'ir. ■ t Class Book.. (V)|MiphtF L33 CQE^O^IGUT DEPOSIC ^...^^c-cW <^^/^ ^^rzo THE NEW CENTURY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BY EDWARD EGGLESTON NEW YORK :• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY LIBRARY of CONORESS Tw» Cspiee Received MAR 8 1904 Copyrighi Entry CLASS Ot XXc. No, yb 392. cop/ a F_S3 Dr. Eg^lesion's School Histories First Book in American History New Century History of the United States History of the United States and Its People Stories of Great Americans for Little Americans For Primary Grades Stories of American Life and Adventure For Grammar Grades Copyright, 1904, by AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY E4it«r^.4f Stationers' Hall, London V, ', w. p. I 3n (^emor^ of Q|orn ®ec. 10, I837. ^»^ CP^^'*8' J»^i<^>^« ©ieb ^e^jf. 2, 1902. at ^OB^ua's (Roc8, (Jlet» %ov% The preparation of this book was the last Hterary worl< that Edward Eggleston undertook. He was convinced that there was a peciihar need of such a book in all our schools, and it was a matter of special concern to him to supply it. His purpose was to tell the story of our country so briefly that it might be mastered within the limited time allowed for its study in the schools, and yet to preserve the interest of the narrative unimpaired by too severe a condensation. Especially he wished to preserve and to present those facts with respect to life conditions at various periods which he held to be even more essential to the history of a people than is the record of public events. To no other of his books did he give a greater or a more conscientious care than to this. In no other did he feel a deeper interest, or an interest more completely unselfish. He had finished the manuscript, in its first draft, when 5 6 PREFATORY NOTE increasing infirmity of health compelled him to cease work forever. There was yet a good deal to be done upon the book in the way of revision and otherwise, in order to make it what he wanted it to be. He asked me to do that work for him, and I have done it with scrupulous care to carry out his purpose in every detail, and especially to preserve his work untouched and unchanged in any of its essentials. It was his purpose to write a preface to this book him- self, but he was not spared to do so. It is in love and reverence for his memory that I now introduce the volume with this note. George Gary Eggleston. Culross-on-Lake George, September, 1903. CONTENTS Frontispiece. From a photograph taken by Miss L. Bernie Gallaher. Washington, D. C. Discovery and Exploration. I. — The discovery of America, II. — The Indiaps, ..... III. — The age of discovery, IV. — E.xploration and attempts at settlement, V. — EngHsh explorations, Settlement. VI. — Virginia, ..... VII. — Early New England settlements, VIII. — Other New England settlements, IX. — New York and Maryland, X. — The Carolinas, .... XI. — New Jersey and Pennsylvania, . XII. — The founding of Georgia, XIII. — Rebellion against English authority Intercolonial Wars. XIV. — The progress of New France, . . . , XV. — The earlier French and Indian wars, XVI. — The great French and Indian War, . XVII. — The great French and Indian War (continued), XVIII. — Later events of the French and Indian War^. . Traits of Colonial Life. XIX. — -Warfare between Indians and white men, XX. — Living and getting a living, ...... XXI. — Laws and punishments ; bond servants and slaves; pirates, XXII.— Colonial industries, ........ The Revolution. XXIII. — Causes of the Revolution, .... XXIV. — The Revolution in New England, XXV. — The Revolution in the Middle Colonies and at sea, XXVI. — Events west of the Appalachians, XXVII. — The Revolution in the South, .... From the Revolution through the War or 1S12. XXVIII. — Government under the Articles of Confederation, XXIX. — Washington's administration, .... 7 9 16 24 28 37 42 54 61 69 76 So 85 90 95 99 105 no 113 119 121 128 135 141 152 159 173 178 189 199 CONTENTS XXX. — Washington's administration (continued), XXXI. — The administration of John Adams, . XXXII. — Jefferson's administration, XXXIII. — Jefferson's administration (continued), XXXIV.—Water travel, XXXV. — The beginning of the War of 1812, . XXXVI. — The war to its close. The Period of Compromise. XXXVII. — The era of good feeling, ..... XXXVIII. — Roads, canals and railroads, .... XXXIX. — Jackson's administration, ..... XL. — Van Buren's administration ; Harrison and Tyler, XLI.— The Mexican War XLII. — The Compromise of 1S50 and other matters, XLIII. — The progress of invention, .... XLIV. — The Kansas-Nebraska debate ; the Know-Nothing Party , the Dred Scott Case ; the Panic of 1857 ; the Mormons, XLV. — The irresistible tendency to war, . . . . . The Civil War. XLVI. — From the fall of Sumter to McClellan's appointment, XLVIL— From Balls Bluff to Island No. 10, XLVIII. — From the fall of New Orleans to the Seven Days' Battles, XLIX. — From the second Manassas to Murfreesboro, L. — From Chancellorsville to Lookout Mountain, LI. — From the battle of the Wilderness to Sheridan's ride, LI I. — From the taking of Atlanta to the end of the war, Reconstruction and Recent Events. LIII. — Afler the war, LIV. — Grant's administration, ...... LV. — Hayes, Garfield and Arthur, ..... LVI. — Cleveland's first administration, .... LVII. — Harrison's administration and Cleveland's second term, LVIII. — Beginning of McKinley's administration, LIX. — The Spanish War, ....... LX. — The war and its results, ...... LXI. — Invention and industry in the last half of the 19th century LXII. — Some later events, ....... AI'PENDI.X. Constitution of the United States, ...... Biographies, .......... Inde.x, ........... 205 211 215 223 227 230 237 247 255 262 267 274 279 289 294 300 310 316 324 329 335 343 347 355 361 367 374 378 383 389 395 398 402 I 15 35 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION CHAPTER I. THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. Legends of Early Discovery. — In the old romantic legends of the Norsemen who early settled Iceland, it is related that as early as the year looo a Norse sailor, Leif, the son of Eric, sailed sonthwest from Greenland and discovered the coast of a new land. If the story is true, the coast found must have been that of the continent of America. In Whales, too, there is a tradition that about the year 1170 a Welsh prince named Madoc discovered a land west of Ireland, and founded a colony there, which was never again heard of. Even if these stories are true, the dis- coveries of Leif and Madoc led to noth- ing. If either or both of these sailors found the coast of .Vmerica, people for- got all about it. America was not dis- covered to any profitable purpose until Columbus landed upon its shores in the year 1492. Even then nobody in all the civilized world knew or dreamed that an unknown continent on this side of the ocean had been discovered. The Unknown Seas. — The mariner's compass was then in use, and so was the astrolabe, an instrument by which the captain of a ship at sea could calculate his latitude. But the use of these instruments was little understood. Sailors 9 -..iJ Statue of Leif, in Boston 10 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION at that time ventured only a little way out upon the great ocean which lay to the west of Europe. They feared to go farther for many reasons. They believed that the west- ern ocean was covered with thick black fogs, that the water was boiling hot there, and many other fanciful things of a terrifying kind. The Trade with the East. — But the trading nations of Eu- The world as known in 1492 rope, and particularly the merchants of Venice and Genoa, carried on a rich traffic with the countries of central and eastern Asia, all of which they grouped together in their minds under the one name, India. Many years before that time a Venetian named Marco Polo had lived for thirty years in those Eastern lands, wandering from Persia all the way to Japan. On his return he had told glowing stories of the vast wealth of that region in gold, silks, cotton THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA II Marco Polo fabrics, cashmeres, precious stones, spices, pepper, ivory, and other de- sirable merchandise. In order to trade with countries so rich in the goods that Europe desired, the merchants of Venice and Genoa sent their ships to the most eastern ports of the Mediterranean and Black seas. There the ships met caravans from Persia, India, and other parts of the East richly laden with precious wares. But presently the half-savage Turks and Arabs, pushing their way towards Europe, began interfering with the caravan routes and plundering the carq,- vans. This seriously interfered with the trade, and threat- ened to destroy it completely, so that the merchants of Europe sorely felt the need of finding some new and safer route by which to reach what they called India. Portuguese Voyages. — In this search for a new route to India the Portuguese were the leaders. They were the boldest sailors of that age, and they hoped, by finding a new route, to take for themselves the commerce of Genoa and Venice. Little by little they extended their voyages along the west coast of Africa, hoping to find a way through or round that continent into the Indian Ocean. It took them seventy years to do this, but at the end of that time they had accomplished it. They had found and rounded what we now know as the Cape of Good Hope. The route thus discovered was very long, however, and there was one sailor in Europe who believed that he could find a shorter one. Christopher Columbus. — This sailor was a Genoese named Christopher Columbus.* He had sailed along all the coasts of western Europe to the far north lands. It is be- lieved that he had also made several voyages in Portuguese ships along the coast of Africa. His brother, at any rate, * For biography, see Appendix. 12 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION had done so. Colum- bus was one of the comparatively few people who at that time believed the earth to be round. The general belief was that it was flat, and that if one should sail too far west on the ocean, he would come to the edge of the world, and fall off. Believing the world to be round, Columbus was sure that he could reach India by sailing to the Christopher Columbus , o^i • i • xi ^ west. ihmkmg the earth to be somewhat smaller than it is, and Asia to be much larger, he supposed that eastern Asia lay about three thou- sand miles west of Europe. He knew nothing of this great continent of ours, and supposed that the Atlantic Ocean reached from western Europe to eastern Asia. Columbus was anxious to make a voyage westward in search of the Indies, but to do that he must have ships and provisions, and he had no money with which to buy these things. Columbus in Search of Patrons. — He first appealed to the king of Portugal, who gave him little encouragement. In- deed, wherever he went he succeeded only in convincing nearly everybody that he was a half-crazy fellow, possessed of a foolish notion. Men argued that if the world was, in fact, round, a ship that sailed down the side of it could never sail back again, because the return voyage would be all uphill. They argued that no people could live on the other side of the world, because if they did they must be upside down. All this seems very foolish to us THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 1 3 now, but in that day it seemed as plain as the simplest facts. The king of Portugal was somewhat impressed by what Columbus said, but he was not willing to pay the large reward which Columbus asked for if he should find the Indies; so he tried to steal Columbus's idea. He secretly sent ships of his own to see if India did, in fact, lie on the other side of the Atlantic. This expedition went but a little way. The sailors quickly became discouraged and came back laughing at Columbus as a crack-brained dreamer. Isabella to the Rescue. — Columbus went next to Ferdinand and Isabella, the king and queen of Spain, and laid his plan before them. They called a council of men who believed themselves to be far wiser than any mere sailor could be. This council considered the matter, and reported that noth- ing could be more foolish than the Genoese sailor's idea. They proved its absurdity and impossibility so conclusively that after long waiting Columbus was dismissed. While waiting for an answer he had spent all the money he had, and had become a laughingstock in the streets. But Queen Isabella with some of her friends was inclined to believe that there might be something in his project. She sent for him at the last moment, and oiTered him the help he needed. Columbus Sails. — At last Columbus had an opportunity to test his own theory. Equipped with three little ships scarcely bigger than fishing smacks of our time, two of them being in part open boats, he sailed from Palos (pah- los), Spain, in August, 1492. He had ninety men with him. His ships were the " Santa Maria " (sahn-tah mah- ree'ah), the " Pinta " (peen-tah\ and the " Nina " (neen- yah). The Canary Islands lay in his course, and Columbus was delayed there a brief time. When he set out to sail farther west the courage of his sailors failed. As they found themselves going farther and farther out on an unknown sea, their fears increased. They 14 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION Santa Maria threatened to throw Columbus overboard and turn back, but he managed to hold them in check, concealing from them the distance they had come. After Aveeks of sailing to the west and south- west, a sailor one night saw a light, and early the next morning land was in sight. This was on the 12th of October, 1492. There was the wildest joy on the ship. The men who had hated Columbus and threatened to kill him now revered him. Columbus went ashore with many of his men, and set up a large cross as a sign that he took possession of the land for Spain. His landing was on an island which he named San Salvador (sahn sahl'vah-dor), or Holy Savior, because that was the Church name of the day on which he landed. Columbus's Return. — The island upon which Columbus landed was one of the smallest in that part of the West Indies which we now call the Bahama Islands. It was in- habited by people who wore no clothes of any kind, and who lived in the rudest manner. After sailing among the Bahamas for a time, Columbus went on southward, dis- covering Cuba and Haiti, and losing one of his ships by wreck and another by desertion. As he had now only one little ship, he left a part of his men on what is now the island of Haiti, to which he gave the name of His- paniola. As he had sailed westward about three thousand miles, he set out on his return voy- age in the full belief that the lands he had discovered were islands near the eastern coast of Asia. That belief he carried with him to his grave, never knowing or dreaming that he had found a new world. His retvu'n voyage was begun early in 1493. He took with him a little gold, some fruits and birds of the new land, and some of the inhabitants of THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 15 .3t£XlC0 •» a ^''* ATLANTIC ■,.SAN SAI -^, .■ ■> -'^<^. O C E A if- PORTO RICO Lands discovered by Columbus the islands. He was received by Ferdinand and Isabella with the greatest honor, and the crowds who once jeered at him for a fool now applauded the great discoverer, tak- ing off their hats, and bowing low in reverence as he passed through the streets. Columbus's Later Voyages. — In September, 1493, with a large expedition he sailed again for the West. During this voyage he planted a colony on Hispaniola, and „_, „,. ._. .^ discovered the islands of Jamaica, Porto Rico, and several smaller ones to the east. During his third voy- age, in 1498, he saw a small part of the American con- tinent near the mouth of the Orinoco River ; and on his fourth and last voyage (1502- 1 504) he reached the mainland in what we now call Honduras and Nicaragua. Still believing that he had reached the coast of Asia, he thought this part of the continent was the Malay Penin- sula. As he failed to bring back to Spain the gold and precious stones, and the rich fabrics of the East for which the Spanish merchants were greedy, Columbus fell into dis- grace, and died at last in poverty. Summary^ — i. Possible early discoveries of America by Northmen and Welsh led to no useful result. 2. In the fifteenth century Turks threatened the caravan routes over which a rich trade passed between Europe and India, and thus prompted search for a new trade route. 3. Columbus, believing the earth to be round, thought he could find a shorter sea route by sailing directly westward. 4. After many years of waiting he obtained three little ships with which he set out from Palos. 5. After sailing westward to about the point where he expected to find Asia, he discovered some islands, October 12, 1492, which he be- lieved lay close to the coast of Asia, but which were really a part of the West Indies in America. i6 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 6. Later he made three more voyages to the West Indies, and landed on the mainland of South and Central America, but he died in his mistaken belief that he had discovered parts of Asia. Collateral Reading. — Irving's " Life of Columbus," Stratford edi- tion, 52-84; Seelye's " Story of Columbus," 25, 40-42, 46, 59-62, 105- 106. CHAPTER II. THE INDIANS. The First Americans. — The continent which Cokimbus had discovered, although nobody in Europe, Asia, or Africa knew of its exist- ence, was ah-eady inhabited by a people who had lived there for hundreds, and probably for thousands, of years. Whence they came, and how they got here, nobody has ever yet l)een able to find out. Columbus called them Indians because he believed this country to be India. They did not belong to any of the known races of mankind. They were not white like the Europeans, or black like the Africans, or yellow like the Malays and Chi- nese. Their skins were of a dirty copper color. Their hair was thick, straight, coarse, and intensely black in color. Their eyes were small and black, their noses prominent and their cheek bones unusu- ally high. They had little or no beard. They were tall, slender, lean, and very muscular. The Indian Tribes. — There were never more than a few hundred thousand of these Indians within the mainland of the United States. They lived and wandered about in tribes of a few hundred each. Sometimes several tribes joined together for defense, or for the plunder of other tribes, but each tribe was ruled by its own sachem in time of peace, and by its own chief in time of war. Indian warrior THE INDIANS The Indian Nations. — East of the Mississippi the Indians formed three great groups of alhed tribes, sometimes called nations. The Iroquois lived in what is now New York, a part of Canada, and parts of the South. The Algon- quins held most of Canada and the greater part of the present United States north of Tennessee and east of the Mississippi. The Muscogees, or Muskokees, held the region now constituting our Gulf States. The Muskokees were the most advanced' of all the Indians in the art of making things, but the Iroquois were the most skillful in war. West of the Mississippi the greater part of our coun- try was occupied by the Dakota, Shoshone, and Apache nations. The Higher Tribes. — The Indians of Mexico and Peru were much more nearly civilized than any other Amer- ican tribes. But in a history of the United States we need not concern ourselves with them. It was once supposed that the curious " Indian mounds " found in the Mississippi valley were the work of an earlier and higher race of men, but it is now pretty well settled that the mound builders were none other than the Indians t h e m - selves, and that the Indians were the only inhabitants of this country before the white man came. Indian Ways of Living. — The habits of the Indians were those of savages who lived -mainly upon what grew wild, and what they could get from the woods and streams. They did, indeed, raise a few beans, squashes, and pump- kins, and a little corn among trees which they had killed by burning off the bark. The work of cultivating these 2 — Egg. Hist. 'p> .^r^ Indian mounds, Adams County, Ohio l8 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION things, like most other work among the Indians, was done by the women. As a true savage the " Big Indian," as he called himself, thought it beneath his dignity to do much but hunt and fight. Indian Tools and Farming. — For tools the Indians used bones, sticks, sharp stones, and the like. Their cooking utensils, when they had any, were usually wooden vessels, Indians at home hollowed out by burning. In these they heated water by dropping hot stones into it. They roasted their green corn in the ashes without removing the husks. They beat the hard corn into a coarse meal, in rude wooden mortars, using stones for pestles. They baked their bread in the fire, and roasted their meat over the fire or before it when they were not too careless to cook at all. Often they ate their food raw. They made fire by rubbing dry sticks to- gether until the wood ignited from the friction. They did this often by using a bowstring with which to turn one THE INDIANS 19 Making Stick very rapidly while holding it in contact with another. Indian Manufactures. — Some of the Muskokees had learned to make a coarse kind of cloth. Some other tribes, chiefly in the far Southwest, made rude pottery. In the region where copper is found they sometimes fashioned that soft metal into hatchets. But they knew nothing of the art of working iron. The Canoe. — The most notable product of Indian skill was the canoe. This was of two kinds. Some tribes fashioned it out of a log, which they hollowed out by burn- ing the top surface and scraping off the charred parts with shells or sharp stones. This was a slow and laborious way of working, but these log canoes when finished served their purpose well, and sometimes were large enough to carry thirty or forty men. The Northern tribes made a much more beautiful canoe out of birch bark, which they stretched over a light framework of the shape they de- sired, and made water- tight by the use of gums. These canoes were grace- ful in shape, and so light that they could be car- ried easily from one water to another. Indeed, the Birch canoe 20 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION birch bark canoe is the one product of Indian handiwork that white men have never been able to improve either in beauty of form or in usefuhiess. The Clothing and Decorations of the Indians. — The East- ern Indians clothed themselves mostly in deer skin. A whole deer skin was thrown about the shoulders, a strip of the same material was wound around the loins, and leg- gings, worn in winter, were made of it. The Northern tribes wore beaver skins and other thick furs wrapped about them. In the South the Indians wore a garment woven of the fiber of the plant which we call Spanish bayo- net. The women wore deer-skin aprons. Their shoes or moccasins were made of deer skin, sometimes embroidered and ornamented with porcupine quills or shell beads. Indian warriors were fond of decorating themselves in hideous ways. They painted red, yellow, and blue stripes and spots upon their faces, and some of them wore the claws, of animals and birds of prey as ornaments. In Virginia, Indians sometimes fastened living snakes to their ears and wore the hand of a dead enemy in the same way. The object of all this was to terrify the Indian's enemy. Both men and women in certain tribes decorated them- selves with beads made of sea shells. These were called wampum, and were worn in strings, belts, necklaces, and bracelets. Wampum was also used for money and for presents in making treaties between tribes or with white men. The treaty belts usually had upon them rude pic- tures that served in place of writing. Indian "Weapons. — Before white men came to this country the chief weapon of the Indians was the bow and arrow. The arrow was pointed with a sharpened flint, a bit of deer's horn, the sharp spur of a wild turkey, the claw of an eagle, or a splinter of bone. Besides the bow and arrow the Indians used war clubs or battle-axes made by fasten- ing a stone to a handle. Sharpened stones and shells were also used for knives, but when white men came with steel THE INDIANS 21 Indian weapons knives and hatchets and guns, the Inchans quickly quit making their own rude weapons and tools, and bought bet- ter ones from the white man, giving furs and the like in exchange. , The Indian House. — The Indians in the East built rude houses of bark. In the South they used palmetto leaves. In the prairie re- gions where trees were scarce the Indian house or wigwam was made by set- ting up a circle of poles, leaning them together at the top, and covering them with skins. In the far South- west the houses were built of adobe or sun-dried mud. These houses were very large, some of them rising to five stories in height. A whole' village usually lived in a single building. Such a building came, therefore, to be called by the Spanish pueblo, which means village. The Indians inhabit- ing such houses were called pueblo Indians, or village In- dians. In the North the Iro- quois often Iniilt their bark houses so large and long that twent}^ or more families could dwell in one of them. Clans. — The Indians were grouped in clans or families descended from the same grandmother or great-grandmother. Each clan was named after some animal, bird, or reptile, which was supposed somehow to look after the fortunes of the clan. Each clan Wigwam 22 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION Iroquois house had a rude drawing of its particular animal, bird, or rep- tile, which served as a sort of coat of arms. This pic- ture was called a totem, and the members of each clan were called by the name of their totem — the ~|i;r!^fri Turtles, the Eagles, etc. 'V^'.L-r- -^^1 the families living in one house were of one clan. When an Indian wished to marry he must go to some other clan for a wife, and when he married he became a member of his wife's clan. Indian Religion. — The Indian was exceedingly supersti- tious. He had many ways of appeasing evil spirits, and especially the spirits of the animals he had killed, for he be- lieved that both animals and men live again after death. But before the discovery of America he had little that could properly be called a religion. Torture and Running the Gantlet. — In war the Indians were treacherous and cruel in the extreme, though in peace they were to be trusted. They tortured their prisoners in Running the gantlet THE INDIANS 23 ways too shocking for description. Sometimes they made a frohc for themselves and gave a prisoner a chance of hfe by making him " run the gantlet." Indians armed with clubs and stone axes formed themselves in two lines near together, and the prisoner was required to run through the lane thus made between them, while each Indian struck at him with his club or battle-axe. Sometimes the prisoner was beaten to death before going half the distance, but often he escaped ; and if he got through the lane with life still in him, he was sufTered to go free. Summary. — i. Columbus gave the name of Indians to the natives of the country he discovered. 2. There were probably never more than a few hundred thousands of Indians in what is now the main part of the United States. They were organized into widely separated tribes, each governed by its own sachem in time of peace and by its own chief in time of war. 3. The Muskokees and the Iroquois were the most advanced tribes within what is now the United States. 4. The Indians were tall, slender, lean, and very muscular. They were copper-colored, with black, coarse hair and small eyes, high cheek bones, and prominent noses. They lived in villages, and made their houses of bark, deer skins stretched on poles, palm leaves, or dried mud. 5. They did not know how to use iron, but made their tools and weapons of stones, shells, deer horns, and the like. Their principal weapons were bows and arrows. They made canoes of logs and of birch bark. 6. They raised a little corn and a few vegetables in a rude way. They cooked their food in wooden vessels or over the fire. Often they ate it raw. 7. Their clothing consisted mainly of skins and furs. For adorn- ment they stained their faces and wore beads, animals' teeth and claws, feathers, and shells. 8. The Indian's religion was little more than a belief in charms and spells. 9. The Indian was a savage. He loved war, and delighted in kill- ing and torturing his enemies, but in peace he kept his promises, and was a trusty friend. Collateral Reading. — Dodge's "Our Wild Indians," 185-193; Bancroft's " History of the United States," II., 418-433; McMaster's '•'History of the People of the United States," I., 6-8. 24 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION CHAPTER III THE AGE OF DISCOVERY Americus Vespucius. — The discoveries made by Colum- bus awakened great curiosity to know more of the New World. Other adventurers quickly set out to see what more there was to be found beyond the seas. Americus Vespucius* was a Florentine merchant who had removed to Spain a short time before Columbus sailed on his first voy- age. In 1497, and again in 1499, Vespucius was with ex- peditions from Spain that discovered parts of America. It was seventeen months before the first of these expeditions got back to Spain, and the explorers are now believed to have reached the coasts of Mexico and Florida, and even to have sailed north as far as the Chesapeake Bay during the summer of 1498. Vespucius made a third voyage to the western continent in 1501 in the service of Portugal. He landed on Cape San Roque in South America, and explored the coast southward nearly to the Plata. The voyages of Vespucius and the written accounts he gave of his discoveries aroused interest in Europe, and a German geographer suggested that the land he had ex- plored should be called America in his honor. This land, South America, was supposed to be a continent lying south of Asia, for Lands discovered by Vespucius g^.g^^ y^^ ^he notion that Asia lay only about three thousand miles west of Europe was hardly even questioned. On maps of that time the name America was given only to what is now P>razil. but it came later to be applied to all of South America, and fmally to the whole western world. * For biography, see Appendix. THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 25 K^3 ^v>. ;00 400 600 Lands discovered by the Cabots Voyages of John Cabot. — Though Cokimbus had found few gold mines or spices or other sources of weahh, John Cabot,* a Venetian merchant who hved in Bristol, England, hoped for better fortune for him- self. He laid his plans before Henry VH.. king of England, and received permission to make a voyage of discovery at the ex- pense of some Bristol merchants. He set out in May, 1497 — the year of Vespucius's first voyage — with one ship and eighteen men. On June 24 he reached land. It lay far to the north of the islands discovered by Columbus, and was probably the coast of Labrador. Cabot is commonly said to have been the first person to reach the mainland of America. Upon his return to England honors were show'ered upon him, and he was everywhere greeted as the " Great Admiral." During the next year he made another voyage to the mainland, which he supposed to be the coast of China. On this voyage he was accompanied by his son Sebastian. After going far to the north he turned about and sailed down the coast about as far as North Carolina. Cabot, like Columbus, died in the belief that he had actually reached Asia. Vasco da Gama. — During the same year in which Cabot made his first voyage. Vasco da Gama (dah gah-mah) sailed from Portugal down the coast of Africa. He rounded the Cape of Good Hope, crossed the Indian Ocean, and reached Incha at last. In 1499 he returned to Portugal, having his ships loaded with the coveted treasures of the East. For a while after this men ceased to care about sailing to the west. They had begun at last to suspect that the land dis- covered by Columbus was not a part of Asia. * For biography, see Appendix. 26 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION CARIBBEAN SEA Balboa's Discovery. — In 1513 Balboa* (bahl-bo'ah), a bankrupt Spanish farmer of Hispaniola, who had fled to the Isthmus of Panama to escape from his creditors, discovered the Pacific Ocean. While making explorations on the Isthmus he was told that there was a great sea beyond the mountains, and that on its shores dwelt kings who had an abundance of gold and silver. With a native guide and a company of Spaniards Balboa made his way across the Isth- mus with great difiiculty. He went in advance of his men, ascended a high peak, and saw far below him the outspread waters of the ocean which we now call the Pacific. Balboa named it the South Sea. Magellan's Great Voyage. — Magellan * (ma-jel'an), a Por- tuguese navigator who had been to the East Indies by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and afterwards had entered the service of Spain, sailed in 15 19 with five vessels to search Balboa's discovery EUROPE Strait o/wj^ Magellan 'cape Uorn" First voyage around the world for a southwest route to China and India. Going along the coast of South America, he succeeded in passing through the straits that now bear his name. Magellan sailed across * For biography, see Appendix. THE AGE OF DISCOVERY 2/ the Pacific and was killed in the Philippine Islands, but one of his ships succeeded in reaching Spain again by way of the Cape of Good Hope, and was thus the first ship that ever sailed round the world. Continued Search for Another Passage. — After the voyage of Magellan's ship it ought to have been clear that the western route to the Indies was too long for profitable trade uses. The shorter way was round the Cape of Good Hope, but the idea seemed fixed in men's minds that there must be some shorter western way, and for a hundred years afterwards navigators were going up one river after an- other on the Atlantic side of America, confidently expecting to find a way through the continent. The English had the idea that the shortest route to Asia must be through a northwest passage. An earnest search for this passage began with the first voyage of Sir Martin Frobisher in 1576. After that time more than a hundred expeditions were sent out by sea and land on this fruitless errand. People seem to have thought that the finding of such a passage was, in the words of a man of the time, " the only thing of the world that was left undone" whereby a man might become famous and fortunate. Motives of the Explorers. — It is not fair to think that the bold mariners who risked and often lost their lives in ef- forts to find routes to the land of gold and spices were wholly bent on money making. It was a time when men were seeking to learn what they could about the world they lived in. They went east and they went west to satisfy their curiosity and their love of adventure. The dangers they encountered only added in their eyes to the poetry of life. Travelers and explorers left their bones to whiten on every strand, and he who was so fortunate as to get home in safety to tell of the marvels he had seen was a hero in the eyes of all men. Summary. — i. Americus Vespucius in 1497 and the succeeding years made four voyages to America, which he described in published letters. America was named for him. 28 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION 2. John Cabot, in the service of England, sailed to the coast of America in 1497, and again during the next year. Like Columbus, he died in the belief that he had reached Asia. ,3. Da Gama sailed round the Cape of Good Hope in 1408, and came back bearing rich cargoes from the East. 4. Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513, and called it the South Sea. 5. Magellan sailed through the strait that bears his name in 1520, and was killed in the Philippine Islands. One of his five ships sailed completely round the world. 6. For a hundred years afterwards mariners continued to search for another passage through America. Collateral Reading. — Bancroft's "History of the United States," I., 8-12; Andrews's " History of the United States," I., 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 25, 26; Higginson's '' Young Folk's Book of American Ex- plorers," 3-9. CHAPTER IV EXPLORATION AND ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT Discovery of Florida. — Among those who were with Co- lumbus on his second voyage was Ponce de Leon (pon'- tha da la-on'). He was made governor of Hispaniola, and afterward of Porto Rico. In 15 13 with three httle vessels he set out in search of a land which was said to contain a wonderful fountain having power to give per- petual youth to those who bathed in its waters. The little fleet sighted the mainland on Easter Sunday, and Ponce de Leon took possession of the country in the name of the King of Spain. He called it Florida from Pascua Florida, the Spanish name for Easter Sunday. Several years later he went again to Florida, carrying with him a company of settlers. In a battle with the natives Ponce de Leon was wounded by a poisoned arrow. Many of his ;nen were killed, and in despair he went with the survivors to Cuba, where he soon afterwards died of his wounds. The Narvaez Expedition.— In April, 1528, Narvaez (nar-vah'eth) landed in Apalachee Bay, on the west coast EXPLORATION AND ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 29 Spanish soldier pf Florida. He thought that here might be ahnost any- where in America rich empires, hke that which Cortez had recently conquered in Mexico. Sending his little fleet to explore the coast west- ward, Narvaez with most of his men marched into the interior in search of such empires. He found only a wild, wooded country and savage people, and after great hard- ships he returned to the coast. His ships had not come back, and Narvaez labored for two months in building five frail boats to take their places. Two of these boats were lost, and three were driven on the shores of Louisiana or Texas. All but four of the men died of starvation or dis- ease, or were killed by the Indians. Only a man named Vaca, two sailors, and a negro slave sur- vived. These wandered about for eight long years, suffer- ing great hardships. At last they reached the Gulf of Cali- fornia and finally fell in with some Spaniards, and made their way to the city of Mexico. The Spanish Expeditions to Cibola. — There was an old European tradition that many years earlier a bishop of Lisbon had built seven cities on an island in the Atlantic, far west of Portugal. The Spaniards in Mexico were told by the Indians that some- where to the northward there were seven cities. When Vaca told them of the great extent of land to the northward, they sent Brother Marcos, a missionary priest, to ex- plore this land and search for the seven cities. During a journey of three months the little company was frequently told by the Indians about the Spanish cannon 30 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION Ancient Pueblo seven cities of which they were in search. At last they came upon a Zuni pueblo called Cibola, but the Indians attacked the party in advance, and killed some of them. Brother Mar- cos was obliged to content himself with viewing the " city " from the top of a hill nearby. He then returned to Mexico to tell of the city he had discovered in wdiich the houses were built of stone, and were several stories in height. Coronado's Exploration. — During the next year the Vice- roy of Mexico sent Coronado with an army of Spaniards and Indians to conquer the Land of the Seven Cities of Cibola. Marcos acted as guide. Disappointment met Coronado on every hand. The splendid city which Marcos had described in glowing terms proved to be only a pueblo of a few hundred people, and the other " cities " were much like it. As Coronado understood tlie Indians, there was farther on another city, called Ouivira, where everything was of pure gold. He eagerly set out in search EXPLORATION AND ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 31 of this city, and went as far north as the present State of Kansas, only to find when he got there that the tribe called Quiviras were savages, living in straw-covered huts, with no knowledge of gold. Coronado led his army about for two years in further search for rich cities. He found none, of course, but he traversed Arizona, New Mexico, the Indian Terri- tory, Kansas, and Colorado. Spanish priests afterwards went into this region and established missions among the Indians, one of the earliest of which (1605) was at Santa Fe. De Soto's Expedition. — The most famous expedition into the interior in search of countries like Mexico and Peru, abounding in gold, was led by De Soto. He had been governor of Cuba, and was now authorized to conquer the mainland to the north. In May, 1539, he landed on the west coast of Florida with nearly six hundred men and many horses. About the Santa Barbara Mission 32 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION Spanish armor middle of July he set out on a toilsome march through Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. He treated the Indians cruelly, compelling them to serve him as slaves, and robbing them to feed his men. Some he killed with- out excuse, thus provoking attacks upon him- self in return. He pushed on and on in spite of all difficulties in a determined effort to find a land abounding in gold. In 1 541 De Soto reached the Mississippi River, near the present site of Memphis. He called it The Great River. He crossed and recrossed the stream many times in his search for a land of gold, and finally, with his force much reduced, he set out for the mouth of the river, intending to build vessels there and send to Cuba for aid ; but in May, 1 542, he died of a fever. His body, wrapped in blankets filled with sand, was sunk in the Mississippi to prevent its falling into the hands of the Indians. A few of his men finally reached the Gulf in boats they had built, and at last got to the Spanish settlements in Mexico. Spanish Claims, — Thus by 1542 many Spaniards had trav- ersed the southern parts of our country, and by their ex- plorations Spain had acquired a claim to that region from Florida to California, and as far north as Tennessee and Kansas. Early French Explorations. — While the Spaniards were vainly searching in the south for gold and for rich cities to plunder, thrifty French fishermen were drawing wealth from the sea on the Newfoundland fishing banks, and carry- ing on a lucrative trade in furs with the Indians along the neighboring shores. Thus France also was interested in the New World, and in 1524 the French king sent an expedition under Verazano (ver-rah-tsah'no) to America to discover the longed-for pas- sage through the continent to Asia. Verazano explored the coast from North Carolina to New Hampshire, and is now EXPLORATION AND ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 33 thought to have been the first European to enter the Hud- son River, The French afterwards made this voyage, as the EngHsh made the voyage of the Cabots, the basis of a claim to a great part of North America. Jacques Cartier. — Ten years after the voyage of Vera- zano the French king sent another expedition, this time under Jacques Cartier (zhahk car-tya), to continue the F \A ^■)\ ..«ce«,-- r, I MEXICO i^ d ^.- ^-S; c i HaanC- ^^S 7-'°'*- ;>'' S E ^ } Spanish North America search for a northwest passage through the continent. Car- tier examined the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador, and entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. He then returned to France to give an account of his discoveries. The next year he sailed again, hoping for better success. He entered the St. Lawrence River, and sailed up as far as (Juebec, where the Indians had a village. The chief of the tribe was not willing that the white men should go farther, so he dressed some of his men to look like devils, and told Cartier that they had been sent by a god who lived higher 3— Egg- Hist. 34 DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION lip the river to warn the white men back. Cartier was not afraid of devils, however, and so he puslied on up the river in small boats till he reached a fortified Indian town on an island. Behind the town was a high hill with steep sides, to which Cartier gave the name Montreal, which means royal mountain. Nothing was done by France toward following up these discoveries until 1541. Cartier was then again sent out, in company with Roberval, and a settlement was made at Quebec. This was wholly given up within two years. The Huguenot Colonies. — For twenty years after this nothing more was attempted by the French in America, but in 1562 Coligny (co-lee-nee), the leader of the Hugue- nots, or Protestants of France, sent out a party of explorers under Ribault (ree-bo) to found a colony in America in which French Protestants might be free from the per- secutions which they suffered in their native land. Ril^ault built a little town at a harbor on the coast of what is now South Carolina, and named it Port Royal. He left thirty men to hold the place, while he went back for more colonists and fresh supplies. The little company fell into trouble, and during the follow- ing year the few survivors of the colony returned to Europe. But in 1564 a second colony of Huguenots under Laudon- niere (lo-do-ne-er) was sent over, and a fort was built on the St. Johns River in Florida. It was called Fort Caroline, in honor of King Charles of France. St. Augustine Founded. — \\'hen news of this Protestant intrusion upon Spanish territory reached Spain it excited great indignation, and Menendez (ma-nen'deth), a dis- Old Spanish gateway, St. Augustine EXPLORATION AND ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 35 tinguished Spanish officer, was sent to drive the French out of Florida. Menendez btiih a fort (1565) which was the beginning of St. Augustine, the first permanent town in what is now the main part of the United States. He then attacl^^uo^tcr Cape Cod^^s^ Ay ' ■r'>\ mouth y\^ • ^ . Cape Cod L \ r' '^ ^ -"' ^ ■5, '0 - r ^J:}t A T ms: and Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay c^ c.x.^ trading voyages to New England should be so many months with- out church privileges. He interested the shipowners of his town in making a settlement on the coast of New England. Only a few of the men who came over to fish were needed to take the cargo back. The rest might remain and employ themselves in hunting and cutting timber, and in the spring might plant corn. In such a settlement a minister might live and care for the souls of the EARLY NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS 59 Puritan costumes fishermen. This was John White's dream. The Dor- chester Company was organized, and in 1625 a few fisher- men were left on Cape Ann to form the beginning of a colony. Others came afterward. But everything went wrong, and three years later most of the men went back to England. The rest removed to Naumkeag, afterwards called Salem. The Spread of Puritanism. — The ideas of the Puritans had spread throughout England, and those who accepted them now formed a party of power and influence. The party was as much political as religious. When Charles I. became king, the Puritans fared badly, and they lost all hope of bringing about the changes they desired in Church or State. Many oT them began to think it would be better to go, as the Pilgrims had done, to the wilderness of America than to remain in England. The Massachusetts Bay Company. — In 1628 the Massa- chusetts Bay Company was formed. Like the Virginia Company, it was composed of shareholders. It bought land from the Council for New England. The grant thus ob- tained gave them all the land between the Merrimac and Charles rivers, and three miles beyond each river, extending to the Pacific Ocean on the west. In June of the same year a little party was sent out under John Endicott, and a set- tlement called Salem was made at Naumkeag, where some of White's colonists still lived. From that time onward Puritans came over the sea in ever-increasing numbers. In March, 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Company got from Charles I. a charter which gave it the right to govern the colonies it should plant in America. This was not free government, and the Puritans in Eng- land were not satisfied. They adopted a shrewd device. 6o SETTLEMENT The charter did not say where the company should meet, and a few months later it resolved to change the place of its meetings from London to the colony, and to carry the charter across the seas. By this wise movement the people in the colony acquired the right to govern themselves by becoming members of the company. The Great Migration. — John Winthrop * set sail with the " Great Migration " in 1630. He had with him the char- ter and more than a thousand peo- ple. Twenty thousand people were added to the colony between 1630 and 1640. There lived on the site of Bos- ton one Blackstone, a clergyman, who invited the newcomers to set- tle there. Charlestown, where Winthrop had first settled, had shoal water, while ships of any size might come up to Boston. Win- throp took down the frame of his house, and removed to Bos- ton. The Punishment of Quakers. — The laws of Massachusetts were very severe against all who taught other doctrines than those of the Puritans. After the other leaders were (lead Endicott was repeatedly, chosen governor. When some Friends, or Quakers, came to Massachusetts to preach their doctrines, Endicott dealt very harshly with them. They were extreme in dress and in speech. They were punished by banishment after being whipped at the cart's tail, and were warned not to return to the colony. They came back, however, and four of them, including one woman, were hanged. King Charles II. w'as very angry at this severity, and in 1661 he ordered it stopped. It is only fair to say that the majority of the people of Boston op- posed the executions. * For biography, see Appendix. John Winthrop OTHER NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS 6 1 Summary. — i. The Puritans wished to make reforms in the church of England, without leaving it. The Separatists left the church entirely and set up a worship of their own. 2. Certain persecuted Separatists fled to Holland, and remained there thirteen years. Then, in company with others, they came to America, landing at Plymouth in December, 1620. 3. They made a treaty of peace with the Indians, which was not broken for more than half a century. 4. While the people lived from a common stock of food, they suf- fered much, and were often threatened with famine. When, at last, they were allowed to till the land, each for himself, they prospered, and others came out to join them. 5. John White, an English clergyman, tried to establish a colony of fishermen left in America when their ships sailed for home with the catch of fish. The effort failed. 6. Moved by persecutions in England, the Puritans formed the Mas- sachusetts Company. They settled first at Salem, and Puritans from England came over in large numbers to join them. 7. Charles I. (1629) gave the Massachusetts Company a charter giv- ing it the right to govern all colonies it should plant in America. The Puritans in England secretly removed the company and its charter to the Massachusetts colony, where the colonists by becoming members of the company could share in making their own laws. 8. John Winthrop brought out one thousand people in 1630. Within the next ten years twenty thousand people were added to the colony. 9. Endicott became governor. He bitterly persecuted the Friends, or Quakers, who came to Massachusetts, whipping them, banishing them, and hanging four of them. Collateral Reading. — Eggleston's "The Beginners of a Nation," 98- 219; Fiske's " The Beginnings of New England," 50-139; Brooks's " Stories of the Old Bay State," 9-73. CHAPTER VIII OTHER NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS Maine and New Hampshire. — After the failure of the Popham colony (p. 43) Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason received a grant of all the region between the Merri- mac and Kennebec rivers, which was called Maine, meaning 62 SETTLEMENT the mainland. In 1623 David Thomson, a fisherman, set- tled at Little Harbor, on the Piscataqua River, near its mouth. This was the first recorded settlement in New Hampshire. The first settlement in Maine was made at Pemaquid in 1625. Dover and Portsmouth. — Gorges in partnership with Ma- son obtained a private grant of a tract of land on Lake Champlain and Lake George. They called it Laconia. They organized a trading company, and sent over settlers in 1630 and afterwards. These established stations on the Piscataqua River, intending to ascend it in boats, and then make their way by land to Laconia. They tried for three years in vain to find Lake Champlain. Failing in this, they gave up the enterprise, but the little stations on the Piscataqua remained and grew to be the towns of Dover and Portsmouth. Gorges and Mason after- wards divided their claims. Gorges took the portion east of the Piscataqua River which some years later was organized as the province of Maine. Mason gave his territory the name of New Hampshire. New Hampshire was after- wards several times joined to Massachusetts, but fin- ally separated from it in 1692. Maine very early came under the govern- ment of Massachusetts, and was at last annexed to that colony under the charter of 1692. Connecticut. — The Dutch who had settled on Manhattan The first Mason and Gorges grant OTHER NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS 63 SCALE or MILES Connecticut and Rhode Island Island claimed the western side of the Connecticut River valley, by virtue of an exploration made in 1614. In 1633 they bought a part of that territory from the Indians, and set up a trading house there, near the site of Hartford. The people of Plym- outh had heard from Indians and fur traders of the advantages for trade and other occu- pations which this rich valley afforded. They conceived the idea of removing their entire colony to that region. During the summer in which the Dutch arrived on the Connecti- cut, a vessel was sent from Plymouth to that river, carry- ing some workmen and the frame of a house ready to be put up. Though threatened they were not attacked by the Dutch. They landed a few miles farther up the river, and set up their house where Windsor now stands. The year before, the patent for that region had passed into the hands of a new company in England, and in 1635 John Winthrop the younger, son of the Massachusetts governor, was sent over to build a fort at the mouth of the river to defend the region from intruders. He arrived just in time to drive away the Dutch, and built a fort there which was called " Saybrook," in honor of Lord Say and Sele and Lord Brook, the two most prominent members of the company which owned the grant. It was joined to Connecticut in 1644. Settlement of Connecticut. — Some of the Puritans in Mas- sachusetts were not satisfied with the government of that colony. They thought all men should have votes, and not church members alone. They also wished to remove to some place where their cows would have more pasturage. In 1635 a few people from Dorchester and Watertown made 64 SETTLEMENT their way to Connecticut, and began little settlements at Windsor and Wetherslield. In June of the next year (1636) the migration to the Connecticut valley from Newtown, now Cambridge, Massa- chusetts, began. The people sold their houses to new- comers from England, and set out overland, led by their pastor, Thomas Hooker.* It was a journey of only a hun- dred miles, but the emigrants had to cut a road through the forest for their wagons and their cattle. It took two weeks, therefore, for the company of one hundred persons to reach its destination near the place where Hartford now stands. During the same year a great part of the congre- gation of Dorchester, Massachusetts, came to join those who had begun a settlement at Windsor, and the congre- gation of Watertown removed to Wethersfield. In 1639, after the towns had governed themselves for two years, they drew up a written constitution which united them formally under a single government. Every man under this constitution had a right to vote without regard to his religion. For one hundred and eighty years — until long- after the Revolution — the little republic thus formed lived under this constitution. Roger Williams and the Rhode Island Colony. — In 1636 Roger Williams,* pastor of the church at Salem, gave of- fense to the authorities by preaching doctrines which they regarded as dangerous. He taught that every man has a right to worship God as he pleases, without interference by other men, or by the government. He called this " soul-liberty." He also held that America belonged to the Indians, and that the king of England had no right to grant the land to anybody. The authorities ordered Williams to quit the colony at once and go back to Eng- land. Instead of doing so he fled through the wilderness to the head of Narragansett Bay, and there took refuge with Mas- sasoit, the chief of the Wampanoags. He secured land from * For biography, see Appendix. OTHER NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS 65 Roger Williams in Massasoit's wigwam the Indians, and founded the town of Providence. Under his rule every man had entire religious lib- erty. The settlement thus established was perhaps the first one in the world founded on these prin- ciples. It was the begin- ning of the Rhode Island colony. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson. — The year after Roger Williams was banished from Salem, a gifted woman, Mrs. Anne Hutch- inson, was excommuni- cated from the church at Boston, and banished from the town because of her relig- ious views and teachings. She had held meetings in Bos- ton, which were attended by all the influential women of the place, and had there taught doctrines which the pastors of the churches strongly disapproved. When she was driven from Boston, she made her way with a party of her friends to the island of Rhode Island, which was then called Aquid- neck. There she and her friends founded the town of Portsmouth. Other exiles for conscience' sake went to Narragansett Bay and made settlements. These were finally united into one colony, wdiich afterwards became the State of Rhode Island. The New Haven Colony. — In 1638 a company of Puritans from England established a colony thirty miles west of the Connecticut River. They had no grant or charter from king or company, but depended upon an Indian deed for their land title. The first settlement, begun in 1638, was two years afterward named New Haven. In 1662 New Haven and its dependencies were joined to Connecticut. 5— Egg. Hist. 66 SETTLEMENT The Pequot War. — The Pequot Indians living in Con- necticut drove away another tribe which also lived there, and then sold their lands along the Connecticut River to the Dutch. The English settlers objected to this. They brought back the Indians whom the Pequots had driven away, and built a fort to protect them. The English wished to buy from these Indians the lands which the Pequots had Slaughter of the Pequots sold to the Dutch. The Pequots grew angry, and began killing English traders and making raids on the Connecticut settlers, torturing to death all whom they could catch. In 1637 Captain Mason, wath a company of Connecticut and Massachusetts men, was sent into the Pequot country. The Pequot chief, Sassacus, had a village at Mystic, in Con- necticut. It was defended by a strong palisade. At day- break, while the savages were asleep, the white men sur- rounded the village and set fire to it. The Indians were OTHER NEW ENGLAND SETTLEMENTS 6/ panic stricken and made no organized defense. In less than two hours about seven hundred Indians — men, women, and children — had perished. Some were burned to death in their wigwams, and some were shot while trying to escape. A war of extermination against the rest of the tribe followed, and Indians of other tribes were frightened into keeping the peace with the English for many years. The United Colonies of New England. — In 1643 there ap- peared at Boston delegates from Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven, and a confederation of the New England colonies was formed. The purpose of this union of the four little states was to provide for mutual defense. The Rhode Island and Maine people wanted to join, but were forbidden because of their religious views. So far in those days did people carry their religious differences into public affairs. King Philip's War. — So long as Massasoit lived the Wam- panoags remained at peace with the Plymouth settlers ; but when his son Philip became chief of the tribe, serious diffi- culties arose. Philip was angry because the white men were slowly taking possession of his hunting grounds, and also because many of his people had been converted to the white man's religion. These converts were called " praying In- dians," and they lived in separate villages under the general control and government of the Plymouth and Massachusetts colonies. In 1675 war broke out. The Wampanoags, led by Philip, attacked several villages belonging to the Plymouth colony, burned them, killed many of the inhabitants, and carried others into captivity. The Narragansetts aided Philip se- cretly at first, and this angered the white men against them. In December the colonists made a sudden attack on the Narragansett fort, which stood on a piece of rising ground in the midst of a swamp. Plundreds of the Indians were killed, and their village was burned. This was called the Swamp Fight. The colonists lost two hundred men, and by this attack made open enemies of the entire tribe. 68 SETTLEMENT Driven from their homes, the Narragansetts scattered over the country, kiUing white people, and burning towns wher- ever they went. For a time the white men fell into one ambush after an- other, and were slain by scores. But after a while they learned how to fight the Indians. Finally, in 1676, they drove Philip to hide himself in a swamp with a few of his men, and one of them betrayed his hiding-place to Captain Church, who promptly surrounded it. In the fight that fol- lowed Philip was killed. The rest of the Indians were soon subdued. In this war more than two thousand Indians were killed, and many were captured and sold into slavery in the Eng- lish West Indies. In Massachusetts and Plymouth more than half the towns were wholly or partly destroyed, and more than one tenth of all the men of military age were slain or made prisoners by the Indians. The little colonies were long in recovering from their losses. Summary. — i. The region between the Merrimac and the Kennebec was granted to Gorges and Mason. They divided their claims. Gorges took the eastern part, which later became Maine; Mason took the west- ern part, which became New Hampshire. 2. The EngHsh settlement of the Connecticut valley began in 1634. Hartford was founded in 1636. The same year Williams set up a refuge for the persecuted at Providence. 3. New Haven was settled in 1638 by a company of Puritans, but had no royal charter or grant. In 1662 the several towns of this settlement were joined to Connecticut. 4. A war with the Pequot Indians lasted two years and closed after Mason's fight at Mystic in 1637. 5. In 1643, Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven joined in a confederation for mutual defense. 6. The power of the Indians under King Philip was broken in the Swamp Fight in 1676. Collateral Reading Eggleston's "The Beginners of a Nation," 166, 167, 176-181, 208-211, 315, 316; Andrews's "The History of the United States," I., 37-46; Higginson's " A Book of American Explorers," 312- 319, 328-337- NEW YORK AND MARYLAND 69 CHAPTER IX NEW YORK AND MARYLAND WW Hudson the Explorer. — Henry Hudson * was an English- man well known as a fearless mariner, who had gone farther north than any other explorer up to his time. Captain John Smith, of Virginia, who was a friend of Hudson's, was told something by the Indians which led him to believe that there was a passage into the Pacific Ocean somewhere north of Chesapeake Bay. He sent Hudson a letter and a map on which such a passage was shown a little to the north of Virginia. Soon after getting the map, Hudson entered the service of the Dutch East India Company. This company sent him out in command of a little ship called the " Half Moon " to find a passage to China by sailing around the northern coast of Europe. He was instructed not to go to America, but finding himself so be- set with ice that he could go no farther northeast, he remembered Smith's map, and turned his course to America. He explored the coast systematically. Hudson River. — Beginning near the mouth of the Chesapeake, he went northward, examining every inlet and river mouth. He went into Delaware Bav. and next into what is now New York Harbor. This was in 1609. He pushed on up the Hudson River as far as Albany, meeting Indians, and having many romantic adventures with them. He sent a boat still farther up the river, until he became satisfied that the route to China was not to be found there. Then he gave up the search and returned to Europe. * For biography, see Appendix. '/ATLANTIC OCEAN New Netherland 70 SETTLEMENT Hudson had found the Indians eager to trade, and in the next year the " Half Moon," with some of Hudson's men in her crew, came back to the river he had discovered. Other traders came in 1611. The fur trade was profitable from the first. The Dutch West India Company.- — Those Dutch merchants who first sent out ships to trade with the Indians wished to keep others away from the seat of their valuable traffic. They organized a company, and got a charter from the Government of Holland giving them exclusive rights for three years to trade in the Hudson River region, which they called New Netherland. At the end of that time the Dutch West India Company was chartered, and to it was given a monopoly of trade and government in all the Dutch possessions in America. Trading Posts and Settlements. — The Dutch had early established three trading posts on the Hudson — one near Albany, one on Manhattan Island, and one between these two. The island of Manhattan soon became the chief center of their trade with the Indians. In 1614 a fort was built at the south end of it and called Fort Amsterdam. The settlement which grew up about it was later called New Amsterdam, after the principal city in Holland. The Dutch did not send out any colonists until 1623. Two settlements were made at first — one at Fort Orange, now Albany, and the other at Wallabout, now a part of the Borough of Brooklyn in New York city. In the year 1626 Peter Minuit came over as governor of New Netherland. He bought Manhattan Island from the Indians for twenty- four dollars' worth of trinkets. He is called the founder of New York city, which began its existence as New Amster- dam. Patroons — In order to promote emigration to New Netherland the Dutch West India Company decided to give special privileges to those who should establish settle- ments there at their own expense. Any member of the company who should bring over fifty persons above fifteen NEW YORK AND MARYLAND 71 years of age, and settle them on the land, was to become the proprietor of a tract extending sixteen miles on one side of a river, or eight miles on both sides, and as fa,r back into the country as he pleased. It was also provided that he should have the rights and power of a lord of the manor, with the title of " Patroon." He must buy the lands from the Indians, and he must provide the colonists with all that Purchase of Manhattan Island by Peter Minuit was necessarv for farming. The colonist must remain on the land for ten years, and must pay rent to his patroon. New Sweden. — The Dutch West India Company had made one or two attempts to plant colonies on the Delaware River, but in 1632 no Europeans occupied the banks of that stream. A new company was formed, with a charter from Sweden, although Sweden had no claim to any land in America. Under this Swedish charter Protestants of any nation might be shareholders in the company, and dis- contented members of the Dutch West India Company had 72 SETTLEMENT a hand in its organization. In 1638 the first colonists were sent over, and a " fort " was erected near the present city of Wilmington, Delaware. Peter Minuit, who had left or lost his place as governor of the colony at Manhattan, was made governor of this Swedish colony. The knowledge he had gained in govern- ing New Netherland enabled him to send large cargoes of furs to Sweden. The Dutch objected to this occupation of their territory, and they rebuilt Fort Nassau, which lay a little below the present city of Philadelphia, on the New Jersey side of the river. There was constant trouble be- tween the Swedish and Dutch colonies, and in 1655 Peter Stuyvesant * (sti'ves-ant), governor of New Amsterdam, sailed to the Delaware with seven hundred men and took possession of the region, which the intruders had named " New Sweden." The Indian War of 1643. — In 1643 the Indians of Long Island and the Hudson River united in a war against the colonists of New Netherland. Many of the Dutch fled from New Amsterdam to Fort Orange, now Albany, while all who could do so went back to Holland. This war lasted for two years, and about sixteen hundred Indians perished in it. At last the Iroquois, who wished to trade with the Dutch, brought about a peace between them and their Indian neighbors. The English Claim. — Some time after this the English set up a claim that all the territory between Maryland and New England belonged to Great Britain. They based this claim on the discoveries of Cabot (p. 25). Holland was not a very powerful nation, and her settlements in America were widely scattered. She had more territory than her colo- nists could hold and defend. Besides all this, the Dutch colony had been settled partly by Englishmen and partly by adventurers of other nations. These were naturally not to be depended upon by the Dutch in their dispute with England. * For biography, see Appendix. NEW YORK AND MARYLAND. 73 New Netherland Seized by the English. — In 1664, in a time of peace, an English tieet entered the harbor of New Am- sterdam and demanded the surrender of the city. Peter Stuyve- sant, the governor, wished to resist, but the city had no forti- fications, and the peo- ple persuaded him to surrender. The names of New Netherland #8^ and New Amsterdam were changed to New York in honor of jjew Amsterdam in Stuyvesant's time James, Duke of York, to whom the province had been given by his brother, King Charles II. In 1673 the Dutch retook New Amsterdam, but they gave it up to Great Britain again in the next year. The village had then about fifteen hundred inhabitants, mostly Dutch. The Settlement of Maryland. — During the same period in which the Dutch settled and lost New York, another ex- periment in colonizing was going on in what we now call Maryland. George Calvert, Secretary of State to James I., was a member of the Virginia Company, and later be- came one of the councilors for New England. He sent a colony to Newfoundland. A few years later he resigned his secretaryship, and at the same time King James made him an Irish peer, as Baron Baltimore. He had become a Catholic, and after the accession of Charles I. he went to his colony in Newfoundland, taking with him a company of Catholic settlers. Illness and the severity of the climate led him to abandon Avalon, as he called his Newfoundland colony, and go to Virginia. He had written to King Charles, asking for land there. Perhaps this became known, or perhaps the Vir- 74 SETTLEMENT ginians, who were intensely Protestant, disliked him simply because of his Catholicism ; at any rate, they demanded that he should take an oath acknowledging the king as the head of the Church. As a Catholic, Lord Baltimore could not do this. He was, therefore, ordered to leave Virginia. The Second Lord Baltimore's Charter. — Lord Baltimore returned to England, and got the king, Charles L, to give him a part of Virginia north of the Potomac for a colony, to be called Maryland, in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria, or Mary. But before the charter was sealed Lord Baltimore died, in 1632, and the territory was then granted to his son Cecil Calvert,* the second Lord Baltimore. The grant extended from the Potomac to the fortieth parallel of latitude, and from Delaware Bay westward to a north and south line running from the sources of the Potomac to the n o r t h e r n boundary. Within this territory Lord Baltimore might coin money, declare war, make peace, enact laws, and exercise all sovereign rights. The Maryland Colony. — Lord Baltimore's colonists crossed the ocean in two ships, called the " Ark " and the " Dove," and in March, 1634, they landed near the mouth of the Potomac River, where an Indian village stood. They bought the village and some corn fields from the Lidians. The colony consisted of about two hundred laboring men and servants, and twenty " gentlemen," with Leonard Calvert, brother of the proprietor, at their head. It was in- * For biography, see Appendix. Maryland by the original grant to Lord Baltimore NEW YORK AND MARYLAND 75 tended that Maryland should be a Catholic colony, and serve as a refuge from the persecutions which Catholics then suffered in England; but Lord Baltimore meant that there should be toleration for all forms of Christian belief in his province. The colonists laid out a town where they first settled, and called it St. Marys. For some years Lord Baltimore's authority was resisted by persons who had come from Vir- ginia to the region granted to him. William Claiborne, of Virginia, had made a settlement on Kent Island, in Maryland, and he now refused to submit to the new pro- prietor. After a struggle he was driven away. Puri- tans who came from Virginia, where they were persecuted, to enjoy the tolerance of Lord Baltimore, refused to take the oath of allegiance to him. At one time these Puritans man- aged to gain the ascendency in the colony, and passed an anti-Catholic law. Three years later the Catholics again got control, and kept it until the time of William and Mary in England. Maryland then became Protestant, but not wholly intolerant. The Catholics were at that time only about one twelfth of the population. Among them were many of the best people of the province. Summary.— I. Henry Hudson, in the service of Holland, sailed up the Hudson to Albany in 1609, and found a great opportunity for trade in furs with the Indians. 2. Dutch traders immediately availed themselves of this opportunity, calling the country New Netherland, and establishing three trading posts — one at Albany, one lower down, and one on Manhattan Island, which grew into a settlement called New Amsterdam. 3. In 1623 the Dutch West India Company was chartered, with a monopoly both of trade and government. Peter Minuit came out in 1626 as governor. He bought Manhattan Island from the Indians for twenty-four dollars in trinkets. 4. The company offered rich grants of land to persons who should bring out colonies. These colonizers were to be called " Patroons." 5. A company chartered by Sweden undertook to establish a colony on the Delaware River, but Peter Stuyvesant, Governor of New Nether- land, broke up this settlement in 1655. 6. In 1664 an English f^eet seized upon New Netherland and made the colony an English one, naming it New York. ^6 SETTLEMENT 7. In 1634 a new colony was founded in Maryland by Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore, as a refuge from persecution for English Catholics. 8. This colony had no Indian troubles, but the jealous Virginians under Claiborne resisted the colonists at first. The founders, though Catholics, tolerated settlers of all Christian faiths. Collateral Reading.— Theodore Roosevelt's " New York," 5-1 1, 38- 42, 45-48; Eggleston's " Beginners of a Nation," 228-230, 236-238, 241- 243; Andrews's "History of the United States," I., 48-61. CHAPTER X THE CAROLINAS vTroTR^hA^^^ The Long Pause. — During the years following the settle- ment of Maryland England was disturbed by the great re- bellion under Crom- well and there was a long pause in the work of colonization. But in 1663 ^ large region cut off from Virginia on the south was granted to eight courtiers by Charles II. It included the territory that is now North and South Carolina and Georgia. The Name Carolina. — This region was sometimes spoken of as South Virginia, and sometimes as Carolina (p. 34). The lords proprietors, to whom it was now granted, retained the name Carolina as a compliment to King Charles. The First Settlement. — There was already a small party Carolina by the grant of 1660 THE CAROLINAS T] of settlers living on Albemarle Sound, near the northeast corner of Carolina. These were settlers who had come from Virginia under the lead of an adventurous minister named Roger Green, and their settlement was the first permanent one in North Carolina. The new proprietors organized it as the Albermarle Colony, naming it for one of their number, the Duke of Albemarle. The Second Settlement. — In 1663 Sir John Yeamans brought a company from Barbados, and settled on the Cape Fear River, where he had obtained a grant of land from the proprietors. This settlement was later called the Clar- endon Colony, in honor of another of the proprietors, the Earl of Clarendon. It was broken up within ten years by the removal of the settlers to various places. Settlement in South Carolina. — In 1670 William Sayles was sent over from England with three ships carrying col- onists. They landed at Port Royal, in South Carolina, and began a settlement, but soon removed to the south bank of the Ashley River. Here they founded a town and named it Charles Town, in honor of Charles II. Ten years later the colony changed its location to the north bank of the Ashley River, and there established a new town, the present city of Charleston. This was the first permanent settle- ment in South Carolina. The whole colony at this time bore the name of Carteret, in honor of one of the pro- prietors. Sir George Carteret. The name of Charles Town was changed to Charleston at the end of the American Revolution. Other Settlers. — In 1674 many settlers came from New Amsterdam to Carolina. They became an important ele- ment in the population. French Protestants came also in great numbers, and Prot.estant Irish in still greater multi- tudes. North Carolina was largely settled from Virginia, and yet more largely by settlers who came in from Ireland and Scotland. The Constitution of Carolina. — The lords proprietors foolishly tried to force upon the little woodland settle- 78 SETTLEMENT ments of Carolina a constitution they had prepared in Eng- land with the assistance of the philosopher John Locke. But the constitution worked badly or not at all, and after a while it was given up. The proprietors, living in Eng- land, managed the colonies wholly for their own profit, and their government was greatly disliked by the people. The Culture of Rice. — In 1696 a man named Thomas Smith got some Madagascar seed rice from the captain of a ship, and planted it in his garden at Charles Town. From this beginning came the culture of rice in South Carolina, where that grain reached a perfection nowhere else known in the world, and became one of Carolina's greatest products. The Culture of Indigo. — Eliza Lucas (after- wards Mrs. Pinckney), when only sixteen years old, was left in charge of her father's planta- tions near Charles Town while he was absent in the West Indies. About 1739 she began trying to grow indigo. After losing one crop by frost, and having another cut down by worms, she succeeded in bringing the plants to perfection. But the expert sent by her father from the West Indies to manufacture the dye purposely ruined it, because he thought the trade of his island would suffer if Carolina should produce indigo. Still Miss Lucas per- severed, and by 1745 the new industry was established, and two years later two hundred thousand pounds of the dye were shipped to England. Indigo was a leading product of South Carolina for about forty-five years, or until after the invention of the cotton gin. Then cotton took its place. Indian Wars in the Carolinas. — In 1670, the year in which Charles Town was settled, the Westoes Indians attacked the colonists and nearly destroyed them. The Indians of North Carolina were a warlike Iroquois tribe called Tus- Rice THE CAROLINAS 79 caroras. In 171 1 they ravaged the borders of the province, putting people to death cruelly. The war lasted for two years. Then with the aid of Virginia and South Caro- lina and some friendly Indians, the Tuscaroras were beaten. Some were captured and sold as slaves to the West Indies. But many escaped through the trackless forests to New York, where they became the sixth nation in the Iroquois con- federacy. In 171 5 the Spaniards in Florida stirred up the Indians from Florida to Cape Fear against the South Carolina colonists. A league was formed to- destroy all the settle- ments in the province, and six or seven thousand Indian warriors were engaged in the plot. Among them were the Yemas- sees, who had helped the North Carolina colonists defeat the Tuscaroras two years before. South Carolina had only a little army of seventeen hundred men with which to oppose the Indians, and two hundred of this small force were negroes. The war lasted about three years, and then the Indians were driven from the province. North and South Carolina. — The whole of Carolina was considered one province, but the territory was so large that the northern and southern portions were governed sepa- rately. The South Carolina colonists contended for their rights for years, and finally in 17 19 they rose in rebellion against the rule of the lords proprietors, and asked the English Government to protect them. A royal governor was sent over two years later, and in 1729, the king having bought out the interest of the proprietors. North and South Carolina were established as separate royal colonies. Indigo 8o SETTLEMENT Summary.— I. After the settlement of Maryland in 1634, there was a pause in colonization until the beginning of the Carolinas in 1663, when the Duke of Albemarle, Earl Clarendon, and others received a grant of that region from King Charles II. 2. Roger Green had begun a little settlement ten years earlier in North Carolina. 3. A colony was planted at Port Royal in 1670. It was twice re- moved, and finally established (1680) where the city of Charleston is now located. 4. In 1696 the culture of rice was begun in South Carolina. 5. There were Indian wars in the Carolinas in 1680, 171 1, and 1715. 6. In 1719 the South Carolina colonists rebelled against the lords proprietors, and in 1729 Carolina was divided into two colonies, both under royal government. 7. In 1745 the culture of indigo was established. Collateral Reading. ■ — Bancroft's "History of the United States I., 484-489, 509-514, 517-520. CHAPTER XI NEW JERSEY AND PENNSYLVANIA New Jersey. — When the Duke of York came into posses- sion of New Netherland he transferred that part of it which lay between the Hudson and Delaware rivers to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, and gave it the name of New Jersey in honor of Carteret, who had been governor of the island of Jersey in the English Channel. Philip Car- teret was appointed governor of the province, and he came over in 1665 with thirty persons to plant a colony. Except for a few Dutch villages on the Hudson, and a few families at Navesink, there were at that time only four families in New Jersey. These had just founded Elizabethtown, which became Carteret's capital. There he landed, and marched into the town with a hoe on his shoulder. The proprietors of New Jersey promised all who should come freedom of worship and other liberties. This promise brought many settlers to the colony. NEW JERSEY AND PENNSYLVANIA 8l New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware Lord Berkeley, who held half of New Jersey under Eng- lish title, sold his interest in 1674, and two years later it passed into the hands of William Penn and two other Quakers, or Friends, as agents. The province was then divided, giving to these Friends West Jersey, and to Sir George Cateret East Jersey. In 1682 East Jersey passed into the hands of William Penn and eleven other Quakers. The sale and division of shares in East and West Jersey went on, and the proprietors were soon too numerous to manage their govern- ment. Disorders arose which they could not suppress, and in 1702 they asked Queen Anne to take charge of the province. So East and West Jersey were again united into a single colony. William Penn's Colony.— Next to George Fox, William Penn * was the most influential member of the Society of Friends. His connection with the affairs of West Jersey turned his attention to America as a refuge for those whose religious opinions were not tolerated in England. He con- ceived the idea of establishing a colony wholly under his own government where there might be simplicity of life and freedom of worship for all. Just across the Delaware River from New Jersey was a territory occupied only by a few Swedes. In 1681 William Penn secured from the king, Charles II., a grant of forty thousand square miles of this territory in payment of a claim he held against the king for money due to his father. The king named the province Pennsylvania — Latin for Penn's woods — in honor of Admiral William Penn, who had distinguished himself in the wars between England and JriOllanu. * For biography, see Appendix. 6 — Egg. Hist. 82 SETTLEMENT The Transfer of Del- aware. — Penn sent his first emigrants to Pennsylvania in 1 68 1. They landed where Philadelphia now stands. Penn bought Delaware from the Duke of York, so that his colonists could always pass through the bay to the sea. In 1682 Penn himself came over with one hun- dred Friends from England, many of whom had been his neighbors there. Late in October he landed at New Castle, Delaware. On the day after his land- ing the government was formally transferred to him by the Duke of York's agent in the presence of a crowd of English, Dutch, and Swedes, who had assembled to welcome the " Quaker king." The key of the fort was delivered to him, and he went in and locked the door. Then he unlocked it and came out. This was to signify that he was master of the place. A piece of sod with a twig stuck into it was handed to him, and also a porringer filled with water from the river. This signified that the land with its forests and also the streams flowing through it were made over to Penn. Philadelphia. — A site for the capital city had been chosen before Penn arrived, and a residence for him had been be- gun by his commissioners. Penn wished to build a " green country town " with a garden about each house, and he chose for it the name of Philadelphia, which means " broth- William Penn NEW JERSEY AND PENNSYLVANIA 83 erly love." The town was laid out in 1682, about a month before Penn landed, but it is commonly said to have been founded in 1683. Before a year had passed, Philadelphia contained one hundred and fifty houses, most of them rudely built. In two years more the houses numbered three hun- dred and fifty-seven, many of them being three stories high, and well built. Before the Revolution Philadelphia had become the largest town in the colonies. Penn's Government. — In December, 1682, representatives of the people assembled at Chester and organized a gov- ernment. The right to vote was given to every man who paid his taxes, and Christians of any denomination might hold office. People of other nations were allowed the same privileges that were given to Englishmen, and no law could be made without the consent of the people. This liberal govern- ment attracted many settlers, and Pennsyl- vania soon became the most populous of the colonies, and one of the richest. Penn's Treaty with the Indians. — ^William Penn respected the rights of the Indians, and wished to gain their confidence. On June 23, 1683, l^G 1''''^^ the principal chiefs of the Delawares under a large elm tree, on the shore of the Delaware River, at a place called Shackamaxon, just north of Philadelphia. Though the object of the meeting was the purchase of land from the Indians, Penn made it the occasion of a treaty of friendship. He explained to the savages the Quaker doctrines of justice and good will to Penn's house in Philadelphia 84 SETTLEMENT all men. and asked for their friendship. The Indians prom- ised to " live in love with William Penn and his children," meaning the people under his government, and so long as he lived no Indian ever killed a Quaker. Wampum belt given to Penn by the Indians Mason and Dixon's Line. — Maryland as granted to Lord Baltimore included a part of the land afterward granted to William Penn. This led to a dispute which lasted nearly one hundred years. In 1763 two English surveyors were employed to run a dividing line between the two colonies. This line was called from their names. Mason and Dixon's line. The surveyors were prevented by the Indians from completing their work, but their line was afterward ex- tended to the western limit of Pennsylvania. This line later became famous as the division between the free and the slave-holding States of our Union, and the name of it was popularly applied to the dividing line farther west. Summary. — i. The Duke of York in 1664 transferred New Jersey to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret. Under a promise of religious liberty, discontented persons came in great numbers to the new colony; but troubles arising, the proprietors transferred the Jerseys to Queen Anne in 1702. 2. William Penn, an English Quaker, secured from the king in 1681 a grant of the country now called Pennsylvania. 3. Penn's first emigrants landed where Philadelphia now stands (1681). 4. Having bought Delaware, Penn came over in 1682. He founded Philadelphia. The town grew rapidly, and before the American Revo- lution it had become the largest city in the colonies. Penn bought the land from the Indian chiefs and made with them a treaty of peace, which was not violated while he lived. 5. Penn's government was liberal, allowing foreigners equal rights THE FOUNDING OF GEORGIA 85 with Englishmen, allowing every man to vote, and securing rehgious Hberty to all. 6. A boundary dispute having arisen between Pennsylvania and Maryland, two surveyors named Mason and Dixon (1/63) ran a divid- ing line, which afterwards became famous as the dividing line between the free and slave States. Collateral Reading. — Bancroft's "History of the United States," I., loo-iio, 12J-125, 128-129: Eggleston's "Household History of the United States," 58-62. CHAPTER XII THE FOUNDING OF GEORGIA German Immigration. — Germany had sent more emigrants to America than any other country on the Continent of Europe. A few Germans came with the Jamestown Colony, and a few with the earher Puritan colonists. But the beginning of the flood of German im- migration was when ^^^illiam Penn's colony was established, olTering liberty of worship and freedom from military service. There were many little Protestant sects in Germany at that time, and they were much persecuted. Some of them, like the Friends, were opposed to war. In 1685 Germantown, now a part of Philadelphia, was laid out by Germans wdio had been in the colony for about two years. The tide of immigration became greater and greater, thousands of Germans coming to Pennsylvania to escape the miseries brought upon them by per- trymanofthat secution and by the wars that desolated their time country. In Queen Anne's reign thirteen thousand poor people from the Palatinate of the lower Rhine fled to England German coun- trywoman of that time German coun- 86 SETTLEMENT Irishwoman of that time within three years and asked to be sent to America. These people were called Palatines. Some of them were sent to Virginia, some to the Carolinas, and some to Maryland. In 1709 a great number came to New York, but were not fairly dealt with there. Hearing that Germans were well received in Pennsylvania, three hundred of these refugees made their way into that province. From that time forward the Germans crowded into Penn- sylvania and avoided New York. Irish Immigration. — Most of the Irish who came to America before the Revolution were Presbyterians, commonly called " Scotch-Irish." This emigration increased or decreased as the linen industry in Ireland was poor or grew bet- ter. About 1 7 18 some Irish immigrants came to New England, where they intro- duced the spinning of flax and the plant- ing of potatoes. There was no colony to which the Irish did not go, but more went to Pennsylvania than to any other. In 1729 five thousand Irish immigrants reached Philadelphia. The Irish were good Indian fighters, and they showed enterprise and courage in pushing into frontier regions. Huguenot Immigration. — Another great stream of immigration from Europe came from France. The Huguenots, or French Protestants, whose lives were made un- happy at home by the civil wars and persecutions of the time, came in large numbers to the dif- ferent colonies. They were obliged to get away from France secretly, leaving all their property behind them. There were so many of them in New Amsterdam in 1656 that all public documents were issued in French as well as in Dutch. The Huguenots settled in nearly every colony, Irishman of that time THE FOUNDING OF GEORGIA 87 Huguenot mer chant's wife Huguenot mer- chant but South Carolina became their favorite place of refuge. Secondary Migrations. — The colonists, having" broken loose from old associations in Europe, were constantly moving to and fro in this country in search of favorable conditions. Within a dozen years after the Puri- tans came to Massachusetts Bay they made settlements in all the present New England States ex- cept Vermont, and in ten years more they were intruding upon the Dutch about New Amsterdam. They went m great numbers to New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and to the other colonies. Virginians made settlements in Mary- land and in North Carolina. Many Dutch, discon- tented with English rule in New York, removed to South Carolina in 1671 and later, while some settled in Maine, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. When the later In- dian wars laid waste the frontiers of Pennsylvania in the eighteenth century, many of the German and more of the Irish settlers moved southward into western Virginia, and onward to the Carolinas. The Philanthropic Colony. — After the settlement of Penn- sylvania fifty-one years passed before another colony was begun. From the French possessions in Canada to the Spanish territory in Florida, the whole coast had been granted to English colonies ; but Spain claimed all of South Carolina as a part of Florida, and continued to stir up the Indians, who occupied most of the region, to make war on the little English settlements. James Oglethorpe,* an English general, thought it would be a good thing to take a part of the disputed territorv and plant a military colony between the Carolina settlements * For biography, see Appendix. 88 SETTLEMENT and Florida, In 1732 he secured a grant from King George II. of that part of South CaroHna which lay between the Savannah and Altamaha rivers. He named the region Georgia in honor of the king. It was not Oglethorpe's in- tention that the new colony should be a source of profit. He and his associates held the land " in trust for the poor." At that time people in England who could not pay their debts were thrown into prison. Ogelthorpe's plan was to James Edward Oglethorpe satisfy the creditors of such of these pris- oners for debt as seemed most worthy, and send them out again to begin life anew in his colony. He put on the seal of the colony a Latin motto which meant, " Not so for self, but for others," with silkworms engaged in spinning as a device. The seal had a double meaning, Ogelthorpe meant to raise silkworms in Georgia, so that England might not need to buy silk from Italy, He also meant to make an unselfish colony. Oglethorpe's Colony. — Oglethorpe landed at Charles Town with one hundred and sixteen persons, and with these he began to build Savannah in 1733. Other colonists soon came out to him, among them a regiment of Scotch High- landers sent out to defend the border, some persecuted Protestants from Germany, and twenty families of Hebrews. Only Roman Catholics w^re excluded from the colony, Oglethorpe's Laws. — Oglethorpe treated the Indians fairly, and won their admiration by his calm endurance of hard- ships. They gave his colony little trouble. He sought only the good of the people, but his plan of government was not long pleasing to the colonists. They were not allowed any voice in the making of the laws. Each man had fifty acres of land assigned to him, but he could not sell it, rent it, or divide it among his children. .\t his death it passed to his eldest son ; if he had no son, it went to the trustees of the colony. No man could have more than fifty THE FOUNDING OF GEORGIA 89 acres unless he brought in, at his own expense, white serv- ants enough to cuUivate it. Negro slaves were forbidden, because Oglethorpe wanted his colony to be composed of hard-working white men who would keep up its military strength. The people felt that such laws took away the motive for the improvement of their property, and many of them left the colony. In regard to slavery, the trustees yielded to the people in 1747. In 1752 they surrendered the government to the king, and Georgia remained a royal colony until the Revolution. Summary. — i. German immigrants came to all the colonies from the beginning. They came in great numbers to Penn's colony. 2. The Irish who came to America introduced flax spinning into New England, and also the growing of potatoes. They came to all the colonies, but most of them to Pennsylvania. 3. There was a considerable immigration of French Protestants called Huguenots. Most of them went to South Carolina, but each of the colonies received some of them. 4. Throughout the colonial period there was much migration to and fro among the colonies. 5. The last of the original colonics was founded by James Oglethorpe (1732) in Georgia. He rescued many poor people from debtors' prisons in England and brought them to Georgia to begin life anew. 6. Oglethorpe began to build Savannah in 1733. He brought out a regiment of Scotch Highlanders to defend the border, and English, German and Jewish immigrants. But Roman Catholics were not allowed to enter the colony. 7. Under Oglethorpe's rule the people had no voice in making their laws. They could not sell their lands, or rent them, or divide them among their children. Negro slaves were forbidden till 1747. In 1752 Georgia became a royal province. Table of Settlements. — i- Virginia was settled at Jamestown by the English in 1607. 2. Massachusetts was settled at Plymouth by the English in 1620. 3. New Hampshire was settled at Portsmouth by the English in 1623. 4. New York was settled at New Amsterdam, now New York city, by the Dutch in 1614. 5. Maryland was settled at St. Marys by the English in 1634. 6. Connecticut was settled at Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford by the English in 1634-1636. 7. Rhode Island was settled at Providence by the English in 1636. 90 SETTLEMENT 8. Delaware was settled at Christiana, near Wilmington, by the Swedes in 1638. 9. North Carolina was settled at Albermarle b}^ the P^nglish in 1653. 10. New Jersey was settled at Elizabethtown, now Elizabeth, by the English in 1664. 11. South Carolina was settled at old Charles Town by the English in 1670. 12. Pennsylvania was settled near Philadelphia by the English in 1682. 13. Georgia was settled at Savannah by the English in 1733. Collateral Reading. — Bancroft's " History of the United States," II., 560-5O6; Andrews's " History of the United States," I., 118; Eggleston's "Household History of the United States," 63-69. CHAPTER XIII REBELLION AGAINST ENGLISH AUTHORITY New England under the Commonwealth. — In the same year in which the colonists of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven formed a league under the title of " The United Colonies of New England," the great Puritan rebelhon against Charles I. broke out in England, and emigration to New England very nearly ceased. From the beginning of Puritan ascendency to the restoration of the Stuarts in 1660, which brought Charles II. to the English throne, the New' England colonies were left to carrv on their affairs in their own way. New England and Other Colonies under Andros. — iMassa- chusetts had become too independent to suit King Charles II. He therefore sent over commissioners to manage the government. The people would not submit to this, and the king resolved to take away their charter. This had been given by Charles I. (1629). and he intended it to be kept in England, but the colonists had secretly carried it to Amer- ica, as related on page 60. Charles II. had the charter an- nulled by the Courts in England (1684). Six months later Charles II. died, and his brother, James II.. became king. Sir Edmund Andros, who had before been governor of REBELLION AGAINST ENGLISH AUTHORITY 9 1 Andros demands the charter of Connecticut New York, was sent over by James during the next year to be governor of New England, New York, and New Jer- sey. Andros governed despotically, and tried to deprive the people of their rights. He levied taxes without the con- sent of the people, and he interfered with the liberty of the press. For all this he had the authority of the king. He had been instructed to get possession of the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, but he was unable to do so. It is related that the Connecticut Assembly prolonged the discussion with him till after dark, when the lights were suddenly blown out. When the candles were relighted the charter was gone. It had been carried off by Captain Joseph Wadsworth, and hidden in the hollow of an old oak tree. The tree was called the " Charter oak." In 1688 a revolution in England drove James II. from the throne. As soon as the people of New England heard 92 SETTLEMENT of this they rose against Andros, threw him into prison, and the next year sent him back to England. Leisler's Rebellion. — James II. wAs succeeded on the throne by his eldest daughter, Mary, and her husband, William III., as joint sovereigns. This change brought about a col- lision between the plain people and the friends of James II. in New York. The latter were rich and aristocratic, and included all the officeholders. An armed mob gathered in the streets, and with loud cries hurried to the house of Jacob Leisler, demanding that he should lead them against Fort James. Under his lead they seized the fort, and a new government was organized, with him at its head. It was in- tended that this government should last until William and Mary could act. Leisler afterwards had himself proclaimed lieutenant-governor for the king, and he acted as such for nearly two years. He was a patriotic man, but was impru- dent and arbitrary. William and Alary took no notice of him, but sent over a new royal governor, whom Leisler resisted by force of arms. For this Leisler was arrested on a charge of treason and murder. The judges being his enemies, he was condenmed and hanged. Virginia under Sir John Harvey. — Wdien A^irginia was made a royal colony in 1624, the king promised the people all the rights they had enjoyed before. In 1629 Sir John Harvey was sent over to Virginia as governor. He soon became greatly disliked. The Virginia Council forced him to go back to England to answer charges. King Charles would not yield to the wishes of the Virginians, and Harvey was sent back as governor in the next year. The people had to sub- mit to his rule for three years. Then the king removed him. Berkeley's Government. — The last governor of the Vir- ginia Colony appointed by Charles I. was Sir William Berkeley, who was sent over in 1642. He held the office till Virginia was brought under the authority of the Common- wealth (1649). Eleven years later the AHrginia Assembly elected Berkelev governor, and Charles II., who soon after- wards became king, sent him a commission. REBELLION AGAINST ENGLISH AUTHORITY 93 Berkeley ruled the colony in his own interest. He made a profit, largely illegal, from the fur trade, and wished to keep peace with the Indians lest the supply of furs should be cut off. When the Indians again began making war on the frontier settlements of Virginia (1676), the people ap- pealed in vain to Governor Berkeley to send soldiers to de- fend them. Thus forced to rely upon themselves, the peo- ple raised a little army of three hundred men for defense, but thev had no leader. There was in the colony a young man named Nathaniel Bacon. He lived on a plantation about twenty miles below Richmond, not far from the In- dian frontier. He was a well-educated man of good family. Bacon was a member of the governor's council, and it was said of him that he was " acceptable in all men's company." Bacon's Rebellion. — The people wished to make this young man their leader in an expedition against the Indians, who were making depredations on the frontier. Bacon sympathized with the people, the more fully, perhaps, be- cause the Indians had destroyed his own crops, killed his cattle, and murdered his overseer, a favorite servant. He asked Governor Berkeley for a commission to fight the Indians, but Berkeley refused, and Bacon was unwilling to assume command without authority from the governor. Some prominent men persuaded him to visit the camp of the little band of volunteers, and as soon as he appeared, the cry was raised, "A Bacon!" "A Bacon!" "A Bacon ! " That was the old English way of choosing a leader, and Bacon yielded to the wishes of the people. At the head of his little army he marched against some Indians on the Roanoke River and overcame them. On returning he found himself proscribed as a rebel and de- posed from the governor's council. But the people sup- ported him, and soon they were nearly all in open rebellion. The governor was finally compelled to give Bacon a com- mission as major-general, but each time that Bacon set out to fight the Indians Governor Berkeley thwarted him. Bacon at last turned about and marched to Jamestown. 94 SETTLEMENT Bacon's army marches against the Indians The governor retired to his fleet, but waited in sight of the town. To pre- vent Jamestown from falhng again into Berke- ley's hands, Bacon's men set fire to the place, which consisted of a church and sixteen or eighteen widely scattered houses. Bacon's military conduct in every emergency was of the finest. Soon after taking Jamestown he fell ill and died. After various mistakes on the part of those who succeeded him in com- mand, his rebellion collapsed. The old governor's avarice was gratified by the estates he confiscated, and his revenge was glutted by hanging twenty-three men. At this point Charles II. recalled him in disgrace, and he soon afterward died. Summary. — i. During the Puritan ascendancy in England (1649-60) the colonies governed themselves. 2. After Charles II. became king, he had the charter of Massa- chusetts annulled (1684). Sir Edmund Andros was sent over to govern New Yorlc, New England, and New Jersey. He tried to seize the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, but failed. 3. When William and Mary ascended the English throne in 1688 the people of New England rose against Andros, imprisoned him, and sent him back to England. 4. The people of New York also rose in rebellion, under one Jacob Leisler, seized upon the government and held it for two years, after which Leisler was hanged for treason and murder. 5. In 1629 Sir John Harvey was sent over as governor of Virginia. His rule was greatly disliked. After three years he was removed. 6. In 1642 Sir William Berkeley was sent to Virginia as governor. He held the office till the time of Cromwell. When the Stuarts were restored, the Virginia Assembly elected Berkeley to be their governor, and King Charles II. sent him a commission. Berkeley ruled corruptly and refused protection against Indians. This led to Bacon's rebellion. Collateral Reading. — Parkrnan's "Montcalm and Wolfe," I., 25-35. INTERCOLONIAL WARS CHAPTER XIV THE PROGRESS OF NEW FRANCE The Occupation of Canada. — The settlement of Canada be- gan, as we have seen (p. 36), with the founding of Quebec by Champlain, 1608. Champlain was soon made governor Frenchmen trading with Indians of Quebec, and he held that office until his death, which occurred twenty-seven years after the founding of the city. French Influence over the Indians. — The great business of the French in Canada was trading with the Indians in furs, and they carried it on with an energy that left the traders 95 96 TNTERCOI-ONIAL WARS of the English colonies far behind. While the English were multiplying farming settlements, the French in Canada pushed their explorations into all the regions around the Great Lakes, partly for the sake of trade with the Indians, and partly in the hope of finding the long-sought water-way through the continent. From the first the French made friends with the Indians near them. French priests were sent over to convert the Indians to Christianity. Wherever the trader went, the priest went also, spending his days in the huts of the sav- ages, trying to teach them religion and win them to civil- ized ways. Through the trader and the priest the French were able to control most of the tribes. Marquette and Joliet. — Having made their way as far west as Wisconsin, setting up military posts and missionary houses as they went, the French heard from the Indians of a great river farther on. Joliet (zho-le-a) and Father Marquette (mar-ket), were sent to seek for it, and in June, 1673, they reached the Mississippi River by way of the Wis- consin. In their birch-bark canoes they descended the Mis- sissippi nearly to the mouth of the Arkansas. They thought they w^ere very near the Gulf of Mexico, and were afraid to go farther lest they should encounter Spaniards or Indians armed with guns. They turned back, therefore, and paddled up the river, turning up the Illinois and carrying across the Chicago port- age to Lake Michigan, and arrived at Green Bay about four months after the time of their setting out. La Salle. — In 1666 La Salle,* a young Frenchman, came to Canada in search of adventure and fortune, and three years later he went at his own expense in search of the great river of which he had heard * For biography, see Appendix. Indian fur trader gS INTERCOLONIAL WARS from the Indians. With the aid of Indian guides he reached the Ohio, and descended that river as far as the rapids at Louisville. From that time La Salle' cherished the idea of taking possession of the valley of the Mississippi for France. King Louis XIV. of France gave him a patent which authorized him to make discoveries and plant forts in the western part of New France. After many disasters and failures La Salle made another start late in the year 1681. In April of the next year he reached the mouth of the Mis- sissippi. He planted a column near the mouth, having on it the arms of France. He proclaimed to the Frenchmen and Indians assembled that he took possession, for France, of the country and all it contained. He named it Louisiana in honor of Louis XIV. His claim covered all the region along the Mississippi, from its source to its mouth, and also along all its tributaries. The upper Mississippi had been ex- plored during the year before by Father Hennepin, a Cath- -olic missionary, who went as far up as the Falls of St. An- thony, which he named. The French and the Iroquois. — The year after Quebec was settled Champlain had helped his Indian allies to defeat their enemies, the Mohawks, in a battle on Lake Cham- plain. This made the whole Iroquois confederacy hos- tile to the French, because the Mohawks were one of the five nations of which that league was then composed. The Iroquois occupied central New York, and they were friendly to the Dutch and the English. They carried to Albany all the furs they could secure, and got blankets, guns, powder, brandy, and other things in exchange for them. The territory of the Iroquois did not yield enough beaver skins to pay for all the supplies they wanted, and after a while they planned to conquer the tribes far to the north- west, which were allied with the French, and secure for themselves the beaver skins of that region. In 1680 they began their attacks, and after that the French were in THE EARLIER FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS 99 constant trouble, defending their Indian allies and theii trade. Disputes between the English and the French. — There was a continuous quarrel going on between the English and the French about the fur trade and about the ownership of the land west of the Appalachians and south of the Great Lakes. On the Atlantic coast also there had long been conflicting land claims. The New England fishermen, too, encroached on the French fisheries near Acadia. This furnished an- other subject for dispute. Summary. — i. Cliamplain founded Quebec in 1608, and other French settlements were made on the St. Lawrence. 2. The French traded with the Indians, pushing their explorations into the country round the great lakes, and making friends of most of the tribes. 3. Joliet and Marquette discovered the Mississippi (1673) and ex- plored it southward to the Arkansas. Father Hennepin explored the upper waters to the Falls of St. Anthony. 4. La Salle (1669) went down the Ohio to the rapids, and in 1682 he went down the Illinois and the Mississippi to the mouth, where in the name of the French King, Louis XIV, he took possession of all the regions drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries, naming it Louis- iana. 5. There was constant war between the Iroquois and the French, in- volving the tribes friendly to the French. The French also had a stand- ing quarrel with the English over fisheries and land claims. Collateral Reading. — Parkman's "A Half Century of Conflict," II., 63-67; Parkman's " Montcalm and Wolfe," I., 20-25. CHAPTER XV THE EARLIER FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS King William's War. — So long as England and France were at peace, the colonists of both countries were for- bidden by their sovereigns to engage in any but defensive warfare. The struggle betwen New York and Canada for the fur trade was, therefore, limited to efforts to gain ascend- 7— Egg. Hist. L.orC. lOO INTERCOLONIAL WARS ency over the Indians who controlled it. When James II. was driven from the throne of England, Louis XIV., king of France, espoused his cause, and war between the two countries was soon declared. There was, therefore, no longer any reason for keeping the peace in America. Count Frontenac was sent to Canada for the second time as governor, to put down the enemies of France and recover the fur trade. On his arrival in Canada (1689) he found the French engaged in war with the Iroquois. His first task. Attack on Schenectady by Frenchmen and Indians therefore, was to overcome the Indians. He sent three war parties during the next year to attack English settle- ments. The first set out in February from Montreal travel- ing on snowshoes. to make its way to Albany and take the town. When the party reached the point on the Hudson where the path toward Schenectady left the main trail, they turned aside, not daring to attack Albany. They fell upon the village of Schenectady by night, and killed men, women, and children, about sixty in all. A few of the people escaped to Albany, but many prisoners were taken. THE EARLIER FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS lOI Attack at Salmon Falls and Fort Loyal. — About a month after the massacre at Schenectady, the second party sent out by Frontenac attacked the settlement of Salmon Falls, New Hampshire, and left it in ashes after killing or capturing most of its inhabitants. On its retreat this party fell in with the third body of men sent from Canada. The combined force attacked Fort Loyal, Maine, and after a siege of three days destroyed it. Expeditions against Montreal and Quebec. — Early in May, 1690, a Congress held in New York planned attacks on SCALE OF MILES Earlier French and Indian wars Montreal and Quebec. An expedition set out from Albany for Montreal. It got into trouble and turned back, but a small detachment pushed on to some 'French border settle- ments and attacked them, with no great success. The expedition against Quebec was commanded by Sir William Phips, who a few months before had gone out to defend the commerce of Massachusetts, and had captured Port Royal and the whole province of Acadia. Phips set out in August with his fleet of trading and fishing ves- sels and succeeded in reaching Quebec, but not in taking it. In 1 69 1 Peter Schuyler, mayor of Albany, led an expedi- I02 INTERCOLONIAL WARS tion against the French settlers, but fell mto an ambush from which he escaped only by desperate fighting. Straggling Warfare and Butchery of the Settlers. — There followed several years of almost constant warfare from which the New England frontier suffered most. Some Indian allies of the French attacked the little village of York, Maine, during the winter of 1692. The village was burned, half the inhabitants were killed or captured, and the farms were laid waste for miles around. The brave little settlement of Wells, Maine, twice repulsed attacking parties. Durham, a small village in New Hampshire, was attacked in 1694 by Indians with Frenchmen at their head. Some of the inhabitants succeeded in defending their pal- isaded homes and saving their lives, but in the scattered farmhouses nearly all were killed. A few days later some of the same Indians fell upon the settlements near Groton, Massachusetts, and killed about fifty persons. In 1697 peace was made between England and France, and this put an end to King William's War, which had lasted for eight years. The English gave back Acadia to the French, and both nations were left in possession of the same territory in America that they had held before the massacres began. Beginning of Queen Anne's War. — In 1702 William III. died, and Anne, the daughter of James II., became queen of England. War again broke out between Eng- land and France, and hostilities in America were renewed. Spain joined France ^against England, and South Carolina became involved in war with the Spaniards and Indians in Florida. Colonel Moore, of South Carolina, led an expedition against St. Augustine in the first year of the war. He took the town and laid siege to the fort. Two Spanish war vessels appeared in the harbor, and Colonel Moore burned the town and his own ships. He then retreated by land. The next year Moore, with a few Carolinians and a large body of Indian allies, invaded the country of the Indians THE EARLIER FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS lo- in Apalachee Bay and defeated the Indians, who were as- sisted by a Spanish force. This successful raid cut Florida in two, and gave Eng- land a large territory which now constitutes most of the State of Georgia. In 1706 a French fleet appeared be- fore Charles Town and landed troops. The Carolinians defended their territory with vigor, captured one ship and drove the enemy away. New York Settlements not Attacked. — Having at last se- cured peace with the Iroquois, Canada was able to carry on her far-reaching fur trade undisturbed ; but the Iroquois had long been faithful allies of the English, and during King William's War had put themselves under the protec- tion of England, by deeding all their lands to the crown. The French could not attack the outlying settlements of New York without breaking the peace with the Iroquois, who stood ready to come to the aid of their English allies. Canada, therefore, adopted the policy of keeping up an Indian war on the frontiers of New England, but of let- ting New York alone. The same regions of little settle- ments which had sufTered so severely in King William's War were again de- vastated. The little town of Deerfield. in northwestern Massa- chusetts, suffered most. It was attacked in 1704, and many of its inhabitants were killed, or carried away as prisoners. Close of the War. — In 1710, with the aid of ships sent from Eng- land, Port Royal, in Acadia, was again taken from the French, and with it the whole of Acadia passed into the hands of the English. Old house at Deerfield I04 INTERCOLONIAL WARS The name of the town was changed to AnnapoHs Royal, in honor of Queen Anne, and the province was called by its old English name, Nova Scotia, or New Scotland. The war came to an end in 1713. War between Georgia and Florida. — England declared war against Spain in 1739, and General Oglethorpe, of Geor- gia, embraced this opportunity to send an expedition against Florida. After taking two towns in that colony he withdrew. A few months later he again invaded Florida, and besieged St. Augustine, but the fortifications there proved too strong for him. In 1742 the Spaniards re- turned Oglethorpe's visit, but the latter maneuvered with his little force in such a way as to lead the Spaniards into ambuscades, and finally to rout them. King George's War. — In 1744 France again declared war on Great Britain. The French tried to retake Annapolis Royal, but failed. Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, determined to defend Nova Scotia by taking Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island. Louisburg was, next to Quebec, the strongest fortress of the French in Canada. It was at that time a resort of French privateers which preyed on ships and fishing vessels belonging to New England. Governor Shirley, with a large force of volunteers from New England, set out with a fleet of transports and armed vessels. After a siege of six weeks Louisburg surrendered, June 17, 1745. The news of this victory caused great rejoicing in New England, and a day of thanksgiving was appointed. It was a bitter disappointment to the New England colonies when Louisburg was given back to the French by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which closed the war in 1748. Summary. — i. In 1690 King William's War between France and England broke out. French and Indians from Canada ravaged the English colonies, and the English colonists made ineffectual attacks on Montreal and Quebec. This war lasted eight years. 2. Queen Anne's War began in 1702 and lasted till 1713. Spain being France's ally, South Carolina was involved with the Spaniards in Florida. A French fleet attacked Charles Town (1706), but was driven away. THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR I05 3. In 1710 a foray from New England conquered Acadia. 4. In 1739, during a war between England and Spain, Oglethorpe, of Georgia, twice invaded Florida, and in 1742 he defeated a Spanish expedition against Georgia. 5. In 1744 France made war again, and the New England colonists captured Louisburg on Cape Breton Island. It was given back to the French in 1748, to the disappointment of the New Englanders. Collateral Reading.— Bancroft's " History of the United States," II., 345-356, 370-387; Parkman's "A Half Century of Conflict," II., 109-154; Andrews's " History of the United States," I., 139-145. CHAPTER XVI THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR Cause of the War. — In the treaties which closed the wars known in America as King William's War, Queen Anne's War, and King George's War. the interests of the Ameri- can colonies were not much regarded by either England or France. These wars had other names in Europe, and were undertaken for objects that seemed to both nations of far greater importance than the affairs of the little colonies three thousand miles away. Boundary lines between Brit- ish and French territory in America were therefore left un- settled, and the quarrel over them went on till it broke into open war in America at a time when France and Great Brit- ain were at peace. Louisiana. — The most important land question in dispute between the French and the English related to the vast region which the French claimed by virtue of La Salle's discovery, and called Louisiana. The English claimed a large part of the northern portion of this region under the deed given by the Iroquois to King William. But the French had asserted their ownership of the whole valley of the Mississippi in the customary way, by making settle- ments near the mouth of the river in 1699. ^^^ 1718 they had founded the city of New Orleans. LoiigitiKle SO Wt-st f io6 THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR lO/ This western territory was not involved in the earher wars between the French and the EngHsh, but the French made ready to defend it whenever the EngHsh should at- tempt to intrude upon it. They gradually built up a line of forts or fortified trading posts along the route of water travel from New Orleans to Montreal. Though the French claimed so much territory in America, they had very few people here to occupy it. At the end of King George's War (1748) there were more than ten times as many people in the English colonies as in all the French possessions in America, and English traders and settlers were already crossing the Appalachian Mountains. The First Ohio Company. — A company was formed in Vir- ginia (1748) to make settlements beyond the mountains. By order of the king, Virginia granted to this company five hundred thousand acres of land on the Ohio on the condition that one hundred families should be settled there within seven years. In 1750 Christopher Gist was sent out to explore and to select places for settlement. Burying the Lead Plates. — In 1749 the governor of Canada sent an expedition to forestall the English movement into the Ohio valley. A party of soldiers and others went down the Allegheny and Ohio rivers, carrying five or six lead plates, which they buried near the mouths of different streams. On each plate was an inscription, stating that the French at that time claimed the Ohio River and its tributaries, and all lands on both sides of those rivers. Somewhere near the present site of Cincinnati the last of the plates was buried. French Forts. — The ridiculous device of trying to keep back the tide of English emigration by lead plates buried under ground at last gave place to something more practical. In 1753 Duquesne (du-kane), governor of Canada, sent an expedition to build forts in the Ohio valley. A fort was built where Erie now stands, on a point of land called Presque Isle (or " peninsula "), and another, called Fort Le Boeuf, where Waterford, Pennsylvania, is situated. At io8 INTERCOLONIAL WARS Washington on his way to Fort Le Boeuf Venango, an old Indian village, the French seized the house of an English trader, and made it a French outpost. Governor Dinwiddle, of Virginia, sent a letter of remonstrance to the commander at Fort Le Boeuf, the principal French fort. His messenger was George Wash- ington,* who was then only twenty-one years old. After many hardships and dangers, ^Vashington's little party of seven men reached Fort Le Boeuf and delivered the letter of Dinwiddle. The return journey was even more dangerous. But on the 1 6th of January Washington was back in \\'illiamsburg with the reply of the French officer, which was virtually a refusal to heed the protest. The Attempt to Build a Fort where Pittsburg now Stands. — Governor Dinwiddle and his Council then decided that they must secure a position at the forks of the Ohio by building a fort there in advance of the coming of the French. A trader named \\^illiam Trent was appointed cap- tain, and directed to raise a company of one hundred frontiersmen. With these men Trent began the l)uilding of the proposed fort. Two months later a French force numbering about five hundred men descended on the work from Fort Le Boeuf. The little garrison of only forty men was obliged to give up the position. The French destroyed the works of the English, and Imilt a stronger fort on the same spot. This they called Fort Duquesne in honor of the governor of Canada. * For biography, see Appendix. Fort Duquesne THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR IO9 Washington at Great Meadows. — Washington was on his way witli a force to join Trent when he heard the news of the loss of the position at the forks of the Ohio. He de- cided to advance to a point where the Ohio Company had a storehouse, about thirty-seven miles from Fort Duquesne. It was necessary to cut a road through the forest for the artillery, and two weeks were consumed in the march to a place called Great Meadows. Soon after his arrival Wash- ington learned that some French soldiers were lurking near his camp, and he set out with forty men to find them. The French, when Washington appeared, seized their arms. At this sign of hostile intent Washington gave the command to fire. A sharp fight ensued. Ten Frenchmen were killed and twenty-two were captured. With this encounter, which occurred ]\Iay 28. 1754, the war began. There was now reason to expect an attack by a large force of French. Washington, therefore, sent for reenforcements, and began to erect a palisade, which he called Fort Necessity. The death of Colonel Fry, on his way to join Washington with fresh troops, left Washington in command of a little army of scarcely more than three hun- dred men. On July 4 Washington was attacked at Great Meadows by a French force of six or seven hundred French- men with many Indian allies. After fighting for nine hours he surrendered on good terms. Summary.— I. The great French and Indian War grew out of a dis- pute between the French and English colonies as to the ownership of the Mississippi valley. English traders from Virginia and elsewhere were pushing their way into that region. In 1748 the first Ohio Company was formed in Virginia for the purpose of settling there. 2. In 1753 Governor Duquesne, of Canada, sent a strong force to build forts in that region. Governor Dinwiddle, of Virginia, sent Wash- ington with a remonstrance to the French commandant in the Ohio country, but without eflect. Thereupon Governor Dinwiddle sent a company of frontiersmen to build a fort near where Pittsburg now stands. They were driven away by a French force, which built Fort Duquesne at the same spot. 3. Washington with a small force took position at Great Meadows, no INTERCOLONIAL WARS thirty-seven miles from Fort Duquesne, and awaited reenforcements. The reenforcements did not come, and on July 4 the French in over- whelming numbers attacked Washington and compelled him to sur- render. CHAPTER XVII THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR— Contiuucd The Albany Convention — Franklin's Plan of Union. — In June, 1754, a convention was held at Albany to make a treaty bet\Yeen all the colo- nies on the one hand, and the Iroquois on the other. The delegates consulted also with reference to a permanent union of all the colonies. The delegate from Pennsylvania was P)enjamin Franklin,''"' a warm advocate of union. A plan proposed by him was adopted by the con- vention and laid before the different colonies. The plan was rejected. General Braddock Sent Over. — -\fter the defeat at Great Meadows (1754), the French were left in possession of the Ohio. But Governor Dinwiddle continued to plan a movement against them. The colonies being independent of one another could not be brought to prompt and united action. So Dinwiddle appealed to Great Britain for help. Major General Braddock was sent over with two regiments early in 1755. In April he called a council, composed of the governors of the several colonies, and it was decided that * For biography, see Appendi.\. Benjamin Franklin THE GREAT FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR III attacks should be made at four different points at the same time. Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, was assigned to the duty of organizing the expeditions against Acadia, Crown Point, and Niagara. Braddock, with his thousand British r£gulars and about twelve hundred colonial militia, was to take Fort Duquesne. Washington accepted a position on Braddock's staff as a volunteer aid without pay. By his advice Braddock ad- vanced with about half of his men in order to reach Fort Ducjuesne before French reenforcements should arrive there. About eight miles from the fort the army was suddenly met by three hundred French and Indians, who scattered and fired from behind trees. Braddock's men, standing in regular ranks, were easy marks for the riflemen. They were soon struck with panic. They broke and ran. though their brave oflicers tried hard to rally them. Washington, with his Virginians, untrained in regular military w^ays, but ac- customed to fight Indians in the woods, protected the re- treating troops by adopting the Indian mode of fighting, each man standing behind a tree and firing when he saw something to shoot at. General Braddock was mortally wounded, and more than half his men w^ere killed or wounded. Twice during the fight shots that were aimed at Washington killed the horse on which he rode, and four bullets passed through his coat, but he remained unhurt, and the Indians firmly believed that he had a charmed life. This contest occurred on July 9, i/oS- The Expulsion of the Acadians. — The peasants of Acadia, though now^ subject to British rule, remained French at heart, and most of them refused to take the oath of alle- giance to Great Britain after their land became British ter- ritory. Now that war was on they were considered an element of danger, as they were always ready to take the part of the French against the English. It was therefore decided to remove them from Acadia and scatter them I 12 INTERCOLONIAL WARS through the different EngHsh colonies. This harsh measure was carried out in the autumn of 1755. About six thousand of these simple, ignorant peo- ple were forcibly put on board vessels and sent away from the homes they loved. Some of these unhappy exiles found their way back to Acadia after a time, and some went to Can- ada. ' Many of them found a home among the French colo- nists in Louisiana. Expeditions against Crown Point and Niagara. — Sir Wil- liam Johnson* was sent to take Crown Point, an important French fort on Lake Champlain, but he got no farther than the head, or southern end, of Lake George. Here he was attacked by the French under Baron Dieskau (dees'kow), and though he repulsed them, he did not follow up his victory. General Shirley led an expedition against Niagara which was also a failure. Driving Acadians to the ships Summary. — i. A convention was held at Albany in June, 1754, to make a treaty between the colonies and the Iroquois. Benjamin Frank- lin there proposed a plan for a union between the colonies. The plan was rejected by the colonies. 2. By request of Governor Dinwiddle, of Virginia, General Braddock was sent over with a thousand men to help take Fort Duquesne. It was decided to attack the French at four points at the same time. 3. Braddock, with his regulars and a force of Virginia militia, was to take Fort Duquesne, and Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, was to organize and send out three expeditions at the north. 4. Washington went with Braddock as a volunteer aid. Within a few miles of Fort Duquesne Braddock was attacked in the woods by French and Indians fighting behind trees. The British, kept standing in regular ranks, were quickly driven into disorderly retreat, but Washing- For biography, see Appendix. LATER EVENTS OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR II3 ton with his Virginians, fighting in the Indian fashion, protected the British and prevented a complete rout. Braddock was mortally wounded, and half his men were wounded or slain. 5. The peasants in Acadia refused to swear allegiance to the British, and were removed from their homes to the other colonies. 6. Sir William Johnson was sent to take Crown Point on Lake Champlain. At the head of Lake George he was attacked by the French, whom he repulsed; but he did not follow up his victory, and his expe- dition came to nothing. General .Shirley's expedition against Niagara also failed. CHAPTER XVIII LATER EVENTS OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR British Mistakes. — The statesmen who managed British af- fairs at that time did not understand conditions in America, and they sent over unfit of^cers to conduct the war. Early in 1756 the Earl of Loudoun was appointed commander in chief of the army in America and governor of Virginia. The purpose of this was to unite the colonies under a single military government. The Marquis de Montcalm, a great Erench soldier, had al- ready arrived in Canada to take Dieskau's place, and before the summer passed he captured the forts at Oswego. Montcalm had a smaller army .^i',,^'^^ than the English, but it was well trained, ^ ^ and he knew how to control it. Lord Loudoim planned an attack on Louisburg, and in June, 1757, he set sail, taking with him a large part of the troops who had protected the northern frontier. After going as far as Halifax, he turned back and sailed for New York Marquis de Montcalm The Siege of Fort William Henry. — Lou- doun's withdrawal of troops from the New York frontier • for the expedition to Louisburg gave Montcalm the oppor- tunity for which he had been waiting. He at once mus- tered his Indian allies and moved with them and his Erench 114 INTERCOLONIAL WARS army against Fort William Henry at the southern end of Lake George. General Monroe occupied the fort with a garrison of a little more than two thousand men. He made a brave de- fense, but on the morning of August 9 he was forced to surrender. Montcalm promised that the troops should march out with the honors of war, and should be escorted in safety to Fort Edward, fourteen miles away. The In- dian chiefs agreed to these conditions, and tried to restrain their followers. But the savages fell on the English as they set out on their march, and killed many of them. Mont- calm and his officers risked their own lives trying to defend their prisoners. Pitt Takes Control. — Now came a change. During the summer of 1757 William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham, became Secretary of State in England, with entire control of foreign affairs. He removed Lord Loudoun, and adopted new measures regarding the expenses of war. He required of the colonies nothing more than that they should provide clothing and pay for their own troops, and he ordered that then- officers should rank equally with the officers of the British regulars. Under this arrangement the colonies willingly William Pitt voted Pitt all the men he asked for. Three Expeditions. — Three expeditions were planned ; one against Louisburg, one against Fort Duquesne, and one against Ticonderoga and Crown Point. After an active siege by sea and land, lasting nearly two months, Louisburg surrendered to General Amherst, July 27, 1758. In September of the same year Fort Frontenac, which controlled Lake Ontario, was taken by Americans under Bradstreet and the entire French naval force on Lake On- tario was destroyed. Fort Duquesne was now cut off from supplies. LATER EVENTS OF THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR II^ Capture of Fort Duquesne. — The expedition against Fort Dnqnesne was in charge of General Forbes, a veteran officer and a man of great resolution. Unlike Braddock, he was ready to adopt methods suited to warfare with Indians. W^ashington and his Virginians, who knew the ground, formed the advance guard on the last day's march. Next came Forbes on his litter, for he was mortally ill. On November 25, 1758, they reached Fort Duquesne. But the French, being too few in number to defend the fort, had set fire to it and retreated on the day before. Forbes built a stockade and named the place Pittsburg. A year later Fort Pitt was built on this site. British Defeat at Ticonderoga. — The expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point was nominally under the command of General Abercromby, but Lord Howe was sent with him and was intended by Pitt to be the real leader. Howe was killed in a skirnush just before the attack on Ticonderoga. Abercromby at once began to blunder. The front of the fort was so strong that it was hopeless to assail it except with artillery. Yet .\bercromby ordered his men to carry it by a bayonet charge. After several bloody repulses they were seized with panic and withdrew. The End of the War Draws Near. — The close of the year 1758 saw the French power in America almost overthrown. Louisiana was cut off from Canada by the fall of Forts Fron- tenac and Duquesne. The French fur trade was destroyed, and the Indians of the interior were no longer willing to act as allies of the French. The fall of Louisburg had opened the way to Quebec for a British fleet. In 1759 Pitt directed General Amherst, commander in chief of the forces in America, to advance into Canada by way of Lake Champlain with the main army. He was to Ruins of Fort Ticondeiofia ii6 INTERCOLONIAL WARS James Wolfe take Fort Ticonderoga and Crown Point on his way, and he did so. The Taking of Quebec. — An expedition was sent in 1759 against Quebec under the command of General James Wolfe,* a brave young officer. Pitt had se- lected him for the difficult and dangerous enterprise because of the energy and daring he had shown in the siege of Louisburg. The British fleet, with transports carrying Wolfe's army, arrived before Quebec late in June. Montcalm had concentrated his whole army there in expectation of an attack, and every point for miles above the city was entrenched and guarded. Wolfe found himself con- fronted by a high, almost perpendicular bluff, on which lay the city and fortress of Quebec. Wolfe was eager for battle, but all his efforts to draw Mont- calm out into the open failed, and all efforts to gain access to the fort were equally without success. Storms and cold would soon make the departure of the fleet necessary. One day Wolfe discovered a ra- vine winding up the face of the bluff. At the top was a cluster of only ten or twelve tents. This indi- cated that the guard at that point was small, and Wolfe determined to take the desper- ate chance of gaining access to the fort by climbing up this path. Twenty-four brave men volunteered to lead the way. A.S soon as musket shots were heard the whole force which The Bluff at Quebec * For biography, see Appendix. Later events of the French and Indian war 117 Wolfe had brought for the enterprise landed and clambered up the rocky face of the bluff, holding on by bushes. They reached the plateau above, called the Plains of Abraham, and were soon drawn up in line. Montcalm could no longer avoid battle. The English were in a position to cut off his supplies, and delay would give time for reenforcements to reach Wolfe. Before ten o'clock in the morning Montcalm led out his troops to meet the English. His ranks were soon broken by the steady fire of Wolfe's men. Wolfe himself, while leading a charge, received two bullet wounds. He kept on, however, till a ball struck him in the Ijreast. inflicting a deadly wound. Ele was carried to the rear with life almost gone. Just then the French gave way, and the dying com- mander was told that they were running. " Now, God be praised, I will die in peace," said the brave young general with his last breath. Montcalm, too, was mortally wounded while trying to rally his fleeing men. When told that he must die, he said, '" I am happy that I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." Three days after the battle on the Plains of Abraham (September 14, 1759), Quebec sur- rendered. The French attempted to retake the city in the spring of the next year, but failed. On September 8, 1760, Montreal surrendered to General Amherst, and all Canada was included in the terms of capitulation. Canada Becomes British. — The war was finally ended by a treaty made at Paris in 1763. Under this treaty the French surrendered to Great Britain all their possessions in America east of the Mississippi River, except a region round New Orleans. In order to get back Havana, which the British had taken, Spain agreed to give Florida to Great Britain. France secretly gave Spain all French Louisiana west of the Mississippi Rrver and the region around New Orleans. Pontiac's War. — The Western Indians still disliked the English and resented their taking possession of forts in the Mississippi valley. Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, united all the tribes between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi in a war 8— Egg. Hist. Il8 . INTERCOLONIAL WARS against the English. Early in 1763 he laid siege to De- troit. After five months of vain effort he withdrew his forces. But the Indians captured nine small forts, and even attacked Fort Pitt. At Bushy Run, in Pennsylvania, twen- ty-five miles from Fort Pitt, General Bouquet defeated the Indians in a two days' battle. Most of the British regulars had by this time gone home, and most of the provincials, as the colonial soldiers were called, had been disbanded, so that there were few troops anywhere to meet the Indians in this struggle. Many settlers fled from the border, but many more fell under the tomahawk. Pontiac did not finally yield till 1766. Summary. — i. In 1756 Lord Loudoun was sent from England to take command in America. He blundered badly, accomplishing nothing, while Montcalm, the French General, captured Oswego. 2. In the next year Loudoun made a fruitless expedition against Louisburg, taking with him the troops needed to defend New York Montcalm seized the opportunity and captured Fort William Henry on Lake George. 3. In 1757 William Pitt came into power in England. He determined to drive the French completely out of America, and sent able generals to accomplish that purpose. These took Louisburg, Fort Duquesne, and Fort Frontenac, but an expedition against Crown Point and Ticon- deroga failed. 4. In 1759 General Amherst took Crown Point and Ticonderoga and General Wolfe captured Quebec. A year later Montreal was taken, and all Canada was surrendered to the British. 5. By the treaty which ended the war in 1763, France gave up all her territory east of the Mississippi, except the City of New Orleans and a small region near it. Spain gave Florida to the Britsh, and France ceded New Orleans and all the territory west of the Mississippi to Spain. 6. In the same year the Indians in the West, led by Pontiac, went to war against the English colonies. Many settlers were slain, but after a year peace was made. Collateral Reading. — .Seelye's " The Story of Washington," 45-50, 61-70; Parkman's " Montcalm and Wolfe," I., 289-311, 490-513. TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE CHAPTER XIX WARFARE BETWEEN INDIANS AND WHITE MEN Arms of the Colonists. — When America was settled, armor was still in use in Europe, and some of the colonists went out to fight the nimble Indians, wearing metal head pieces, breast and back plates, or buff coats made of leather. Such defensive armor was found to be worse than useless in fighting Indians, and the colonists gradually laid it aside. At first the white men had an advantage over the Indians in having firearms. The savages must fight with bows and arrows and stone hatchets. But the Indians soon managed to get guns. There were always laws against sell- ing firearms to Indians, but such laws were alwavs broken by unscrupulous traders. Matchlock Guns. — Some of the guns colonists were matchlocks. When a wished to fire such a gun, he placed a rest in front of him, and laid the gun between its prongs. He then set ofi^ the powder in the lock with a lighted fuse or match. Friction matches had not been invented at that time, and each soldier had to carry a burning fuse or slow match. If his fuse went out he had to run to a fire and relight it. There came into use a newer kind of gun, called a flintlock, which required no fuse. In it the pulling of a trigger caused a flint to strike a piece of steel, producing sparks which set oft' the powder. This was a great im- of the soldier forked Colonist in armor 119 120 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE provement on the matchlock. Another chnnsy weapon used by the colonists as late as King Philip's War was the pike or spear. Causes of War. — It had always been the custom of the Indians to hold a whole tribe responsible for the acts of any- one belonging to it. On the same principle the savage held that if a white man did him an injury he had a right to revenge himself on any white person he could find, man, woman, or child. The Indians were often cheated by white traders. There were also many misunderstandings and quarrels between them and the less prudent among the white men, and the colonists were always in dan- ger of attacks growing out of such disputes. In small settlements the wdiite men often car- ried their arms to church with them. In exposed places blockhouses were built, where all the fam- ilies in the neighborhood might take refuge in case of alarm. In many settlements fierce dogs were kept for against Indians, and for tracking and catching Blockhouse defense them. After suffering many disasters the colonists adopted In- dian methods of warfare, lying in ambush, marching in scat- tering lines, and firing from behind trees. In the northern colonies they learned to put their men on snowshoes in winter, as the Indians did. A scout would sometimes make himself a cap and body-covering of green leaves in order that he might watch the savages from the bushes without being seen by them. LIVING AND GETTING A LIVING 121 Indian Captivity. — The great terror of colonial life was Indian captivity. Hundreds of white people were carried into the wilderness by savage captors. Some of these es- caped and returned to their homes ; many more were slain. During the French and Indian War the French bought from the Indians their English captives, and sold them back again to their families when peace came. The Indians often adopted captives into their tribes and treated them well. Some white children who were thus adopted grew up to like the savage life. Summary. — i. The first colonists wore armor made of metal and leather. They were armed with matchlocks; later flintlocks were used. 2. The Indians took their revenge for injuries on any white man they met. The colonists learned the Indian methods of warfare. 3. Captives seldom returned from the Indians. Some children were adopted and lived as Indians. Collateral Reading. — Parkman's "A Half Century of Conflict,"' II., 48-51, 249-258; Seelye's "The Story of Washington," 72-75; Eggleston and Seelye's " Brant and Red Jacket," 1 18-125. CHAPTER XX LIVING AND GETTING A LIVING Farming in the Colonies. — At first the early colonists wasted their time hunting for gold and for a passage to India. A little later they learned that the real wealth of America lay in the productions of its soil. They therefore set themselves to farming. Their farming plans were sometimes as wild and ab- surd as had been their plans for getting to India or finding gold. Instead of wheat and corn, they tried to grow wine, silk, madder, coffee, tea, olives, and the plant called cacao, Colonial plow 122 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE c). -in I Colonial wagon from the nuts of which chocolate is made. Some of these things were tried even in the cold climate of New England, as well as in the colonies far- ther south. The colonists soon got corn from the Indians. It was un- known in Europe. It was raised everywhere in the colo- nies, but especially in Virginia and North Carolina, from which it was sold to New England trading ships and carried to the West Indies. New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania became the great wheat-growing regions of that time. These colo- nies sent wheat and flour and hard-tack bread to the West Indies and to the countries bordering on the Mediter- ranean. Many thousands of great country wagons were employed in bringing grain to Philadelphia. Maryland and Virginia raised tobacco as their staple. North Caro- lina depended on tar, turpentine, rosin, and the like. South Carolina and Georgia raised chiefly rice and indigo. Many efforts were made in vain to find some staple crop suited to the New England climate and soil. But if New England did not lend itself to fruitful agriculture, its waters were full of cod and mackerel, and fishing became the chief employment of its people. Young men trained to the sea in following the fishing trade became ex- pert sailors, while the carpenters of that region learned to build good ships. In these ships the New England sailors Old whaleships LIVING AND GETTING A LIVING 123 Old Dutch house carried on trade with pretty nearly all the ports in the world, and they presently became the most expert of all whalers. Cattle, Hogs, and Horses. — Hogs were very early brought to the colonies, where they found abundant food in the rich nut crops of the American woods. They multiplied rapidly, and many of them ran at large in the forest. Many cattle also were suffered to go wild in the woods, and it was a favorite sport to hunt them. The horses used in the colo- nies were of a small breed, but they were strong and hardy. Many of them escaped into the swamps and forests, and thus started a race of wild horses in America. Houses. — The houses of some of the first settlers were very rude. Sometimes they" dug holes in the ground and used them as dwellings. In some places bark wigwams were built, like those of the Indians, ^^^^en New York consisted of thirty houses, twenty- nine of them were of bark. As time went on, men built better houses, some of hewed logs, and some of planks split or sawed out by hand. The chim- neys were very large, with fire- places so spacious Old Virginia mansion 124 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE Wooden tray that great logs could be rolled into them after being hauled into the houses by horses. In the early houses most of the windows had paper instead of glass, which was too expensive for common use. The paper thus used was oiled to let the light through better. When rich people began to come to this country, they built very good houses, some of which remain in use to-day. Furniture. — For the most part the furniture was rough, and there was not much of it. Benches, stools, and tables were homemade, except in the houses of the rich. Beds were filled with moss or the down from the plant called cat-tail, or the feathers of wild pigeons. The poorer people brought their food to the table on trenchers, or trays, as their English forefathers had done for centuries before. They ate ofif wooden plates, and sometimes <^'"'"[^ ofif square blocks of wood. Pewter dishes were used by those who could afiford them. At the close of the colonial period china ware had taken the place of the metal dishes. In the houses of the very rich colonial people there was some silverware and some stately furniture ; but carpets were rarely seen. The floors of the best rooms were strewn with sand. Wallpaper was not known until long after the begin- ning of the eighteenth century, but rich cloths and tapestries sometimes hung upon the walls of the finest houses. Cooking. — A common way of cooking Pewter chafing-dish meat was by throwing it on the live Kitchen fireplace -<3^ ^■- '"" '.'—■■fSiS~ LIVING AND GETTING A LIVING 125 Skillets coals. The flavor of the ashes was thought to make it better. Meats were also roasted before the fire, on spits, or hung by strings from the ceiling. In the live coals of kitchen fireplaces was placed the skillet, a vessel two inches deep, and with legs three inches long. This and the griddle were used for baking corn bread. Another utensil made like the skillet, but deeper, and having no handle, was called an oven, and was used for baking wheaten bread. It was provided with loops or ears of iron at its sides, and was handled with hooks. The pots and kettles were hung over the fire upon a crane, or iron bar fastened to the chimney, and swinging in and out upon a kind of hinge. Sometimes a brick or stone oven was built in the side of the great chimney. The spit, spoken of above, was an iron rod that might be thrust through the roast. It was hung in different ways, sometimes on hooks in the andirons. A whole pig or fowl was often hung up be- fore the fire, and turned about while roasting. Tea, Coffee, Wine, etc. — Neither tea nor coffee was in general use in America until about 1725. Tea then became a very fash- ionable drink. In proportion to the A colonial tea-party population more wine and 126 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE spirits were used in colonial days than in our times. Rum was much used, and the people in all the colonies drank a great deal of hard cider. There was much shameful drunk- enness. Dress. — Short breeches fastened at the knees were worn by men. Much lace and many silver buckles and buttons were worn on the clothing of the rich. Workingmen of all sorts wore breeches made of leather, buckskin, or coarse canvas., Trousers were also sometimes worn. In the country many men went barefoot in the summer. Travel and Mails. — The first settlers traveled about in ca- noes and little sailing boats. On land Indian trails were at first the only roads. They could be traveled only on foot, or on horseback. Goods were carried on pack horses. When roads were made, wagons came into use. At the close of the colonial period it took six days for the mail to go from New York to Boston, and two or three days from New York to Philadelphia. Education — The schools were generally few and poor. There was little time for educa- tion. Boys, when taught at all, were taught to " read, write, and cast accounts." Needlework was thought to be a necessary part of a girl's education, but few girls in that time could write their names. There were few books and few newspapers until after 1700. At first there were none but " pay schools." In 1647 Massachusetts made a law that there should be a school for teaching English in every town of fifty householders. After' a time the other New England colonies made similar laws. At the close of the colonial period there were schools in all the leading towns, but no free schools such as we now have. The first college in the country was Harvard, established Pack horse LIVING AND GETTING A LIVING 127 in 1636. The next was William and Mary, in Virginia, founded about the end of that century. Yale College, which dates from the begin- ning of the eighteenth century, is the next in age. Social Life . — Tn the Middle and Southern colonies, the people were fond of horse rac- ing, cockfighting, and other rude sports brought from England. In New England the people made a holiday of their militia muster, feasting, fighting sham battles, and playing rough games. In all the colonies dancing parties were common. Wed- dings w^ere occasions of much feasting, and sometimes of hard drinking. In some cases the feasting continued for several days. Even funerals were marked by heavy drink- ing. In all the colonies there was much hunting and fish- ing. Coasting on the .snow, skating and sleighing were first introduced by the Dutch settlers of New York. A needlework sampler Summary. — i. Corn soon became the leading farm crop in the colo- nies; but wheat was raised in the middle colonies. Fishing and trade by sailing vessels were followed in New England. 2. The dwellings were rude with huge fireplaces and papered win- dows. The furniture was largely homemade. The dishes were of wood and pewter. 3. Cooking was done by the open fire with spits, skillets, pots, and kettles. Tea and coffee were unknown to the first settlers. 4. Travel was at first mostly by water. The Indian trails became paths, and later wagon roads were built. 5. Schools were few and poor. 128 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE Collateral Reading. — Walker's "The Making of the Nation," (£-']2\ McMaster's " History of the People of the United States," L, 16-26; 70-74, 95-97; Roosevelt's " New York," 2>^, 33, 92-96. CHAPTER XXI LAWS AND punishments; BOND SERVANTS AND SLAVES; PIRATES Sunday Laws.— In all the colonies there were rigid Sun- day laws, but they were not enforced so strictly in some col- onies as in others. In New England the Sunday laws and a law requiring people to go to church were enforced to the letter. The Sabbath was sup- posed to begin on Saturday evening, and everybody must observe it strictly. In Massa- chusetts nobody was allowed to walk in the streets on Sun- day except in going to and from church. Punishments. — In the colo- nies the laws dealt severely with women who were too free with their tongues. In Virginia an attempt was made to enforce an old English law against scolding and slander, which directed that any woman guilty of those offenses should be fastened to a ducking stool and dipped into a pond of water. In New England such women were gagged and made to sit at their own doors, " for all comers and goers to gaze at." Drunkards were required Ducking stool to wear a red letter " D " hung from their necks. A scold, gagged LAWS, PUNISHMENTS, BOND SERVANTS, SLAVES, PIRATES 129 A form of stocks For some offenses men were placed in the stocks with liead and liands and feet held fast, while boys and men pelted them with eggs. This punishment was usually inflicted on a day of public gathering, so that the culprit should be known to all the people, and perhaps be shamed into better behavior. For profane swearing, men were pun- ished by pinching their tongues with a split stick, and sometimes by a fine also. For worse offenses men were whipped on the bare back, or branded in the hand with a hot iron, or had their ears cropped. For very great crimes the more cruel punishments of burn- ing alive or hanging in chains were sometimes, though very rarely, inflicted. Witchcraft. — The belief in witchcraft everywhere pre- vailed in the early colonial days. When the housewife could not make her butter " come " by churning, she would drop red-hot horseshoes into the churn " to burn the witches out." If the pigs were sick, it was a sure sign that a witch was about, and the ears and tails of the pigs must be cut off and burned. People were sometimes arrested and tried for witchcraft in nearly all of the colonies as they were in England. The Witchcraft at Salem. — In 1692 a fearful excitement broke out in Salem, Massachusetts. Some hysterical girls imagined that they were bewitched. They accused certain people of witchcraft. In answer to their complaints one hundred and fifty persons were arrested. Twenty of them were condemned and put to death. The deluded girls finally brought their witchcraft charges against persons of high standing in the colony. This led to a halt in the prosecutions, and reason soon returned. The jurymen who had condemned " witches" publicly I30 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE begged pardon of their countrymen, and one of the judges who had passed sentences for witchcraft did penance by keeping a fast once a year as long as he Hved. In this coun- try there has never since been an execution for witchcraft, and soon after the Salem outbreak, the belief in witches died out in England. Persecution for Religion. — In the early colonial days it was everywhere thought to be right and necessary to regulate religious beliefs, and to persecute those who differed in re- ligion from the majority of the people in the country or colony in which they lived. Nearly every colony had some sort of law to regulate men's religious belief. In Virginia — in the early days, at least — only the Church of England form of worship was allowed. In Massachusetts and Connecticut the Puritan form of worship was the only one allowed by law. Those who advocated other doctrines and forms were whipped and banished. In Maryland, Lord Baltimore gave religious liberty to all who believed in Christ. In Rhode Island, Roger Wil- liams succeeded in impressing his doctrine of " soul-liberty " upon the laws. He included Hebrews and unbelievers equally with Christians in his toleration. In Pennsylvania, .where the Friends, or Quakers, were in control, there was full liberty of belief. Persecution ceased in all the colonies before the time of the Revolution. Bond Servants or Redemptioners. — Poor people were held very cheap in England in that day, and grave abuses re- sulted from the fact. Criminals, indentured servants, va- grant children, and others were sold, for terms of from four to ten years, as servants to the colonists in America. Im-* prisonment for debt was common, and to escape it men in debt often sold themselves. Innocent men and boys were sometimes kidnaped and brought to America to be sold as bond servants. But not all the bond servants sold to the colonies were victims of such outrages. Many poor men were persuaded to go out of their own accord, or as " free willers," as the LAWS, PUNISHMENTS, BOND SERVANTS, SLAVES, PIRATES I3I phrase then went. Thousands of servants were sent out in this way every year. If a bond servant happened to fall into kindly hands, his life might be endurable enough. But if he fell into the hands of the hard hearted, there was nothing for him but to wait as patiently as he could for the time when he should be free and could claim what the law allowed him, namely The first negro slaves in Virginia a hoe, an ax, and a suit of clothes. Some bond servants, who were educated men, afterwards rose to wealth, but most of them remained in poverty after they got out of bondage. Negro Slaves. — The negroes which a Dutch ship sold at Jamestown in 16 19 were the first black slaves in our country. It was not thought wrong at that time to en- slave negroes, as they were heathen. For seventy-five 13^ TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE years after that most of the work in Virginia was -done by white bond servants, but when the price of tobacco became high, and the cidtivation of rice and indigo were intro- duced in the southern colonies, negro slaves came into de- mand. There were never a great many of them in New England, and such as there were were kept mostly as house servants. There were many negroes in New York and Philadelphia, but not many in the country regions round about, where wheat was the principal crop. Wheat did not require much hard labor . Rice, tobacco, and indigo were the crops for which the negroes were needed. After the Revolution slavery was gradually given up in the North, where slave labor was not profitable. Pirates — A little before 1700 the seas became infested with pirates. Their number was often swelled by the des- peradoes among the convict servants whom they captured. The pirate James, having run short of men, lay ofT the Virginia coast and captured transport ships. Many of the men in such ships preferred to risk hanging in a career of piracy, which was called sailing " upon the grand account," rather than pine in colonial slavery. One of the earliest efforts to put down the pirates was made in 1696, when Captain Kidd was sent out in the " Ad- venture " from Plymouth, England, to find fame and for- tune in destroying them. Failing to find any pirates, Kidd turned pirate himself, and after a long career of crime was arrested in Boston and sent to London, where he was found guilty of the murder of one of his seamen and was hanged. Massachusetts and Virginia sternly set their faces against piracy ; the other colonies, with their habits of resisting cus- toms ofificers, fell into an easier way of regarding it. One of the Boston pirates, named Fly, was left hanging in chains in full view of all mariners " to be a spectacle, and so a warning to others." In 1 71 8 the Governor of Virginia sent Lieutenant May- nard to capture the pirate Blackbeard, who was hiding LAWS, PUNISHMENTS, BOND SERVANTS, SLAVES, PIRATES 1 33 Blackbeard boarding Maynard's ships in Ocracoke Inlet, on the coast of North Carohna. A des- perate battle followed. Blackbeard stationed one of his men by his powder-room, with a lighted match in his hand, and ordered him to blow up the ship if Maynard should capture her. The pirates swarmed over the sides of May- nard's vessel and fought hand to hand with cutlass and pistol. At last, after a desperate fight, Blackbeard was slain, and with great difficulty Maynard's men prevented his pirate followers from blowing up the ship. Maynard hung Black- beard's head to th? bowsprit and sailed back to James River in triumph. About the same time. Col. Rhett, of Charles Town, South Carolina, was sent out with two armed ships to chase the pirate Stede Bonnet, and found him in Cape Fear River. After a severe fight, Rhett captured Bonnet and his piratical crew and carried them to Charles Town, where they were soon hanged. 9— Egg. Hist. 134 TRAITS Ob COLONIAL LIFE Encouraged by Col. Rhett's success, Governor Johnson, of South CaroHna, also went hunting for pirates with a fleet of four vessels. At the mouth of Charles Town harbor he found two pirate ships, and a savage fight took place. The pirate captain, Moody, was killed and the crews surren- dered. The captured pirates were taken into Charles Town, where they met their fate. These and similar affairs made piracy less attractive than it had been, and a few years later robbery on the high seas well nigh ceased. Summary. — i. Most of the colonies had rigid Sunday laws. In New England these laws were strictly enforced. 2. In colonial times, minor legal punishments were more severe than they are to-day, and included ducking or gagging of scolds, locking in a pillory, whipping, branding in the hand with a hot iron, and cropping of the ears. 3. Nearly everybody believed in witchcraft in early colonial times. People resorted to many silly devices to keep witches away. In 1692, at Salem, Massachusetts, twenty people accused of witchcraft were put to death. 4. In Virginia in the early days only the Church of England form of worship was allowed. In Massachusetts and Connecticut only the Puritan religion was tolerated. In Maryland all forms of Christian belief were permitted. In Rhode Island and Pennsylvania there was entire religious liberty. Persecution had ceased in all the colonies before the Revolution. 5. Many white people in England were sent out to America and sold as servants. For many years there were very few slaves in the colonies. But the need of laborers in the South to raise rice and indigo brought negro slaves into demand, and they were brought to this country in great numbers. After the Revolution slavery was gradually given up in the Northern States, where free labor was more profitable. 6. About 1700 the seas on this side of the ocean were infested with pirates. In some of the colonies piracy was locked upon as not alto- gether criminal, but Virginia and Massachusetts made war upon it from the beginning, as other colonies did later. After a few years piracy be- came too dangerous, even for desperadoes, and it died out. Collateral Reading. — Stockton's "Buccaneers and Pirates of Our Coasts," 200-242, 309-319; Roosevelt's " New York," 76-78; Eggleston's " The Transit of Civilization," 294-307. COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 135 CHAPTER XXII COLONIAL INDUSTRIES Early Condition.— The object of England in planting- the American colonies was to provide a market for her own manufactures. It was, therefore, thought wrong for col- onists to make or sell anything that the mother country made for export. At first the colonists in America were too busy in getting necessary food and shelter and in de- fending themselves against the Indians to do much else. They depended on England for most of the things that they needed. House Building. — Before the year 1768 there w^as not a single sawmill in all England. Logs were sawed into lumber or into boards by the la- bor of men. The log was placed on high trestles or over a saw pit. One man stood on the top of the log to pull the long saw up ; another stood below to pull it down. One of the first needs of the set- tlers in America was shel- Sawing boards ter. Woods covered the whole face of the land. The first houses were built of logs more or less shaped by the ax; boards were then sawed in the English way for inside finish; but soon sawmills were erected on nearly every rapid stream, and the materials fo^- building wooden houses were easily obtained and sawed lumber was ex- ported. Grinding Com and Wheat. — The white people often pounded corn into meal or hominy, after the manner of the Indians. But generally, in the earlier days, corn and 136 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE >-- ^smi Hand mill rels of hardtack and flour and to the countries on the Mediterranean Sea. Colonial Shipbuilding, — Shipbuilding as a pur- suit did not begin until after 1640. The rise of the Puritans to power in England stopped emi- gration for a time. There were no new- comers to buy provi- sions, which fell to almost nothing in price. In these circumstances, Hugh Peters, who was wheat were ground in little handmills called querns. Wind- mills and horse mills became common. Cattle were also used to run such mills. Mills were sometimes built at the mouths of small streams, where the tide in ebbing and flow- ing turned their wheels. Peo- ple in the colonies walked long distances, carrying their grain on their backs to have it ground. After a while the ordinary water mill, turned by a waterfall, or by the force of a stream, took the place of other kinds. Near every large mill in the middle colonies there stood a bakery and a cooper's shop, and many thousands of bar- were shipped to the West Indies Windmill COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 137 pastor of the church at Salem, urged the people to adopt shipbuilding as a pursuit. Ships built in Salem and in Boston were sent voyaging to the West Indies, the Mediterranean, and England, and soon shipbuilding became a great trade, particularly in New England. Philadel- phia was also celebrated for her fine ships. When the Revolution broke out. New England is said to have had one ship afloat Old iron furnace, near Warwick, N. Y. Water null for every one hundred inhabitants. Iron Works. — In Mas- sachusetts an inferior kind of iron for tools was made of bog ore in 1643 or 1644, and after that time iron works sprang up in most of the colonies and particu- larly in New Jersey. The early iron works were what are known as bloomeries, where wrought iron is made from the ore. The first blast furnace in the colo- nies was established in Virginia in 1724. A blast furnace was more elabo- rate than a bloomerv. 138 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE Other colonies adopted it soon afterwards. In spite of the Eng- Hsh law the colonists made for themselves andirons, chimney backs, fenders, hearth plates, pots, kettles, skillets, mortars, rollers for gar- deners, " boxes " for cart wheels, and other things of which they had daily need. The making of nails by hammering them out on an anvil, the only method then known, was a home industry, especially in New England. Spinning wool Spinning flax Material for Clothing. — When the immigration fell off, and the labor of the set- tlers brought them little or no money with which to buy English goods, it became necessary for them to make cloth for themselves. Their sheep supplied wool, they cultivated hemp and flax, and cotton was brought from the Barbadoes. Nearly every house had a spinning wheel, and many of them had looms. The boys and girls were taught to spin and weave. COLONIAL INDUSTRIES 139 The first cloth made was very coarse — mere tow cloth. Outer garments were made of linsey-woolsey. After a time England tried to stop cloth making in America. But sheep were raised for their wool. A single town in Connecticut kept a stock of two thousand of the animals, and paid all the town's expenses from the pro- ceeds. The Germans who settled in Pennsylvania, about 1690, introduced the spinning and weaving of very fine linen, and later the Scotch-Irish settlers in all the colonies had great skill in spinning fine linen thread on small wheels run by a foot treadle. Paper Making — The first paper mill in the colonies was established near Germantown, toward the close of the seventeenth century. More than thirty years later the purchase of rags and the manufacture of paper began to spread throughout the colonies. Printing. — The first printing press in the country was set up at Cam- bridge, Massachusetts, in 1639. Before the close of the colonial period there were printing presses in all the colo- nies, and newspapers and books were published, mostly in Boston and Phila- delphia. Tanning. — Tanning was begun very early, but the leather was used chiefly for clothing. Shoes were brought from England. When cattle became cheap, more and more leather and shoes w^ere made here. Before the Revolution no morocco was made in this country, and little calfskin was used. Alost of the shoes were made of cowhide, and were worn by the laboring people. Fine shoes were still brought from England. Summary,— I. The colonists at first depended on England for most of the manufactures they needed. An early printing press I40 TRAITS OF COLONIAL LIFE 2. The first houses were built of logs, and the boards used were sawed by hand as was then done in England. Later sawmills were built. 3. In the earlier days grain was sometimes pounded into meal in mortars, but it was more generally ground in little hand mills. A little later windmills and mills turned by horses came into use. Still later water mills took the place of these. 4. The colonists built boats and small ships almost from the first, but shipbuilding did not become general till 1640. 5. Iron works were begun very early, and the colonists made such tools as they could out of the metal produced at home. The first blast furnace for making good iron was set up in Virginia in 1724. 6. The materials for clothing were first brought from England, but later the colonists made cloth. The Germans and Scotch-Irish taught the colonists how to spin linen thread and make delicate linen fabrics. 7. The first paper mill in America was established at Germantown between 1690 and 1700. The first printing press in America was set up at Cambridge, 1639. The first tannery was opened very early in colonial history. Collateral Reading. — McMaster's " History of the People of the United States," I., 9, 10, 61-64. THE REVOLUTION CHAPTER XXIII CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION A Family Quarrel. — England and her American colonies had a standing quarrel ; but it was only a family quarrel. Usually the royal governors sent over were men who came to America to build up fortunes for themselves, and they found many ways of doing so — by bribery and extortion, cheating the king on the one hand and the people on the other. The Americans generally wished to keep out Afri- can slaves, but the people about the English court, and even the royah family itself, had an interest in the trade, and all the laws made by the colonists to prevent the bringing of negro slaves into America were annulled in England. An- other cause of dispute was the fact that England sent many of her criminals to this country as bond servants. The colonists often evaded the English laws against manufacturing and made things for themselves, but in the main, they got used to the law and submitted to it. Trade Laws. — In order to understand one of the chief causes of discontent in America we must go back to the year 1 65 1. In that year a law was passed in England which seriously interfered with the trade and prosperity of the colonists. This law was called the Navigation Act. It was intended to compel the colonists to sell their products only to England, and to buy there whatever they needed. An- other law, called the Sugar and Molasses Act, was made in 1733, which imposed a heavy duty, or tax, on sugar and molasses brought from any place except Great Britain or 141 142 THE REVOLUTION the British Indies. It was intended tc destroy the large and profitable colonial trade with the French West Indies. Laws Not Enforced. — None of these laws were effective. For more than one hundred years the colonists found means of evading them. It came to be thought entirely respectable to carry on an unlawful trade. Even the most religious merchants thought it no harm to evade the laws made in England, and get their goods into this country without paying the heavy duties imposed upon them. Writs of Assistance.— Just at the close of the great French and Indian War George III. became king of England. His ministers made an effort to enforce the trade laws. The British commissioner of customs at Boston asked a court of Massachusetts for a writ of assistance. This writ was a search warrant, authorizing the officer to search the house of the person named in it for smuggled goods ; but the writ was usually issued \vith a space left blank for the name of the person against whom it was to be used. The officer could wTite in the name of any person he chose. James Otis,* an eloquent Boston law- yer and a patriot, was at that time the government advocate-general, and it was his official duty to argue in favor of these writs. Rather than do so he resigned his office and spoke eloquently for five hours against the writs, for the first time raising the cry that " taxation without representation is tyranny," which was echoed throughout the land. The court was obliged to issue the writs of assist- ance because the law required it to do so, but all attempts to search men's houses under their authority were resisted. This elTort to enforce the trade and navigation acts was the first step of a new British policy in the management of the colonies. They were to be brought under the control * For biography, see Appendix. James Otis CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION I43 of the British ParHament, or law-making body, though the colonists were not allowed to send any representative to Parliament to take a part in making the laws. They were willing enough to tax themselves for all public needs, but they were not willing to be taxed by anybody else. TheStampAct. — Not long after George III. became king it was decided to send an army of ten thousand British soldiers to America. The declared purpose of this was to defend the colonies ; but as there were no enemies of the colonists on this continent, except the Indians, the people here were not deceived. They understood quite clearly that the object of sending these troops was to enforce against the colonists the laws made in England to which they were so opposed. Moreover, it was decided in England that after the first year these soldiers should be paid and supported out of taxes levied upon the colonies by Parliament. In order to get the money for this it was proposed in England to require the colonists to write all their deeds, notes, and other docu- ments, and to print all their newspapers upon paper on which the government had printed stamps. These stamps were to be paid for by the people using the paper, just as in our time the people have sometimes been required to pay taxes to the government by buying stamps and attaching them to documents. But there was this difference : the stamp taxes levied in our day were levied by a Congress elected by the people of this country, while the laws levying such a tax upon the colonists were passed by the British Parliament, in which they had no voice at all. This is what James Otis meant when he raised the cry against " taxa- tion without representation." The Americans bitterly resented and opposed all such taxation, and when they heard that a stamp act was to be passed they grew greatly excited. They sent protests to London and humble petitions to the king, in which they set forth their rights as Englishmen. But their protests were not heeded. The Stamp Act was passed in March, 1765. It not only provided for collecting an unjust tax, but it 144 THE REVOLUTION provided also that persons violating the law should be tried in a court where there was no jury. This the Americans regarded as another violation of their rights as Enghshmen. Resistance to the Stamp Act. — The Stamp Act was, in fact, not nearly so harmful to the colonists as the decision of the British government to enforce the laws that restricted trade. But the Stamp Act was good ground to fight on. The colonists could hardly make their fight for the right to smuggle goods, although they had been doing that for more than a hundred years. But their right to tax them- selves and not to be taxed by anybody else was a doctrine that they might stand on. As the time for the enforcement drew near, therefore, the cry went up throughout the colo- nies, " No taxation without representation." There was much mob violence. In New York the governor's coach was burned, and a mob tore down the theater as a place where the wealthy and those who took the English side in the dispute were accustomed to assemble. Boston was particularly violent. There the customs officers were obliged to take refuge on board the British ships. In South Carolina the people seized Fort Johnson, where the stamped paper was stored, and sent the whole of it back to England. Not a single stamp was sold in all America. Patrick Henry. — In 1763 there was a trial in Virginia of what was called the " parsons' cause." The English Church was established by law in that colony, and the parsons of that church were paid for their services in tobacco taken as a tax from the people. But in 1758 tobacco was very high in price, and the Virginia legislature passed a law that the clergy should be paid in iPatrick Henry monev. at the rate of two CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION H5 Patrick Henry addressing the Virginia Assembly pence for each pound of tobacco due. On petition of the parsons the king annulled the act. The clergy claimed their full number of pounds of tobacco regardless of price. When this was refused, the clergy brought a suit in the courts, claiming damages, and a young lawyer named Pat- rick Henry * appeared in behalf of the people. In arguing this case he put aside all iine-spun legal quibbles, and plunged at once into an eloquent plea for the rights of the American people. Referring to the policy by which George III. was planning to oppress the colonists, he declared that the king had " degenerated into a tyrant, and for- feited all right to his subjects' obedience." Henry's elo- quence so moved the court and the jury that they gave the parsons only one penny as damages. Henry was the hero of the hour. Soon afterward the young orator was chosen to fill a vacancy in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He waited for a time in the hope that some more experi- enced member would take up the subject of the Stamp Act, * For biography, see Appendix. 146 ^ THE REVOLUTION but as none did so, Henry came forward with six bold and striking resolutions. These declared, among other things, that the people of Virginia had a right to govern them- selves, and that they could not lawfully be taxed except under laws made by their own legislature. In the course of his splendid speech on these resolutions Henry uttered the famous words, " Caesar had his Brutus, Charles I. his Cromwell, and George HI," — as the orator reached this point the presiding officer cried, " Treason," and others echoed the cry. Henry finished his sentence by saying, " may profit by their example." Then he added, " If this be treason, make the most of it." The Stamp Act Congress. — During the excitement over the Stamp Act a congress to consider measures of resistance to it was called to meet in New York, October 7, 1765. It was composed of delegates from nine colonies, among whom were some of the most eminent men in America. The congress adopted a declaration of rights and grievances. It firmly asserted the rights of the colonists to make all laws taxing themselves. It declared that this privilege and trial by jury were rights l^elonging to every British sub- ject. At the same time it expressed affection for the king and declared the desire of the colonists to remain his sub- jects. Repeal of the Stamp Act. — As it was obvious that the Stamp Act could not be enforced, it was repealed in 1766. The colonists rejoiced greatly. They did not mind the declara- tion that accompanied the repeal, which was " that Parlia- ment has power to legislate for the colonists in all cases whatsoever." This assertion, of course, carried with it the claim of Parliament to levy taxes on this country at will, but the colonists laughed at a claim which the British had tried in vain to assert and enforce. The Townshend Acts. — During the next year some new laws were made in England which the colonists bitterly resented. These laws were called the Townshend Acts. They required the colonists to pay a duty, or tax, on CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 147 all paper, painters' colors, lead, and tea which ships might bring into America. A Board of Customs was established at Boston to collect these duties. After a while the British government stationed two regiments of soldiers at Boston to assist the customs officers in enforcing the law. The soldiers were quartered on the people, who were required to feed and house them. The Boston Massacre. — The people grew greatly excited over all this. They objected to the duties, as they had ob- The Boston Massacre jected to the Stamp Act, because these were taxes imposed upon the colonists without their consent. Still more they resented the sending of troops to Boston, and regarded it as a kind of threat. In the excitement over these things many outbreaks occurred, and finally, on March 5, 1770, the rioting became so violent that a few soldiers in self- defense fired upon the people, killing several of them and wounding others. 148 THE REVOLUTION This was called the " Boston Massacre." It roused the people of Boston to frenzy. A town meeting of three thousand people was held at once, and Samuel Adams was sent to the governor and council to demand the removal of the troops from the city. Having made his demand, Adams said to the governor, " There are three thousand people in yonder town meeting ; the country is rising ; the night is falling, and we must have our answer." Fearing a further uprising of the people, the authorities sent the soldiers to one of the islands in the harbor. The Destruction of the "Gaspee." — An armed British ship called the " Gaspee " had been sent to Narragansett Bay to seize smuggling vessels. The " Gaspee " went aground (1772), and a mob led by a prominent merchant of Provi- dence set fire to her. The British government sent a commission of inquiry, with orders to arrest the men en- gaged in this affair, and to try them without a jury. But the Chief Justice, Stephen Hop- kins, ordered that not a man of them should be taken out of the colony. First Step toward the Union of the Colonies. — In March, 1773, the Virginia House of Burgesses appointed a com- mittee of correspondence to communicate with the other colonies, and secure unity of action between them with regard to British claims and wrongs. This was the first step toward a union of the colonies. Massachusetts, Rhode land, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and South Carolina all openly expressed their gratitude to Vir- ginia for taking this step, and responded to her sugges- tion by appointing committees on their own account. CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION I49 • The Tax on Tea. — In the meantime the Townshend Acts had been repealed, except that a small duty on tea was re- tained. This was done more for the sake of asserting the British right to tax the colonies than for the sake of the money that the tax was expected to yield. But the colonists were determined not to pay any tax levied by any authority except their own. They refused to allow tea ships to unload. In some cases the ships were compelled to return to England with their cargoes ; but the governor of Massachusetts, who represented the king there, refused to allow tea ships that had arrived at Bos- ton to sail away again. He was determined that their tea should be landed. The people were equally determined that it should not be landed. A war whoop suddenly raised near the Old South IMeeting House on December 16, 1773, was the signal for a company of Boston men disguised as Indians to board the ships, and to empty the tea — ninety thousand dollars' worth — into the harbor. This exploit was called the " Boston Tea Party." From New York and Philadelphia all the ships that brought tea were turned back. Tea se'nt to Charles Town, South Carolina, was unloaded and put into storehouses, where it lay for several years. It was finally sold, and the money applied to the public service. The Four "Intolerable Acts." — When Parliament heard of the Boston Tea Party it grew angry, and passed several laws, usually reckoned at four, which were called the " Intol- erable Acts." One of these was the " Boston Port Bill." It forbade any coming or going of ships to or from Boston. This ruined many of the Boston merchants. Another of the "Intolerable Acts " was called the "Trans- portation Bill." This bill provided that men accused of committing murder in resisting the laws should be sent to England, or some other country than their own. for trial. This was intended to deprive such persons of their right as Englishmen to be tried by a jury of their neighbors. 10— Eofg. Hist. I50 THE REVOLUTION The third of the " Intolerable Acts" was called the "Mas- sachusetts Bill," It changed the charter of the colony, set up a military governor, and in other ways robbed the Mas- sachusetts people of their liberties. The fourth act in the series was called the " Quebec Act." Quebec, or Canada, was governed by an absolute au- thority. The Quebec Act extended the borders of that province sO that it should include all the territory south of the Great Lakes to the Ohio River. This took away from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, and V^ir- ginia vast territories claimed by them under early grants. The colonists everywhere sympathized with their country- men who suffered such wrongs. ^Vhen the distressed con- dition of Boston was understood, help was sent from vari- ous colonies. Even from far-away South Carolina and Georgia there came the gifts of those who did not know how soon Boston's lot might be their own. The First Continental Congress. — These oppressive " acts " led to the calling of a Continental Congress, which met The First Continental Congress CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 151 at Philadelphia on September 5, 1774. All the colonies except Georgia sent delegates to the Congress, and Georgia was in full sympathy with the rest. From the beginning of the troubles, the people here and there in the various colonies had frequently agreed among themselves not to import British goods. Now all the colonies, by agreement in the Continental Congress, decided upon that course. Nothing could have been more effective than such action as this. The agreement needed no law for its en- forcement. Its effect was to deprive Great Britain of all the advantage that she hoped for in maintaining colonies. As Great Britain would not deal justly with America, America decided to depend on her own resources. She went to making her own cloths, and drinking tea made of sassa- fras flowers and roots. In the South the leaves of the yaupon and other shrubs were used instead of tea. Summary.— I. England and the colonies quarreled almost from the beginning. Great Britain forced African slaves upon the colonies, and made hurtful laws, especially the laws to prevent manufacturing in the colonies and to interfere with their trade. For many years the colonists managed to evade these laws by smuggling and in other ways. 2. When George III. became king he made an effort to enforce the trade laws strictly. The colonists resisted, holding that a legislature in England in which they had no voice had no right to tax them. 3. Parliament passed the Stamp Act (1765). It required the colonists to pay a stamp tax on all documents and newspapers. But the colonists would not use the stamped paper, and not a single stamp was sold in all America. 4. In 1765 a congress of delegates from nine of the colonies met to consider plans of action. It adopted a declaration of rights and griev- ances, declared that the colonists alone had a right to make laws and impose taxes, and claimed for every accused person the right of trial by jury — a right which at that time was often denied to Americans. 5. The Stamp Act was repealed. But other equally bad laws were passed instead. On March 5, 1770, British soldiers in Boston, fired upon the people, killing some of them. 6. In March, 1773, the Virginia legislature appointed a committee of correspondence to communicate with the other colonies and arrange 152 THE REVOLUTION for united action in self-defense. The other colonies liked Virginia's suggestion, and acted upon it. 7. The laws taxing the colonies were repealed, but a small tax on tea was retained. The colonists refused to pay this tax. From some ports all tea ships were sent back to England with their cargoes. In Boston citizens threw the tea into the water. Tea sent to Charles Town, South Carolina, was put into storehouses, where it lay for several years. 8. These things angered the British, and they made four new laws for the injury of the colonies. One of these stopped all trade with Boston by forbidding ships to enter or leave the harbor. All the colonics treated this wrong to Boston as a wrong to themselves. 9. These things led to the calling of a Continental Congress, Sep- tember 5, 1774, at which it was agreed that no British goods should be used in this country. Collateral Reading,— Bancroft's " History of the United States," II., 444-453; Roosevelt's " New York," 105, 106. CHAPTER XXIV THE REVOLUTION IN NEW ENGLAND The First Battle. — The struggle of the colonists for their rights had now lasted for ten years or more. From think- ing of England as their " old home," they had gradually come to think of it as the home of their enemies. The province of Massachusetts Bay had two governments. Gen- eral Gage had been appointed governor by the king; but his power, in fact, extended no further than the limits of Boston. The rest of the province was governed by a committee of safety, which had been appointed by the IMassachusetts Provincial Congress. The committee was collecting arms wherever it could find them, and storing them. In April, 1775, two of the Massachusetts leaders, Samuel Adams * and John Hancock * were hiding from Gage in the neighborhood of Lexington. On the night of April i8th, British troops were sent to Lexington and Concord to ar- rest Adams and Hancock. Paul Revere, an engraver, gave * For biography, see Appendix. THE REVOLUTION IN NEW ENGLAND 153 Samuel Adams the alarm. He started at midnight, and galloped to Lex- ington and Concord to arouse the minutemen. The minutemen were men enlisted and ready to rally at a minute's notice. At daylight the British came upon a company of them, drawn up in line at Lexington, and killed eight of them. The minutemen gave way, but not until they had wounded two or three of the British. Failing to find Adams and Hancock, the British moved on to Concord to destroy the stores collected there. Here another fight occiu'red, adding to the killed on both sides. After two hours, the British commander set out for Boston, carrying his wounded in wagons. The minutemen followed him all the way to Boston, hovering about him like a swarm of angry hornets, and keeping up a galling lire from behind stone fences, and from every corner where a man could hide himself. In this running fight a large number of the British force were killed and wounded. That night the minutemen encamped at Cambridge, and others liocking to the scene of war joined them there. Messengers on horse- back were sent in every direction to spread news of the battle. This was the beginning of \ . war. Capture of Fort Ticonderoga. — In the two forts on Lake Champlain there were many cannon and large quantities of powder — warlike stores much needed by the colonies. These forts were held by small British gar- risons who felt secure in their remote- ness. Benedict Arnold was commis- sioned by Massachusetts as colonel and authorized to enlist men for the capture of Fort Ticon- deroga. When within thirty miles of the fort, with barely a dozen men, he met with Ethan Allen in command of a John Hancock 154 THE REVOLUTION The Battle of Lexington larger body of " Green Mountain Boys " bound on the same errand. Allen retained the command. At daybreak on the morning- of May lo less than a hundred men had crossed the lake; but Allen entered the fort with Arnold at his side, seized the sentinel at the gate and forced him to show the commandant's room. Allen roused this officer from his bed, and demanded the surrender of the fort " in the name of Jehovah and the Continental Congress." The fort was sur- rendered without loss of life. Crown Point was surprised and captured the same day by another small force of " Green ]\Iountain Boys " under Seth Warner. Bunker Hill. — Soon after the battle of Lexington, Gen- eral Howe, General Clinton, and General Burgoyne, with fresh British troops, reached Boston, and on June 17, 1775, the battle of Bunker Hill was fought, a little way north of Boston. A detachment of Americans threw up some breastworks there, to cut oft Boston from the country beyond. The British, led by General Howe, attacked them THE REVOLUTION IN NEW ENGLAND 155 in front, with a force nearly double their own. The Ameri- cans waited until the British were almost upon them'before they fired. The order was, " Wait till you see the whites of their eyes." When at last they fired, their volley sent the British column reeling back, broken and beaten. The British ral- lied, however, and came on again. Once more they were hurled back in death and disorder. A third time the Brit- ish charged; and the Americans, running short of powder and having no bayonets to their fowling pieces, used the butts of their guns as clubs, and fought until compelled to retreat. The Americans keenly felt their defeat at first, but the ^^ ^jf courage they had dis- played against twice their number of trained Brit- ish regulars soon raised Bunker Hill in their minds to the dignity of a victory. General Joseph Warren was killed in this battle. He was one of the most devoted and able patriots in the land. Battle of Bunker Hill 156 THE REVOLUTION Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill Washington Made Commander in Chief. — In May, 1775, the second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, in what is now called Independence Hall. Thirteen colonies sent delegates to this Congress. It accepted the Amer- ican forces around Boston as the Con- tinental army, and on motion of John Adams,* of Massa- chn setts, it ap- pointed the great Virginian, George Washington, to be " commander in chief of all the armies raised, or to be raised. Washington had won a high place for himself in the minds of his countrymen by his courage and prudence in the French War. He declined all pay for his services, as he had done before, and as he always did afterwards, even when serving as President. He took command of the forces — part army, part mob — in Cambridge, July 3, 1775. He was in great distress of mind because there was no powder to be had except the little that the men carried in their pouches and powder horns. But he made a brave show, and faced the enemy with courage, until the capture of a sloop gave him a supply of powder. Dur- ing the following winter, cannon were dragged over the snow from Ticonderoga, so that at last Washington's little army had something better than fowling pieces and flint- lock muskets to fight with. In March, 1776, Washington took up a position on Dorchester Heights, overlooking Boston. There he planted his cannon. This made it unsafe for the British to remain in Boston, where they were liable to be hemmed in and captured, so on March 17 they * For biography, see Appendix. THE REVOLUTION IN NEW ENGLAND 1 57 moved out of the town, and soon afterwards went in their ships to HaHfax, Nova Scotia. An Attempt on the British in Canada. — In the summer of *i775, General Montgomery and General Schuyler, of New York, were sent with a small body of soldiers to attack the British in Canada. It was believed that the Canadians would take sides with the other Americans, but they did not. The Americans captured Montreal in November, and Washington sent troops under Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan to help in tlie campaign. They were joined by Montgomery at Quebec, and the united forces made a desperate attack on that strongly fortified town. They came near taking it, Init were finally repulsed. Mont- gomery lost his life in the 1)attle, Arnold was wounded, and Morgan was captured and held for a time a prisoner. A few months later the Americans were dri\'en out of Canada, and the British were free to im-ade New York. Declaration of Independence. — When the war broke out very few people in America thought of such a thing as the separation of the colonies from England. The colonists de- sired nothing more than to secure their rights as British subjects. The hope of obtaining- them gradually faded away. The people grew an- grier, and independence was more and more talked of. The people of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, were the first to assert such views in a publicway. Roused by the news of the Lexing- ton and Concord fight, they ^ , , „ ,, r>u-i a 1 u- '=' -^ Independence Hall, Philadelpma met in May, 1775, and adopted resolutions declaring in favor of American inde- pendence. By the spring of 1776, after a year of war with their king, the feelings of the patriots had changed. By advice of Congress the colonies adopted State governments for 158 THE REVOLUTION themselves, and Virginia instructed her delegates to propose to Congress the adoption of a Declaration of Independence. Obeying this instruction, Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, in June, 1776, ofifered a resolution " that the United Colo- nies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States, that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection with them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." Congress appointed a committee to draw up a formal Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson,* of Vir- ginia, drew up the document, and it was presented to Congress on July 2. After some slight changes, the decla- ration was adopted by Congress on July 4, 1776. It was signed on that day by John Hancock, president of Con- gress, and a little later by the delegates of all the colonies. Substance of the Declaration of Independence. — " We hold these truths to be self-evident," says the Declaration, " that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The Declara- tion gives a long account of the various acts of tyranny by which the colonists had been driven to rebellion, and adds: " We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our inten- tions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare, that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." The Reception of the Declaration. — The Declaration was adopted in Philadelphia, where Congress was meeting. It was read there first, and the " liberty bell " rang out a joyful peal. When the news reached New York the people pulled down the leaden statue of George III. and molded it into bullets. Americans everywhere rejoiced. * For biography, see Appendix. THE REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES 1 59 Summary. —I. In Massachusetts a committee of safety was col- lecting arms and storing them for future use. General Gage sent British troops from Boston to Lexington and Concord to destroy these stores and arrest Samuel Adams and John Hancock. At daylight of April ig, 1775, these troops attacked a company of American minute- men at Lexington, and later at Concord, and then retreated toward Boston. This was the opening of the Revolution. 2. Early in May the Colonists captured Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 3. On June 17 the battle of Bunker Hill was fought. The Americans were defeated, but they proved that they could fight against regular troops. 4. During the summer of 1775 Montgomery and Schuyler marched to attack the British in Canada. They captured Montreal, but were repulsed at Quebec, and soon afterwards were driveTi out of Canada. 5. In May, 1775, the second Continental Congress met at Phila- delphia and appointed George Washington commander in chief of the American forces. In March, 1776, he forced the British army to evacu- ate Boston. 6. After a year of fighting for their rights as British subjects it began to be clear to everybody that the Colonists should declare themselves independent. 7. Read carefully the substance of the Declaration as given in this chapter. Collateral Reading. — Fiske's "The American Revolution," I., 120-126; Seelye's " The Story of Washington," 127-134. CHAPTER XXV THE REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES AND AT SEA The Battle of Long Island. — In April, 1776, Washington withdrew his army from Boston to New York. There he expected an attack by the British, who desired to get control of the Hudson River, and in that way to cut off New England from the other colonies. Washington built tw^o forts to defend the river — Fort Washington on the eastern bank, and Fort Lee on the west- ern, nearly opposite. He also fortified Brooklyn Heights. Late in June General Howe, landed on Staten Island, in Longitude 76 THE REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES l6l New York Bay, with the British forces that had formerly held Boston. A few days later his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, arrived with reenforcemeiits. In August, General Howe crossed to Long Island with about twenty thousand men to capture Brooklyn Heights. General Putnam, with about forty-five hundred men, was sent to meet him. The Americans were soon driven back to their fortifications with great loss. This was called the battle of Long Island. It occurred on August 27, 1776. Two days later Washington with- drew his little army during the night from Brooklyn Heights to New York city dur- ing a dense fog. It was during these oper- ations that the British captured the spy, Captain Nathan Hale, who had gone into their lines pretending to be a Tory school- master. They hanged him on September 22. His last words were, " I regret that I have but one life to lose for my country." Washington Driven from New York. — Washington was soon forced to abandon New York and retreat up the Hudson to Peekskill. Howe pursued him, capturing Fort Washington and its garrison on his way. This was a severe blow. Washington was forced to divide his army. He left part of it under General Charles Lee at Peekskill to defend the Highlands of the Hudson. With the remainder he retreated step by step across New Jersey into Pennsylvania, pursued by the Brit- ish under Cornwallis. Again and again Washington sent orders to Lee to join him with his force, but Lee, who was jealous of Washington, did not obey. The Hessians. — Englishmen did not like to fight Americans, and the British government had to hire German soldiers in order to get enough men to carry on the war with the colonies. During the war about thirty thousand Statue of Nathan Hale in New York 1 62 THE REVOLUTION of these hired soldiers came over to fight the Americans. At first, most of those who came were from Hesse-Cassel. So the name Hessians was apphed to all the German troops hired by the English. The Battle of Trenton. — Twelve hundred of these Hes- sians had been pushed in pursuit of Washington in his retreat across New Jersey. At Trenton they lay on the eastern bank of the Delaware, waiting for the river to freeze over. Washino-ton was watchine them from the V Washington crossing the Delaware Other side. He had seized or destroyed all the boats for a distance of seventy miles up and down the stream. Christ- mas was coming on, and Washington knew it would be a time of drunkenness among the Hessians. The weather was bitterly cold. Washington marched silently up the Delaware on Christ- mas Day, put his poor, tattered, and partly barefoot soldiers across the stream in the night, and then marched down on the other side of the river facing a driving sleet storm. He had made up his mind to take Trenton by assault. When one of his generals sent him word that all his guns were too THE REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES 163 wet to fire, Washington replied to the messenger, " Tell your general to use the bayonet, for the town must be taken." He waked the sleepy Hessians, and captured al- most every man of them. He then returned to his position west of the Delaware. The Battle of Princeton. — On the last day of the year Washington again crossed the Delaware and reoccupied Trenton. Cornwallis marched to attack the Americans. He promptly pushed back Washington's lines, and then waited for the morning to bag his game. But Washington, leaving some men to renew his camp fires during the night in order to deceive the British, marched silently round Cornwallis's flank and gained his rear. The first that Corn- wallis knew of the escape of the Americans was in the morning when he heard Washington's cannon thundering at Princeton, far behind him, where he had left three regiments to hold the place. Having won a victory at Princeton, Washington wdthdrew to Morristown, a strong- position among the hills, and there went into winter quarters. This entire movement from the first crossing of the Dela- ware to the end of the campaign was one of the most brilliant of the Revolution. The British were forced to draw in their scattered detachments and mass them where they could be supported from New York, thus leaving \A'ashington in control of nearlv all New Jersey. Burgoyne's March. — The British plans for 1777 included a grand stroke. This was nothing less than to cut the coun- try in two. In order to do this General Burgoyne, in July, was sent south from Canada to seize Lake Cham- plain and the Hudson River, aiul thus cut off New Eng- land from the other colonies. General Schuyler, who was in command of the American troops in the north, did everything in his power to interfere with Burgoyne's pro- gress. He felled trees into the creek which Burgoyne's boats must navigate, and across the road they must march upon. He involved Burgoyne in long and tedious delays 164 THE REVOLUTION in crossing from Lake Champlain to the Hudson. This delay was of the utmost value to the Americans. Schuyler was superseded because of his prejudice against the New Englanders, and General Horatio Gates was put in his place. The Defeat of St. Leger. — While Burgoyne was marching south, another British commander. Lieutenant Colonel St. Leger, with a smaller force, including some Indians, was approaching the Hudson by way of the Mohawk Valley. Lie laid siege to Fort Schuyler, as it was later called, on July 3, 1777. It was his purpose to meet Burgoyne at Albany, to which point Burgoyne confidently expected to force his way. On the 6th of August, at Oriskany, a severe all-day battle was fought between part of St. Leger's forces and General Herkimer. The British and Indians were de- feated, and on August 22 St. Leger's entire army became panic-stricken and abandoned the siege of the fort. Battle of Bennington. — 'Bur- goyne's supplies growing short in his long march, he sent one of his German generals to the neighborhood of Bennington, Vermont, to collect food and horses. Vermont was not yet a State in the Union, but was claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, while for its own part it claimed itself. The German general was assured that the parties of men in their shirt-sleeves whom he met were loyalists — that is to say, men in sympathy with the British cause — and would help him in what he had to do. But these men were, in fact, New Hampshire men under Gen- Bennington Monument THE REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES 165 eral John Stark, and a body of " Green Mountain Boys," who had rallied in defense of the country. They were allowed to encamp near the German general's force. After a time they attacked the Germans, August 16, 1777, and killed or captured nearly a thousand men. This is called the battle of Bennington. The Defeat of Burgoyne. — This battle was the beginning of disasters for Burgoyne. The whole country was up in arms. The militia men, often barefoot, and sometimes in Burgoyne's surrender their shirt-sleeves, carrying fowling pieces, flocked to the American standard. These men were used to hunting, and knew how to shoot. They also knew the country round about in its every nook and corner. Burgoyne, on the other hand, did not know the woods, and had no scouts who knew them. Wherever he met the Americans a desperate battle followed. He found it impossible to force his way to Albany, and the road back was also closed to him. The Americans were, in fact, all around him, and the final struggle was desperate. i66 THE REVOLUTION The finest fighting was done by Benedict Arnold. To him and to the great Virginia leader, General Daniel Mor- gan, the victories at Bemis Heights, on September 19 and on October 7, are generally accredited. Hopelessly beset, and unable either to advance or to retreat, Burgoyne at last, on the i/th, surrendered his fine army at a point near Saratoga. Thus ended in disaster the grandest campaign that the British had planned up to that time. The British Occupy Philadelphia. — In the campaign of 1777 the British around New York should have devoted them- Camp at Valley Forge selves to the work of pushing northward and uniting with Burgoyne ; but Howe, who commanded them, thought it would be a feather in his cap to take Philadelphia, the cap- ital of the country. So, after making a feint on the mouth of the Delaware, Howe put to sea in July, much to the per- plexity of Washington. The American commander soon heard that the British were sailing up Chesapeake Bay. He advanced, therefore, to Chad's Ford, on the Brandywine, and gave battle when the British arrived there on Septem- ber II. He was forced to retreat toward Philadelphia. THE REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES 167 Again he went out to fight a battle, but a violent storm rumed the ammunition of both armies, and Washington retreated. On the 19th of September the members of Congress were aroused from their beds and hastened away from Phila- delphia to Lancaster. Later they went to York, Penn- sylvania. In the meantime Howe entered Philadelphia on September 26. Washington's undismayed little army at- tacked him at Germantown on the 4th of October. It was again defeated. Washington then sought winter cjuarters at Valley Forge, twenty-four miles northwest of Phila- delphia. The Treaty of Alliance with France. — After Burgoyne's surrender, England tried to make peace with the Ameri- cans, offering any terms short of independence. But inde- pendence was what the Americans wanted and meant to get. Benjamin Franklin had been in France for a year try- ing to secure aid, but the French government would not commit itself. The victory of the Americans over Bur- goyne, however, turned the scale, and a few months later, on February 6, 1778, France recognized the independence of the United States, and a • treaty of alliance was made be- v ' ' tween the two powers. A French fleet was sent over to help the Americans. Distinguished Foreigners in the Revolutionary Army. — • The young Marquis de Lafayette * came to America in 1777 to serve as a volunteer in Wash- ington's army. He brought with him Baron de Kalb, a veteran of the German army, and the two joined Washing- ton near Philadelphia. Two Polish patriots,°Count Pulaski * For biography, see Appendix. II — Egg. Hist. Lafayette 1 68 THE REVOLUTION and Count Kosciusko, came in the same year. Baron Steuben, an able and experienced Prussian officer, joined the American army in 1778, and rendered great service in drilHng the troops m European mihtary tactics. De Kalb and Pulaski lost their Hves in the war. The Darkest Hour of the Revolution. — During the winter spent at Valley Forge, a little place on the Schuylkill River, Washington's army suffered the greatest distress and dis- couragement. The men depended upon the gifts of the charitable for clothing with which to keep themselves from freezing. The country people round about took their provi- sions into Philadelphia, where they could sell them to the English for gold. The Americans were ragged, barefoot, cold, and hungry. The Conway Cabal. — At this time of discouragement a conspiracy was formed to remove Washington from com- mand and put Gates in his place. This was called the Con- way Cabal, from the name of one of the men engaged in it. Some members of Congress thought that Washington had partially failed as a commander, and the Cabal hoped to make an end of his career. Evacuation of Philadelphia and the Battle of Monmouth. — The British government recalled Lord Howe because of his inactivity ,and put Sir Henry CHnton into his place . It was decided to evacuate Philadelphia, which could not be held against the French fleet. Washington learned of this, and sent Lafayette across the Schuylkill to intercept the first men who should move. A trap was set for Lafayette, but he managed to avoid it, and got back across the Schuylkill. The British left Philadelphia on the morning of the i8th of June, 1778. Washington now put the vigilant " little boy," as Lafay- ette was sometimes called, in charge of the movements to pursue Sir Henry CHnton. General Charles Lee, as senior officer, claimed and took command of this force. The New Jersey militia were destroying bridges and filling up wells in front of the British to make their retreat more difficult THE REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES 169 in the terrible heat of the weather. Washington hurried on and overtook the British rear at Monmouth, New Jersey. He ordered an attack, but Lee so managed that the Amer- icans were thrown into disorder, and a retreat was begun. Washington met Lee with sharp and stormy words of re- buke, and Lee was soon afterwards dismissed from the army. He was a traitor, but the fact was not then known. After rebuking Lee and sending him to the rear, Wash- ington at once took command, ralHed his forces, and re- newed the attack. The battle lasted till night, the Amer- icans having the best of it. The Americans slept on their arms that night, and about midnight Clinton withdrew. Before morning he was on ground too strong to be attacked. This battle occurred on June 28, 1778. It is known as the Battle of Monmouth. Stony Point. — There were but few men engaged in the celebrated charge on Stony Point, on the Hudson River, not far above New York. Nor did it accomplish any great re- sults. But for pluck and heroic dash it will live in song and story as long as brave deeds are remembered. General Wayne * — called " Mad Anthony " because of his reckless daring — led a force of Americans to within a mile and a half of the post on the evening of July 15, 1779. He killed all the dogs along his line of march to prevent them from giving the alarm by barking. A little after midnight, on the morning of the i6th, he assaulted the fort with tremen- dous vigor. With empty guns and fixed bayonets the Americans rushed over the works and compelled the Brit- ish to surrender. Washington himself planned this sur- prise. John Paul Jones. — John Paul Jones. '^ the greatest of Revo- lutionary naval officers, was born in Scotland. He came to America very young, and won distinction for daring at the beginning of the Revolution. He crossed the sea in the ship " Ranger," and got command of an ancient Indiaman, which he called the "Bon Homme Richard" — the French * For biography, see Appendix. 170 THE REVOLUTION translation of " poor Richard.'' "Poor Richard's Ahnanac " was Franklin's most popular book, and Franklin was Paul Jones's steadfast friend. On S e p t e m b e r 23, I 779, the " Bon Homme Richard" engaged a British war ship called the " Sera pis " off the northeast coast of Fngland, and a fierce fight ensued. Jones sailed up to his adver- sary and fastened the two ships together. "Have you struck?" demanded the British- captain when the fire slackened. " I haven't begun to fight yet," answered Jones. Both ships were shot nearly to pieces when Jones's men from the rigging dropped hand grenades — a kind of bombshell — through a hatchway of the "Sera- pis" into some powder, a powder chest exploded, killing many men, and the " Serapis " was obliged to surrender. Jones removed his crew from his own ship to the " Serapis," and the " Bon Homme Richard " went to the bottom the next day. Jones sailed in triumph in his enemy's ship into a Dutch port. Benedict Arnold and His Treason. — Benedict Arnold was, as we have seen, one of the bravest of ofificers on the Ameri- can side. He was also, probably, one of the most dishonest. Capture of the " Serapis " THE REVOLUTION IN THE MIDDLE COLONIES 171 His accounts were repeatedly looked into, with results that reflected no credit upon him. Once he was tried l)y court- martial and sentenced to be reprimanded. Smarting under this shame, he began to plan revenge. West Point, in the Highlands of the Hudson, was the most important fortified place in the United States. It con- trolled the Hudson River. Arnold got himself appointed commander of this fort in order to betray it into the hands of the British, who were to reward him with a large sum of money and the position of a brigadier general in the Brit- ish army. In Septem- ber, 1780, Major John Andre (ahn-dra), aide- de-camp to Sir Henry Clinton, was sent from New York to arrange with Arnold for the surrender of the fort. On his way back to New York Andre was captured near Tarry- town by three armed Americans. They searched him, and found in his boots maps and plans of West Point, and a pass from Arnold through the American lines. Hearing of Andre's capture, and knowing what it meant for him, Arnold made his escape to a British ship that lay in the river. The brave young Andre was tried as a spy, condemned, and hanged. Trial of Andre Summary. — i. In April, 1776, Washington withdrew from Boston to New York and fortified the Hudson River. He was soon forced to abandon New York and retreat up the Hudson and across New Jersey 172 THE REVOLUTION into Pennsylvania, with the British army pursuing him as far as the Delaware River, where they encamped in December. 2. At Christmas Washington recrossed the Delaware during the night, and in the morning fell upon the Hessians at Trenton, and cap- tured almost every man of them. 3. On the last day of the year Washington again crossed to Trenton, and, having crept around the British army in the night, attacked and defeated the British at Princeton on New Year's Day, 1777. He then withdrew to Morristown, in the hills. This forced the British to with- draw nearly to New York, and left Washington in control of New Jersey. 4. In July, 1777, a large British army under General Burgoyne was sent from Canada by way of Lake Champlain, while another force under St. Leger was sent down the Mohawk Valley. It was expected that these and a third force, ascending the Hudson from New York, would meet near Albany, and thus cut off New England from the rest of the colonies. St. Leger was defeated at Oriskany and forced to retreat. 5. In the meanwhile Burgoyne sent a force to collect supplies in Vermont. This force was defeated near Bennington, August 16. 6. Americans flocked rapidly to the army that was opposing Bur- goyne, and presently the British commander found himself completely surrounded. After days of ceaseless fighting he surrendered his whole army near Saratoga in October. 7. Instead of marching to meet Burgoyne, Howe, in command at New York, set out to occupy Philadelphia. Washington fought him unsuccessfully at Brandywine Creek, and Howe occupied Philadelphia in September. Washington attacked him at Germantown, but was again defeated. The American army then went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. 8. The winter at Valley Forge (1777-1778) was the darkest time of the Revolution. It was at that time that a conspiracy was formed to set Washington aside. 9. Early in 1778 France recognized the independence of the United States, and a French fleet was sent over to help the Americans. 10. Fear of the French fleet caused the British to leave Philadelphia on the i8th of June, 1778. They retreated across New Jersey, Wash- ington pursuing them. After a battle at Monmouth, in which Washing- ton was the victor, the British retreated to a strong position and left Washington master of New Jersey. 11. In July, 1779, Gen. Anthony Wayne stormed and carried Stony Point on the Hudson. 12. John Paul Jones was the most brilliant naval officer of the Revo- lution. In September, 1779, in the ship the " Bon Homme Richard " he attacked and captured the British ship " Serapis." EVENTS WEST OF THE APPALACHIANS 173 13. In September, 1780, Benedict Arnold tried to betray West Point to the British, and, his plot being discovered, he deserted to the enemy. Collateral Reading. — (Battle of Long Island) Roosevelt's " New York," 128-136; (Retreat through New Jersey) Seelye's "The Story of Washington," 171-181 ; (Trenton and Princeton) 183-194; (Brandywine) 205-208; (Germantown) 211-215; (Defeat of Burgoyne). CHAPTER XXVI EVENTS WEST OF THE APPALACHIANS The Men at the "West. — In order to understand what hap- pened west of the mountains during the Revokition, we must go back a Httle and briefly tell of the settlement of that country. Watauga. — About 1769 hardy emigrants began crossing the mountains, some of them to hunt and explore, and some to make homes for themselves in the richly fertile country which now constitutes Kentucky and Tennessee. Among these were James Robinson and John Sevier, who are celebrated in history as great pioneer leaders and founders of States. These two, with many others, settled about 1770, on the Watauga, in what is now Ten- nessee. Their settlement was then a part of North Carolina, and not liking the rule of the royal governor of that colony, they set up a government for them- selves, and for six years Wa- tauga acted as an independent state. The Hunters and Surveyors. — Other enterprising men, among whom Daniel Boone,* Isaac Shelby, and Simon Ken- * For biography, see Appendix. Daniel Boone 174 THE REVOLUTION ton were notable, went into the wilderness on hunting and surveying expeditions that sometimes lasted for years. These wanderers of the forest increased in numbers until the Indians became alarmed at their trespassing upon the hunting grounds and made war. The savages were badly beaten in a battle at Point Pleasant by an army of Vir- ginians (1774), and during the peace that followed large Battle of Point Pleasant numbers of Virginians and Carolinians removed to the Western wilderness. Transylvania. — The region between the Kentucky and Cumberland rivers rapidly grew in population, and for a time was called Transylvania. It set up a government for itself, and organized a little army under the lead of a young Vir- ginian, George Rogers Clark,* who, in 1776, induced the Legislature of Virginia to convert the entire Transylvania country into the county of Kentucky, as a part of Virginia. War with the Cherokees, — In 1776 British agents in the Carolinas stirred up the Cherokees of the mountain region * For biography, see Appendix. EVENTS WEST OF THE APPALACHIANS i;5 to make war upon settlers. The Watauga people successfully defended themselves, and later aided the people east of the mountains in a war that resulted in the breaking of the Cherokee power. George Rogers Clark's Expedition. — On the second day of January, 1778, Colonel George Rogers Clark was ordered' by Governor Pat- rick Henry, of Virginia, to go on an expe- ^ ' ^, , ... . ■' ,. °, .'^, ,. ^ George Rogers Clark dition that nothmg short of the darmg and skill of an old-time frontiersman could have carried out. The object of the expedition was to conquer the country north of the Ohio, which was held by the British, but occu- pied chiefly by warlike tribes of hostile Indians. That re- gion was claimed by Virginia as a part of her grant from the king (see page 47). The only white settlements within it were a few old French villages, whose people had become British subjects at the close of the French and Indian War. These French traders had great influence with the Indians, and they used it in the service of the British garrisons sta- tioned near them l)y hel]^ing to arm the savages, and by stirring them up to make war on the American frontier. Clark purposed to drive away the British garrisons, make Cb^rry Valley N E WpY O R-K Western country in the Revolution 1/6 THE REVOLUTION March to Vincennes friends of the Frenchmen, and subdue or hold in check the Indians. He set out in May down the Ohio with a flotilla of flat- boats carrying his troops and some families of settlers. Sev- eral of the latter went with him as far as the falls of the Ohio, where Louisville now stands, and remained there. During the next month Clark set out for the mouth of the Tennessee. Leaving his boats hidden near the mouth of the Tennes- see, Clark marched to the old French post of Kaskaskia on the Mississippi. After many difihculties he got there on the 4th of July. He crept into the town in the night, took pos- session of it, and by admirable management he brought all the residents to take the oath of allegiance to the United States, without killing a man. Cahokia, a few miles farther up the river, also surrendered. The entire population of Vincennes, on the Wabash, took the oath of allegiance when they heard the news from Kaskaskia, and the Amer- ican flag was raised over the fort there. A few months later Hamilton, the British governor of the EVENTS WEST OF THE APPALACHIANS 1 77 Northwest, came down from Detroit and retook the Vin- cennes fort. He could Easily have overpowered Clark at Kaskaskia, because he had a much larger force than Clark's, but he thought it safe to wait till spring, and was afraid to undertake the march to Kaskaskia in midwinter. His troops were largely militia men, and he sent most of them home, intending to recall them in the spring. Clark heard of all this from an escaped prisoner and determined to move at once against Vincennes. He marched two hundred and forty miles through difficulties that would have made the stoutest heart quail. During the last few days he had nothing for his men to eat. He was marching through water where the weak men and the short men had to be held up by the taller and stronger men. Reaching Vin- cennes at last, he demanded the surrender of the post, and after a battle succeeded in conquering it. The result of this bold and daring stroke was to give the United States a vast region west of the Appalachians, embracing the present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and AVisconsin. Sullivan's Expedition. — In July, 1778, the Indians made an attack on Wyoming, in Pennsylvaina, and carried away two hundred and twenty-seven scalps, with only five prisoners alive. It is a singular fact that no women or children were included in this massacre. On November 1 1 the Indians surprised Cherry Valley, New York. The alarm was given in time to close the gates of the fort. Many of those who remained outside were massacred by the savages, as- sisted by Tories — as those Americans who took sides with the English were called at that time. Washington sent Sullivan with four thousand men to punish and break up the Six Nations, or that larger portion of them which held with the English. The expedition set out late in the summer of 1779. Houses, crops nearly ripe, and orchards were burned. Substantial villages of half-civ- ilized Indians were laid waste. The Indians, rendered homeless, were forced to remove to Canada, where they were fed by the English. i;8 THE REVOLUTION Summary. — i. Emigrants had settled in what now constitutes Ken- tucky and Tennessee before the Revolution, and two colonies, Wa- tauga and Transylvania, had maintained themselves as little states. 2. The Indians made war upon these settlements, but they success- fully defended themselves, finally weakening the power of the Chero- kees. 3. In 1778 one of the Transylvania leaders, George Rogers Clark, conquered from the British the whole region north of the Ohio River. 4. In the same year British, Tories, and Indians made incursions into Pennsylvania and western New York. Washington sent Sullivan to punish the Six Nations for this, and he did it so etifectually. that the Indians were compelled to flee to Canada. CHAPTER XXVII THE REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH The Attack on Fort Moultrie. — The British had failed dis- tinctly ill New Eni^iaiid, the rocky hillsides of which brought forth soldiers whenever they were wanted. They Sergeant Jasper at Fort Moultrie THE REVOLUTION IX THE SOUTH 1 79 had next tried the Middle States, but they had been forced to evacuate every place there except New York. In 1778 they turned their attention to the South. They had already, in 1776, made one futile attempt at Charles Town, South Carolina. There was a fort in Charles Town harbor built of pal- metto logs and unfinished on its land side. General Moultrie had command of this fort, and an observer said at the time that the people " seemed to wish a trial of their mettle." On the 4th of June, 1776, an English fleet ap- peared off the harbor and landed its forces upon a neighbor- ing island. On the 28th they attacked the fort. The men on the ships did not shoot accurately, while the men in the fort had been taught to fire slowly, and to hit what they shot at. The battle! lasted for nearly ten hours. The British ships were badly damaged by the fire from the fort. One of them went aground and was left there. The battered fleet at last sailed away. During the hottest of the firing, one of the American flags was shot away, and Sergeant Jasper, with desperate courage, and at great risk to himself, went out and hoisted it again. For this daring deed the governor of South Caro- lina gave Jasper his own sword, and the exploit has ever since been celebrated. Jasper lost his life in 1779, trying to repeat his bold deed during an attack on Savannah. Savannah and Charles Town. — In the autumn of 1778 a British expedition took Savannah and overran Georgia. Early in the next year the force at Savannah moved against Charles Town in South Carolina, but was beaten and driven away by a small force under General Lincoln, aided by the militia which had been called out and organized by the very vigorous Governor of South Carolina, John Rutledge. Later in 1779 Sir Henry Clinton, with a large force brought from New York, assailed and captured Charles Town, after a severe struggle. The Persecutions in Carolina. — Then began a persecution of the patriot people more disgraceful to the British than any- i8o THE REVOLUTION Longitude Si thing that had gone before. All the people in Charles Town were put under arrest, but they were promised entire liberty if they would take no part in the war. In spite of this promise some of them were sent to prisons in Florida and elsewhere, and some of them were hanged. The Brit- ish stirred up the Tories there to make a cruel war upon their neighbors, and Lieutenant Colonel Tarleton was sent out to harry the country. The British hoped by this reign of terror to crush out all resistance at the South and then march northward for the conquest of the rest of the States. THE REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH I8I The Battle of Camden. — In 1780, General Gates was sent by Washington to take command of the American forces in the South. He was vain of his victory over Burgoyne at Saratoga, and thought all things easy to him. But he was, in fact, unfit to conduct a difificult campaign, and when he met the British at Camden in August he was quickly routed, and his army dispersed. Gates himself fled on horseback more than two hundred miles across North Carolina, and would have committed suicide but for a generous letter which Washington sent to him. The Battle of Kings Mountain — After the defeat of the Americans at Camden, Cornwallis, who had succeeded Clin- ton, sent Lieutenant Colonel Tarleton and Colonel Fer- guson to complete the conquest of the Carolinas and Georgia. Ferguson enlisted the Tories against their patriotic neighbors, and a fierce civil war devasted the region. Some North Carolina militia fled over the moun- tains before Ferguson, after a defeat. They told their neighbors in the Watauga and other settlements of Fer- guson's cruelty, and their story was confirmed by a message Battle of Kings Mountain 152 THE REVOLUTION from Ferguson, who threatened to cross the mountains, overwhehn the backwoodsmen, hang their leaders, and lay waste their homes. This threat roused the people of the West to anger and grim determination. They laid their hands at once on their trusty and familiar rifles. When Ferguson heard of their advance he withdrew and took up a position on the crest of the stony ridge of Kings Moun- tain, near the South Carolina border. Here he thought himself safe. The Western Army, led by William Campbell, with Isaac Shelby, John Sevier, and other brave pioneers to assist him, got within a quarter of a mile of the British be- fore they were discovered. Uttering an Indian war whoop the backwoodsmen began the assault. It was stoutly met by the British, and for a time first one side and then the other gave way, but the battle raged on. Ferguson led charge after charge, and at last, pierced by the bullets of several of his foes at the same moment, he fell dead from his horse at the head of his men. At the end of an hour the British were beaten and compelled to surrender. The number engaged on each side was about nine hundred men. The battle was fought on October 7, 1780. Cornwallis, who was invading North Carolina, now felt obliged to fall back toward Charles Town, fearing an at- tack from the victorious backwoodsmen. But having de- fended themselves from the threatened invasion of the British, those sons of the forest withdrew to their homes beyond the mountains to protect their families and their property from the Indians. The Campaign of General Greene in the South. — A few months after the defeat at Camden, General Gates was superseded by General Nathanael Greene,* of Rhode Island. Greene was one of the ablest American generals. Wash- ington had great confidence in him. He took command of a new army which had been collected in the South, recruited * For biography, see Appendix. THE REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH 183 Battle of Cowpens it rapidly, and improved it by strict discipline. Under Greene's wise direction the prospects of the Americans be- gan to brighten. In January, 1781, he sent General Mor- gan, who had so greatly distinguished himself at Saratoga, with a small force on a recruiting expedition into South Carolina. Morgan was pursued by the British force under Colonel Tarleton. The two met on January 17 at a place called the Cowpens. A severe battle took place, and Mor- gan completely routed Tarleton, who lost a great part of his men. Battle of Guilford Court House. — When Cornwallis heard of the defeat of Tarleton at the Cowpens, he set out to en- counter and overwhelm Morgan. The latter succeeded in rejoining Greene, but the united forces were not strong enough to risk a battle, and Greene skillfully retreated for two hundred miles across North Carolina to the borders of Virginia, pursued by Cormvallis. There Cornwallis gave up the chase of an adversary who was too wily for him, and re- tired to Hillsboro, North Carolina. Greene, who had been 1 84 THE REVOLUTION reenforced, then marched southward again, but managed to avoid a battle till he had gathered still more men. At last, on March 15, he encountered the British at Guilford Court House. After two hours of fighting, Greene found himself being slowlylbeaten. But he managed, by his skillful march- ings, to exhaust his adversary also ; and Cornwallis, almost ruined, abandoned his sick and wounded three days after the battle, and set out on a retreat across North Carolina, with Greene hard after him. It was one of Greene's pecu- liarities that though he never gained a victory, his defeat always had the effects of a success. Aften an exhausting march, CornwalHs reached Wilmington, North Carolina, where supplies sent from Charles Town were awaiting him. Greene Reconquers Most of the South. — Greene instantly gave up the pursuit of Cornwallis, and turned back to drive the British out of South Carolina. Though often checked and sometimes de- feated, he so far gained his object that in the Southern States only Savan- nah, Charles Town, and Wilmington, the three chief seaports, remained in British hands. The battle of Hobkirk's Hill, near Camden, in May, and the battle at Eutaw Springs in Septem- ber, were the decisive engagements of the campaign. Though Greene was not dis- tinctly successful at either place, the heavy loss he inflicted on his enemy gave the result the character of a victory. Group of Lee's cavalrymen THE REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH 185 Siege of Yorktown Francis Marion. — Francis Marion, of South Carolina, was one of the most romantic of " partisan leaders," that is, patriots fighting on their own account, and always ready to engage in irregular battle for their country. He made himself a constant terror to the British. " Light Horse Harry Lee " and Generals Sumter and Pickens were also renowned fighters in this kind of warfare, and these irreg- ular soldiers did much to redeem the South from the British. Arnold in Virginia. —In the meanwhile Benedict Arnold, the traitor, had been sent to Virginia, where he looted the plantations and ravaged the country. When Cornwallis, a little later, reached Virginia, he sent Arnold back to New York, who then made a malignant raid into Connecticut, burning and destroying". The Last Battle. — Listead of following Greene 'from Wil- mington into South Carolina, Cornwallis pushed northward into Virginia to join the British force that had been sent 12 — Egg. Hist. i86 THE REVOLUTION ihere under Arnold. He took command of the united bodies, and after a good deal of fighting and skirmishing with Lafayette, who opposed him, Cornwallis, with his army increased to eight thousand men, went into winter quarters at Yorktown, where he fortified himself. Washington quickly saw his opportunity. He marched as swiftly and secretly as he could across New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, and Maryland into Virginia. He gave it out that his movement was a feint, and that his real purpose was to turn about and attack Clinton at New York. When Clinton at last realized that Washington's real destination was Yorktown, it was too late. The French fleet had appeared off Yorktown. Nine thousand American troops and seven thousand French, all under command of Washington, were to contest with less than eight thousand British under Corn- wallis behind their breastworks. After nearly three weeks of siege and more or less active fighting, Cornwallis sur- rendered on October 19, 1781. This ended the war. The final treaty of peace was signed in 1783. It had been negotiated by Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams on the side of the United States. Under this treaty the boundaries of the United States were to be Canada on the north, the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Florida on the south, and the Mississippi on the west. Great Britain at the same time ceded Florida back to Spain. Civilian Heroes of the Revolution. — Besides the men who fought for American independence there were others who rendered services equally great to the country's cause. Benjamin Franklin, in the darkest time, gave all his posses- sions to the country, and for long years served its interests conspicu- ously as its persuasive ambassador in Europe. Robert Morris,''' at Robert Morris * For biography, see Appendix. THE REVOLUTION IN THE SOUTH 1 87 great sacrifice to himself, provided money for the mainte- nance of the war which otherwise must have come to an end. JefTerson, Madison, the two Adamses, Otis, Pinckney, John Rutledge, Patrick Henry, and a score of others, ren- dered services to the cause quite as important as those ren- dered by the warriors. Summary. — i. In 1776 a British fleet had assailed Charles Town, South Carolina, and had been driven off by the fire from a fort under General Moultrie. 2. Having failed in New England and the Middle States, the British again turned their attention to the South. They took Savannah in 1778, and Charles Town a year later. General Gates was sent south to com- mand the American forces. He was routed at Camden in August, 1780. 3. Cornwallis sent Tarleton and Ferguson to finish the subjugation of the Carolinas and Georgia. Ferguson stirred up the Tories and made British soldiers of them, but was defeated at King's Mountain in Octo- ber, 1780, by backwoodsmen under William Campbell. 4. A few months later General Greene was put in command at the SoutTi. He sent General Morgan into South Carolina, who defeated Tarleton at the Cowpens, January, 1781. 5. Greene's force not being strong enough to risk a battle, he skill- fully retreated across North Carolina until Cornwallis gave up the pur- suit. Greene then marched south, fought Cornwallis at Guilford Court House, and forced him to retreat to Wilmington. Greene immediately returned to South Carolina and drove the British out of the South, except from the seaports at Savannah, Charles Town, and Wilmington. 6. When Greene marched into South Carolina, Cornwallis pushed north into Virginia, and there, after a good deal of fighting, went into winter quarters at Yorktown. Washington quickly and secretly marched from New York to Virginia and besieged Cornwallis. He was joined before Yorktown by seven thousand Frenchmen. After a three weeks' siege, on October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered, and the war was in effect at an end. 7. A final treaty of peace was signed in 1783. It recognized Ameri- can independence, and under it the country extended from Canada to Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. At the same time England ceded Florida back again to Spain. Collateral Reading. — (Greene and Cornwallis) Fiske's " The Ameri- can Revolution," II., 244 — 290; (Yorktown) Seelye's "The Story of Washington," 297-307. ao Longitude 35 West from 80 Greepwic FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 CHAPTER XXVIII GOVERNMENT UNDER THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION The Adoption of State Constitutions. — When the Revohition began there were nearly three miUion people in the Eng- lish colonies in America, and all were governed under char- ters, or letters of instruction of some kind, derived from the king. Having united in resistance to oppression, the colo- nies one after another set aside the authority of the royal governors, and adopted constitutions which set up govern- ments of their own in a general way like those to which they had been accustomed. The chief difference was that the authority of the king was not recognized in these new gov- ernments. The governors who were chosen now by elec- tion had less power than the royal governors had exercised. So much were the new States afraid of executive powder that in four of them, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire, the royal governor was replaced at first, not by an elected governor, but by a council. The Articles of Confederation. — The Congress which adopted the Declaration of Independence was only a body of men representing thirteen separate but allied countries, for each State considered itself an independent nation. This Congress had great influence, but very little authority, and it soon became necessary to combine the States into one nation for purposes of war. Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress in 1777, but were not accepted by aU the States until 1781, IQO FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 These Articles gave Congress power to declare war, make peace, coin money, and settle disputes between States, but no power to raise a dollar by taxation or to enforce any law. Much of the weakness and suffering of the army dur- ing the latter part of the Revolution was due to the inability of Congress to make each State pay its part m the expenses of the war. Under this plan Congress consisted of a single body or House in which each State was represented by from two to seven delegates, but each State, whatever its population might be, was permitted to cast only one vote. No im- portant measure could be carried without the votes of nine States. No change could be made in the Articles of Confederation without the consent of all the States. This plan of government was wretchedly weak, and it quickly fell into contempt at home and abroad. The Western Lands. — The delay in adopting the Articles of Confederation by the several States was due to the stand taken by Maryland and other States whose western bound- aries were fixed. These States insisted that all the unoccu- pied lands between the Alleghany or Appalachian Moun- tains and the Mississippi should be given up by the States claiming them and become the property of the general government, to be sold for the benefit of the whole Union. On the other hand, Massachusetts, Connecticut. Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia claimed these lands under early charters, which had set their boundaries as from " sea to sea," and New York also claimed part of them under a treaty with Indians. New York and Virginia were the largest claimants. After all the other States had signed the Articles of Confederation Maryland held out on this point until, in 17S0, New York gave up her Western lands, and in the next year Virginia agreed to do the same. The other States followed the example of these two, and thus the great Northwest became a public domain. Weakness of the Confederation. — But until the public lands should come into demand the national authorities had no GOVERNMENT UNDER ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION I9I means of raising money with which to pay its debts or to carry on government. For under the Articles of Con- federation Congress had no power to collect taxes or to get money in any way except by asking the States for it, and the States were not bound to furnish it when asked. The national debt amounted to forty-two million dollars. In these circumstances an effort was made so to amend the /\rticles of Confederation as to allow Congress to lay a tax or duty of five per cent on the value of all goods im- ported into this country from abroad. Twelve of the thir- teen States voted for this. Init New York refused, and as no such amendment was valid until all the States assented to it, the plan fell through. At this time Congress itself was in danger of totally disappearing. Some of the States did not take the trouble to elect members, and sometimes there were not enough States represented to carry any measure. In brief, the Confederation was plainly about to go to pieces. There was nobody to fight the Indians or to make treaties with them. There was no money with which to deal with the Barbary pirates, who were making slaves of Ameri- cans. The few' soldiers there were in the service of the coun- try were left without pay, and they quickly revolted. In 1783 a company of these mutineers marched to the hall in Phila- delphia where Congress met, and threatened if they w^ere not paid to break into the bank which held the little money that the government had. The local authorities refused to deal with these men, and so Congress was compelled to flee across the river into New Jersey. Still worse, there arose many cjuarrels between the States which Congress could not settle. New York taxed every little Jersey boat that brought wood and food into the city. New Jersey insisted that New York should pay eighteen hundred dollars a year for the privilege of keeping a light- house on Sandy Hook. Troubles sprang up everywdiere. Shays's Rebellion.— In all the States money was scarce and the people were in debt. A rebellion, caused by these condi- tions, broke out in western Massachusetts in 1786. Daniel ig2 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF i8l2 ''^B, ,-i-^*^ Shays's rebels attack the Springfield arsenal Shays, a Revolu- tionary officer, placed himself at the head of a com- pany of rebels who tried to prevent the courts from hear- ing- suits for the collection of debts. For a time this re- l)ellion threatened serious results, but after a while Gen- eral Lincoln suc- ceeded in putting it down. This rebellion, as we shall presently see, helped to the adoption of a better government under the Constitution. The Ordinance of 1787. — One of the last acts of the Con- gress of the Confederation was to pass the famous ordinance of 1787, providing for the government of the Northwest Territory. This ordinance provided that the property of a man who died there without a will should be divided equally among his children instead of going all of it, or a double portion of it, to the oldest son, as it generally did under col- onial laws. It gave freedom of worship to all, provided for the establishment of schools, and forever forbade slavery in that region. It also provided that the territory, when it should become populous enough, should be divided into States, which should be admitted to the Union on equal terms with the original thirteen. On this plan the five great States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wis- consin have come into the Union, and new States have been formed on the same plan out of territories that have since been added to the national domain. The Annapolis Convention. — It was rapidly becoming plain to men of sense that the government could not go on as it was. Either the Union must be broken up into a number GOVERNMENT UNDER ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1 93 of little republics constantly quarreling with one another, or the States must create for themselves a national government strong enough to attend to its duties. But the States were very jealous of each other and very much afraid that a national government strong enough to stand alone would deprive them of their rights. In 1785 commissioners from Maryland and Virginia met to agree upon rules for carrying on commerce in Chesa- peake Bay. Madison, who was one of the delegates, per- suaded his fellows to adjourn until the next year and to in- vite delegates from the other States to meet with them then. When they met again, at Annapolis, Maryland, only five of the thirteen States were represented, but Hamilton got the convention to adopt a formal request to all the States to unite in a convention to be held in Philadelphia on May 14, 1787, for the express purpose of considering the ques- tion of national government. The Constitutional Convention. — The great leaders in all the States were members in this convention. Washington was its president, and Benjamin Franklin, tottering now with age, was one of its greatest minds. The session lasted for four months. The questions raised were difficult and the debates stormy. Several times it seemed impossible to come to an agreement, and several times the convention was in danger of breaking up without doing anything. But the wise men gathered there were strongly convinced of the necessity of coming to an agreement, and they succeeded at last in framing a Constitution. One trouble in agreeing was that the smaller States were afraid that the larger ones would outvote them in a Con- gress based upon population, and that they would thus lose their rights. This difficulty was met by making Congress consist of two Houses, in one of which, the Senate, each State should have two members and no more, thus making: all the States equal in power without regard to the difference in their population. The lower House was to consist of representatives elected by the people in proportion to popu- 194 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 ^* £E*. J-~ George Washington lation in the several States. No law could be made by Congress until it had passed both Houses. This gave to the smaller States an equal chance in the Senate with the greater States to prevent the passage of acts to which they objected. The second compromise related to slavery. The ques- tion to be settled was whether those States which had manv GOVERNMENT UNDER ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 1 95 slaves should be represented according to the total number of their population, or only according to the number of free persons living within their borders. This was settled at last by an agreement that five slaves should count as three people for purposes of representation in Congress. The third compromise was an agreement that Congress should not forbid ship masters to bring slaves from other countries into this until the year 1808. The Adoption of the Constitution. — When at last the Con- stitution was framed, Congress submitted it to the several States for their approval. It could have no effect until nine of the States should have ratified it. There was strong op- position to it in all the States. Two political parties were formed — the Federalists, who favored the Constitution, and the Anti-federalists, who were opposed to it. For a time the consent of nine States seemed very doubtful. It was then that Alexander Hamilton,* James Madison,* and John Jay rendered a great service to their country. Hamilton established a periodical called the " Federalist," which was written by himself, Madison, and Jay. In this periodical these three set forth with extraordinary force and clearness the arguments in behalf of the Constitution. They proved its necessity. With skillful persuasion they taught the people to realize the melancholy fate which awaited their native land if things were suffered to go on as they were. They allayed the fears of the people and induced them to put- aside their jealousy. Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey were the first States to adopt the Constitution. Georgia followed in the next year, and the other States one by one consented. At last, in 1788, New Hampshire, the ninth State, ratified the Constitution, and this Union of ours was born. So great was the rejoicing, that Hamilton, Madison, and Jay became the heroes of the hour. They were called the fathers of the Constitution, and a mimic ship bearing Ham- ilton's name was borne through the streets of New York * For biography, see Appendix. 196 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF t8i2 in the celebration which followed. Rhode Island was the last to come into the Union, which she did in 1790. Provisions of the Constitution. — The Constitution framed at that time, with fifteen amendments which have since been added, is the one we still live under. Under the old Con- federation there was no President. The execution of the laws was left to a committee of Congress. The new Con- stitution changed all this. It separated the government into three equal and independent branches, as follows : 1. The Legislative Branch, which is called in the Con- stitution " the Congress." It consists of a House of Representatives, chosen by the people in proportion to the population of the several States, and a Senate consisting of two members from each State. In order to become a law every measure must be voted for by a majority of the House of Representatives and also by a majority of the Senate. It must then be submitted to the President, who approves or disapproves it. If he approves it, it becomes a law. If he disapproves it, it does not become a law unless each House in Congress passes it again by a two-thirds vote in spite of the President's veto or disapproval. 2. The Executive Branch, consisting of the President and public officers appointed under him. The Presi- dent is elected for four years. He is commander in chief of the army and navy. He appoints all the chief exec- utive officers, but his appointments must be consented to by the Senate before they take effect. If the Presi- dent dies or becomes disabled during his term the Vice President takes his place. The Constitution left it to Congress to decide who should act as President if both the President and Vice President should die or become dis- abled during their term. The law now in force provides that a certain member of the cabinet should succeed tem- porarily to the Presidency in such a case. 3. The Judicial Branch, consisting of the Supreme Court of the United States and such lower courts as Con- gress may establish. The President appoints all Judges of GOVERNMENT UNDER ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION I97 the United States Courts. The Supreme Court now con- sists of a Chief Justice and eight Associate Justices, but Congress may change the number at will. How Presidents are Chosen. — The President and Vice President are not elected directly by the people, but by electors chosen for that purpose. Each elector has one vote, and each State has as many electors as it has Senators and Representatives in Congress. The electors are chosen by the people, though the State legislatures may choose them without a vote of the people if they see fit. The electors for each State meet at the State capital on an ap- pointed day and vote for a President and a Vice President. At a time appointed the two Houses of Congress meet together, and the President of the Senate opens the cer- tificates from all the States, showing how the electors have voted. If a majority of the electors have agreed upon one man for President he is declared elected, and it is the same with the Vice President. But if the electoral votes are so divided among several candidates that no one of them has a majority of all the votes, there is no election. In that case the House of Representatives must choose a President from the three persons having the highest number of electoral votes. But in such an election the House of Representa- tives votes by States ; that is to say, each State has but one vote whether the number of its representatives be many or few and a majority of all the States is necessary to elect. If no Vice President is elected by the electors, the Senate chooses one. At first each elector voted for two persons for President, and the one having the highest number of votes, if that number was more than half the number of electors, was elected President, while the one having the next highest number was to be Vice President. This system resulted in dilificulties, as we shall see in a later chapter, and the present method was adopted in its stead. The President must be a person born in the United States, and not less than thirty-five years old. 198 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 As a matter of fact, the electors do not vote freely, each for himself. They are nominated and elected in each State to vote for the particular candidate of their party, and they do so. Thus when the popular vote in the several States is known the result of the election is decided. Washington's Inauguration — The first electors cast their votes in February, 1 789. Congress was to have met in New York on March 4 to count the electoral votes, but because traveling was slow there was not a quo- rum present until the 1st of April. The count was made on the 6th, and it w^as found that AV^ashington was unan- imously chosen to be President. John Adams having the next highest number of votes, became Vice President. Washing- ton at once set out from Mount Vernon for New York, which was then the capital. His journey was a tri- umphal march. Crowned with a laurel wreath and riding a white horse, he was escorted by troops through Philadel- phia. At Trenton, New Jersey, he was driven across a bridge under an arch covered with flowers and evergreens. Young girls dressed in white strewed flowers in his path- way and sang songs in his praise. He reached New York in a barge and was received with every mark of joy on the part of the people. On the 30th of April he was inaugu- rated in great pomp at Federal Hall, on the corner of Wall and Nassau Streets, where his statue now stands. Washington taking the oath as President GOVERNMENT UNDER ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION I99 Summary. — i. The thirteen independent States plan a Confederation. 2. The Western lands cause delay in the adoption of Articles of Con- federation. 3. The ordinance providing for government of the Northwest Terri- tory was passed in 1787. 4. The Confederation proving to be so weak and loosely formed that good government was impossible, attempts were made to form a stronger Union. 5. The Constitutional Convention frames a Constitution which is finally adopted. 6. Washington was elected first President, and was inaugurated with John Adams for Vice President on April 30, 1789, in New York city. Collateral Reading. — Schouler's " History of the United States," I., 19, 22, 31, 34; Walker's "The Making of the Nation," 2-6, 9-20; Schouler's " History of the United States," I., 29-31, 36-47; Seelye's " The Story of Washington," 327-3^2. CHAPTER XXIX WASHINGTON S ADMINI.STRATION Life in Washington's Time. — AVhen Washington became President tliere was no such thing known in the world as a steamboat, a raih'oad, a telegraph, or a telephone. Gas and electric light were both unknown. Even kerosene' oil was not discovered until many years later. The well-to-do used sperm oil in lamps, and sometimes burned spermacetti candles. Most houses were lighted with tal- low candles or with bayberry tallow candles, which gave off a perfume. Still more fre- quently light was got by put- ting a little fat into a saucer with a wick in it which was held up by a piece of cork. Sometimes iron lamps were hung from the wall. Houses were warmed Sperm-oil lamp with wood burning in fireplaces. There Wall lamp 200 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 Candle mold Wall lamp were a few stoves, used mostly by the Ger- mans in Pennsylvania. The First Tariff. — The first need of the new government was that of money. The ques- tion of how to raise the money needed began at once to be discussed. It w^as decided after a little while to levy duties, or taxes, on arti- cles imported into this country. Such duties are commonly called a tariff. Taritfs are of two kinds — revenue tariffs and protective tar- iffs. A revenue tariff is one which puts a small tax on imported goods, so that such goods may freely come into the country, and so that the government may get revenue from the taxes. A protective tariff is one which charges so high a duty as to keep out foreign goods or products in some degree, and make them so high in price that the people who make, or grow, or mine similar things within the country may charge more for them than they otherwise could. In other words, a protective tariff is meant to protect the manufacturers, miners, farmers, stock raisers, etc., of a country against severe competition with similar producers abroad. The first tariff made in this country was in part levied for revenue, but in part it was protective. Executive Departments. — The Constitution left many details of government to be arranged by Congress. After discussion. Congress decided to create three executive departments, each with a secretary at its head. These departments were a Department of Foreign Aff'airs (now called the De- partment of State), a Department of War, and a Treasury Department. As the needs of the govern- ment grew, other departments have been added. Their heads are called cabinet officers. The National Capital. 13^^ Wall candlestick At its first session Congress Washington's administration 20I decided to make Phil- adelphia the capital of the country for ten years. After that the capital was to be lo- cated on the Potomac River, and Washing- ton was asked to choose the site. In order that the capital city might not be un- der the control of any State a tract of land ten miles square was given by Virginia and Maryland, and called the District of Colum- l;)ia. The part given by Virginia was after- ward ceded back to that State. The District of Columbia is governed wholly by Congress. Its people have no representative in that body, and no part in the choice of Presidents. Political Parties.-After the Constitution was adopted those who were called the Federal party desired to secure and increase the power of the central government. The oppos- ing party did all it could to keep power in the hands of the several States. Under Washington and Adams the Federal- ists held the reins. That party included most of the rich and influential people, and those who loved stately cere- mony. Washington was a Federalist in his opinions and tastes, but as President he strove to avoid taking sides. Alexander Hamilton. — The greatest of the Federal leaders was Alexander Hamilton, who had done much to induce the States to adopt the Constitution. Hamilton could not believe that the great mass of the people were fit to take part in the government. He believed in govern- The first cabinet 202 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 Alexander Hamilton ment by the select few, and he wished the Federal government to be made as strong as possible in its control of affairs in all the States. Hamilton's Measures. — As first Secretary of the Treasury Hamilton insisted that Congress should provide for the ultimate payment of the national debt in full, and no sooner were measures intended to ac- complish that adopted by Congress than he proposed that the national government should take upon itself all the debts of the several States which had been incurred in carrying on the Revolution. There was strong opposition to this, but Hamilton carried through Congress a measure to that effect. Excise Taxes. — The tariff duties did not yield enough money to meet expenses and pay the debt, but it was thought unwise to increase them. So Hamilton advised Congress to levy an excise tax on distilled liquors made in the United States. After much opposition this was done. ANationalBank.— In the same year, after a long and bitter debate. Hamilton carried through Congress a measure creating a national bank. fr- hIi- ^nir This bank and the mint, established in the follow- ing year (1792), fur- nished a uniform cur- rency for use in all the States. Under advice of Thomas Jefferson the decimal system was adopted for our money. The First Republican Party. — All these meas- ures of Hamilton tended to increase the power of the central government. Many statesmen thought that the Federalists were going too far in that direction, and even that their New Mint, Philadelphia WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 203 measures were contrary to the Constitution. A new political party was therefore formed under the lead of Thomas Jeffer- son, who was Secretary of State. With him stood Madison, Randolph, and other prominent leaders. They called them- selves Republicans because they wished to hold the govern- ment to reiniblican forms and principles. By the year 1793 this new party was fully organized. The Republicans sympathized with the revolutionists in France, and therefore the Federalists in contempt nicknamed them '.' Democrats." A little later the party itself adopted the name '* Democratic-Republican," and finally dropped the word Republican entirely from its party name. This early Republican party must not be confounded with the Repub- lican ])arty of our time. The "Whisky Rebellion. — The people in western Pennsyl- vania were largely engaged in making whisky, which could be ship]:»cd to market more economically than the bulky grain. They naturally ol)jecte(l to the excise tax levied to provide money for the government needs, and in 1794 efforts to collect that tax led to an armed rebellion among them. This was the first time that the new government had been called upcMi to exercise its powers in putting down a revolt, and there was serious fear that an attempt on its part to do so would lead to grave trouble. But Washing- tc:»n was firm, and under his orders " Light Horse Harry Lee," at the time governor of Virginia, was sent to Pitts- burg with a militia force to compel obedience to the law. The insurrection was cpiieted without a battle. The First Census. — The first census of the United States was made in 1790. It showed a total ])0])nlati()n of 3,929,- 000 in the thirteen States. Several States in our time have each a larger ])opulation than this. New York has more than t\vice as many people as there were in the whole coun- try then, and the population of New York city alone is now about as great as that of the whole country in 1790. Philadelphia was the largest city then. It had forty-two thousand people. New York had only thirty-three thou- 13— Eggf. Hist. 204 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 sand and Boston eighteen thousand. There were no towns of any considerable size in the interior, except Lancaster, Pennsylvania. The country then in- cluded only the re- gion east of the Mississippi and north of Florida. The great bulk of the population dwelt east of the Appalachians and north of the Sa- vannah River. Settled area in 1790 Georgia was sparsely populated. Western New York and Pennsylvania were beginning to be peopled by emigrants from farther east, while the regions now constituting Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, West Virginia, Indiana, and Illinois were still only beginning to be settled, the great tide of immigration which was presently to create populous States there having only just begun its flow. About one seventh of the population of the country con- sisted of negro slaves. Of the Northern States, New York had the most slaves, about twenty thousand in number. But most of the negroes were in Maryland, Virginia, and the two Carolinas. Summary. — i. In order to raise money for the expenses of the new government Congress passed a tarifif bill. 2. Three cabinet officers were at first provided for by law, and others have been added since. 3. Philadelphia was the national capital for ten years. Congress had decided to set up a capital city on the banks of the Potomac after that time. Virginia and Maryland gave the government a tract of land ten miles square for that purpose. This was called the District of Columbia. It is governed exclusively by Congress. That part of it which Virginia gave was afterward given back. 4. Early in Washington's administration the people were divided into two political parties. One of these, led by Hamilton, tried to WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 205 strengthen the power of the central government, and under Hamilton's influence Congress passed important measures in that direction. The people who wished to keep the central government under a strict rein and to cultivate simple manners formed themselves into the Republican party under Thomas Jefferson's lead. S. The first census (1790) showed a population of 3,929,214. Collateral Reading. — Seelye's " The Story of Washington," 338, 340, 342-344; Schouler's " History of the United States," I., 223-234; II., 93, 97; Walker's " The Making of the Nation," 66-72, 99-103. CHAPTER XXX. Washington's administration — Continued Beyond the AUeghanies. — After the States had ceded their northwestern lands to the government two land companies were formed to settle the region under a law^ of Congress which set apart all lands there for sale at very low prices, the money to be used in the payment of the public debt. But if settlers were to go into that territory, the Indians there, who numbered about thirty thousand, and who re- mained hostile in spite of many treaties that had l)een made with them for the sale of their lands, must be conquered. These fierce savages claimed all the region north of the Ohio, and made ceaseless war upon the whites. They re- fused to regard the treaties by which Congress had bought their lands as binding upon them, saying that those who had sold their lands had no right to sell them. The treaty of peace between Great Britain and the United States required the British to surrender their military posts at Niagara, Detroit, and Mackinac, but they found an excuse for not doing this. The several States of the Union had made laws confiscating the property of Tories and for- bidding the collection of money due to them. In the treaty the general government had agreed to get these State laws repealed, and it had asked the States to fulfill the promise. The States had refused, and Great Britain continued to hold 206 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 its Western forts and to stir np the hostility of the Indians, supplying- them with arms, food, and clothing. Settlements North of the Ohio. — The first settlement made under the public land laws in what is now Ohio was made in 1788 by a Massa- Indian wars in the Northwest chusetts colony, and named Mari- etta. In the same year a settlement was made where Cincinnati now stands. Harmar's and St. Clair's Defeats. — The Indians were determined to drive these set- tlers away. For protection against them Fort Wash- ington was built at Cincinnati, and three hundred soldiers were sent to hold it. As the Indians continued to attack the settlers. General Harmar was ordered in 1791 to attack the Miami tribe, whose chief village was where Fort Wayne, Indiana, now stands. The Indians burned their village and fled. Harmar followed, but the Indians ambushed his men and forced him to retreat to his fort. General St. Clair, a Revolutionary officer, who was governor of the territory north of the Ohio, was sent in 1791 with a regiment to build forts, make roads and bridges, and hold the country, but the Indians surprised and routed him. Finally, in 1792, General Anthony Wayne, whom the In- dians called " the chief that never sleeps," was sent into the Indian country. He spent two years in building forts, en- listing troops, and trying to make peace with the savages. The British had built a fort on American soil on the Maumee River, and were supplying the Indians with food, ammuni- Washington's administration 207 tion, and military advice. When Wayne advanced against the Indians they fled to the neighborhood of this fort. Wayne attacked them (August 20, 1794) in a woodland full of fallen timber. After a desperate fight he beat them so completely that this " Battle of the Fallen Timber," as it was called, made an end of the war. In the next year Wayne made a treaty by which the tribes gave up all their claims to most of what is now Ohio. The French Republic Asks Aid. — A revolution broke out in France in 1789. A republic was established there, and in 1799 war was declared between France and England. The French hoped for aid from this country in return for what France had done for us during the Revolution, and France sent over as her minister a man named Genet (zhen-a). The Republicans here sympathized with the French, and would gladly have furnished privateers for use against Great Britain ; but the Federalists, who were in power, wanted to keep peace with Great Britain, and before Genet arrived Washington issued a proclamation declaring that this coun- Battle of the Fallen Timber 208 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 try was friendly to both the French and the British, and would not permit her citizens to aid or injure either of them. England Interferes with American Commerce. — The treaty which had been made between this country and England provided simply for peace. It did not establish friendly relations between the two nations, and Great Britain refused to let American ships trade with the British West Indies. When war came between France and England French ships were not safe on the seas. France, therefore, threw open to American ships all the ports in the French West Indies which had before been closed to our trade. This gave the Americans a profitable commerce, but it also helped France. So England interfered. British war ships were ordered to search all American ships going to or from France. If their cargoes turned out to be provisions belonging to American owners, they were either seized and paid for, or sent to some port in a neutral country. This interference excited great anger in the United States. Impressing American Seamen. — This was not all, however. In order to get sailors for her war vessels England ordered her ships to search American vessels on the high seas, and take from them every sailor who had been born an Englishman. As the British officers who made these seizures were sole judges as to whether a sailor was or was not a British subject, and as they badly needed men for their ships, they seized in fact many thou- sands of native Americans and made them serve in the Impressing an American seaman Washington's administration 209 British navy. This angered Americans so greatly that a new war with England at one time seemed certain. The Jay Treaty. — To avoid war Washington sent John Jay, Chief Justice of the United States, to England to make a treaty settling all matters in dispute. Jay succeeded in making a treaty by which Great Britain gave up the military posts she held in our territory, and allowed American ships Washington at Mount Vernon to trade in the West Indies. But she would not agree to stop seizing our sailors for her navy. In other clauses of the treaty each nation gave up something to the other, but on the whole the Americans thought that England had got the better of us in the bargaining. The Treaty with Spain. — Owning the mouth of the Mis- sissippi, Spain claimed the exclusive right to navigate that river. This cut off our Western settlements from the only route by which they could send their produce to market. 2IO FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF l8l2 In 1795 Spain, however, made a treaty with us, which opened the river to Americans. Retirement of Washington. — As his second term in the presidency neared its end, Washington issued a farewell address to his countrymen, and he refused to hold office longer. As soon as Adams, his successor, was inaugurated, Washington set out for his home at Mount Vernon, and on the journey was everywhere received with honors. He was the most illustrious of the many great men of the eigh- teenth century. He died on the 14th of December, 1799. New States. — During Washington's administration three new States were admitted to the Union — Vermont, March 4, 1 791; Kentucky, June i, 1792; and Tennessee, June i, 1796. These were the first States added to the original thirteen. Two of them lay west of the mountains, and their admission to the Union was the beginning of that wonder-story of national growth which, in a little more than a hundred years, has converted a region half as great as all Europe from a wilderness of woodland and prairie into populous and highly civilized States. Summary. — i- After the States had ceded to the government their claims to the Northwest Territory, many settlers removed from the older parts of the country into that region. The Indians north of the Ohio River were hostile, and for a year or two defeated every force sent against them; but at last General Anthony Wayne conquered them and secured a treaty (1795) by which they gave up their claims to most of what is now Ohio. 2. France having set up a republic, and being at war with Great Britain, asked aid of the Americans in 1793. This was refused, and our country remained neutral. 3. The British, however, interfered witli our commerce, and after a time began to seize American ships and take the sailors for service in the British navy. This very nearly brought about a war which was prevented, however, by the Jay treaty. 4. Spain claimed the right to forbid all navigation of the Mississippi by any but Spanish vessels. This shut out the Western settlers from a market for their produce. At last, in 1795, a treaty was secured which opened the river to all Americans. 5. At the end of his second term Washington refused to be re- THE ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS 211 elected, and went home to rest after his long and distinguished service to his country. He died in 1799, the most ilhistrious man in America. 6. Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee were admitted to the Union as States during Washington's administration. Collateral Reading. — Roosevelt's " Winning of the West," I., 78-86, 110-124, 134-144, 245-250, 268-271, 278-281; II.. 11-25; Seelye's "The Story of Washington," 345-348, 350, 35i. 355- CHAPTER XXXI THE ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS Election of Adams. — The election of 1796 saw the first contest of rival political parties for supremacy in our gov- ernment. John Adams was the chief candidate of the Fed- eralists, Thomas Jefferson the leading candidate of the Re- publicans. Adams received seventy-one electoral votes, JefTerson sixty-eight, other candidates (really candidates for Vice President) less. Under the system then in use this made Adams President and Jefferson Vice President. Trouble with France. — Jay's treaty prevented war with England, but it came near getting us into war with France. That countrv was now governed by a Direct- ory, which held that in mak- ing a treaty with Great Britain the United States had taken sides against France, and when our government sent Charles Cotesworth Pinckney to be our minister at Paris, the Directory refused to receive him, and asked him to leave France. News of this occurrence reached the United States just before Adams was installed as President. John Adams 212 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 The X, Y, and Z Proposition. — Fearing war with France, President Adams called an extra session of Congress to make preparations. About the same time he sent John Marshall, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, and Elbridge Gerry to Paris to settle all difficulties if possible. In- stead of receiving the three Americans as had been promised, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs sent agents of the Directory to them to suggest that as the only way to restore good feeling between this country and France they must secretly pay a large bribe to each of the five members of the Directory, and at the same time arrange for a money loan from the United States to the French Government. The Amer- ican Ministers refused to yield to such a de- mand. In their despatches to Congress Mar- shall and his companions did not give the names of the three agents who had asked for the bribe. They simply called them X, Y, and Z. From this the transaction came to be known as the X, Y, Z affair. When this matter was made public the people of America turned bitterly against the French. The popular cry was raised, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute." Those who had before sympathized with France now turned against that nation. Many of them had worn a red, white, and blue cockade as a sign of their sympathy with the French. They now put on a black cockade, which meant that they wanted war. The song, " Hail Columbia." was composed at this time, and sung throughout the land. ' Congress ordered the organization of an army, and ap- pointed Washington to be its commander. A naval depart- ment was also established in April, 1798, and vessels were sent out to sea as fast as they could be got ready. They captured several French men-of-war and many privateers. France did not really desire war with the United States, and so she made known her wish to reopen negotiations for Costume of the Di- rectory period THE ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS 21 3 peace. The difficulty was settled in September, 1800, be- tween American ministers and Napoleon Bonaparte, who had come to the head of the French government as the First Consul. Three Unpopular Laws. — When Adams, who was a Federal- ist, became President his party controlled the Senate, while the Republicans were in the majority in the House of Repre- sentatives. During" the excitement over the expected war with France the Federalists, being the war party, had gained strength among the people. They took advantage of this in order to enact three laws which proved to be displeasing to the people. These were passed in 1798. The first of them required every foreigner who came to this country to live here fourteen years before he could become a citizen. Only five years had been required before. The second law gave the President the right to order any alien or foreigner not naturalized, to leave the country if he considered it dangerous for the man to remain here. This was called the Alien Law. The third act made it a crime to oppose any measure of the government, or to write or say things to the discredit of the government, the President, or Congress. This was called the Sedition Act. These Alien and Sedition Laws were intended to keep for- eigners from coming to the United States and interfering with the management of pul)lic afifairs. The Resolutions of Ninety-eight. — In November, 1798, the legislature of Kentucky passed resolutions denouncing the Alien and Sedition Laws, and in December of the same year the legislature of Virginia did the same. These resolutions claimed for each State the right to set aside national laws, and this claim played an important part in the struggles over tariff laws and slavery during the next half century. Copies of the resolutions were sent to the other States. Only seven of them replied, and they differed in opinion with Kentucky and Virginia. Downfall of the Federal Party. — Before the Constitution was adopted the Federal party consisted of all men who 214 t'ROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 favored the acceptance of the Constitution by the States. After the government was organized upon the new plan the party consisted of those who wished to construe and apply the Constitution in ways which would strengthen the central government. Opposed to them were all who feared a strong central government as dangerous to the liberty of the States, and these presently formed themselves into the Republican party, as we have seen (page 202). When trouble arose with France the Federalists gained popularity by favoring war, but they lost it presently by sending a second mission to France after the first one had been so grossly insulted. The passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws still further weakened the Federalists. Demo- cratic feeling was rapidly growing throughout the country. When the election of 1800 occurred John Adams's party had grown too weak to reelect him. Chief Justice Marshall. — In the last months of Adams's term he made an appointment which in its influence upon American government and his- tory proved to be the most im- portant act of his life. He made John Marshall * Chief Justice of the United States. From his ap- pointment in 1 80 1 until his death in 1835 Marshall in his decisions interpreted the Constitution so logically, so consistently, and al- together so admirably as to give it a breadth and meaning which it could not otherwise have had. The Second Census, taken in John Marshall 1800, showed a population of * 5,309,000. The increase was largely in the region west of the mountains. The rich lands there were offered to settlers at very small cost, and multi- tudes of enterprising men seized the opportunity to better their condition. *Forbiography, see Appendix. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 21$ Summary. — i- John Adams and Thomas Jefferson were the leading candidates for President to succeed Washington. Adams was elected by a majority of the electors, Jefierson becoming Vice President. 2. Trouble broke out with France, and when ministers were sent to that country to settle it the French Minister of State demanded a bribe. This was refused, and for a time war was threatened. American ships captured several French war ships and privateers, but the matter was arranged peaceably in 1800. 3. During Adams's administration some laws were passed called the Alien and Sedition Laws, which greatly alarmed and offended many of the people. Democratic feeling grev\i so rapidly that when a new elec- tion came, in 1800, John Adams was defeated by his Republican rival, Thomas Jefferson. 4. John Marshall was appointed to be Chief Justice. Collateral Reading. — Schouler's " History of the United States," I., 273-287, 391-398, 423-426, 475-476; Walker's " The Making of the Nation," I37-I43, i45-i5o. CHAPTER XXXII Jefferson's administration The Election of 1800. — It has already been explained (page 197) that under the system first provided for the election of Presidents each elector voted for two candidates, and the one having- the highest number of electoral votes, if the choice of a majority of the electors, was to be President, while the one next to him in the number of votes became Vice President. In the election of 1800 the seventy-three Republican electors voted for Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr and the sixty-five Federal electors with a single ex- ception voted for John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. The Republicans intended that Jefferson should be Presi- dent and Burr Vice President. But as Jeft'erson and Burr had an equal number of votes neither was elected. The House of Representatives, therefore, under the Constitu- tion must choose one of the two to be President. 2l6 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF l8l2 The Federalists greatly disliked Jefferson, and most of them voted for Burr. The first ballot was eight States for Jefferson, six for Bnrr, and two blank, the representatives of two States being equally divided. As nine States were necessary for a choice, balloting was kept up for a week, amid great excitement, and there was danger that the 4th of JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 217 March would come before a choice could be made. To pre- vent this some of the Federalists cast blank votes, and Jef- ferson was elected President, leaving Burr to be Vice Presi- dent. In 1804 the Constitution was so amended as to prevent a like difficulty ni future. It was provided that each elector, instead of voting for two men for President, should vote for one for President and one for Vice President. The New Capital City. — -In the autumn of 1800 the capital was removed to Washington city, as had been provided by law ten years before. During that ten years the city had been laid out, and a capitol, of which Washington himself laid the corner stone, had been partly built. Jefferson was The Capitol at Washington, about I800 the first President inaugurated in the new capitol. He walked on foot and in ordinary dress to the building where he took the oath of office. It was his fixed purpose to intro- duce simple manners into governmental affairs. Jefferson's Measures.— The Republican majority in Con- gress repealed some laws made by the Federalists. They reduced the size of the army and navy, cut down the ex- penses of government, and used surplus revenues in paying the national debt. Jefferson introduced into the public ser- vice the theory that both political parties should be fairly represented in the offices, and that vacancies should be made only by the death, resignation, or necessary removal of those already in the service. He refused to appoint any of his own relatives to office on the ground that the people would not believe that such appointments were given for merit alone. 2l8 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 Trouble with Tripoli and Algiers. — The little Barbary States — Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco — lying on the northern coast of Africa, lived chiefly by piracy. Their swift armed vessels would lie in wait to capture and rob the ships of Christian nations, carrying off their crews to be sold as slaves, or to be ransomed by the payment of money. Instead of putting down these pirates, the nations of Europe protected their own trade by paying large sums of money every year as a tribute to the piratical states. In 1785 two American vessels were seized by the pirates and carried to Algiers, where their crews were sold as slaves. An effort was made to ransom them, but Algiers demanded as much as sixty thousand dollars for their release. Eleven more American vessels were captured in 1793, and. one hundred and nine men were carried into slavery. In 1795 the United States made a treaty with Algiers, paying that country a large sum of money for the freeing of all Americans who had been captured and enslaved. The American government also promised to pay tribute every year on condition that American ships should not be seized. Soon afterwards our government made treaties with Tunis and Tripoli, paying money for the release of captured Americans, but not promising an annual tribute, as had been done in the case of Algiers. In 1800 Tripoli de- manded that the United States should give her a frigate or a brig of war, and in the next year the Bey of Tunis sent word that he wanted forty cannon and ten thousand stands of arms. These things were not sent, and in 1801 the Pasha of Tripoli declared war on the United States. The "War with Tripoli. — President Jefferson would not con- sent that this country should pay tribute to petty piratical states, and sent over a little fleet of war vessels. Tripoli had sent out ships to meet and capture American merchant ves- sels, and the frigate " Philadelphia " blockaded some of these cruisers near Gibraltar, while the frigate " President " ran into the Mediterranean and captured a pirate vessel near the coast of Tripoli. This checked piracy for a time, but JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 2I9 did not end it completely. In 1803 Commodore Edward Preble was sent to the Mediterranean with additional ves- sels and ordered to take command. He directed the " Phila- delphia " and the sloop " Vixen " to blockade Tripoli. In chasing a blockade runner the " Philadelphia " struck an unknown rock and was captured by the Tripolitans. Her commander, Captain Bainbridge, and his crew of more than three hundred Americans were made prisoners. Decatur's Exploit. — It stung the American officers to the quick, as they lay off Tripoli, to see the " Philadelphia " lying in the harbor with the flag of Tripoli floating over her. A young officer named Stephen Decatur had command of a little ship which he had captured from the enemy and had named the " Intrepid." In this little ship he sailed into the harbor, carrying with him a Maltese pilot, whose speech w^ould not betray the fact that the " Intrepid " had an Ameri- can crew. The pilot hailed the men on the " Philadelphia " and reported that he had lost both his anchors. He asked permission to tie up his little ship by the side of the big one for the night. No sooner had Decatur made his ship fast to the " Philadelphia's " side than with his seventy-five officers and men he boarded her, drove her piratical crew overboard, set fire to her, and returned to the " Intrepid." As he sailed away to the sea the shore batteries pounded his little ship, while his men gave cheer after cheer of triumph. Decatur had not lost a man. Peace with Tripoli. — After two years more of blockading and fighting, a large American fleet appeared before Tripoli in 1805, and the Pasha quickly came to terms. He accepted a moderate sum as a ransom for his prisoners, and consented to a treaty of peace. The Purchase of Louisiana. — In ihe year 1800 Spain agreed with Napoleon to cede Louisiana back again to France. The agreement was kept secret for a time, Napoleon not being ready to take possession. The Spanish officer who was m control at New Orleans during this waiting time issued an order in 1802 forbidding Americans to ship their produce 220 Jefferson's administration 221 to New Orleans, as they had a right to do under the treaty made seven years before. The people who lived in the valley of the Mississippi were greatly excited over this order, which deprived them of a market for their goods. Not wishing to go to war in order to keep the French out of Louisiana, Jefferson got leave from Congress to buy New Orleans and the region round about, together with West Florida. James Monroe was sent over to help the Ameri- can minister at Paris in making the purchase. Napoleon at that time was on the eve of another war with England, and in view of that he offered to sell not only New Orleans, but the whole vast region then called Louisiana. This offer was so good that the American commissioners accepted it with- out v/aiting for orders, and within less than three weeks the whole matter was completed. The LTnited States paid fifteen million dollars for the territory thus gained. It was larger in area than the whole of the United States had been before. It included nearly all the region between the Alis- sissippi River and the Rocky Mountains. This region was soon divided into the two Territories of Orleans and Louis- iana. The Oregon Country. — A good many years before this time a certain Captain Gray * sailed from Boston to trade in the Oregon country on the Pacific coast, after which he went to China and on around the world, reaching home in 1790. Two years later he went to Oregon again, and entered the great river which the Indians called by that name. He named it after his own ship, the " Columbia." His discovery gave the United States a claim to all the territory drained by the Columbia River. Lewis and Clark's Expedition. — In 1804 Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on a most daring and romantic expedition up the Missouri River and across the Rocky Mountains to the Columbia. The great region in- cluded in the Louisiana purchase was in large part an un- known land. Lewis and Clark were sent to explore both * For biography, see Appendix. 14— Egg. Hist. 222 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF i8i; A trail followed by Lewis and Clark, and still in use that and the Oregon coun- try. After two years and four months spent in the wilderness, during w'hich time they had wintered on the Columbia River, the explorers returned to civi- lization. Their expedition, added to Gray's discovery, strengthened the claim of the United States to that far northwestern region. Pike's Exploration. — In 1805 ^i^d 1806 Governor Wilkinson, of Louisiana, sent Lieutenant Zebulon Pike to explore the West- ern country. Pike went up the Mississippi nearly to its source. In the next year he reached the neighborhood of the mountain which we now call Pikes Peak. Summary. — i- John Adams was defeated in 1800 for reelection to the Presidency. A tie vote between Jefferson and Burr threw the election into- the House of Representative, where Jefiferson was chosen Presi- dent. He was inaugurated in Washington city, which had become the capital during the year of his election. 2. After much trouble with the piratical states of North Africa Jefiferson refused to pay them the tribute they demanded as the price of letting our ships and sailors alone. Instead of paying tribute he sent war vessels to the Mediterranean. 3. Spain having ceded Louisiana back to France, Jefiferson pur- chased the whole of that region from Napoleon in 1803, thus securing for the United States nearly all the vast region between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. 4. Some years earlier an American ship captain had discovered the mouth of the Columbia River, and in 1804 an expedition under Lewis and Clark, sent out by Jefiferson, went over the Rocky Mountains and wintered on the Columbia. This gave to the United States a claim to all the Oregon country. Another expedition under Pike explored the sources of the Mississippi in 1805. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 223 Collateral Reading.— Schouler's " History of the United States," II., 16-18, 43-48; Walker's " The Making of the Nation," 168, 169, 177-180; McMaster's " History of the People of the United States," IV., 470- 473, 478. CHAPTER XXXIII Jefferson's administration — Continued The Election of 1804. — The election of 1804 was the first one held under our present method of choosing a President and Vice President. Thomas Jefferson, who was again the candidate of the Republicans for President, was reelected, with George Clinton, of New York, for Vice President. Burr, having become unpopular, was dropped. The Fed- eral party had by this time become very weak. British Interference with Our Commerce. — War between England and France was declared again in 1803, ^^d again the United States became involved in difficulties with both nations. Each tried to prevent American ships from trading with the other. During the previous war England had allowed American vessels to carry goods between France and her colonies, provided the ships did not sail directly from one French port to another, but stopped somewhere in the United States on the voyage. In 1805, however, England decided that American vessels must not carry French cargoes at all between that country and her colonies. Under this decision more than one hundred American ships were seized near our ports in that year, and a large part of their crews were forced into the British service. The Non-importation Act. — In April, 1806, Congress passed an act forbidding the importation from England to America of certain articles which could be made in this country. The object of this was to teach England the im- portance of the American market for her goods, and thus 224 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 compel better treatment for our merchant ships. The measure failed to accomplish its purpose and was soon repealed. Hostile Decrees of Great Britain and France. — England and France decided to injure each other by interfering with trade. Napoleon began it by forbidding British ships to enter the ports of Bremen and Hamburg. Next England declared France and all her allies blockaded. Napoleon in retvu^n issued a decree at Berlin declaring all English ports under blockade. In January, 1807, England put forth an order forbidding neutral ships to enter the ports of France or her allies, and in November of the same year another order was issued declaring that a neutral vessel attempting to enter any port in any country from which British ships were excluded should be lawful prey to England unless it had first landed in England. A month later Napoleon issued a decree from Milan declaring that no vessel bound for or hailing from Great Britain or her colonies should be considered a neutral, and that all such vessels should be subject to seizure. The Embargo.— These things greatly annoyed the Ameri- cans and injured their commerce. But this country was not then well prepared to make war in defense of her rights on the sea. President Jefferson was trying to pay off the debt incurred by the nation during the Revolution, and the time seemed near when that might be done. The country had prospered greatly under Jefferson's administration, and he thought that without going to war the United States might force the repeal of the offensive decrees of England and France simply by stopping all trade of this country with the outside world. On his recommendation Congress passed an act in December, 1807, which forbade any merchant ship to sail from the United States for any foreign port. This act was called " the Embargo of 1807," and sometimes " Jeffer- son's Embargo." The enactment of this law did much harm and no good. New^ England and New York suffered greatly by the de- Jefferson's administration 225 struction of their commerce, and some hot-headed people in the Eastern States even talked of dissolving the Union. The "Chesapeake" and the "Leopard." — In the spring of 1807 the United States frigate "Chesapeake" lay at Washington getting ready to sail for the Mediterranean. The British minister notified our government that the " Chesapeake " had in her crew three deserters from the British navy, and demanded their sur- render. The three men declared that they were American citizens who had been forced into the British service. In June the " Chesa- peake " sailed, but a Brit- ish war ship, the " Leop- ard," ran out ahead of her. When forty-five miles from land the " Leopard " hailed the " Chesapeake " and de- manded a muster of the crew in order that a Fight between the " Chesapeake " and " Leopard " search might be made for deserters. This demand was re- fused. The " Leopard " then fired a shot across the " Chesapeake's " bow as a signal for her to stop. But she refused to stop. Thereupon the " Leopard " opened fire upon her, and soon compelled her to sulmiit. The " Leop- ard's " officers boarded her and took off four of her crew, all of whom stoutly insisted that they were American citi- zens. When the " Chesapeake " returned and reported this out- rage there was great excitement, and war was freely talked 226 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF l8l2 of, but Jefferson decided first to demand reparation from Great Britain. The British government disowned the act of which Jefferson complained, and issued an order for the return of three of the men seized. One of them had died, but two were formally returned to the " Chesapeake." The British also paid an indemnity to the families of the men who had been killed on board the American ship. Burr's Conspiracy. — When Aaron Burr found himself at the end of his career in politics because of his conduct and character, w^hich were detested by men of all parties, he grew very bitter towards those whom he held responsible for his downfall. Among these was Alexander Hamilton, and Burr by way of revenge harassed him until he forced him into a duel and killed him. This aroused great anger, and Burr saw clearly that there was no further hope for him either in public life or in the practice of his profession of the law. He therefore formed a plan to set up an empire for himself in the Southwest. With a little body of men in 1807 he went down the Ohio and Mississippi as far as Natchez on his way to New Orleans. He there learned that his plans had been betrayed to the government. He sank his chests of arms in the river and fled. When arrested he was tried for treason on the ground that he had sought to separate Louisiana and the country west of the Mississippi from the Union. No act of the kind that the law calls treason could be proved against him, and he was therefore released. The First Northwestern State. — After Wayne's treaty with the Indians was made (1795) a great tide of emigration set in which rapidly peopled the Northwest Territory. In 1800 the Territory was divided, and its western part was erected into a new Territory called Indiana. The eastern part with new limits was admitted to the Union as the State of Ohio, February 19, 1803. Summary. — In 1804 Jefferson was reelected President, with very little opposition. 2. War having again broken out between England and France, both WATER TRAVEL 22/ of those countries adopted measures to injure each other's trade. These measures nearly destroyed American commerce. 3. What still survived of our commerce was ruined by the Embargo Act of 1807. This was a law stopping all trade between the United States and other countries. 4. The British still claimed the right to search American ships and take from them sailors whom they held to be Englishmen. The United States war ship " Chesapeake " was boarded by the British war ship " Leopard " in 1807, whose commander took off four of her sailors. Jef- ferson demanded reparation, and the British government ordered the return of three of the men seized and paid money to the families of the men who had been killed in the fight. 5. Having killed Alexander Hamilton in a duel, Aaron Burr found himself everywhere detested. In anger and disappointment he planned to set up an empire for himself in the Southwest. His plans were dis- covered, and he fled. He was afterwards arrested and tried for treason, but was not convicted. Collateral Reading. — Schouler's " History of the United States," H., 62, 96-98, 101-103, 119-122, 145-148, 158-165; Walker's "The Making of the Nation," 199-203. CHAPTER XXXIV WATER TRAVEL Boats and Boating. — Before the Revolution nearly all the settlements in this country lay either upon the seacoast or along the banks of rivers. The people's easiest method of getting about and of carrying their goods from one point to another was by boats. In the early colonial days, as we have seen, the boats were mainly canoes or very small sail- boats. -Little by little larger boats came into use, and espe- cially sloops and schooners, which had been introduced by the Dutch. Flatboats. — On the Western rivers the most familiar form of craft was the flatboat. This was a mere box, fifty or more feet in length and sixteen feet wide. It had no slope at bow or stern. The bow was merely a place for getting in and out. At the stern was a little cabin where the boat- 228 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF i8i2 men slept and did their rude cooking. Even after steam- boats came into use the greater part of the carrying on Flatboat Keel boat Western rivers was done with flatboats. Hundreds of them went down the Ohio and Mississippi every year. The Keel Boat. — Unhke the flatboat, the keel boat was not built to be broken up after a single journey. She was intended to ply both up and down the river. Keel boats were usually pushed up the stream with long poles. Where the current was too strong for this the boat was " cordelled," that is to say, she was pulled up the river by her boatmen, who walked on the bank, tugging at ropes so arranged as to make the steering easy. Early Experiments with Steam. — Robert Fulton * was not the inventor of the steamboat, but it was he who first brought steamboats into practical use. As early. as 1783 John Fitch had built a steamboat on the Delaware. After a time it was abandoned as a practical failure. Another man, named Rumsey, experimented with a steamboat in 1786. It was a failure from the first. Stevens's Experiment. — John Stevens, of Hoboken, New Jersey, on the Hudson, was a man of wealth and great * For biography, see Appendix. WATER TRAVEL 229 Stevens's steamboat mechanical ability. He worked for many years over the problem of using steam tO' drive boats. He finally built a boat with a tubular boiler and a screw propeller, two things which were brought back into use as new inven- tions long after Stevens had ceased to employ them. Stevens was a year be- hind Fulton in building a side-wheel steamboat and getting it to work well. As Fulton had secured the sole right to run steamboats on the Hudson, Stevens sent his craft to Philadelphia. Fulton's Success. — Those who had gone before Fulton with their experiments had tried nothing better than the old- fashioned steam engine then in use for pumping water. Watt had invented a much better kind of en- gine, and Fulton got per- mission to bring one of these to America. He went to England to superintend the building of it, and in 1807 he ran his first steamboat, the " Clermont," from New York to Albany and back again. This was the beginning of prac- tical steam navigation. Western Steamboats. — The great length of the Western rivers, and the lack of roads and bridges in that rapidly- growing region, gave special importance to steamboats in that part of the country. Only four years after the " Cler- mont " was launched on the Hudson, Fulton had a steam- boat afloat which ran on the Ohio from Pittsburg all the way to New Orleans in 181 1. Within a few years the West- ern rivers were thronged with steamboats of every size and style, and as the years went on these grew better and finer until at the time of the Civil War many of them were float- ing palaces. After the Civil War railroads were built in every direction, and little by little the steamboat lost its control of the carrying trade. The " Clermont " 230 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 Summary. — i. In colonial days, when most of the settlers lived near the coast, canoes, rowboats, and sailboats were their easiest means of travel. 2. When the settlers reached the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, flat- boats were used for floating down these rivers, and were broken up for lumber at the end of the voyage. Keel boats were also used, which were poled or " cordelled " up stream. 3. Fitch, Rumsey, and Stevens experimented with steamboats in the latter part of the eighteenth century, but Robert Fulton made the first successful steamboat, and ran it up the Hudson in 1807. 4. In 181 1 steamboats were launched on the Western rivers, and for many years were the favorite means for travel in that region. Collateral Reading. — Parton's "Book of Biography," 155-158; Mc- Master's " History of the People of the United States," IV., 397-407. CHAPTER XXXV. THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR OF l8l2 The Election of Madison. — Following the example of Wash- ington, Jefferson refused to be elected President for a third term. In 1808 James Madi- son was the Republican can- didate, and was elected by a large majority, with George Clinton for Vice President. The Repeal of the Embargo —The Non-intercourse Act. — Just before Madison took of- fice Congress repealed the embargo which had forbid- den all trade between this and foreign countries. In its place Congress enacted a James Madison Non-intercourse law. This act permitted trade with all countries except England and France, and authorized the President to permit trade with either of those countries whenever it should withdraw its unfriendly orders or de- THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR OF i8t2 23 1 crees. This act went into effect on the day of Madison's inauguration and was repealed in 18 10. Under it commerce quickly revived, but our ships were sometimes seized by the English and French. The act repealing it provided that if either Great Britain or France should cancel her hostile decrees American ships should be forbidden to trade with the other of the two nations. Napoleon announced that his decrees would cease to be in force after November i of that year if the United States would again declare non-intercourse with England. As England still refused to revoke her orders against us the President issued a proclamation on November 2 per- mitting trade with France, but forbidding it with Great Britain unless she should within three months revoke the hostile orders. This had no effect. British cruisers lay in wait for Ameri- can merchant vessels leaving port, and captured many of them. In May, 1811, a British frigate boarded an Ameri- can brig and impressed one of its passengers, a native of the United States, into the British service. A few days later the American frigate " President," which had been sent out to demand the delivery of the man, encountered the British ship " Little Belt " at sea. Somehow the two ships got into a fight with each other although war had not been declared. This affair still further angered the Amer- icans, and it was obvious that war was not far off. Indian War in the Northwest.- — In the meanwhile actual war with the Indians in the Northwest was in progress. It had been stirred up by Tecumseh and Elkswatawa, twin brothers, of the Shawnee tribe. They gathered around them men of all tribes, and taught them that the treaties by which Indian lands had been l)ought by our government were not binding. They held that no one Indian tribe could sell or cede its land, but that all the Indians owned it. Tecumseh made long journeys to different tribes, and drew into his scheme many young warriors who were eager to fight the white men. 232 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 In 1810 William Henry Harrison * made a treaty at Fort Wayne by which the Indians ceded to the United States three million acres of land on the upper Wabash, including the tract on which Tecumseh's Indians had settled, though they had no claim to it. Tecumseh threatened to kill the Indian chiefs who had made this treaty, and he gathered about him warriors enough to endanger the entire North- western region. Battle of Tippecanoe. — William Henry Harrison was at that time governor of Indiana Territory. He was a young man Battle of Tippecanoe of great personal courage and much military ability. In July, 181 1, he marched from Vincennes to attack Tecum- seh's brother at Tippecanoe Creek before he was ready to bring on the war. Harrison made demands of the In- dians which they asked time to consider, but as Tecumseh was absent the Indians set themselves to dancing and howl- ing until, becoming excited, they set upon the white men before daylight. In the battle that followed they were severely defeated. This was called the battle of Tippecanoe, and it made Harrison famous. But although the Indians were defeated Tecumseh was not crushed, nor had he and * For biography, see Appendix. • THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR OF 1812 233 his brother, who was called " The Prophet," lost their in- fluence over the Indians. The Declaration of War. — The elections of 18 10 had brought into Congress many men who were in favor of war with Great Britain in defense of our commerce. The States were already organizing their militia and preparing for the struggle. Madison was anxious to avoid war, but was at last induced to yield to the popular will, and on June 18, 181 2, war was declared by Congress. Plan of the Campaign. — The Americans planned to invade Canada and conquer it before troops could arrive from England. England, however, struck the first blow, taking Fort Mackinac, on an island in the strait between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. Hull's Surrender. — William Hull, governor of Michigan Territory, was made a brigadier general, and placed in com- mand of troops who were to in- vade Canada. He crossed into Canada on the morning of July 12, 1812, just above Detroit. Meeting no opposition he went into camp and issued a proclama- tion offering the protection of the United States to all Canadians who should take no part in the war. He fortified his camp, but delayed making an attack on Mai- den, the British post which lay near. On the 28th news came that Fort Mackinac had been taken, and Hull did nothing more except go back to Detroit. On the 1 6th of August the British General Brock, with an army much smaller than Hull's, crossed into Michigan, and Hull, without a fight, surrendered the fort, his army, and the Territory of Michigan. The West in I811-12 234 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 Two Other invasions of Canada were attempted, one of them by way of the Niagara River, and the other by way of Lake Champlain. Both completely failed. The War at Sea. — Great Britain at that time had more than a thousand fighting ships, while the United States had only sixteen, with a few gunboats. The officers of our navy were well trained and as gallant men as ever stood upon a deck. At the outset nothing was expected of our little navy except to defend the coast while the army should conquer Canada. The Capture of English Ships. — But while the army was failing in its first campaign, as we have seen, the gallant little navy was doing deeds that still echo in history. On July 13, three days before Hull's surrender, the American frigate " Essex," under Captain Porter, while cruising alone off the coast of Newfoundland, disguised as a merchantman, at- tacked and captured the British ship " Alert," which was convoying a fleet of transports. This was the first war vessel taken from the English, and though it was a much smaller ship than the " Essex " the capture was a surprise to both sides. Four days later five British ships chased the frigate " Constitution," and continued to pursue her for three days and nights ; but the American ship was so well sailed that she escaped in safety. The commander of the " Constitution " was Captain Hull, and his skill on this occasion gave him a high reputation for seamanship. One of the vessels which pursued the " Constitution " was the frigate " Guerriere." In the next month Captain Hull put to sea again in the " Constitution," and on August 19th he encountered the " Guerriere," and captured her after an engagement of only half an hour. Two months later the American sloop " Wasp " captured the English brig " Frolic." About the same time Decatur, with the frigate '' United States," attacked and captured the " Macedonian " near the coast of Africa. In spite of the distance, Decatur brought his badly shattered prize to port, in Connecticut. Finally, during this same year, the " Constitution," under THE BEGINNING OF THE WAR OF 1812 235 Captain Bainbridge, captured the British frigate "Java" near Brazil. As the war had grown out of England's aggressions at sea, both officers and men of the navy were ready to risk everything for victory. Orders to a commander, direct- ing him to stay in port, often found him beyond reach of delivery, he having put to sea in haste for fear that such orders would come. When battle was on, the officers of Cannon mounted for navy Flintlock musket American ships were so eager to board the enemy's vessel, that they sometimes held one another back in the efforts of each to be the first over the side of the ship. The " Hornet " Sinks the " Peacock."— The loss of live war ships in as many months was a grievous shock to England, and she blamed her naval authorities for having underrated the American navy. The next year opened with another loss for England. In February, 181 3, Captain Lawrence in the " Hornet " met the British ship " Peacock," and sank her so quickly that she carried down part of her own crew and three men from the " Hornet " who had gone to the rescue. The "Chesapeake" and the "Shannon." — Cap- tain Lawrence was promoted to the com- mand of the " Chesapeake " and joined her shortly before she was ready to sail from Cutlass Boston. He had no time to organize or 236 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 train his crew, and many of his men were untrustworthy. The British cruiser " Shannon " lay off Boston Harbor in full view, waiting for the " Chesapeake " to come out. Cap- tain Lawrence sailed out on June i, 18 13. Late in the after- noon the two ships met about thirty miles at sea, and the battle opened. It lasted only fifteen minutes. Lawrence fell mortally wounded. As he was carried from the deck he gave his last order: " Don't give up the ship." The British boarded the " Chesapeake " with little resistance and were soon in possession. Other American Losses at Sea. — In July of this year the American brig "Argos," cruising near the English and Irish coasts, captured a large number of British merchant vessels. The British brig " Pelican " encountered the " Argos " and captured her. Early in 1814 the " Essex " was captured and destroyed by two British vessels, the " Phoebe " and the " Cherub," after a gallant resistance. Summary. — i- James Madison was elected in 1808 to succeed Jeffer- son as President. 2. Congress repealed the Embargo but passed other laws concerning British and French interference with our commerce. These acts failed of effects, and the trouble with England grew worse. 3. Meanwhile a war with the Indians was going on in the Northwest. It was ended for a time in 181 1 by the battle of Tippecanoe, in which Harrison defeated the forces of the Indian chief Tecumseh. 4. Matters between this country and England grew steadily worse, and war was declared in the summer of 1812. 5. The United States had scarcely any navy, while the British navy was the strongest in the world. The American plan was for the navy to guard the coast while the army should push into Canada and conquer that region before the British could send armies to defend it. The plan failed completely. One of our three invading armies surrendered with- out a battle, and the other two accomplished nothing of moment. 6. On the other hand, our little navy did wonders that year. Our war ships captured five British armed vessels within five months, and set the country wild with rejoicing. During 1812 the results at sea were less unequal, several American ships being captured or destroyed. Collateral Reading. — Eggleston and Seelye's "Tecumseh," 151-155, 207-210, 216-223; Roosevelt's "The Naval War of 1812," 82-92; 283-289; Rhodes's " History of the United States," II., 30-37. THE WAR TO ITS CLOSE 237 CHAPTER XXXVI THE WAR TO ITS CLOSE Harrison with the Army of the Northwest. — The news of Hull's shameful surrender threw the people into a frenzy of anger, particularly in the West. They clamored loudly for the recapture of Detroit, and to that end General Win- chester, a Revolutionary officer, was appointed to command the Northwestern army. But tlie Kentuckians, who largely made up that army, refused to follow any one but Harrison, who had led them to victory at Tippecanoe. The President yielded and appointed Harrison to the com- mand. The River Raisin. — In January, 181 3, while leading the advance of Harrison's army, Winchester went to the relief of Frenchtown, in Michigan, on the River Raisin. The tow^n had been attacked by a force of English and Indians. As 15— Egg. Hist. 238 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 Winchester advanced, Colonel Proctor, of the British army, crossed the Detriot River on the ice, attacked the Ameri- cans with a much stronger force and overcame them. Win- chester was made prisoner, and surrendered his men. Proctor withdrew to his station at Maiden with six hundred prisoners, leaving the wounded Americans to be massa- cred by the Indians, though he had promised to protect them. Fort Meigs and Fort Stephenson. — In May, and again in July, Proctor with his British force laid siege to Fort Meigs, General Harrison's advanced post, but on both occasions he was beaten and forced to retire. He then made an at- tempt on Fort Stephenson, a weak stockade, with a single cannon to defend it. Major Croghan, a young Kentucky officer, made a brilliant defense, and repulsed a British force many times outnumbering his own. The Invasion of Canada. — In order to invade Canada suc- cessfully the Americans must first secure control of the Great Lakes. Captain Isaac Chauncey had been set to do this. He went in person in August, 1812, to Lake Ontario, where the British were strongest. By capture and purchase he soon gathered together a little fleet ready for use, while better vessels were building. By the spring of 181 3 he was so far in control of the lake that he could aid and protect a military expedition against the town of York, now known as Toronto. The town was captured, and the house in which the Parliament met was burned. In the next month the Americans attacked Fort George, at the mouth of the Niagara River, and after a sharp conflict the British with- drew and blew up the fort. They also abandoned the other forts on the Niagara frontier. Perry's Victory. — In March, 1813, Oliver Hazard Perry, a captain in the navy, was sent to Presque Isle, now Erie, with orders to form a fleet and secure control of Lake Erie. By September Perry had built five vessels, and secured four others by capture and by purchase. On the loth of Septem- ber Perry's fleet came within sight of Captain Barclay's little THE WAR TO ITS CLOSE 239 British squadron of six vessels in the western part of the lake. The British brought ah their guns to bear on the flagship " Lawrence," and she was soon battered beyond all use. Then Perry seized his ffag, which bore the motto " Don't give up the ship," and springing into a rowboat hurried to the " Niagara " under a galling fire from the enemy. Gaining the " Niagara's " deck he continued the fisfht with such vigor that he carried the " Niagara " Perry's victory on Lake Erie through the British line, and in fifteen minutes Captain Barclay was forced to strike his colors. It was in the flush of victory that Perry wrote his famous dispatch to General Harrison : " We have met the enemy, and they are ours — two ships, two brigs, one schooner and one sloop." Detroit and the Battle of the Thames. — When news came of Perry's victory, Harrison set out for his headquarters on the margin of the lake. His whole army assembled there and Perry's ships carried them to a point near Maiden. On reaching the fort, Harrison found it in ruins. Proctor had set fire to it and retreated in deadly terror of the vengeance 240 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF lSl2 of the Kentuckians, whose watchword was '* Remember the River Raisin." Harrison followed Proctor to Sandwich opposite Detroit, only to find that place also abandoned. He sent a brigade across the river to take possession of Detroit. Continu- ing the pursuit of Proctor's army Harrison overtook it on the River Thames, October 5, 1813. The British were drawn up under cover of a wood. A furious charge was made upon them, headed by Colonel Richard Johnson's regiment of mounted Kentuckians. These men were ac- customed to ride full tilt through the forest, carrying their rifles in their hands. Before their impetuous dash the Brit- ish line gave way, and when the Kentuckians reached their rear they wheeled about to the right and left, pouring a deadly fire into the broken lines. The British threw down their arms, and the whole force surrendered. In this battle Tecumseh, who had become an officer in the British army, was slain. Proctor escaped. The Campaign of 18 14. — In 18 14 the army on the Niagara frontier was placed under command of General Jacob Brown, with Winfield Scott, Edmond P. Gains and E. W. Ripley commanding brigades. The early part of the year was spent in drilling the men, and in July the army was put in motion. It took Fort Erie without a blow, and on the 5th the British were driven from a well chosen position on the Chippewa River. Three weeks later the British having been reenforced returned toward their former position and were met at Lundys Lane on July 25, by General Scott with the advance forces. General Brown arrived soon after dark with the main army and a battle followed which laSted until midnight. The Americans were victorious in this battle, but they were so badly outnumbered by the British that they retired the next day to Fort Erie. The British tried to recover Fort Erie but were unable to do so either by assault or by siege, though it was afterwards abandoned by the Americans. The Creek War. — In the Autumn of 18 12 Tecumseh had THE WAR TO ITS CLOSE 241 Seat of the Creek War visited the southern tribes of Indians, urging them to war against the whites and had won many of them by his elo- quence. After his depar- ture a comet appeared, and some of the Creek Indians along the Alabama took it for k message from Te- cumseh. Soon afterwards there came the shock of an earthquake which in the minds of the savages was also a threat from Tecum- seh. The British, through the Spanish at Pensacola, Florida, furnished these Indians with arms, and very soon afterwards they made war. The white people from the surrounding country fled to Fort Minims, not far from Mobile, and were there attacked and massacred in August, 1 81 3, by the hostile Creeks who were led by Wetherford, or " Red Eagle." Four hundred Americans, men, women, and children, were slain. The whites at once entered upon a war of extermination against the hostile Creeks, and many of the Indians were killed by the volunteer forces sent into their territory. General Andrew Jackson conducted this war on the Ameri- can side, and in March, 1814, he attacked and carried a strongly fortified and stoutly defended position held by the Creeks at the Horse Shoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River. Here Jackson won a complete and final victory, and for- ever broke the power of Wetherford and his Creeks. He made a treaty by which the Indians gave the greater part of their territory to the United States. The Capture of Washington and the Siege of Baltimore. — The fall of Napoleon, and the end of the long war with France, enabled England to put new vigor into her war with the United States. She increased her naval force, and declared our whole coast blockaded. Raids were made 242 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 at different points in New England. In August, 1814, General Ross, with four thousand five hundred men, landed in Maryland, and overthrew the American force at Bladens- burg, near Washington, where President Madison and his cabinet were on the field in person. When the militia re- treated in disorder, the British advanced to Washington, and set fire to the Capitol, the " White House," and other public buildings, in retaliation for the burning of York, Canada, the year before. The next day they withdrew unmolested. A month later Ross made an attempt to capture Balti- more. He was vigorously resisted and finally beaten off. Fort McHenry, which guarded the city, was furiously bom- barded by the British fleet for a whole day and night, but it held out to the last, and the British fleet withdrew from Chesapeake Bay. It was during this bombardment that our patriotic song, " The Star Spangled Banner," was written. Francis S. Key, the author of the poem, had been sent to the fleet to secure the release of some prisoners, and the Brit- ish detained him there till the bombardment was ended. As he sat there a temporary prisoner, on board an enemy's vessel, watching a bombardment on which the fate of Balti- more and perhaps of the whole nation depended, he was moved to write the stirring lines of that song. Macdonough's Victory — Jackson at Pensacola. — In Sep- tember, 1814, a British army of twelve thousand men, sup- ported by a strong fleet of fighting ships on Lake Cham- plain, invaded New York from Canada. Commodore Mac- donough, in command of a little fleet of American ships, anchored at Plattsburg to await the coming of the enemy. When they came a desperate combat occurred (September 11) and at the end of two hours and a half the last of the British ships had surrendered. The land forces had mean- while made some show of attacking Plattsburg, Init seeing their fleet completely beaten they retreated in confusion. A month before this (August, 181 4) a British force landed at Pensacola, Florida, and fortified themselves there. In THE WAR TO ITS CLOSE 243 November, General Jackson* marched from Mobile, at- tacked the British at Pensacola, carried the place, and drove the enemy out of the fort. He then withdrew, leaving the Spanish authorities in possession of the town. Battle of New Orleans. — The object of the British in raid- ing" the New England coast, and attacking Washington and Baltimore, was largely to intimidate the Americans, and hold their attention while preparations were making Battle of New Orleans for an invasion of Louisiana, and the capture of New Or- leans, which would give the British control of the Missis- sippi. In November, 18 14, fifty ships sailed from Jamaica for New Orleans, carrying an army of twelve thousand English veterans, under General Pakenham. But Jackson, too, was on his way to New Orleans. Placing the city under military law, the great backwoods * For biography, see Appendix. 244 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 1812 general set to work to create an army out of such materials as he could find. He formed companies of free colored men, and other companies of convicts taken from the pris- ons, and enlisted all the merchants and their clerks who were fit to fight. He drilled and disciplined these, and soon had about five thousand men, including three hundred Tennessee volunteers under Cofi^ee, who had fought des- perately in the Creek war. He erected batteries, and armed a little ship in the river for use as a gunboat. On December 23 half the British army appeared a few miles below New Orleans, and Jackson, when he heard the news, cried : " We'll fight them to-night." After dark Jackson assailed them with his motley little force, throwing them into confusion, and compelling them to wait for re- enforcements before attempting to march into the city as they had expected to do on the next morning. On the 8th of January, 181 5, the whole British army stormed Jack- son's works. They were repulsed with great slaughter, and Pakenham was killed. Treaty of Peace. — Two weeks before this battle was fought a treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain had been signed at Ghent, in Europe, but news traveled so slowly in those days that it was not until Feb- ruary that tidings of this treaty reached New York. News of Jackson's brilliant victory had spread all over the coun- try a week before. The treaty of peace gave the United States none of those things for which the war had been fought. But the struggle had won for this country such a position among nations that Great Britain thereafter re- spected the rights of Americans. The Hartford Convention. — The Federalists had from the first opposed the war with England, and the last strong- hold of that party was in the New England States. The people there were divided in opinion regarding the war. They feared that peace could never be made except on terms unfavorable to New England interests. In October, 1814, a convention was held at Hartford, Conneticut, for the pur- THE WAR TO ITS CLOSE 245 pose of uniting the New England States, and making certain demands on the National government. The session was secret, but it was thought that the Fed- eralists were planning to withdraw the New England States from the Union. This belief caused great anger in other parts of the country. The Dey of Algiers. — The Dey of Al- giers took advantage of the withdrawal of the United States cruisers from the Mediterranean during this struggle to declare war against us. An American vessel was captured by the pirates, and her crew sent into slavery. When our war with England was ended, the United States sent a squadron of eleven vessels, commanded by Decatur, to deal with the piratical state. When Deca- tur's ships appeared before Algiers the Dey fell into a fright, and gave up his prisoners and his claim to the pay- ment of tribute. Algerian pirate Summary. — i. After Hull's surrender General Harrison was sent to command the Army of the Northwest. A part of his force was defeated, and the wounded left to be massacred by the Indians on the River Raisin. 2. In 1813 the British twice besieged Fort Meigs, but were forced to retire. An American force crossed Lake Ontario, took the town of York, burned the Parliament building there, and forced the British to abandon all their posts along the Niagara. 3. In September, 1813, Captain Perry's fleet captured the British squadron near Sandusky, Ohio. This enabled Harrison's army to cross into Canada, where, after recovering Detroit, it captured the whole British army at the battle of the Thames, October, 1813. 4. In 1812 the Indians in Alabama and Georgia had been stirred up by the chief Tecumseh and armed by the British. They made war upon the Americans. General Andrew Jackson completely routed them. 5. In the summer of 1814 General Brown took Fort Erie, drove the British from the Chippewa River, and won the fierce battle of Lundys Lane. 246 FROM THE REVOLUTION THROUGH THE WAR OF 181 2 6. In August, 1814, General Ross landed in Maryland, entered Wash- ington and set fire to the public buildings there. A month later he besieged Baltimore, but was stoutly resisted and finally beaten off. 7. In September, 1814, Commodore Macdonough captured the whole of the British squadron on Lake Champlain. 8. The British landed an army below New Orleans on December 23. Jackson attacked and threw them into confusion, thus securing time in which to fortify. On the 8th of January, 1815, the British assailed Jackson's little army, but were terribly beaten. g. A treaty of peace had been signed two weeks before this battle, but neither side knew it. Although the subject was not mentioned in the treaty Great Britain let our ships alone thereafter. 10. During this war with England the Dey of Algiers again declared war upon us. As soon as peace was made with Great Britain an American fleet was sent to bring the Dey to terms. It did so quickly. Collateral Reading. — Roosevelt's " The Naval War of 1812," 262- 271, 387-309; Parton's " Life of Andrew Jackson," II., 188-209; G. C. Eggleston's " Red Eagle," 136-301. THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE CHAPTER XXXVII THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING Monroe's Election.— The Republicans had gained great favor with the people during the war of 1812, which was called " the second war for independence," and in the presidential election of 1816 the Republican candidate, James Monroe,* of Virginia, was chosen with only thirty- four electoral votes against him. Monroe had been one of the leaders of the Repub- licans from the beginning, and was Secretary of State under Madison. He was very popular, and at the end of his first term was re- elected with only one elec- toral vote against him. The time of his administration was called " The era of good feeling." The Federal party was almost extinct, as a result of its opposition to the war. The Seminole War and the Acquisition of Florida. — The Seminole Indians in Florida had long been the enemies of the Americans. Encouraged by the Spanish and British, after the war of 1812 had ended, they continued to ravage the frontiers of Georgia and Alabama. They were assisted * For biography, see Appendix. 247 James Monroe 248 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE in this by runaway negroes, to whom a British captain had given a strong fort heavily armed and suppHed with a great quantity of powder. These negroes were especially active in war upon the .Vmericans, and in 1816 the Spanish Gov- ernor at Pensacola was asked to turn them out of their fort. As he did not do this an American force assailed the strong- hold. A hot shot fell into the powder magazine, which blew up and killed two hundred and seventy negroes, leav- ing only thirty to escape. The ravages continuing, General Jackson was sent to sup- press the Indians. Without authority from the government he marched into the Spanish territory, captured some towns, hanged two British subjects, and then took Pensacola itself. Our government afterwards gave up the town to the Span- ish to whom it belonged, and in 18 19 Spain made a treaty defining our southwestern boundary (see maps, pp. 220, 256-7) and selling all of Florida to the United States for five million dollars. The treaty was ratified in 1821, and Gen- eral Jackson took possession of Florida as its governor. The Monroe Doctrine. — Mexico and the Spanish colonies in South America, one after another, threw off the authority of Spain, and were recognized as independent republics by the United States. The European powers were afraid of the growth of republican ideas and opposed to the setting up of republics anywhere. In 181 5 Russia, Austria and Prussia formed what was called the Holy Alliance to sup- press all republican movements in Europe. In 1823 this Holy Alliance decided to extend its operations to America, and help Spain recover her lost colonies. In this they sought England's help. The British government refused, and offered to join the United States in protecting the little republics. By w^ay of giving notice of our attitude in this matter, Monroe sent a message to Congress (December 2, 1823) in which he reminded Europe that this country in no way in- terfered with affairs in the Old World, and set forth what has ever since been known as the Monroe Doctrine. The THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING 249 message declared " That the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintained are henceforth not to be considered as sub- jects for future colonization by any European powers." It further gave notice to the European powers " That we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety." Referring to the Spanish-American republics the message went on to declare that the United States " Could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them or controlling in any other manner their destiny by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition to- ward the United States." This was a Declaration of In- dependence for all America, and our government has ever since maintained the principle. The Peopling of the West. — The Census. — During the hard times that accompanied and followed the War of 181 2- 15, a great emigration from the more easterly States had poured into the Mississippi valley, rapidly filling up the fertile re- gions west of the \ Appalachian Mountains. The census of i 8 i o showed- a popula- tion of 7,240,000 in the whole country, and the number of people had in- creased by 1819 to about 9,000,000. The West had grown faster than the country as a whole had done, and new States had been rapidly created in that quarter. Louis- iana was admitted to the Union April 30, 1812; Indiana, December 11, 1816; Mississippi, December 10, 1817; Illi- nois, December 3, 1818; and Alabama, December 14, 1819. CHJSettedaea n 1790 □Dots indicate regions set between 1790 and 1810 Settled area in 1810 250 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE Then for the first time a Territory (Missouri) lying wholly west of the great river and in the latitude of the Northwest Teritory, asked admission as a State, and for the first time the question of slavery presented itself to the country in troublesome form. The Missouri Compromise. — During the early years after the Constitution was adopted all the States north of Mary- land and Delaware, where slave labor was not profitable, had gradually abolished slavery. In the South slavery had become very profitable. Near the end of the eighteenth century Eli Whitney * had invented a machine called the cotton gin. Before that time it had not been profitable to raise cotton, because of the difficulty of removing the seeds. This was so great that a person working at it could not remove the seeds from more than a pound or so of cotton in a day. Eli Whitney's ma- chine enabled a man to remove them from a thousand or two thou- sand pounds in a day, and cotton became the Model of cotton gin great staple crop of all the far southern States. Negro slaves were the best laborers in the cotton field, and so slavery came to be a valuable labor system there. The older States in that region retained it, and their people rapidly settled the southern Territories west of them, open- ing cotton plantations there, to be cultivated by their ne- groes. Every new State formed out of territory south of the Ohio River came into the Union with slavery estab- * For biography, see Appendix. THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING 25 I lished, while under the ordinance of 1787 every State formed out of the territory northwest of the Ohio prohibited slavery. Thus, in 1819, there were eleven free States and eleven in which slavery existed. The people of the two sections had come to have different interests, and to wish for different national laws. Each section wished to prevent the other from getting too much power. In 1 8 19 Maine asked admission as a State, and at the same time the Territory of Missouri applied for a like privilege. There were slaves held in the Missouri Territory, and the people there wished their State to come into the Union with a constitution permitting slavery. Many people in the North were unwilling to have slavery established in a State so far north, or to have it extended into any part of the region west of the Mississippi. But the Southern members of Congress refused to admit Maine as a free State unless the Northern members should allow Missouri to come in with slavery. After much discussion the matter was settled for the time by what is known as the Missouri Compromise, a measure supported, though not devised by Henry Clay.* This com- promise provided that Missouri should be admitted with slavery, but that slavery should be forever prohibited in all the rest of the Louisiana purchase lying north of latitude 36° 30', the southern line of Missouri (see map, pp. 256-7). As Texas then belonged to Mexico, the United States owned very little territory south of the compromise line and west of the Mississippi River. The angry discussion of this matter had aroused a good deal of hostility between the people of the two sections, and from that time until the Civil War the slavery question was a constant source of trouble. Lafayette's Visit. — In 1824 Lafayette came to visit the country he had done so much to help in its struggle for inde- pendence. He visited every State and all the important cities, and was received everywhere with enthusiasm. Con- * For biography, see Appendix. 252 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE A reception to Lafayette gress voted him two hundred thousand dollars and a town- ship of land, or twenty-three thousand acres, in return for his services in the Revolutionary War. He laid the corner- stone of Bunker Hill Monument. New Tariff Laws. — When the first tariff act was passed, in 1789. there was very little manufacturing in this country. The duties under that tariff were laid upon imports chiefly for the purpose of raising money for the government. When the war of 181 2 came the tariff duties were doubled by way of meeting the cost of the war. All of these early tariffs were mainly for revenue, though in all of them some provision was made for protecting and developing American manufactures. The Embargo of 1807 and the Non-intercourse Act had shut out British goods, and for lack of them Americans had begun manufacturing many things which had not been made THE ERA OF GOOD FEELING 253 in this country before. When the foreign trade was opened again by the ending of the war, the British manufacturers sent over large quantities of goods, and sold them so cheap that American manufacturers were alarmed lest their busi- ness should be ruined by competition. It cost more to manufacture goods in America than in England where labor was much cheaper. The manufacturers, therefore, desired further tariff protection, and in 1816 a new law was passed which raised the duty on cotton cloth, woolen goods and articles made of iron. This was the first tariff act in which the principle of protection was made prominent. The Tariff of 1824. — Another tariff act was passed in 1824. It increased the duties already in force, and taxed many articles for the express purpose of protecting American manufacturers against their foreign rivals. This tariff was made almost wholly for the sake of protection, but it promised to yield more revenue than the government needed. Henry Clay and others, therefore, proposed that the extra money should be used to build roads, dig canals and make other " internal improvements." Henrv Clay called this policy of impos- ing high duties for the pro- tection of home manufac- turers, and making roads and the like at the expense of the national government, "" the American System." The Election of 1824. — There was now no foreign question to disturb the countr}^, and the Missouri Compromise had quieted the slavery dispute for a time, at least. There were four presidential candidates in 1824, all of them Repub- licans. They were Craw- 16 — Egg. Hist. John Quincy Adams 254 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE ford, John Quincy Adams, Clay and Jackson. The Federal party was dead. Jackson got more electoral votes than any other candi- date but not a majority of all. There was, therefore, no election by the people, and the choice of a president fell to the House of Representatives, which elected John Quincy Adams.* John C. Calhoun * was chosen Vice President by the electoral vote. New Political Parties. — Soon after Adams became Presi- dent the old Democratic-Republican party was divided into two parties. At first these were called " Adams men," and " Jackson men," but the Adams men took the name of Na- tional Republicans, and the Jackson men came to be called Democrats. The National Republican party included many of the old Federalists, and it wished, as the Federalists had done, to strengthen the central government. It favored Clay's policy of internal improvements, a protective tarifif and a national bank. The Democrats opposed all of these measures. Population and the States. — The census of 1820 showed a total population of 9,630,000. Maine was admitted as a State, March 15, 1820, and Missouri, August 10, 1821, swelling the total number of States to twenty-four. Summary, — i- In 1816 James Monroe was elected President with little opposition, and in 1820 he was reelected with only one electoral vote against him. The Federal party was almost extinct, and nearly everybody was now a Republican. This period was called the " era of good feeling." 2. The Seminole Indians continued to make war on the whites in Alabama and Georgia. As the Spanish authorities in Florida would do nothing to suppress them and their runaway negro allies, General Jackson was sent to rid the border of this annoyance. He marched into Florida, seized Pensacola and compelled a peace. In 1819 Spain sold Florida to the United States. 3. President Monroe in 1823 sent a message to Congress in which he gave notice that European nations must not interfere with affairs on this side of the ocean. * For biography, see Appendix. ROADS, CANALS, AND RAILROADS 255 4. When Missouri was ready to come into the Union as a State a great quarrel arose over the question whether slavery should be per- mitted in that State. After long discussion the question was settled by the Missouri Compromise (1820). 5. In 1824 Lafayette visited this country and was welcomed by the government and the people. 6. During Monroe's administration the tariff was greatly increased, and Clay urged the policy of constructing roads and canals at the ex- pense of the general government. 7. In the election of 1824 there was no Federal candidate, but four Republicans were voted for, no one of whom got a majority of the elec- toral votes. The House of Representatives chose John Quincy Adams to be President. Collateral Reading. — Schouler's " History of the United States," III., 28.3-289; Rhodes's "History of the • United States," II., 30-37- CHAPTER XXXVIII ROADS, CANALS, AND RAILROADS Land Travel before the Railroad. — The Indian trail was the only road through the forest in the early days of settle- ment, and travelers went about on foot. Then came the saddle horse and pack horse, but the roads were rough and narrow tracks, winding among trees which were " blazed " to mark the way. The trader carried his wares in canoes and shallow boats. Gradually roads were made and freight was carried in large covered wagons. As the Revohitionary period drew near, public stage wagons were introduced. There were no bridges over the large streams, and stage passengers had to be carried over in boats. The Cumberland Road. — The rapid settlement of the Ohio Valley and the region west of the Alleghanies made neces- sary the improvement of means of communication with the East. When Ohio came into the Union in 1803 it was agreed that a part of the money which the sale of govern- ment lands in that State should bring should be used in the building of a waeon road to connect the Ohio River with ^57 258 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE the Atlantic coast. Plans for this road were formed in 1806, and the work was soon begun. The road began at Cumberland, in Maryland, and followed very nearly the route which Braddock had marched in 1755. This " Cum- berland road " was thrown open to the public in 181 8. At the end of every twelve miles the stage horses were changed and wagoners got their meals at taverns. In the mountains the taverns or " wagon stands " were some- times only a mile apart. In these a grate which would hold six bushels of coal was used to keep the wagoners warm in winter. The teams were usually of six horses. That part of this highway which lay west of Wheeling was commonly called the national road. It was intended to extend it to the The Cumberland road western limit of the settlements, but the coming of railroads rendered this unnecessary, and in 1831 the great thorough- fare was handed over by Congress to the care of the States through which it passed. The Erie Canal. — Another important avenue of trade and travel which preceded the railroad was the Erie Canal. De Witt Clinton. Governor of New York, was determined to connect the Hudson River with the great lakes by a water- way. On the 4th of July, 181 7, work was begun on the canal which was to accomplish this, and it was continued without interruption until it was completed. This canal was three hundred and sixty-three miles in length. On October 26, 1825. the water of Lake Erie was let into the great ditch at Buffalo and a long procession of canal boats started for Albany, where they arrived on November 2. ROADS, CANALS, AND RAILROADS 259 The boats were then towed down the Hudson to Sandy Hook, and there Governor Clinton, whose boat, the " Sen- eca Chief," headed the procession, poured a keg of. water from Lake Erie into the Atlantic Ocean. This canal was intended to make New York city greater Passenger canal boat than Philadelphia, and it accomplished that purpose. It brought the products of the West to the sea, and carried goods from the East to the West at a cost greatly less than ever before. And with the connecting canals and natural waterways farther west, it has ever since kept down the cost of freight carriage. It also quickened travel at first. A passage of seven days between New York and Buffalo seemed then something wonderful. But only five years were to go by before another device for swift travel was to outdo all that had gone before. The Railroad. — The first railroads in this country had wooden rails, and the cars on them were drawn by horses. They were built to carry coal a few miles from mines to the nearest river or canal. The first railroad in this country which was intended to carry freight and passengers was the Baltimore and Ohio line. It was planned to run from Baltimore to Wheeling. The first thirteen miles of it were completed in 1830, but the cars were drawn by horses. Peter Cooper* built the first ♦ For biography, see Appendix. 26o THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE Early locomotive locomotive used on that railroad in 1830. The first railroad in America that had as much as a hundred miles of track was the line from Charleston, South Carolina, to Hamburg, and on that railroad the first train was drawn by a loco- motive at Christmas, 1830. After that the extension and improvement of railroads was very slow for a time, but con- stant. It was not until after the Civil War that air brakes, « im- proved couplings, safety plat- forms, steel rails fastened together at the ends, and other devices to make travel safe were introduced. Until the middle of the nineteenth century there were no such things as through trains over long distances. Every railroad was independent of every other. Each covered a comparatively short space, and at the end of each the passenger had to change cars, and often to wait two or three hours, even in the middle of the night. In going from New York to Cincinnati or Chicago or St. Louis, or even to Richmond, the traveler must change cars four, five, or six times, making long omnibus journeys from one railroad to another. There were no sleeping cars, no chair cars, no dining cars. All this seems well-nigh incred- ible in our day, when everybody is familiar with through express trains that whirl passengers across the continent at from forty to sixty miles luxurious sleeping, drawing-room, and dining cars, with every comfort, including electric lights, libraries, bath- rooms, and barber shops. We have now in the United States over two hundred thousand miles of railroads, or more than enough to girdle the earth at the equator eight times. We have more miles Early car an hour in ROADS, CANALS, AND RAILROADS 261 Railroads, 1830, and 1903 of railroad than all Europe combined, and nearly as many as all the world outside our country. Summary. — i. Wagon roads succeeded the Indian trails as a means of travel in America. These were gradually improved and extended. 2. In 1806 the national road, from Cumberland, Maryland, to the Ohio River and the West, was begun. It was opened to the public in 1818. 3. The Erie Canal was begun in 1817 and completed in 1825. 4. In the early part of the nineteenth century railroads with wooden rails were used in hauling coal from the mines and rock from quarries by means of horses. 5. In 1830 a short road running west from Baltimore was opened for freight and passengers, horses pulling the trains. Later in the same year the first steam locomotive built in America was used on a railroad in South Carolina. There are now over 200,000 miles of railroad in the United States. Collateral Readings. — Adams's " Railroads: Their Origin and Prob- lems," 3950; McMaster's '" History of the People of the United States," IV., 407-419. 262 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE CHAPTER XXXIX JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION The Election of Andrew Jackson. — The election of 1828 was a bitter personal contest between the candidates, An- drew Jackson and John Ouincy Adams. Though a man of high character, Adams was not personally popular. While Jackson, as the hero of New Orleans, was in high favor. Besides this the plain people, espe- cially in the West and South, were enthusiastic for liim because he was one of themselves. He was elected by one hundred and sev- enty-eight electoral votes to only eighty-three for Adams. The Spoils System. — When he became President, Jack- son acted upon the principle that " to the victors belong the spoils." He turned out of office those who were op- posed to him in politics, and put his own friends in their places. He was the first President who used the public offices in this way as rewards for political service. During his administration the Postmaster-General became a mem- ber of the Cabinet. The National Bank. — The charter of the first nationti bank, established in 1791, expired in 1811. As there was much opposition to the idea of a national bank, a new charter was refused. The war of 1812 left the country so much embarrassed for money that the State banks could not Andrew Jackson JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 263 redeem their bills in gold or silver, and so, in 181 6, a new national bank was chartered for twenty years. When prosperity returned the people grew very jealous of the. national bank, whose branches in various cities took busi- ness away from the State banks. A great fear arose, also, that a national bank, controlling the money affairs of the country, might make itself dangerous in politics. The charter of the bank would not expire until 1836; but in 1832 its friends, having a majority in Congress, thought it a good time to grant it a new charter. Congress passed a bill to that effect, but Jackson vetoed it. The Tariff of 1828. — A new tariff bill was passed in 1828. It imposed much higher protective duties than had been known before in this country, and these were so arranged that the measure satisfied nobody. John C. Calhoun, the Vice President, nicknamed it " The Tariff of Abomina- tions." The South had hardly any manufacturies, and the southern people wanted to buy foreign goods without pay- ing high duties on them. The South, therefore, felt itself wronged and injured by a tariff which forced the people of that region to pay high prices for their goods, and gave them no benefit in return. This seemed to them the same thing as requiring them to pay a tribute to the manufac- turers of the Middle and Eastern States. This tariff did not satisfy even the people of the manufacturing States, because in trying to please all who asked for protection this law in- jured many of them quite as much as it benefited them. Nullification. — Many of the features of this tariff were changed by a new law in 1832. But this new law still re- tained the very high protective duties of 1828. A State con- vention was held in South Carolina by which it was declared that the tariff as it stood was null and void in South Caro- lina, and that the duties imposed by it should not be charged on goods imported into that State after February i, 1833. This was nullification. It was an attempt on the part of a State to say that a national law should not be enforced within that State. 264 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE Jackson was not in favor of a protective tarifif, but he did not believe that the Union could hold together if any State could thus nullify its laws. He at once determined to com- pel South Carolina to submit to the law. He sent ships and soldiers to enforce the payment of duties. The Compromise Tariff. — In this crisis Henry Clay pro- posed and Congress accepted a compromise. A new bill was passed providing for a gradual reduction in the pro- tective duties, so that within ten years the highest of them should not exceed 20 per cent of the value of the goods taxed. This compromise settled the difficulty. Indian Affairs. — In 1832 occurred what is called the Black- hawk War. The Indian chief, Blackhawk, at the head of the Sacs and Foxes, crossed the Mississippi to reclaim the land east of that river, which these tribes had once owned. He was beaten in two battles, and the Indians gave up their claims. In the same year the chiefs of the Seminoles agreed to remove their tribe from the Southeastern States to lands west of the Mississippi, but the treaty was not ratified for two years, and then some of the chiefs refused to obey it. The opposition was led by a chief named Osceola, and seven years of bitter war ensued. At the end of it those Seminoles who survived were removed to the Indian Territory. The Creeks, Choctaws, Chickasaws, and other tribes had already removed to that Territory, where lands had been given" to them in exchange for those they had given up in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, and Tennessee. The Indian Territory — which then included most of what are now Kansas and Nebraska — was set apart expressly for the Indians, under a policy which planned to settle all the tribes there. It was thought that that region was too remote ever to be wanted for white settlement, and that the removal of the Indians to it would settle the Indian question once for all. Jackson Reelected. — In 1832 Henry Clay was the candi- date of the National Republicans, and Andrew Jackson of the Democrats. A third party called the Antimasons nominated William Wirt, of Virginia, as their candidate. Jackson's administration 265 This party grew out of the fact that in 1826 a tailor named WilHani Morgan in western New York had written a book professing to reveal the secrets of the freemasons. Mor- gan disappeared suddenly. Stories were told to the effect that the masons had killed him and sunk his body in Lake Ontario. The affair created a great excitement, and started a political party which was strong enough to cast 70,000 votes in 1829 and to carry Vermont in 1832 and Pennsyl- vania three years later. It was this party's purpose to keep freemasons out of public office on the ground that a free- mason was a man who had bound himself to obey the com- mands of a secret order, even though obedience should make him a law breaker. Jackson was reelected by a heavy majority. The Removal of the Deposits. — Jackson was determined to break down the national bank at once. Without consulting Congress, he ordered the Secretary of the Treasury not to deposit any more government money in the bank, but to place the nation's funds in State banks instead, and to draw upon the deposits in the national bank for all expenses of the government until those deposits should be exhausted. This order was issued in September, 1833. The national bank thereupon decided not to lend so much money as it had done before to merchants, manufacturers, and others. There were many business failures, and the country grew greatly excited. Some blamed the national bank, and some blamed the President. The National Republicans in 1834 began to call themselves " Whigs," and tried to unite in one party all men who were opposed to Jackson, whom they nicknamed " King Andrew." The Government Revenue. — The high tariff and the sale of western lands yielded so much money that in 1835 the government paid off the last of its debts and still had more money than it needed by about thirty-five million dollars a year. It was decided to get rid of the surplus money by distributing a large sum among the States. The money was not given outright to the States, but merely lent to 266 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE them, though it was understood that the government would never ask for its return. It has never done so. Wildcat Banks. — Little banks had sprung up every- where under various State laws. Some of them had capital and some had not. But all of* them issued bank notes to be used as money, and speculators went on buying government land and paying for it in these notes. Such banks were called wildcat banks, and their notes wildcat money. When Jackson found that a large part of the money received for government lands was in bank notes of doubt- ful value he issued what was called " the specie circular." ordering govern- .Settled area 1-. .■..:■ iDots indicate regions settled \ l^^^:-^ between 1810 and 1830 '"• Settled area in 1830 ment land agents to take nothing in payment for lands except gold and silver. New States and a New Census. — Dur- ing Jackson's ad- ministration only two States were admitted to the Union, Arkansas on June 15, 1836, and Michigan on Jan- uary 26, 1837. By the census of 1830 the population of the United States was found to be 12,870,000. Thus during the forty years since the first census was taken the country had multiplied its population by nearly three and a third. Summary. —I. Andrew Jackson was the first President who used public offices as rewards for political service. 2. In 1832 Congress passed a bill to give the national bank a new charter for a long term of years. Jackson, who hated and feared the bank, vetoed the measure. 3. The " Tariff of Abominations," with very high protective duties, was passed in 1828. Though considerably changed in 1832, it still displeased the South. South Carolina attempted to nullify it, but Jackson promptly prepared to compel obedience. The matter was peaceably settled, however, by a compromise bill. VAN BUREN'S administration — HARRISON AND TYLER 267 4. The Indian chief Blackhawk, in 1832, made war in the North- west. He was beaten in two battles. Two years later a war broke out with the Seminoles in Florida, which lasted seven years. The principal western and southern tribes were removed to the Indian Territory. 5. In his second term Jackson determined to break down the national bank without waiting for its charter to expire, and deposited no more government money with it. The effect ofthis was to cause many busi- ness failures and much excitement. 6. The tariff and land sales brought so much money into the national treasury that the government paid off its debts and distributed a large surplus among the States as a loan. 7. Little banks sprang up all *over the country, issuing notes for use as money. Many of these notes were worthless or nearly so, but speculators used them in buying government land. Jackson stopped this by ordering the land agents to accept nothing but gold and silver in payment. Collateral Reading. — Schouler's " History of the United States," III., 451-453; 455-459; McMaster's " History of the People of the United States," v., 227-221. CHAPTER XL VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION; HARRISON AND TYLER Martin Van Buren. — Jackson was so strong with his party that in 1836 he was able to dictate the nomination of his succes- sor. He chose Martin Van Buren,* who was pledged in a general way to carry out Jackson's policy. Van Buren was elected. The Panic of 1837. — Dur- ing Jackson's time all sorts of enterprises were planned in the hope of great gain. Money was loosely lent * For biography, see Appendix. Martin Van Buren 268 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE without sufficient security to corporations intending to build railroads, lay out towns, and the like. Speculation was wild, and danger was near. When the government money was removed from the national bank it was dis- tributed among State banks, who lent it freely to specula- tors. Next came the distribution of the surplus govern- ment money among the States. This money had been deposited in " pet banks." When it was wanted for dis- tribution among the States these banks had to call in their loans and pay back the money. 'Last came the " specie cir- cular," in which Jackson ordered the land agents to accept only gold and silver. In order to get the gold and silver with which to buy lands the speculators called on the banks to redeem their notes. Many of them could not do so. This led to trouble. Money became scarce, and many of the bank notes became nearly worthless. Prices fell, banks sus- pended payments, merchants failed, factories closed, and thousands of men were thrown out of employment. Even the government became embarrassed for want of money. A New National Debt. — When this condition occurred Van Buren called a special session of Congress in Septem- ber, 1837, and a bill was passed authorizing the Treasury Department to issue and sell interest-bearing notes for ten million dollars. This created a new national debt. An Independent Treasury. — At the same session of Con- gress what was called the " divorce bill " was introduced. It was so called because it divorced the government finances from the banking system of the country. It provided that the public money should not be deposited in any bank, but should be stored in vaults in the various cities in charge of receivers. There was great opposition to this, and the bill did not pass until 1840. The Whigs repealed it in the next year, and the Democrats reenacted it in 1846. The First Whig President. — In 1840 the Whigs nominated Harrison for President, and John Tyler,* of Virginia, a life-long Democrat, for Vice President. Van Buren was * For biography, see Appendix. VAN BUREN'S administration — HARRISON AND TYLER 269 William Henry Harrison nominated by the Democrats, but he was blamed by the people for the panic of 1837 and the hard times that had followed it, and the country ^ desired a change. Harrison g^^^lV^l!^^; was called *" the poor man's ff friend." He was a military r\^ hero, and a man of integ- rity. The Whigs adopted the log cabin as their em- blem because the Democrats had sneered at Harrison as a simple frontiersman. A log cabin was drawn on wheels in Whig processions, and pictiired on badges and medals. Log cabin song books carried campaign songs all over the country, and after an exciting campaign Harrison was elected by a large majority. Tyler's Succession. — Harrison died a month after his inau- guration, and Vice President Tyler succeeded him. Tyler was a Democrat in his con- victions, and a Whig only in his opposition to the policy of Jackson and Van Buren. The Whigs had nominated him to secure Southern votes. As President he turned against them and vetoed a bill providing for a new na- tional bank. All the mem- bers of the Whig cabinet except Daniel Webster* promptly resigned. John Tyler * For biography, see Appendix. 270 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE The Ashburton Treaty. — Webster retained his office of Secretary of State because he was engaged in negotiating a treaty of great importance with Great Britain, and desired to complete it. The boundary Hne between the north- eastern part of our country and Canada had never been settled. Much trouble arose from this. In 1842 Lord Ash- burton and Mr. Webster agreed upon a satisfactory settle- ment. Having carried this matter through, Webster resigned from the cabinet. The Republic of Texas. — The United States had claimed Texas as a part of Louisiana, but that claim had been given up in 18 1 9 in the treaty with Spain for the purchase of Flor- ida. Texas thus became a part of the province of Mexico. When that province became a republic Texas formed one of its States. Americans from the Southern States settled in Texas, taking their slaves with them. They did not like the Mexican government, and in 1835 they rebelled. Led by General Sam Houston they drove the Mexican troops out, and Texas became an independent republic in 1836. The Americans there wanted their republic to become a State in the Union. The people of the Southern States favored this as it would increase slave territory, but the annexation was opposed by those who objected to slavery, and by many others who feared it might lead to a war with Mexico. Tyler made a treaty of annexation, but the Senate refused to ratify it. There the matter rested for a time, to come up later and give much trouble. The Dorr Rebellion. — In Rhode Island nobody was per- mitted to vote except land owners and their oldest sons. The people petitioned in vain for the privilege of sharing in their government, and at last, in 1841, some of them tried to get up a new government of their own. The people called the Free Suffrage party elected a governor, State officers, and a legislature without any authority of law. The regular gov- ernment without bloodshed put down this rebellion, which had been led by Thomas W. Dorr. A Constitution was then adopted which extended the right of suffrage. Dorr was VAN BUREN'S administration — HARRISON AND TYLER 2/1 sentenced to imprisonment for life, but was released a year later. The Oregon Boundary Trouble. — The treaty made at the close of the Revolution defined the boundary between the United States and Canada no farther west than the Missis- sippi River. The Louisiana purchase carried our territory as far west as the Rocky Mountains, and, as we have seen (p. 221), the discovery of the Columbia River by Captain Gray, and the exploration of Lewis and Clark in 1804, gave this country a claim to Oregon. A few years later an American fur trading settlement was made at the mouth of the Columbia River by John Jacob Astor, and was called Astoria. This gave the United States a new claim on the ground of occupancy. But Great Britian also claimed the country, and the English and American fur traders both occupied it for some years. In 1818 Great Britain and the United States made a treaty which marked out the boundary line between the United States and Canada from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains along the forty-ninth parallel of latitude. It was agreed in the same treaty that the fur traders of both countries should go on occupying the Oregon country together for ten years more. But the treaty did not say what the northern boundary of Oregon should be. Spain and Russia had also claimed that region, but Spain in 1819 accepted latitude 42 as her northern limit. Russia in 1825 agreed upon 54° 40' north latitude as the boundary between her Pacific territory of Alaska and the Oregon country. This left the division of Oregon as a matter in dispute between the United States and Great Britain. As settlers began moving into the country the question of its boundaries became important. Great Britain wished to make the Columbia River the northern Hne, while many Americans insisted upon 54° 40' as the proper boundary. In the election of 1844 the Democrats raised the campaign cry of " Fifty-four forty or fight." The matter was settled by treaty in 1846, which divided the territory on the 49th 272 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE parallel, but gave Great Britain the whole of Vancouver Island. The Great Unpeopled "West. — For thirty or forty years after the exploration of the Oregon country by Lewis and Clark (see p. 221), and of the region east of the Rocky Mountains by Lieutenant Pike (see p. 222), there was no movement of immigration into regions that are now the richest grain- growing parts of our country. There was still enough government land east of the Mississippi to satisfy the de- sires of hardy immigrants from the East who wished to make farm homes for themselves. Except in Missouri and the region south of that State, there were still no farming settlements of consequence any- where west of the great river as late as 1840. The Fur Trade. — But there was a harvest of wealth to be reaped there in other ways than by farming. The country abounded in fur-bearing animals, and daring men, who cared neither for danger nor for hard- ship, went into those wildernesses alone or in small parties in search of furs. Many of them were killed by the Indians; many starved to death amid' the snows ; many perished in other ways. But those who survived brought rich car- goes of furs to St. Louis and to Santa Fe, while John Ja- cob Astor's fur- trading posts in the Oregon country made him the rich- est man then in America. The Pathfinder.— ^If^. .ay Trapper at home But the great re- VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION — HARRISON AND TYLER 273 Buffalo hunt gion west of the Mississippi, and especially the Rocky Mountain part of it, remained practically an unknown land. Its pathways were unmarked on maps, and not described in books, and its resources were unknown, until, in 1842, 1843, '^nd 1845 Lieutenant John C. Fremont* led three great government exploring expeditions across the western half of the continent, and won for himself the proud title of " The Pathfinder." The books, published by the govern- ment, in which he told the story of his marches, and set forth what he had found, were everywhere eagerly read, and they did much to stimulate emigration into the new Northwest. The Census. — By the census of 1840 the country had a population of 17,070,000. On the last day of Tyler's term Florida was admitted to the Union as a State. Summary. — i. Martin Van Buren was elected President in 1836. 2. In 1837 a panic occurred which greatly distressed the country. This panic led to the creation of a new national debt. 17— Egg. Hist. * For biography, see Appendix. 274 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE 3. The people blamed the Democrats for the panic and the hard times, and in 1840 the Whigs elected William Henry Harrison for President, and John Tyler for Vice President. Harrison lived only a month after becoming President, and Tyler quickly broke with the Whig party, vetoing a bill to establish a new national bank. 4. A long-standing dispute with Great Britain concerning the north- eastern boundary (between Maine and Canada) was settled in 1842 by the Webster-Ashburton treaty. 5. Texas having revolted from Mexico, became an independent republic in 1836. It asked to be admitted to the Union as a State. This was opposed by those people in the United States who objected to slavery and by many others who feared a war with Mexico. Tyler made a treaty agreeing to annexation, but the Senate rejected it. 6. A little rebellion broke out in Rhode Island in 1841 called the Dorr rebellion. It was quickly suppressed without bloodshed, but it led to the adoption of a Constitution in that State extending the suffrage. 7. For a long time there was a dispute between Great Britain and the United States as to the northern boundary of Oregon. It was settled at last by treaty in 1846. Collateral Reading. — Andrews's " History of the United States," II., 21-23. Rhodes's " History of the United States," I., 78-80. Andrews's " History of the United States," II., 30-33. CHAPTER XLI THE MEXICAN WAR James K. Polk The Election of 1844. — The question of annexing Texas was the leading issue in the election of 1844. The Demo- crats nominated James K. Polk,* who favored annexa- tion, and for Vice President George M. Dallas, who op- posed it. Henry Clay was the Whig candidate. He tried to please both sides on this ques- tion, and ended by satisfying neither. He offended the * For biography, see Appendix. THE MEXICAN WAR 275 southern Whigs by advising against the project, while he did not take strong enough grounds against it to suit the aboHtionists in the North who had in 1840 formed the Lib- erty party in opposition to slavery. Polk was elected. Texas Annexed. — After Polk's election, but before he came into office, Texas was annexed, and a few months later it was admitted to the Union as a State. Mexico had never given up her claim to Texas. She might have consented to the annexation but for a dispute that had arisen about the western boundary, which Texas claimed was the Rio Grande, while Mexico asserted it was the Nueces. Polk sustained the claim of Texas, and ordered Gen- eral Zachary Tay- lor* to take pos- session of the country to the Rio Grande. Taylor stationed his forces opposite Matamo- ros, near the mouth of the river, and established a blockade. Taylor's campaign The Beginning of War. — In April, 1846, the Mexicans crossed the river and attacked some Americans. On the 8th of May Taylor encountered a Mex- ican force larger than his own at Palo Alto, and defeated them. They retreated to Resaca de la Palma, where Taylor overtook them the next day and again defeated them. The Mexicans then crossed to the southern side of the Rio Grande. Taylor followed and took possession of Matamo- * For biography, see Appendix. 276 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE ras, although war had not yet been declared. As soon as news reached Washington of Taylor's first fight Polk sent a message to Congress declaring that Mexico had invaded our territory and shed American blood on American soil. On May 13 Congress declared war. Monterey and Buena Vista. — In September Taylor stormed the fortified city of Monterey, which was defended by a force much larger than his own. After four days of hard fighting the Mexicans surrendered on September 24. A few months later Taylor won the most brilliant victory of the war. Most of his troops had been sent away to join General Winfield Scott,* who was about to invade Mexico by way of Vera Cruz. Taylor had only five thousand men left, but at a place called Buena Vista he stationed them at the end of a narrow mountain pass, and waited for his enemy. The Mexicans, twenty thousand strong, attacked him on Febru- ary 23, 1847. With his small force Taylor held his ground all day, and finall}^ drove his adversary into retreat. This victory ended a most successful campaign. Conquest of New Mexico and California. — The settlement of the boundary of Texas was not the chief reason for war with Mexico. Many Americans were determined to have no other western boundary for the United States than the Pacific Ocean. Early in the war General Kearny was sent to conquer New Mexico and California, a thinly settled part of the Mexican republic. Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, was taken without a struggle, and New Mexico was declared a part of the United States. General Kearny at once pushed on into California. The Americans living there had set up a government for themselves as soon as they heard of the war with Mexico. They called this the " Bear Flag Republic." The United States had placed warships off the coast ready to take advantage of any excuse for seizing California. It was thought that Great Britain and France both meant to seize that region if they could, so when the war with Mexico ♦ For biography, see Appendix, THE MEXICAN WAR 277 began Commodore Stockton, commander of the Pacific squadron, demanded the surrender of Monterey, San Fran- cisco, and other ports. All were given up without oppo- sition. Campaign of General Scott. — General Winfield Scott was at that time the commanding General of the United States army. He set out to take the city of Mex- ico. He landed, in March, 1847, ^t Vera Cruz, and laid siege to the city. The fort there was the strong- est in Mexico, but ^G uadalupe"Hjd algo / ^ t^' ^ •Ch.urubusc5' ,.(' Puebla Scott's campaign Scott carried it and the city on March 27. Advancing to- ward the capital, he fought a battle at Cerro Gordo on April 18, and won a complete victory, taking three thousand pris- oners. His own army numbered only about ten thousand men, but within a month he reached Puebla, and after seve- ral minor encounters he fought in August the battles of Contreras, Churubusco, and San Antonio, winning them all. After a brief armistice Scott pushed forward, and on the 13th of September stormed and carried the fortress of Cha- pultepec, which guarded the city of Mexico. The Ameri- cans followed the fleeing Mexicans to the city gates, and fought them till dark. The next morning they forced their way into the city, and after two days of fighting were in complete possession. This ended the war. The Treaty of Peace with Mexico. — A treaty of peace was made at Guadalupe Hidalgo on February 2, 1848. Mexico gave up New Mexico and California, the United States pay- ing fifteen million dollars in return. The Rio Grande was accepted by Mexico as the boundary of Texas, which was in accordance with the Texan claim. The total cost of the Mexican War has been estimated at one hundred and sixty- six million dollars. But, alas ! we must add to the money cost the loss of twenty-five thousand lives, mostly those of 278 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE young men. The gain was a vast territory, including Cali- fornia, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado. California soon became the treas- ure house of the world for gold, and other sections of the territory have yielded fabulous sums in silver. The Finding of Gold in California. — In 1848 a man named Sutter lived at Sacramento, where there were four houses included in Sutter's fort. Sutter was building a little mill on a stream, where one Marshall was to cut lumber for him. One morning in January Marshall saw some yellow particles in the sand of the stream, and gathered them up. Suspecting that they might be gold, he rode at once to Sutter's fort. There he and Sutter locked themselves in with a cyclopedia and a pair of scales, and presently decided that the little yellow grains were in fact gold. Sutter never completed his mill. He had something more profitable to do. Presently tens of thousands of men from the States, from Europe, from China, and from the ends of the earth were flocking to California by way of Cape Horn, the Isthmus of Panama, and across the desert plains. Many died on every route, but the rest pushed on eagerly to the land of gold. New States. — The States admitted to the Union during Polk's administration were Texas, December 29, 1845; Iowa, December 28, 1846; Wisconsin, May 29, 1848. Summary. —I- The question of annexing Texas was an important issue in the election of 1844. The Democrats carried the day, electing James K. Polk to be President. Texas was annexed in 1845, and during the 3'ear was admitted to the Union as a State. 2. A dispute with Mexico concerning the boundary of Texas led to some fighting on the Rio Grande and to a declaration of war on May 13, 1846. 3. The war consisted of two great campaigns. General Taylor marched into northern Mexico and won the battles of Monterey and Buena Vista. General Scott landed at Vera Cruz and marched to the city of Mexico, defeating the Mexicans on his way at Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Chunibusco and San Antonio. Arriving in front of the city of Mexico he stormed and carried the fortress of Chapultepec on THE COMPROMISE OF 1850, AND OTHER MATTERS 279 the 13th of September, and two days later carried the city itself, thus ending the war. In the meantime General Kearny had conquered New Mexico and Commodore Stockton had seized upon California. 4. By the treaty of peace (February 2, 1848,) Mexico gave up a vast territory, including California, New Mexico, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado. 5. In 1848 gold was discovered in California, and gold seekers by tens of thousands flocked to that region from all the States and from many other parts of the world. Collateral Reading. — Rhodes's " History of the United States," I., 82-90. Garland's " Life of Grant," 83-86, 91-102. Rhodes's " History of the United States," I., 110-113. CHAPTER XLII THE COMPROMISE OF 185O, AND OTHER MATTERS The Election of 1848.-111 1848 the Whigs took General Zachary Taylor for their candidate. He knew little of politics, and seemingly had no political opinions. But his glory was great on account of his vic- tories in Mexico, and the Whigs took him as a candidate whom they could elect. General Lewis Cass, of Midi- igan, was the candidate of the Democrats. There was a third candidate, representing the Free Soil party, which had been formed out of the old Liberty party. A great many Democrats and some Whigs had joined this new party and nominated Martin Van Buren as their can- didate. Van Buren drew heavily from the Democrats, and at the election Taylor was chosen, with Millard Fillmore for Vice President. Zachary Taylor 28o THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE The Wilmot Proviso. — In the meantime the slavery- question had come up in a new form to vex the old political parties. When it was proposed to purchase lands from Mexico, Congressman David Wilmot, a Pennsylvania country lawyer, serving as a Democratic Congressman, sur- prised the country by moving to insert in the appropriation bill an amendment providing that " Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall ever exist in any part of said territory." This amendment, which was called the Wilmot Proviso, passed the House but failed in the Senate. It had the effect, however, of stirring up angry discussion of the slavery question at a time when the leaders of both parties were doing their utmost to keep such discussion down. A New Slavery Agitation. — As Mexico had abolished slavery before the war, the territory which we got from her came to us without that institution. The Southern states- men insisted that as this territory had been paid for with the money of all the people, and fought for by troops from North and South alike, it should be freely open to settlement from both sections, and that slave holders moving into it should be permitted to carry their negroes with them, as they did their other property. Behind this question of slavery there was another. The North and South were jealously struggling with each other for strength in the Senate. The two sections were equally balanced there, and it was seen that every new State which came in with slavery would add two Senators to the Southern strength, while, if slavery was excluded from the new Territories, all the new States would be free and the North would presently completely outvote the South in the Senate. The contest was a bitter one, and there was grave talk of a dissolution of the Union. The extreme anti- slavery men at the North, so far from being disturbed by this threat, were willing enough to have the Union dis- solved if by that means they could get rid of slavery. The California Case. — As we have already seen, California rapidly filled up with people after gold was discovered, and THE COMPROMISE OF 1850, AND OTHER MATTERS 28 1 'i0^ .tijk--^ ♦-st;.^: . ^ "^ Emigrants on their way to California its population was now more than great enough to make a State. General Taylor suggested to the Californians that they should adopt a Constitution at once and apply for admission to the Union. They did this, and put into their Constitution a clause forbidding slavery. There were Southern men and Northern men in California, but nobody there wanted negro slaves. In 1849 California asked for admission as a free State. The Southern members of Congress would not consent to this unless it should be agreed at the same time that the rest of the new territory should be open to slavery. There were hot debates in Congress, and the spirit of disunion continued to grow at the South. The Three Greatest Statesmen.— In the Congress of 1849-50, there sat together in the Senate for the last time, three of the greatest men this country has ever known — Clay, Web- ster, and Calhoun. They had been born within five years of one another; and they died within about two years of one another. Calhoun was a Democrat, Clay and Webster, Whigs. For a whole generation these three had dominated legislation and largely determined the country's policy. Seeking a Compromise. — Clay, the great compromiser, had come to the capital, old and ill, hoping to be a 282 THE J'KKIOI) OF CiUirUOMISE and mill. In consullation \\ vised a plan and spdl^o in it clo(iiionco that men eatne to his winning; words, and had done. C'allioun was was loo oUl and feehle to speak, bnl anothei' Senator reail for him what he wished to s;iy in this erisis. I'^inahy eame \\ ehster with his eelehrated " Sexenlh of Mareh " speeeh in favor (^f the ecnnpromise. The speeeh was one of the .Q;reatest that Webster had ever made— e(]ual in elo(]nenee to his eelehrated reply to Hayne — but it bitter- ly disappointed his (juiet looker - on rather than the active leader that he had always been. lUil he was by instinct a peacemaker, and he loved the Um'on more than everythiui;- else, lie had secured peace by the Mis- souri compromise in 1820; he had put an end to nulli- lication by the compro- mise tarilT i>f the early thir- ties: and now liad C(^me to him .-mother opportunitv, as he believed, to save his country fi'om dissolution ith Webster ;nul others he de- s behaU' with such c;ipti\';Uins^ from far and near to listen women kissed him when he ^^B -"SKr wi^MM. i W^Bt ''•*^\ fr ^ V ' '' ■"^' '^^i^i^^H wKm M^M ■sK^K^^M Henry Clay THP; COMl'ROMISE OF 15^50, AND OllIER MATTERS 283 iriciid.s at the North, who had hoi)Cfl that he would take ground in favor of the Free Soil movement without com- promise. The Compromise Meas- ures. — Clay carried his point. Five bills were passed by Congress which it was fondly be- lieved would settle the slavery question foi ever. The first provide! that California shouM come into the Union as a free State (map, ]). 285). The second ])ro- vided that the rest of lh(; region accjuircd from Mexico should be flivided into two Territories, called New Mexico and Utah, with no restric- tion as to slavery. In any States that might be made from these Territories, the ciuesticjn of slavery or no slavery was to be decided by the ]jeopIe there. The tliird bill ])rovi(led for settling a lioundary dis])Ute between Texas anrl New Mexico. These three bills were originally introduced as one, called the Omnil)us Bill. The fourth of the com])romise bills forbade the slave trade within the District of Columbia, but jjcrmitted the holding of slaves there. The fifth bill was the Fugitive Slave Uaw. It i)rovid('l that United States officers in all the States should arrest all runaway negroes, and return them to the persons who claimed them as their owners. Effect of the Fugitive Slave Law. — This law had very little effect except to increase the anger of the peo])le over the question which the compromise was intended to settle. Daniel Webster 284 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE Many Northern States passed " personal liberty bills," which interfered with the execution of the Fugitive Slave Law, and to a lars^e extent |-.y,.:-lDots Indicate regl t^iiiJ between 1830 an( Settled area in 1850 nullified it. In some cases mobs of citizens rescued runaway negroes who had been ar- rested under the law, and in spite of the law anti-slav- ery men in parts of the North organ- ized a system by which negroes were aided in escaping to Canada. This was called the " Underground Railroad." In the midst of this excitement, in 1852, " Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. Har- riet Beecher Stowe,* was published. It wa Avritten to excite sym pathy for slaves am hostility to slavery. It was widely circulated and greatly increased the anti-slavery feeling in the North, and it still further angered the Southern people. Death of Taylor.— The Census. — President Tay- lor died in July, 1850. and Millard Fillmore.* the Vice President, be- came President. Cali- fornia was admitted to the Union as a State, September 9. 1850, The census of that year gave the population of the * For biography, see Appendix. Millard Fillmore 285 286 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE country as 23,190,000, or almost exactly six times the popu- lation when the first census was made sixty years before. The number of States in the Union had increased from thirteen to thirty-one. The Election of Franklin Pierce. — As the election of 1852 drew near, both the Whig and Democratic parties tried hard to keep the slavery question out of politics. Both treated it as al- ready settled by the compromise. Franklin Pierce* was the candi- date of the Democrats, and General Winfield Scott of the Whigs. The Whig party lost its anti- slavery members at the North and gained few votes in the South. Pierce was elected, with William R Alabama, for President. Scott was King, of Vice Franklin Pierce the last Whig candi- date ever named for the Presidency. Cuba. — Having acquired so much new territory, the people became anxious to get Cuba also. Several expeditions were secretly organized in this country by a Cuban named Lopez for the invasion of that island. Lopez declared that the Cubans were ready to revolt against Spain and welcome an American government. All these expeditions failed, and in 185 1 Lopez was caught by the Spanish and shot. The Ostend Manifesto. — Pierre Soule was sent by Presi- dent Pierce as Minister to Madrid, and instructed to secure the cession of Cuba to the United States by Spain. Our Ministers to England and France met Soule in conference * For biography, see Appendix. THE COMPROMISE OF 1850, AND OTHER MATTERS 287 at Ostend, in Belgium. The three drew up an official report concerning Cuba, which was called the Ostend Manifesto. It recommended the purchase of the island, and suggested that if Spain would not sell, the United States might be justified in taking Cuba by force. The Opening of Japan. — The settlement of California and Oregon made it desirable to have a line of steamers on the Pacific, and coaling stations were needed in Japan. At that time no Christian nation except the Dutch was allowed to Perry in Japan trade with Japan, and even the Dutch were not permitted to dwell in that country. In 1852 Commodore Matthew C. Perry, a son of Oliver Hazard Perry, was sent with a fleet to Japan to " persuade " that nation to open her ports to American ships. Running his cannon mouths out of their portholes, Perry succeeded in " persuading " Japan to make a treaty permitting Americans to trade with two of the Japanese ports. This resulted presently in the complete opening of that " hermit country " to the ships of all nations. The Gadsden Purchase.— In 1853 a new treaty was made 288 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE with Mexico to settle the boundary between that country and the United States. By this treaty the United States se- cured forty-five thousand square miles of land south of the Gila River, and paid ten million dollars for it. This is called the Gadsden Purchase from the name of the man who nego- tiated the treaty. The Martin Koszta Case. — The United States had always contended that foreigners who became naturaUzed citizens Avere entitled to protection against all foreign powers in- cluding the countries of their own birth. A Hungarian exile named Martin Koszta had come to the United States, hved here two years, and formally declared his intention to become a citizen. He then went (1853) to Turkey on business and put himself under protection of an American Consul. The Austrians kidnaped him, claiming him as a subject of Austria. Captain Ingraham, of the United States sloop of war " St. Louis," demanded Koszta's release, and threatened to fire on the Austrian ship on which he was held. This brought the Austrians to terms and settled the question of the right of this country to protect its foreign- born citizens. Walker, the Filibuster. — In 1853, General William Walker, of Tennessee, led a filibustering expedition into Lower California anql tried to stir up a revolt there, but failed. He then gathered a little force of adventurers about him, and made many raids into Central America, stirring up revolu- tions wherever he went, until at last, in i860, he was cap- tured in Honduras, tried by court-martial, and shot. Summary. — i- In 1848 the Whigs elected General Zachary Taylor President. 2. The Mexican cession immediately revived the dispute on the slavery question. Much excitement was provoked in Congress and elsewhere by the Wilmot proviso forbidding slavery in the ceded terri- tory. The excitement was increased when, in 1849. California applied for admission to the Union as a free State. Disunion and war seemed imminent. This was prevented by Henry Clay's compromise of 1850. 3. So far from settling permanently the slavery question, as had been hoped, this compromise increased the discussion of the subject and the THE PROGRESS OF INVENTION 289 danger to the Union. To this also the novel, " Uncle Tom's Cabin," largely added. 4. President Taylor died in the summer of 1850, and Millard Fill- more became President. He was succeeded by Franklin Pierce (Democrat) in 1853. 5. About this time a great desire arose in this country to annex Cuba. Several filibustering expeditions were taken to that island by a Cuban named Lopez, but they came to nothing. In the Ostend Mani- festo something like a threat to annex Cuba by force was made. 6. In 1852 an American fleet under Commodore Perry was sent to Japan to open that country's ports to American ships. Japan had always excluded foreigners from her territory, but Perry secured the privilege desired. 7. In 1853 the Gadsden purchase was made, by which the United States bought another large territory from Mexico. 8. At about the same time our country asserted and maintained in the Martin Koszta case its right to protect naturalized citizens against the countries in which they were born, and Walker, the filibuster, began his career as a maker of revolutions in Spanish-American republics. Collateral Reading. — Rhodes's " History of the United States," I.. 122-127, 144-148, 216-222, CHAPTER XLIII THE PROGRESS OF INVENTION The Advance of Sixty Years. — The first World's Fair was held in London in 185 1. It was followed, in 1853, by a simi- lar fair in New York. This exhibition drew attention to the progress which the United States had made, especially in labor-saving machinery. From the beginning of civiliza- tion until near the end of the eighteenth century man had been content to make by hand whatever he needed ; to go about in boats propelled by paddles, oars, and sails ; and for land travel to use wagons drawn by horses or oxen. Then came steam to work a revolution, and with it came the impulse to devise machinery of every kind by way of saving labor and improving products. Ocean Steam Navigation. — The greatest service of steam 290 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE " Savannah," first ocean steamship has been in the steamboat, the railroad, and the ocean steam- ship. The steamboat and the railroad have already been treated in former chapters of this history. The ocean steam- ship was a natural outgrowth of the steamboat. At first it was thought that no steamship could ever be built which could carry coal enough to drive it across the ocean, and still leave room for freight. But as the steam engine was improved, it took less and less coal to produce the power needed, and in 18 19 the ship " Savannah " was built in New York and crossed from Savannah to England in twenty-six days. This boat did not depend entirely on steam power. The paddle wheels could be. unshipped and hoisted on board, and with favoring winds sails were used to economize coal. It was twenty years later before steam became the sole motive power of ocean steamers; but from its successful inauguration the develop- ment of the steamship has been rapid, and the ocean " grey- hound " of to-day is one of the modern wonders of the world. Cotton. — We have already seen (p. 250) how Whitney's cotton gin made cotton abundant and cheap by enabling a man to do in a day two or three thousand times as much as he could have done before in removing the seeds from cotton. This enormously increased the supply of raw cot- ton, and drew attention to the need there was of equally good machinery with which to make it into cloth. The first step in that direction was taken when James Har- greaves, an Englishman, invented a machine for spinning Modern steamship THE PROGRESS OF INVENTION 291 thread, which was called the spinning jenny. Arkwright came later with the spinning frame, and in 1779, Crompton perfected the spinning mule which still further cheapened the work of making yarns. The English tried to keep these inventions to themselves but after a while Samuel Slater, an English apprentice, came to this country, bring- ing the machines in his head, as it were. He had studied them carefully, measuring all their parts, and fixing the measurements in his memory. In 1790, Slater, with his own hands, constructed a cotton mill at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Cotton Factories.' — The power loom was invented in 1785, but not set up in England till 1806. This was a loom driven by steam or water power and it took the place of hand looms, doing many times as much work in a day. The machine was a profound secret in England, but Francis C. Lowell went to that country, learned all that he could about it, and returned in 1814. Then the power loom was in- vented over again from the information Lowell had brought back with him. He formed a company to make cotton goods at Waltham, Massachusetts, which built the first cot- ton "factory" set up anywhere in the w^orld. There had been mills before, at some of which cotton w^as carded, at others spun, and at still others woven into cloth. But neither in England nor in America was there a "factory" where all these things were done under a single manage- ment. Harvesters. — Early in the Christian era efforts were made to construct machines for reaping grain. But more than seventeen hundred years passed away before the mod- ern reaper appeared. By 1835 three English machines had been made to work, but 18— Egg. Hist. Reaper, 1840 292 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE none of them worked well enough to come into general use. American inventors did better. Robert McCormick and Cyrus Hall McCormick, father and son, worked patiently at this problem for several years. They improved upon the ideas of many unsuccessful inventors, and in 183 1 C. H. McCormick constructed a reaper which he patented three years later, but did not sell till 1840. His reapers were for several years made only by hand at a blacksmith's shop in Virginia. McCormick exhibited his machine at the World's Fair in London, in 185 1. It took the gold medal. Another American inventor, Obed Hussey, exhibited a reaper, which was the only rival of McCormick's. Goodyear's Rubber. — Another invention which has done great good in the world was that of vulcanized India rubber, invented by Charles Goodyear,* in 1839. Up to that time India rubber had been of very little use. It had been tried for many things, but it would not last in warm weather. Goodyear's invention overcame this difficulty, and made possible rubber overshoes, water-proof garments, fire hose, rubber belting for machinery, and many other articles now in daily use. Vulcanite or hard rubber was a later and even more remarkable invention. The Electric Telegraph. — Having secured the means of easy and rapid travel by railroad, the steamboat, and the steamship, and having thus extended commerce, man's next need was to devise a means of quick communication over long distances. Samuel Finley Breese Morse,* already a well-known artist, succeeded, after years of struggle, in introducing the American system of electric telegraph. There were twelve years of doubt and de- lay. At last Congress appropriated thirty thousand dollars, with which Morse built a telegraph line from Washington to Balti- First telegraph instru- ^^^^- ^^'^^ ^''^t message sent over it con- ment * For biography, see Appendix, THE PROGRESS OF INVENTION 293 ' ) Howe's first sewing machine sisted of the words, " What hath God wrought? " The introduction of the telegraph into general use was very slow ; but success came to Morse at last, and when it came it was complete. Many countries gave him decorations in gold and diamonds. He died at the age of eighty-one years, but before his death he had seen the telegraph in operation all over the world. Elias Howe and the Sewing Machine. — Elias Howe,* a poor working machinist, invented the sewing machine in 1847. His one important invention was that of putting the eye of the needle in its point. This alone made sewing machines possible, and gave to mankind cheaper and more abundant clothing than had ever been known before. Hoe's Invention. — The next inventor to make great im- provements was Rich- ard M. Hoe. He made improvements in the cylinder press, and in 1846 brought out the famous " Lightning Press." The modern Hoe sextuple press prints paper sixty-three inches wide at the rate of over twenty-five miles an hour. The paper comes out at the other end of the press printed on both sides, cut into newspaper sheets, folded, and pasted, ready for delivery. Anaesthetics. — The discovery of the use of anaesthetics, that is to say substances which render a human being insen- * For biography, see Appendix. Early cylinder press 294 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE sible to pain for a time, is regarded, so far as the science of medicine is concerned, as the crowning glory of the first half of the nineteenth century. This discovery cannot be credited to any one person. Horace Wells, a dentist, is said to have used nitrous oxide gas in extracting teeth as early as 1844. Dr. W. T. G. Morton is credited with hav- ing administered ether in the Massachusetts General Hos- pital in 1847, during a surgical operation. Sir J. Y. Simp- son, an Englishman, first announced chloroform as an anses- thetic. The discovery of this is also ascribed to Dr. Jack- son, of Sag Harbor, New York, and to others. Summary. — i. The World's Fair at New York in 1853 called attention to the progress of invention during the sixty-four years since Wash- ington was elected President. The most important of these inventions were the steam railroads, boats and ships, the cotton gin. the spinning jenny, the power loom, reaping machines, vulcanized rubber, the electric telegraph, the sewing machine, the modern printing press, and the use of ansesthetics. Collateral Reading. — Parton's " Book of Biography," 159-161, 215-220. CHAPTER XLIV THE KANSA.S-NEBRASKA DEBATE ; THE KNOW-NOTHING party; THE DRED SCOTT CASE; THE PANIC OF 1857; THE MORMONS The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. — Congress passed a bill in 1854 to organize the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Those Territories were a part of the Louisiana Purchase. As they lay north of the southern line of Missouri, slavery was for- bidden in them by the Missouri Compromise. But many of the people in the South claimed that the Missouri Com- promise was unconstitutional, while many other both North and South held that it had been practically repealed by the Compromise of 1850 which permitted slavery in territory acquired from Mexico, lying partly north of that line : this made all California free, though part of it lay south. THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA DEBATE 295 Kansas and Nebraska Territories Stephen A. Douglas, a Democratic Senator from Illinois, who hoped to become Pres- ident, was the leading advocate of this view. He held that by the Compromise of 1850 Congress had estab- lished a new principle, giving up its right to make laws concerning slavery in the Terri- tories, and leaving that question to be decided by the people of each Territory for themselves. It was he who introduced the bill to organize Kansas and Nebraska, and in order to make matters sure he put into it a provision which declared the Missouri Compromise inoperative. The Kansas Struggle. — Under this bill, men owning slaves were free to take their negro property with them, when settling in either of the two Territories. And the legisla- ture of either Territory could decide whether slavery should be permitted there or not. As Nebraska lay far to the north, with Iowa alongside, nobody expected many slave holders to settle in that Terri- tory, but Kansas was debatable ground, and the debate took the form of a rush of settlers from north and south, each side hurrying as many men as possible into that region in order to control it. Slave holders from Missouri and Arkansas, and from other States, flocked into the Territory ■at once, and to ofifset them "emigrant aid societies" were formed in New England and New York, where they raised money with which to pay the expenses of free-state emi- grants, and to arm them with guns. Some of these turned back, but many of them took up lands in Kansas. In Missouri, secret societies called " blue lodges " were 296 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE organized, and their members were pledged to vote at the first Kansas election. Many of these did not intend to settle there but went into the region just in time for the first election. At that election the free-state men generally refused to vote on the ground that the election was not fair. The pro-slavery men elected a legislature to their liking and it adopted a slave code. During the next year the free-state men organized a state government for them- selves, and asked admission to the Union. The pro-slaverv men fell upon this government and overthrew it. The struggle for supremacy became a civil war. There was much fighting, great violence, and some bloodshed. The Sumner-Brooks Affair. — During the hot debate con- cerning Kansas, Senator Sumner, of Massachusetts, made an eloquent and bitter speech in the Senate on " The Crime Against Kansas." In the course of it he denounced and ridiculed Mr. Butler, of South Carolina. Thereupon, Con- gressman Preston S. Brooks, a nephew of Butler's, went into the Senate chamber when the Senate was not in session, and assaulted Sumner with a cane, leaving him prostrate and insensible. In the excited state of public feeling at that time the whole country fell into a frenzv over this affair, the North forgetting the severity of Sumner's words, and the South forgetting the character of Brooks's attack. None of the more important events of that time did more than this personal encounter to set the nation in an uproar. The Know-Nothing Party.— During all its history the Whig party had enjoyed only four years of power in the nation. The party's career was now drawing to an end. In 1853, a new party was started which was called the Native Ameri- can party, or the Know-Nothing party. It held that no foreign-born citizen and no Roman Catholic should be- elected to office. A great immigration of foreigners, mainly Roman Catholics, had occurred between 1840 and 1850, and this had aroused the fears of many. The new party took the form of a secret society, and surrounded itself with great mystery. The members of this party made it a rule THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA DEBATE 297 to answer " I know nothing " to every question that might be asked. But apart from its antagonism to CathoHcs and foreign-born citizens, the party had no particular views or principles. Before the next presidential election came, the tide had run out as swiftly as it had come in, and Fillmore and Donelson, the Know-Nothing candidates, received only eight electoral votes. The career of that party had ended, but it had served as one of the forces which were pulling the old parties to pieces. The Republican Party. — In the year after Know-Nothing- ism began, the Kansas-Nebraska bill was adopted, and it quickly aroused intense feeling. In the autumn of that year a new party came into being, and carried very nearly a majority of the Congressmen elected. It bore at first the awkward name of "Anti-Nebraska" but later came to be called the Republican party. Its chief doctrine was that no slave State should be formed out of any of the Territories. Many of the Know-Nothing leaders, many old Whigs, many Northern Democrats, and most of the Liberty party men became Republicans. This new party organized to oppose slavery in the Territories was a grave source of alarm to the South. The Election of 1856. — In 1856 the Democrats nomi- nated and elected James Buchanan* for President, and John C. Breckinridge James Buchanan for Vice President. Fremont and Dayton were the Repub- lican candidates, and the fact that eleven States gave their * For biography, see Appendix. 298 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE electoral vote to Fremont, a declared opponent of slavery, greatly startled the South. The Dred Scott Case. — Many years before a negro slave named Dred Scott had been taken by his master, an army surgeon, from the slave State of Missouri to a military post in the free State, Illinois. Under the law his master's act in taking him into that State made him a free man. But Scott was later taken back to Missouri, and there sold with his wife and two children. His new master having struck him, Scott brought a suit for assault against him. Under Missouri law, a slave had no right to sue, but it was con- tended for Scott that he had been set free by being taken to Illinois, and could not be again enslaved. This question was carried at last to the Supreme Court of the United States, and in 1857 it was decided against Scott on the ground that no negro of slave ancestry, whether he be a slave or not, had a citizen's right in the Courts of the United States. The judges, at the same time, stated that slaves were property ; that it was the duty of Congress to protect property, and, therefore, that Congress had no right to forbid slavery in the Territories. This was in effect a decision that the Missouri Compromise had never been valid in law. The decision still further excited both the North and the South, and helped onward that tendency toward disunion and war which was already well-nigh irre- sistible. The Panic of 1857. — In 1856, and the early part of 1857, speculation ran wild, especially in the new States where the banking laws were loose, and where the bank notes used for money were often of doubtful value. Business was everywhere disturbed, prices went up and down, and pres- ently in the autumn of 1857, there came a great panic. Most of the paper money in use became worthless because the banks that had issued it had failed. Everybody was in a fright, and for three years the business of the coun- try was unsettled. As the people always hold the political party in power responsible for hard times, this condition of THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA DEBATE 299 things helped to weaken the Democrats, and strengthen the Repubhcans for the election of i860. The Mormons. — In 1830, a man named Joseph Smith founded the Mormon Church, which afterward came to be a serious source of trouble to the United States. Smith professed to have received The Book of Mormon from an angel, and on its teachings, and divine revelations which he professed to have received from time to time, he built his sect. After several removals the Mormons were driven out of Illinois because they set themselves above the law and practiced polygamy. They went to Utah, in 1847, ^i"**^ set- tled there, building Salt Lake City for their capital, and es- tablishing a despotic government of their own. In President Fillmore's time their leader was Brigham Young, and Fill- more appointed him governor of Utah. President Buchanan removed him in 1857, and was obliged to send troops to Utah, to quell the Mormon rebellion which arose in conse- quence. Utah soon became populous enough to form a State, but it was kept out of the Union because of Mormon polygamy until 1896, although polygamy was given up in 1890. Summary.— I. In 1854 and the years following a great and angry con- test arose over the question of slavery in Kansas, and a civil war broke out in that Territory. The people of the entire country were greatly excited, and the matter went far to hurry on a final crisis over slavery. 2. The Know-Nothing party was organized in 1853, as a secret society whose purpose was to keep all Roman Catholics and all foreign- born citizens out of office. It soon gave way before the more serious purposes of the people with regard to slavery. 3. Those who opposed slavery were determined to prevent its extension into any of the Territories. To that end they united in a new Republican party. This party was defeated in the Presidential election of 1856, and the Democratic candidate, Buchanan, was elected. 4. The slavery agitation was greatly increased in 1857 by the decision of the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott case, that no negro whose ancestors were slaves could have the rights of a citizen before the United States Court. 5. In 1857 wild speculation resulted in a great panic, followed by hard times for two years afterwards. In their poverty and distress many of 300 THE- PERIOD OF COMPROMISE the people blamed the Democrats, as the party in power, for these mis- fortunes, and thus the opposition to that party was strengthened. 6. It was during the period covered by this chapter (1857) that the Mormons in Utah began to give trouble. Collateral Readings. — Rhodes's " History of the United States," I., 428-435, 483-491- Vol. II., 50-55, 251-257. CHAPTER XLV THE IRRESISTIBLE TENDENCY TO WAR John Brown's Raid. — John Brown, a farmer in the Adiron- dacks, in northern New York, who was fanatically devoted to the cause of the negro, sent four of his sons to Kansas among the first settlers, and in 1856 he followed with his other sons, and be- came a leader of the free-state men. He was called " Ossawatomie " Brown, from the name of the town in which he lived. In 1859, Brown went with his sons and others to Virginia, to set in motion a scheme he had long planned for putting an end to slavery. His plan was to liberate and arm the slaves and thus frighten the South into giving up slavery. One night in October of that year, with a little band of eighteen men, five of them negroes, Brown seized the United States Arsenal at Harpers Ferry. Colonel Robert E. Lee, of the regular army, was sent with government troops to suppress the insurrection. He bat- tered his way into the engine house of the Arsenal, where Preparing arms for the slaves THE IRRESISTIBLE TENDENCY TO WAR 30I Brown and his followers were barricaded. Brown was ar- rested, convicted of treason and murder and hanged. The State Sovereignty Idea General at First. — In the early days of the Republic, the idea was very generally held that each of the States was sovereign, and that the central gov- ernment was merely their agent for the performance of cer- tain duties which they had delegated to it. This doctrine was asserted from time to time in different States, as occa- sion arose. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions of 1798, asserted the right of a State to declare an act of Con- gress unconstitutional and void. Many persons in New England talked of taking their States out of the Union when the Embargo of 1807 destroyed the commerce by which they lived. Near the end of the War of 181 2, the New England States held a convention at Hartford, to express their dissatisfaction with the course of the general govern- ment and it was believed at the time that they meant to withdraw from the Union. In time, the Northern States came to have interests in common, and a strong national feeling grew up among them, while the South held firmly to the doctrine of State sovereignty. The ^reat statesman, John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was the chief advocate of that doctrine. He maintained that a State might at will nullify an act of Congress within its own borders, and South Carolina took this step in regard to the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832, as related in a former chapter. The Sections Arrayed Against Each Other. — All this while the question of slavery tended to solidify the States of the North on the one hand, and those of the South on the other, each section standing for those policies of government which it desired enforced. As we have seen, the question of slavery in the Territories was quieted for a time by the Missouri Compromise in 1820, and again by the Compromise of 1850. Then came the Kansas-Nebraska Act, and the fierce contro- versy which resulted from it. This brought the two sec- tions still more strongly into antagonism to each other. The 302 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE resistance of the Northern people to the execution of the Fugitive Slave Law, Brooks's assault upon Sumner, the de- cision of the Dred Scott case, John Brown's raid, and many minor incidents tended to increase the feeling of hostility. The Election of i860. — In i860, the Democratic Conven- tion could not agree upon a platform or a candidate. The South was unwilling to accept Douglas and his doctrine of popular sovereignty unless he would consent to a declara- tion that it was the duty of the Federal government to pro- tect slavery in the Territories. The Northern Democrats, led by Douglas, refused to consent to this, and the party split in two. One part of it nominated Stephen A. Douglas for President, and Herschel V. Johnson for Vice Presi- dent. The other party nominated John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky, and Joseph Lane, of Oregon. The opposition to the Republican party was still further divided by the fact that many old Whigs and Know-Noth- ings, in company with many persons who felt that to save the Union was the only duty of patriotic men, at that time, formed themselves into the Constitutional Union Party, and nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, of Massachusetts. It was certain that the Repub- licans could not secure a majority of the people's votes in support of any candidate they might nominate ; but it was equally certain that with three candidates in the field against them, they were likely to carry a majority of the electoral votes, and elect their candidates. They nominated Abra- ham Lincoln,* of Illinois, for President, and Hannibal Ham- lin, of Maine, for Vice President. Seward and Chase had been prominent candidates but neither of them could command votes enough in the Con- vention to nominate him. Lincoln had won prominence in the country two years before by means of a series of great debates between himself and Douglas, on the ques- tion of slavery in the Territories. He had also the advan- tage of being one of what he called " the plain people." * For biography, see Appendix. THE IRRESISTIBLE TENDENCY TO WAR 303 What the Four Candidates Stood For. — The Republican party, in its platform, declared itself in favor of forever ex- cluding slavery from all the Territories which had not yet 304 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE been made into States. At the same time it declared that it had no purpose to interfere with slavery in the States where it already existed by law. The Douglas Democrats declared themselves in favor of the popular sovereignty doctrine, and the Compromise of 1850, that is to say, they proposed to leave each new Territory to, decide for itself whether it would have slavery or not. The Breckinridge Democrats insisted that the owners of slave property had the same rights in the Territories that were possessed by the owners of any other kind of property, and that it was the duty of Congress to protect them in their rights of property in slaves in all the Territories. The supporters of Bell and Everett declared themselves in favor of "the Con- stitution, the Union, and the Enforcement of the Laws." In the election the Republicans carried all the Northern States except New Jersey, and Lincoln was elected by 180 out of 303 electoral votes. The Secession of South Carolina. — Almost all the Southern people believed firmly that any State had the right to with- draw from the L^nion when it pleased . A part of the South- ern people regarded the election of Mr. Lincoln as a suffi- cient reason for exercising that right. They held that Mr. Lincoln's party was purely sectional, that it existed only in the Northern States, and that his election was in fact an attempt of the North to rule the South without its consent. There was, therefore, a strong party at the South which favored the withdrawal of the slave States from the Union. South Carolina took the lead in this movement. That State called a Constitutional Convention together, and on the 20th of December, i860, an ordinance was passed, declar- ing that South Carolina was no longer a State in the Union, but had resumed its independence. Other Cotton States Secede. — In January, 1861, Missis- sippi, Elorida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana held Con- ventions and adopted ordinances of Secession. In Feb- ruary, Texas did the same. The rest of the Southern States, led by Virginia, hesitated. The people of Virginia, indeed, THE IRRESISTIBLE TENDENCY TO WAR 305 voted overwhelmingly against secession, believing it to be bad politics, and wholly unnecessary. Formation of the Confederate States. — Delegates from the six States which had seceded during December and Jefferson Davis January, met on February 4, at Montgomery, Alabama, and organized themselves into a new republic called the " Confederate States of America." Jefferson Davis,* of Mississippi, was chosen President, and Alexander H. * For biography, see Appendix. 306 THE PERIOD OF COMPROMISE Stephens,* of Georgia, Vice President. Texas joined this Confederacy March 2. The seceding States seized upon the forts, arsenals and other property of the United States within their borders. The only Southern forts remaining in the possession of the United States were Fort Sumter, in Charleston Harbor, Fort Pickens, near Pensacola, Florida, the forts around Key West, and Fort Monroe, in Virginia — a State which had not yet seceded. Feeling in the North. — At first the North could not be- lieve that all this was to be taken seriously. It was thought that the matter would soon be settled in some way, and some prominent Northern men advised that the seceding States should be permitted to "go in peace." In his mes- sage to Congress in December, President Buchanan de- nied the right of any State to secede, but he also denied the right of the government to force any State to remain in the Union. Vain efforts were made to bring about a compromise. John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky, proposed to amend the Con.stitution, restore the Missouri Compromise line, and extend it to the Pacific Ocean, allowing slavery in all Terri- tories south of it, and prohibiting slavery in all Territories north. This came to nothing. The Peace Convention. — On February 4th, a peace Con- vention met in Washington at the suggestion of Virginia. It sat with closed doors and considered many suggestions, but nothing was accomplished. New States and the Census. — Three States came into the Union during Buchanan's administration — Minnesota, May II, 1858; Oregon, February 14, 1859; and Kansas, January 29, 1861. By the census of i860 the population of the Union was 31,440,000. In seventy years the nation had added twenty-one new States to the original thirteen, and had multiplied its population almost exactly by eight. The region between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi had * For biography, see Appendix. THE IRRESISTIBLE TENDENCY TO WAR 307 been peopled, and eight of the twenty-one new States lay wholly west of the great river. The new States and Terri- tories presently to become States, had a trifle more than one-half the entire population of the country, which now ex- tended from sea to sea, and from the St. Lawrence and the great lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and the Rio Grande. Summary.— I. John Brown went to Virginia in October, 1859, for the purpose of arming the negroes there and scaring the South into giving up slavery. He took possession of the United States Arsenal at Harpers Ferry, was captured, convicted of treason, and hanged. 2. The idea that each State was sovereign in itself was generally held at the beginning of our history. It was generally given up at the North as time went on, but the South still clung to it. 3. In the election of i860 the Republicans were united, while their opponents were divided into three parties with three candidates. Abraham Lincoln was the Republican candidate. He carried the electoral vote of all the Northern States but one, and was elected. 4. South Carolina seceded almost immediately, and the six other cotton States followed in January, February, and March. They formed themselves into a new Republic, under the name of the Confederate States of America, and seized upon most of the forts, arsenals, etc., within their borders. 5. In Congress, and in a peace convention at Washington, earnest efforts were made to find a way out by compromise. All these efiforts failed. Collateral Reading.— Rhodes's " History of the United States," II., 391-401, 404-405: Vol. III., 11S-121, 195-201. Pollard's "The Lost Cause," 90-91, 346-355- 19 — Egg. Hist. 309 THE CIVIL WAR CHAPTER XLVI FROM THE FALL OF SUMTER TO McCLELLAN S APPOINTMENT Fort Sumter. — Major Anderson, of the United States army, with about one hundred men, had held Fort Moul- trie, in Charleston Harbor. As the fort could not be de- fended on the land side he had removed his garrison to Fort Sumter, which stood on an artificial island in the Harbor. The fort could not be properly defended without reenforce- ments of men and ammunition. Buchanan hesitated to send these lest their arrival should bring on a collision. But when Major Anderson reported that batteries were building which threatened the fort, the President forwarded reenforcements in an unarmed vessel called the " Star of the West." When the ship tried to enter Charleston Har- bor she w^as fired upon and forced to turn back. The Fall of Sumter. — Lincoln came into office on the 4th of March, 1861. He took several weeks in which to decide what was to be done about Fort Sumter. Finally he made up his mind to send a small fleet to Charleston with provisions and soldiers on board. He notified the Governor of South Carolina that the fleet would supply the fort with pro- visions only, and would land no troops or ammunition unless an attack was made. The Confederates accepted 310 I v^\ i \ )_ scHorM.us, /^ ' ' ;— i 2 ^> \ ^ 1 l^T^X FfSumter > / / "yj:i} ¥,' ,- '^T'^^i^'A^^.I b 10 80 120 160} ilA \ ■/'^''fH ' ■* ^ A "^^=*^M4 I n &' The War in the West ground in front. During the night after this battle Gen- eral Floyd, the Confederate commander, escaped with a part of his army in two small steamers. General Pillow and General Forrest, with a few hundred men, got away on horseback over a submerged road. General Buckner, who was thus left in command, asked Grant what terms of sur- render he would allow, and Grant made his famous answer, " No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately upon your works." Fort Donelson surrendered February 16, 1862, with nearly fifteen thousand prisoners. FROM BALLS BLUFF TO ISLAND NUMBER lO 319 Effects of the Fall of the Forts. — This was the first Union success of considerable moment. The capture of the forts broke the Confederate Hne of defense and forced the Southern armies to abandon Bowhng Green, Nashville, and Columbus. In the meanwhile an irregular warfare had been carried on from the beginning in Missouri. At the battle of Wilsons Creek, August 10, 1861, the Union General Lyon had been killed and his troops defeated. On the i8th of September, 1861, the Confederate General Price had at- tacked the town of Lexington, in Missouri, and captured three thousand prisoners. Finally, on the 6th of March, 1862, a few weeks after the fall of Fort Donelson, a severe battle was fought at Pea Ridge, in northern Arkansas, which secured Missouri to the North and thus completed the pushing back of the Confederate forces along the whole western portion of their line. The " Merrimac " and the " Monitor." — The Confederates had seized the Portsmouth navy yard, opposite Norfolk, at the beginning of the war. The Union forces there, before aban- doning the post, had partly burned and sunk a new steam frigate called the " Merrimac." The Confed- erates raised the ship, plated her sides, and covered her deck with a sloping wall of railroad iron, and named her the " Virginia." This ship steamed out into Hampton Roads (March 8, 1862), where lay five wooden United States vessels. Some of these headed toward the new monster, but quickly ran aground. The war ships " Congress " and " Cumberland " and the batteries on shore at once opened fire on the " Merrimac," but their shots bounded like India rubber balls from her plated sides. She ran straight for the " Cumberland," and punched a great hole in the side of the ship with her steel Hampton Roads 320 THE CIVIL WAR ram. The crew of the " Cumberland " continued to fire until the sinking of the vessel brought the muzzles of their guns to the water's edge. The " Merrimac " next fell upon The "Merrimac" and the "Monitor" the " Congress," which she quickly set afire with hot shot. The victorious ironclad then returned to her anchorage at Norfolk, her officers intending to steam out again on the following morning and destroy the " Minnesota," which lay hopelessly aground. There was consternation in the North. It was seen that wooden war vessels were useless against such a craft as this. But there was help at hand. While the Confederates had been raising the " Merrimac '' and covering her with iron, another sort of ironclad vessel, planned by Captain John Ericsson, had been built. The " Monitor," as she was called, was on her way southward, and was nearing Hamp- ton Roads at the very time when the " Merrimac " was sinking ships there. Built with a low deck, almost under water, and having a revolving turret containing two heavy guns, she was said to be like a " cheese box on a raft." FROM BALLS BLUFF TO ISLAND NUMBER lO 32 1 This curious little craft ran into Hampton Roads on the morning of March 9, 1862, The " Merrimac," having come out again, steamed toward the " Minnesota," but the " Monitor " attacked her at once, and a four hours' battle ensued. Cannon balls glanced harmlessly off the sides of both ships. The " Merri- mac " tried to ram the " Monitor," but that small and nimble craft slipped away from the blow. Finally the " Merrimac " ceased firing, one of her officers saying that it would do just as much good to snap his fingers at the " Monitor " every two and a half minutes as to hurl cannon balls against her. The " Merrimac " returned to Norfolk. It was a drawn battle between these two, but while the " Monitor " lay in Hampton Roads the Confederate iron- clad could do no further damage to the fleet there. This was the first time when two ironclad ships met in battle. It wrought a revolution in the construction of naval ships, making an end of wooden men-of-war through- out the world, and beginning all that we now know of great marine fighting' machines. The Battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing. — Some weeks after the capture of Fort Donelson Grant's army moved up the Tennessee to the neighborhood of Pittsburg Land- ing. General Buell, who was in command of the army south of Louisville had followed the retreat of the South- ern forces from Bowling Green to Nashville. He was now ordered to move westward and unite his army with Grant's. Grant did not expect the Confederates to attack him at Pittsburg Landing. He intended to at- tack them instead at Corinth, where General Albert Sidney Johnston and General Beaure- gard had, by great exertion^:, concentrated a new army. While Grant was waiting for Buell to come up, Johnston marched rapidly northward and fell upon the Union army on the morning of ^iijert s Tohn- April 6, 1862. A fierce struggle ensued near ston 322 THE CIVIL WAR and round the little country church of Shiloh. The Union men were steadily forced backward, and some bodies of them were surrounded and captured. On the Northern side General Sherman * greatly distinguished himself on this day.- General Albert Sidney Johnston, commanding the Southern army, threw himself into the thick of the fight and was mortally wounded. Beauregard succeeded him in command. Grant was several miles away when the battle began, and did not get to the field until it was in full progress. The first day of the battle was a defeat for the Federal army, which, when evening came, had been driven from its position, and was huddled around the land- ing at the river side. By the next morning a large part of Buell's army had come up, and fresh men fell upon the weary Southern soldiers, and after a hard struggle drove them back. They retired slowly and in good order, and the Union forces did not pursue them. Island Number lo. — While the battle of Shiloh was in progress General Pope and Commodore Foote with the gunboats attacked the Confederate works on Island Num- ber lo, in the Mississippi. This island lies in New Madrid bend, a great curve of the river below Columbus. By cut- ting a canal across the neck of land made by the bend in the river, Pope had placed himself below the fort, while Foote had run his gunboats past the batteries under a fear- ful fire. Under a vigorous and combined attack the fort was forced to surrender on April 7. Halleck, who com- manded the Union forces in the West, now ordered Pope's force to join Grant at Pittsburg Landing, and went him- self to take command at that point. Halleck spent three weeks in preparation, and when at last he moved he consumed a month in slowly advancing by regular siege parallels against the enemy's position, twenty miles away. When he got there the Confederates had already abandoned the position, carrying away their guns and their stores. Memphis now fell into the hands * For biography, see Appendix. FROM BALLS BLUFP^ TO ISLAND NUMBER ID 323 of the Union armies, and the Mississippi River was opened as far south as Vicksburg. A year had passed since the fah of Sumter. The hne of Confederate defense in the West had been pushed south as far as Vicksburg, Chatta- nooga, and Cumberland Gap, but in Virginia nothing of any consequence had been accomplished. Summary.— I- A little battle at Balls Bluff on the Potomac was won by the Confederates on October 21, 1861, and Fort Hatteras and Port Royal on the southeastern coast were captured by the Federals. Nothing else was done in the East during that year. 2. A United States vessel, under Captain Wilkes, overhauled the British mail steamer " Trent " at sea. and forcibly took from her Messrs. Mason and Slidell, Confederate commissioners, on their way to England and France. This very nearfy led to war with England, but the affair was settled by the giving up of the commissioners. 3. Early in 1862 General Grant, supported by Commodore Foote with a fleet of gunboats, captured the two Confederate forts, Henry and Donelson, in Tennessee. 4. The Confederates having raised the sunken frigate " Merrimac," plated her with iron and re-named her " Virginia." She ran out into Hampton Roads, Virginia, and sank two United States warships (March 8, 1862). The next morning she was met by the new Federal ironclad ship, the " Monitor." This was the first battle ever fought between two ironclad ships. Neither hurt the other. 5. The battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, Western Tennessee, occurred April 6 and 7, 1862, between Grant and Albert Sidney John- ston. The first day the Confederates forced the Federal army back to Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee River, but during the night Grant was reenforced by Buell's army, and on the second day the Con- federates were slowly forced back, and finally withdrew to Corinth, whither they were not pursued. 6. On the same day another battle was fought at Island Number 10 in the Mississippi. There General Pope and Commodore Foote carried a strong Confederate fortress. 7. Pope's army was then added to Grant's at Pittsburg Landing and General Hallock took command in person. After some weeks of waiting he marched against Corinth, but found when he got there that the Confederates were already gone. 8. Thus during the first year of the war the Union forces had cap- tured three great Confederate strongholds in the West, pushed the Confederate line of defence as far south as Vicksburg, Chattanooga, and Cumberland Gap, and opened the Mississippi River to Vicksburg. 324 THE CIVIL WAR Collateral Reading. — Rhodes's " History of the United States," III., 608-614. Pollard's " The Lost Cause," 224-229, 239-242. CHAPTER XLVIII FROM THE FALL OF NEW ORLEANS TO THE SEVEN DAYS' BATTLES The Taking of New Orleans. — New Orleans, near the mouth of the Mississippi, was the principal city in all the South. Towards spring, in 1862, Commodore Farragut * was sent to capture it. He had a fleet of wooden warships, and with him was another little fleet of mortar boats under com- mand of Captain Porter. New Orleans was defended by two strong forts on the river bank at a point below the city where the stream is not more than half a mile wide. Below these a chain barrier was stretched across the stream, and above the forts lay a Confederate squadron, which included the ironclad ram " Manassas." Five days of bombardment by the mortars made no im- pression on the forts, and Farragut decided to take his chances in an attempt to run by them in his ships. He did this under a fearful fire, and succeeded in getting most of his ships above the forts. There a battle ensued between the Federal and the Confederate fleets. Farragut triumphed at last and sailed up to the city, which surrendered on April 25. The Peninsular Campaign. — While the Union forces had been making great gains in the West they had gained nothing thus far in Virginia. McClellan had drilled the Army of the Potomac until it had become a superb fight- ing machine, greatly outnumbering any force that the Con- federates could oppose to it. But he was cautious and long lay still in spite of the popular clamor for action and not- withstanding Mr. Lincoln's constant urging. * For biography, see Appendix. FALL OF NEW ORLEANS TO THE SEVEN DAYS' BATTLES 325 At last McClellan planned a campaign. Instead of marching southward upon Richmond, he took his army by water to Fort Mon- roe, in Hampton Roads, and set out for Richmond by way of the peninsula which is formed by the York and James Rivers. McDowell had been left with forty thou- sand men to guard Washington, and presently was to move Southeastern Virginia south and join Mc- Clellan before the Confederate capital. Another strong force under Banks was sent to the Shenandoah Valley to block that pathway toward Washington. McClellan had with him on the peninsula one hundred and twenty-one thousand men, forty-four batteries, and an equipment such as no army on this continent had ever possessed before. The only force that immediately stood in his way was one of eleven thousand men under Magruder at Yorktown. These had been stationed there merely for the purpose of delaying McClellan while the Confderate army at Richmond should be strengthened by recnforcements. Instead of attacking Magruder at once, McClellan laid siege to Yorktown, and lay before it for a whole month. Before he was ready to attack, the Confederates, having secured their purpose of delay, withdrew to Williamsburg, where, a little later, a sharp but indecisive battle was fought. After the battle the Confederates retired to Richmond, and McClellan advanced to the Chickahominy River, only a few miles from that city. In spite of his superior forces he sat dowm there to w^ait for McDowell to join him. He threw a part of his force south of the river, leaving the rest of it on the north. He pushed his line westward, fortifying 326 THE CIVIL WAR Strongly and completely investing the city on its northern and eastern sides. Jackson's Valley Campaign. — In order to prevent Mc- Dowell from marching south to unite with McClellan, General Lee,* who directed all the Confederate armies, sent Stonewall Jackson to the Shenandoah Valley w-ith a force of 17,000 men. The Federal force in that quarter was stronger than Jackson's, • but it was so divided and scat- tered that the agile Southern General, moving suddenly and rapidly from point to point, was able; to attack and defeat its several parts singly. He defeated Banks at Front Royal, May 23, and again at Winchester, May 25, driving him across the Potomac (map, p. 329). It was believed at Washington that Jackson intended to assail that city, and so McDowell was turned aside from his march on Richmond and sent into the valley to aid Fremont in an attempt to capture Jackson, who was now retracing his steps with bewildering rapidity. By the burning of bridges and by quick movements, Jackson prevented the Federal forces from uniting, and defeated them separately at Cross Keys and Port Republic on June 9. After one of the most brilliant campaigns in history he left the valley laden with spoils, having marched 'more than one hundred miles in a few days, won four battles, and captured three thousand five hundred prisoners. With that wonderful suddenness that characterized all his movements, Jackson appeared on McClellan's flank before Richmond in time to take part in the great struggle there. The Battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines. — In the meantime a battle had already been fought near Richmond. Near the end of May a great storm had raised the w^aters of the Chickahominy so high that it was difificult for the two wings of the Federal army to act together. General Joseph E. Johnston, who was in command at Richmond, seized this opportunity. On the 31st of May he attacked that part of McClellan's army which lay south of the river and nearest * For biography, see Appendix. FALL OF NEW ORLEANS TO THE SEVEN DAYS' BATTLES 327 to Richmond. The battle, which is caUed Fair Oaks in the North and Seven Pines in the South, lasted two days. On the first day the Confederates had the advantage. On the second the Federals regained their lost ground, and pushed a part of their force to points within four miles of Rich- mond. General Johnston was wounded in the fight, and General Lee took charge of the army there. The Seven Days' Battles. — Lee's force was smaller than Battle of Malvern Hill JVlcClellan's, but having succeeded in forcing the recall of McDowell to defend Washington, and having ordered Jackson to hurry to Richmond, he decided to attack Mc- Clellan, and if possible raise the siege of Richmond. He first sent his cavalry leader, J. E. B. Stuart, to study con- ditions in McClellan's rear, and Stuart marched entirely around the Federal army. On the 26th of June Lee threw a part of his forces across the Chickahominy, where they fell upon McClellan's right at Mechanicsville. During the 20 — Egg. Hist. 328 THE CIVIL WAR next day Jackson came up, and day by day the fighting continued for a whole week. McClellan's communications with his base of supply on the York River were cut, and to save his army from capture he determined to retreat by a narrow road to Harrisons Landing on the James River, where supplies could be brought tb him by water. The retreat was conducted in a masterly manner amid difficulties of the most terrible kind. It was necessary to abandon field hospitals with ah their wounded, to destroy great quantities of food and ammu- nition, to march over narrow and difficult roads by night, and fight stubbornly by day and all the day, every day. But at last, after a week of such work, McClellan reached Mal- vern Hill, near the James River. Here he took up a posi- tion where both his flanks were protected by the gunboats in the river. In spite of this the Confederates, flushed with their victories, assailed the impregnable position time and time again, and one of the fiercest battles of the war ensued, in which both sides fought with the courage and determina- tion of veterans. Every Confederate assault was repulsed, and as McClellan had reached the protection of his gunboats the famous Seven Days' fights were over. McClellan had succeeded in saving his army. Lee had succeeded in driv- ing that army away from Richmond. Summary. — i- In April, 1862, Farragut took New Orleans. 2. In the spring of that year McClellan moved upon Richmond by way of the peninsula between the York and the James Rivers. After besieging Yorktown for a month and fighting a battle at Williamsburg, he took position on the Chickahominy River, where, on May 31 and June I, the battle of Fair Oaks was fought. 3. About the same time Stonewall Jackson was sent to the valley to overcome the Federal forces there, and so to threaten Washington, as to prevent McDowell from reinforcing McClellan. .A.fter doing this Jackson suddenly moved to Richmond and joined Lee. 4. Then followed the Seven Days' battles, in which McClellan was compelled to retreat, figliting all the way to James River. Collateral Reading. — Pollard's " The Lost Cause," 250-253. Rhodes's "History of the United States," III., 616-617; Vol. IV., 11-31, 37-49- FROM THE SECOND MANASSAS TO MURFREESBORO 329 CHAPTER XLIX FROM THE SECOND MANASSAS TO MURFREESBORO The Second Battle of Manassas, or Bull Run. — Lincoln had lost confidence in McClellan. In July he brought Halleck from the West and placed him in su- preme command, al- though Halleck had done nothing in the war except interfere with Grant. The forces of Fremont, Banks, and McDowell were brought together before Wash- ington, placed under Pope, and named the Army of Virginia. Pope promptly advanced to- ward the Rappahannock. McClellan had been forced out of his works in front of Richmond, but his army was still strong, compact, and well organized at Harrisons Landing. Until that army should be dislodged Lee could not safely withdraw his own from the defense of Richmond. His first effort, therefore, was to force the Federal authorities to call back McClellan's troops to the North. To that end he sent Jackson to the Rappa- hannock to threaten Pope, and as fast as troops were with- drawn from McClellan's army to reenforce the Army of .Virginia, Lee sent his other corps to join Jackson. Having got his whole army into position, he took per- sonal command of it, sent Jackson to march around Bull Second Battle of Manassas 330 THE CIVIL WAR Run Mountain and to come down upon Pope's rear at Manassas Junction. Pope promptly retired to protect his communications. On the 29th of August he fell upon Jackson in the second battle of Bull Run, which lasted for two days. Lee had quickly followed Jackson on his march, and instead of having Jackson alone to fight Pope found himself confronted by nearly the whole Confederate army. The second day ended in the defeat of the Federal army, which was driven back towards Washington, scattered and disorganized, after heavy losses. The battle sorely dis- credited Pope, and there was fear in Washington that under his command the city could not be defended against that advance which Lee was now certain to make. Pope was therefore sent West to fight Indians, and the defense of the city was intrusted to McClellan. He soon re- stored the forces near Washington to the condi- tion of a well-organized army. The Battle of Antietam, or Sharpsburg. — There was now no enemy in Virginia for Lee to fight. The Federal armies were defending Washington instead of assailing Richmond. Lee determined at once to transfer the scene of war to the re- gion north of the Potomac, where he hoped that the presence of a Confederate army flushed with victory might induce the young men of Maryland to flock to his standard and bring Maryland into the Confederacy. About the same time a Confederate army under Kirby Smith had marched northward from Tennessee through Ken- tucky, occupied Lexington, and pushed a detachment to Cov- ington, opposite Cincinnati. The Confederate General Bragg also had eluded General Buell, and was marching upon Louis- ville. The Confederates hoped confederate invasion or Ken- thus to draw Kentucky also into tucky Braxton Bragg i \ / y^V \ ,H ^i,,^ .^ MZanes- s- >. •ay- w^^ ustJsS ^ ^ -''^ \ , °r^ vX^^ H iT n^ Aci; ■"'>. rV \,f.*^rV'»""c '" \ s 0, ' T AA^ "^^^ >-. y.* v^^- ^^ } . / ys \ „FR A 0\^ -J 71. coiJ\ "V /LfuisvUlc El S.^^ h "^ " K/E N / h: \ ^^^ 1 FROM THE SECOND MANASSAS TO MURFREESBORO 33 1 their Confederacy and enlist many thousands of its young men in their armies. The cause of the South looked bright at that time, and the clouds that overhung the North had no silver lining. Lee was seriously threatening Washing- ton, Baltimore, and Philadelphia, while Bragg seemed likely to capture Louisville and Cincinnati. The Federal garrison at Harpers Ferry was not with- drawn when Lee crossed the Potomac, as he had expected it to be. He had therefore to send Jackson back to capture that place, which he did, taking about thirteen thousand prisoners. The two armies met on the 17th of September on Antie- tam Creek, near Sharpsburg, where one of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought. Some of the regiments lost more than half of their men. Li that one day Lee lost about eleven thousand men and McClellan about twelve thou- sand. Both sides claimed the battle as a victory, but neither side had, in fact, won it. Neither was willing to attack the other the next morning, and neither ran away from the other. They lay facing each other for twenty-four hours without firing a gvm. Then Lee quietly withdrew unmo- lested to the Potomac and crossed it. But while this en- counter was what is called a drawn battle so far as the fight- ing was concerned, it put an end to Lee's invasion of Mary- land and Pennsylvania, and was to that extent, at least, a success for ^he Federal cause. The Emancipation Proclamation. — The anti-slavery people in the North bitterly censured Lincoln for not doing something to put an end to slavery. His position was a difficult one. His purpose was simply to save the Union at all hazards. He felt that to do this he must respect the rights and opinions of the border State slave holders, who were lending loyal service to the Union cause. Ever since the beginning of the war slaves had been taking refuge with the Northern armies, and in some cases they had been given back to their masters v^hen claimed by them. Gen- eral Butler, in command at Fort Monroe, had refused 332 THE CIVIL WAR to give up negroes in this way. In time of war all goods which may aid the enemy are seized as "contraband of war." Butler contended that as negroes were property which could be used in fortifying and otherwise in aid of the enemy's cause they also were contraband of war. After that negro refugees were everywhere called "contrabands." Lincoln had no authority under the Constitution to set the negroes free. It was only as a war measure that he could justify himself in doing so, and he did not think that it would be a helpful war measure to proclaim a thing of that kind at a time when the Union armies w^ere being everywhere defeated. But when Lee retired to Virginia, after the battle of Antietam, the situation was changed, and on September 22 Lincoln issued a proclamation declar- ing that after January i, 1863, all the slaves in those States, and parts of States, which should be then in rebel- lion should be free. He also announced that he would ask the next Congress to offer pecuniary aid to slave hold- ers living in States not in rebellion who should voluntarily free their slaves. When the day fixed upon came (January I, 1863), Lincoln issued a second proclamation, declaring free all the slaves in those States and parts of States which were then resisting the Union. The Battle of Fredericksburg. — McClellan did not pur- sue Lee when the Confederates recrossed the Potomac, after the battle of Antietam, nor did he interfere with him in any vigorous way after he had settled down to repair the damage suffered in the campaign. McClellan was, therefore, removed from command, and General Burnside took his place at the head of the army of the Potomac. Burnside decided to advance- upon Richmond by way of Fredericksburg, and ^f\ with that in view posted his army on the Rappa- hannock, opposite that citv. Lee placed him- A. E. Burnside ^^^^ ^^^ ^ y^^^^ ^^ j^jjl^ behind the town. Burn- side threw a bridge of boats across the river, and on Decem- ber 13, 1862, attacked Lee in his works. FROM THE SECOND MANASSAS TO MURFREESBORO 333 Again and again the gallant fellows charged up Maryes Heights, only to be mowed down by a fire that nothing could withstand. The defeat of the Federals was complete, Battle of Fredericksburg and it brought a bitter disappointment to the North, where there was serious fear that European countries, in view of repeated Confederate victories, might insist on interfering in l)ehalf of the South. Murfreesboro. — The in- vasion of Kentucky by Bragg and Kirb}- Smith, in 1862, failed of its pur- pose of capturing Cincin- nati and Louisville. Buell met Bragg at Perry ville, Kentucky, where an in- decisive battle was fought October 8. Bragg and Smith then left the State. Rosecrans, who had re- Confederate invasion of Kentucky 334 • THE CIVIL WAR pulsed a Confederate attack on Corinth (October 3 and 4), was now placed in command of Buell's army. He met the Confederates at Murfreesboro,and there a battle was fought on December 31, 1862, and January 2, 1863. On the first day the Federal forces were driven back, and were only saved from complete defeat by the prowess of Sheridan and Thomas, but on January 2 Rosecrans made a success- ful advance, and Bragg retreated. Both armies were se- verely crippled, but neither had distinctly conquered the other. Thus ended the second year of the war. Summary. — i. After McCIellan was driven to James River, the Federal forces in the Valley were brought to Washington, and General Pope advanced to the Rappahannock. Jackson threatened this force, and to strengthen it McClellan's army was withdrawn from the neigh- borhood of Richmond. Lee's entire army then joined Jackson, and fought the second battle of Manassas, or Bull Run, on the 29th and 30th of August, in which the Federal army was driven back and Wash- ington seemed in danger. Pope was removed from command and McCIellan reinstated. 2. Lee then marched into Maryland, capturing Harpers Ferry, with about 12,000 prisoners. McCIellan met him on Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg, where one of the bloodiest battles of the war was fought on the 17th of September. The battle resulted in victory for neither side, but after waiting for twenty-four hours, Lee retired into Virginia. 3. In September, after the Battle of Antietam, Mr. Lincoln issued his first emancipation proclamation, and at the beginning of the next year he issued the final one. 4. As McCIellan did not pursue Lee from Antietam or ofifer battle, he was removed, and the command was given to General Burnside. Burnside advanced to Fredericksburg, where Lee met him, and in a great battle, on December 13, 1862, defeated him with great slaughter. 5. During the autumn of 1862 a Confederate army under Bragg and Kirby Smith invaded Kentucky and threatened Louisville and Cincinnati. but was checked by Bnell at Perryville, Kentucky, in October. 6. Rosecrans succeeded Buell, and on December 31 and January 2 fought a great battle at Murfrccsboro, Tennessee, after which Bragg retired. Collateral Reading. — Rhodes's " History of the Lfnited States," IV., 13T, 121-131, 134-136, 139-155, 193-198, 219-220. Pollard's "The Lost Cause," 307-309, 348-351- FROM CHANCELLORSVILLE TO LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN 335 CHAPTER L FROM CHANCELLORSVILLE TO LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN The Battle of Chancellorsville. — In the Spring of 1863, General Hooker, who had succeeded Burnside in connnand of the Army of the Potomac, had one hundred and thirty Battle of Chancellorsville thousand men, while Lee had only about sixty thou- sand. Hooker sent a part of his army down the river to cross below Lee's position, and threaten his right flank. At the same time he moved with the greater part of his army up the river, and crossed into a tangled country known as the Wilderness. Having crossed the river, he pushed forward to a point called Chancellorsville, hoping thus to place himself in the rear of Lee's left flank. But, leaving ten thousand men to hold the works at Fred- ericksburg, Lee had marched to meet Hooker, at Chancel- 33^ THE CIVIL WAR lorsville. There he took a desperate risk. With less than fifty thousand men against about one hundred and twenty- thousand he determined to divide his army in the presence of his enemy. He sent StonewaU Jackson with a part of the army to march secretly around Hooker's right flank, and fall upon his rear, while he himself, with the remainder of his force, should hold Hooker in check in front. On the evening of May 2, Jackson delivered his blow on the Federal right and rear, taking them completely by surprise, and driving them before him until dark. After dark Jackson was by mistake shot by his own men, and died a few days later. On the next day the battle was resumed. Stuart, commanding Jackson's force, pushed his way over all obstacles, and joined Lee where that General was fiercely assailing Hooker's front. At the end of the second day Hooker was badly defeated, and his army was driven back in confusion to the river. His losses amounted to about eighteen thousand men. Lee had lost about thirteen thousand. Hooker recrossed the river. Thus for the fifth time a great campaign against Richmond had been 1) r o u g h t to naught. Gettysburg. — Having overthrown Hooker, Lee decided to make another bold move northward as he had done after the second battle of Bull Run. He advanced to the Poto- mac, crossed it, and pushed forward into Pennsylvania. Hooker followed him, cover- ing Washington as he 6 10 20 30 40 50 00 War in the East, 1863 FROM CHANCELLORSVILLE TO LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN 337 marched. During this march, Hooker was reheved from command at his own request, and General George G. Meade succeeded him. Portions of the two armies met on July i, 1863, near the little town of Gettsysburg, Pennsylvania. There the greatest battle of the war was fought on that day and the two days following. During the first day the Con- federates had the advantage. During the night of that day and the next morning, the whole of the two armies gathered there. Meade entrenched himself on a line of hills called Cemetery Ridge, where Lee assailed: him on July 2. The Confederates George G. Meade Battle of Gettysburg gained ground, but failed to dislodge the Federals. On July 3 Lee sent General Pickett with fifteen thousand men to assault the Union line. These brave fellows marched steadily for nearly a mile across an intervening valley which 338 THE CIVIL WAR was swept by Federal cannon, then rushed up the hill in face of a deadly fire of musketry, pausing but for a moment to " mass for a final plunge." When they reached the top, a hundred of them leaped over a stone wall which formed the Union line of defense at this point, and captured, and for a minute held, some Federal cannon, planting their battle flags on Cemetery Ridge. But the storming column was not supported, and it was soon driven back with terrible carnage. Thus ended the three days' battle of Gettysburg. The losses in killed, wounded, and missing, at Gettys- burg were about twenty-three thousand on the Union side, and over twenty thousand on the Confederate side. The battle over, Lee lay still throughout the 4th of July, neither side caring to assail the other. Then he slowly retreated to the Potomac. There floods detained him for a time, but Meade did not attack him. The Siege of Vicksburg. — The capture of Island Number Ten, which led to the fall of Memphis, together with the capture of New Orleans by Farragut, had left the Confed- erates in control of only that small part of the Mississippi River which lies between Vicksburg and Port Hudson. To reduce those two strongholds was to open the river from its source to its mouth to Federal fleets, thus cutting the Confederacy in two. Grant had undertaken this task and had found it one of extreme difficulty. Vicksburg was built upon high bluffs, overlooking the river. Its front bristled with cannon, and was seamed with fortifications. Grant wanted, if possible, to place his forces below the city where the ground was more favorable for a campaign. But to do that he must get past the city and its batteries, a thing which seemed impossible. At last he marched his army over muddy roads, on the west side of the river, to a point below Vicksburg. But the river itself still lay between him and the point he wished to gain, and moreover it was impossible to carry provisions enough for the feeding of the men over the roads by which he had marched. He therefore ordered a fleet of gunboats FROM CHANCELLORSVILLE TO LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN 339 and vessels loaded with supplies to take the risk of running past the V'icksburg batteries during the night. The lieet succeeded in passing the town, and reaching Grant's posi- tion below, where the boats were used to ferry the armies across. Grant boldly cut loose from all his communications, and pushed forward into the country, falling upon every Con- federate detachment, and defeating one after another before they could unite for resistance. Within nineteen days he had crossed the Mississippi, marched one hundred and eighty miles through a difficult country, fought and won five battles, and placed his army in rear of Vicksburg, into which he had driven a Confederate army of more than thirty thousand men, under General Pemberton. On May 22 he tried to take Vicksburg by assault, but failed. He then began a regular siege. Inside Vicksburg the situation was terrible. The town had to endure a constant bombardment and food was very scarce. Women and children were forced to live in caves dug in the cliffs, in order to escape the shells. On July 4, 1863, the next day after the 1)attle of Gettys- burg, V^icksburg surrendered. So much was Grant im- pressed with the courage and endurance the Southerners had displayed that by his orders not a cheer was given by the conquerers as the Confederates marched out prisoners of war, while one division of Grant's army went further and shouted a hurrah for " the gallant defenders of Vicksburg." A few days after the fall of Vicksburg, Port Hudson sur- rendered. The Confederacy was cut in two. Draft Riots in New York. — After the first enthusiasm of the war wore ofl^ it was difficult, both North and South, to fill up the armies with volunteers. Early in the war the Con- federate government had passed a conscription law, calling into the army all the men in the South who were fit to fight. At the North volunteering had been encouraged by ofifering large bounties in money to those who would enlist ; but even this device was not sufficient, and in the summer of 340 THE CIVIL WAR 1863 it was necessary to resort to a draft — that is to say, drawing by lot the names of those who were required to serve. The draft was resisted in New York by great mobs composed largely of foreigners. These mobs wrecked the drafting olifices, hanged some negroes, and so far disturbed the peace that it was necessary to put them down by armed force, with some loss of life. Morgan's Raid. — In July, 1863, the Confed- erate General John Morgan, with a strong body of cavalry, made a great raid through Tennessee and Ken- tucky into Indiana and Ohio, tearing up rail- roads, burning bridges, and destroying factories. After doing much damage and causing great alarm, his force w^as in part captured, while the rest of it was dispersed. The Battle of Chicka- mauga. — After the fall of A'icksburg the next im- portant point which it was necessary to secure in the \A^est was Chattanooga. Tennessee. That town was a railroad center, which commanded east- ern Tennessee, where the people generally were of Union sentiments. Gene- ral Rosecrans maneuvered the Confederates out of One of Morgan's raiders 77 T Ei'-.M ;^N E Sr S E E ■^^ o -f-^. f ■■;■- - "- ~ -^ Go -.E ^ O ,R^ G i?«ii a 1 6 S 10 Vicinity of Chattanooga FROM CHANCELLORSVILLE TO LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN 34I Tennessee in July and August, and finally seized upon Chat- tanooga without a struggle. He made the mistake of sup- posing that the Confederates under Bragg were retreating, and he hastened his men through the mountain passes in pursuit. Bragg turned upon him and fought the battle of Chickamauga on September 19 and 20. In this battle the Confederates broke through the Union line and drove the right wing of the Federal army back in confusion to Chattanooga. General Thomas, in command of the left wing, held his own, however, and saved the day from being so disastrous a defeat as it had seemed to be to Rosecrans when he left the field with the rest of his army. Rosecrans fortified himself at Chattanooga, and Bragg besieged him there, occupying the command- ing heights of Lookout Mountain and Mis- sionary Ridge, thus cutting off supplies in part from the I'nion army. The Battles Near Chattanooga. — On October 2;^ Grant arrived at Cluittanooga. His first care was to open a way for obtaining supplies. About that time Bragg detached twenty thousand of his men under Longstreet to besiege Burnside at K n o x v i 1 1 e. Sherman had been ordered to Chattanooga with his army, and arrived there on the night of November 23. During that day Thomas had driven the Confederates back a mile further from Chattanooga. On the 24th Hooker forced his way across the north end of Lookout Mountain. On the 25th the Federal Ulysses S. Grant (1864) armies took Missionary James Longstreet 342 THE CIVIL WAR Ridge, The Confederates were driven back on all sides, and retired into Georgia. Sherman's Raid. — In February, 1864, Sherman marched from Vicksburg across the State of Mississippi, destroying railroads, engines, bridges, and the like, so that Chattanooga might be safe from attacks from that quarter. The only part of the Confederacy which was now able to ofTer any resistance lay south of Fredericksburg, in Virginia, and east of Dalton, in Georgia. General Johnston was at Dalton with seventy-five thousand men, and Lee lay upon the Rap- pahannock with sixty thousand. Grant in Command. — In March, 1864, Grant was made Lieutenant-General and placed in command of all the armies of the Union. Summary. — i. In the spring of 1863, General Hooker, with the Army of the Potomac, moved against Lee by way of the Wilderness, but was badly defeated at Chancellorsville (May 2 and 3). 2. Lee at once made a second invasion of the north, which resulted in the great battle of Gettysburg, July i, 2, 3. 3. The Confederates held only that part of the Mississippi River between Vicksburg and Port Hudson. Grant was sent to take Vicks- burg. After many fruitless attempts the place at last surrendered to him on the 4th of July. Port Hudson fell shortly afterward. 4. In the summer of 1863 bloody draft riots occurred in New York city, and the Confederate General, John Morgan, made a great raid across the Ohio River into Ohio and Indiana, doing much damage. 5. In September Rosecrans attacked the Confederates under Bragg at Chickamauga, near Chattanooga, and was badly defeated. He re- tired to Chattanooga, where Bragg besieged him. 6. In October Grant was sent to Chattanooga to take command, and on the 24th and 25th were fought the battles of Lookout Moun- tain and Missionary Ridge, which forced the Confederates back into Georgia. 7. In February, 1864, Sherman made a raid through Mississippi, destroying railroads, bridges, etc. 8. In March, 1864, Grant was made Lieutenant-General and placed in command of all the Federal armies. Collateral Reading. — Rhodes's " History of the United States," IV., 257-264, 304-318, 396-407. Pollard's "The Lost Cause," 372-276, 450- 452, 456-457. BATTLE OF THE WILDERNESS TO SHERIDAN'S RIDE 343 CHAPTER LI. FROM THE BATTLE OF THE WILDERNESS TO SHERTDAN's RIDE Grant's campaign against Rich- mond The Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold Harbor. ^ — In the campaign of 1864 it was Grant's chief purpose to crush Lee's army. He directed Sherman and others in the West to carry on campaigns there, which should ])revent the sending of troops from that quarter to reenforce Lee. He even sent Canby from New Orleans to threaten ]\lol)ile. and. in short, wherever in the South or West there lay a Confed- erate force which miglit be sent to Lee, Grant ordered some movement which would fully occup}' that force and keep it where it was. Having thus pro\'ided against the strengthening of Lee's army, he set out to crush it in the held. Early in May he crossed the lva])idan into the Wilder- ness, where Hooker had been defeated at Chance]lors\'ille a year before. Lee instantly marched to meet him, and a fierce struggle ensued amid the tangled thickets of that wild land. During the night of the 7th Grant marched to his left and took position at Spottsylvania Court House. There again Lee met him, and fighting continued fiercely from the 8th to the 1 2th of May, Avith heavv losses but with no decisive result. On the nth Grant sent to Washington his famous message, " I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer." On the i8th of May he again assailed the 21 — Egg. Hist. 344 THE CIVIL WAR Confederate entrenchments, but failed to carry them. He then moved again to the left, and gradually pushed his way southward until he reached Cold Harbor, near the Chick- ahominy. On June 3 he made a tremendous assault upon Lee's works, and was repulsed with terrific slaughter, hav- ing inflicted almost no damage upon Lee. Finding it impossible to break through Lee's defenses at this point, he pushed on southward, crossed James River, and sat down before Petersburg, which lies twentv-two miles due south of Richmond. Here both armies fortified, and the greatest siege in all the war began. Li this cam- paign from the Wilderness to Petersburg, Grant had lost nearly sixty thousand men, or nearly as many as the whole of Lee's army. He v.as heavily reenforced at Petersburg, and for more than eight months the two armies fought each other continually night and day. The Petersburg Mine. — The lines of the two armies at Petersburg were pushed nearer and nearer to each other as the summer went on, until at last at one point they were less than fifty yards apart. There the Federals dug under the Confederate works and filled a great cavern with gun- powder. This was exploded about daylight on July 30. and a large Federal force rushed into the great hole, or " crater," as it was called. The explosion had blown up about two hundred feet of the Confederate works, making a gap through which the Federals hoped to force their way and reach Petersburg. The attack was badly managed, however, and resulted in the killing and capturing of a great number of Federal soldiers, after which the Confederates reestablished their lines. Early's Raid into Maryland. — Meanwhile Lee had detached a part of his small army and sent it under General Early to the Shenandoah Valley. Early defeated such Union troops as stood in his way, crossed the Potomac into Maryland, and on July II, 1864, marched upon the fortifications of Wash- ington. There was great alarm in the North at this time. Grant's BATTLE OF THE WILDERNESS TO SHERIDAN'S RIDE 345 m//Mi Early's raid into Maryland campaign was re- garded as thus far unsuccessful, and the South seemed stronger than ever to persons ignorant of acutal conditions. So great was the alarm, and so much weakened was the popular confidence in the government, that the paper currency of the country fell to about thirty-eight cents on the dollar in gold. After some fighting, Early fell Ijack through the Shenan- doah Valley. Late in July he turned upon the Union troops which were following him, drove them back across the Potomac, and sent a body of calvary into Pennsylvania to burn the town of Chambersburg. In August Grant sent General Sheridan* to the Shenan- doah Vallev to deal with Early. In September Grant visited Sheridan there, and gave him his orders in the two words, " (Jo in." Sheridan went in. He defeated Early at Winches- ter, September 19, and at Fish- ers Hill, September 22. On October 19, however, while Sheridan was absent, the Con- federates routed his army at Cedar Creek. Hearing the fir- ing twenty miles away, Sheri- dan made his famous ride. About four miles from the bat- tlefield he met his fleeing men, rallied them, led them back into the fight, and changed the defeat into a victory. * For biography, see Appendix. Philip H. Sheridan 346 THE CIVIL WAR The "Alabama." — Early in the war the Con- federates had sent out a number of ships to ]:»rey upon the commerce of the United States. Tlie most famous of these was the " Ala- bama." She was built in England, and suf- fered to sail in spite of the remonstrances of the government at Washington. Her com- mander, Captain Raphael Semmes, was a master of the art of sailing. This ship did enormous damage, capturing and burning nearly sixty vessels. At last, on June ig, 1864, a spirited battle was fought between her and the United States ship *■ Kearsage," near Cherbourg, France. The action resulted in the sinking of the Southern ship. Her officers and crew were picked up by an English yacht and escaped. Raphael Semmes Summary. —I- Tn the spring of 1864 Grant set out to crush Lee's army in the field. Early in May he crossed the Rapidan, and after fighting the battle of the Wilderness moved to Spottsylvania Court House, thence on to Cold Harbor, and finally sat down before Peters- burg, after almost continual battling for a month. 2. At Petersburg, July 30, the Federals exploded a great mine under the Confederate works and pushed a large force into the hole thus created. These failed in their purpose to force their way through into Petersburg, and great numbers of them were slaughtered. 3. Earlier in July Lee had sent a force under Early into Maryland and nearly to Washington. Early returned to the Valley, and being pursued fell upon his pursuer, drove him back across the Potomac, and sent his cavalry to burn the town of Chambersburg, in Pennsylvania. 4. Sheridan was sent into the Valley to deal with Early. He de- feated him in two battles, but a little later Early fought and was getting the best of his army while Sheridan was absent. Then it was that Sheridan made his famous ride, rallied his troops, assailed Early, and completely defeated him. 5. On the 19th of June. 1864, the United States Ship " Kearsarge " destroyed the Confederate cruiser " Alabama," near Cherbourg, France. Collateral Reading. — Rhodes's " History of the United States," IV., 4-JO-447. 466-467, 496-505, 518-522, 526-527, 536-537: Cooke's "Life of Genera! Robert E. Lee," 396-399 ; Pollard's " The Lost Cause," 434-438. THE TAKIxNG OF ATLANTA TO THE END OF THE WAR 347 CHAPTER LII FROM THE TAKING OF ATLANTA TO THE END OF THE WAR Sherman Takes Atlanta. — Acting" under Grant's general direction, Sherman carried on a campaign at the \\'>st with a vigor equal to that which Grant was himself showing in Virginia. Little by little Sher- man forced back the Confed- erates under Joseph E. John- ston, the two armies fighting each other at every step. There were battles at Resaca, May 14 and 15; at Dallas. May 25 and 28, and at Kene- saw Mountain, where Sher- man was repulsed with heav)- loss on June 2J. Johnston continued to fall back and Sherman continued to follow liim all the way to Atlanta. In the meanwhile President Davis had removed Johnston from command and put General John B. Hood in his stead. Hood attacked Sherman sharply several times, but without success. Sherman drove him into Atlanta, and threw a part of his own force to the south of that city to destroy the railroads there. This com- pelled Hood to retire from the town, and Sherman occupied it September 2, 1864. In this one hundred miles of marching and fighting, from Chattanooga to At- tlanta, each side had lost about thirty thousand men. c ttdA - — William Tecumseh Sherman SCALE OF MILES \ Sherman's campaign at the West 348 THE CIVIL WAR Hood turned about and marched northward, destroying railroads and trying to cut ofif Sherman's supplies. He hoped thus to draw Sherman back from Atlanta, but after following him long enough to be sure that Hood was going to Tennessee, Sherman returned to Atlanta and sent heavy reenforcements to General Thomas, who had been sent to hold Nashville. Farragut Takes the Mobile Forts. — On August 5, 1864, Admiral Farragut ran his fleet past the forts which defended Farragut in Mobile Bay Mobile Bay. A fierce fight ensued with the Confederate gunboats and the ironclad Tennessee. One of Farragut's ships was sunk by an exploding torpedo. But in the end he won the day, and though he did not capture the city he com- pletely closed its way to the sea. Lincoln Reelected. — There had been great discouragement in the North during the summer of 1864. Early had threat- ened Washington, Sherman had seemed to be making but slow progress toward Atlanta, and Grant had not achieved THE TAKING OF ATLANTA TO THE END OF THE WAR 349 a success in the East equal to his victories in years gone by in the West. But the fall of Mobile forts, the taking of Atlanta, and Sheridan's brilliant success in the Shenan- doah Valley put a new face on affairs. The people began to see that the war was drawing to a close. The Democrats nominated McClellan for President, and some discontented Republicans named Fremont as their candidate, but when election day came Lincoln was chosen, with Andrew John- dent. The war in 1865 The March to the Sea. — After resting his army at ""Atlanta, Sherman, in con- sultation with (irant. de- cided upon one of the boldest movements of the war. With sixty thou- sand men he cut himself loose from his connnunications with the North, and set out to march to Savannah, living on the country as he went. At last he appeared at Savannah, stormed and captured the fort that defended it on December 13, and before Christmas was in possession of the town. On January 15, * For biography, see Appendix. 350 THE CIVIL WAR 1865, Fort Fisher, North CaroHna, was bombarded by a Federal fleet and taken by assauh. This closed the port of Wilmington, the last Southern port of any consequence to the Confederacy. Hood and Thomas at Nashville. — Meanwhile Hood had marched into Tennessee soon after the fall of Atlanta. His plan was to defeat Thomas at Nashville, move eastward to the assistance of Lee at Richmond, and, after repulsing (jrant, join Lee in a march southward against Sherman. He fell upon the Federal General Schoheld at Franklin, twenty miles south of Nashville, November 30. Schofield held his works long enough to withdraw his army, and then joined Thomas at Nashville. Hood undertook to besiege the Federals there, but on December 15 Thomas attacked him, and after a two days' battle destroyed his army. Sherman Moves Northward. — As spring approached, Sher- man left Savannah, and, in execution of plans agreed upon between him and Grant, moved northward to form a union with the commanding g"eneral in Virginia. Columbia, the capital of South Carolina, was burned while he occupied it. Charleston fell next after Sherman's movements had cut it off. Johnston, with such Confederate forces as could be gathered from various quarters, opposed Sherman's ad- vance, but was defeated at Averysboro, North Carolina. On March 19, 1865, one of Sherman's columns w"as very nearly routed by Johnston at Bentonville, but Sherman's advance continued to be resistless. The End of the War. — Grant had now^ spent nearly a year in his eft'ort to crush Lee's army. At Petersburg he continued to push his lines to the south and west, thus forcing Lee with his scanty numbers to stretch his lines in the same direction. As spring drew' near. Grant concentrated heavy forces to the south of Petersburg", and sent Sheridan to destroy the railroads on wdiich Lee depended for supplies. Lee sent forces to meet Sheridan, but they were defeated in the battle of Five Forks, April i, 1865. On the next day Grant pushed forward his Axhole army against the works at Petersburg, THE TAKING OF ATLANTA TO THE END OF THE WAR 35 1 and carried them, driving Lee into a retreat which was hopeless from the beginning. On April 3 the Federals marched into Richmond. With what remained of his army Lee tried to retreat sonthward in the hope of joining Johnston and making a final stand. Rut Cirant was l^ehind him. on his left, and in ^ ^ ^ [■ \u mk J^wBH'' m, r**^*'iKiia lllljlll Hill'' 1 W Robert E. Lee his front. His retreat was completely cnt ofif, and at Appo- mattox he found himself surrounded while his men were starving. On the 9th of April he surrendered to Grant, who gave him most honorable terms and at once ordered that food should be issued to the starving Confederates. The war was now practically at an end. The remaining Southern armies laid down their arms when their generals 352 THE CIVIL WAR heard of Lee's surrender. The North, with its open ports and its abundant manufactures, came out of the contest more prosperous than at its beginning, while the South was desolated and confronted with a prospect of long years of poverty, a prospect which was made worse by the fact that the labor system of that section was completely destroyed by the freeing of the slaves. In their efforts to restore their region to prosperity after the ruin and waste of war the Southerners manifested a courage and proud-spirited deter- mination as notable as their bravery in battle. What the War had Settled. — The war had settled forever the question of a State's right to withdraw from the Union. It had decided by the final test of arms that these States must forever remain members of one sovereign republic. It had also made an end of slavery, the one great influence which had divided the States, disturbed politics, and set the people of the two sections in antagonism to each other for generations past. To make this sure an amendment (the thirteenth) to the Constitution was adopted which declared that slavery should never exist within the United States or in any territory subject to this country's jurisdiction. The Assassination of Lincoln. — From the beginning to the end of the war President Lincoln had kept only one object in view. He wished to restore the Union and make it per- petual. He had directed the war, as he himself expressed it, " with malice toward none, and charity for all." Now that the war was over and the Union saved, it was his earnest and eager purpose to restore the old friendship between the sections as quickly and as completely as possible. His first act was to issue an amnesty proclamation which included nearly everybody in the South. Unhappily a crime was at this time committed in the name of the South, but without its sanction and greatly to its hurt, which interfered with the generous programme that Mr. Lincoln had marked out. On the night of April 14, as Lincoln sat in a box in Ford's Theater, in Washing- ton, an erratic actor who had never been a Southern soldier THE TAKING OF ATLANTA TO THE END OF THE WAR 353 or a Southern citizen, shot and mortally wounded the best friend that the South had among the pubhc men of the North. The assassin shot from behind and then leaped from the box to the stage, brandishing a dagger and profaned the motto of Virginia by crying aloud, " Sic semper tyran- nis." Running out through a stage door, he mounted a horse that was waiting for him and rode away into V irginia. A few days later he was shot and killed by those who had pursued him. Lincoln was removed to a house opposite the theater, and died the next morning. Great apprehension was aroused by the discovery that the murderous act had been planned by a company of con- spirators who intended on the same night to assassinate the members of the cabinet and General Grant, and one of whom actually assailed Mr. Seward, the Secretary of State. The conspirators were soon discovered, and were so insig- nificant in influence and character that the terror which Lincoln's death had inspired soon passed away. West Virginia. — The people in the northwestern part of the conunonwealth of Virginia were opposed to secession. \\dien this State joined the Confederacy many of these peo- ple entered the LTnion army, and soon the demand came in the western counties for the formation of a new State. Under our Constitution a new State cannot be formed from the territory belonging to a State without the consent of its legislature. The Legislature of Virginia was within the lines of the Confederacy, and was clearly opposed to the formation of a new State in the Lhiion. To meet this diffi- cultv a new legislature was formed for the State of Virginia, made up largely of people from the western counties. This legislature gave its consent to the division of the State of Virginia. The people in the counties named voted in favor of the proposed State. A constitution was framed and was submitted to Congress, and the State of West Vir- ginia was admitted to the Union on June 19, 1863. One other State, Nevada. October 31, 1864, was admit- ted during Mr. Lincoln's administration. 354 THE CIVIL WAR Summary. — i. In the spring and summer of 1864 Sherman pushed southward to Atlanta, and entered that city September 2. 2. General Hood, in command of the Confederates, moved into Ten- nessee, where Sherman had stationed Thomas with a strong force. In December these forces met before Nashville and Hood's army was de- stroyed. 3. On the 5th of August, 1864, Admiral Farragut took the forts in Mobile Harbor, and destroyed the Confederate fleet there. 4. After Hood moved northward from Atlanta, Sherman marched south through Georgia. He reached and took Savannah before Christ- mas. A little later Wilmington and Charleston, the last of the Confed- erate ports, were abandoned. 5. As the winter waned Sherman moved northward to form a junc- tion with Grant in Virginia. Johnston, with a small army, contested every inch of the way, but could not stop the Federal advance. 6. In the spring Grant massed his forces at Petersburg, and carried the works there April 2, 1865. This compelled the evacuation of Richmond, and sent Lee's army, without supplies, into a hopeless re- treat. On the 9th of April, at Appomattox Court House, Lee sur- rendered his starving men. The other Confederate forces soon after- ward surrendered, and the war was over. 7. The war had established forever the principle that this Union is not to be dissolved. It had also made an end of slavery. 8. The moment the war was over and the Union restored, President Lincoln set himself to reestablish friendship between the two sections. He issued an amnesty proclamation as his first act. But he was assassin- ated a few days after the surrender of Lee's army. 9. West Virginia was admitted as a State June 19, 1863. Collateral Reading.— Pollard's " The Lost Cause," 541-543, 577-S8o. RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS CHAPTER LIII AFTER THE WAR What the Civil War had Cost. — l>et\veen the fall of Fort Sumter and the surrender of Lee more than six hundred thousand lives were lost by the war. In the South the de- struction of property was incalculable. In the North the waste of war had been great, and vast sums of money had been expended by the government. Much of this money was borrowed, and at the end of the war the nation owed no less than twenty-eight hundred and forty-five million dollars. No estimate can be made of the money spent by the South. The war has since cost the nation many hundreds of mil- lions of dollars in pen- sions. Disbanding the Union Army. • — At the end of the war the United States had more than a million soldiers in its armies. These were paid off and sent home at the i»ate of three hundred thousand a month until only fifty thousand of them remained. Before the final break- 355 The last review of the army 356 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS ing up a grand review of the armies was held in Washing- ton. The column of troops was so long that it required two days, May 23 to May 24, to pass the reviewing stand. The Confederate soldiers who had surrendered were re- leased on parole. They numbered about one hundred and seventy-five thousand. Paying the National Debt. — As soon as the soldiers were sent home and the expenses of the government reduced, the work of paying ofT the national debt was begun. Within less than a dozen years the debt was reduced nearly one half. The "Greenbacks." — In addition to the money it had bor- rowed by selling its interest-bearing bonds the government had also issued some hundreds of millions of paper notes, or " greenbacks " as they were called from their color. These notes were " legal tender," that is, the law compelled everybody to accept them at their face value in payment' of debts. They went up and down in value, measured by gold, according to the success or defeat of the national armies. At the end of the war the government was not able to redeem these promises to pay in gold or silver, and so they continued for many years to be worth less than their nomi- nal value. No gold or silver was used as money at that time because a gold dollar was worth more than a paper promise to pay a dollar, so long as that promise could not be kept. It was not until 1879 that the government held itself ready to redeem its notes in gold or silver. As soon as it could do that the notes became worth their face, and have continued to circulate as money. The First States Reorganized. — In 1863, while the war was yet in progress, the States of Arkansas, Tennessee, and Louisiana came completely into possession of the Fed- eral army, and Lincoln at once undertook to restore them to the Union. He issued a proclamation offering amnesty to all the people of those States, with some exceptions, who would swear allegiance to the Constitution and accept the Emancipation Proclamation. He also promised to recog- nize any State government which should be organized by AFTER THE WAR 357 voters who had thus taken the oath of allegiance, provided their number was one tenth of the whole number of voters in their States. The three States named above were re- organized under these conditions in 1864, but Congress refused to receive their Senators and Representatives. President Johnson's Policy. — When Johnson became Presi- dent, after Lincoln's death, he undertook to manage things in his own way, and presently a great quarrel arose between him and Congress. He had a plan of his own, which he called " My Policy," for the restoration of the Southern States to the Union. This policy did not please Congress. It did not provide so fully as Congress desired for the protection of the free negroes, or for other things which Congress wanted to guard. Con- gress, therefore, would not receive the Repre- sentatives of the States which Johnson had recognized, while Johnson vetoed every law made by Congress with regard to those States. One of these laws continued in power a government agency called the Freedman's Bureau, which had been established in 1865 ^or the protection of negroes in the South. An- other was a law. giving negroes the same civil rights before the courts that white men had. Congress promptly passed these laws over the President's veto. The Fourteenth Amendment. — In June, 1866, Congress adopted the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution, and sent it to the States to be ratified. This amendment made Andrew Johnson 358 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS citizens of the freed slaves, and forbade any State to deny them their rights as citizens. It provided, also, that the debts of the United States should all be paid, but that neither the general government nor any State government should assume or pay any of the Confederate debts. It was difficult to get this amendment ratified l^y the requisite number of States. In order to do that Congress decided not to re- admit any State to the Union until its legislature should accept the amendment. The Southern States generally refused, and Congress passed a reconstruction act over the President's veto in March, 1867. Under this act six South- ern States were restored to the Union in 1868, but Georgia, Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas refused to comply with the terms offered. The Tenure of Office Act. — The Constitution gives to the President the right to appoint and remove officers under the government. It was feared that Johnson would exercise this power by removing officers and appointing in their place others who would not enforce the new laws that had been passed over his veto. To prevent this Congress, in 1867, passed the Tenure of Office Act, which deprived the President of power to remove the higher officers of govern- ment without the consent of Congress. The Impeachment of the President. — In spite of this law, which he held to be unconstitutional. President Johnson undertook to remove the Secretary of War from his office. This caused great excitement, and the House of Repre- sentatives i-mpeached the President. The case was tried by the Senate, as all impeachments are. Thirty-five Senators voted that he was guilty, and nineteen that he was not. As he could not be removed from office except by a two-thirds vote of the Senate, he continued in office. Maximillian in Mexico. — During the CWi\ War Napoleon III. of France and the Emperor of Austria set up an empire in Mexico in place of the repul)lic, and made Maximillian, a brother of the Emperor of Austria, the ruler of that country. Our government protested against this as a violation of the AFTER THE WAR 359 Monroe doctrine, but no heed was paid to its protest. Soon after the war was over, however, the United States sent troops to the Mexican border, and in 1867 the French forces were withdrawn. Maximillian was caught by the Mexicans and shot, and the Mexican Repubhc was restored. The Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867 our government bought from Russia the territory caHed Alaska for tlie sake of its seals, gokl, and timber. The Pacific Railroad.- — When California and Oregon be- gan to fill up with people a railroad across tlie continent was felt to be necessary, not only for purposes of trade and travel, but still more for purposes of national defense. The Pacific coast was separated from the rest of the country by thousands of miles of trackless wilderness and two great ranges of mountains. Should a public enemy assail the rich cities that were growing up on our western coast, no aid could be sent to them except by sea all the way roUiUd South America or across the Isthmus of Panama. Long before the Civil War this need w'as recognized and plans were laid to meet it. When the C i \' i 1 W a r c a m e , bringing with it a se- ^ rious danger of war with some foreign naval power, a rail- road across the continent was seen to be an absolute neces- sity. In order to secure it, Congress offered government bonds amounting to more than fifty-five millions of dollars to those who should build it, besides giving them one half of all the land in a strip twenty miles wide along the Hne of the railroad. Completion of the Pacific railroad 360 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS The line was finished, and the last spike — made of gold — was driven May 10, 1869. Gold, Silver, and New States. — The building of this rail- road caused a large growth of population in Nebraska and elsewhere along its line, and Nebraska was admitted to the Union as a State March i, 1867. In the meanwhile rich discoveries of gold and silver had been made in Colorado, Nevada, Idaho, Montana, and elsewhere ; these caused a great influx of population, and Nevada was admitted to the Union as a State October 31, 1864. Colorado, Montana, and Idaho were made Territories, and Arizona was sepa- rated from New Mexico. Nevada has hardly any agricultural resources, or re- sources of any kind except from its mines, and as these have became less and less productive the State has dwindled in population. In 1900 the State had only 42,335 inhabitants. Summary. — i. When the war ended all the soldiers of the Union except 50,000 were sent home. This reduced expenses and enabled the government to begin paying off the national debt. The Treasury notes, or greenbacks, rose in value, until in 1879 the government declared its readiness to redeem them in coin. From that time a government note has been worth one hundred cents on the dollar. 2. After the war it was necessary to provide a way for the restora- tion of the seceding States to the Union. This gave much trouble, and led to a quarrel between the President and Congress, and to the impeachment of the President. 3. During this process of reconstruction a new amendment to the Constitution — the fourteenth — was adopted. 4. During the Civil War the French and Austrians had set up an empire in Mexico with Maximillian for emperor. The United States now got ready to drive out this foreign force, and the French withdrew their troops. The emperor was captured and shot, and the Republic was restored. 5. During the same year — 1867 — the United States bought Alaska from Russia. 6. The building.of the Pacific Railroad and the discovery of new gold and silver mines led to the admission of two new States and the peo- pling of rich Territories. Collateral Reading. — Andrews's " History of the United States," II., 185-189. grant's administration 361 CHAPTER LIV grant's administration The Election of Grant. — In 1868 General Grant was elected President by an overwhelming vote. He entered upon office March 4, 1869. The Civil War had ended three years before, but the country was still vexed with many questions growing out of it and out of the quarrels which had ensued between President Johnson and Congress. Three of the Southern States were still denied their place in the Union, and the South was much disturbed over the question of what should be done to manage the negroes there so that they might not bring harm to the public. There was still great bitterness, also, between many people in the North, and many in the South, and politicians on both sides, for selfish purposes, did all they could to stir up anger and hatred between the two sections. A large part of the people of the North were convinced that there could be no safety for the negroes in the South unless the right to vote was secured to them. On the other hand, the people of the South felt that nothing could be more dangerous than to make voters out of. recently freed slaves who had neither education nor property, and who might, therefore, be easily used by designing politicians for evil purposes. The Fifteenth Amendment. — It was under these circum- stances that Congress in 1869 sent to the States for ratifica- tion a new amendment (the fifteenth) to the Constitution. The effect of this amendment was to give votes to all the negroes in the South. In order to get back into the Union, Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas ratified this amendment, and were readmitted in 1870. In the same year the amend- ment became part of the Constitution. Georgia having been readmitted in 1868, -all the States were now back in the Union. But the time of trouble was not yet past. 362 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS |i|iiiiii]imi!)iiiiiiifiiiMii;iiiiiiiiiii;iiiiNiiiinii!iiiiiiiiiiiiid!ii|)iii{miiifiiiiiiitiiaiimiiiii..iii'iii[:ii|iiiiiiiiiiiii' Disturbances at the South. — The first effect of giving the negroes the right to vote was to create much disorder in those parts of the South where tlie negroes greatly out- numbered the whites. A good many poh'ticians from the grant's administration 363 North, most of them men who could not have been elected to office in then" own parts of the country, saw in this condi- tion of things a chance to put themselves forward. Alany of these went South without any intention of living there per- manently or becoming a part of the community, but solely to get themselves elected to office and to make what they could out of politics. In several States of the South these men managed to control the negro vote and to make themselves masters of the State governments and legislatures. They voted away millions of dollars of public money in wasteful expen- ditures, threatening thus to bankrupt the States, and to increase taxation till property should become worthless. The white people tried at first to keep the negroes from voting by means of bribes and threats of not emploving them, ^^dlen this failed a secret society was organized called the Ku Klux Klan. Its object was to frighten the negroes and keep them from voting. The society became so lawless at last that Southerners aided in suppressing it. In the meanwhile government troops were sent to keep order in the Southern States. Little by little the better class of white people came into power again in most of the States during Grant's administration. But it was not until the end of his second term that the trou1:)les in the South were allayed and the anger caused by them subsided. The Treaty ofWashington. — In addition to our home ques- tions growing out of the war there were matters to be settled with Great Britain. Our government held Great Britain responsil)le for letting the " Alabama " and other Confederate cruisers sail out of her ports to prey upon American commerce. We demanded that Great Britain should pay for the damag-e done by those ships. At first Great Britain refused, but in 1871 the matter was adjusted by a treaty made at Washington in which the two coun- tries agreed to refer the case to a court of arbitration composed of five members, appointed one each by the United States. Great Britain, Italv. Switzerland, and Brazil. 3^4 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS Chicago after the fire This court met at Geneva, Switzerland, and decided the case in favor of the United States. It required Great Britain to pay us fifteen mihion five hundred thousand dollars as damages, the money to be used by the United States in paying our ship owners for their losses. There were two other questions in dispute between this country and Great Britain. One of them related to the boundary east of Vancouver Island, involving the title to a small group of islands. It was referred to the Emperor of Germany, who decided it in favor of the United States. The other related to the Canadian fisheries, and the arbi- trators chosen to decide it gave their verdict in favor of Great Britain, requiring tjie United States to pay to that country five million five hundred thousand dollars for fish- ing privileges on the Canadian shores. The Chicago and Boston Fires. — On October 8. 1871. a fire broke out in Chicago, which destroyed the best part of the city. Two hundred lives were lost, and two hundred million dollars worth of property was destroyed. In November of the ne.xt year a great fire occurred in Boston, destroying about eighty million dollars' worth of property. grant's administration 365 With great energy and with pkick that excited the admira- tion of the world, the two cities were quickly rebuilt. The Election of 1872. — Many things in Grant's administra- tion, especially its dealings with Southern questions, had displeased a considerable body of Republicans. These withdrew themselves from their party and set up a new" party called Liberal Republicans. In 1872 they nominated Horace Greeley for President, and the Democrats in that year made no nominations of their own, but endorsed Greeley, though he had been a life-long antagonist of the Democratic party. This movement came to nothing. Grant being overwhelmingly reelected. The Credit Mobilier. — In the campaign of 1872 it was openly charged that a company called the Credit Mobilier of America, which was making vast sums out of the con- struction of the Pacific Ivailroad, had been giving shares of its stock to various persons in Congress and in the gov- ernment by way of inducing them to favor the company's schemes. The investigation that followed showed that some members owned stock in the company, but no one was convicted of conscious wrongdoing. Indian "Wars. — In 1872 the government undertook to remove the Modoc Indians of southern Oregon to a new reservation. They refused to go, and when General Canby was sent to arrange the matter with them they treacherously killed him. A war ensued, led on the part of the Indians by a chief called Captain Jack. It lasted nearly a year. Four years later another Indian war occurred. The Sioux had agreed to remove before January, 1876, to a reservation in Dakota, but they did not do so. When the troops tried to compel them to keep their ])romise they fled to the moun- tains near Big Horn River. Tl:ere General Custer attacked them on June 25 with a regiment of cavalry, and as he was not supported by his second in command. Major Reno, he and all his men were slaughtered. The war was continued until the Indians were overcome by General Miles. The Panic of 1873.— For many years before 1873 men had 366 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS The Custer Massacre been building railroads in this country much faster than they were needed. Many of these roads did not earn enough to pay their expenses. Those who built them had done so with borrowed money, issuing great volumes of stock certificates and bonds, on much of which they could not pay the interest. This led in 1873 to a great financial panic, which was followed by hard times for several years afterwards. The Centennial Exhibition. — In 1876 a great World's Fair was held in Philadelphia to celebrate the one hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. One of its purposes was to show what progress Americans had made, and among the most notable new inventions exhibited there were the telephone and the electric light. A New State and the Census. — One State, Colorado, was admitted during Grant's administration. It entered August I, 1876, and is called "the Centennial State." The census HAYES, GARFIELD, AND ARTHUR 367 of 1870 showed a population in the Union of 38,560,000. Every previous census had shown a gain of from 33 to 36 per cent, in popu lation during the decade. This cen- sus showed a gain of less than 25 per cent. This census is believed to have been very inaccu- rate, especially in its enumeration of the people at the South. But the falling oft' in growth was in part due to the Civil War. Settled area in 1870 Summary. — i- During Grant's adminstration the country was still disturbed over questions arising out of tlie war, and especially over the question what to do about the negroes. It required several years to settle these matters. 2. The disputes with Great Britain concerning the .Alabama claims, the Canadian fisheries, and the northwest boundary were settled by arbitration. 3. A war with the Modoc Indians occurred in 187J and one with the Sioux in 1876. In the latter General Custer and his force were slaughtered before the Indians were subdued. 4. A great financial panic occurred in 1873, and in 1876 the Centen- nial Exposition was held in Philadelphia. Collateral Reading.— Andrews's " History of tlie Last Quarter Cen- tury of the United States," I., 36-40, 88-92. 11., 5-10, 186-188, 253-260. CHAPTER EV HAYES, GARFIELD. AND ARTHUR The Election of 1876. — In 1876 the Republican candidate for President was Rutherford B. Haves,''' of Ohio, and the Democratic candidate was Samuel J. Tiklen, of New York. * For biofiraphy, see Appendix. 368 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS The vote was so evenly divided between the two candidates that the result depended upon Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida. All three of these States seemed to have voted for Til- den, and if their votes were counted for him he would be elected, but if counted for H a }^ e s then Hayes would be President. In each of the three disputed States the ballots of the people were counted by a bodv called a "Re- turning Board." This board was authorized to throw out the en- tire vote of any county in which voters were supposed to have been kept from the polls by force or by fear. In Louisiana and Florida the Democrats had strong majorities, but the Returning Board threw out enough votes to give those States to the Republicans. The Demo- crats disputed the legality of this, and so there were two sets of electors for these States, each set claiming to be the legal one. In Oregon, also, there was a similar dispute. This matter, of course, had to be settled by Congress before the electoral vote could be counted, and, as the Democrats had a majority in the Lower House, while the Republicans controlled the Senate, the two Houses could not agree. But at last the two Houses of Congress agreed to refer the matter to an electoral commission to be com- posed of five Senators, five Representatives, and five Jus- tices of the Supreme Court. The Senate and House each appointed its members of the commission. They also Rutherford B. Hayes HAYES, GARFIELD, AND ARTHUR 369 iJL^ / selected four of the five Judges, and these four chose the remaining one. The commission when complete consisted of eight Republicans and seven Democrats. By a vote of eight to seven it gave the disputed electoral votes to Hayes, and he was elected by a majority of one vote. The Nez Perce War. — One little Indian war occurred dur- ing this administration with the Nez Perce Indians of the far Northwest in 1877. The Indians retreated, fighting as they went for fifteen hundred miles, across Idaho and Mon- tana, but were finally forced to surrender. They killed no women or children in this war and did no scalping. The Railroad Strike of 1877. — In 1877 a great strike oc- curred among the men on the great railroads because of a question of wages. The strike spread throughout the North- ern States. It was accom- panied by violence and riots at Pittsburg, Chicago, and St. Louis, and for a time the rail- road traffic of the country was very nearly stopped. At Pitts- burg much property was de- stroyed and many lives lost. The matter was adjusted in about two weeks and the trains were set going again. Financial Legislation. — In 1873 a law was passed to regulate the coinage of money by the United States mint. Silver dollars were no longer in use, because the silver in such a dollar was at that time worth more than a dollar. In providing for the various coins the act did not provide for a silver dollar for use as monev in this countrv. It ordered that small coins and the -J'^ Railroad riot, Pittsburg 370 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS trade dollar should be made of silver. The trade dollar had more silver in it than the old American silver dollar, and it was not intended to be used in this countrv at all. It was made in order to help our merchants in trading with (diina. In that country the standard money consisted of Mexican silver dollars, but the Chinese were willing to take our trade dollar instead. Not long after this great quantities of silver ore were discovered in the Rocky Moimtain country, and silver as a metal fell in price, so that the trade dollar which had really been worth more than a gold dollar when it was coined, became worth much less. Many of the trade dol- lars had come home in the meanwhile, and people holding them could not pay debts with them as they were not legal money in this country. To correct this evil Congress passed an act requiring the government to redeem all trade dol- lars offered to the Treasury. In 1878 a new coinage act was passed. People who were interested in silver mines and people who believed that there was too little money in the country were anxious to have the government coin silver dollars as freely as it coined gold dollars. The act of 1878 did not provide for this, but it did provide that the government should coin a certain number of silver dollars each month. The President vetoed the bill, but it was passed over his veto. In 1875 an act was passed authorizing the Secretary of the Treasury to sell l:)onds of the government for coin, and directing him on and after, January i, 1879, to redeem all greenbacks that should be presented to him with coin, This was done, and the greenbacks at once became worth their face in gold. The Mississippi Jetties. — The INIississippi River is very muddy. As it flows into the Gulf of Mexico it deposits great masses of mud upon the bottom, making the mouths of the river very shallow. This made it difficult for large ships to come up to New Orleans. In order to correct this difficulty Captain James B. Eads, a civil engineer, pro- HAYES, GARFIELD, AND ARTHUR 371 posed to deepen one or more of the Mis- sissippi's mouths by extending the banks with artificial wahs called jetties on each side of the stream out into the deep water of the gulf. This would increase the current of the stream at its shallow mouth, and force the water in passing out to deepen the chan- nel. He finished this work under orders of James A. Garfield the government in 1879, and the result was that where there had been only eight feet depth of water in 1875, there was, four years later, no less than thirty feet. The Election of 1880. — In 1880 certain friends of Gen- eral Grant tried to nomi- n^"^""^^ ""^^ ' nate him for a third term as President. There is no law to pre^'ent this, but e\'er since ^^'ashington and Jefferson refused to be elected for a third time, the people have held that no other man should have more than two terms. This sentiment was so strong that in spite of General Grant's great popularity the stubl)orn efforts of his friends to nominate him Chester A. Arthur failed. The Republicans 372 RECONSTRUCTIOxN AND RECENT EVENTS nominated and elected James A. Garfield,* of Ohio, with Chester A. Arthur,* of New York, for Vice President. Garfield had been President only four months when he was shot by a disappointed office seeker, July 2, as he stood in a railroad station in Washington. He died of the wound on September 19. and Vice President Arthur succeeded him. Civil Service Reform. — A sentiment had long been grow- ing in the country in favor of a change in our system of appointing men to minor offices. From Jackson's time on- ward it had been the custom of all Presidents to put men into office rather for party reasons than because of the men's fitness for the work to be done. In 1883 a bill was passed creating a civil service com- mission which was authorized to appoint examining boards for office seekers. This commission was to make such rules as it thought best and to examine all candidates for such offices as the President might see fit to place under the new system. This law relieved the President of a great responsibility and much trouble, by authorizing him to put into the " classified list " — that is the list of offices to be filled in this way — whatever offices he saw fit. This system, once es- tablished, has been greatly improved, and is now in very general use by States and cities, as well as by the national government. The Tariff of 1883.— In 1883 the government again found itself with more money coming in from taxes than it needed. This extra money could not be used in paying off more than had been paid of the national debt, because this debt was in the form of bonds held by the people, and the gov- ernment had agreed that these bonds should not be called in and paid before the dates named in them. A great many people wanted to go on holding these bonds and drawing interest on them. These people would not give them up unless they were paid a high premium for doing so. * For biography, see Appendix. HAYES, GARFIELD, AND ARTHUR 373 In order to reduce the income of the government, there- fore, a new tariff act was passed in 1883. It was intended to yield less revenue than had been furnished by the tariff formerly in force, but did not accomplish this purpose, be- cause it did not greatly change the im]:)ort duties already in force. The question what to do with the surplus re- mained to be dealt with and it presently became an issue between the two parties. Both parties agreed that the sur- plus revenue must be somehow reduced, but they differed widely as to how this ought to be done. Population. — By the census of 1880 the population was found to be 50,160,000. The increase during ten years had been about 30 per cent. It was largely due to an unusually large foreign immigration between 1870 and 1880. In no previous decade had so many immigrants come to the coun- try, but even this large influx was destined to be exceeded during the next ten years. Summary. — i. In 1876 there was a disputed presidential election, which was at last settled by an electoral commission, and Mr. Hayes, the Republican candidate, became President. 2. During Mr. Hayes's administration arose the very interesting question of coining or not coining silver dollars. 3. In 1879 the government resumed specie payments — that is, held itself ready to give coin for every Treasury note that miglit l)e offered for redemption. 4. Eads's jetties at the mouth of the Mississippi were completed in 1879. 5. In 1880 James A. Garfield, of Ohio, was elected President, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, Vice President. After four months in office Garfield was assassinated, and Arthur succeeded him as Presi- dent. 6. In 1883 the first civil service reform law was passed b^ Congress. The system has since come into general use. 7. In 1883 a new tariff law was enacted for the purpose of cutting down the revenues of the government. It failed to reduce the revenue, and the question what to do with the surplus was left to be settled later. Collateral Reading. — Andrews's " History of the Last Quarter Cen- tury of the United States," I., 223-226, 263-268, 303-306, 329-336. 374 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS CHAPTER LVI CLEVELAND S FIRST ADMINISTRATION The Election of 1884. — In 1884, the Democratic party iioiiiinated for President, Grover Cleveland,'-' of New York, and the Republican candidate was James G. Blaine, of Maine. A great many Repul)- licans, especially in New York, disliked ]\Ir. Blaine, and refused to vote for him. ]\Iost of them strongly sup- ported Mr. Cleveland, instead. These voters called themselves In- dependents, but some one nicknamed them Mugwum])s." and (hat name soon came into po]:)ular use. Air. Cleveland was elected and became the first Democratic President since the begin- ning of the Civil War. Civil Service Reform. — Cleveland was the first President elected since Jackson's time who did not follow Jackson's example in making a general change in ofTfice holders. He governed himself by the civil service act of 1883 in making most of the minor appointments, and removals from the smaller ofiices were made only because of " offensive par- tisanship." In other words, wherever a capable man was in an office the duties of which were not political, he was left there so long as he did not use his office for political * For biography, see Appendix. Grover Cleveland CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION 375 purposes. Wherever an office of a non-political kind was to be filled, the appointment was made as the result of an examination designed to find out which of the applicants for the place was best fitted to fill it. Labor Troubles. — The country was at this time very pros- l)erous and the employers of men in factories, on railroads and otherwise were rapidly building up great fortunes. The men whom they employed thought that they were not get- ting so large a share as they ought in this prosperity. Thev wanted better wages, and shorter hours of work. And in trying to get these they made many strikes. In order to meet these strikes the employers began importing laborers in great numbers from Europe who were willing to work for low wages in place of those who had " gone on strike." The laboring men demanded of Congress that it should protect them against this system of importing' cheap labor from other countries, and in answer to their demand Con- gress passed, in 1885, just before Cleveland's inaugura- tion, an act which forbade any one to bring people into this country under a contract to employ them here as laborers. Strike Troubles in 1886. — In 1886, there were manv strikes all over the countr}-. There had come to exist here a class of men called anarchists, men who set themseh-es u]) against all law and all gov- ernments. The la- boring men of the country had no sym- l^athy with anarchists, but the anarchists seized upon labor troubles as an excuse for doing violent things. During a strike in Chicago, in t886, the anarchists became very violent, and one day a dyna- Riot in Chicago 376 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS mite bomb was thrown among a body of policemen, some of whom were killed by the explosion. A number of an- archists were tried, convicted, and some of them hanged. Two Acts Concerning the Presidency. — The Constitution provides that when a President dies or becomes disabled, the Vice President shall succeed him in office, and permits Congress to provide for the succession in case both Presi- dent and Vice President should die. Congress passed an act in 1886 providing that a member of the Cabinet shall succeed to the Presidency in such a case. To guard against another such difficulty as that which had arisen in the Hayes-Tilden election in 1876, Congress, in 1887, passed an act rec|uiring each State to decide for itself, and according to its own laws, who should be con- sidered its properly chosen electors. The Interstate Commerce Law. — In the same year a law was passed called the Interstate Commerce Act. Its main purpose was to prevent railroads engaged in carrying freight and passengers between the several States, from making unjust discriminations in favor of one man, or firm, or town, and against others. It provided, also, for the regulation of Interstate Commerce in other ways, and created a commis- sion to carry out the law. Chinese Immigration. — During the time when the Pacific railroads were building and afterwards, many Chinese la- borers came to this country. They lived much more cheaply than Americans like to live, and were willing to work for much lower wages than Americans demand. They did not become citizens of the country. The immigration of these people soon came to be regarded as a danger, not only to American workingmen but to the country itself. There seemed to be no limit to th^ir numbers, and the steam- ship companies brought them across the ocean for very little money. Repeated attempts were made to check this influx, and in 1881 the treaty with China was so modified as to permit the United States to suspend the immigration of Chinese laborers. In accordance with this stipulation, CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION 377 Congress has, from time to time, passed laws which have practically stopped this immigration. The Tariff Question. — -As we have seen, the revenues of the country had become dangerously large, and the attempt made by the tariff act of 1883 to reduce them had failed of its purpose. This brought forward the whole question of revenue and protective tariffs. Some of the people con- tended that the time had come when we should repeal all tariff duties beyond those which were needed to provide for the expenses of the government, thus cheapening goods and avoiding the danger of a surplus of money in the Treasury. Others contended that this would be a wrong to our manu- facturers and the working men. Their plan was to re- duce the surplus revenues by repealing internal tax laws, and by other means, including the raising of tariff duties to such a height as to exclude many foreign goods entirely, which, up to that time, had yielded revenue to the govern- ment. In his annual message to Congress in 1887, President Cleveland called attention to this subject, and urged the re- duction of the tariff duties. The Democrats favored this policy, and the Republicans opposed it. It became the chief issue in the election of 1888. Summary. — i- In 1884 Mr. Cleveland was elected President. 2. During his administration the Contract Labor Law and the laws forbidding Chinese immigration were passed. Laws were passed regulat- ing presidential elections, and the succession to the Presidency in case of the death of President and Vice President. Still another important law regulated interstate commerce and prevented railroads from abusing their power. 3. The most important question was how to prevent a surplus rev- enue. Mr. Cleveland urged a reduction of the tariff duties. The Re- publicans opposed this policy, and the Democrats favored it. It be- came the leading issue in the next election. Collatera Reading. — Andrews's " History of the Last Quarter Cen- tury of the United States," II., 91-95, 137-145, 114-117. 378 RECOiXSTRUCTlOX AND RECENT EVENTS CHAPTER LVII Harrison's administration and Cleveland's second TERM The Election of 1888. — Cleveland was a candidate for re- election in 1888, but was defeated by the Republican can- didate, Benjamin Harrison,* of Indiana. Pensions. — The country was already paying pensions to four hundred and ninety thousand persons, chiefly on account of services rendered during- the Civil War. In President Harrison's first message to Congress, he ex- pressed himself as in favor of more liberal pensions to in- valid soldiers and to the wid- ov/s of soldiers. A bill was accordingly passed which raised the total to nine hundred and fifty thousand. Silver Legislation. — At this time our silver mines were pro- ducing more and more silver every year, and the price of that metal was continually falling lower. Many persons thought that this fall in its price was due to the fact that the govern- ment did not coin enough of it into money. Many people in both parties shared this view and wanted the government to coin all the silver offered to it just as it did with gold. Others who thought that this would be dangerous were still willing to increase the amount of silver coined each month Accordingly, in 1890, Congress passed an act requiring the Treasury to buy four million five hundred thousand ounces of silver in each month, and to issue Treasury notes in pay- * For biography, see Appendix. Benjamin Harrison HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 379 ment for it, these notes to stand on the same footing" with the greenbacks, so far as paying debts with tliem was con- cerned. This act, as we shall presently see, failed to satisfy the silver men on the one hand, and threatened financial trouble on the other. Three years later it was repealed with the consent of men in both parties. The McKinley Tariff. — In 1890, a new tariff bill, framed by William AlcKinley," of Ohio, was enacted. It increased the duties on such articles as are manufactured in the United States, in order to lessen their importation, and thus de- crease revenue while protecting .\nierican manufacturers. Still further to reduce revenues it lowered or abolished the duties on many articles such as are not made in this country. Finally, it gave to the President authority to regulate cer- tain of the duties on tlie principle of what is called reci- procity; that is to say, it authorized him to lower the duties on goods imported from countries which granted like fa- vors to our products, and to charge duties on articles that had been left on the free list whenever the country from wdiich the^' came put unreasonable duties on our products. New States and the Census. — Six new States came into the Union during Harrison's adminstration. North Dakota and South Dakota, November 2, 1889; Montana, November 8, 1889; \\'ashington, November 11, 1889; Idaho, July 3, 1890; and Wyoming-, July 10, 1890. The two Dakotas. with the adjoining State of Minnesota, constitute one of the greatest wheat-growdng regions of the w^orld. They had been rapidly filling up with immigrants from the older States and with energetic farmers from the Scandinavian countries. Washington, too, is a rich agricultural State. The other three States are occupied chiefly by mines and great cattle ranches. By the census of 1890 the population of the countrv was found to be 62,620,000. The People's Party. — There was at this time a great deal of discontent among various classes of the people. There were people who wanted the government to issue more * For biography, see Appendi.x. 38o RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS greenbacks. There were others who wanted the govern- ment to coin silver without Hmit, and without regard to the great decHne which had occurred in the price of that metal. There were still others who wanted the government to own all the railroads and the telegraph and telephone lines, and others still who had various plans which they believed would better the condition of the people. All these ele- ments were gradually brought together into a new party called the People's Party, and later the Populists. The Election of 1892. — The chief question before the coun- try in 1892 was that of the tariff. The Republicans nomi- nated Harrison for reelection, and declared themselves in favor of continuing and strengthening the McKinley tariff. The Democrats nominated Cleveland for the third time, and declared themselves in favor of a tariff for revenue only. The Populists nominated James Weaver, of Iowa, and declared in favor of free silver and the other changes above indicated. Cleveland was elected, but the People's Party had by this time become strong enough to secure twenty-two of the electoral votes. Foreign Affairs under Cleveland. — A revolution broke out in the Hawaiian Islands in 1893, ^^"^^ the queen was deposed. A pro- visional govern- ment was set up. and steps were taken to secure the annexation of the islands to the HonoltflM;> C Hawaiian Islands MOLOKAI ^^""'^-^^ ^ KAHOOLAWE "^lilo HAWAII Mauna 1-u ■^ -P (.. United States. A treaty to that effect was before the Senate for ratification when Cleveland came into office, but he withdrew it on the ground that the revolution in Hawaii had been largely helped by American sailors and marines. The United States had bought Alaska chiefly for the sake of the profit to be made by catching seals on some islands CLEVELAND'S SECOND TERM 38 1 in Bering Sea near its coasts. The seals go to these islands every year for a time. But on their way back and forth they cross a stretch of open sea which is free to all nations. In 1886 Canadian sealing vessels began to kill the seals in the open sea, and there was danger that they might in this way exterminate them. A dispute arose between Great Britain and the United States over this question, and in 1893 it was decided by arbitration. Another dispute with Great Britain, which seemed for a time to threaten war, arose in connection with the boundary line between the South American Republic of Venezuela and the British province of Guiana, lying along side it. Great Britain having refused to submit the question be- tween herself and Venezuela to arbitration, President Cleve- land sent a special message to Congress in 1895, urging that the United States should appoint a commission to de- cide the true boundary line, and should insist upon the rights of Venezuela. He held that under the Monroe Doc- trine it was the duty of the United States to do this. There was much excitement in both countries for a time, but in 1896 the matter was settled by negotiation. The Chicago Exposition. — In 1893 there was held at Chicago a great World's Fair, called the Columbian Expo- sition, to celel)rale ihe four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. The buildings were dedicated in 1892, which was the four hundredth year, but the Fair did not open until the spring of 1893. The Panic of 1893 and the Repeal of the Silver Law. — In 1893 there occurred a financial panic which, like former panics, was the result of too much speculation, and of another cause. The law of 1890 compelling the government to buy a great mass of silver every month, and to issue Treasury notes in payment for it, was piling up a useless hoard of metal in the Treasury and steadily increasing the paper currency which the government was bound by law to redeem in coin, although the metal in a silver dollar was worth only fifty cents. So much gold went out of the Treas- 382 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS ury under these conditions that in April only ninety-seven million dollars in gold was left there, while by general agree- ment it had been decided that there must never be less than one hundred million dollars kept on hand by way of making sure that all Treasury notes should be redeemed whenever presented. The alarm was great, and President Cleveland called a special session of Congress to meet in August and deal with the difficulty. By that time the leaders of both parties in Congress had come to regard the system of deal- ing with silver as a source of great danger, and in response to Cleveland's suggestion Congress repealed the law of 1890. The Wilson Tariff Bill. — The AlcKinley taritl law did not satisfv even those wh-j had enacted it. It was their pur- pose, had they carried the election of 1892, themselves to change it in important particulars. As the Democrats had elected their candidate for President, and were in control of the House of Representatives, they planned to make a radical change and to enact a tariff law upon quite different principles. To that end a new tariff bill was framed by Will- iam L. Wilson, chairman of the Committee of Ways and Means, and introduced into the Plouse. It was not by any means such a bill as the leading Democrats in Congress and the country desired. It retained far more of the protective duties than they wished. But as the Democrats in Congress were themselves divided in opinion with regard to such matters, the bill as introduced was a compromise. It was afterwards still further amended until when it passed it made only two important changes in our tax laws. It put raw wool on the free list for one thing, and for another it im- posed a tax of two cents in the dollar on all incomes of more than four thousand dollars. This income-tax provision was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court and never went into effect. A New State. — One new State, Utah, was admitted during this term, on January 4, 1896. This brought the total num- ber of States up to forty-five. Utah had long been popu- BEGINMNG OF McKIN LEY'S ADMINISTRATION 383 lous enough for Statehood, but the Mormons, who consti- tuted a majority of the people there, advocated polygamy and practised it. It was not until they agreed to abandon it and forbid it by their State constitution that the Ameri- can people consented to let that Territory become a State. Summary. — i- During Harrison's administration laws were passed whicli nearly doubled the number of persons entitled to pensions from the government. A new tariff bill, framed by William McKinley, of Ohio, was enacted. It increased the protective duties and provided for reciprocity. .A bill was passed also recjuiring the go\'ernment to buy four and a half million ounces of silver each month and to issue Treasury notes in payment for it. 2. In the election of 1892 the chief question was that of the tariff. Harrison was nominated for reelection, but was defeated by Cleveland, the Democratic candidate. 3. A serious panic occurred in 1893, which was due in ])art to the effects of the silver purchase law passed in iSgo. A special session of Congress was called, which repealed that law.. 4. During Cleveland's administration the Wilson Tariff Bill was passed. 5. The revolution in Hawaii, the controversy between England and this country over the Alaskan fisheries, and a dispute with England concerning the boundary of Venezuela were the principal foreign mat- ters dealt with during Cleveland's second term. 6. During the summer of 1893 a great World's Fair was held in Chicago to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. Collateral Reading.^ — Andrews's " History of the Last Quarter Cen- tury of the United States," II., 158. 159. 215-219, 303-,^o8, 310-318, 349-369. CHAPTER LVIII BEGINNING OF McKINLEY's .ADMINISTRATION Election of 1896. — In the election of 1896 the chief ques- tion at issue was what should be done about silver. The repeal of the Silver Purchase Act had cut off the silver-mine owners from a market for four million five hundred thou- sand ounces of their product every month. Several efforts 384 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS had been made in Congress to pass a law providing- that the government should coin into money all the silver that might be offered to it at the ratio of sixteen to one — that is to say, that it should put sixteen times as much silver into a silver dollar as it put of gold into a gold dollar. At the price at which silver then sold the metal in a silver dollar would have been worth, as metal, only about half a dollar, but the silver men contended that if the government should adopt their plan of coining it freely the price would rise until the silver dollars would in themselves be worth as much as gold dollars. The Republican party had formerly been divided on this question just as the Democratic party was. But by 1896 the Republicans had made up their minds to stand out against any further coinage of silver, and many Democrats held a similar view. The Republican convention. nominated William McKinley, of Ohio, for President. In its platform the party declared itself to be in favor of keeping gold as the only standard of money in this country, and " opposed to the free coinage of silver except by international agree- ment." Most of the delegates from the silver-mining States and others at once withdrew from the party. The Democratic convention in July nominated William J. Bryan, of Nebraska, for President, and declared itself in favor of " the free and unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the present legal ratio of sixteen to one without waiting for the aid or consent of any other nation." A great many Democrats throughout the country, but especially in the Eastern States, refused to stand upon this platform. Some of them held a convention at Indianapolis, nominated John M. Palmer, of Illinois, for President, and declared themselves opposed to free coinage, and in favor of the gold standard. These called themselves National Demo- crats. They were opposed to the Republicans on questions of tariff and other policies, but in this election they re- garded the silver question as more important than all others. A still larger number of Democrats, fearing the election of BEGINNING OF McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 385 ^zS^^^^^^^-^^^^^-^ 386 RECONSTRUCTlOxN AND RECENT EVENTS Bryan and the adoption of a free silver policy, decided to vote for the Republican candidate, McKinley. The Populists a little later nominated Bryan for Presi- dent and Thomas E. Watson for Vice President. The Democrats had nominated Arthur E. Sewall, of Maine, for the second place. McKinley was elected by a large ma- jority of electoral votes. The Republicans at the same time secured a majority in the Senate and in the House of Representatives. The Dingley Tariff Bill. — The necessity of doing some- thing to remedy evils in the tariff laws was so great that President McKinley called a special session of Congress, and in June, 1897, it passed a new tariff law called the Dingley Tariff, from the name of the chairman of the committee that framed it. It increased the duties on certain imports, and levied duties on some things which had been admitted free under the Wilson law. It was in a high degree protective. Conditions in Cuba. — In the early years of the nineteenth century Spain had lost all her American possessions except Cuba, Porto Rico, and some smaller islands lying near them. Spain governed Cuba very harshly, and for many years there had been repeated insurrections and wars in the island, one of which had lasted for ten years. These dis- turbances greatly injured the trade of the United States, and the people of our country were much concerned over the oppression of an island which lay so near our coast. Our government frequently remonstrated with Spain, but to no effect. We several times tried to buy Cuba, but Spain would not sell. In 1895 another rebellion broke out in the island and a native government was set up there. Between this native government and the Spanish authorities there was constant war, resulting in much bloodshed and the destruction of much property. In order to crush this rebellion the Span- ish commander. General Weyler, compelled all the farmers to leave their homes and come with their families to live in the towns, where he provided no food or clothing for BEGINNING OF McKINLEYS ADMINISTRATION 387 The "Maine them, and where they died by thousands. Our government protested against this, and Weyler was removed, but mat- ters grew no better. The Destruction of the " Maine." — All these things aroused sympathy for the Cubans among the American people. Finally, our government sent the battleship "Maine" on a friendly visit to the harbor of Havana. On the night of February 15, 1898, the " Maine " was blown up in that harbor by a mine, and two of her officers and two hundred and sixty-four of her crew were killed. Many people suspected that this thing had been done with the knowledge or consent of Spanish officials, but the crime could not be fastened upon any one. The people of tlie United States were greatly excited over the outrage, and.foreseeingthat war with Spain was probably drawing near. Congress appropriated fifty million dollars with which to put our country into a state of defense. The Approach of War. — On April 1 1 President McKinley sent a special mes- sage to Congress on the subject of Cuba. He declared that conditions there were intoler- able to the United States, and that the only way in which they could be bet- tered was by compelling a peace in the islands. He said that in the name of humanity and civilization the war in Cuba must stop, and he asked from Congress authority to Cuba and Porto Rico 388 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS use the military and naval forces of the United States in bringing about peace. In response to this message Congress passed a resolution authorizing the President to stop the war in Cuba, and, if necessary, to use the army and navy for that purpose. The resolution also demanded that Spain should at once give up its authority in Cuba and withdraw its land and naval forces from that island. The resolution gave Spain five days in which to reply. With- out waiting for the five days to pass Spain instantly dismissed the United States minister at Madrid. This was practically a declaration of war. The President at once proclaimed a blockade of the Cuban coast, and sent Commodore Sampson with a fleet to enforce it. A "flying squadron" under Commodore Schley was held at Hampton Roads (near Norfolk) to guard our coast cities if an at- tack should be made upon them. President McKinley issued a call for one hundred and twenty-five thousand volunteers, and they quickly responded. In the meantime a Spanish fleet commanded by Admiral Cervera was at the Cape Verde Islands, and its destination was not known. Scouting boats, tugs, and yachts were sent out to watch for its appearance, and on April 25 Congress declared war that between Spain and the United States had existed since April 21st. William T. Sampson Winfield S. Schley Summary. — i. In the election of 1896 the silver question was the main issue. The Republicans declared against the policy of coining THE SPANISH WAR 389 silver, while the Democrats favored it. In the election McKinley, tlie Repubhcan candidate, was chosen. 2. A new tariff bill was passed early in McKinley's term. It was strongly protective. 3. Spain having failed to suppress a rebellion in Cuba in spite of cruel measures, and the American battle ship " Maine " having been blown up in the harbor of Havana, the President asked Congress for authority to interfere and end the Cuban war. Congress granted him the authority asked, and Spain promptly dismissed the American Min- ister at Madrid, thus practically declaring war. 4. Our government at once sent a fleet to blockade Cuba, and sta- tioned another on our own coasts to guard them. On April 25 Con- gress formally declared war. Collateral Reading. — Lodge's " The War with Spain," 27-36. CHAPTER LIX THE SPANISH WAR The Battle of Manila Bay. — Great Britain declared her neutrality on the 24th of April. The Asiatic squadron of our navy was lying at that time at the British port of Hong Kong, China. Under the laws of nations Commodore George Dewey,* who commanded it, must leave Hong- Kong with his ships in twenty-four hours. He had already been ordered to go to Manila as soon as war should be declared and destroy the Spanish fleet stationed there. Adopting the methods which he had learned from Farragut, under whom he had served at Mobile, Dewey disregarded the danger of mines and torpedoes, and steamed straight into Manila Bay at daybreak on Sunday morning, May i. He at once opened fire on the Spanish fleet and destroyed it without the loss of a single man on any one of his own ships. * For biography, see Appendix. George Dewey 590 RECONSTRUCTION AND RECENT EVENTS >^ 6 ioo ibo In recognition of this exploit Dewey was made rear ad- miral, and afterwards admiral, of the navy. In the West Indies — Pursuing Cervera. — Cervera's fleet, from the Ca])C \'erde Islands, appeared oft' the island of Martinique, May ii. Samp- son's squadron w^s ordered to the eastern end of Cuba, and Schley's to the western end, to stop Cervera on his way to Ha- vana. Being short of water and provisions, Cervera entered the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. The entrance is narrow and winding, and vessels lying within the harbor can not be seen from the outside. Sampson and Schley were ordered to Santi- ago to blockade the port. Thev could not enter the harbor be- cause it was strewn with mines and torpedoes, and no attack- could be made until land forces ^ SI 1 1 1 \ I Mar, / ; f < S \ ^^' >l - -^ * ^ SAMAR S, /)" PANAY) > A f WAN 'Y I i NEGROSjj "^ ^ S I L I ^ > . MlJ^ANAOl \^\ ^ t ^ f Ci \ w SULU BRITISH but also as the author of a valuable " History of the Plymouth Plantation," covering the period of 1602 to 1647. Bradford's manuscript of this book, which had not yet been printed, disappeared from its place in the Old South Meetinghouse during the British occupation of Boston (1775-76). Eighty years later it was found in an English library, and in 1897 it was brought back to Massachusetts. Bryant, William Cullen, was born in Massachusetts in 1794, and was educated at Williams College. He practiced law ten years, but in 1825 he became an editor in New York city, and from the following year till his death, as editor-in-chief of the " Evening Post," he exercised a great in- fluence on journalism. He was a graceful orator, also; but he is best remembered for his thoughtful and carefully wrought poems. " Thana- topsis," perhaps the most famous of them, was written when the poet was in his nineteenth year. He died in 1878. Buchanan, James, the fifteenth President, was born in Pennsylvania in 1791. He became a lawyer, and entered political life as a distraction from his grief over the death of his betrothed. After a brilliant career as Congressman and Senator from Pennsylvania, and as Secretary of State under President Polk, he was appointed minister to England by Pierce. In the presidency his chief aim was to prevent the disruption of the Democratic party, but in this he failed, becoming himself a Southern sympathizer. When secession was threatened, after the election of i860, he opposed it with peaceful means only, claiming that the President had no power or right to use force. He died in 1868, the only President who never married. Cabot, John, or Juan Caboto in the Venetian dialect, was for many years unknown to fame, his discoveries (p. 25) being formerly ascribed to his son, Sebastian. No one knows when he was born, but it is believed that he died in 1498, while on his second voyage; for there is no record of his return. Sebastian Cabot became a man of much renown. He was Pilot Major of Spain from 15 18 to 1548, when he returned to England and became governor of a company engaged in discovery and trade on the north coast of Europe. He died in 1557 or soon after. Calhoun, John Caldwell, statesman, was born in South Carolina in 1782. He graduated at Yale College in 1804, studied law, and in 181 1 became a member of Congress from South CarcHna. He was Secretary of War under President Monroe, and was elected Vice President in 1824 and again in 1828. Having resigned this ofiice, he was chosen Senator from South Carolina in 1832, and continued in the Senate the rest of his life, excepting the brief interval of 1843-45, during part of which he was Secretary of State under Tyler. He was one of the chief advocates of the doctrine of State sovereignty and the rights of nullification and l8 APPENDIX secession, in v/hich he was opposed by Daniel Webster in debate. He died in Washington in 1850. Calvert, Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, was born about 1605. He spent £40,000 on the expedition that settled Maryland (p. 74). He never visited the colony, but governed it through deputies until his death, in 1675. He was a sincere and steadfast Catholic, singularly free from the bigotry characteristic of his age, and his rule was marked by good judgment and moderation. Clark, George Rogers, was born in Virginia in 1752. He became a sur- veyor, and removed to the upper Ohio valley when he was twenty years old. At the outbreak of the Revolution he secured the organization of Kentucky as a county of Virginia, and was appointed major of militia in that region. He wrested the country north of the Ohio from British and Indian foes, and thus saved it to the United States (p. 174), but his services were unrewarded and his latter years were spent in poverty. He died in 1818. Clay, Henry, was considered by those who heard him speak the great- est of American orators. He was born in Virginia in 1777, and passed his youth in poverty. He studied law, and removed to Lexington, Ken- tucky, to practice. He became a favorite orator and was soon sent to Congress. For many years he served as Speaker of the House and as Senator. He was the chief advocate of the Missouri Compromise, of the compromise tariff of 1833, and of the compromise of 1850. A man of singularly winning personality, he was idolized by his friends, and respected even by his enemies. He was three times a candidate for President, but was never elected. He died in 1852. Cleveland, Grover, twenty-second and twenty-fourth President, was born at Caldwell, New Jersey, but his parents moved to Fayetteville, New York, when he was four years old. His full name was Stephen Grover Cleveland, but he discarded the first name. He studied law and practiced very successfully in Buffalo. He was elected mayor of Buffalo in 1881, and governor of New York in 1882 by an unprecedented plurality. Elected President in 1884, he failed of reelection in 1888, but was again elected in 1892. Columbus, Christopher, the discoverer of America, was born in Genoa, Italy, the son of a humble wool-comber. He got some education, knew Latin, and drew charts exceedingly well. He was a man of great per- severance and held to his idea of sailing to the westward in search of Asia, in spite of many disheartening reverses. After his great voyage of 1492 he was loaded with honors and was given control of the Spanish settlements. In 1500 he was deposed from the governorship of his colonies and was sent home in chains. But Ferdinand and Isabella were shocked at this degradation and he was set free. Columbus's last voyage to the west, in 1502, was unfortunate. He died in Spain in the year 1506. BIOGRAPHIES I9 Cooper, Peter, philanthropist, was born in New York city in 1791. In the course of a long life he was ever changing his trade. He made tents, brewed ale, made bricks, worked at carriage-making, worked at machines for shearing cloth, made cabinet-work, and then invested all his resources in a glue factory, making many other things at the same time. He then bought iron works and built a small locomotive, the first in the country, which proved that locomotives could run round a curve. He established an iron mill and the largest blast furnaces then known, in Philipsburg, Pennsylvania. He was president of the first Atlantic Cable Company. He founded, in 1854, his Cooper Union, an institution designed to aid the young in acquiring knowledge useful in earning a living. It has a library, an art school, etc. The building cost $750,000. He gave away about four millions in all, and died worth about two millions. He died in 1883. Davis, Jefferson, was a native of Kentucky and was born June 3, 1808. He was educated at Transylvania University and graduated at West Point in 182S. ..le Isft the army in 1835 \ i" i845 be became a member of Congress. In the J.Iexican War he was colonel of a Mississippi regi- ment, and was distinguished for courage and coolness in action. He served several years as United States Senator for Mississippi, and was Secretary of War in President Pierce's cabinet. He again entered the Senate in 1857, but resigned when Mississippi seceded in 1861. He was President of the Confederate States of America during the whole period of their existence. His death occurred December 6, 1889. Dewey, George, was born in Vermont in 1837, and graduated from the Naval Academy at Annapolis in 1858. He served in Farragut's fleet in the capture of New Orleans in 1862, and the next year was on board a ship that was sunk in trying to pass Port Hudson. Continuing in the navy, he had risen to the rank of commodore when the war with Spain began, in April, 1898. For his brilliant victory in Manila Bay (p. 389), he received the thanks of Congress and the rank of admiral. Drake, Sir Francis, a famous English navigator of the sixteenth cen- tury. In 1570, during a voyage in which he captured $800,000 in treasure from the Spaniards, he visited upper California and gave it the name of New Albion. Albion was one of the names then applied to England. Continuing westward across the Pacific and Indian Oceans, he was the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. In 1588 he commanded a division of the English fleet in its great victory over the Spanish Armada. He died in 1596. Edison, Thomas Alva, inventor, was born at Milan, Ohio, in 1847. He began life as a train boy. Having learned telegraphy, he became an operator and made a number of inventions connected with the telegraph. He established an immense laboratory, first at Menlo Park and then at West Orange, New Jersey, and with a corps of trained assistants he 20 APPENDIX made invention a highly successful profession. The world owes to him the incandescent electric light, many improvements of the telephone, tele- graph, etc., the phonograph, and hundreds of other inventions. He has received high honors from foreign governments. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, poet and essayist, was born in Boston, Massa- chusetts, in 1803, and graduated at Harvard College at eighteen years of age. He became one of the best-known lecturers in the United States and traveled extensively. A philosopher and independent thinker, he exerted a great influence on American thought and literature, although not a prolific writer. He died in 1882, at Concord, Massachusetts, which had been his home for nearly half a century. Farragut, David Glasgow, was born near Knoxville, Tennessee, in July, 1801. His father, a native of the Balearic Isles, having died in 1808, he was sent to school at Chester, Pennsylvania, by Commodore Porter. He was appointed midshipman in the navy when less than ten years of age, and saw service in the War of 1812 and the war with Mexico. It was in the Civil War, however, that he became famous. After the capture of New Orleans (p. 324). he was made rear-admiral. After the battle of Mobile Bay (p. 348), the city of New York gave him a purse of $50,000, and he was made vice-admiral. In 1866 Congress created the rank of Admiral for him. He was the first to hold that rank in the American navy. He died in 1870. Field, Cyrus West, was born in ^Massachusetts in 1819, the son of a minister. In his boyhood he was a clerk in New York city, and later he became a prosperous merchant. For his success in laying the first Atlantic telegraph cable (p. 399), he received many honors at home and abroad. He was afterward engaged in the construction of elevated rail- roads in New York and in other large enterprises. He died in 1892. Fillmore, Millard, thirteenth President, was born in New York in 1800. His school education was scanty, but he became a lawyer and rose to eminence in his profession. In his State he secured the passage of a law abolishing imprisonment for debt. He succeeded to the presidency on the death of Taylor in July, 1850. He died in 1874. Franklin, Benjamin, the son of a tallow chandler, was born in Boston in 1706. He learned the printer's trade in his brother's office. He went to Philadelphia at seventeen. After many vicissitudes he rose to the ownership of a printing office. He published " Poor Richard's Almanac," which became famous for its proverbs. He edited and printed the best newspaper published in the American colonies. He proved, in 1752, that lightning and electricity are the same by means of a famous experiment with a kite. This discovery and the invention of the lightning rod made him widely celebrated. He founded libraries, a hospital, and a uni- versity. He went to London more than once as agent for his own and other colonies, and he promoted the repeal of the Stamp Act. He was BIOGRAPHIES 21 one of the ccjmmittee of Congress appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence, and was a signer of that document. Soon afterward he went to France as ambassador. It was his skilful hand that negotiated the treaty of alliance with that country, without which the Revolution could hardly have succeeded. He assisted in making the treaty of peace with England in 1782 and took part in framing the Constitution of the United States in 1787. He died in Philadelphia in 1790. Fremont, John Charles, was born in Savannah, Georgia, in 1813, the son of a French immigrant who died when John was five years old. He was educated at Charleston College, became an engineer, and made himself famous by his explorations in the Rocky Mountain region (p. 273). He took part in the seizure of California during the war with Mexico, and was chosen one of the first Senators from that S'tate. He was the Republican candidate for President in 1856. In the Civil War he served in Missouri and the Shenandoah valley as major-general of volunteers. He died in 1890. Fulton, Robert, inventor, was born in Pennsylvania in 1765. After attaining success as a miniature painter, he went to London and studied art under Benjamin West. He developed considerable mechanical ability and made several inventions ; among them were submarine torpedoes and a submarine boat, exhibited in France and in England, but neither in- vention was successful. His first experiments with the steamboat were made on the Seine River in France ; but his great successes were achieved on the Hudson and the Ohio (see pp. 228, 229). He died in New York in 1815. Garfield, James Abram, the twentieth President, was born in Ohio in 183 1. He graduated at Williams College in 1856, and became a lawyer. He entered the Union army as colonel in 1861, and rose to the rank of major-general of volunteers, but resigned to take a place in Congress as representative and later became senator. He died September 19, 1881, in the first year of his presidency. Goodyear, Charles, inventor, was born in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1800. He turned his attention to india rubber in 1834, and from then till his death he was occupied with the problem of making from it a material that should be both solid and elastic. The trouble with the first articles of india rubber was that they would turn soft and sticky in warm weather. Goodyear experimented with many different substances in connection with the crude rubber gum, and was often in poverty and debt. In 1844 he obtained a patent for the successful method of vulcan- izing rubber. He died in debt in i860. Grant, Ulysses S., eighteenth President, was born in Ohio, April 27, 1822. He was named Hiram Ulysses Grant, but was entered by mistake as Ulysses Simpson Grant at West Point, where he graduated in 1843. In the Mexican War he distinguished himself both in Taylor's and in 22 APPENDIX Scott's campaigns. He resigned from the army in 1854. When the Civil War broke out he was clerk in his father's leather store on a bare living salary. He then became mustering officer for the State of Illinois, and was appointed colonel of the Twenty-first Illinois regiment. This was the first step in his great military career, which forms a large part of the history of the Civil War. After serving two terms as President he retired to private life and made a trip round the world. His property having been lost in business, he wrote his "Personal Memoirs" (1885), from the copyright of which his widow realized about half a million dollars. He died on the 23rd of July, 1885. Gray, Asa, born in New York State in 1810, was a very eminent botan- ist, and the author of numerous works in his branch of science. In 1842 he was chosen to the Fisher Chair of Natural History in Harvard Uni- versity, where he remained till his death. When, in 1864, a building was provided for his collection, it numbered two hundred thousand speci- mens, and it had doubled by the time of his death. He died January 30, 1888. Gray, Robert, discoverer, was born in Rhode Island in 1755. As cap- tain of the ship " Columbia," he was the first to carry the American flag around the world, which he did in a trading voyage in 1787-90. On a second voyage he discovered the mouth of the great river to which he gave the name of his ship. It was largely by this discovery that the United States secured claim to the Oregon country (p. 271). He died in 1806. Greene, Nathanael, Revolutionary general, was born in Rhode Island, of Quaker parents, in 1742. He was elected a member of the colonial Assembly in 1770, and on the outbreak of the Revolution was made a brigadier-general and placed in command of the Rhode Island contingent army. He gained Washington's confidence and held important commands in most of the battles which Washington fought ; but his great fame was earned in his Southern campaigns (pages 182-184). In reward for these, Georgia and the Carolinas made him large grants of property, and after the war he made his home near Savannah. He died in 1786. Hamilton, Alexander, statesman, was born in the island of Nevis, in the West Indies, in January, 1757, but was sent to the continent of Amer- ica to be educated. While a student of King's College, now Columbia University, New York, and but seventeen years of age, he made a speech on the Revolutionary side that stamped him at once as a wonderful youth. He also wrote several anonymous pamphlets that attracted great attention and were attributed to this and that leading man of the time. When nineteen years old he took charge of an artillery company, and so dis- tinguished himself that Washington put him on his own .staff. He led the assault on one of the British outworks at Yorktown. After serving as a member of the Constitutional Convention (p. 193), he established BIOGRAPHIES 23 and wrote much of " The FederaHst," which was most influential in securing the adoption of the Federal Constitution. As first Secretary of the Treasury he held Congress to the duty of paying every dollar of the national debt at its face value (p. 202). He retired from office on account of poverty, but his law practice was afterwards very profitable. During the trouble with France he was in 1798 made inspector general of the army, and for a short time was the commanding general. He declined the office of chief justice. He was killed in a duel with Aaron Burr in 1804. Hancock, John, statesman, was born in Massachusetts in 1737, and graduated .nt Harvard College at seventeen. He became a rich merchant, and one of the foremost revolutionary leaders in the colony. He was President of the Continental Congress, 1775-77, and the first signer of the Declaration of Independence. During and after the war he was for many years governor of Massachusetts. He died in 1793. Harrison, Benjamin, twenty-third President, was a grandson of Wil- liam Henry Harrison, the ninth President. He was born in Ohio in ■ 1833, and graduated at Miami University at the age of eighteen. He studied law and practiced in Indianapolis, Indiana. During the Civil War he served in the Union army and rose to the rank of brigadier- general. He was United States Senator in 1881-87. After the term of his presidency he practiced law in Indianapolis, where he died in 1901. Harrison, William Henry, ninth President, was born in Virginia in 1773 and was educated in Hampden-Sydney College. He entered the army as an ensign in 1791 and was aide-de-camp to General Wayne in his campaign against the Indians in Ohio. He was secretary of the North- west Territory, delegate in Congress, first governor of Indiana Territory, and superintendent of Indian affairs. His successful military career in 1811-14 (see pp. 232, 237, 238) was followed by many years of service in important civil offices. His death took place in 1841, one month after his inauguration as President. Hayes, Rutherford Burchard, nineteenth President, was born in Ohio in 1822, and graduated at the Harvard Law School in 1845. He became a major in the Union army in 1861 ; rose to be brigadier-general of volunteers. After the war he was sent to Congress and was three times governor of Ohio before he was elected President of the United States. He died in 1893. Henry, Patrick, was born in Virginia in 1736. He was educated chiefly in a school taught by his father. After failing several times in farming and business he became a very successful lawyer. In 1763 he argued the Parsons' cause, as told on p. 144, and leaped at once into fame. In the legislature and elsewhere he was a radical revolutionist (see p. 146), but later became an anti-federalist. He was governor of Virginia eight years, and declined the chief justiceship of the United States and several other high offices. He died in 1799. 24 APPENDIX Hooker, Thomas, one of the founders of Connecticut, was an eminent minister, bom in England in 1586. Persecuted for his rehgion, he went to Holland and then in 1633 to New England. After he and his flock settled Hartford (p. 64), his influence in the new Connecticut colony was very great. He died in 1647. Howe, Elias, inventor, was born in Massachusetts in 1819, the son of a farmer and miller. He worked in machine shops in Lowell and Boston. In 1846 he patented his sewing-machine. He tried in vain to introduce it in England. On his return, he found his patent infringed, and had a long struggle in the courts before he could make good his rights. In the end he realized a fortune from it. He served as a volunteer private in the Civil War, and died in 1867. Hudson, Henry. The time of Hudson's birth is not known. In 1607 he tried to find a route to China for an English company, by sailing straight across the north pole. Failing in that, the next year he tried to find a passage to the East Indies by sailing to the northeast. Here he failed again, but he gained a reputation as a bold explorer. The year after th!at, 1609, both France and Holland were bidders for his services. He sailed for Holland; and, as is told on page 69, he ex- plored the coast of North America from Chesapeake Bay north and into Hudson River. The year following he tried to find China by the northwest passage. He sailed into the great bay which bears his name. There a part of his crew mutinied, put him and some of his men into an open boat, and sailed for England leaving them to perish. Irving, Washington, author, was born in New York in 1783. His works are marvels of clearness. His " Diedrich Knickerbocker's New York " is full of quaint wit, and his " Sketch Book " rivals anything of Goldsmith's. He spent many years in Europe, and was for four years American minister to Spain. He died in 1859. Jackson, Andrew, seventh President, was born in North Carolina in 1767. He joined the Revolutionary army when he was but thirteen years old. After the war he studied law and settled in Nashville, Tennessee. He was a member of the Senate of the United States and judge of the Supreme Court in Tennessee. As an ofl^cer of the Ten- nessee militia, he led the Tennesseeans against the Creeks and broke their power (p. 241). Just before the close of the War of 1812 he formed an army at New Orleans out of such men as he could find, built breastworks, and won a brilliant victory (p. 243). He failed of election in 1824 (p. 254), but was President from 1829 to 1837 (pp. 262- 267). He died in 1845, the last President who had had anything to do with the Revolution. Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, immortal under the name of "Stonewall " Jackson, was born in Clarksburg, Virginia (now West Virginia), January 21, 1824. He graduated at West Point in 1846. In the Mexican BIOGRAPHIES 25 War he was twice brevetted. Resigning from the army in 1852, he became a professor in the Virginia MiUtary Institute. He entered the Confederate service at the beginning of the war. During the first battle of Bull Run he resisted a charge with so much steadiness as to win for himself the appellation of Stonewall Jackson. The prompt- ness and rapidity of his marches and the obstinate courage he showed on the battlefield made him an important factor in the Civil War. He was shot by mistake by his own men, at the battle of Chancellors- ville, and died a few days later (1863). Jefferson, Thomas, was born near Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1743. He was educated at William and Mary College, became a success- ful lawyer, and was soon recognized as the most accomplished general scholar in the colonies. He excelled in mathematics and knew five languages besides his own. From 1769 till the Revolution he was a member of the Virginia House of Bur- gesses. While a member of the Continental Congress he wrote the first draft of the Declaration of Independence, one of the most famous of state papers. Again in the Virginia legislature he carried through many important reforms, and for two years was governor of the State. During the critical and trying period of five years after the war he was our minister to France. He was Washington's first Secretary of State, and in 1796 was elected Vice President (p. 211). He was the third President of the United States (p. 215), and to him was due the purchase of the Louisiana territory west of the Mississippi. He died on the 4th of July, 1826, fifty years after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, and the same day that John Adams died. Johnson, Andrew, seventeenth President, was born in North Carolina in 1808. He learned the tailor's trade. Having removed to Tennessee in 1826, he married there and was assisted by his wife in educating himself. Becoming a good speaker, he was sent to the State legislature and to Congress. Later he was elected governor of his State. He did all in his power to keep Tennessee in the Union, and he was the only South- ern Senator who retained his place in the United States Senate when his State seceded. After his presidency he reentered politics, and was returned to the Senate in 1875. but died the same year. Johnson, Sir William, was born in Ireland in 1715, but came to North America in 17.38, and settled among the Mohawk Indians, whose language he learned and over whom he acquired great influence. He was appointed superintendent of Indian affairs for the province of New York, and acted as such till his death. In the French and Indian War he played an important part in the operations in and near New York (pp. 112-114). He received a grant of 100,000 acres north of the Mohawk River, and built there his famous home, Johnson Hall, where he died in 1774. 26 APPENDIX Johnston, Joseph Eggleston, general, was born in Virginia in 1807. He graduated at West Point in 1829. He was distinguished in engineer- ing work, and in the Mexican War. He resigned from the army in 1861, and entered the Confederate service, where he displayed great ability (pp. 114, 326, 342, 347). After the war he was a member of Congress one term. He died in 1891. Jones, John Paul, sailor, was born in Scotland in 1747. He began a seafaring life at twelve years of age, and in 1773 went to Virginia. On the outbreak of the Revolution he was given a commission in the American navy. He had captured many prizes on both sides of the Atlantic, before his famous fight with the "Serapis" (p. 170). Some years later he served as a Russian rear-admiral against the Turks. He died in Paris, France, in 1792. Lafayette, Marquis de, was of an illustrious French family. Con- trary to the command of the King of France, he freighted a ship at his own expense, and landed in America in 1777 to ofifer his services as a simple volunteer. He was made a major-general, and by prudent con- duct and courage he won the favor of Washington. He was wounded at Brandywine and distinguished himself at Monmouth. He was in France in 1779-80, when he induced the King to send Rochambeau to America. He conducted the campaign in Virginia that led up to the capture of Cornwallis. He did what he could to aid Louis XVI against the Jacobins, and was obliged to escape to Flanders. He was five years in an Austrian prison. He visited America in 1824-25 as the nation's guest, and was granted $200,000 in money and a township of land by the American Congress. He died in 1834. La Salle, Robert Cavelier de, explorer, was born in France in 1643. He became a Jesuit, but withdrew from the order before he went to Canada. After his great explorations in the Mississippi valley (p. 96), he went to France, and in 1684 tried to plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi. His fleet sailed too far west in the Gulf of Mexico before landing, and the colonists were left on the shore of Texas. Some of them remained there and perished; others, with La Salle himself, started overland for Canada, but on the way they murdered him, in 1687. Lee, Robert Edward, son of " Light-Horse Harrv' " Lee of the Revolution, was born in Virginia, January 19, 1807. He graduated at West Point in 1829, second in his class. He distinguished himself in the Mexican War as Scott's chief engineer. For three years he was in command of the Military Academy at West Point. When his State, Virginia, seceded from the Union, he thought himself obliged to go with it. He resigned his commission in the army of the United States, and was made commander of the Virginia State forces and later a Confederate general. In March, 1862, he was made commander in BIOGRAPHIES If chief of the Confederate forces. To his surpassing ability was due the stubbornness of the struggle carried on by the Confederates between Richmond and Washington. When the war was over General Lee took the result manfully and devoted himself to the building up of Wash- ington College (now the Washington and Lee University), of which he was made president. He died on the 12th of October, 1870. Lincoln, Abraham, the sixteenth President, was born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809. He was taken to Indiana when he was a little boy, and when that country was wild and rough. Later he removed with his father to Illinois. Abraham studied hard to get an education. The schools were few and the teachers ignorant, but Lincoln trained himself to think. He worked on a farm, went to New Orleans on a flatboat, acted as clerk in a country store, learned and practiced surveying, and then studied law. He served several terms in the Legislature of Illinois and one term as a member of Congress. He became a leading lawyer and politician in his State, and gained a national fame by a series of debates in which he was engaged with Senator Douglas, in 1858. In i860 he was elected President, and the rest of his history is that of the country. His death took place on April 15, 1865. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, poet, was born in Portland, Maine, in 1807, and graduated at Bowdoin College, at eighteen years of age. He spent several years in Europe. He was a professor of modern languages, first at Bowdoin and then at Harvard. His long life was passed in unwearied reading and study. His books were read in nearly all the schools of Europe, and they have been translated into nearly all the languages of Europe. He died in March, 1882. His bust is in the Poet's Corner at Westminster Abbey, the only tribute of the kind to any American. McKinley, William, twenty-fifth President, was born in Ohio in 1843. He enlisted as a. private in Ohio infantry, and served throughout the Civil War; was made a major for gallant and meritorious service. After the war he studied law and settled in Canton, Ohio. He served several terms in Congress, and as Chairman of the Ways and Means Committee he prepared the McKinley Bill of 1890. In 1891 he was elected Governor of Ohio, in 1893 was reelected, and in 1896 was chosen President of the United States (p. 386). On September 6, 1901, a few months after be- ginning his second term as President, he was shot by an assassin at the Buffalo Pan-American Exposition, and he died on September 14. Madison, James, fourth President, was born in Virginia in 1751. He graduated at Princeton, at twenty years of age. He served many years as member of the Virginia Legislature, and as member of Congress. He was a delegate in the convention that drafted the Constitution of the United States and one of the ablest advocates of its adoption. He wrote many of the ablest papers in the " The Federalist." 28 APPENDIX He was also author of the Virginia Resolutions of 1798 (p. 213). Secretary of State for eight years, he succeeded Jefiferson as President, serving the two terms ending in 1817 (pp. 230-246). He died in 1838. Magellan, Ferdinand, or, as his name is written in Portuguese, Fernao de Magalhaes, was born in Portugal, about 1480. He served the Portuguese in the East Indies, but having received a slight from the Portuguese government, he publicly renounced his country and entered the service of the King of Spain. He started round the world in 1519. On the coast of Patagonia he put down a mutiny, in which three of his five ships had engaged. Later, having lost one ship, he en- tered the straits that bear his name, in October, 1520. One ship deserted him, but with the three others he sailed out upon the Pacific Ocean, which he so named because he found its waters quiet. He went on to the Philippines, where he was killed in a battle with the natives, in 1521. One ship, the " Victoria," put out alone and sailed the rest of the way to Spain, not daring to touch anywhere. She reached home with eighteen men barely alive, being the first ship that ever sailed round the world. Marshall, John, the great Chief Justice of the United States (p. 214), was born in Virginia in 1755, the eldest of a family of fifteen children. He was educated mostly at home, and then studied law. He served several years as an officer in the Revolutionary army. Before his appoint- ment as Chief Justice he had held various legislative, diplomatic, and Cabinet positions. He died in 1835. Monroe, James, fifth President, was born in Virginia in 1758, gradu- ated at William and Mary College in 1776, and joined the Revolutionary army immediately. He distinguished himself in several battles. He was United States Senator, Minister to France, Governor of Virginia, Min- ister to England, and was Secretary of State under Madison during the six years preceding his own presidency. He died in New York on the 4th of July, 183 1. He was the third ex-President to die on that day, the others being Jefi'erson and Adams. Morris, Robert, the financier of the Revolution, was born in England in 1734, but early removed to Philadelphia, where he became a member of a successful business firm. As a delegate in the Continental Congress in 1776 he voted against the Declaration of Independence, but signed it when it was adopted, and was twice reelected to Congress. His financial skill was of the greatest value in the Revolution, and he besides lent his personal credit to a great amount. He was Superintendent of Finance, 1781-84, delegate to the Constitutional Convention, and then Senator, In his old age he failed through unfortunate investments, and for several years was imprisoned for debt. He died in 1806. Morse, Samuel Finley Breese, inventor of the electro-magnetic tele- graph, was born in Massachusetts in 1791. He was first known as a his- BIOGRAPHIES 29 torical and portrait painter. He was for many years the President of the National Academy of Design in New York, and was Professor of Fine Arts in tlie University of the city of New York. In 1837 be exhibited a telegraph instrument, and in 1844 the line between Washington and Bal- timore was built by an appropriation of Congress. Morse established his rights in the courts, and received many honors from foreign governments. He died in 1872. Oglethorpe, James Edward, the founder of Georgia, was born in Lon- don in 1698. After some service in the army he was sent to Parliament, where he became interested in the condition of English prisons. After establishing his colony and defending it for several years, he returned to England in 1743, and resumed his service in the army, from which he was retired as a general on half pay in 1765. He died in 1785. Otis, James, was born on Cape Cod in 1725. He graduated at Harvard College at eighteen years of age. He studied law, and rose to the highest rank in his profession. When the British customs officers applied for writs of assistance that would enable them to search any house at any time, Otis's official position as advocate-general made it his duty to argue in favor of the writs. But he resigned his lucrative position and took the side of liberty. He made a speech five hours long against the writs, and this speech is considered by some the starting-point of the Revolution. He first furnished the patriots with the cry, " No taxation without representation." Worn out by the great struggle over the Stamp Act and the debates that followed, his mind gradually gave way, and he retired from public affairs. He was killed by a stroke of lightning in 1783. Parkman, Francis, historian, was born in Boston, September 16, 1823. He graduated at Harvard College in 1844, and studied law for two years. While in College he formed a scheme of writing the story of the war that ended in the conquest of Canada. This plan he afterwards enlarged to include the whole course of the American conflict between France and England. His first step, in preparing himself for this work, was to visit various tribes of Indians of the Rocky Mountains, where he gained familiar acquaintance with the men and scenery of the wilderness. " The Conspiracy of Pontiac " (1851) and "Pioneers of France in the New World" (1865) established his position as a historical writer of high ability, and his fame increased as his later books appeared. He died September 8, 1893. Penn, William, son of Admiral William Penn, was born in London in 1644. He was expelled from the University of Oxford for the resistance he and others made to certain religious ceremonies. He became a Friend or Quaker, and his father was with difficuhy reconciled to him. He was frequently imprisoned, but he boldly asserted the principles of religious liberty. He traveled in Wales, Ireland, Holland, and Germany, and many of the kindred sects in those, countries afterward came to Pennsylvania. 30 APPENDIX He visited Pennsylvania himself in 1682, and again in 1699. He died in England in 1718. Pierce, Franklin, fourteenth President, was born in New Hampshire in 1804. He was educated at Bowdoin College, and became a lawj'er. He was elected member of Congress and then Senator. He served in the Mexican War as a brigadier-general under Scott. He died in 1869. Poe, Edgar Allan, author, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1819. His parents, who were actors, having died, he was adopted by a citizen of Richmond, Virginia. He was sent to school in England. He led an irregular life, living at various times in Boston, Baltimore, Rich- mond, Philadelphia, and New York, and died in Baltimore in 1849. He is best known for " The Raven " and other poems, but wrote also the earliest detective stories and some other prose works, and edited several literary periodicals at diflferent times. Polk, James Knox, eleventh President, was born in North Carolina in 1795. He removed to Tennessee in his boyhood, and became a lawyer. For fourteen years a member of Congress, he was twice elected Speaker of the House of Representatives. He was once Governor of Tennessee. He died in 1849, a few months after the end of his presidency. Raleigh, Sir Walter, was born in 1552. For years he was a soldier on the side of the Huguenots in France. Again he fought on the side of Queen Elizabeth in Ireland. He gained the Queen's favor, it is said, by spreading his rich cloak over a muddy spot in her path as she was walk- ing one day. He bent every energy to fight Spain when she sent the Great Armada or fleet of Spain against England. The potato, brought from somewhere in America, he had planted on his Irish estate at Youg- hal. King James I. kept him in prison in the Tower of London for more than twelve years to please the King of Spain, and he there wrote a history of the world. In 1618, to please the same king, James I. ordered Raleigh to be put to death, after his return from a fruitless expedition to Guiana in South America. Raleigh fell by the axe. He said, " It is a sharp medicine to cure all of my diseases." Roosevelt, Theodore, twenty-sixth President, was born in New York city in 1858. He graduated at Harvard College in 1880. While in the New York Legislature he took the lead in civil service reform. He has pub- lished many historical and other literary works. In 1897 he was made Assistant Secretary of the Navy. The next year he resigned to take part in organizing a volunteer regiment to serve in the Spanish-American War. The regiment became known as " Roosevelt's Rough Riders." He dis- tinguished himself at the battle of San Juan Hill, before Santiago, and was made colonel of the regiment. At the close of the war he was elected Governor of New York, and his term of office began January i, 1899. In 1900 he was elected Vice President of the United States, and on the death of President McKinley, September 14, 1901, he succeeded to the presidency. BIOGRAPHIES 31 Scott, Winfield, soldier, was born near Petersburg, Virginia, in 1786, and was educated at William and Mary College. He entered the army in 1808, and his brilliant services in the second war with England (p. 240) raised him to the rank of major-general. During the Mexican War he marched with 10,000 men from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico, tak- ing every strongly fortified position in his way (p. 2.TJ^. He was the Whig candidate for President in 1852, but was defeated. In the Civil War his age (seventy-five years) and infirmities obliged him to stand aside for younger men. He died in 1866. Seward, William Henry, statesman, was born in New York in 1801, graduated at Union College, and became a lawyer. He was one of the leaders, in turn, of the Antimason, Whig, and Republican parties. As a Whig he was twice chosen Governor of his State and twice United States Senator. In the Republican National Convention in i860 he was at first the leading candidate for the nomination for President. As Secre- tary of State under Lincoln and Johnson he was the most prominent fig- ure in the Cabinet during the difficult periods of Civil War and Recon- struction. He died in 1872. Sheridan, Philip Henry, was born in Albany, New York, in 183 1. He graduated at West Point in 1853. In the Civil War he first gained dis- tinction as a cavalry commander in Missouri. Placed in command of a division, he showed great qualities at Stone River (Murfreesboro), and was promoted to the rank of major-general of volunteers. At Chicka- mauga and in the battles about Chattanooga he further distinguished himself. He was appointed by Grant chief of cavalry of the Army of the Potomac, and his campaigns in the Valley of Virginia made him one of the most famous generals of the war. He also played an important part in the final overthrow of Lee's army. He succeeded Sherman in command of the army in 1883, and in 1888 he was appointed general — a rank which only Grant and Sherman had attained in the United States army before him. He died in 1888. Sherman, William Tecumseh, was born in Ohio in 1820, and graduated at West Point in 1840. He resigned from the army in 1853, engaged in banking in San Francisco, and later practiced law in Kansas. When the South seceded he was superintendent of the military school in Louisiana. He was reappointed to the army in May, 1861. He commanded a brigade at Bull Run, and was Grant's trusted subordinate in most of his Western campaigns ; but his grent fame was won after Grant went East, leaving Sherman to succeed him in the command of the Mississippi Division. At the close of the war Sherman was next in rank to Grant, and became general when Grant was elected President. He retired in 1884, and died in 1891. Smith, John, was born in England in 1579. While little more than a boy he entered the army and served in the wars in the Netherlands. 32 APPENDIX Later he had many adventures in wars with the Turks, if his own tales are to be believed. He got back to England in time to come with the first colonists to Jamestown in 1606-07. He was a bold explorer, and a man of much practical sense. He was very serviceable to the colonists because he managed the Indians well and got corn from them when no one else could. He left the colony in 1609, and later made a voyage to New England, to which he gave its name. He died in London in 163 1. Stephens, Alexander Hamilton^Vice President of the Southern Confed- eracy, was born in Georgia in 1812, and died in 1883. He became a law- yer, was a member of the Georgia Legislature, and for eight terms (1843- 59) was a representative in Congress. He was a prominent Southern Whig up to 1850, when he became a Democrat. He opposed secession, but when Georgia seceded he embraced the Southern cause. After the war he was five times elected to Congress, and at the time of his death he was Governor of Georgia. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, author, was born in Connecticut in 181 1. She was a sister of the famous minister Henry Ward Beecher. She re- moved with her father to Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1832, and was married there four years later. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was published in 1851-52, and had a tremendous influence on the slavery question. It was read widely not only in the United States, but also in other lands ; it was translated into eighteen foreign languages. Mrs. Stowe later wrote a number of other novels. She died in 1896. Stuyvesant, Peter, the last and greatest of the Dutch governors of New York, was born in Holland in 1602. Before his appointment to that office he had served in the West Indies, where he lost a leg in battle. The year after the English seizure of New Netherland he went to Holland, but he soon returned, and spent the rest of his life on his farm, called the Bowery, in what is now New York city. He died in 1682. Taylor, Zachary, was the twelfth President, and the seventh born in Virginia. He was born in 1784, and was carried to Kentucky in infancy. He got a commission in the army at twenty-four. He gained his first distinction by his defense of Fort Harrison in the war against Tecumseh. In a war against the Seminoles of Florida he defeated the savages at Lake Okeechobee. His great fame was won in the Mexican War by the battles of Monterey, Buena Vista, and others. He died while President, July 9, 1850. Tyler, John, tenth President, was born in Virginia, 1790, and gradu- ated at William and Mary College, at seventeen. He became a lawyer, and was a member of the Virginia Legislature, member of Congress, governor of Virginia, and United States Senator. He was elected Vice President, a Democrat on a Whig ticket, and became President on Harrison's death. Early in 1861 he presided over a peace convention, which met at Washington in a vain attempt to preserve the Union and BIOGRAPHIES 33 avert civil war. Later he favored the secession of Virginia, and was a member of the Confederate Congress. He died in 1862. Van Buren, Martin, the eighth President, was born in New York, in 1782. He became a great pohtician, and was in succession a member of the New York Legislature, United States Senator, and governor of New York. Jackson appointed him Secretary of State in 1829, and four years later he was inaugurated Vice President. After his presidency he retained much influence in politics for some years, and was once the presidential candidate of the Free Soil party. After this he retired to his estate at Kinderhook, New York, where he died in 1862. Vespucius, Americus, or, in Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, was born in Florence, Italy, in 1451. He removed to Spain before Columbus made his first voyage. As an expert navigator he took part in four voyages to America, the first in 1497. He went up and down the coast in the service, first of Spain and then of Portugal, from Chesapeake Bay to the Plata River. In 1503 he built a fort on the coast of Brazil. He was a friend of Christopher Columbus. He was pilot-major of Spain in 1508, and died in 1512. Washington, George, was born in Virginia, February 22, 1732. His father was a planter with a large landed property; his mother was a woman of great force of character, but like many women of her time, she had little education. Washington got such education as the country schools afforded. He learned surveying and bookkeeping. His exer- cise books were models of exactness. Washington grew up a lad of great strength. He took the lead in sports and was one of the best horsemen of the day. While yet a mere boy he was engaged in sur- veying the wild lands of Lord Fairfax, an English nobleman who owned a great tract of Virginia territory. He thus came to know the frontier habits of the Indian. He was a major of militia at nineteen, and was only twenty-one when Governor Dinwiddie sent him on a mission to the French posts on the Ohio. By his prudent conduct in Braddock's defeat, and, again, in Forbes's expedition against Fort Duquesne, he won the confidence of the American people. He was a member of the Continental Congress, and Patrick Henry said of him that for " solid information and sound judgment," he was " unques- tionably the greatest man," on the floor of Congress. The rest of his life belongs to the history of his country. He died on the 14th of December, 1799. at Mount Vernon. Wayne, Anthony, was born in Pennsylvania in 1745. He entered the ?rmy as a colonel in 1776, and distinguished himself in many actions, notably in the storming of Stony Point. It was his careful organization and bold execution of enterprises during the Revolution that led Wash- ington to select him to retrieve St. Clair's defeat by the Indians of the Northwest Territory (p. 206). He died in 1796. on the shores of Lake Erie. 34 APPENDIX Webster, Daniel, orator and statesman, was born in New Hamp- shire in 1782. He graduated at Dartmouth College in 1801, and in 1805 was admitted to the bar. He won great fame as an orator, and represented his State in the Senate many years. He took part in every great debate of his time and in celebrated cases before the courts. His cardinal principle was to uphold the Constitution. He was appointed Secretary of State by President William Henry Harrison and again by President Fillmore. He died in 1852. "Whitney, Eli, inventor, was born in Massachusetts in 1765. He worked as a nail maker until he graduated from Yale Cottage in 1792. He went to Georgia and became interested in the problem of extract- ing the seed from the cotton boll (p. 250). The building in which it was kept was broken into and the. machine was set going on every planta- tion. Whitney, thus robbed of the profits of his invention, turned his attention to the manufacture of firearms, in which he made a fortune. He died in 1825. Williams, Roger, founder of Rhode Island, was born in London. England, in 1607. He was an earnest preacher, spoke several languages, and wrote some works on theological subjects. His title to fame rests on his introduction of the principle of the entire separation of church and State, in the colony he founded. He died at Providence, Rhode Island, in 1683. Winthrop, John, born in 1588 in England, was the principal founder of Massachusetts and first governor of the colony. He came to Mas- sachusetts in 1630 with about a thousand colonists. He was governor almost continually until his death in 1649. Wolfe, James, soldier, was born in England in 1726, and entered the army at an early age. He saw much fighting in Europe and Scotland before he was sent to America. He served as a brigadier-general with Amherst in the siege and capture of Louisburg in 1758, and next year was given charge of the expedition against Quebec, which ended in his success and in his death on the battle-field. INDEX Abercromby, Gen. James, 115 Acadia, Expedition against, in ; ex- plored by De Monts, 36 ; settled, 35 ; taken by Phips, loi Acadians, Expulsion of, in, 112 Adams, John, biography, App., 15; in Revolutionary period, 156, 1S6, 187 ; President, 211-215 ; Vice Presi- dent, 198 Adams, John Quincy, biography, App., 15 ; President, 253-255 Adams, Samuel, 152, 153; biography, App. 15 Africa, 11 Aguinaldo, 397 Aix-la-Chapelle. Treaty of, 104 Alabama, 249, 304 Alabama, The, 346, 363 Alaska, 359 Albany, 69, 70 Albany Convention, no Albemarle Colony, 77 Albemarle, Duke of, 77 Alert, The, 234 Algiers, Treaty with, 218 ; war with, 245 Algonquins, 17 Alien law, 213 Allen, Ethan, 153 Amendments to Constitution, twelfth, 217 ; fourteenth, 357 ; fifteenth, 361 America, 24 American System, The, 253 Amherst, Gen. Jeffrey, 1 14, 1 15 Amsterdam, Fort, 70 Anaesthetics, 293 Anarchists, 375 Anderson, Maj. Robert, 310, 311 Andre, Maj. John, 171 Andros, Sir Edmund, go-92 Annapolis Convention, 192 Annapolis Royal, 104 Anne, Queen, 81, 85, 102 Antietam, 330, 331 Antifederalists, 195 Antimasons, 264, 265 Appalachee Bay, 103 Appomattox, 351 Aquidneck, 65 Argall, Capt., 49, 50 Argus, The, 236 Arizona, 278 Ark, The, 74 Arkansas, 266 Arms of the Colonists, 119 Arnold, Benedict, 153, 157, 166, 170, 171, 185, 186 Arthur, Chester A., 372 ; biography, App., 16 Articles of Confederation, 189 Ashburton, Lord, 270 Ashburton Treaty, 270 Ashley River, 77 Asia, 10, 12 Assembly, First, 50 Astor, John Jacob, 271, 272 Astoria, 271 Astrolabe, 9 Atlanta, 347, 348 Audubon, John James, 402; biography, App., 16 Avalon, 73 Averysboro, 350 Bacon, Nathaniel, 93, 94 Bahamas, 14 Bainbridge, Captain, 2ig, 235 Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, 26 ; biog- raphy, App., 16 Balls Bluft, 316 Baltimore, Baron, 73 Baltimore, Second Lord, 74 Baltimore, Siege of, 242 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, 259 Bancroft, George, 402; biography, App., 16 Bank, National, 202, 262 Banks, Wildcat, 266 Banks, Gen. Nathaniel P., 326 Barclay, Captain 238, 239 Barbary Pirates, 218 Bear Flag Republic, 276 Beauregard, Gen. P. G. T., at Bull Run, 313, 314; at Shiloh, 321 35 36 INDEX Bell, Alexander Graham, 399 Bell, John, 302 Bemis Heights, 166 Bennington, 164 Bentonviile, 350 Berkeley, Lord, 80, 81 Berkeley, Sir William, 92-94 Bermudas, 45 Big Horn River, 365 Blackbeard, 132, 133 Jjlackhavvk War, 264 Black Sea, 11 Bladensburg, 242 Blaine, James G. , 374 Blue Lodges, 295 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 213, 219, 221, 224, 231, 241 Bon Homme Richard, The, 169, 170 Bond Servants, 130 Bonnet, Stede, 133 Boone, Daniel, 173; biography, App. , 16 Boston, Fire in, 364 ; founded, 60 Boston Massacre, 147 Boston Port Bill, 149 Boston Tea Party, 149 Boundary, Northeast, 270 Boxers, 405 Braddock, Gen. Edward, no, ill P^radford, William, 57 ; biography, App., 16 Bradstreet, Col. John, 114 Bragg, (jen Braxton, at Chattanooga, 341; at Murfreesboro, 333, 334; Ken- tucky invaded by, 330, 331 Brazil, 24 Breckinridge, John C, 297, 302 Brewster, Elder, 57 Brock, Gen. Isaac, 233 Brook, Lord, 63 Brooklyn, 70 Brooklyn Heights, 159 Brooks, Preston S, 296 Brown, Gen. Jacob, 240 Brown, John, 300 Bryan, William J., 3S4, 403 Bryant, William Cullen, 402 ; biography, App., 17 Buchanan, James, 297 ; biography, App., 17 Buckner, Gen. Simon B., 318 Buell, Gen. Don Carlos, 321, 322, 330 Buena Vista, 276 Bull Run, 313, 314, 329, 330 Bunker Hill, 154, 155, 252 Burgesses, House of, 50, 53 Burnside, Gen. Ambrose E., 332, 335 Burgoyne, Gen. John, 154, 163, 165 Burr, Aaron, 215, 226 Butler, Gen. Benjamin P., 331, 332 Cabal, Conway, 168 Cabinet Officers, 200 Cable, Atlantic, 399 Cabot, John, 25 ; biography, App., 17 Cabot, Sebastian, 25 ; see biography of John Cabot, App., 17 Calhoun, John C, 254, 263, 2S1, 282; biography, App., 17 California, 278, 2S4 Calvert, Cecil, 74; biography, App., iS Calvert, George, 73 Calvert, Leonard, 74 Camden, 181 Campbell, William, 182 Canada: British possession of, 117; in in War of 1812, 23S ; settlement of, 36, 95 Canary Islands, 13, 43 Canby, General, 343, 365 Cape Ann, 59 Cape Cod, 41 Cape Fear, 79 Cape Fear River, 77 Cape of Good Hope, 11, 27, 38 Cape San Roque, 24 Capital, Confederate, 312 Capital, National, 200, 201 Capitol, in 1800, 217 ; fired by British, 242 Captivity, Indian, 121 Carolina, 76, 79, 86, 179 Caroline, Fort, 34, 35 Carteret, Sir George, 77, 80 Carteret Colony, 77 Carlier, Jacques, 33 Carver, Governor, 57 Cass, Lewis, 279 Cedar Creek, 345 Cemetery, Ridge, 337, 33S Census, 1790, 203; 1800, 214; 1810, 249; 1820, 254; 1830, 266; 1S40, 273; 1850, 284; i860, 306; 1870, 367 ; 1880, 373 ; 1890, 379 ; 1900, 397 Centennial Exhibition, 366 Cerro Gordo, 277 Cervera, Admiral, 388, 390, 392 Champlain, Samuel de, 36, 95, 98 Champlain, Lake, 36, 62 Chancellorsville, 335 Chapultepec, 277 Charles I., 53, 73, 90, 92 Charles II., 60, 76, 81, 90, 92 Charles Town attacked by British, 103, 179 ; Cornwallis at, 1S2 ; indigo INDEX 37 raised in, 7S ; Oglethorpe at, SS ; settled, 77 Charleston, 77; see Charles Town Charlestown, 60 Charier, Great, 50 Charter Oak, 91 Chattanooga, 340, 341 Chauncey, Isaac, 238 Cherokee War, 174 Cherry Valley, 177 Cherub, The, 236 Chesapeake, The, 225, 235 Chesapeake Bay, 24, 44 Chicago, Anarchists in, 375; exposition in, 381 ; fire in, 364 ; railroad strike in, 369 Chickasaw Indians, 264 Chickahominy River, 44 Chickamauga, 340, 341 Chile, 38 China, Treaty with, 376 ; disturbances in, 404 Chinese Immigration, 376 Chippewa River, 240 Churubusco, 277 Choctaw Indians, 264 Cibola, 29, 30 Civil Service Reform, 372, 374 Civil War, 308-354 Cincinnati, 107, 206 Claiborne, William, 75 Clans, 21, 22 Clarendon, Earl of, 77 Clarendon Colony, 77 Clark, George Rogers, 175-177 ; biog- raphy, App., 18 Clark, William, 221 Clay, Henry, American system advo- cated by, 253 ; biography, App., 18 ; candidate for Presidency, 254, 274 ; compromise of 1850, 282, 283 ; com- promise tariff, 264; Missouri com- promise supported by, 251 Clermont, The, 229 Cleveland, Grover, biography, App., 18 ; President, 374-377, 380-382 Clinton, De Witt, 258, 259 Clinton, George, 223, 230 Clinton, Sir Henry, 154, 168, 171, 179, 186 Clothing, Colonial, 138 Coal strikes, 405 Cold Harbor, 344 Colleges Established, 126, 127 Coligny, 34 Colonies in Acadia, 35 ; in Canada, 36; Huguenot, 34 ; in Georgia, 85-89 ; in New England, 54-6S ; in New Jersey, 80, 81 ; in New York, 69-73 ; in Pennsylvania, 81-84 ! ^^ tlie Caro- linas, 76-80 ; in Virginia, 42-54 ; Raleigh's, 39, 40 Colorado, 278, 360, 366 Columbia, S. C, 350 Columbia, District of, 201, Columbia, The, 221 Columbia River, 221, 271 Columbian Exposition, 381. Columbus, Christopher, g, 12, 13, 15; biography, App., 18 Compass, Mariners', 9 Compromise, Missouri, 250 ; of 1850, 279-284 ; period of, 247-307 ; tariff, 264 Concord Fight, 153 Confederation, Articles of, 1S9-191 Confederate States, 305 Congress, First Continental, 150; Mass. Provincial, 152 ; second Continental, 156 ; stamp act, 146 Congress, The, 319, 320 Connecticut, 62-64 Constitution Adopted, 195; framed, 193, twelfth amendment, 217; fourteenth amendment, 357,358; fifteenth amend- ment, 361; provisions of 196; text of , App., I Constitution (frigate), 234 Constitutional Convention, 193 Constitutional Union Party, 302 Constitutions, State, 189 Continental Congress, 150, 156 Contrabands, Negroes as, 331, 332 Contreras, 277 Conway Cabal, 168 Cooking, Colonial, 124, 125 Cooper, James Fenimore, 402 Cooper, Peter, 259; biography, App., 19 Corinth, 334 Cornvvallis, Lord, i6r, 163, 181, 182, 1S4, 185, 186 ^ Coronado, 30, 31 Cortez, Hernando, 29 Cotton, 316, 401 Cotton, factories, 291 Cotton gin, 250 Cotton machinery, 290, 2^1 Council for New England, 57 Cowpens, 183 Crawford, William H., 254 > Credit Mobilier, 365 Creek War, 240, 241, 264 Crittenden, John J., 306 Cromwell, 76 38 INDEX Crogan, Maj. George, 238 Cross Keys, 326 Crown Point, iii, 112, 154 Cuba Discovered, 14; expeditions to, 286; republic of, 396 Cumberland, 319, 320 Cumberland Road, 255, 258 Custer, Gen. George A., 365, 366 Customs and Manners in Colonial Times, 121-134 Cuttyhunk, 41 Dakota Nation, 17 Dale, Sir Thomas, 48 Dallas, 347 Dallas, George M., 274 Dana, R. H., 402 Davis, Jefferson, 305, 347 ; biography, App., 19 Debt, New National, 268; paying na- tional, 356 Decatur, Stephen, 219, 234, 245 Declaration of Independence, 157, 158 Deerfield, Mass., 103 De Gourgues, 35 De la Warr, Lord, 47, 48 Delaware, 82, 195 Delaware Bay, 69 Delaware Indians, 83 De Monts, 35, 36 Democrats, 203, 254 Deposits, Removal of, 265 De Soto, 31, 32 Detroit, 205, 240 Dewey, George, 389, 393, 395 ; biog- raphy, App., 19 Dey of Algiers, 245 Dieskow, Baron, 112, 113 Dingley Tariff, 386 Dinwiddle, Gen. Robert, 108 Directory, French, 211, 212 Discovery, The, 43 District of Columbia, 201 Donelson, Fort, 317, 318 Dorchester Company, 59 Dorchester Heights, 156 Dorr, Thomas A., 270 Dorr Rebellion, 270 Dove, The, 74 Dover, 62 Douglas, Stephen A., 295, 302 Draft Riots, 339, 340 Drake, Sir Francis, 37, 38, 40 ; biog- raphy, App., 19 Drake, J- R-, 402 Dred Scott Case, 298 Dress, Colonial, 126 Duquesne, Governor, 107 Duquesne, Fort, 108, loq, III, 115 Durham, N. H., 102 Dutch East India Company, 69 Dutch West India Company, 70, 71 Eads, Capt. J. B., 370, 371 Early, Gen. Jubal A., 344, 345 Early's Raid, 344 Edison, T. A., 399; biography, App., 19 Education, Colonial, 126 El Caney, 391 Electric Cars, 400 Electoral Commission, 368 Elizabeth, Queen, 38, 39 Elizabethtown, 80 Elkswatawa, 231 Emancipation Proclamation, 331, 332 Embargo, 224, 230, 231, 301 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 402; biography, App., 20 Emigrant Aid Societies, 295 Endicott, John, 59 England, 76, 209 English and French, 99 Erie Canal, 258 Erie, P^ort, 240 Essex, The, 236 Europe, 12 Eutaw Springs, 184 Everett, Edward, 302 E.xcise Taxes, 202 Fair Oaks, 326 Fallen Timber, Battle of the, 207 Falls of St. Anthony, 98 Farming in the Colonies, 121 Farragut, David Glasgow, 324, 348 ; biography, App., 20 Federal Hall, 198 Federalists, 195, 201, 213, 216, 217, 254 Ferdinand, King, 13, 15 Ferguson, Col. Patrick, 181 Field, Cyrus W., 399; biography, App., 20 Fifteenth Amendment, 361 Fillibusters, 286, 288 Fillmore, Millard, 279 ; biography, App., 20 Fisher, Fort, 350 Fishers Hill, 345 Fires, Great, 364 Fitch, John, 228 Five Forks, 350 Flatboats, 227, 228 Flintlock Guns, iig, 120 Florida, Acquired by U. S., 247, 248; INDEX 39 ceded to Great Britain, 117; discov- ered, 24, 2S; expedition against, 104; Spaniards in, 79; visited by De Soto, 31; State, 273, 304 Floyd, General, 318 Foote, Andrew H., 317, 318, 322 Forbes, Gen. John, 115 Forrest, Gen. N. B., 318 Fort Amsterdam, 70 F^ort Caroline, 34, 35 Fort Donelson, 317, 318 Fort Duquesne, 108, 109, III, 115 Fort Erie, 240 Fort Fisher, 350 Fort Frontenac, 114 Fort George, 238 Fort Henry, 317 Fort Johnson, 144 Fort Le Boeuf, 107, io3 Fort Lee, 159 Fort Loyal, loi Fort Mc Henry, 242 Fort Mackinac, 233 Fort Meigs, 238 Fort Mimms. 241 Fort Moultrie, 178, 179, 3T0 Fort Necessity, 109 Fort Orange, 70 Fort Pitt, 115, iiS Fort Schuyler, 164 Fort Stephenson, 238 Fort Sumter, 310 Fort Ticonderoga, 153 Fort Washington, 159 Fort William Henry, 113, 114 Fourteenth Amendment, 357, 358 Fox, George, 81 Foxes (Indians), 264 France, 32-36, 167, 211, 224 Franklin, Benjamin, at Constitutional Convention, 193; biography, App., 20; in France, 167; plan of Union, no; treaty of peace, 1S6 Fredericksburg, 332 Free Soil Party, 279 Fremont, John C, 273, 349; biography, App., 21 French Ask Aid, 207 French and Indian W^ars, 97-1 iS Frobisher, Sir Martin, 27, 38 Frolic, The, 234 Frontenac, Count, 100 Frontenac, Fort, 114 Fry, Colonel, 109 Fugitive Slave Law, 283 Fulton, Robert, 228, 229 ; biography, App., 21 Funston, General, 397 Fur Trade, 272 Furniture, Colonial, 124, 125 Gadsden Purchase, 287, 2S8 Gage, Gen. Thomas, 152 Gains, Edmund P., 240 Garfield, James A., 371, 372 ; biogra- phy, App., 21 Gama, Vasco da, 25 Gaspee, The, 148 Gates, Gen. Horatio, 164, 181, 182. Gates, Sir Thomas, 45 Genet, Edmund C, 207 Genoa, 10, ir George II., 88 George III., 142 George, Lake, 62 George, Fort, 238 Georgia, 85-90 ; acquired by England, 103 ; secedes, 304 ; readmitted, 361. German Immigration, 85 Germantown, 85, 167 Gerry, Elbridge, 212 Gettysburg, 336-33S Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 38 Gist, Christopher, 107 Gold in California, 278 ; in Colorado, etc., 360 Golden Hind, The, 38 Good Feeling, Era of, 247-257 Goodspeed, The, 43 Goodyear, Charles, 292 ; biography, App., 21 Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 61 Gosnold, Bartholomew, 41 Grant, Ulysses S., at Forts Henry and Donelson, 317, 318 ; at Chattanooga, 341 ; at Vicksburg, 33S ; biography, App., 21 ; in battle of Wilderness, 343 ; in command, 342 ; President, ^ 361-367 Gray, Asa, 402 ; biography, App., 22 Gray, Robert, 221, 271 ; biography, App., 22 Great Meadows, 109 Greeley, Horace, 365 Green, Roger, 77 Greene, General, 182-184; biography, App., 22 Green Bay, 96 Green Mountain Boys, 154, 165 (Greenbacks, 356 Greenland, 9 Grinding, 135, 136 Groton, Mass., 102 Guerriere, The, 234 40 INDEX Guilford Court House, 183, 184 Gulf of California, 29 Gulf of St. Lawrence, 35 Haiti, 14 Hale, Nathan, 161 Half Moon, The, 69, 70 Halleck, Gen. H. W., 322, 329 Halleck, Fitz-Greene, 402 Hamburg, 260 Hamilton, Alexander, 193, 195, 201, 202, 226 ; biography, App., 22 Hamlin, Hannibal, 302 Hancock, John, 152, 153, 158 ; biogra- phy, App., 23 Hargreaves, James, 290 Harmar, General, 206 Harrison, Benjamin, 378-380 ; biogra- phy, App., 23 Harrison, William Henry, 232, 237, 238, 268, 269; biography, App., 23 Hartford, 64 Harvard College established, 126 Harvester, 291 Harvey, Sir John, 92 Hatteras Inlet, 316 Havana ceded to Spain, 117 Hawaiian Islands, 3S0, 393 Hawkins, John, 37, 38 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 402 Hay, John, 404, 405 Hayes, Rutherford B., 367-371 biography, App., 23 Hennepin, Father, 98 Henrietta Maria, Queen, 74 Henry, F^.rick, 144, 146, 175, 187 ; biography, App., 23 Henry IV., 35 Henry VII., 25 Henry, Fort, 317 Herkimer, Gen. Nicholas, 164 Hessians, 161, 162 Hispaniola, 14, 1=;, 28 Hobkirk's Hill, 184 Hobson, Richmond P., 390, 395 Hoe, Richard M., 293 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 402 Holy Alliance, 248 Honduras, 15 Hood, John B., 347, 348, 350 Hooker, Gen. Joseph, 335-337. 343 Hooker, Thomas, 64 ; biography, App., 24 Hopkins, Stephen, 148 Hornet, The, 235 Horse Shoe P)end, Victory at, 241 House Building, 135 Houses, Colonial, 123 Houston, Gen. Samuel, 270 Howe, Elias, 293 Howe, Lord, 115, 154, 159, 161, 166, 168 Hudson, Henry, 69; biography, App., 24 Hudson River, 69 Hudson Strait, 38 Huguenot Colonies, 34; immigration, 86 Hull, Capt. Isaac, 234 Hull, Gen. William, 233 Hussey, Obed, 292 Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 65 Idaho, 360, 379 Illinois, 249 Immigration, 85-87 Impeachment of Johnson, 358 Impressment of Seamen, 208 Imprisonment for Debt, 130 Indentured Servants, 130 Independence, Declaration of, 157, 158 Independence Hall, 156 India, 10-12, 26 Indiana, 226, 249 Indian Massacre of 1622, 52 Indian Ocean, 11 Indian Territory, 264 Indian Wars, Causes of, 120 Indians, 16-24, 56 ; Blackhawk War, 264 ; Cherokee War, 174 ; in Carolinas, 78 ; in French and Indian Wars, 99-118 ; in King Philip's W^ar, 67, 68 ; in Mo- doc War, 365 ; in Northwest, 206, 231 ; in Pequot War, 66 ; in Pontiac's ^Var, 117, 118 ; in Siou.x War, 365 ; Relations with the French, 95-99 Indigo, 78, 79 Industral E.xhibitions, 289, 366, 381 Industries, Colonial, 121-123, 135-140 Ingraham, Captain, 288 Iowa, 278 Interstate Commerce Law, 376 Intolerable Acts, 149 Intrepid, The, 219 Irish Immigration, 86 Iron, 137, 401 Iroquois Indians, 17, 21, 22, 78, 79, 98, 100 Irving, \Vashington, 402 ; biography, App., 24 Isabella, Queen, 13, 15 Island Number 10, 322 Isthmian Canal, 404 Jack, Captain, 365 Jackson, Gen. Andrew, at New Orleans, INDEX 41 243 ; at Pensacola, 248 ; biography, App., 24; Governor of Florida, 248 ; in Creek War, 241 ; President, 254- 266 Jackson, Charles T., 294 Jackson, Gen. T. J., at Bull Run, 314 ; at Chancellorsville, 336 ; at Harpers Ferry, 331 ; biography, App., 24 ; in Valley Campaign, 326 Jamaica, 15 James I., 42, 52, 73 James II., 90-92, 100 James River, 43, 47 Jamestown, 43-47, 52, 85, 131 Japan, 10, 287 Jasper, Sergeant William, 178, 179 Jay, John, 186, 195, 209 Jefferson, Thomas, advises decimal sys- tem of money, 202 ; biography, App., 25 ; Declaration of Independence written by, 158 ; President, 215-227 ; Secretary of State, 203 ; Vice Presi- dent, 211 Johnson, Andrew, 357, 358, 361 ; biog- raphy, App., 25 Johnson, Col. Richard M., 240 Johnson, Fort, 144 Johnson, Herschel V., 302 Johnson, Sir William, 1 12; biography, 25 Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, 321, 322 Johnston, Gen. Joseph F., al Averys- boro, 350; at ]5entonville, 350; at Pull Run, 314; at Dalton, 342; at P'air Oaks, 326, 327 ; at the West, 347 ; biography, App., 26 Joliet, 96 Jones, John Paul, 169; biography, App., 26 Kaib, Baron de, 167 Kansas, 294-296, 300, 306 Kansas-Nebraska bill, 294, 297, 301 Kansas Struggle, 295 Kaskaskia, 176, 177 Kearny, General, 276 Kearsage, The, 346 Keel boats, 228 Kenesaw Mountain, 347 Kent Island, 75 Kenton, Simon, 173 Kentucky, 174, 210, 317 Kentucky Resolutions of 1798, 213, 301 Key, F'rancis S., 242 Kidd, Captain, 132 King George's War, 104 King Philip's War, 67, 68 King William's War, 99 Kings Mountain, 181, 182 Know-Nothing Party, 296 Kosciusko, Count. 168 Koszta, Martin, 288 Ku Klux Klan, 363 Laconia, 62 Ladrones, 393 Lafayette, Marquis de, 167, 168, 186, 251 ; biography, App., 26 Lancaster, Congress retreats to, 167 Lane, Joseph, 302 Lane. Ralph, 39 Lake Michigan, 96 La Salle, Robert Cavelierde, 96,98, 105; biography, App., 26 LasGuasimas, 391 Laudonniere, Rene de, 34 Lawrence, Captain James, 235,236 Lawrence, The, 239 Lead Plates Buried, 107 Le Bceuf Fort, 107, loS Lee, Charles, 161, 168, 169 Lee, Light-Horse Harry, 185, 203 Lee, Richard Henry, 158 Lee, Robert E., at Appomattox, 351; at Bull Run, 329, 330; at Chancellors- ville, 335, 336 ; at Cold Harbor, 344; at Fair Oaks, 327 ; at Fredericks- burg, 332; at CJettysburg, 336-338; at Harpers Ferry, 300; biography, App., 26; crosses the Potomac, 330, 331 ; de- fends Richmond, 343, 344, 350; drives McClellan from Richmond, 328 ; evacuates Richmond, 351 ; in charge of Confederate armies, 326 ; on the Rappahannock, 342 ; retires to Vir- ginia, 332 Lee, Fort, 159 Leif, 9 Leisler, Jacob, 92 Leopard, The, 225 Lewis, Meriwether, 221 Lewis and Clark, 221, 222, 271, 272 Lexington, 153 Lincoln, Abraham, assassinated, 352 ,• biography, App., 27; Emancipation Proclamation, 331 ; President, 302- 362 Lincoln, Benjamin, 192 Little Belt, The, 231 Little Harbor, 62 Locke, John, 78 Long Island, Battle of, 159, 160 London Company, 42 Longfellow, II. W., 402; biography, App., 27 42 INDEX Longstreet, James, 341 Lookout Mountain, 341 Lopez Expedition, 286 Loudoun, Earl of, 113 Louis XIV., 98, 100 Louisburg, 104, 1 13 Louisiana Region claimed by France, 98, 105 ; ceded to United States, 219; ceded to Spain, 117 Louisiana State, 249; secedes, 304 Louisville, 98 Lowell, Francis C, 291 Lowell, James Russell, 402 Loyal, Fort, loi Lucas, Eliza, Miss, 78 Lundys Lane, 240 Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, 319 McClellan, Gen. George B., 315 325, 326, 32S, 329, 332, 349 McCormick, Cyrus tL, 292 McCormick, Robert, 292 Macdonough, Com. Thomas, 242 McDowell, Gen. Irvin, 314, 325-327, 329 Macedonian, The, 234 McHenry, Fort, 242 Mackinac, Fort, 205, 233 McKinley, William, 379, 384, 386, 387, 402, 403 ; biography, App., 27 McKinley Tariff, 379 Madison, James, 187, 193, 195, 230, 233, 242 ; biography, App., 27 Madoc, 9 Magellan, Ferdinand, 26 ; biography, App., 28 Magellan, Strait of, 38 Magruder, Gen. John B., 325 Maine, 61, 62, 87, 254 Maine, The, 387 Malay Peninsula, 15 Malvern Hill, 328 Manassas, 313, 314, 329, 330 Manassas, The, 324 Manhattan Island, 70 Manila Bay, 389 Manners and Customs in Colonial Times, 121-139 Marcos, 29, 30 Marietta, 206 Marion, Gen. Francis, 185 Marquette, Father Jacques, 96 Marshall, John, 212, 214 ; biography, App., 28 Mary, Queen, 74 Mary, William IIL and, 92 Maryes Heights, 333 Maryland, 69-76, 87 Mason, Captain John, 66 Mason, John, 61 Mason and Dixon's Line, 84 Mason and Slidell, 317 Massachusetts, first printing press in, 139; in Revolution, 152-155; joins Confederation, 67 ; religious persecu- tion in, 60, 130; settled, 59 Massachusetts Bay Company, 59 Massachusetts Bill, 150 Massacre, Boston, 147 Massasoit, 57, 64, 67 Matamoras, 276 Matchlock guns, 119, 120 Maximillian, 358, 359 Mayflower, The, 55 Maynard, Lieutenant, 132 Meade, Gen. George G., 337 Mecklenburg Declaration, 157 Mediterranean Sea, 11 Meigs, Fort, 238 Memphis, 322, 323 Menendez, 34, 35 Merrimac, The, 319, 320, 321 Merritt, Gen. Wesley, 393 Mexican War, 274-279 Mexico, 17, 24, 277 Miami Indians, 206 Michigan, 266 Miles, Gen. Nelson A., 392 Mill Springs, 317 Mimms, Fort, 241 Minnesota, 306 Mint, 202 Minuit, Peter, 70, 72 Minutemen, 153 Missionary Ridge, 341 Mississippi, 249, 304 Mississippi Jetties, 370 Missouri, 254 Missouri Compromise, 250, 253, 282, 2gS Mobile Bay, 348 Modoc Indians, 365 Mohawk Indians, 98 Monitor, The, 319, 320 Monmouth, 168 Monroe, James, 221 ; biography, App., 28 Monroe Doctrine, 24S Montana, 360, 379 Montcalm, Marquis de, 113, 117 Monterey, 276, 277 Montgomery, Gen. Richard, 157 Montreal, 36, 100, lor Moody, Captain, 134 Moore, Colonel, 102 INDEX 43 Morgan, Gen. Daniel, 157, 166, 183 Morgan, Gen. John, 340 Morgan, William, 265 Morgan's Raid, 340 Mormons, 299 Morocco, 218 Morris, Robert, 186; biography, App. , 28 Morristown, 163 Morse, Samuel F. B., 292, 293, 399 ; biography, App., 28 Morton, Dr. W. T. G., 294 Motley, John Lothrop, 402 Moultrie, Fort, 178, 179, 310 Moultrie, Gen. William, 179 Murfreesboro, 333, 334 Muscogees, 17 Muskokees, 17, 19 Mystic, Conn., 66 Napoleon I., 213, 219, 221, 224, 231,241 Napoleon III., 358 Narragansett Bay, 64 Narragansett Indians, 67 Narvaez, 28 National Republicans, 254 Naumkeag, 59 Navesink, 80 Navigation Act, 141 Nebraska, 360 Necessity, Fort, 109 Nevada, 278, 353, 360 New Albion, 38 New Amsterdam, 73, 77, 86, 87 New Castle, Del., 82 New England, 36, 54-6S, 90 Newfoundland, 73 New Hampshire, 61, 195 New Haven, 65 New Jersey, 80, Si, 87, 195 New Mexico, 278 New Netherland, 70, 72, 73 New Orleans, 105, 243, 324 New Sweden, 71 New York, 69-76, 86 New York city, 70 Nez Perce War, 369 Niagara, iii, 112, 205 Niagara, The, 239 Nicaragua, 15 Nina, The, 13 Nipissing, Lake, 36 Non-importation Act, 223, 224 Non-intercourse Act, 230, 231, 252 Norsemen, g North Carolina, 76, 77, 87 North Dakota, 379 Northwest Territory, 192 Nova Scotia, 35 Nullification, 263 Oglethorp, James, 87-89, 104 ; biogra- phy, App., 29 Ohio, 206, 226 Ohio Company, First, 107 Old South Meeting House, 149 Orange, Fort, 70 Ordinance of 1787, 192 Oregon, 306 ; boundary of, 271 ; coun- try, 221 Orinoco River, 15 Oriskany, 164 Ostend Manifesto, 286 Osceola, 264 Oswego, 113 Otis, Gen. Elwell S., 397 Otis, James, 142, 187 ; biography, App., 29" Ottawa River, 36 Pacific Ocean, 26 Pacific Railroad,, 359 Pakenham, General, 243, 244 Palatines, 86 Palmer, John M., 384 Palo Alto, 275 Palos, 13 Panama, 26 Panama Canal, 404 Pan-American Exposition, 403 Panic of 1837, 267 ; of 1857, 298 ; of 1873. 365, 366 ; of 1893, 381 Paper Making, 139 Parkman, Francis, 402 ; biography, App., 29 Parsons' Cause, 144 Parties, Political, 201 Pathfinder, The, 272, 273 Patroon, 71 Patterson, Gen. Robert, 314 Peacock, The, 235 Pea Ridge, 319 Pelican, The, 236 Pemaquid, 62 Pemberton, Gen. John C, 339 Peninsula Campaign, 324, 325 Penn, William, 81-84 ; biography, App., 29 Pennsylvania, 81, 86, 87, 195 Pensacola taken, 242, 243, 248 Pensions, 378 People's Party, 379 Pequot War, 66 Perry, Matthew C, 287 44 INDEX Perry, Oliver Hazard, 238, 239 Perryville, 333 Persia, 10 Peru, 17, 38 Peters, Hugh, 136, 137 Petersburg, 344, 350 Phiiladelphia, 82, 83, 86, 166, 168 Philadelphia, The, 218, 219 Philippines, 27, 393, 397, 403 Phips, Sir William, loi Phoebe, The, 236 Pickens, Gen. Andrew, 185 Pickett, Gen. George E., 337 Pierce, Franklin, 286 ; biography, App. , 30 Pike, Gen. Zebulon M., 222, 272 Pikes Peak, 222 Pilgrims, 54, 55 Pillow, Gen. G. I., 318 Pinckney, Mrs., 78 Pinckney, Charles C., 187, 211, 212, 215 Pinta, The, 13 Pirates, 132, 133, 218 Piscataqua River, 62 Pitt, Fort, 115, 118 Pitt, William, 115 Pittsburg. Fort at, 108; Riot at, 369 Pittsburg Landing, 321 Plains of Abraham, 117 Plata River, 24 Plattsburg, 242 Plymouth, 55-58 Plymouth Company, 42 Pocahontas, 45, 49 Poe, Edgar Allen, 402 ; biography, App., 30 Point Pleasant, 174 Polk, James K., 274 ; biography, App., 30 Polo, Marco, 10 Polygamy, 299 Ponce de Leon, 28 Pontiac's War, 117, 118 Poor Richard's Almanac, Franklin's, 170 Population of United States, 203, 214, 249, 254, 266, 273, 284, 306, 367, 373, 397 Pope, Gen. John, 322, 329 Popham, George, 43 Popham Colony, 43 Populists, 380 Porter, David D., 234 Portsmouth, 62 Portuguese, 11 Portugal, King of, 12 Port Bill, Boston, 149 Port Hudson, 339 Port Republic, 326 Port Royal, Acadia, 35, loi, 103 Port Royal, S. C, 34, 77, 316 Porto Rico, 15, 28, 392, 395 Powhatan, 44, 45 Prescott, William H., ^02 Preble, Edward, 219 President (frigate). The, 218, 231 Presidential Succession, 376 Presque Isle, 107 Price, Gen. Sterling, 319 Princeton, 163 Printing, First, 139 Proctor, Gen. Henry A., 238-240 Protective Tariff, 200 Providence, 65 Puebla, 277 Pueblo, 21, 30 Pulaski, Count, 167 Puritans, 54, 59 Quakers, 60 Quebec, 33, 34, 36, 95, 98, loi, 116, 117 Quebec Act, 150 (^ueen Anne's War, 102 Quern, 136 Quivira, 30 Railroad, Underground, 2S4 Railroads, First, 259; Pacilic, 359, 365; Strike of 1877, 369 Raisin River, 237 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 3S-41; biography, App., 30 Ranger, 'J'he, 169 Reapers, 291, 292 Rebecca, Lady, 49 Reconstruction, 355-373 Red Eagle, 241 Redemptioners, 130 Reno, Alarcus, A., 365 Republican Party, 202, 203, 297 Resaca, 347 Resaca de la Palma, 275 Resolutions of 1798, 213, 301 Revenue Tariff, 200 Revolution, Causes of , 141-152; in Mid- dle Colonies, 159-173; in New Eng- land, 152-159 Revere, Paul, 152 Rhode Island, 65, 196 Rhett, Colonel, 133, 134 Ribault, Jean, 34 Rice, 78 Richmond, 312, 325-332, 351 INDEX 45 Riots, Railroad, 369; strike, 375 Ripley, E. W., 240 Roanoke Island, 39, 40 Roanoke River, 39, 93 Roberval, Jean Eran9ois, 34 Robinson, James, 173 Rolfe, John, 50 Roosevelt, Theodore, 391, 402-405; biography, App., 30 Rosecrans, Gen. \V. S., 333, 340, 341 Ross, Gen. Robert, 242 Rough Riders, 391 Rubber, 292 Rutledge, John, 179, 1S7 Sacs, 264 St. Augustine, 34, 102, 104 St. Clair, General, 206 St. Johns River, 34 St. Lawrence River, 33 St. Leger, Colonel Barry, 164 St. Louis, 3^19 St. Louis, The, 288 St. Mary's, 75 Salem, 59, 129 Salmon Falls, lor Salt Lake City, 299 Samoset, 56 Sampson, William T., 38S, 395 San Antonio, 277 San Juan Hill, 391 San Salvador, 14 Santa Fe, 31, 276 Santa ALaria, The, 13, 14 Santiago, 392 Sassacus, 66 Savannah, 179, 349 Savannah, The, 290 Say and Sele, Lord, 63 Saybrook, 63 Sayles, William, 77 Schenectady, 100 Schley, Winfield S., 3S8, 395 SchoHeld, Gen. John M., 350 Schuyler, Peter, 10 [ Schuyler, Gen. Philip, 157, 163, 164 Schuyler, Fort, 164 Scotch-Irish, 86 Scott, Gen. Winfield, 240, 276, 277, 286, 315; biography, App., 31 Scrooby, 54 Secession of Southern States, 304-306 Sedition Act, 213 Seminoles, 264 Seminole War, 247 Semmes, Captain Raphael, 346 Seneca Chief, The, 259 Separatists, 54 Serapis, The, 170 Seven Days' Battles, 327 Seven Pines, 326 Sevier, John, 173, 182 Sewall, Arthur E., 386 Seward, William II., 317, 353; biog- raphy, App., 31 Sewing Machines, 293 .Shackamaxon, 83 Shafter, Gen. William R., 391 Shannon, The, 236 Sharpsburg, 330, 331 Shawnee Indians, 231 Shays's Rebellion, 191, 192 Shelby, Isaac, 173, 1S2 Sheridan, Philip H., 345, 334 ; biog- raphy, App., 31 Sherman, Gen. W. T., 322, 342, 349, 350; biography, App., 31 Sherman's Raid, 342 Shiloh, 321, 322 Shipbuilding, 136, 137 Shirley, Cien William, 104, ill, 112 Shoshone Nation, 17 Silver Legislation, 378, 381 Simpson, Sir J. Y., 294 Sioux, 365 Six Nations, 177 Slavery, Compromise of 1850, 283; Cot- ton Industry Affects, 250; Dred Scott Case, 29S; forbidden by Oglethorpe, 89; Fugitive Slave Law, 283; in Colonial times, 131, 132; in Mexico, 280; in Texas, 270; introduction of, 52, 131; Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 294; Missouri Compromise, 250; prohibited inCalifornia,28i ; prohibited in North- west, 251 ; Underground Railroad, 284 ; Wilmot Proviso, 280 Smith, Captain John, 44, 69; biography, App., 31 Smith, Joseph, 299 Smith, Gen. E. Kirby, 333 Social Life, 127 Somers, Sir Cieorge, 45 Soule, Pierre, 2S6 South Carolina, 76, 77, 87, 88; in revolu- tion, 185; nullification ordinance, 263, secedes, 304 South Dakota, 379 South Sea, 26 South Virginia, 76 Spain, 32, 209, acquires Lousiana, 117; cedes Florida to British, 117; purchase of Florida, 248; regains Florida, 187; war with, 3S9-395 46 INDEX Spaniards, 79 Specie payment, 370 Speedwell, The, 55 Spinning Jenny, 291 Spoils System, 262 Spottsylvania Court House, 343 Squanto, 57 Stamp Act, 143, 144, 146 Standish, Miles, 57 Stark, Gen. John, 165 Star of the West, The, 310 Star-Spangled Banner, 242 Starving Time, 46 State Sovereignty, 301 Steamboats, 228, 229 Steam Navigation, Ocean, 289, 290 Stephens, Alexander H., 306; biography, App., 32 Stephenson, Fort, 238 Steuben, Baron, 168 Stevens, John, 228 Stockton, Com. R. F., 277 Stony Point, 169 Stowe, Mrs. Harriet Beecher, 284; biog- raphy, App., 32 Strikes, 369, 375, 405 Stuart, Gen. J. E. B. 327 Stuyvesant, Peter, 73; biography, App., 32 Sugar and Molasses Act, 141 Sullivan, Gen. John, 177 Sumner, Charles, 296 Sumter, Gen. Thomas, 185 Sumpter, Fort, 308 Sunday Laws, 128 Susan Constant, The, 43 Tarleton, Sir Banastre, 181, 183 Tariff, American System, 253 ; compro- mise, 264 ; first, 200 ; Dingley, 386 ; McKinley, 379 ; Wilson, 382 ; new, 252 ; of 1824, 253 ; of 1S28, 263 ; of 1883, 372 Tariff of Abominations, 263 Tanning, 139 Taylor, Zachary, 275, 276, 279, 281 ; biography, App., 32 Tea, at Charles Town, 149 ; tax on, 149 Tea Party, Boston, 149 Tecumseh, 231, 232, 240 Telegraph, Electric, 292 ; wireless, 399 Tennessee, 210 Tenure of Office Act, 358 Texas, 270, 275, 278 Thomas, Gen. George H., 317, 334, 341, 348, 350 Thomson, David, 62 Ticonderoga, Cannon from, 156 ; cap- tured, 153 ; British defeated at, 115 ; expedition against, 114 Tilden, S. J., 367, 368 Tippecanoe, 232 Tisquantum, 56 Tobacco, 40, 49 Toronto, 238 Totem, 22 Townshend Acts, 146, 149 Trade Dollars, 370 Trade Laws, 141 Transportation Bill, 149 Transylvania, 174 Travel, Colonial, 126 Treasury, Independent, 268 Trent, William, 108 - Trent Affair, 316 Trenton, 162 Tripoli, 218, 219 Tunis, 21S Tuscarora Indians, 78, 7g Tyler, John, 268, 269 ; biography, App., 32 Typesetting machine, 400 Typewriters, 400 Uncle Tom's Cabin, 284 Underground Railroad, 284 United Colonies, 158 United Colonies of New England, 67 Union, First Step toward, 148 United States (frigate), 234 Utah, 278, 382 Vaca, 29 Valley Forge, 167, 168 Van iiuren, Martin, 267, 268, 279 ; bi- ography, App., 33 Venango, 108 Venice, 10, 11 Vera Cruz, 277 Vermont, 210 Verazano, 32 Vespucius, Americus, 24 ; biography, App., 33 Vicksburg, 338, 339 Vincennes, 176, 177 Virginia, 39, 42-54, 86, 87, 92 Virginia, The, 319-21 Virginia Resolutions of 1798, 213, 301 Vixen, The, 219 Vulcanite, 292 Wadsworth, Captain Joseph, 91 Walker, William, 288 Wallabout, 70 INDEX 47 Wales, 9 Wampanoags, 57, 67 Wampum, 20, 84 War, Civil, 310-354; Indian, see In- dians ; Intercolonial, 95-iiS; Mex- ican, 274-27S ; of 1812, 233-246 ; Revolutionary, 141-1S7; with Algiers, 245; with Spain, 387-393 ', '^^'ith Tri- poli, 218 Warner, Seth, 154 Washington, George, Administration of 199 ; at Great Meadows, 109 ; at Capture of Fort Duquesne, 115; at Monmouth, 168, 169 ; at Princeton, 163 ; at Newton, 162 ; biography, ■A^PP'i 33 ! driven from New York, 161 ; at New York, 159 ; inaugurated President, 198; made Commander in Chief, 156 ; marches into Mrginia, 186 ; Messenger to Dinwiddle, 108 ; on Braddock's staff, in; President of Convention, 193 ; retires, 210 ; sends Expedition against Six Nations, 177 ; sends Gates South, 181 Washington city taken, 242 Washington, Fort, 159 Washington State admitted, 379 Washington, Treaty of, 363 Wasp, The, 234 Watauga, 173, 181 Watt, James, 229 Watson, Thomas E., 386 Wayne, Gen. Anthony, 169, 206, 207 ; biography, App., 33 Webster, Daniel, 269, 270, 2S1, 2S2 ; biography, App., 34 Webster, Noah, 402 Wells, Horace, 294 Wells, Me., 102 West Indies, 14, 43 West Virginia, 313, 353 Western Lands, 190 Westoes Indians, 78 Wethersfield, 64 Wetherford, 241 Weyler, General, 386 Wheeler, Gen. Joseph, 391, 395 Whigs, 265, 26S, 269 Whisky Rebellion, 203 White, John, 40, 58, 59 Whitney, Eli, 250 ; biography, App., 34 Whittier, J. G., 402 Wilderness, 343 William III., 92, 102 William and Alary College, 127 Wilkes, Captain, 317 William Henry, Fort, 113, 114 Williams, Roger, 64, 65 ; biography, App., 34 Williamsburg, 325 Wilmington, Del., 72 Wilmot, Daniel, 2S0 Wilmot Proviso, 2S0 Wilson, William F., 382 Wilsons Creek, 319 Winchester, Gen. James, 237 Winchester, 345 Windsor, 63, 64 Winthrop, John, 60; biography, App., 34 Winthrop, John, the Younger, 63 Wirt, William, 264 Wisconsin, 278 Witchcraft, 129 Wives, Importation of, 51 Wolfe, Gen. James, 116, 117; biog- raphy, App., 34 World's Columbian Exposition, 381 Writs of Assistance, 142 Wyoming, 177, 278, 379 X Y Z proposition, 212 Yale College, 127 Yeamans, Sir John, 77 Yeardley, George, 53 Y'emassees, 79 York, Duke of, 73, 82 York (Toronto) taken, 238 York, The, 102 Young, Brigham, 290 Young, Gen. S. B. M., 391 Pupils' Outline Studies HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES BY Francis H. White, A.M. Paper, Square Octavo, 128 pages .... Price 30 cents This is a book of Outline Studies, Maps, and Blanks, intended for use in connection with the study of United States History. 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