claims to the support of their sons in old age. Pythagoras. — 582-500 B. C. Although not a Do- 55 the: history of kducation. rian, he was the greatest exponent of Dorian civiliza- tion. Thales was his teacher. He estabhshed a school at Croton, southern Italy, where he taught music,, physics, mathematics, geography, and metaphysics by means of lectures delivered in short, condensed sen- tences (laconism). He was the first to raise mathe- matics to a science, and united geometry with arith- metic. ~ The great theorem of the right-angled triangle is his. Socrates. — Born at Athens, 469 B. C. Began life as a sculptor. Became a student of philosophy, and a teacher of youth and men in search of knowledge- Taught in the streets by questioning all who would listen to him concerning their notions of morality. He gave the impression that he was asking questions for his own information. His fondness for this method of teaching has made it known as the "Socratic Method."" His stern morality offended the corrupt party in power,, and he was condemned to die by drinking hemlock^ 400 B. C. He left no writings, but his teachings are found in Xenophon's "Memorabilia" and in the dia- logues of Plato, both his pupils. Plato. — 429-347 B. C. He comprehended Socrates fully. His philosophy, known as the Academic, be- cause he taught in the grove of Academus, is that of idealism. He taught that the soul consists of three parts : (i) The appetite, wild, capable of being tamed ; (2) The spirit, which may work in lines of good or evil; (3) The philosophic element. He taught that education is the privilege and duty of the state, and that education is the noblest and most important of all callings. He wrote "Republic," describing an ideal state. THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 8? Aristotle.— Greek, 384-322 B. C, was the most noted pupil of Plato. At 47 lie became Alexander's tutor. At 50 he established his school known as the Lyceum. He lectured while walking about, hence his school of philosophy became known as the Peripatetic (to walk around). He wrote a number of books on various- sciences. He held that man should be trained by the state. On a charge of atheism he fled from Athens the year of his death. Ro^ie. — Numa Pompilius was the first Roman wor- th}^ the name of educator. Varro and Cicero wrote on educational subjects prior to the Christian era. Cicero taught that teachers should be just; that punishment should be resorted to only in extreme cases ; that the pupil should be made to feel that correction was ad- ministered only with the desire to make thon better, and should never be administered in anger ; that mem- ory should be cultivated; that moral culture should be encouraged. Dawn of Christian Era. — Seneca was the first Roman writer on education belonging to the Christian era. Quintilian thought that weak-minded children, and children that can not learn, are very few. The Romans do not furnish us with systems of education, but from them we receive many practical suggestions- in accordance witli common sense and the correct principles of humanity. But the birth of Christ, four years before the beginning of the Christian era,, brought about a new religion, and with it a new civili- zation based on pure humanity. This new religion taught that stagnation is death and progress is life, and that the greatest is the one who does most to- elevate humanity. 90 THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. The riiddle Ages. — We hear but little more of edu- cation until the i6th century. The early Christians took great interest in the education of their children. Their system sacrificed the intellectual to the moral element of our nature. But for a thousand years prior to the 15th century education was housed in cloisters, books were chained to their owners' desks, and educa- tion was possessed by the few. The tendency of the education w^as to spurn the present world in the inter- est of the world to come ; to foster asceticism, celibacy, transcendentalism, monasticism. Did space permit, an account of the secular education of the 400 years of the Middle Ages and of the knightly education would be given here. The student should study the history of institutions of the Middle Ages. The Reformation, — Instituted by Martin Luther, 1 483-1 546. Although Luther could not devote him- self exclusively nor directly to the cause, yet his ef- forts were not fruitless in Protestant Germany. The churches took up the establishment of popular instruc- tion, and he thus became the greatest educational re- former of his century. Philip flelancthon — 1497-1560, is known as the ^' Preceptor of Germany." He knew Luther, from whom he drew energy. He was noted for his discre- tion, mildness, sympathy, and love for children. He has the distinction of having written the first Protes- tant work on dogmatic theology. His passion found greatest expression in literature. He divided the schools into grades, very much as they are now. He believed in teaching but one language, and in much practice in grammar. THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 9 1 John Sturm. — 1507-1589, a Prussian by nativity, a Oerman by nationality. He organized the gymnasium at Strasburg, which numbered several thousand stu- dents before his death. His was the first systematic organization of the schools. His course of study was extensive yet systematic; suitable, and sensible. He is the father of system in instruction. He formulated the algebraic theorem that bears his name. It will be noticed that lyUther instituted an inquiry into the ■moral status of the times, Melancthon an inquiry into the intellectual, and Sturm into the physical. The •work of these and other educators of their day laid the :groundwork upon which Bacon, Comenius, and Locke made their pleas. Since then the general tendency has been to develop the being symmetrically along the lines of our threefold nature : the moral, the intellect- ual, and the physical. Lord Bacon. — Born in London, 1561, died 1626. "Was eloquent and learned. His official career was •disgraceful, his morals reprehensible. But he freed mankind from scholastic word-wisdom, and taught that scientific life consists of independent investigation, discovery, and invention. The student must rise from the phenomena to the law, from facts to accurate con- ceptions. John Amos Comenius — 1592-1671, a Moravian. Was a minister; was banished by Frederick II. in 1624, and fled to Poland, where he devoted his time to education. He did much for simplifying Latin. He wrote "Orbis Pictus," or the Visible World, in which he expressed more rational views on education than then prevailed. He asked for airy and light school- 92 THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. rooms, and for plenty of playground as essential to> every well-regulated school. He urged the necessity of a harmonious development of the entire human- being. He did much to modernize instruction. Wolfgang Ratich.— Born at Wilster, in Holstein, in 157 1. He taught that the young should learn to read, write, and speak their mother-tongue correctly before taking up the study of other languages. To him we owe the much-talked-of and somewhat-abused method of teaching the " A B C's." He taught the letters first, by drawing them slowly in full view of the pupil, noting the form, name, and similarity and contrast of the letters. Without much delay he proceeded to teach reading. He would first read the lesson three times for the pupil, then allow the pupil to read it slowly. " Teach one thing at a time," he said. "Noth- ing should be learned by rote," j^et his method tended to induce rote-learning. He was himself a failure as a teacher. John Locke. — 1 632-1 704, English philosopher. He said it is education that makes the great difference of mankind. He set little store by mere book-learning. He said that education consists of virtue, wisdom, good breeding, and learning, of which he thought learning the least' part. He strenuously objected to the use of the rod. He condemned committing to memory when the subject was not fully compre- hended. Jean Jacques Rosseau. — 171 2-1778, a Swiss edu- cator of extreme views. His chief maxim was, " Take the road leading directly opposite to the one in use,, and you w411 almost always go right." But few re- THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 93 formers have exerted a greater influence upon educa- tion. His greatest work is " Kmile, or Concerning ^Education." It needs to be read with great discrimi- Tiation, yet every teacher should read it. He believed in the cultivation of sense-perception, and in the devel- opment of the complete man. Augustus Herman Francke. — 1663- 1727, a Ger- man educational reformer. His great love for children, and his desire to do something to improve the schools, led him into his life's work. He founded a school for poor boys and girls, an orphan asylum, a Latin school, a teachers' seminary, and a free boarding-school. At the time of his death 10,000 teachers had instructed in his schools, and 250,000 boys and girls and teachers liad been taught in them. He was one of the first who saw how much the teacher needed professional train- ing. He became virtually the founder of the scientific schools of Germany. Johann Bernhard Basedow. — Born at Hamburg, 1723; died in 1790. He was the founder of the phil- :anthropinists, whose motto was "everything accord- ing to nature." To some extent he followed Comenius. ^' By all means reduce the wretched exercises of the jnemory," he said. " Faith in God should first be in- culcated, lyittle memorizing should be done. Pupils :should not be forced to study, not even by reproof A culture of sound reason must come through a truly philosophical mode of thinking." John Henry Pestalozzi. — 1 746-1 827, a Swiss edu- cator, the founder of '* object teaching," and the most celebrated of educational reformers. He made a strong plea for the cultivation of sense-perception. In j^outh 94 I'HK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. he was awkward and the butt of fun for his pla^anates. His feelings were remarkably strong; he was inju- dicious, and to-day would be considered a poor in- structor. He made failures, both financial and educa- tional. Yet he possessed the true educational princi- ples which have since been verified by others. His principles are still at work, permeating and changing modern education into a realization of the " New Edu- cation." His chief work is "Leonard and Gertrude." Johann Frederick Herbart. — A German philoso- pher, 1776-1841, produced a system of philosophy alto- gether unlike that which then prevailed. To him we owe our ideas of apperception, the recognizing and in- terpreting faculty of perception. He was Krug's suc- cessor at the University of Konigsburg, and was suc- ceeded by Karl Rosenkranz, also eminent in pedagog- ical psychology. Pestalozzi based much on sense-per- ception, while Herbart went farther and sought to know how sense-perception could be made the most useful. Frederick Froebel. — i782-i852,a German educator, the founder of the Kindergarten. He got from Pes- talozzi the idea of genuine human development, and had a keener insight and a better discipline with which to apply it. His great work is '' The Education of Man." He converted everything that goes by the name of play into instruments for his purpose, and readily transformed play into work. His idea has worked wonders in our system of education, and is gaining ground rapidly. The Outlook. — Every decade makes great changes in the educational outlook on the future. Everywhere THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 95 methods are becoming objective and observational Teaching that does not seek the standpoint of normal or natural methods fitted to the pupil's experience and nature can not be successful. Everywhere we are rec- ognizing the fact that the lack of interest on the part of pupils is due very largely to the ignorance or neg- lect of the teacher in applying the great principles of mind-growth to the child under tuition. Proper men- tal activity is not a phenomenon of chance. (See "The New Pedagogics," following this chapter.) Whatever the diversity of views to-day regarding the purposes of teaching arises from a diversity of views concerning the purposes of life itself The true aim in education is based on the nature and purpose of life. We are now seeking knowledge and discipline for the sake of the soul itself, that its advancement may be toward a realization of the ideal manhood and womanhood. 96 TH^ n:^w pe;dagogics. THE NEW PEDAGOGICS. There is a philosophy of teaching, based upon the nature of the results to be secured. Founded upon this philosophy, which is natural in every respect, is the science of pedagogics. But the great mass of teachers have not yet recognized the claims of this sci- ence. There are still too many teachers who seem to think their mission is to "keep the children under," and to cram their minds with 3. certain amount of edu- cational pabulum which is to be phonographed out again and measured by the tape-line of examinations and percents. The activities of the child are too often ^suppressed. The old theories, if former practices were based on theories at all, are now pretty generally exploded. The new pedagogics recognizes the nature of the child. It studies and everywhere recognizes the laws of nature as ever logical and unchan gable. Such a wonderful manifestation of activity as the human mind must grow and develop according to laws implanted in our psychical natures. The new pedagogics seeks to know these laws and discover the phenomena upon which their formal expression is based. Because it is the method of nature, it gets possession of the child and wins thon to the teacher by methods that thons nature can not resist. It makes thon observant. It trains th:e: new pedagogics. 97 thons apperception. It stimulates thons moral sense and trains thons reason. It offers the least resistance to thons individual progress. If, under the calcium light of truth, it discovers old theories to be illogical we must not build longer on the old foundation. It is easier and infinitely better to unmask old dogmas and erase what men have written than to turn the tide of human life from its natural channel. The great fraternity of teachers must think upon the movement of the dead •centuries toward a higher life. I here formulate a few propositions, the solutions of ivhich the new pedagogics is working out. There is a science of pedagogics. — Science is sim- ply the classified related facts evolved from the ob- servation of connected phenomena. No want or de- sire of the human soul antedates the desire to know. In the history of the race, curiosity has ever been the antecedent of investigation. All down through the 'Centuries we have had the phenomena of mental activ- ities. These phenomena demonstrate that the activ- ities of the soul are always manifested through defi- nite, fixed grooves, which are discovered to be natural and logical, hence scientific. The activities of the mind are not without limit, either in extent or in con- tent. But the mind behaves as though it were a func- tion of a higher activity, the soul, which we have rea- son to believe is without limit, infinite in extent and infinite in content, because immortal, for we could not conceive of an immortal soul without activity and en- ergy, and activity through infinity {i. e., eternity) could not produce stagnation or maintain sameness of de- velopment. Hence the soul as soul must be capable 98 THE NEW PEDAGOGICS. of indefinite improvement. The mind is not capable of indefinite improvement. The limitation of life alone renders the improvement of the mind finite. It is the purpose of teaching to encourage and direct this development. The goal reached by the mind in its achievements depends upon the direction and extent of the formative influences. It is the supreme pur- pose of teaching to see that the proper educative influ- ences are supplied. So great and so worthy an end can not be attained by aimless, lawless, or illogical methods. As the mind develops along the lines of natural and immutable laws, it follows that it can not be properly trained without an adherence to those laws. In order to follow these supreme dictates in in- struction, they must be known to the instructor. If so related and so complete as to form the basis of a perfect theory, they must constitute a science of peda- gogics. Just in proportion to the adherence of teach- ers to these great principles through the ages have teachers been successful in training the mind. What- ever success any of us may have had in the profession is directly attributable to the application of these prin- ciples, though it may have been done in ignorance of them. Colonel Parker says very few teachers have yet recognized (re-cognized) them in teaching. Super- intendent Draper says the large army of teachers are already recognizing them. Professor Payne says: " Education can never take its proper place among the learned professions until teachers see that there are really principles of education, and that it is their duty to study them." Fellow teachers of America, should our profession THE NEW PEDAGOGICS. 99 be denominated a learned profession so long as we in- sist by practice that it is not founded on incontroverti- ble science ? Can we go into our several schoolrooms, teach by individual, untried, unscientific methods, without inquiring into the nature of the soul to be trained, and the consequent means alone by which that end shall be attained ? Teachers who fail to rec- ognize that the advanced age of thought demands that teaching shall bear the test of reasonable, scientific in- vestigation will soon find themselves in the rear of t^ throng, without a job. ly/ The science of pedagogics must insist that only /^ natural methods be employed and that reasonable, con- sistent ends be sought. — The laws of activity upon which man's nature feeds are only an integral part of the great laws of the universe, which can not be con- troverted. Remove one law from the force of gravita- tion and the universe is a wreck of matter. Disregard one law in the evolution of the soul and you will have a dwarfed, imperfect soul, unable to fill the complete design of the Creator. All methods used in develop- ing the soul must regard the nature of the thing de- veloped. No one w^ould attempt to train a horse for the turf without first knowing something of the animal to be trained and the end to be secured by that train- ing. We must for the same reason first learn the na- ture and activities of the soul. The very first principle in education is a due consideration of the nature of the being to be educated. This is often ignored. The new pedagogics does not ignore it. Education can never be mechanical, and every attempt to reduce it to mechanism must inevitably fail. The mind is not loo the: nbw pedagogics. like a mill-hopper, designed for all kinds of feed in un- varying quantity. Although each mind operates by unvarying law, differing activities predominate in each mind. The presence of the living teacher, inspired with the zeal born of a knowledge of the truth, is nec- essary to insure that each activity is properly regarded, and that each step is firmly taken, modifying his guid- ance to meet the demands of the individual pupil. Teachers must see that their methods are natural, both to themselves and to the activity of the child mind. To be able to do this their conceptions of life and duty must be right, then they will seek proper ends. *' The conviction is more and more being born into men's souls that all development comes through obedience to fixed, eternal, and loving laws." " How can a teacher," says some writer, "look at heaven through a child's soul without catching glimpses of the supreme glory of eternal laws ? " How can a teacher fail to be impressed with the supreme dignity of his work and mission? How can a teacher be so blinded to the truth as to have paragraphs committed simply to be repeated, then forgotten because never known? How can a teacher be satisfied with mere lesson-hearing from day to day, with having pupils recite for a mark or a promotion rather than for growth and develop- ment, when a knowledge of mind activity teaches us that the thinking powers, the whole intellectuality of our pupils, are lamed and crippled, and their best en- ergies are wasted by such criminal teaching? The sole motive of the teacher should be to assist each pupil to put forth thons highest efforts in the training of the whole being. The teacher should accept nothing THK NE:w PEDxlGOGICS. lOI short of the pupil's best efforts. This is the reasonable, consistent end to be sought by the teacher in every lesson. This done, a well-rounded character will be the result. The Expressional Activities. — The new pedagogics is demanding and enforcing a complete revision in the current ideas of the value and sequence of studies. — In the days of our forefathers a knowledge of the three R's was thought a liberal education. lyong ago the three-R business was exploded. I am not so cer- tain that the curriculum that took its place is not to be greatly revised. We are learning to know more of the child from the standpoint of nature. We are fast learning to look upon the child as a being whose de- velopment should be directed with the high purpose of the Being who planted those natures, constantly in view. The idea formerly held concerning the child was, that its tendencies were all wrong, that it was naturally predisposed to evil, and that teaching was to suppress the risibilities of the child. Now we are beginning to believe the child's activities naturally right, and the great question with us is to know how to direct them and develop them. All life has an ultimate purpose. — It is now con- sidered the province, the function, of the school to train for complete living. In man's activities there are three processes in the growth of the mind : First is the acquisitional, or presentative. Just in propor- tion to our exercise of this activity, or process, will be our fund of knowledge of the non-Ego, or not-self world. Second, we have the reflectional, or thought- evolving activities. In this exercise we get the rela- I02 THE NKW PEDAGOGICS. tion of the facts presented by the acquisitional. This power to correlate facts is apperception. Third, we have the expressional, or representative activities, by whose exercise we express by language or by art facts or concepts as gathered by the acquisitional and corre- lated by the refiectional. These activities education must seek to train and develop. The expressional is manifestly impossible without the other two. The refiectional is impossible without the acquisitional. We must seek to train the mind to receive knowledge through sense-perception. First studies must be se- lected with this aim in view. The new pedagogics be- lieves that in the earl}^ formative, receptive period of childhood the senses must be trained, and along with the training of the senses goes the cultivation of the imagination. The old theory, if theory it may be called, was that the child could not exercise its refiec- tional activities, but that this exercise was left to more mature years. To that end we taught mechanically. We see-sawed the multiplication table off in blocks. But any one who teaches in that way now is out of touch with the true pedagogical principles of mental growth. However, I think one of the greatest peda- gogical blunders has been made by an almost complete neglect of the expressional activities. A man's knowl- edge is of but little use if of no use to any one but himself. Besides, knowledge is of but little use to one's self if unexpressed. The new pedagogics seeks to have the ex:pressional activities cultivated. For this purpos I we have language in every grade of school work; we have numbers, drawing, music, mechanic arts, sloyd, manual training, all of which seek to train the expressional. THE NKW PEDAGOGICS. I03 The Importance of Psychology. — A teacher can not direct and guide the training of the mind unless thon knows mind by a study of psychology and the history of education. These form the true foundation of pedagogics. The true teacher is a constant student of educational history. Thon will thus escape many impositions. Thon has the decisions of the past to counsel, and is enabled to profit by the mistakes of others, and adopt and adapt their pedagogical suc- cesses to thons needs. There are, I am inclined to be- lieve, still a few teachers who do not do this, but close their eyes and ears against even the most decided im- provements in education, and are satisfied with them- selves. If they would but look into the record of their profession, and especially into the chapters they make themvSelves, their conceit would soon be broken down. To-day there is no movement in progress in education w^hich is more rapid and more forceful than that towards the professional training of the teacher. Teachers to-day must meet larger exactions than formerly. Still more will be required of teachers to-morrow. Those who do not catch the spirit must go upon the retired list. I04 HOW TO OBSERVE CHILDREN. HOW TO OBSERVE CHILDREN. ChiId=Study is not a fad — it has come to stay. Teachers are earnestly asking, How shall I study my children ? How may I profit most by careful observa- tion of the children under my charge? This desire for light will continue until teachers generally, if not universally, will " Count that day lost whose low, descending sun " Views from their eyes no observation done," and will base their methods of teaching on the undeni- able principles of applied psychology as verified by their observation of the activities of the child-mind. Pres. G. Stanley Hall says: ''The living, playing, learning child, whose soul heridity has freighted so- richly from a past we know not how remote, on whose right development all good causes in the world de- pend, embodies a truly elementary psychology. All the fundamental activities are found, and the play of each psychic process is so open, simple, and interest- ing that it is strange that psychology vshould be the last of the sciences to fall into line in the great Baco- nian change of base to which we owe nearly all the re- forms from Comenius down, which distinguish schools- of today from those of the sixteenth century. It is a Striking fact that nearly every great teacher in the his- tory of education who has spoken words that have HOYV^ TO OBSERVK CHILDREN. 1 05; been heeded has lived for years in the closest personal relations to children, and has had the sympathy and tact that gropes out, if it can not see clearly, the laws of juvenile development." It is a matter of great importance that teachers should possess the tact and skill necessary in reading the minds of children. The activities of a child's soul find expression in many ways, and it is the first duty of the teacher to study these modes of expression. Skillful teaching consists in properly applying the means of discipline and culture to each individual under tuition. If the teacher fail in the application of the means the end sought will not be attained. To avoid such mistakes the successful teacher studies the content of the child-mind. It is one of Herbart's prin- ciples that it is the individual and not the mass that is to be instructed, hence the individual must be studied. There are several methods of child-study, each of which has its merits. In several colleges the work in psychological laboratories is growing. Mechanical contrivances are used to determine the nature and extent of the child's activities in emotional, intellectual, volitional, and physical life, with a degree of exactness that places the laboratory method above the criticisms that may be attached to methods of mere observation. What usually goes by the term "a study of human, nature " is in the main aimless, hence fruitless. The observer must know why thon observes. Thons ob- servation must be directed with the purpose of secur- ing definite results, from which essential didactic con- clusions may be drawn. In this way the type of the normal child may be determined, provided the obser- Io6 HOW TO OBSKRVK CHII^DRKN. vations cover a sufficient period of time and a sufficient number of cases. The teacher is also able to see wherein certain children depart from the normal tj^pe. But teachers can not follow the laboratory method. They must, however, have some definite plan of obser- v^ation, that will lead to a logical classification of results. The Teacher's Preparation. — The teacher's great work is to lead out and guide the child's activities. This can not be done until the teacher gets into true sympathy with the child. Kach period of life is char- acterized by a distinctive emotional and intellectual activity. We must get into our thoughts and feelings as much of the actual thoughts and feelings of the child as possible before we can properly understand the child. Human life is made up of a series of re- lated selfs, and each being may be called a ladder of as many rounds as there have been successive stages in our growth. Bach round is a distinct self. In order that, two beings may completely communicate with each other they must adjust themselves to a common level. One or the other must generally come down a few rounds to be on recognizable grounds with the other. This is just what the teacher must do in order to look at childhood from child- hood's standpoint. Child=Study, or Paidology, not General. — Cer- tainly every true teacher studies thons pupils, but usually only by those means that native tact or intui- tion may suggest. But more definite or more scien- tific means must be employed in order that the char- acteristics and laws of mental habits of children may be fully appreciated. We must seek the thoughts HOW TO OBSKRVK CHII.DRKN. 107 and feelings of children, and then seek to appreciate them. This we may do by observing their uncon- scious as well as their conscious expressions, and by asking questions, hereinafter classified, concerning their physical, intellectual, and emotional life. The value of casual observation on the part of the teacher can not be doubted, but if a systematic method were followed results much more satisfactory would be obtained. To assist those who are anxious to systematize their observation of children I have for- mulated a working outline, as follows : Biography. — Record the pupil's name, date, and place of birth ; names and nationality of parents ; oc- cupation of father; general description of the father's disposition, if known ; disposition of the mother ; how many brothers and sisters; is the child under study the youngest or the oldest? What do you know of thons home life? Are the parents educated? Are there many books in the home ? Any music ? Are home games encouraged ? Is the father a companion to his children ? Is the mother companionable ? How •does the child show the marks of these characteristics ? Which parent does the child resemble most in appear- ance and characteristics ? What of the morals of the parents? Are the parents Puritanic in their govern- ment ? Who are the child's companions ? How much of thons life has been spent in the country ? In the city? Any other facts concerning the life and envi- ronment of the child. Details are more essential than they at first appear. Health. — What is the child's general state of health? Has any time from school duties been lost by ill I08 HOW TO OBSERVE) CHII^DRBN. health ? If so, at what age and stage of advancement? Ever mentally overworked? Has confinement to the schoolroom always been congenial? Any defects in chest or spine? Any defects in eye or ear? Any trace of heart trouble? Subject to fainting? Ea^.^y frightened? Nearsighted? If so, does the parent realize it to be a serious matter? Have you advised to have the eyes examined ? Does the health fluctu- ate ? Have you conferred with the parents about all the bodily defects observed? Physical Features. — Abnormally large or small? Head normal in size and shape? Is the carriage of head erect ? The forehead broad, narrow, or flat, reced- ing or straight? Ears large and projecting, or small and close-fitting ? Eyes deep-set or projecting ? Cheeks round or angular? Nose large or small? Nostrils^ open or close ? Is them outh strait or curved ? Ierception. 349, Give an original illustration of each use. 130 QUESTIONS. 350. How many physical conditions of sense-perception ? 351, Name them. 352, "What may these conditions be called? 353. What is the sensorium ? The motorium ? 354. What are the psychical elements of sense-perception? 355. What is perception proper ? 356. What is sensation ? 357. Can a psychical phenomenon produce sensation ? Ans. It is gen- erally claimed that the phenomenon must be physical, or material, but what shall w^e do with such cases as the man that suffered such agony when he found himself accidentally impaled on a butcher's hook, declaring that the flesh was torn from the bone, the blood was streaming down his arm, when in fact he was only suspended by his coat sleeve, unhurt? Many such examples could be given. 358. Classify sense- perception. 359. What is an original perception? 360. An acquired perception ? 361. Give the illustrations. 362. Give six other illustrations of acquired perceptions. 363. Classify acquired perceptions. 364. What is the '* mechanical con- science " ? 365. Give an example of an acquired perception ot each class. 366. Which are of most value ? 367. What do we judge by sight? 368. How does experience aid the sight? 369. Classify the senses. 370. Why this classification? 371. Explain the meaning of each term. Percepts (45). — 372. What is a percept? 373. When do we have a percept of an object ? 374. Distinguish between per- cept and concept. 375. Between percept and image. 376. Can all percepts be revived into images? 377. What is a sense- concept ? 378. What can you say of the growth of our per- ception ? 379. What is the power of discrimination ? 380. What does a study of the laws of perception teach us in regard to the studies of childhood? 381. What is said of con- crete facts? 382. Of object lessons? 383. What of the child's perceptive faculty ? 384. Upon what is kindergartenism based ? 385. Who founded kindergartenism ? 386. What is the etymol- ogy of the word ? Intuition (47) •—387. Define intuition. 388. What of its relation? 389. What does intuition embrace? 390. Define intuitive ideas. 391. Classify them. 392. Name one not men- tioned here. 393. What can you say of the idea of right and QUESTIONS. 131 wrong? 394. Prove that ideas of personal identity are intu- itive. 395. What is " natural reason " ? 396. Do you doubt that ideas of right and wrong are intuitive? 397. Have idiots any intuition? 398. Have insane persons? 399. Explain your answer to the last. 400. What are intuitive truths ? 401. What synonyms ? 402. Name the tests of an intuitive truth. 403. Explain each of these tests. 404. Can you doubt an intuitive truth? 405. Can you disbelieve one? 406. Name three intuitive truths not named here. 407. What is an axiom? 408. Why intuitive? 409. Repeat three axioms not mathematical. Representative Powers (49). — 410. What are representative powers? 411. Illustrate representation by an original example. 412. By what other term may these powers be called ? 413. Name the three representative powers. 414. What is phan- tasy? 415. What is said of images thus reproduced? 416. Etymology? 417. When exercised? 418. Name the subor- dinate forms of phantasy. 419. The simplest form. 420, What is somnambulism ? 421. What is the distinction be- tween phantasy and memory? 422. What are the causes of phantasy? 423. Name the characteristics of the idea thus reproduced. 424. What are the three modes of reproducing images in phantasy? 425. Illustrate physical stimulation. 426. Physiological stimulation. 427. Psychical. Imagination (51). — 428. What is imagination? 429. Name its activities. 430. Illustrate associative imagination. 431. Penetrative. 432. Contemplative. 433. What can yoii say of the limits of imagination? 434. Distinguish between phan- tasy and imagination. 435. Quote Baker. 436. Quote any other author on the subject. 437. What are the forms of imag- ination? 438. Define scientific imagination. 439. Illustrate its use. 440. Its forms ? 441. Define artistic imagination. 442. Its forms ? 443. What is the aim of ethical imagination ? 444. What of its importance? 445. What is the relation of imagination to education ? 446. Illustrate its use in reading. 447. In science study. 448. In exercise of the senses. 449. Name five uses in composition. 450. What would man be without an imagination ? 451. What effect would it have upon 132 QUESTIONS. his character? 452. Illustrate how the exercise of imagination affords us enjoyment. 453. How does it render the mortal happy? 454. How does it affect language ? 455. What is the ethical value of an ideal ? 456. Repeat the four general laws of the imagination. 457. What is the difference between the notions we may imagine and those we may think ? 458. What is the characteristic of an undisciplined mind? 459. What should be the aim of the educator? 460. Name four means of training the imagination. 461. What is said of the importance of the observation work to be done hj the pupil? 462. Why is this often neglected? 463. What imaginative literature would you read to first -year pupils? 464. To second-year pupils ? 465. What profit to pupils in constructing questions and problems? 466. Name the phases of imagination. 467. What can you say of the modifying phase ? 468. Of the con- structive phase ? 469. Of the creative phase ? 470. What is " hearing-language " ? Ans. The language learned through hearing, 471. What can you say of the value of the creative phase of imagination ? 472. Which phase should the teacher strive most to cultivate ? 473. Why ? Memory (55). — 474. What is memory? 475. Discuss the several definitions given. 476. What does Compayre's defi- nition mean ? 477. How many acts of memory ? 478. Name these acts, or steps. 479. Define retention. 480, What de- pends upon retention? 481, Upon what does retention depend? 482. What is reproduction ? 483. Its importance ? 484. Define recognition. 485. Illustrate these three steps in some act of memory. 486. Distinguish between perfect and imperfect memory. 487. Why are the acts of memory usually imper- fect ? 488. What is voluntary recollection ? 489. What is the difference between memory and recollection? 490. What is involuntary recollection ? 491. Enumerate the conditions favorable for the cultivation of the memory. 492. What does the first mean ? 493. How does repetition affect reproduction ? 494. What is said of the study of relations ? 495, What is am- nesia? 496. Its causes? 497. The degrees of forgetfulness? Association {58). — 498. What are the laws of association ? 499. By whom first laid down ? 500. Classify these laws. 501. QUESTIONS. 133 Name the objective laws of association. 502. Define the law of similarity. 503. The law of contrast. 504. The law of con- tiguity. 505. What can you say of the value of a recognition of the law of contrast in teaching? 506. Illustrate its impor- tance. 507. The same of the law of similarity. 508, The law of contiguity. 509. V/hat is contiguity of time i* 510. Of place? 511. In teaching what branches are these laws most important? 512. To what do the subjective laws relate ? 513. What is said of the relation between cause and effect? 514. What mistake do teachers often make here ? 515. What faculties are strength- ened by the exercise of this law ? 516. What is said of reviews ? 517. Does the fifth law hold good with all ages ? The Cultivation of the Memory (59).— 518. What is the general rule for the cultivation of the memory? 519. What is said of skillful questioning ? 520. What of memory of ideas ? 521. How is interest related to attention? 522. What is a mnemonic ? 523. What of the value of mnemonics ? 524. Name a mnemonic device not mentioned in this work. Thought Powers (60). — 525. Define thought powers. 526. Classify them. 527. What are the relational powers of the intellect ? 528. Why so called ? 529. What is apperception ? 530. What can you say of conceptive generalization? 531. Define judgment, 532, What is a judgment? 533. How ex- pressed? 534. The parts of a judgment? 535. What are the parts of a proposition ? 536. What is the copula ? 537. How is a judgment obtained? 53S. How do we form a judgment? 539. At what age is judgment first developed ? 540. Classify judgments as to origin. 541. As to relation of their two ideas. 542. As to their quantity. 543. As to form, 544. Define affirm- ative judgment. 545. Derivative. 546, Primitive. 547. Neg- ative. 548. Singular. 549. Universal. 550. Categorical. 551. Conditional, 552. Illustrate each of these by judgments not here expressed. 553. How far can we encourage independent judgment in the learner? 554. In what way is the judgment cultivated ? Reason (63).— 555. What is reason? 556. When do chil- dren begin to reason ? 557. What is the first period in the child's reasoning? 558. Name in order these periods, and the 134 QUESTIONS. corresponding ages. 559. What are the two forms of reason- ing? 560 Define each. 561. What are the two methods of reasoning. 562. Define Induction. 563. Explain Sully's definition of induction. 564. What is meant by proceeding from the known to the unknown ? 565. Show how you would do this in teaching grammar. 566. What is the ground for our theory of known to unknown ? 567. May the syllogism be used in induction ? 568. May the enthymeme ? 569. Name the steps of every act of induction. 570. What is deduction ? 571. What are the two forms of deduction ? 572. Define enthymeme. 573. Illustrate. The Syllogism (66). — 574. What is a syllogism? 575. Name the parts of a syllogism, 576* What is the requisite of the major premise? 577. Of the minor premise ? 578. Of the conclusion ? 579. Criticise this syllogism: " All gold is yel- low ; this metal is yellow, therefore, this metal is gold." 580. W^rite an original syllogism. 581. Name the terms of a syllo- gism. 582. What is the special value to the student in under- standing the use of the S3dlogism ? 583. Explain the"difference between the parts of a syllogism and its terms. 584. What can you say of the relation of reason to education ? 585. How is inductive reasoning best developed? 586. Deductive reason- ing? 587. Is psychology inductive or deductive? Sensibility (67) 588. What is the sensibility ? 589. What are the sensibilities? 590. Classify feelings. 591. What are corporeal feelings? 592. Define psychical feelings. 593 Classify the psychical feelings. 594. Define emotions. 595 Classify them. 596. What are instinctive emotions? 597 Rational? 598. How are instinctive emotions occasioned! 599. Rational? 600. Classify the rational emotions. 601 Name some egoistic emotions. 602. Altruistic emotions 603. What is the distinction between them ? 604. What is the aim of aesthetic emotions ? 605. Of the ethical ? The Affections (69) — 606. What are the affections ? 607. Classify affections. 608. What are beneficent affections ? 609. By what other name known? Ans. Benevolent. 610. Classify them. 611. What is patriotism? 612. What is phi- lanthropy? 613. What are the defensive affections? 614. QUESTIONS. 135 "What is resentment ? 615. What is retaliation ? A?is. Return- ing injury for injury. 616. Is resentment right? u4ns. Yes. 617. What is indignation? 618. What are the maleficent affections? 619. B}^ ^hat other name known? Ans. Malevo- lent. 620. What notice should teachers take of the study of the affections? 621. How will a knowledge of the affections of a child aid the teacher in discipline ? The Desires (70).— 622. What are desires? 623. Classify the desires. 624. What of the desire for property? 625. Do you think this desire intuitive ? 626. In what does the desire for knowledge have its .origin ? 627. Is the desire for self- preservation instinctive? 628. Is it intuitive? 629. When should the desire for powder be encouraged? 630. When curbed ? The Will (71).— 631. What is the will? 632. What is vo- lition ? 633. What are two forms of the activity of the willing power of the soul ? 634. What is said of random movements ? 635. Name the four steps in the act of willing? 636. Illus- trate each of these. 637. In which step is the freedom of choice exercised? 638. Is man a free moral agent? 639. Why ? 640. Is character due more to nature or to culture ? 641. Upon what does moral training depend? 642. What is the first step in moral training? 643. What use may be made of biographies here ? 644. Name six men whose biographies 3^ou would specially commend for lessons on moral training. 645. What do you think of the use of fairy tales? 646. Men- tion other means for training the morals. 647. What is said of example ? 648. Which is worth more to the pupil, example or precept? Pe(?agogy (73). — 649. What is pedagogy ? 650. Synonyms? 651. What is the basis of pedagogy ? 652. What are the means of pedagogy ? 653. What is physical education ? 654. Moral education ? 655. Intellectual ? 656. What are the elements of pedagogy? 657. What is original knowledge ? 658. Recorded? Tuitionary knowledge ? 659. How can the mind receive knowl- edge? 660. What is inherent power? 661. Acquired? 66.2. What is skill ? 663. What is the school phase of skill ? 664. The technical phase ? 665. What are the subjective conditions 136 QUESTIONS. of school government? 666. What are the objective con- ditions ? 667. Enumerate the qualifications of the teacher. 668. Illustrate the second qualification. 669. What is said of special professional training? 670. What can you say of the teacher's knowledge of methods ? 671. Upon what must disci- pline be based? 672. What is said of heart powers? 673. Of self-control ? 674 Of respect for the profession ?_ 675. What can you say of the authority of the teacher? The Pupils (76). — 676. Enumerate the rights of pupils, 677. Their duties. 678. Discuss each of these. 679. Classify the offenses of pupils. 680. Discuss each of these offenses, and tell how each should be corrected. 681. Would you allow pupils to report on each other? 682. What do you think of the self-reporting system, as to the conduct of the child or pupil? 683. What are the rewards of pupils? 684. How would you correct the offense of idleness ? 685. Discuss eack of the methods of punishment mentioned. 686. How do you detect the use of profane language on the school grounds ?" 687. What is the difference between approbation and com- mendation ? 688. What do you think of the value of prizes as incentives? 689. What are the qualities of a good school- room? 690. The apparatus? 691. What is said of the bene- fits of a library ? 692. Whose work is it to see that the school is supplied with a good library? 693. What is said of " an educational sentiment"? Universal Principles (79). — 694. Repeat Payne's Universal Principles of Instruction. 695. Explain the first principle. 696. How does faculty grow? 697. What does exercise in- volve ? 698. How does repetition aid conception ? 699. In what does proper exercise of faculty end? 700. What does Payne mean by "corresponding action from wnthin " ? 701. Name White's seven principles. 702. Which one of Payne's, principles agrees with White's fourth ? 703. How must pri- mary concepts be taught? 704. Which principle accords with Payne's sixth ? 705. What is the function of ideals ? Methodology (81). — 706. Define methodology. 707. What of its extent? 708. i^ame some of the principles laid down. 709. What is said of reproduction? 710. What do you under- QUESTIONS. 137 stand by the maxim '' proceed from the known to the un- known"? 71T. What is said of sense-perception ? 712. What is the true secret of the acquisition of knowledge? 713. What is said of thoroughness? 714. Of analysis and synthesis? 715. To what studies are they specially important ? 716. How can a teacher be overzealous? Methods in Study (82).— 717. Classify the objects of study .. 71S. What does"study do for discipline? 719. For the acqui- sition of knowledge? 720. For professional advancement?' 721. Classify the incentive to study. 722. What is said of ther benevolent desire? 723. The selfish desire? 724. Is there any good in the selfish desires ? 725. Explain the use of the involuntary incentives. 726. Under what circumstances are these incentives of the most value ? 727. What is said of the manner of study? 728. What is meant by "noting facts"? 729. Enumerate the objects of a recitation. 730. Which of these do you consiider the most important? 731. Name an object not here named. 732. How should questions be asked a class ? 733. Upon what conditions does the method of ques- tioning depend ? 734. What do you understand by the " So- cratic Method"? 735. What are "leading" questions? 736.. What can you say of the use of topical outlines? 737. What is the value of blackboard drills ? 738. Why should answers to questions be given in complete sentences ? 739. Will the ninth requirement lead to a loss of time ? History of Education (85).— 740. Define pedagogy. 741. Give a full definition of didactics. 742. Discuss this defini- tion. 743. Is teaching a profession ? 744. What is said or the failures of teachers ? 745. What of professional igno- rance ? 746. What is education ? 747. What is teaching ? Afis. Teaching is causing another to do something or become something thon would not have done or become, apart from the teacher. 748. What is the difference between teaching and learning? Ans. Teaching is the work of the teacher, and learning is the work of the learner — one can not "learn"' another anything. 749. Can a teacher teach unless the pupil learns? Ans. No; teaching and learning are interdependent.. 750. What is said of unconscious tuition ? 751. What is said. 138 QUKSTIONS. of the extent of the history of education ? 752. What is civili- zation? 753. What is the true basis of all history? 754. What is said of the importance of educational history ? 755. To what race and to what period is the history of education chiefly limited ? 756. What is said of China and Japan ? 757. What did Confucius teach ? 758. Why is the civilization of Japan in advance of that of China? Persia, Egypt, and Greece (87). — 759. What can you say of Zoroaster? 760. Who were the Magi? 761. What is said of the civilization of Egypt? 762. What does Homer tell us? 763. What of" Dorian civilization ? 764. What of the laws of Ivycurgus ? 765. What difference was shown boys and girls ? 766. Upon what was Ionian culture based? 767. In what respect did it differ from Spartan culture ? 768. What impor- tant restrictions were placed upon parents ? 769. Who was Pythagoras? 770. What did he teach? 771. How? 772. What is the Pythagorean theorem? Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle (88). — 773. Who was Soc: rates? 774. How did he teach? 775. Explain his Socratic method. 776. What can you say of his death ? 777. What is " Memorabilia " ? 778. Name two of his most celebrated pupils. 779. What is the philosophy of Plato called? 780. What did he teach in regard to the soul ? 781. What did he write ? 782. Who was his most noted pupil ? 783. What philosophy did he found ? 784. What was his idea of education ? Rome (89) . — 785. Who was Numa Pompilius ? 786. Name some writers on education. 787. Recite the teachings of Cicero. 788. What of his views concerning punishment? 789. Who was Seneca? 790. Quintilian? 791. What is said of the system of the Romans ? 792. How did the birth of Christ affect educational progress ? Middle Ages (90). — 793. What is said of education during the Middle Ages ? 794. Over what period of time did the Middle Ages extend ? 795. What was the tendency of educa- tion during this period? 796. What did Ivuther do? 797. W/'ho was Melanchthon? 798. What did he do for theology? 799, What for education? 800. What kind of school did Sturm organize? 801. What was his main object? 802. Con- _CJESTlONS. 139 iiect the names of lyuther, Melanchthon, and Sturm. 803. Con- nect those of Bacon, Comenius, and Locke. 804. Of what does symmetrical development consist? 805. Who was Lord ^acon ? 806. What did he do for mankind ? Seventeenth Century (91).— 807. Who was Comenius? 80S. Describe his influence on education. 809. What is said of the teachings of Ratich? 8ro. What was his theory of teaching reading? 811. Was he a successful teacher? 812. What did Locke say education consists of? 813. Who was Rousseau? 814. What was his chief maxim? 815. His great- est production ? Eighteenth Century (93).— 816. What can you say of Her- man Francke's life and work? S17. Of what was he the founder ? 818. Who was Basedow ? 819. What was his motto ? 820. Quote from his teachings. 821. Who was the founder of object teaching? 822. Describe Pestalozzi's life and work. The Nineteenth Century (94).— 823. Who was Herbart? 824. What is Herbartianism ? 825. What of Herbart's influ- ence on educational theory? 826. Who was Froebel? 827. Compare his work with that of Pestalozzi. 828. What is the k:indergarten idea? 829. What can you say of the educational outlook to-day ? 830. To what is lack of interest on the part of pupils largely due ? 831. On what is the true aim of edu- cation based ? The New Pedagogics (96).— 832. What can you say of the philosophy of teaching ? 833. What is said of cram ? 834. What is said of the nature of the child ? 835. What is said of the recognition of law in the growth of mind ? 836, What •characterizes the new pedagogics? 837, What is science? ;838. What is said of the activities of the mind? 839. Distin- guish between soul and mind. 840. Why is the mind limited in its improvements ? 841. What is the supreme purpose of teaching ? 842. Why can the mind not be trained without adherence to law ? 843. To what is successful teaching due? 844. State and explain the proposition given on page 99. 845. Quote Parker, Draper, and Payne. 846. Why must we first learn the nature and activities of the soul before attempting ±0 ti ain the soul ? I40 QUEvSTlONS. The Expressional Activities (loi).— 847. What is said of the value and sequence of studies ? 848. A.re the natural tenden- cies of the child wrong ? 849. What is the greatest question^ with teachers? 850. What are the three processes in the growth of the mind? 851. What are the acquisitional activi- ties? 852. The reflectional ? 853. The relational ? 85^;. Upon what basis must the studies of the child be selected ? 855. What has been one of our greatest pedagogical blunders ? 856. What is said of the importance of psychology? 857. What is said of the demand for professionally trained teachers ? How to Observe Children (104).— 858. What is said of the psychology of childhood? 859. Quote Dr. Hall on child- study. 860. What is said of the laboratory method in study- ing children ? 861. What is paidology? 862. What is said of sympathy with the child ? 863. Give the illustration of life's being made up of a series of related selfs. 864. What are the several topics to be considered b}^ the teacher in the study of the child ? 865. Take each of these topics, and discuss the questions asked under them. General Questions. 866. While looking at an object, do you have an image of it ^ 867. Can feelings be reproduced? 668. Can we represent in the mind objects we have never seen? 869. What are some of the causes of what we call " a bad memory " ? 870. What is meant by the analogy of feeling? 871. What sort of differ- ences does the law of contrast point out ? 872. Show how the contiguity of place is important in the study of history ; of geography. 873. What is meant by creating an interest? 874^ What is the effect of bad mental habits ? 875. What is the true nature of a definition? 876. What is belief? 877. What is a necessary belief? 878. When is the ripe development of the thinking powers attained? 879. Resolve this into a syllo- gism: "The price of wheat will be higher, because the crop promises to be below the average." 880. What is a trite syllo- gism? 88r. What is testimony? Evidence? 882. What is cir- cumstantial evidence? 883. Are manifestations of ill-temper, QUESTIONS. 141 fretfulness, etc., indications of character ? 884. Is sympath}^ a pleasurable or a painful feeling ? 885. "Why is poetry more "beautiful than prose ? 886. How do we learn what is beautiful and what is not ? 887. What is the earliest affection of which a child is conscious? 888. Can one pity thonself? 889. Can one sympathize with thonself? 890. Should the confidence of a child in the wisdom of thons parents ever be weakened ? 891. Can you be indignant over a wrong done you? S92. Does prejudice seek to do an injury ? 893. Can one hide feel- ings of envy? 894. What is the difference between self-love and selfishness? 895. How is man's highest happiness ob- tained ? 896. How may the desire for approbation destroy integrity? 897. Should one be ambitious? 898. Was it ambition that spurred Alexander to make conquests ? 899. Is judging an act of the. will ? 900. What two conditions are necessary to an exercise of conscience? 901. Have all men these conditions ? 902. What is conscience ? 903. Is con- science always a safe guide? 904. One born without sight and hearing would lack what knowledge of the world ? 905. Do w^e. know matter, or do we know only its qualities? 906. How -would you teach a child to read? 907. Why this way? 908. Is great activity in children a fault ? 909. For the purpose of committing to memory, is it desirable to read or study aloud ? ^10. Is a slow memory necessarily a poor one? 911. Show that memory is not free from imagination. 912. Relate some instances of great power of memory. 913. Do we produce in imagination anything that has never been experienced? 914. lEnumerate the advantages of class questioning. 915. Does change of mental work rest the mind ? 916. Reason for your •answer ? 917. Is the moving of the lips in study an advantage ? -918. How can children be corrected of the habit of audibly whispering their lessons? 919. Is character due more to training than to nature? 920. Should pupils ever be told what they can discover for themselves? 921. Can the pursuit of knowledge be made always agreeable ? 922. Would it be a «afe practice never to inflict physical pain as a means of disci- pline ? 923. What is the value of maxims in moral training ? 924. What is the crowning notion of science ? 925. What per- 142 QUESTIONS. cent of the teachers of the United States are ladies? 926- What is the average period of time teachers remain in the profession ? 927. What is the chief cause of the transitory life of the teacher? 928. What is the chief cause of the insecure tenure of teachers ? 929. Should teachers be required to be re-examined annually ? 930. Why has the profession of teaching not been placed on the same basis as law, theology, and medicine? 931. Which states of the Union pay relatively the highest salaries ? ' . INDEX. Abstraction defined, 36. Abnormal consciousness, 29. ABC method, 92. Activity, mental, 32 ; brain, 32; laws of, 99. Activities of the imagination, 51 ; of the child, suppressed, 96; observed, loo-ioi ; the expressional, loi ; acquisi- tional, IG2. Acquisitional powers, 41, 102. Acquired perceptions def., 43; examples, 44; classes, 44. Academic philosophy, 88. Acts of mind, in conscious- ness, 27. Adaptation of teaching to the taught, 80. Affections def., 69 ; classified, 69 ; beneficent, 69 ; defen- sive, 69 ; maleficent, 69 ; do- mestic, 69 ; social, 69 ; im- portance of, 70. Afferent nerves, function of, 21. Agnosticism def., 16. Ahriman, 87. "Air-castles," 50. American education, works on, 115. Amnesia def., 57; causes of, 57. Anger, 70. Analysis of complex things, 82. Anthropology def. 13. Answers of pupils scruti- nized, 8a. Apperception def, 61 ; 102 ; III. Apparatus, 78. Approbation of teacher, 77. Apprehension, 39. Aristotle, sketch of, 89. Asceticism, 90. Association, laws of, 58 ; clas- sified, 58. Associative imagination, 51. Attention, defined and dis- cussed, 30; etymology, 31; classes of, 31 ; when first exercised b}'- child, 31 ; func- tions of, 31 ; knowledge depending upon,, 32; rela- tional to mental activity, 32 ; to consciousness, 29 ; to retention, 56 ; laws of, 33; conditions unfavorable to, 33 ; motives to employ to secure, 34 ; motives of pupil in, 34; motives of teacher, 34 ; growth of, 35 ; how to cultivate, 35 ; when spon- taneous, 29. Auditory nerves, function of, 24. Authority of teacher, 76. Axioms, 49. Bacon, Lord, 91 ; bis influence on education, 91. Basedow, Johann Bernard, 93 ; his views, 93. Bain, Alexander, a material- ist, 15. 144 INDEX. :Eerkeley, George, an idealist, i6. Eiology defined, 13. Eiography def., 13 ; use of, 72, Biography of child, 107. ^Biographies of educators, 119. Boards of Kducation, intelli- gence of, 79 ; may establish libraries, 79. Body a burden to the soul, 15, :Book, use of in recitation, 35. "Books in the study of psy- chology, 13 ;select list of, on psychology and related sub- jects, 114. Brain described, 19; func- tions, 20 ; activity of, related to cerebration, 30. Cause and effect, 59. Cerebration, unconscious, 30. Cerebellum described, 20. Cerebrum, its functions, 20. Cerebro-spinal system, 19. Centrifugal nerves, 21 ; cen- tripetal, 21. Child from the standpoint of nature, loi ; its knowledge on entering school, 46. ■Child, the normal, 106. Childhood, psychology of, 104. Child-study, methods of, 104- 106. •Children, begin to reason, 64 ; periods of reasoning in, 64 ; weak-minded, as viewed by Quintilian, 89 ; reading minds of, 105 ; observing powers of, 110. China, education in, 86. Christ, birth of, influence of on education, 89. Choice, a step in willing, 72. ■Civilization, and education, 86; Dorian, 88. Cicero and his principles, 89. Classification important, 5. Cognition def, 11 ; stages of, 30- Comenius, John Amos, sketch of, 91. Comparison, 36. Confucius and his teachings, 86. Consciousness def, 11, 27; views on, 27 ; uses of term, 27 ; objects of, 27 ; time of, 28 ; relation to intellect, 28 ; kinds of, 29 ; degrees of, 29 ; conditions of, 29; relation to attention, 29 ; to cerebra- tion, 29; "voluntary," 29; states of, 67. Concepts defined and discuss- ed, 36-38 ; classified, 38 ; pri- mary, taught objectively, 80. Conception def., 36; processes of, 36 ; what it embraces, 37 ; relation to education, 38 ; in . scientific knowledge, 38; aided by judgment, 81 ; con- ception of the child, 112. Constitutive knowledge, 41. Conditions of school manage- ment, 74; subjective, 74, and objective, 78. Conclusions of syllogisms, 66. Contrast, laws of, 58. Contiguity, law of, 58. Contemplative imagination, 51- Conductors of sensation, 21, 22. Corporal punishment, 77. Course of instruction, em- braces what, 80. Color, how known, 25. Cramming condemned, 96. Cultivation of the attention, 35 ; of conception, 38. Degrees of consciousness, 29. Deity, agnostic view of, 16. Denomination, in conception, 37. INDEX. 145 Deduction def., 65; authors quoted, 66 ; forms of, 66. Desire for property, 70; for knowledge, 70; for power, 71 ; for liberty, 71. Desires defined and classi- fied, 70 ; benevolent, as an incentive, 83 ; selfish, 83. Desks of schoolroom, 78. Didactics def., 85. Dignity of the teacher, 75. Disposition, study of, 108. Discipline, thoroughness of, 75 ; mental, how obtained, 82. Distance, how known, 25. Dorians, 87. Draper, Andrew S., quoted, 98. Duties of pupils, 76; of teach- ers to their profession, 85, 103. Dualism def., 17; forms of, 17, Dualistic realism discussed, 17- ^Economy in school adminis- tration, 79. Education, science of, 73, 85 ; moral, intellectual, physical, 73 ; defined, 85 ; history of, 85-86; art of, 85; "expen- sive," 85. *' Education of Man," by Froe- bel, 94; Education Abroad, works on, 116. Educational capital, 82. Educational sentiment, 79. Efferent nerves, function of, 21. Ego defined, 9. Egypt, education in, 87, Elaborative knowledge, 41, " Emile," by Rousseau, 93. Empirical psychology, 11, Emotions def,, 68; classified, 68; egoistic, def., 68; altru- istic, def., 68; rational, 68; instinctive, 68; aesthetic, 69; ethical, 69. Enthymeme, 66. Encephalon, 19. End-plates, sensorial, 23, 24. Ether, function of, 25. Ethical consciousness, 29. Experience, in acquired per- ceptions, 24, 25 ; the ground, of knowledge, 16. Examination and analysis, a step in willing, 71. Example of teacher, in moral training, 72. Executive volition, 72. Exercise, what it involves, 79 ; ends in acquisition of knowledge, 80. Expulsion of pupils, 78. External excitant, 18, 23, 24, 25, 43- Excitement, psychical, 19, 23, 24. Expressional powers, 48, loi ; cultivation of, 102. Exercise of the mind, 57. Faculty defined, 26; how it grows, 79. Fairy tales, use of, 72. Facts, mental, a study of, 12. Features, physical, of the child, T08. Feelings classified, 7, 67 ; def., 67 ; corporeal, and psychical, 67 ; instinctive, how occa- sioned, 68; how ennobled, 72; the excitation of a, 71; awaken right, 72. Form, how known, 25. Forgetfulness, 57; causes of, 58. Francke, Augustus Herman, sketch of, 93. Froebel, Frederick, sketch of, 94 ; founded the kindergar- ten, 94. 146 :ndex. Ganglia, 22. Gems, literary, use of. 72. Generalization, 37 ; concep- tive, 61. Growth of mind, 13. Hall, G. Stanle3% quoted, 104. Harris, Dr. William T., 114. Hamilton, Sir William, 10. Habits of action, 79. Heart power, 75. Health of the child, 107. Hearing, sensation of, 24. Heroic Age, 87. Herbart, quoted, 15, 105 ; his psychology, 94. History of education, 86. Hume, David, an idealist, 16. Ideas, consonant, 62 ; primarj^, 47; intuitive, 47; abstract, how developed, 39. Idealism def., 16. Ideals to guide practice, 80. Idiots and intuition, 48, Images, modes of reproduc- ing, 50. Imagination discussed, 51 ; activities of, 51 ; limits of, 51 ; kinds of, 51 ; relation to education, 52 ; use in various sciences, 52 ; in ethical cul- ture, 53; training of, 54; phases of, 54; imagination of the child, iii. Improvement of the soul, in- definite, 97. Individual powers of soul, 40. Induction discussed, 65. Inference, 65. Inferential method, 6, 12. Instinctive emotions, 68. Incentives to study, 34, 83 ; to attention, 34. Instruction, Universal Prin- ciples of, 81. Int&llect def and discussed, 6, 10, 40; functions and powers, 21, 41 ; m conscious- ness, 28. Introspection discussed, 6, 11, 13, 14- Intuition def, 47; ideas, 47; truths, 48; relation to mem- ory, etc., 48. Investigation on part of pupil, 79, S3. Involuntary attehtion, 31, 32. Japan, education in, 86, Judgment def., 61 ; a judg- ment, 61 ; parts of, 61 ; clas- sified, 62 ; what it implies, 62 ; when first developed, 62 ; relation to education, 63 ; cultivation of, 63 ; of pupils, 63- Knowledge def, 40; objects of, 40; classified, 40-41 ; sci- entific and unscientific, 41 ; primitive and developed, 41 ; presentative, represent- ative, elaborative, and con- stitutive, 41 ; original, re- corded, and tuitionary, 74; presentative, representative, and thought, 80; in judg- ment, 62 ; an acquisition of, by study, 82 ; ability to ex- press, 102. Kong, or Confucius, 86. Kindergartenism, 46. Laboratories, experiments in, 63, 78 ; psychological, 105. Laconism, 88. Language, importance of, 102 ; in conception, 38; profane, 77- Laws of mind, known to teach- er, 8, 98. Laws of association, 58-59. Leading questions, 84. Literature, imaginative, 54 ; related to psychology, 13; of psychology, 114. INDKX. 147 Libraries in school, 78. Leibnitz's theory, 17. Light in schoolroom, 78. Limits of imagination, 48. Linguistic study, 38. Locke, John, 16, 92. Love, paternal, filial, etc., 69. Luther, Martin, 90. Lycurgus and his theories, 87. " Leonard and Gertrude," 94. Major term of syllogism, 67. Manner of study, 83. Materialism def., 15. Mathematics raised to a science by Pythagoras, 88. Medulla oblongata, and its functions, 20. Mechanical conscience, 44. Melancthon, Philip, 90; views of, on language, 90. Memory defined and dis- cussed, 55-60 ; acts of, 55 ; varieties of, 56; conditions on which to improve, 57 ; cultivation of, 59; of the child, observed, 112. Mental acts, study of, 12. Mental activity, laws of, how formed, 12. Mental excitement, 19. Method, introspective, def, 6, II ; difficulties of, 11 ; infer- ential, 6, 12; physiological, 6 ; textbook, 6. Methods, a knowledge of, nec- cessary, 75 ; in study, 82 ; il- logical, 98 ; of reasoning, 65 ; normal, in teaching, 95. McCosh, James, 18. Middle Ages, 90. Middle term of syllogism, 67.] Mill, John Stuart, 16. Mind defined, 10; distin- guished from soul, 10; teacher deals with, 9 ; is finite, 10, 97; Mill's defini- tion of, 16. Minor term of syllogism, 67, Mnemonics, the use of, 60. Monism discussed, 15. Moral training, 72 ; methods of, 72. Morality of the teacher, 75. Mysticism discussed, 17. National Educational Asso- ciation, proceedings of, 121. Nature of the child recog- nized, 96. Necessary truths, 48. Necessity of intuitive truths, 48. Nerves, analysis of, 21 ; uses of, 21 ; sensory, afferent, or centripetal, 21 ; motor, effer- ent, or centrifugal, 21 ; mixed, 21, Nervous system in relation to sensation, 19, Nomenclature, 37. Non-ego, 28. Object teaching, by Pestalozzi, 93. Objects of study, 82. Objective teaching, 80. Objective conditions of school government, 78. Objective method of study, 12. Objective laws of association, 58. Oblongata described, 20. Observation, 31, 36; by the pupil, 54 ; in induction, 65 ; of children, 12, 104; by children, no. Offenses by pupils, 65. Olfactory nerve, 23. Optic nerve, 24. " Orbis Pictus," by Comenius. 91. Order of intellectual growth, 80. Ormuzd, 87. Outlook for the profession, 94. 148 INDEX. Outlines, topical, importance of, 5 ; use of, 84. "Outlines of Pedagogics," Rein's, referred to, 114. Paideutics, 73. Paidology, 106. Parker, Francis W., quoted, 98. "Parrot" recitations con- demned, 38. Patriotism defined, 69. Passive reproduction, 50. Payne, W. H., quoted, 98; Joseph, quoted, 79. Pedagogics defined, 73, 85 ; tlie science of pedagogy, 99 ; the New, 96 ; Outlines of, 85 ; basis of, 73 ; means of, 73 ; literature of, 116. Pedagogical propositions, 97. Percept defined, 45 ; distin- guished from concept, 45 ; from percept and image, 45. Penetrative imagination, 51. Perception defined, 45 ; rela- tion of, to education, 45 ; growth of, 46 ; clearness of, how attained, 79. Perceptions, acquired, 24, 25, 44 ; original, 43. Periods in child's reason. 64. Periodicals, 122. Peripatetic philosophy, 89. Persia, 87. Personal identity, ideas of, 48. Pestalozzi, sketch of, 93. Phantasy defined and dis- cussed, 49-50. Phenomena, importance of a study of, II, 97 ; of the soul, 8 ; psychological, 28, 29. Philanthropy defined, 69. Physiology related to psychol- ogy, 13-15. Physiological method of study, 6. Pictures in the schoolroom, 72, 78. Place, contiguity of, 58. Power, as an element of ped- agogy, 74; acquired and inherent, 74. Powers of the soul, classified, 6 ; presentative, 7, 41 ; repre- sentative, 49 ; thought, 60. Presentative powers, 7, 41. Presentation, of object, in willing, 71; in conception, 36. . Premises of syllogism, 66. Preparation, the teacher's, for the study of children, 106. Principles, Universal, 79, 80; in teaching, 98. Profession of teaching, 85; re- spect for, 75. Professional purposes of study, 82. Professional practice, lack of, 99- Professional training of the teacher, 93. Proposition omitted in enthy- meme, 66. Plato, sketch of, 88. Pupils, their rights, duties, rewards, and punishments, 76, 77- Punishment, 77 ; as viewed by Cicero, 89; Idj^ Locke, 92. Purpose of life, loi. Psammeticus, 87. Psychology defined, 8 ; prov- ince of, 8 ; classified, 10 ; empirical, 10; rational, 10; an inductive science, 14; importance of, 103 ; liter- ature of, 114, 121. Psychical theories outlined, 15-18- Pythagoras, sketch of, 87. Qualifications of the teacher, 74, 75- Questions, how propounded to class, 84; leading, 84; INDKX. 149 asked skillfully, 112 ;_ in child-study, on child's biog- raphy, 107 ; on health, 107 ; physical features, 108; dis- position, 108; exercise of the senses, 109; observation, no; sense-perception, no; apperception, in; imagin- ation, in; memory, 112; conception, 112; reasoning, 113- Questions, list of one thou- sand, on psychology, 123. Ouintilian, 89. Ratich, Wolfgang, sketch of, 92. Rational en^otions, 68. Reading, as taught by Ratich, 92. Reason defined, 63 ; when first exercised by children, 64 ; periods of, in children, 64 ; "natural," 48; relation to education, 67. Reasoning, forms of, 64 ; meth- ods of, 65 ; from particular facts to general facts, 65 ; inductive and deductive, how developed, 67 ; of the child, 113. Recitation, objects of, 83; modes of conducting, 84. Recognition discussed, 56. Recollection defined, 56. Reference, works of, 114, Reflection defined, 31. Reflective self-consciousness, 42- . Reflectional activities, tot. Reflex activity of the will, 71. Reformation instituted by Luther, 90. Relational powers, 6t. Repetition, value of, 57, 59, 79> 84- Representative powers, 7, 49. Reproduction, value of, 56, 57, 81 ; passive, 50 ; spontaneous, 49 : stimulation in, 50. " Republic," by Plato, 88. Resentment defined, 70. Respect for the profession, 75. Retention, act of memory, 55. Rewards of pupils, 77. Ried, Thomas, 18. Rights of pupils, 76. Right and wrong, emotions of, 69; ideas of, intuitive. 47. Romans, educational system of, 89. Rote-learning, 92. Rousseau, sketch of, 92. " Royal Seven," 34. Ruskin on the imagination, 51. Schoolroom, qualities of, 78; view of Comenius on, 91. Schneiderian membrane, 23. Science defined, 97; the crowning notion of, 39 ; of pedagogics, 97, Self-consciousness, 41, 42; abnormal, 42, 108 ; sponta- neous, 42 ; reflective, 42. Self-activity of pupil, 82. Self-control of teacher, 75. Self-defense, feelings of, 69. Self-confidence of pupil, 63. Self-evidence of intuitive truth, 48. Seneca, a Roman writer, 89. Sensation, processes of, t8 ; synonyms for, 19, 21. Sensations, of smell, 23 ; of taste, 23 ; of hearing, 24 ; of sight, 25; of touch, 25. Senses, exercise of, 109; spe- cial, 22 ; classified, 44. Sensibilities, the, 7, 10, 67. Sense-concept, 45. Sens e-perceptions, defined, 42; uses of term, 43; con- ditions of, 43 ; elements of. I50 INDEX. 43 ; improvement of, 45, 81 ; in dualistic realism, 17; antecedents of, 26 ; view of Rousseau, 83; of Pestalozzi, 93; of Herbart, 94; knowl- edge through, 102; in the child, no. Sensorium defined, 18; use of, 43- Sensorial excitement, 43. Sentiment, educational, 79. Similarity, law of, 58. Simonides, 60. Simple concepts, 38. Size of objects, how learned, Skill, school phase of, 74; in government, 75. Sociology defined, 13. Socrates, sketch of, 88; his method, 84, 88. Solon, sketch of, 87. Soul defined, 9; distinguished from spirit, 9 ; from mind, 10 ; powers of, 26 ; general powers of, 26 ; individual powers, 40; infinite and immortal, 97. Spencer, Herbert, an agnos- tic, 16. Spinal cord, function of, 22. Stimulation in reproduction, 50. Study, methods in, 82 ; objects of, 82 ; incentives to, 83 ; of children, by teacher, 12, 104. Sturm, John, sketch of, 91. Subjective conditions of gov- ernment, 78. Subjective laws, 59. Suspension of pupils, 78. Syllogism discussed, 66. Symmetrical development, 91, 92. Sympathy with the child, 106 ; an emotion, 68 ; an affection, 69. Sympathetic system de- scribed, 22. Synonyms, use of, 14. Synthesis of individual things, 82. System in education insti- tuted by Sturm, 91. Taste, sense of, discussed, 23. Teaching defined, 73 ; philoso- phy of, 96 ; a profession, 85 ; scientific, 9. Teacher, thons qualifications, 74 ; authority, 76 ; tenure of, 85. Terms of sylloe:ism, 67. Thales, 88. Theories on education, held by Chinese, 86; by Lycur- gus, 87 ; Solon, 87 ; Pythag- oras, 88; Socrates, 88; Plato, 88; Ari stotle, 89; Melancthon, 90 ; Sturm, 91 ; Bacon, 91 ; Comenius, 91 ; Ratich, 92; Locke, 92; Rousseau, 93 ; Basedow, 93. Thermometer in schoolroom, 78. Thon, the new pronoun, 5; use of, 74, 75, 76, 79, 100, 103, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, TIG, III, etc. Thought powers, 7, 60, 61. Touch, sense of, 25. Tradition in China, 86. Trviths, intuitive, 48 ; self-evi- dent, 48 ; particular and general, 65, 66. Training, professional, 99, 103 ; of the imagination, 54. Unconscious tuition, 86. Universal principles, 79-81. Universality of intuitive truths, 48. Validit}^ of dualistic realism, 17- INDEX. 151 Varro, 89. White, Dr. E. E., quoted, 80. Voluntary attention, 31. Wrong, ideas of, 47. Weber's Law of Attention, 33. Xenophon's "Memorabilia," " What " period in the child's 88. reasoning, 64. Will defined and discussed, Zoroaster, 87; his influence, 10, 71, 72. 87. Willing, steps in the process of, 71. TESTIMONIALS. OPINIONS OF PRESS AND PUBLIC. A FEW EXTRACTS FROM CORRESPONDENCE AND THE EDU- CATIONAI, PRESS, SHOWING WHAT EMINENT EDUCA- TORS SAY OF "pUTWNES OF PSYCHOI.OGY." THIS WORK PI^ACES THE SUBJECT OF PSYCHOI^OGY ON A POPUI The coming teacher must be thoroughly conversant witli this subject, and this book will help him as no other book will. I consider it a most valuable pedagogical work. — B. B. Hari^an, ex-Superintendent Middlelowu, O., now Teacher of Mathematics, Dayton (O.) High School. It is one of the most complete works on the subject I ever saw. It should be owned by every teacher. I shall endeavor to introduce it into this county and throughout this state.-— W. M. Hays, Waldo, Miss., editor Dixie School Journal. It is a grand book — nothing equals it for the teacher who is anxious to stud}' Psychology in its relation to teaching. — C. M. Line, Pasco, O. I have found it an interesting review of the subject of which it treats. It is suggestive, and can be made most helpful and useful. — B. F. Prince, Ph. D., Professor of Greek and Histor\% Wittenberg College, Springfield, O. The subject is treated in a thorough, exhaustive, and com- prehensive manner. It is tersely written, yet plain and full — in fact, i± is the whole thing in a nutshell. — Hillsboro [O.) Ga- zelle. Dear Prof. Williams : In " Outlines of Psychology " you conceived an admirable idea and worked it out with much skill. There is a place for such a work, and I am glad there is such a demand for it. — W. H. VenablE, Ph. D., LL. D., the " Teacher-Poet " and Author, Cincinnati, O. I have used " Outlines of Psychology " in my Normal Classes and have found it a great aid in giving the student a clear knowledge of this difficult subject. It is alike beneficial to the beginner and the advanced student, through its logical classification. — Fenton Gall, Pres. Hillsboro (O.) College. Professor H. G. Williams : I examined your " Outlines of Psychology " with a good deal of care, and can say *' with- out mental reservation," that I am pleased with the work. As a whole, the outline is very excellent, and can be used with great profit by any student or reader of Psychology or Ped- agogy- — Daniel Putnam, M. A., author of " Putnam's Psy- chology," and Professor of Pedagogy in the State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS. liOcke(JoJin). S ketch, of, by R, i±. Qmck. 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