■ 
 

 PHILOLOGICAL PAPERS 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 NOTES ON THE 
 
 ANCIENT GOTHIC LANGUAGE 
 
 Parts I and II 
 
 AND 
 
 SANSKRIT ROOTS AND ENGLISH DERIVATIONS 
 
 Read before the Literary and Philosophical Society of Liverpool. 
 
 By J. A. PICTON, F.S.A., 
 
 PRESIDENT 
 TO WHICH IS ADDED, 
 
 A-CHAPTER ON THE 
 
 PHILOLOGY OF ARCHITECTURAL TERMS 
 
 Read refore the Liverpool Architectural and Arch.eological Society, 
 
 LIVERPOOL : 
 
 PRINTED (FOR PRIVATE DISTRIBUTION ONLY) 
 BY T. BRAKELL, COOK STREET. 
 
 1864. 
 

 205449 
 .'15 
 
TO 
 
 PROFESSOR MAX MULLER, 
 
 THE GREAT MASTER IN 
 
 THE MODERN SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE, 
 
 THE FOLLOWING PAGES ARE, BY HIS KIND PERMISSION, 
 
 ,a&t rjespuifallg ^nxtxihzh. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The Ancient Gothic Language, Paet 1 3 
 
 Part 2 31 
 
 Sanskrit Eoots and English Derivations , . . . 5? 
 
 On the Philology op Architectural Terms 91 
 
THE 
 
 ANCIENT GOTHIC LANGUAGE. 
 
 Parts I and II, 
 
PART I 
 
 At the recent meeting of the British Association in Man- 
 chester, a paper was read by the chairman of the Ethnological 
 Section, on the " History and Origin of Language," which 
 attracted considerable notice, and was honoured by a leading 
 article in the Times. The paper was remarkable, not so 
 much for what it contained, as for what it did not contain. 
 Views may differ, and it is quite competent for an essayist to 
 deny all connexion between the languages of the East and 
 those of Europe, and to treat the origin of language as a tiring 
 altogether capricious and abnormal, but that a paper of the 
 kind should be read at a scientific congress of the present day, 
 adopting Adam Smith as a great authority in Philology, and 
 utterly ignoring the progress of the last half- century, is indeed 
 marvellous ; and still more so, that the hearers seem to have 
 been quite as much at sea as the writer, nothing appearing in 
 the report of the discussion to intimate that those who took 
 part in it were at all familiar with the great works which have 
 thrown so much light on Comparative Philology of late years. 
 This is to be lamented, indicating, as it does, the feeble hold 
 which the subject has taken on public attention in this 
 country. In Germany, the case is very different. From the 
 time when the two Schlegels first drew attention to the 
 Sanskrit and Persian languages as throwing light on the 
 origin of the European tongues, there has been a constant 
 succession of able writers who have investigated with, a 
 patience and profundity known only to the German race, the 
 
principles and relations of the various languages of Europe 
 and the East. The works of Adelung, Bopp, the brothers 
 Grimm, Lassen, Burnouf, Diefenbach, Meidinger, Graff, Zeuss, 
 Pott, Gabelentz and Loebe, and others, have brought together 
 a copious mass of materials, and thrown a flood of light on 
 the nature, history, and connexion of language. In French, 
 the works of Eaynouard, Kenan, Nodier, and especially of 
 Professor Pictet of Geneva, deserve honorable mention. In 
 our own country, Dr. Pritchard divides with the Schlegels the 
 honour of having first introduced the subject. The late 
 Professor H. "Wilson, and the present Professor Monier 
 Williams have opened up the study of Sanskrit to the Eng- 
 lish student. Dr. Donaldson has done much to illustrate the 
 Philology of the classical languages. Dr. Latham has devoted 
 himself to the illustration of our mother tongue. Bosworth, 
 Thorpe, and Kemble, have rendered easy the study of the 
 Anglo-Saxon, and Max Miiller, at the present day, stands in 
 the van of the earnest students of the Science of Language, in 
 its general aspects. 
 
 From the mere desultory acquisition of separate languages, 
 Philology begins to assume the character of one of the exact 
 sciences. The keen searching power of modern analysis, 
 brought to bear on the mass of facts previously accumulated, 
 has gradually elicited order out of chaos, has demonstrated 
 the existence of fixed law where irregularity and caprice had 
 been held as dominant, and has discovered relationships here- 
 tofore unconceived between the most distant races of mankind. 
 
 If Geology teaches us to read the history of our planet in 
 its wondrous revolutions, and in the succession of organised 
 beings previous to the advent of mankind, the Science of Lan- 
 guage takes up, so to speak, the thread of the narrative where 
 Geology ceases to inform, and, far beyond the first dawn of 
 history, reflects a light, obtainable from no other source, on 
 the earliest condition and the progress of the human race. 
 
I am not about to enter on so wide a field as that of the 
 origin of language. This may be difficult of solution, and, 
 perhaps, impossible ; but the comparison and correlation of 
 the various languages spoken by the human race, is a subject 
 of inquiry clearly within our range, which has led to very 
 important results, and may lead to still greater. 
 
 The Gothic language, on which I propose to offer a few 
 remarks, is interesting on many accounts. It is closely allied 
 to our own tongue, and if not standing in the exact position of 
 direct ancestor, it is, collaterally, very slightly removed from 
 that relation. It occupies, also, a very central position in 
 relation to the other Teutonic tongues ; connected with the 
 Norse, the old German, the old Saxon, and Anglo-Saxon, it 
 indicates the point from which they all radiated before settling 
 into separate dialects. 
 
 In examining any of the languages of the Teutonic family, 
 in the earliest forms which have been handed down to us, 
 nothing is more remarkable than the indications of degra- 
 dation and breaking down which they present. Partial and 
 imperfect inflexions; deficiencies and anomalies in the parts of 
 speech, the syntax, and the modes of expression, meet us at 
 every turn, whilst the regularity of other parts points to a 
 period of completeness which no longer exists. In fact, the 
 further we go back towards the original stem, the more pure 
 and perfect does the language appear. The Anglo-Saxon having 
 been the longest separated from the parent stem, presents the 
 greatest amount of confusion and deficiency at the time when 
 we first find it committed to writing. The Gothic, having 
 been, probably, the earliest committed to writing, gives the 
 strongest marks of its original complex character and eastern 
 origin. There is little doubt that the Sanskrit, though not the 
 parent tongue itself, stands in closer connexion with it than 
 any other language. Now, the Gothic has, on the one hand, 
 a strong affinity with the Sanskrit, and on the other, its 
 
6 
 
 connexion with all the branches of the Indo -Teutonic family 
 is close and palpable. Hence its value in relation to the 
 origin and history of the English, German, and their sister 
 tongues. Again, as the Gothic language was committed to 
 writing before the separation of the North Gothic, or Scandi- 
 navian, from the congenital dialects, we find the Suio- Gothic 
 and Moeso- Gothic so closely resembling each other as to shew 
 very clearly the intimate relation between them. The fact, 
 also, of the language having been lost for several hundred 
 years, and restored by the accidental discovery of a mutilated 
 version of the Holy Scriptures, imparts a degree of interest to 
 the study almost romantic. 
 
 I will commence by a slight glance at the history of the 
 people by whom the language was spoken. 
 
 Beyond the slight notices in the classical writers, the prin- 
 cipal original authorities are Cassiodorus, and Jordanes or 
 Jornandes. The main facts of Gothic history have been so well 
 epitomized by Gibbon in the tenth chapter of the " Decline 
 and Fall," that a mere allusion is all that is necessary for our 
 present purpose. Eejecting mere tradition, we find the Goths, 
 in the time of Tacitus, established on the southern coast of the 
 Baltic, near the mouth of the Vistula, associated with the 
 Vandals, a kindred race. From thence, early in the third 
 century, they appear to have moved eastward to the shores of 
 the Euxine, and in the reign of the Emperor Philip, they 
 crossed the Danube and invaded the Roman province of 
 Dacia. At the same time, they extended their conquests to 
 the north of the Euxine, and obtained possession of the 
 Crimea, which they held for a long period. In the year 272, 
 by consent of the Emperor Aurelian, the Ostrogoths settled 
 in the provinces of Dacia and Moesia, and acquired habits of 
 a more permanent and civilised character. Towards the latter 
 end of the fourth century, pressed by the advancing hordes of 
 the Huns from the eastward, the bulk of the nation, under the 
 
name of Visigoths, or Western Goths, moved westward, and 
 becoming embroiled with the decaying Roman Empire, carried 
 devastation through the provinces, invading Italy and pene- 
 trating as far as Gaul. The imperial city of Rome was sacked 
 by Alaric ; but, for a short time, the fate of the Empire was 
 postponed by an ignominious payment of tribute. The Visi- 
 goths founded kingdoms in Aquitaine, and in Spain, and, it 
 is probable, penetrated much further to the North. About 
 489, the Ostrogoths, led by Theodoric, advanced from Mcesia 
 into Italy, and founded the Gothic Italian kingdom, which 
 flourished for about a century, being, in its turn, superseded 
 by the Lombard invaders. 
 
 The influence of the Goths in Europe during the fourth, 
 fifth, and sixth centuries, was very powerful, somewhat resem- 
 bling that of the Normans at a later period, but on a wider 
 field. It was equally brilliant, but equally transient in its 
 duration. 
 
 The Ostrogoths, in Moesia, became a settled and cultivated 
 people. It was here, about the year 360, that their Bishop 
 Ulphilas made his translation of the Scriptures. Although 
 this is nearly the sole remnant of their language and literature, 
 there is reason to believe that the Goths were by no means 
 the rude savages they are sometimes represented. According 
 to Jordanes, poetry was cultivated among them, and the 
 exploits of their heroes were celebrated in verse. Our Eng- 
 lish words " song," and " lay," are of Gothic origin. They 
 are represented as having a series of written laws, termed by 
 the Latin writers " Bellagines ;" Gothic, Bi-lageins — tilings 
 laid down, settled. They are also stated to have been 
 instructed in natural and mental philosophy, logic, and 
 astronomy. In addition to Bishop Ulphilas, we have the 
 names of several Gothic writers of the sixth century, Atha- 
 narit, Hildebald, Markomir. Cassiodorus and Jordanes, 
 though they wrote in Latin, were both of the Gothic race. 
 
8 
 
 The flourishing period of the Gothic language was only 
 6hort. In Mcesia, the advancing tide of the Huns soon 
 reduced the Goths to a subordinate people, hut the language 
 continued to be employed. In the ninth century, we have 
 the evidence of Wilfred Strabo that Gothic was still spoken, 
 and divine service celebrated in the language in some of the 
 provinces. Even in the sixteenth century, Olaus Eudbeck 
 relates that traces of the Teutonic tongue still lingered in 
 Wallachia. The settlers in the Crimea appear to have clung 
 the longest to the language. The Brabant friar, William de 
 Kubruquis or Kuysbroeck, who travelled in the country in 
 the year 1253, gives this slight notice, inter quos erant multi 
 Gothi, quorum idioma est Teutonicum. Guiseppe Barbaro, 
 ambassador from the republic of Venice to Asoph, in 1436, 
 mentions that the Gothic inhabitants spoke a Teutonic dialect, 
 which a German servant in his employ was able to understand. 
 Busbequius, who was ambassador from the German Emperor 
 to Constantinople in 1557-64, states that he there made the 
 acquaintance of two persons of the Gothic race, who were on 
 a mission from the Crimea to the Ottoman Porte, and fur- 
 nishes a list of words picked up from them. The most part of 
 these are common to the German and Gothic, but some are, 
 without doubt, pure Gothic. This is the last notice of the 
 Gothic as a spoken language, and from this time all traces of 
 it disappear. 
 
 At the latter end of the sixteenth century, the manuscript 
 called the Codex Argenteus was discovered by Antony Morillon, 
 in the monastery of Werden in Westphalia. It is of quarto 
 form, written on purple parchment, with gold and silver letters, 
 and is supposed to be of the end of the fifth, or beginning of 
 the sixth century, of Italian origin, at the period of the Gothic 
 kingdom of Italy. Out of three hundred and twenty leaves, 
 of which the MS. was originally composed, one hundred and 
 
9 
 
 eighty-eight were remaining at the time of its discovery, since 
 .which eleven leaves have been stolen. The Codex Argenteus 
 contains only portions of the Gospels After passing through 
 several hands, it was finally purchased in 1655, by Christina, 
 Queen of Sweden, and deposited in the university of Upsala. 
 Other MSS. have since been discovered at Wolfenbiittel, and 
 in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, which extend the extant 
 portion to nearly the whole of the New Testament, and a few 
 fragments of the Old. Some difference of opinion existed 
 amongst the learned at the time of the discovery as to the 
 language of the MSS. and their dates, Lacroix and Wetstein 
 maintaining that the language was that of the Franks. This 
 question has been ably set at rest, with the aid of further 
 discoveries, by Ihre and subsequent writers, who have fully 
 established the integrity and authenticity of the MSS. The 
 language was common to the several tribes of the Goths, the 
 Gepidoe, Vandals, and Heruli, who, according to Procopins, 
 all spoke the same tongue. * 
 
 The first edition of Ulphilas was edited by Francis Junius, 
 and published in two quarto volumes (Dort, 1665, and Ant- 
 werp, 1 684) ; since that time many editions have issued from 
 the German and Swedish press, the interest in the subject 
 having greatly increased of late years, owing to the progress 
 of philological inquiries. 
 
 In our own country, some valuable observations and notes 
 were contributed by Marshall to the first edition of Junius ; 
 and, in 1 750, an edition commenced by Benzel was completed 
 by Dr. Edward Lye, and published at Oxford. In the edition 
 edited by Ihre, and published in 1 773, by Busching, of Berlin, 
 some valuable critical observations are inserted by John 
 Gordon, advocate, of Edinburgh. 
 
 The learned Dr. George Hickes, at the latter end of the 
 
 * " (pix)vr) fiia yoT$ruer] XiyojxkvT}." 
 
10 
 
 seventeenth century, called public attention to the Gothic 
 language.* 
 
 During the last century, a single volume is the sole contri- 
 bution of the English press to this subject. In 1807, the 
 Gothic text of St. Matthew's Gospel was published with a 
 translation by the Eev. S. Henshall. (London, 8vo., 1807.) f 
 For the last half- century, during which the German press has 
 been teeming with editions of the text and illustrations of the 
 language, the subject appears, amongst ourselves, to have 
 dropped altogether out of sight, and been forgotten. 
 
 The question may very naturally be asked, what there is 
 peculiar to the Gothic language which renders it more worthy 
 of attention than any other Teutonic dialect, and what there 
 is in it to repay the philological student for the time and 
 effort bestowed on its acquisition. The question is a natural 
 and proper one, and is capable of a satisfactory reply. 
 
 The Indo-European languages, or branches of the great 
 Aryan stock, as it is the custom of late to call them, are 
 connected together by various links of similarity both of form 
 and substance. Let us confine our attention at present to 
 two of the leading families, the Classical and the Teutonic, 
 the former embracing the Sanskrit, the Greek and Latin, with 
 their derivative tongues, the latter comprising the Gothic, 
 Old German, Old Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, Old Norse, with their 
 modern descendants. Between these two families there is 
 considerable connexion in the vocabulary, and in the grammar 
 to a certain point, from which they diverge, until the traces 
 of resemblance at last became faint and few. The classical 
 
 * " Institutiones Grammaticae Anglo-Saxonicae et Mcesogothicse." 4 vols. 
 
 Oxford, 1689. 
 
 " Thesaurus Linguarum veterum Septentrionalium." 2 vols. fol. Oxford, 1705. 
 
 + Of this performance Gahelenlz and Loehe thus speak — •' Ad textus emenda- 
 tionem non solum nihil eontulit, sed etiam falsis verborum distractionibus aut 
 copulationibus, eum foede maculavit ; annotationes autem textui subjectse tam 
 sunt perversee atque ineptse, ut quae commemorentur non sint dignaB." 
 
11 
 
 tongues continued to cling to the original forms more or 
 less modified, which are found fully developed in the Sanskrit. 
 The Teutonic tongues present unmistakeable marks of abra- 
 sion and degradation from their original condition, and of a 
 re-formation, self- developed, and entirely different in character 
 from the primitive system. In most of the Teutonic tongues, 
 especially the modern ones, this self-developed system has 
 been again so far broken down that it can only be discovered 
 by a careful system of induction and inference. In the ancient 
 Gothic language, we see the process going forward under our 
 eyes, the old inflexions and forms giving place to the new, 
 the deficiencies caused by time and accident being replaced 
 by a growth from within, which has come at length almost 
 entirely to supersede the old throughout the whole Teutonic 
 family. According to Professor Bopp, " the Gothic language 
 holds, so to speak, the middle place between Sanskrit and 
 German." " It is the true starting point and guiding light, 
 the real basis of German grammar, the German Sanskrit." 
 
 In order to illustrate more clearly the relation of the Gothic 
 language to our own, let us take a single sentence and trace 
 it back at intervals of about five hundred years from the 
 present time to the middle of the fourth century of our era. 
 I will take the first verse of the tenth chapter of St. John's 
 Gospel. It stands in our authorised version, thus — 
 
 " Verily, verily, I say unto you, He that entereth not by the 
 door into the sheepfold, but climbeth up some other way, the 
 same is a thief and a robber." 
 
 It may be objected that this is really not English of the 
 present day, having been written two hundred and fifty years 
 since ; but, practically, it is good idiomatic vernacular of the 
 present time. With the exception of the exclamation "verily," 
 every word is in daily use amongst us, and with the exception 
 of one word " entereth," it is all pure Teutonic. Let us now 
 go back five hundred years. In Wickliffe's version of the 
 
12 
 
 New Testament, written during the latter half of the fourteenth 
 century, we find it as follows — 
 
 " Treuly, treuly, I seye to you, he that cometh not in by 
 the clore into the foolde of scheep, hut steyeth up by another 
 weye, he is night theef and day theef." 
 
 In this case very little of the language is obselete. "Night 
 thief," and " day thief," though quaint, are very fair equiva- 
 lents for the terms used in the Vulgate, "fur," and "latro." 
 The only obsolete word is " steyeth," and it is strange how this 
 word, which is found in one form or other in every Teutonic 
 language, and even in Greek, should have dropped out of use, 
 expressing, as it does, one of the simplest and commonest 
 ideas, that of motion forward or upwards. Going back another 
 five hundred years, we quote from the Anglo-Saxon version, 
 which may fairly be dated about the middle of the ninth 
 century — 
 
 " Soth ic secge eow, se ne gseth set tham geate in to sceapa 
 falde, ac styth elles ofer, he is theof and sceatha." 
 
 Here, the change in five hundred years appears considerable, 
 aggravated as it is by the difference of spelling, but the lan- 
 guage, in all essentials, is precisely the same. In addition 
 to the verb " styth," which is common to this and Wickliffe s 
 version, the only obsolete w T ord is "sceatha," robber.* Every 
 other word in the sentence is in common use among us at the 
 present day. 
 
 Let us now go back another five hundred years, which 
 brings us to A.D. 860, beyond which our knowledge of the 
 Teutonic tongues, as such, utterly fails. The passage iu the 
 Gothic version of Ulphilas stands thus — 
 
 " Amen, amen, qitha izvis, saei inn ni attgaggith thairh 
 daur in gardan lambe ak steigith aljathro, sah hliftus ist jah 
 vaideddja." 
 
 * This indeed can hardly be said to be obsolete. Our word " scathe," to injure, 
 to harm, is the verbal form of the same radical. 
 
13 
 
 This, at first sight, appears uncouth and unintelligible ; but 
 a slight analysis soon removes the difficulty. " Amen" is taken 
 from the Greek, untranslated. " Steigith " is common to the 
 Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and Old English. " Ak," but, is 
 common to the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon. " Jah," and, exists 
 in the Old Saxon and Old High German. The remaining 
 words, though changed in form, are radically extant in 
 English of the present day. " Qitha," is the first person 
 singular, present tense of the verb '* qithan," to say, which is 
 preserved in our phrase, " quoth I," " quoth he." "Izvis," is 
 radically the same as the Saxon " eow," English " you ;" 
 " saei," and "sail," are the relative and personal pronouns 
 which correspond to " se " and "he" in Anglo-Saxon, and 
 are all derived from the Sanskrit " sa," Zend "ha." At- 
 gangeth is sufficiently intelligible, and would be good York- 
 shire at the present day. " Thairh daur in gardan lambe " 
 scarcely needs explanation ; " through the door into the 
 garden of lambs " is a very slight variation from our own 
 version. "Aljathro" is an inflection of the word " alis," 
 A.S "elles," English "else," combined with "thro." "Hlif'tus," 
 thief, still exists in our terms " cattle-lifter," " shop-lifter." 
 " Yaideddja," literally woe-doer, sufficiently explains its 
 relationship. Every word but one in the sentence thus 
 exhibits its identity with the English, through the Anglo- 
 Saxon. 
 
 Every language may be looked at in two aspects. We may 
 direct our attention to its substance as shewn in its vocabulary, 
 or we may study it in its form, as exhibited in its inflexions 
 and grammatical system. I propose to take a glance at the 
 Gothic language under both aspects ; but the very limited 
 space at my disposal renders it necessary to confine myself at 
 present to one only, of which I can give but a slight and 
 superficial sketch. 
 
 I will commence with the grammatical forms, confining 
 
u 
 
 myself on the present occasion to the relations of the Teutonic 
 to the Sanskrit and Classical tongues. 
 
 The noun first claims our attention. There is a remarkable 
 similarity in the original inflexions of the noun throughout the 
 Aryan family of languages. In the Teutonic branch, the 
 Gothic is the one which exhibits the most complete system of 
 case endings. The sister tongues, evidently identical at the 
 outset, gradually broke down and lost their inflexions, until, 
 in the modern languages, both Teutonic and Romance, the 
 case endings have almost entirely disappeared. 
 
 The Gothic has two classes of declensions, called by Grimm 
 the strong and the weak ; by others, the vowel and conso- 
 nantal, from a theory that the crude forms in each case ended, 
 respectively, in a vowel or a consonant. There are four 
 declensions in the vowel class, and two in the consonantal 
 class. 
 
 I can only give a single specimen to exhibit the close con- 
 nexion of the inflexional system of the whole family. 
 
 The Gothic, like the Greek, has five cases, the ablative of 
 the Latin being deficient ; but it resembles the latter in want- 
 ing the dual number of the nouns. 
 
 The first declension masculine of the vowel or strong class 
 is as under : — 
 
 CRUDE FORM—' 
 
 'FISK' 
 
 ' A FISI 
 
 Norn. Fisk — s 
 
 Plural fisk — 6s 
 
 Gen. Fisk — is 
 
 
 fisk — e 
 
 Dat. Fisk— a 
 
 
 fisk — am 
 
 Ace. Fisk — 
 
 
 fisk — ans 
 
 Voc. Fisk— 
 
 
 fisk — 6s 
 
 Let us compare this with the Latin "Pisces." The crude 
 form " Pise" is the same in each language, the Gothic F being 
 equivalent, according to Grimm's law of phonetic change, to 
 the Latin P. : — 
 
15 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Flu. 
 
 Nom. Pise — es 
 
 Pise— es 
 
 Gen. Pise — is 
 
 Pise — ium 
 
 Vat. Pise — i 
 
 Pise — ibus 
 
 Ace. Pise — em 
 
 Pise — es 
 
 Voc. Pise — es 
 
 Pise — es 
 
 Abl. Pise — e 
 
 Pise — ibus 
 
 Let us now compare the declension of the same crude form 
 in Greek : * 
 
 CRUDE FORM 'IX0Y or 
 
 Fixer. 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Flu. 
 
 Nom. FlxOv — e 
 
 FiyQv — e 
 
 FtxQv — eg 
 
 Gen. FiyQv — og 
 
 Fl%6v — 01 v 
 
 FixQv — (op 
 
 Vat. Fi X dv—~i 
 
 FiyQv — olv 
 
 FlxOv — <ri{y) 
 
 Ace. Fi-^dv — v 
 
 Fi%dv — e 
 
 FixOv — g 
 
 Voc. FiyQv — 
 
 Fixdv — e 
 
 FtxOv — eg 
 
 We find here such a strong resemblance, that, if not amount- 
 ing to entire identity, it at least points to a common origin. 
 It is here that the study of Sanskrit comes in to unite these 
 scattered elements, and to throw light on the original unity 
 from which these languages have all diverged. I cannot 
 go into the question of the antiquity of the Sanskrit language, 
 or the indications of its close connexion with the original 
 Aryan tongue. I would merely observe that one mark of 
 high antiquity is the absence of governing particles. The 
 relations of words are almost entirely marked by inflexions. 
 The nouns have eight cases ; in addition to those common to 
 other languages and the Latin ablative, there are the instru- 
 mental and locative, indicating the use of the subject and its 
 place. For instance, if I say, " The man cooks the food with 
 
 * Although the i in ix^vg has the smooth breathing, all analogy leads to the 
 inference that it was originally preceded by the digamma or F. The dental 
 aspirate 9, which answers to the s in the other languages comes after the guttural 
 instead of before it. This transposition is common in the Greek language, as 
 (7K€7rro-/ttai, Latin specto. 
 
1(5 
 
 (by means of) the fire," the Sanskrit expresses it, «}{ ^ 
 ZftfzfZf ^PfTfT T^ " Annam agnina pacliati narah;" 
 agnina being in the instrumental case. If I say, " The 
 man cooks the food at the fire," it will be ^f^™ "WWV 
 "WWfH" ^TX! " Annam agnaa pachati narah;" agnau being 
 in the locative case.* 
 
 There is considerable uncertainty about the Sanskrit equi* 
 valent for the crude form Fisk or Pise, which we have traced 
 through the Teutonic and classical branches. Pis or Pes 
 in Sanskrit signifies rapid motion — a root which is found 
 in the Anglo-Saxon, Fys-an ; Norse, Fijs-a; to hasten, to 
 move quickly. Pictet (Origines Indo-Europ. sec. 47) main- 
 tains that the correspondence of the Latin Pise with the 
 Cambrian Pysg, proves the existence of a primitive crude form 
 Pisk.\ Assuming this to be the case, it would belong to the 
 eighth class of Sanskrit nouns, and would be thus declined : — 
 
 
 Sing. 
 
 Dual. 
 
 Plu. 
 
 Norn. 
 
 Pisk— (s) 
 
 Pisk — au 
 
 Pisk — as 
 
 Gen. 
 
 P.sk — as 
 
 Pisk — os 
 
 Pisk — am 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Pisk— e 
 
 Pisg — bhyam 
 
 Pisg — bhyas 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Pisk — am 
 
 Pisk — au 
 
 Pisk — as 
 
 Voc, 
 
 Pisk— 
 
 Pisk — au 
 
 Pisk — as 
 
 AU. 
 
 Pisk — as 
 
 Pisg — bhyam 
 
 Pisg — bhyas 
 
 Inst. 
 
 Pisk— a 
 
 Pisg — bhyam 
 
 Pisg — bhis 
 
 Loc. 
 
 Pisk— i 
 
 Pisk — os 
 
 Pisk— su 
 
 It will be seen that the Sanskrit noun contains the whole of 
 
 * It may be observed in passing, that out of these four Sanskrit words three 
 are quite familiar in other connexions. '<HHd*| " Agnis"is the Latin " Ignis." fire. 
 " I Tfr "Pach," the root of "pachati," is identical with our word "bake;" the 
 palatal " ch " of the Sanskrit being the equivalent of the Teutonic guttural " k." 
 When we talk of a "batch" of bread we are literally speaking pure Sanskrit. 
 Tj"3£ <•' Nara" is from the same root as the Greek a-vt)p man. 
 
 + Another Sanskrit term for fish is jhash-a, which seems to connect itself with 
 the Gaelic and Irish iasg. It might seem a hopeless case to connect these with 
 
 fish: but the change of the Sanskrit palatals ch, j, and jh, into the labial /in 
 other languages is not uncommon; e.g., Sanskrit, chatur, Gothic, fidvor, English, 
 
 Jour; Sanskrit, chaur-a (a thief), Latin, fur, Greek, <fnnp. 
 
1? 
 
 the inflexions both of the classical and Teutonic declensions. 
 The singular cases in the whole are so near as to speak for 
 their own identity ; but in the plural there are a few discre- 
 pancies which require .explanation. It will be seen that the 
 Sanskrit dative and ablative Pisg-bhyas are reproduced in the 
 Latin Pisc-ibus, whilst the dative of the Greek answers more 
 closely to the Sanskrit locative. The genitive of the Sans- 
 krit, the Latin and Greek uniformly end in m. In the 
 Teutonic languages it is the dative which so ends. This 
 confusion is not difficult to account for. The case endings, 
 though numerous, could not express all the nicer shades in 
 the relations of ideas, and came in time to be used with con- 
 siderable latitude of meaning, as is in fact the case in the 
 Sanskrit writings,- and in the application of the inflexions in 
 Greek and Latin. Prepositions are very rarely used in 
 Sanskrit in the government of nouns. In the derivative 
 languages, as the use of the cases became confused, prepo- 
 sitions were more and more necessary to give precision of 
 meaning, and thus, the case endings, in process of time, 
 disappeared, being superseded by the modern system. This 
 abrasion and wearing down can be traced very clearly in the 
 Teutonic tongues. The inflexional system of nouns appears 
 in the Gothic on a par with that of the Greek and Latin. In 
 the Old High German, the Old Saxon, the Old Norse, the 
 inflexions have undergone little change, and are identical, 
 with the exception of dialectic variations, throughout the 
 whole family. In the Anglo-Saxon, and Old Frisian, they 
 begin to appear worn down, and so through the Middle High 
 German and Semi- Saxon, the process is seen going forward 
 until it has reached its consummation in the modern languages, 
 which scarcely retain the shadow of their original case endings. 
 The same process has proceeded in the languages derived from 
 the Latin to even a greater extent, and can only be accounted 
 for by the confusion into which the case endings fell, and the 
 
18 
 
 greater definiteness which is attained by the use of prepo- 
 sitions. 
 
 All that it is possible to do in a paper like this is to present 
 a brief illustration on each branch of the subject. I must, 
 therefore, entirely pass over the other Gothic declensions, and 
 their relations to the kindred tongues, and make a brief allusion 
 to the pronouns. 
 
 These present strong resemblances throughout the whole 
 Aryan family. The "ah-am" and " tw-am" of the Sanskrit, the 
 ey-w and ffv of the Greek, the eg-o and tu of the Latin, the ik 
 and thu of the Gothic, approximate very closely. To show 
 the connexion between the Gothic and Latin, I will give 
 the iniiexions of the pronoun of the third person in both 
 languages : — 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Nom 
 
 is 
 
 si 
 
 it-a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 is 
 
 iz-os (ir-os) 
 
 is 
 
 Dat. 
 
 im-ma 
 
 iz-ai (ir-ai) 
 
 im-ma 
 
 Ace. 
 
 in-a 
 
 i-ja 
 
 it-a 
 
 To this, our parent language, the Anglo-Saxon, corresponds, 
 introducing the aspirate in the form of an initial H : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Nom. He 
 
 Heo or Seo 
 
 Hit 
 
 Gen. His 
 
 Hir-e 
 
 
 His 
 
 Dat. Him 
 
 Hir-e 
 
 
 Him 
 
 Ace. Hin-e 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 Hit 
 
 ow compare tb< 
 
 3 Latin form 
 Singular. 
 
 — 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Nom. Is 
 
 Ea 
 
 Id 
 
 
 Gen. Ejus 
 
 Ejus 
 
 Ejus 
 
 Dat. Ei 
 
 Ei 
 
 Ei 
 
 
 Ace. Eum 
 
 Earn 
 
 Id 
 
 
 Abl. Eo 
 
 Ea 
 
 Eo 
 
 
19 
 
 Although the Latin does not present the identity which 
 exists hetween the other two, yet the resemhlance is far too 
 great to be fortuitous, and points to a congenital origin. 
 
 To shew the connexion between the Gothic and the Sanskrit, 
 I will compare the Gothic demonstrative pronoun or article 
 with the Sanskrit pronoun of the third person : — 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 Singular. 
 
 Mas. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Nom. sa 
 
 so 
 
 
 
 that-a 
 
 Gen. this 
 
 tbiz-os (thir- 
 
 -os) 
 
 
 this 
 
 Dot. tham-ma 
 
 thiz-ai (thir- 
 
 ai) 
 
 
 tham-ma 
 
 Ace. than-a 
 
 tho 
 
 
 
 tbat-a 
 
 SANSKRIT. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 
 
 Masc. 
 
 Fern. 
 
 
 Neut. 
 
 Nom. sa-s 
 
 sa 
 
 
 tat 
 
 
 Gen. tas-ya 
 
 tas-yas 
 
 
 tas- 
 
 -ya 
 
 Dat. tasm-ai 
 
 tas-yai 
 
 
 tasm-ai 
 
 Ace. tarn 
 
 tarn 
 
 
 tat 
 
 
 Abl. tasm-at 
 
 tas-yas 
 
 
 tasm-at 
 
 Ins. ten-a 
 
 ta-ja 
 
 
 ten- 
 
 -a 
 
 Loc. tasm-in 
 
 tas-yam 
 
 
 tasm-in 
 
 If space had allowed, it would be interesting to show the 
 relation of the other pronominal forms in Gothic, with the 
 Teutonic on the one hand, and the Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek 
 on the other. I must now pass on the adjective. 
 
 Hitherto, we have seen the Teutonic and the classical lin- 
 guistic forms running side by side and proceeding on the 
 same principles. The adjective gives the first indication of 
 the separation of the Teutonic, and the development of new 
 and self- derived forms. In the Sanskrit and classical lan- 
 guages, the adjectives are declined in each gender according 
 to the paradigm of the substantives. 
 
 The Gothic has two separate forms of declension, according 
 
20 
 
 to either of which any 
 
 adjective may be declined. These 
 
 are described by grammarians in various terms— the strong 
 
 and weak, the definite and indefinite, 
 
 the vowel and conso- 
 
 nantal. The 
 
 distinction 
 
 runs throug 
 
 h the whole Teutonic 
 
 family, both in the Norse 
 
 and Deutsch divisions ; * but appears 
 
 most prominent and complete in the 
 
 Gothic. The weak or 
 
 definite form : 
 
 is identical ^ 
 
 svith the weak 
 
 or consonantal declen- 
 
 sion of substantives : — 
 
 
 
 
 (jOTHIC. 
 
 English. 
 
 
 God. 
 
 Good. 
 Singular. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 Gen. 
 
 Dat. 
 
 Ace. 
 
 Voc. 
 
 Mas. 
 
 god-a 
 
 god-ins 
 
 god-in 
 
 god-an 
 
 god-a 
 
 Fern. 
 
 god-o 
 
 god-ons 
 
 godson 
 
 god-on 
 
 god-o 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Neut. 
 god-o 
 god-ins 
 god-in 
 god-o 
 god-o 
 
 Nom. 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 
 Mas. 
 god-ans 
 god-ane 
 god-am 
 god-ans 
 
 Fern. 
 god-ons 
 god-ono 
 god-om 
 god-ons 
 
 Neut. 
 god-ona 
 god-ane 
 god-am 
 god-ona 
 
 The strong 
 
 or indefinite form has its inflexions quite distinct 
 
 from those of the strong 
 
 form of substantives. They are as 
 
 under : — 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 
 Nom. 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 
 Mas. 
 god-s 
 god-is 
 god-amma 
 god-ana 
 
 Fern. 
 god-a 
 god-aizos 
 god-ai 
 god-a 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Neut. 
 god-god-ata 
 god-is 
 god-amma 
 god-god-ata 
 
 Nom. 
 Gen, 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 
 Mas. 
 god-ai 
 god-aize 
 god-aim 
 god-ans 
 
 Fern. 
 god-os 
 god-aizo 
 god-aim 
 gocUqs 
 
 Neut. 
 
 god-a 
 
 god-aize 
 
 god-aim 
 
 god-^a. 
 
 • By the- Norse, I mean the Icelandic or Old Norse-, the Swedish and Danish. 
 By the Deutsch, the High and Low German, Saxon, and the derivative tongues. 
 
II 
 
 In modern English, the whole, and in Swedish and Danish 
 nearly the whole, of these inflexions have heen lost. In 
 modern German, the definite and indefinite forms still exist, 
 and will he found to correspond very closely with the old 
 Gothic. The mode in which the different forms were employed 
 is illustrated in the following passage — John, x. 11, "I am 
 the good Shepherd, the good Shepherd giveth his life for the 
 sheep." Gothic — -" Ik im hairdeis gods," i.e., a good shep- 
 herd, expressing the quality generally ; " hairdeis sa goda," 
 i.e., this particular good shepherd ; " saivala seina laggith faur 
 lamba." The origin of the double inflexions may be thus 
 accounted for. The original Aryan tongue had no article, but 
 was so copious and flexible as not to need any. As the lan- 
 guage lost its power, the want was felt of some expressions 
 more definite than the mere substantive inflexions. This was 
 obtained by attaching the pronoun of the third person to 
 the crude form of the adjective. Thus, " godamma" is com- 
 posed of " god," the crude form, and " imma," " to him," the 
 " i " being changed to " a " by the rule called Guna in Sanskrit, 
 under which " a " is considered the " urvokal " or original 
 vowel, from which the others have been derived, and to which 
 they have a tendency in new combinations to return. 
 
 When greater precision was required, the demonstrative 
 pronoun " sa " was employed with the substantive or weak 
 declension. As this grew up into an article, the other declen- 
 sion which had originally expressed definite ideas, drifted into 
 the indefinite meaning, as it now exists in modern German. 
 
 It is scarcely conceivable that this process should have taken 
 place in exactly the same manner in several distinct and sepa- 
 rate languages. Nothing could prove more clearly the essen- 
 tial identity of the Teutonic family, and its separate existence 
 as a class, than the testimony of this and other similar develop- 
 ments shortly to be alluded to. 
 
 I have next to say a few words on the article. The history of 
 
23 
 
 the article in the Aryan family of languages is curious and inter- 
 esting. The Sanskrit has no article. The Greek seldom used 
 the article until after the time of Homer, 6, rj, to, being em- 
 ployed in the Homeric poems, chiefly as a demonstrative, or 
 as a substantive pronoun. It came at length to be used 
 in the same general sense as the English " the," and even to 
 be attached to proper names * The Latin language never 
 possessed an article. The demonstratives hie, ute, Me, never 
 became applicable to nouns as a class, or as a matter of course. 
 Their use always implies emphatic demonstration. " In his 
 undis maluit jactari, quarn in ilia tranquillitate vivere." — Cic. 
 " He preferred to be tossed about in these waters than to live 
 in that tranquillity." In the Eomance languages, derived 
 from the Latin, the breaking up of the Latin construction led 
 to the adoption of the demonstrative "ille," as the so-called 
 definite article, the Italians and Spaniards adopting the first 
 syllable, and the French the last. 
 
 We have seen that in the case of the adjective, the same 
 development extends through all the branches of the Teutonic 
 family, giving evidence of its adoption by the mother tongue 
 before its separation into dialects. This is not the case with 
 the article, which is of much later adoption, each language 
 having assumed its own particular form. The Gothic, in 
 this respect, bears a striking analogy to the Latin. Under 
 ordinary circumstances the simple noun is employed, the 
 demonstrative pronoun being added when necessary for the 
 sake of special reference. Thus in the simple sentence — 
 " The earth is the Lord's and the fulness thereof," where 
 our language employs articles to three words without any 
 need of special definition, the Gothic dispenses with the 
 article — " fraujons ist airtha jah fullo izos," answering verbatim, 
 
 * The use of 6, ?}, to, as the article, is later than its use as the pronoun, and 
 sprang from it, as rbv apiarov strictly him the bravest, came to mean simply 
 the bravest ; thus the article defines and strengthens a word. — Liddell and Scott, 
 sub. voc, 
 
to the Latin " Domini est terra et plenitudo ejus," whilst the 
 Greek answers with the same exactness to the English 
 (omitting the verb), " tov Kvplov rj yrj kcu to -TrXijpojfxa avrr)g." 
 
 The Gfothic employs the demonstrative pronoun as a definite 
 article to identify a subject or word which has been previously 
 referred to — thus, Mat. xxvii. 11, "And Jesus stood before 
 the governor, and the governor asked him saying ;" " ith 
 Jesus stoth faura kindina, jah frah ina sa kindins, qithands ;" 
 the first mention of the subject is without the article, the 
 second introduces it. The same rule applies where attention 
 is called to the same idea under a different word, Mat. ix. 18, 
 " My daughter is even now dead ;" " dauhtar meina nu 
 gasvalt;'" in verse 25, maid is used instead of daughter, " and 
 the maid arose," " urrais so mavi," with the article. 
 
 The Sanskrit makes a similar use of the demonstrative 
 pronoun, as in the following passage from the Hitopadesa — 
 " There was a sage named Mahatapas," <j| \^\ ^"fTfffi^g" 
 - e-3'jf «jf=5f "^T^"C " ast i Mahatapa nama munih," without the 
 article — " By the sage a mouse was reared," pfTf *$fi\ |" 
 •^ jqef,; HcTfiaHT " tena nmnina mushikah sanvarddhitah," 
 with the article. 
 
 In the High German dialect, the demonstrative pronoun, 
 " der, die, das," answering to the Sanskrit and Gothic " sa," 
 became gradually adopted as an article. 
 
 The Anglo-Saxon, in the earliest form in which it has come 
 down to us, was devoid of the article, as the following extract 
 from Caedmon will show : — 
 
 He aerest gescop He first created 
 
 Eorthan bearaum The earth for the children (of men) 
 
 Heofon to rofe The heaven for roof 
 
 Halig scyppend ! Holy Creator ! 
 
 Tha middan geard The middle space 
 
 Money nnes weard The guardian of mankind 
 
 Ece drihtne The eternal Lord 
 
 iEfter teode Afterwards made 
 
 Forium foldan For men the ground. 
 
In this passage, whilst the English idiom requires the Use 
 of the article seven times, and, with one exception, in a general 
 and somewhat indeterminate sense, the corresponding Saxon 
 only employs the pronoun once, and that demonstratively to 
 call special attention to the earth as man's habitation. 
 
 In the Anglo-Saxon version of the Gospels the use of the 
 article is somewhat further advanced ; but under ordinary 
 circumstances it is still omitted — thus, in Mat. xi. 5, " The 
 blind receive their sight and the lame walk, the lepers are 
 cleansed and the deaf hear." Anglo-Saxon, " Blinde geseoth, 
 healte gath, hreofe synd gecloensode, deafe gehyrath."* 
 
 By the twelfth century, the article, originally the demon- 
 strative pronoun, had assumed to a great extent the position 
 which it now occupies, as in the following passage from the 
 Ormulum :■ — 
 
 " Uppo the thridde day bilammp f 
 Swa sum the goddspell cytheth \ 
 That i the land o Gallilee 
 Was an bridall yarkedd 
 And it was yarkedd in an tun 
 That was Cana gehaten," &c. 
 
 The peculiarity of the Norse tongues in placing the definite 
 article after the noun seems to indicate a self- development 
 arising probably from the same cause which led in the Gothic 
 to the junction of the personal pronoun with the adjective, as 
 described above. In Icelandic, or Old Norse, a ship is " eitt 
 skip," the ship, " skip-it ;" the demonstrative emphasis appears 
 stronger in this form than the one adopted by the Deutsch 
 members of the Teutonic family. 
 
 I must altogether omit any reference to the numerals, and 
 to the degrees of comparison, in each of which there is a 
 striking parallelism throughout the entire Aryan family. It 
 
 * In Wickliffe's New Testament the same principle is still preserved, the pas- 
 sage being rendered thus, — "Blinde men seen, crokide men wandren, mesel9 
 bene made clene, deefe men heren." 
 
 t It happened. J Saith. 
 
25 
 
 only now remains to make a few remarks on the Gothic verb, 
 the study of which throws a flood of light on the history and 
 progress of the languages of Europe. 
 
 When we compare the English verb in its absence of 
 inflexions, and in its complicated apparatus of auxiliaries, with 
 the wonderful flexibility and self-contained power of the 
 Greek, or even with the much more circumscribed range of 
 the Latin verb, it is difficult to believe that they are at all 
 related, or can possibly have sprung from the same parent 
 stock ; yet it is a fact capable of the most satisfactory proof 
 that such must have been the case. If we trace back the 
 Teutonic verb to its earliest specimens, we find a constantly 
 increasing resemblance to the classical forms, until, at length, 
 in the Gothic language, we discover the point of departure 
 where the two streams, heretofore parallel, have finally diverged. 
 The language at this stage presents the appearance of having 
 been worn down and abraded, so to speak ; and to have lost 
 much of its expressive power. In starting afresh in the career 
 of civilisation to regain what was lost, it seems to have opened 
 out a new course developed from within, supplying itself with 
 fresh forms as they were required. These forms continue to 
 the present day in common use in our own and every other 
 branch of the Teutonic family. 
 
 The inflexions of the Gothic verbs are simple, and the 
 inflected tenses few, consisting only of the present and past 
 in the indicative and conjunctive moods. 
 
 If we compare the present tense of the Gothic with that of 
 the Latin, we shall find a very striking similarity, if not abso- 
 lute identity, the Gothic possessing a dual number which is 
 wanting in the Latin : — 
 
 Gothic, Haba. Latin, Habeo. English, To have*. 
 
 Gothic. Latin. 
 
 Sing. 1 haba habeo 
 
 2 habais habe.s 
 
 3 habaith habet 
 
26 
 
 Dual. 
 
 1 habos 
 
 2 habats 
 
 
 Plu. 
 
 1 habam 
 
 habem-us 
 
 
 2 habaith 
 
 habet-is 
 
 
 3 haband 
 
 habent 
 
 
 The inflexions of the present conjunctive indicate a similar 
 connexion. 
 
 If now we examine the past tense, we find in the Gothic 
 alone, of all the Teutonic family, the remains of a past tense 
 formed by reduplication, as " greta," I weep ; " gaigrot," I 
 wept; "falda," I fold; " faifold," I folded. The Sanskrit 
 second preterite and the Greek perfect tenses are formed 
 in like manner. Sanskrit, " bodhami," I know; "bubodha/' 
 I knew ; '' tanomi," I stretch ; " tatani," I stretched. Greek, 
 '* Xvw," I loosen ; " XeXum," I loosed ; " rvirno^ I strike ; 
 " rcVu^a," I struck. The Latin has the remains of a similar 
 formation in such verbs as " mordeo," I bite ; " momordi," 
 I bit; "tego," I cover; " tetigi," I covered. This, in fact, 
 seems to have been the original formation of the past tense in 
 the Aryan tongue. 
 
 The number of reduplicated preterites in Gothic is small. 
 The generality of verbs expressing simple ideas form their 
 preterites by a change of the radical vowel, as " rinna," I run ; 
 "rann," I ran; "liga," I lie ; " lag," I lay. This is identical 
 with what is called the strong form of conjugation in the 
 whole of the Teutonic languages. In Latin also this change, 
 or a consonantal one, forms a large part of the perfect tenses, 
 as " moneo, monui," " rego, rexi." The strong form in the 
 Teutonic tongues belongs to the verbs expressing the simplest 
 ideas, and in the Gothic, they are principally intransitive. 
 As expression became required for more extended ideas, 
 secondary verbs were formed of a derivative character. The 
 manner in which this was done is curious and instructive, and 
 has exercised a very important influence on our own language 
 to the present day. The secondary verbs were formed from 
 
27 
 
 substantives or adjectives by adding the termination "jan," 
 and from the strong verbs by adding the same termination to 
 the preterite — thus, from " stain/' stone, was formed "stainjan," 
 to stone ; from "varm," warm, " varmjan," to warm; from 
 "ligan," to lie; " lagjan," to lay ; from "reisan," to rise; 
 "raisjan," to raise. The connexion between such English 
 verbs as " to sit," and " to set," " to rise," and " to raise," 
 " fcrlie," and " to lay," is here satisfactorily explained, and 
 nowhere else. The secondary verbs thus formed were inca- 
 pable of a preterite arising from vowel change. The difficulty 
 was met by superadding as an auxiliary the past tense of the 
 strong verb " didan," to do : — 
 
 Sing, dad Dual dedu Flu. dedum 
 
 dadst deduts deduth 
 
 dad dedun * 
 
 "Lagi-dad, thus expressed — "lay I did," or "lay-did," 
 contracted in .English to "laid." In High German, the "d" 
 is exchanged for " t," thus, "legetat" becomes contracted to 
 " leget," or " legt." This mode of forming the preterites of 
 the weak verbs prevails through the whole of the Teutonic 
 tongues, both Norse and Deutsch, giving a strong indication 
 that the Gothic lies very near the common original of these* 
 various dialects. We have preserved in English more fully 
 than in any other language this form of the preterite. When 
 we say "I loved," or "did love," the expressions are identical, 
 the first being merely a contraction of " I love-did." t 
 
 A few words on the future tense, and I have done. 
 
 The modern languages of Europe were all in their early 
 stages destitute of any tense expressing simple future time 
 apart from the idea of obligation or volition. This want was 
 
 * The preterite in the derivative verbs is thus formed : — 
 
 Sing. 1 lagi — da(d) Dual 1 lagi — dedu Plu. 1 lagi — dedum 
 
 2 lagi — des (dadst) 2 lagi — deduts 2 lagi — deduth 
 
 3 lagi — da(d) 3 lagi— dedun 
 
 t See Gahelentz, " Grammatik der Gothischen Sprache," pp. 28-96." Grimm, 
 " Deutsche Grammatik," 1-1040. Max Muller, Lectures p. 89. 
 
28 
 
 not supplied until after the separation of the parent Teutonic 
 stock into dialects and languages. Each, therefore, formed 
 its future tense in its own way. Want of space prevents me 
 here entering upon the subject. . Sir Edmund Head has 
 written a very amusing and instructive essay on the future 
 auxiliary verbs, to which I would refer my readers.* The 
 Gothic expresses the future sometimes by the present tense, 
 sometimes by a circumlocution, sometimes by an auxiliary. 
 
 It is commonly thought that only the modern Euro- 
 pean languages exhibit this defect in their early stages ; but 
 deeper research seems to show that the same difficulty has 
 always existed, and that the idea of the simple unconditional 
 future is by no means readily apprehended by the human 
 mind. To say nothing of the Hebrew, in which difficulties 
 exist in the future tense which I am quite incompetent to 
 deal with, I will refer in very few words to the Sanskrit and 
 Latin. 
 
 The Sanskrit first future is formed by a combination of the 
 noun of agency with the substantive verb. Thus, from "raj," 
 to govern, is formed the first future " rajayitasmi," which 
 literally means "I am a governor," though used to express " I 
 shall govern." So in the Latin, " reg-am," I shall rule, is a 
 similar expression abbreviated. Both give the root " raj " or 
 " reg," with the substantive verb " as," or " asm-i," equivalent 
 to the Saxon " eom," or the English " am." " Reg-am," then, 
 signifies " I am a ruler," or " I am to rule." It may be 
 objected to this that the Latin future is only thus formed in 
 two conjugations, and that " Amabo " and " Monebo " cannot 
 be thus accounted for. Singularly enough in this case the 
 exception proves the rule. There are in Sanskrit two substan- 
 tive verbs, " as" or " asm-i," answering to our " am;" and 
 " bhu," equivalent to the Saxon " beo," and the English " be." 
 
 t " Shall and Will, or Two Chapters on Future Auxiliary Verbs." London : 
 Murray, 1856. 
 
29 
 
 With the latter of these the future of the two first Latin con- 
 jugations is formed ; " audi-am " is literally "I am to hear ; " 
 "mone-bo," "I be to admonish." The difficulties in express- 
 ing the future are thus found not to be new, but to have 
 existed from the earliest times. 
 
 The Gothic is the only Teutonic language which has 
 preserved the dual number. In the kindred tongues some 
 faint traces are found of the dual number in the pronouns ; 
 but in the verbs it has been utterly lost. The Gothic dual 
 of the verbal conjugations, though not so complete as in the 
 Sanskrit, is nearly as much so as in the Greek. Its use is 
 somewhat peculiar. In narrative the plural is employed even 
 when two only are spoken of ; but in discourse and conver- 
 sation the dual is always used. This peculiarity will be seen 
 in the following passage — Mark 11, v. 2 : — 
 
 " Jesus insandida tvans siponje, jah qath du im (pi.) 
 " Jesus sent two disciples, and said to them, 
 
 gaggats (du.) in haim, jah bigitats (du.) fulan ; 
 go into the village, and ye-shall-find a foal ; 
 
 andbindandans (du.) ina attiuhits, (du.) jah jabai was 
 
 unloosing him, bring, and if any one 
 
 iggqis (du.) qithai duwe thata taujats (du.) qithaits (du.) 
 to you saith why that do ye ? say 
 
 thatei frauja this gairneith. Galithun (pi.) than jah 
 that the-Lord this needeth. They-went then and 
 
 bigetun (pi.) fulan. 
 found the foal. 
 
 The Gothic is also the only Teutonic language which pos- 
 sesses a true passive voice. Its forms are few and simple, 
 extending only to the present tense of the indicative and con- 
 junctive moods. It is, nevertheless, much used even in cases 
 where the Greek is expressed actively, e.g., Luke c. 6, v. 38 
 — " Good measure shall they give unto you." Greek — 
 " fxerpov KaXov Zuffovcn" Gothic- — " mitads goda gibada," — 
 " good measure is (shall be) given." 
 
30 
 The passive voice is conjugated as under : — 
 
 FIRST CONJUGATION. 
 
 Haitan. Ger. Heissen. Anglo Sax. Hatan. 
 
 Old Eny. Hight, to be called. 
 
 INDICATIVE. CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PEESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 1 haitada haitaidau 
 
 2 haitaza haitaizau 
 
 3 haitada haitaidau 
 
 Dual wanting. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 1 haitanda haitaindau 
 
 2 haitanda haitaindau 
 
 3 haitanda haitaindau 
 
 
 The reflective form is also used to a considerable extent in 
 the expression both of passive and intransitive verbs in the 
 Greek, thus, " to be hidden," " gafilhan sik ;" " to appear," 
 " ataugjan sik ;" " to be separated," " afskaidan sik ;" " to 
 repent," " idreigon sik." 
 
 The above slight and rapid sketch may give a general view 
 of the grammatical forms of the Gothic language, and of the 
 relations in which they stand both to what may he called the 
 affiliated tongues of the Teutonic stock on the one hand, and 
 to the Sanskrit and classical languages on the other. 
 
 In the next lecture I propose to treat on the substance or 
 vocabulary of the language. 
 
PART II 
 
 In the former part of this paper, I endeavoured to shew 
 that the Gothic language is intimately connected with our 
 own mother tongue ; that it is very near the point of conver- 
 gence of all the Teutonic dialects ; that it gives the key to 
 many of the peculiarities which distinguish this sub -family of 
 tongues ; that by its copious system of inflexions it indicates 
 its common origin and affinity with the Sanskrit, Greek, and 
 Latin. I propose in the second part to continue the inquiry 
 by reference to the vocabulary, as still more closely identifying 
 the language with our own; and by an occasional glimpse 
 into the common radical connexion of all the branches of the 
 great Aryan family. In doing so, I cannot but feel that I 
 .have to contend with two difficulties of a kind quite opposed 
 to each other. A superficial glance at a page of English and 
 Gothic placed side by side would excite a sceptical smile at 
 the idea of any connexion existing between the two. On the 
 contrary when the analysis has been carried out, and both are 
 reduced to their simple elements, the connexion appears so 
 obvious as to need no argument in proof. The subject is one 
 of deep interest, as illustrating what written history fails to 
 disclose. In the eloquent words of Max Muller — " Few men 
 perhaps will be insensible to the pleasure we derive from being- 
 able to watch in the course of our studies the gradual growth 
 of any form of human speech. The history of words is the 
 reflexion of the history of the human mind, and many expres- 
 
32 
 
 sions which we use in a merely conventional sense are full of 
 historical recollections if we can but trace them back to their 
 original form and meaning."* 
 
 This is perfectly true, but it may be added that the study 
 of words carries us back beyond the dawn of history, and 
 throws a light upon the manners, habits, modes of thought 
 and of life in remote ages, which have left no historical memo- 
 rials behind. 
 
 It may be fairly stated that whatever terms we find in 
 a language, native, not derived, represent ideas and things 
 existing and familiar among the people who spoke the language. 
 Acting on this principle, let us test the Gothic language, and 
 ascertain as far as we may, both the relation in which it stands 
 to ourselves, and the light it throws on the condition of our 
 forefathers fifteen hundred years ago. 
 
 It matters little where we begin. As a familiar subject of 
 comparison, let us take the Lord's Prayer. I give it in Gothic, 
 Anglo-Saxon, and modern German. With the modern Eng- 
 lish we are all familiar. That our own vernacular tongue is 
 the lineal descendant, the living representative of that spoken 
 by the Angles and Saxons admits of no doubt ; but the term 
 Anglo-Saxon seems almost to ignore this, and to convert the 
 speech of our forefathers, the old, " Englisca sprseca," as they 
 termed it, into a foreign language. Whatever connexion, 
 therefore, we establish between the Anglo-Saxon and any 
 other tongue, must equally apply to modern English in its 
 radical and inalienable features, however the lapse of time may 
 have modified its external forms. 
 
 GOTHIC. 
 
 Atta unsar thu in himinam ; veihnai namo thein. 
 
 Qimai thiudinassus theins. 
 
 Vairthai vilja theins sve in himina jah ana airthai. 
 
 * " Survey of Language," p. 16. 
 
33 
 
 Hlaif unsarana thana sinteinan gif uns liimnia daga. 
 
 Jah aflet uns thatei skulans sijaima svasve jah veis afletam 
 thaim skulam unsaraim. 
 
 Jah ni bringais uns in fraistubnjai ; ak lausei uns af 
 thamma ubilin. 
 
 Unte theina ist thiudangardi, jah mahts, jah vulthus, in 
 aivins. Amen. 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON. 
 
 Feeder ure, thu the eart on heofenum, si thin name 
 gehalgod. 
 
 To-becume thin rice. 
 
 Ge-weorthe thin willa on eorthan, swa-swa on heofenum. 
 
 Urne dseghwamlicani hlaf syle us to-da3g. 
 
 And forgyf us tire gyltas, swa-swa we forgyfath urum 
 gyltendum. 
 
 And ne gelsede thu us on costnunge, ac alys us of yfle. 
 
 MODERN GERMAN. 
 
 Unser Vater in dem Hiramel, dein Name werde geheiliget. 
 
 Dein Reich komme; Dein Wille geschehe auf Erden, wie 
 im Himmel. 
 
 Unser taglich Brodt, gib uns heute. 
 
 Und vergieb uns unsere Schulden wie Wir unsern Schul- 
 digern vergeben. 
 
 Und fuhre uns nicht in Versuchung, sondern erlose uns von 
 dem Uebel. 
 
 Denn dein ist das Reich, und die Kraft, und die Herr- 
 lichkeit, in Ewigkeit. Amen. 
 
 Omitting the doxology at the close, which the Anglo- 
 Saxon version, being translated from the Vulgate, does not 
 contain, the Gothic contains 53 words, the Anglo-Saxon 50, 
 the German 48. Of the 53 Gothic words, 18 are repetitions 
 or inflexions, leaving 35 distinct forms. Of these, 31 are 
 
34 
 
 common to all the three languages, a few of the German ones 
 being only found in the old dialect ; one is common to the 
 Gothic and German only, one to the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon 
 only, two are somewhat doubtful, leaving none exclusively 
 belonging to the Gothic. Of the fifty Anglo-Saxon words, 
 nineteen are repetitions or inflexions, leaving thirty-one dis- 
 tinct forms. Of these, twenty-eight are common to the three 
 languages, one is common to the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic, 
 one to the Anglo-Saxon and German, and one doubtful 
 (heofenum). Of the forty-eight German words, sixteen are 
 repetitions and inflexions, leaving thirty-two distinct forms. 
 Of these, twenty-nine are common to the three languages ; 
 one is common to the German and the Anglo-Saxon ; one is 
 common to the German and Gothic, and one is doubtful 
 (himmel). Of course, the resemblance of the common words 
 is of a radical character. Although in many cases it is suffi- 
 ciently obvious at first sight, in others it requires a somewhat 
 close analysis to demonstrate the connexion. Let us take a 
 few words at random in illustration. 
 
 The word " kingdom," occurs twice in the Lord's Prayer. 
 The Anglo-Saxon and German terms are the same ; German, 
 "Beich;" Anglo-Saxon, " Bice." The Gothic has two terms, 
 (i Thiudinassus," and " Thiudangardi." These are compound 
 words, the separate terms of which are common to the sister- 
 tongues. "Thiuda" signifies the nation or people; Anglo- 
 Saxon, " theod ;" Old German, " Deut," or " Diot." * " Gut- 
 thiuda," was the name by which the Gothic people called 
 themselves. The radical " thiu " branches out into a large 
 number of derivatives in the various Teutonic tongues. 
 Originally, it seems to have conveyed the idea of property 
 
 * From this Old German word " Diot," is derived the modern word " Diet," as 
 applied to a conference representing separate states or provinces, as " the Diet of 
 Worms," &c. From the form " Diut" is derived the German national appellation, 
 "Deutsch," anciently "Diutiska," signifying the race or people par excellence. 
 See Pictet, Orig, Indo-Europ., p. 84. 
 
35 
 
 lying at the root of social union. " Thiuda," Anglo-Saxon, 
 " theod," is the common-weal, the collective institutions of the 
 state. The Gothic " thiuth," like the English " good," is 
 used to signify "both moral qualities and temporal blessings. 
 Luke 1, v. 53 — " He hath filled the poor with good things ; " 
 " gredagans gasothida thiuthe." " Guth sa thiutheiga," the 
 blessed God. 
 
 As property among the wandering Teutonic tribes consisted 
 to a great extent of slaves and captives, the word naturally 
 came to express this idea. The Anglo-Saxon "theow" is 
 used in this sense for a bond servant. Our modern word 
 "thew" has a double descent from the Anglo-Saxon, and is 
 used in two senses. As derived from " theow," it signifies 
 brawn and muscle, as in " Hamlet " — 
 
 " Nature crescent does not grow alone 
 In thews and bulk." 
 
 As derived from " theaw/' a word from the same root, it 
 implies manners, morals, behaviour, as in Spenser — 
 
 " For well ye worthy been for worth and gentle thewes." 
 
 It will be seen that the same primary idea of gifts, attain- 
 ments, presents itself in each. The second part of the word, 
 "nassus," is identical with our termination, "ness," in such 
 words as "idleness/' "business," &c. In our old word, 
 " heathenesse," it is used in exactly the same way to convey 
 the concrete meaning, as in the Gothic " thiudinassus." The 
 second term for kingdom, " thiudangardi," is literally the 
 " guardianship of the common-wealth." 
 
 The other term for king and kingdom, "reik-s" (Latin 
 "rex") though not found in the Lord's Prayer, is very exten- 
 sively employed in the Gothic. It was used as a common 
 suffix to the names of the rulers, as "Ala-ric," king of all. 
 "Theodoric," properly " Thiuda-ric/' king of the nation; 
 
36 
 
 " Herman-ric," warrior king ; " Frithu-ric," or " Frederic/' 
 king of peace; " Eode-rio," eloquent king; " Athana-ric,'' 
 chosen king ; " Eicimer," or "Emmeric," king for ever.* 
 
 I propose, in the short space which I can claim for the 
 present paper, without any very definite plan, to inquire into 
 what ideas we have in common with our ancient kinsmen of 
 the fourth century, and what insight we can derive, from 
 the language as it then existed, into their habits and condition. 
 
 Whatever the Gothic tribes might have been in their original 
 condition, in the fourth century, they were certainly an agri- 
 cultural people. Most of our agricultural terms now in use 
 were then employed in the same sense as now. " Land " and 
 "ground" are words common to all the Teutonic tongues. 
 
 "Akr" (Eng. "acre/') signifies a cultivated field; origi- 
 nally it meant a piece of land enclosed by a mound. Latin, 
 " agger." 
 
 Compare Greek aypog. 
 
 „ Latin ager. 
 
 ,, Anglo-Sax. secer. 
 
 „ German acker. 
 
 
 
 „ Swedish aker. 
 
 From this comes " akran," fruit. The English " acorn " 
 has usually been derived from oak-corn, but this etymology 
 is extremely doubtful. The German " ecker," the old Norse 
 " akurin," are evidently the same word, but have no connexion 
 with " corn ; " the Norse term, like the Gothic, signifies fruit- 
 in general, 
 
 * This last appellation lias had a singular fortune. :i Emmerich'' became a 
 favorite German name. Transferred to France, it took the form of "Alrueric," 
 shortened to "Ayrner." It was Latinised into " Emerieos," and carried over the 
 Alps into Lornbardy, was softened into "Amerigo," the baptismal name of 
 Vespucci," who claimed the discovery of the continent of America, and conferred 
 his name upon it. Amongst the various somces of self-glorification of the bearers 
 of the " Star-spangled Banner," it is rather remarkable that no orator should 
 have alluded to the proud prognostication of greatness conveyed in the name 
 itself — " monarch for ever." 
 
87 
 
 To plough was expressed by fC arjan." 
 Anglo-Saxon, erian. 
 Old German, aran. 
 Greek, apovv. 
 
 Latin, arare, aratrum, arvum. 
 
 The history of this word is curious and interesting — 
 pointing backwards to the earliest origin of Indo-European 
 civilisation. 
 
 The Sanskrit root, ^\ ar, has the primitive idea of motion 
 
 forward, and in the causative form that of pushing or causing 
 to go. When the cultivation of land was commenced by 
 ploughing, this word was applied to the operation, and is 
 found in every Indo-European dialect in some form or other. 
 It was thence extended to any work which required skill, as — 
 
 German, ar-beit. 
 
 Gothic, ar-baith. 
 
 Latin, ar-s.* 
 In the course of time the distinction between the nomad 
 tribes and those who cultivated the land became marked, and 
 the latter were naturally designated by their distinguishing 
 characteristics, as Aryas or ploughmen. The name thus con- 
 nected itself with the progress of civilisation, and became a 
 title of honour which the nation was proud to apply to itself. 
 Hence in the Vedas we find Arya signifies faithful, devout, 
 excellent. It is especially applied to those of pure race in 
 contradistinction from persons of inferior caste. Aryavarta, 
 the country of the Aryas, is anciently applied to Brahminical 
 India par excellence. We find the name extended westward, 
 and trace it in such names as Aram, Ararat, Armenia, Ari- 
 maspi, &c. We find it in the Greek ouow, to elevate, to extol ; 
 in the Irish " er," noble. Pictet derives Hib-er-nia, Ib-er-ia, 
 from "Ibh," country, and " er," noble, the country of the 
 noble people. 
 
 * Thus, in Latin, " Art-ifex " signifies a skilled workman, an artist ; " Opi-fex," 
 a common workman. 
 
38 
 
 At what period the term "plough" was introduced and 
 superseded the old "arjan," in the Teutonic aud Norse tongues, 
 we can only conjecture. It is not found in Gothic, and is 
 rarely met with in Anglo-Saxon. It must, however, have 
 been introduced at an early period, as we find it in the 
 
 Old German, pflug. 
 Frankish, phluog. 
 
 Norse, plog. 
 
 Old Low German ploeg. 
 
 It was probably introduced when the form of the instrument 
 was changed. The original "ara" was, like the Eoman and 
 Hindoo plough, calculated merely to scratch a furrow without 
 turning over the soil. The change of form by the introduction 
 of the mould board would naturally lead to a term for the new 
 instrument expressive of turning over, which appears to be 
 the radical meaning of pnugen. We find the idea in the Greek 
 IloXew, which is applied in the same manner, and means both 
 to turn over and to plough. 
 
 Many of the terms connected with rural life are identical 
 with our own, as — 
 
 Grund-u, 
 
 Ground. 
 
 Gras, 
 
 Grass. 
 
 Hav-i, 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Haith-i, 
 
 Heath. 
 
 Wait-eis, 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Bar-is, 
 
 Bear or Barley 
 
 Seth, 
 
 Seed. 
 
 Kaurn, 
 
 Corn. 
 
 Land, 
 
 Land. 
 
 Lein, 
 
 Linen, Flax. 
 
 Hug-s, 
 
 Hedge. 
 
 Triu, 
 
 Tree. 
 
 Sakkus, 
 
 Sack. 
 
 Vein-a, 
 
 Wine. 
 
 Vinth-jan, 
 
 to Winnow. 
 
 Thriskan, 
 
 to Thrash. 
 
 ith many others, 
 
 

 39 
 
 The terms in connexion with. a Gothic household fifteen 
 hundred years ago were not very dissimilar from our own. Our 
 word "home" is represented by the Gothic "haim." This 
 word is found in all the Teutonic dialects, with slightly 
 different shades of meaning — 
 
 Old German, heime. 
 
 Modern German, heim. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, ham. 
 
 Old Saxon, hem. 
 
 Swedish, hem. 
 
 Danish, hjem. 
 
 The Greek Kw/«j appears to have the same origin. The 
 primary idea is that of a common habitation. In Gothic, it is 
 used for village, as in the common Saxon termination, " ham/' 
 A family was called a " heiv," a name certainly indicative of 
 industry, but now restricted to a community of bees. The 
 master of the house was called the " heiva-frauja." 
 
 The name of their habitation was called "hus," house ; the 
 door, " daur ; " the door-keeper, " daura-vards," or door- ward. 
 
 One would like to verify the etymology of Home Tooke, 
 identifying this word with the preposition " through ; " 
 Gothic, " thairh ; " the connexion appears to be very natural, 
 but, unfortunately, they do not coalesce. The words occur 
 in every Teutonic tongue ; in the Low German dialects, the 
 substantive begins with " d," and the preposition with " th." 
 In the High German it is reversed, but in no case do they so 
 approximate as to give any indications of a common source. 
 
 Even in Sanskrit, the terms are separate; ^T s dwar (door) 
 
 has no connexion with *T^ para (through, or beyond). A 
 
 window, in Gothic, was called " auga-daura," eye-door ; the 
 roof, "hrot;" Anglo-Saxon, "hrof," from "hrcefan," to hold 
 fast; hence a "reef" in a sail. Greek, b-pocp-yj. 
 
 Gibla, the gable. 
 
 Ubizva, the eaves. 
 
 Hauri, the hearth. 
 
40 
 
 This originally meant a fire kindled on the floor ; so in St. 
 
 John, 18, v. 18 — "haurja vaurkjandans nnte kald vas;'' 
 
 " making a fire because it was cold." 
 
 Baurd, a table, a board. 
 
 Mes, a dining table, a board. Anglo-Saxon, myse. 
 
 Hence, the terms " mess," " mess-mate." 
 Mat, meat, 
 
 Itan, to eat. 
 
 Fodjan, to feed. 
 Hlaif, loaf — bread. 
 Miluk, milk. 
 Salt, salt. 
 
 Aurts, vegetables, hence 
 Aurti-gards, Eng., orchard. 
 
 Furniture was, doubtless, in the time we are speaking of, 
 very simple. The terms employed were, however, the fore- 
 runners of our own. Yvlrilst dining off the "baurd," or 
 "mes," they sat on a " sitl," Old Eng., "settle," or on a 
 " stol ; " Eng., " stool." These words are employed with 
 the most dignified associations, a monarch's throne is only a 
 "sitl." A judgment seat is the " staua-stol." " Bad-i " was<the 
 name for the couch of repose, as "bed" is now. They fastened 
 their doors with a " luka," as we do now with a lock. When 
 weary, they rested their lower limbs on a " fotu-baurd," as we 
 do now on a " foot-board " or " foot-stool." When visited 
 occasionally by a "gast," Eng., "guest," he was waited on 
 by the " mavi ;" Eng., " maid." The domestic relationships — 
 Fadr, Sunu, Dauhtar, Barn, 
 
 sufficiently identify themselves. When sick, they were visited 
 by the " leikeis ; " Old Eng., "leech;" and when conquered 
 by " dauths," " death," they were finally laid to rest, as we 
 shall be, in the " grab ;*' Eng., " grave." 
 
 The " qaimus " (quern) or hand millstone was amongst the 
 Goths, as amongst all the Teutonic and Celtic nations, the 
 usual implement for grinding corn ; but it appears that, in the 
 
rarth century, an advance had been made beyond mere hand 
 labour. In St. Mark's Gospel, ch. 9, v. 42— where the pas- 
 sage occurs — " It were better that a millstone were hanged 
 round his neck," in place of the phrase, " \l6og jivXikoq, " some 
 Greek manuscripts read, " /jlvXoq ovikoq ;" literally, " ass-mil- 
 stone." This appears to have been the reading in the manu- 
 script employed by Bishop Uliilas, who has rendered it in a 
 manner which shows that the idea was quite familiar. " Asilu- 
 qairns." That these primitive machines were employed about 
 that period by the Teutonic races there can be no doubt. 
 About the middle of the last century in the south of France, 
 the remains of an ancient villa of the Frankish period were 
 excavated and brought to light. Amongst these were found 
 a pair of millstones of the usual hand-quern form, but of 
 larger size, into the upper of which an arm was fitted, with a 
 yoke to which an ass was harnessed,* exactly realising the 
 idea in the text. 
 
 The names of most of the domestic animals were identical 
 
 with our own — 
 
 ox. 
 
 steer — bull. 
 
 calf. 
 
 Auhs-a, 
 
 Stiur, 
 
 Kalb-o, 
 
 Gait-ei, 
 
 Lamb, 
 
 Vithr-u, 
 
 Svein, 
 
 Avi, 
 
 Asilus, 
 
 Fula, 
 
 Hund, 
 
 Dius, 
 
 Dub-o, 
 
 Han-a, 
 
 Fugl, 
 
 lamb — sheep, 
 wether, 
 swine, 
 ewe. 
 ass. 
 foal, 
 hound- 
 deer, 
 dove, 
 hen. 
 fowl. 
 
 ■dog. 
 
 It might naturally be expected that the race whose warriors 
 
 * Arts et Metiers des Ancieus, represents par les M onumens ; par Grivaud de 
 laVincelle. Paris, 1819. 
 
42 
 
 sacked the city of Borne, and established the kingdom of Italy 
 on the ruins of the Eoman empire would possess a native 
 vocabulary for arms and warlike terms. Many of these have 
 been superseded in later times. Others are common to the 
 whole race. 
 
 " Skild-u," shield, is common to the whole of the Teutonic 
 tongues — 
 
 Old German, skiolder. 
 Modern German, schild. 
 Anglo-Saxon, scyld. • 
 
 Swedish, skold. 
 
 Danish, skjold. 
 
 The root from which this term is derived is common to all 
 the Aryan languages, and presents the general idea of cover- 
 ing. Compare Sanskrit, ^T^T chhaya, a shadow. 
 
 " Vepna " is the same word as our " weapon," and is used 
 for arms or armour in general, whether offensive or defensive, 
 equivalent to the Greek oVXa, for which it is used. It is 
 found in most of the kindred dialects — 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, voepen. 
 
 Old German, wafan. 
 
 Modern German, waffen — wappen. 
 
 Swedish, vapen. 
 
 Danish, waaben. 
 
 Holl. waepenen. 
 
 The Goths and Old Germans divided weapons into three 
 kinds, " hogg-wapn," cutting instruments, such as swords ; 
 " lagg-wapn," thrusting instruments, as spears ; and " skott- 
 wapn," shooting instruments, as javelins and arrows. The 
 " vepna," or weapon, possessed an important signification in 
 their public assemblies, and in their jurisprudence. Our 
 modern expressions of opinion in public meetings are derived 
 from our Gothic ancestors. According to Tacitus, when they 
 were displeased, they expressed it by groans ; when they were 
 
43 
 
 pleased, they struck their shields with their weapons, as we 
 no.w thump the tables, or give the " Kentish fire." * 
 
 The term " wapentake," preserved to our own times as the 
 name of a judicial court, is a relic descended to us from the 
 remote forests of Germany. The court was so called from 
 the fact that when sentence was pronounced the judge held 
 out his spear, which all present touched in token of assent.f 
 
 The origin of this word is curious and significative, as 
 giving a glimpse of the pre-historic condition of the Teutonic 
 race. The etymology has been glanced and guessed at by 
 lexicographers, but, so far as I can find, has not hitherto been 
 demonstrated. Though afterwards used for arms in general, 
 there is evidence to shew that originally it was limited to defen- 
 sive armour only. Ihre observes (sub voce,)! " wapn proprie 
 veteres significasse theracem, galeam, ocreas, . et cetera, quae 
 in proelium abeuntes induebant." He further offers an opinion 
 that waffen, wapn, &c, are derived from a lost root signifying 
 to plait, to bind round, " orta sint a radice deperdita, quse 
 involvere cingere notaverit." We find in Gothic, " vaip " 
 used for the plaited crown of thorns ; also " veipan," for the 
 act of placing the wreath on the head of the victor at the 
 Olympic games. The latter word is closely connected, if not 
 identical, with the Anglo-Saxon weffan, or webban — 
 
 German, Weben. 
 
 Old Low German, Wippa. 
 Latin, Viere, 
 
 To twist or weave. 
 
 Without going into further particulars, it may be stated 
 
 that we are led insensibly, as the ultimate result, to the 
 
 * " Si displicuit sententia, freinitu adspernantur ; si placuit, frameas concutiunt." 
 — Tacit. De Mor. Ger. ch., ii. 
 
 f " Vapnatake confirmatio sententise in judicio prolatse per contactum armorum, 
 lectis enim suffragiis de causa examinata. hastain judex proferebat, quara adses- 
 sores omnes tangentes, sententiam confirmabant, dcemt mid vapnataki armorum 
 tactu judicatum. — Yerelius Ind. sub. voc. 
 
 t Gloss. Suio-Goth, 1038. 
 
44 
 
 Sanskrit root, 3[ ve, which embodies the idea of weaving and 
 
 sewing, and which is found throughout all the Aryan tongues. 
 From this inquiry we may fairly infer that the terms wepn, 
 wapn, &c, originally signified a woven substance, as wejta and 
 waipa do still in Icelandic. It would further appear that the 
 first defensive armour of the Goths was nothing more than a 
 thick woven or quilted garment ; that from thence it extended 
 first to defensive armour of whatever substance made, and 
 afterwards to arms in general. 
 
 I have dwelt at some length on this term, principally to 
 shew the extent of inquiry which may be opened up by a single 
 word, and the interest which may be derived from the study 
 conducted in the fair spirit of analytical inquiry. To those 
 who have not entered upon the study, it may seem a little 
 singular that the words wife, whip, weave, and weapon, should 
 all be derived from the same original. 
 
 That the Goths were not without metallic armour is proved 
 from the native terms employed. 
 
 " Hilni," helm-et, is found in all the Teutonic dialects in 
 nearly the same form. The root of this word is found in the 
 Old Norse, <c hilma;" Anglo-Saxon, "helan;" German, 
 " hiillen," to cover, which branches out into a variety of signi- 
 fications. In the days of chivalry, the pieces of tapestry which 
 were thrown over the benches in the manner of modern anti- 
 macassars, were called " hullings." In the Lancashire dialect 
 of the present day the cover of a book is called the " hilling." 
 In Anglo-Saxon, a crown is called " cyne-helm," or king's 
 helmet, as in John, oh. 19, v. 5, ic thyrnene cynehelm " is used 
 for the crown of thorns. " Helm" was also used in the sense 
 of protector, as a component part of proper names, e.g., 
 " Adhelin," noble protector ; " Friedhelm," defender of peace ; 
 "Wilhemi," defender of repose/' It is an evidence of the 
 martial influence of the Goths during the decline of the Koman 
 empire, that the ancient terms for helmet, "galea" and 
 
45 
 
 " cassis," should have been abandoned both in Low Latin, 
 Italian, Spanish, and French, for the Teutonic term " helm," 
 slightly modified. 
 
 "Arw-asna," arrow; Anglo-Saxon, " arewa ;" Old Low 
 German, " or ;" Swedish, " arf." This term is not found in 
 the High German, where " pfeil " is the substitute ; Latin, 
 "pilum." 
 
 The use of the bow was not common amongst the Goths 
 at the earlier period of their history, not being mentioned 
 either by Caesar or Tacitus as amongst their weapons ; but 
 there is abundant proof of its use at a later period. 
 
 Many of the military terms now obsolete were common to 
 the Goths, and our Anglo-Saxon ancestors. 
 
 Heer, army. 
 
 Sigis, victory. 
 
 " Hansa," a troop, league, or association, whence the origin 
 of the " Hanse towns." 
 
 Brunjo, a breast-plate. 
 Anglo-Saxon, Byrn. 
 Old German, Bran. 
 Swedish, Bryn-ja. 
 
 Old French, Brugne, 
 From " Bran," the breast. 
 
 In the Constitutiones Caroli Magni, we find a law — 
 " Bauga et brunnia non dentur negociatoribus," " bows and 
 breast-plates not to be furnished to tradesmen." 
 
 The employment of the metals as coined money forms an 
 important epoch in the advance of a people from barbarism to 
 civilization. In the fourth century, the Goths seem to have 
 been in a transition state in this respect. Amongst all the 
 Aryan races cattle has been the original representative of 
 property, and the first medium of exchange. The Sanskrit 
 
 term for cattle, ^I^ P asu ^ as passed into the Greek irui), ttcko 
 (to possess)— 
 
46 
 
 Latin, 
 
 pecu. 
 
 Gothic, 
 
 faihu. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 feoh. 
 
 Old German, 
 
 film. 
 
 Modern German, vieh. 
 
 Swedish, fa. 
 
 Danish, foe. 
 
 In the whole of these, with the exception, perhaps, of the 
 Greek, the term has been interchangeable with wealth in 
 general. From the Latin "pecus," we have "peculium," 
 private property; ef pecunia," first, property in general, and 
 then coined money ; so in the Anglo-Saxon " cwic-feoh," or 
 " gangend-feoh," applied to cattle or sheep ; " licgend-feoh," 
 to immoveables ; and " weorc-feoh," to property in slaves.* 
 The same analogy holds good in the Old German and Norse 
 languages. 
 
 Where coined money is specially alluded to in the Scripture 
 and elsewhere, the Gothic version usually employs the foreign 
 term untranslated, as "drakma," for Greek Spax/tv* "unkja," 
 for Latin " uncia;" "sikl," for Hebrew " shekel." 
 
 In other cases the Greek apyvpia is literally rendered by 
 " silubreins," pieces of silver. The most general word 
 employed, whether to express the Greek apyvpiov, the Latin 
 "denarius," or "mina," is "skatts," a term running through 
 all the sister tongues — ■ 
 
 Old German, skazz. 
 
 Modern German, schatz. 
 
 Old Saxon, scat. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, sceat. 
 
 Old Frisian, sket. 
 
 Swedish, skatt. 
 
 Danish, skat. 
 
 Holl. schat. 
 
 The general meaning is that of treasure, property in general, 
 
 * Mat. 10, v. 9 — " Neebbe ne gold ne seolfer ne feoh in eowrum bigyrdlum •" 
 neither gold nor silver, nor brass in your purses. 
 
47 
 
 and by a secondary application, that of money. The deri- 
 vation of the term, though it seems to have escaped the notice 
 of Wachter, Ihre, Junius, and our older etymologists, is not 
 far to seek, if we keep in mind the leading idea involved. The 
 first notion of a circulating medium seems to have been, not 
 that of trade or barter, but of obligatory payment, or compul- 
 sory tribute. " Skolan," " skila," '' skulle," &c, in the old 
 Teutonic dialects expressed obligation or debt, particularly the 
 fines for homicide and other breaches of the law.* Some 
 name must have been given to the property used for the pur- 
 pose of paying the fine, and " skat," " skeat," &c, the terms 
 so employed, seem to have been derived from the verb 
 expressing the obligation, in the same way that " gelt," 
 money, is derived from "gel ten," to owe or to pay. The 
 change of vowel from "u" to " a" in forming the substantive 
 is the ordinary rule in Sanskrit, as "kavi," a poet, from "ku," 
 to sound; "plava," that which swims, from "plu" to swim. 
 The German " sollen," English " shall," are derived from the 
 same original ; also the old term " scot," as applied to a tax, 
 and the old English " shot," descended to our own times for 
 a score at a tavern. It is confirmatory of this derivation that 
 the " shilling " — 
 
 Old Low German, skillingr. 
 
 Anglo Saxon, settling. 
 
 Swedish and ) tit « 
 
 Danish, } sMhD g- 
 
 Holl. schelling. 
 
 German, schilling — 
 
 appears to have been the first coined money of the Teutonic 
 races, and according to Wachter has the derivation alluded to 
 above. The word originally meant a fine ; " laga skilling," 
 a fine imposed by law, and then passed to the piece of silver 
 used for the purpose. 
 
 * So "skalk" signified a bond-slave, one who could not pay his fine for 
 offences, and was therefore reduced to servitude. 
 
48 
 
 "Schilling," is not found in the Old German, nor in the 
 Gothic translation of the Scripture. It is, however, found in 
 the Neapolitan fragments of the 5th or 6th century. In the 
 Anglo-Saxon version of the New Testamemt, the word is used 
 frequently as equivalent to the Greek " apyvpia." It may, 
 therefore, fairly be inferred that coined money was first used 
 by the Goths and Saxons about the fifth century of our era. 
 There is one word for money in the Gothic version which is a 
 little perplexing. In Mat. 5, v. 27, " thou shalt not depart 
 thence till thou hast paid the uttermost farthing ; the Greek 
 KodparrrjQ is translated by " kintus," a term found nowhere else, 
 and of which the radical meaning and the derivation, are quite 
 unknown. 
 
 Proceeding on the principle that native terms in any art 
 imply an indigenous origin, unless they can be shown to be 
 translations ; the origin and progress of letters amongst the 
 Gothic races presents a most interesting field of inquiry. 
 The space at my command forbids me entering upon the sub- 
 ject with any minuteness of detail, but I will endeavour to 
 state with as much brevity as possible the general conclusions 
 arrived at from a somewhat extensive area of investigation. 
 
 The original terms for writing in the whole of the Aryan 
 languages, in their primary meaning signify cutting or scratch- 
 ing. They are as follow — 
 
 Sanskrit, f%^ v likh. 
 Greek, ypatyio. 
 Latin, scribo. 
 German, schreiben. 
 
 This last is commonly supposed to be derived from the 
 Latin, but from the general diffusion of the same radical 
 through the Teutonic tongues, it is more probably of native 
 growth. It is found in the 
 
 Swedish, skrifwa. 
 
 Low German, schrywen. 
 Icelandic, skra ; 
 
49 
 
 and in these cases it signifies " to write," in our sense of the 
 term ; but originally it meant to scratch or cut, in which sense 
 alone it is found in the Gothic "skreitan," to cut or tear; 
 Anglo-Saxon "screopan," to scrape. 
 It is also found in the Celtic tongues — 
 
 Hibernian, schriobham. 
 Cambrian, ysgrivenny. 
 Breton, skriva, 
 
 where it means to write. In the old Norse delects it was also 
 used in the sense of drawing and painting. ^Our word " write " 
 is found in the Anglo-Saxon, "writan," which is employed in 
 the modern sense. The Norse " rita," signifies both to draw 
 and to write. The German " reissen," now only used to 
 express cutting, tearing, and sketching, formerly meant also 
 to write. 
 
 This may suffice to show the original idea involved in the 
 expressions for writing. The only exception to this is the 
 Gothic language, in which the term for writing points, as I 
 will show hereafter, to' an altogether different origin.* 
 
 All the original terms for books, writings, and manuscripts, 
 signify either wood or the bark of a tree. 
 
 In Greek, filfiXog is the inner bark of the papyrus. In 
 Latin, " codex," meant a block of wood, " liber/' the inner 
 bark of a tree. The Teutonic races, without exception, use the 
 term "book" for a collection of writings. 
 
 The history of this word is the history of Teutonic civili- 
 sation. For its origin we must go back far beyond the range 
 of history to the period before the Aryan race had left their 
 eastern father-land and separated into distinct tribes. j^ 
 
 We find in Sanskrit the root, *?^[ bhaksh, or ^^T bhag, to 
 eat. The Sanskrit roots, if roots at all, of which there can be 
 
 * All the terms above alluded to are very suggestive of one common origin, 
 but unfortunately the Sanskrit root which would prove the converging point is 
 wanting. 
 
50 
 
 no doubt, are common to all the Aryan tongues, and must 
 have existed from the origin of the race. From the abstract 
 idea of eating, the simplest transition is to the thing eaten. 
 We find in the Zend or ancient Persian, an Aryan tongue 
 closely allied to the Sanskrit, the term buk applied to the 
 Quercus bellota, a species of oak which produces edible fruit. 
 Turning to the Greek language, we find the same root in 
 (pay-(o to eat ; * (p-qy-og Quercus segilops, another species of 
 oak. The same principle is found in 
 
 Lithuanian, buk-a. 
 Russian, buk-i. 
 Slavonic, buk ; 
 
 all describing a tree with edible fruit. In Latin, " fag-us," 
 
 the beech tree, supplies the place of the oak, the emigrants 
 
 from the east naturally attaching the old names to the forms 
 
 most similar. The 
 
 Irish, feagh-a. 
 
 Cambrian, faw-ydd ; 
 
 both signify beech tree, and sufficiently indicate their con- 
 nexion. 
 V^ In the Teutonic tongues, we have — 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, boc. 
 
 Old High German, puoch. 
 Old Saxon, buk. 
 
 Holl. beuk-en. 
 
 Swedish, bok. 
 
 This is the first stage in the history of the word. " Bok " 
 signifies beech-wood, which flourished in the indigenous forests 
 of Europe, and from its smoothness and hardness, was well 
 suited for engraving and carving. 
 
 We must now turn to the art of writing as it existed in the 
 early ages of our Teutonic ancestors. Although for the most 
 
 * It must be explained that by the laws of phonetic change derived from a 
 careful comparison of numerous instances, " bh," in Sanskrit, is represented by 
 " 0," in Greek, " f,' in Latin, and " b," in the Teutonic tongues. 
 
51 
 
 part pre-historic, yet it has left sufficient evidence both in the 
 terms of our language and in its actual remains, to enable us 
 fully to understand its nature. All the modern European 
 alphabets, it is scarcely necessary to mention, are derived from 
 Asia through the Greek and Latin. Before their introduction, 
 the Teutons were not unprovided with a system of letters 
 which served, for all practical purposes, the requirements of 
 those simple times. This was the Runic system of writing, 
 which prevailed from an unknown antiquity, and was continued 
 long after the Christian era.* 
 
 The word " runa," in the Teutonic languages, originally 
 
 signified a mystery, and is derived from the Sanskrit root ^ ru, 
 to mutter, to murmur. From the same source procee the 
 Latin "ru-mor," "ru-gio," a rau-cus/' and the Greek (b-pv-ofiat; 
 so in Mat. ch. 4, v. 11 — " The mysteries of the kingdom of 
 God;" Gothic, "runa thiudangardjos Guths." The writing 
 consisted of characters cut on the sides and edges of small 
 pieces of beech-wood. The novelty of the art imparted to it 
 an air of mystery, which was kept up for the purpose of 
 imposing on the ignorant, and imparting a solemn air to 
 incantations and sorceries. The staffs so employed obtained 
 the general name of "bok-stsef," or "buch-stab;" they also 
 received specific terms, according to the purposes for which 
 the writing was employed, as " run-stgef," when inscribed with 
 magical characters ; Old German, " ruog-stab," an indictment 
 or accusation, &c.f 
 \s Tacitus, judging doubtless from his own observation, states 
 that the ancient Germans were ignorant of letters, " literarum 
 secreta viri pariter ac fceminse ignorant ;" yet several passages 
 
 * Venantius Fortunatus, in the 7th century, writes — 
 
 '.' Barbara fraxineis pingatur rhuna tabellis." 
 This shews that the ash was occasionally nsed as well as the " buch," or beech, 
 for writing on. 
 
 + Many fine specimens are preserved in the Museum of Northern Antiquities, 
 at Copenhagen, 
 

 52 
 
 in his treatise give indications of the existence of the Runic 
 system, of the nature of which he was probably ignorant. He 
 speaks of their veneration for " Aurinia/' which, doubtless, 
 means the "Alruna," or female sorcerers alluded to by Jor- 
 nandes. He also mentions a mode of divination practised 
 by the use of wooden slips with marks cut on the edges, which, 
 after certain ceremonies, were thrown upon a white sheet, and 
 afterwards taken up and interpreted according to the marks 
 upon them. Nothing could more clearly indicate the original 
 mode of Runic writing than this passage. 
 
 When the writing began to be sculptured on stone, the mode 
 adopted of forming letters was that of cutting a representation 
 of the upright staff which formed the letter I, and by cross 
 lines representing the incisions marking the distinctions of the 
 other letters.* 
 
 The term ei buch-stab," or " bok-stafT," thus became equi- 
 valent to the Latin " litera," or letter, and is so used in all the 
 Teutonic tongues. Even in English, we find it so employed 
 in the 13th century — 
 
 " And tatt he loke well thatt he 
 An hoc staff write twiggess." 
 
 Ormidum. 
 
 There were many systems of letters formed on this principle. 
 Thev were termed " Futhorcs," from the order in which the 
 letters stood, f, u, th, &c, commencing the list, as a, b, c, do 
 in the ordinary Roman or Phoenician alphabet. 
 
 At what period the Roman and Greek alphabets finally 
 superseded the Runic in Western Europe, it is impossible to 
 determine with certainty. In the 5th century, Chilperic, king 
 of the Franks, revised the alphabet and added several letters, 
 and the influence of the church finally secured the ascendancy 
 of the Roman letters. 
 
 * " Hand dubie hsec est, quod ornnes literae Eunicee a prima et elementari 
 litera I quae uianifesta siruilitudine scipioneui erectum representat, per similes 
 baculos vel annexos, yel transversos, partim obliquos paitim incurvos oriautur,' 
 — Wachter, p. 1575. 
 
 

 53 
 
 In the Gothic language the case was somewhat different. 
 We possess the terms "runa," for mystery, and " boka," and 
 "bokas," for books and writings. Although there can be little 
 doubt that the Runic system prevailed amongst the Goths as 
 amongst the kindred races, yet the earlier introduction of alpha- 
 betical writing has obliterated the record of it. The term for 
 writing in Gothic is "meljan," which comes from a root signify- 
 ing to paint or blacken, equivalent to the Greek fxeXag, black, 
 fieXairo) to blacken ; German, " malen ; " Swedish " mala." 
 We have the remains of this root in the term " maul-stick," 
 used by the painter to steady his hand. Here there is an 
 entire departure from the primitive idea connecting writing 
 with cutting and engraving in all the other kindred tongues. 
 It seems a fair inference that the term was first applied 
 at the time when Ulphilas translated the Scriptures into the 
 Gothic language, and constructed an alphabet for the purpose. 
 The MS. being doubtless written on parchment, the old term 
 no longer applied, and a word expressive of painting or 
 .colouring was more applicable. 
 
 The old bok-staf gave way to flat tablets of wood which 
 were called " bokas," and to parchments called " bok-pells," 
 and at length the term settled down in every Teutonic language 
 to the modern "book," " buch," &c* i-"""' 
 
 The history of this word from its earliest traceable root, 
 in Sanskrit, indicating the simplest animal wants, through its 
 various applications down to its present use, is an epitome of 
 the progress of the human race, and is, perhaps, as suggestive 
 as any word in the English language of the essential identity 
 of the great Aryan family. 
 
 * For the purposes of calendars, these " bok-stafs" were continued down to a 
 late period. Borel, in the preface to his " Lexicon Vocum. Antiq. Gallicar," says, 
 " Les paysans se servent encore d'une espece de hieroglyfiques, en sorte qu' ils 
 font des almanachs sur un morceau de bois, qui n'est pas si grand qu' une carte 
 a jouer, ou sont marquez tous les mois et jours de l'annee, avec les festes et autre s 
 choses notables, par un artifice singulier." 
 
54 
 
 We have a curious glimpse into the habits of our remote 
 ancestors in the terms employed for reading. In the Gothic 
 language, as anciently in the sister tongues, to read and to 
 siug were expressed by the same verb " singvan." Thus, in 
 Luke, iv, 16, where our Lord entered into the synagogue, at 
 Nazareth, and stood up to read, it is rendered " usstoth 
 siugvan bokos ;" " he stood up to sing the writing." Again in 
 1st Tim., iv. v. 13, " Till I come give attendance to reading," 
 &c, is rendered, unte qimagaumei sangva boko," attend to the 
 singing-of books. The word " redan," equivalent to our "read," 
 meant to think, to comprehend, to counsel. In fact, anciently, 
 reading orally and singing were one and the same thing. 
 Reading was a modulated recitation, and singing was merely 
 recitative.* By the 8th century, the words "redan" and 
 " siugvan " had settled down into their modern meaning. In 
 the Anglo-Saxon version of the gospels, Luke, iv, v. 16, is 
 rendered " he aras thoet he roedde." 
 
 I might proceed at much greater length. It would be 
 interesting to show from the nomenclature of the most familiar 
 ideas — the parts of the body — the relationships of life — the 
 names of the heavenly bodies, and of the phenomena of nature, 
 and by a large collection of verbs and adjectives predicative of 
 actions, thoughts, feelings, and qualities, embracing a large 
 proportion of those in daily use amongst us — that the Goths 
 stood in very close relationship with our ancestors, but the 
 limits of the present essay will not permit this. With one or 
 two general observations I will bring my remarks to a close. 
 
 I have already alluded to the rudeness and imperfection of 
 the Anglo-Saxon language at the earliest period known to us. 
 The deficiency in the inflexions, and in their absence the 
 
 * In the services of religion, the musical intonation in reading has main- 
 tained its position to the present day. This appears to have heen the case amongst 
 the Jews in every age — "Jndsei ita pronunciant preces suas, nt potius canere 
 quam precari eas diceres. Si dum recitant Textum, non prselegere, sed cantare 
 eum videntur." — Grosgebauer, " De Ceremoniis Judaeoiiim." 
 
55 
 
 want of suitable auxiliaries and particles to give precision to 
 the meaning, indicate a transition state of degradation from 
 its original inflexional character, without having acquired the 
 compensation afforded by the modern grammatical system. 
 In the Gothic version of the Scriptures, if this character 
 appears at all, it is to a very small extent. The inflexional 
 system, with the exception of the future and some other 
 tenses of the verbs, is as complete as in the Latin, whilst the 
 copiousness of the vocabulary gives great facilities in render- 
 ing the niceties of the Greek. The subtle reasonings and 
 abrupt turns in the epistles of St. Paul ; the noble bursts of 
 eloquence which occasionally appear, are rendered in the 
 Gothic with a faithfulness and force which are truly astonish- 
 ing, and indicate a considerable amount of intellectual culture 
 amongst the people speaking the language. Some passages 
 in the Greek text, which depend for their effeot on the use of 
 the same word in different senses, have been found very diffi- 
 cult to render, with the proper point, into the modern Euro- 
 pean tongues. I would instance a passage in the Epistle to 
 the Komans, chap. xii. v. 3, " For I say, through the grace 
 given unto me, to every man that is among you, not to think 
 of himself more highly than he ought to think ; but to think 
 soberly, according as God has dealt to every man the measure 
 of faith/' The original of the clause in Italics runs thus, — 
 " fjitj v7rep(j)poyeTp Trap o het (f>povelv, a\Xa typovetv elg to (TOMppovelv ', " 
 the point of the passage lying in the play on the word typovziv, 
 which in our translation is entirely lost. I have met with no 
 translation, in any version, which equals the Gothic in repro- 
 ducing the delicate shades of the original. It runs thus, — 
 the verb "frathjan," to think, being equivalent to the Greek 
 (ppovziv, — " qitha auk thairh anst Guths, sei gibana ist mis, 
 allaim visandaim in izvis ni mais-frathjan than skuli- 
 frathjan, ak frathjan du vaila frathjan," where the fanciful 
 play of the words is literally reproduced. 
 
56 
 
 There is, occasionally, a poetical grandeur attaching to the 
 derivations and associations of the old Gothic words, which is 
 very striking. Our words " sea" and "soul" are descended 
 respectively from the Gothic " saiv " and " saivala," Anglo- 
 Saxon " sae" and " savl," and there is little doubt of their "being 
 derived from a common root. The Latin " anima," and the Greek 
 " ybi>xn," mean simply " the hreath," and are applied metaphori- 
 cally to man's immortal part; but in the Gothic term a nobler 
 image is presented. The soul is here the ocean of man's 
 existence, like the sea, in its apparently limitless extent, with 
 its storms and its calms ; its sunshine and its gloom ; its tides 
 and its currents ; and its ever restless, insatiable energy. The 
 conception is bold and forcible, and indicates a deeply reflec- 
 tive turn amongst the people who could embody it in their 
 language. 
 
 I have now brought to a close my remarks on the Gothic 
 language. My object has been to shew the essential identity 
 of our own mother tongue, traced through its ancient forms, 
 with the earliest form of the Teutonic which remains to us in 
 the Gothic version of the Scriptures ; to prove so far as can be 
 done in so small a compass, that all the modern Teutonic dialects 
 may be traced to a common converging point, which lies very 
 near the Gothic ; to indicate from the structure and inflexions 
 of this ancient tongue its analogies with the other members 
 of the great Aryan family, and its points of divergence and 
 departure from them. 
 
 I propose, on a future occasion, to enquire how far beyond 
 the Gothic it is possible to trace the elements of our language, 
 or, in other words, what connexion can be shewn to exist 
 between the Teutonic dialects and the ancient Sanskrit roots. 
 
SANSKRIT ROOTS 
 
 ENGLISH DERIVATIONS 
 
In two papers previously read before this society, I have 
 endeavoured to illustrate the identity of our own mother 
 tongue, in all its essential elements, with the ancient Gothic, 
 the earliest form of Teutonic speech handed down to us. I 
 have also shown that the position which the Gothic language 
 holds, presents great facilities for tracing the connexion of 
 the Teutonic branch with the other great stems of the Aryan 
 family of tongues, especially with the Greek, Latin, and 
 Sanskrit. It is my purpose in the present paper to continue 
 the inquiry, by calling attention to a few instances of the 
 radical connexion still to be traced, between the members of 
 the family most widely separated both by time and space; the 
 one from the extreme East, and preserving in its grammatical 
 character the earliest forms, — the Sanskrit ; and the other, 
 occupying the most advanced post to the West, and in many 
 respects of the most modern development — our own English 
 tongue. A few years ago any attempt of this kind would 
 have been simply impossible, but the patient labours of the 
 modern school of philology have done much towards remov- 
 ing the difficulties, by investigating the laws of language in 
 its permutations, and by establishing principles which may be 
 relied on in inquries of this nature. Amongst these inquirers 
 stands pre-eminent the name of Eranz Bopp, the publication 
 of whose Vergleichende GrammatiJc, the first part of which 
 appeared in 1833, created an entirely new era in the science 
 of Philology. Up to that time, etymology had been little 
 
58 
 
 more than a series of guesses, frequently shrewd and acute, 
 but based on no principle, and appealing to no general laws. 
 Jacob Grimm, the commencement of whose Deutsche Gram- 
 matik was published in 1822, has exhausted the subject of 
 the Teutonic languages in their co-relation and comparison, 
 but to Bopp we owe the establishment of the laws of language 
 on such sure and settled foundations, that future inquirers 
 may tread firmly, and advance with confidence, where formerly 
 every step was treacherous and uncertain. The labours of Bopp 
 have been ably followed up by Professor E. Pott, of Halle, 
 in his Etymologische Forschmigen, (Lemgo, 1859,) and 
 latterly in our own country by Max Muller, whose " Lectures 
 on the Science of Language " have done much to draw the 
 attention of the educated classes to the importance and value 
 of philological studies, and the interest attaching to them. 
 Hitherto, however, not much has been done towards tracing 
 out the connexion of our own language with the earliest of 
 its congeners. Bopp's Comparative Grammar has chiefly to 
 do with principles, laid down in the most masterly way, but 
 adapted only for scholars. Our own etymologists almost 
 uniformly terminate their inquiries with the Anglo-Saxon, 
 Latin and Greek. One of our latest writers, Mr. Hensleigh 
 Wedgwood, whose Dictionary of English Etymology now in 
 course of publication is most valuable, never attempts to go 
 beyond the Gothic in his illustrations. The only English 
 philologist, so far as my observation goes, who has drawn 
 upon the Sanskrit for illustrations, is Mr. Oswald Cockayne, 
 in his recent lively and interesting work entitled Spoon and 
 Sparrow, and this only in a tentative and unsystematic 
 manner. In Germany, in addition to the work of Professor 
 Pott already alluded to, an elaborate volume was published at 
 Vienna, in 1852, by Professor Holmboe, of Copenhagen, 
 shewing the connexion of the Norse languages with the other 
 Indo-European tongues, — illustrated by a large number of 
 
59 
 
 Sanskrit examples.* With these exceptions the field is un- 
 occupied, and will yield a fruitful harvest to the diligent 
 investigator. 
 
 If we compare words in different languages, of the identity 
 of which there can be no question, we find considerable 
 differences in the forms which they assume, for instance — 
 English, thief German, dieb 
 
 English, door German, thur 
 
 English, creep Latin, serp-o 
 
 Further examination has shewn that these transmutations are 
 not arbitrary and capricious, but in all their varied forms 
 exhibit the presence of law, often plain and simple, frequently 
 subtle and delicate, and sometimes difficult and obscure. 
 This is the great principle of modern philology, which has 
 already produced great results, and promises still greater. By 
 the discovery and application of these general laws, relations 
 and affinities have been detected between languages formerly 
 considered entire strangers to each other ; converging lines 
 have been traced, so to speak, pointing in the direction of the 
 common centre of widely extended families of speech, and 
 the chaotic Babel of human tongues has been reduced to 
 something like order and system. 
 
 One of the most valuable discoveries was < the fact that 
 particular letters or sounds in certain languages are uniformly 
 represented in certain other languages by other special letters 
 or sounds. This is called Grimm's law of Phonetic Trans- 
 mutation. For example we find the Sanskrit <TS[t dasan 
 represented by — 
 
 Greek, Uko. 
 
 Latin, decern 
 
 Gothic, taihun 
 
 English, ten 
 
 High German, zehn — formerly zehan 
 
 * " Det norske sprogs, voesentligste ordforraad, med Sanskrit os andre sproff 
 af Samme Mt." Wien, 1852. 
 
60 
 
 It will be seen that the three first have d for their initial 
 letter, the two second t } the last z. From various instances 
 of this kind the Indo-European languages have been sepa- 
 rated into classes ; the Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, forming 
 one group which may be called the classical ; the Gothic, the 
 Norse tongues, and the Low German dialects, including the 
 Anglo Saxon, forming a second ; and the High German — now 
 consisting of a single language, but formerly divided into 
 various dialects, the Theotisc, the Alemannic, the Francic, 
 &c. — forming a third.* This law of transmutation applies to 
 consonants only, the vowel changes being accounted for differ- 
 ently. The consonants thus affected are classified as Tenues, 
 Medials and Aspirates, thus — 
 
 Labials. Dentals. Gutturals. 
 
 Tenues P T K 
 
 Medials B D G 
 
 Aspirates F TH CH } 
 
 Z H J 
 
 The relation of these letters to each other in the cognate 
 
 languages, as classified above, stands as follows : — 
 
 Greek, Latin, Gothic and Old High 
 
 Sanskrit. Low German. German. 
 
 Tenuis answers to Aspirate answers to Medial 
 Medial „ Tenuis ,, Aspirate 
 
 Aspirate ,, Medial „ Tenuis 
 
 The curious fact is here shewn that the Old High German 
 stands to the Gothic in the same relation as the Gothic to the 
 Classical ; where the Gothic substitutes an aspirate for the 
 Greek tenuis, the High German substitutes an aspirate for 
 the Gothic tenuis, and so with the other letters. This rela- 
 tion may be represented geometrically, in a triangular form, 
 thus — 
 
 Classical 
 
 High German C_ -^. Low German 
 
 * The Celtic, Lithuanian, and Slavonic languages, equally belonging to the 
 general Aryan stock, form no part of the present inquiry. 
 
61 
 
 Starting from an angle and going round with the sun, the 
 kindred letters always follow in the same order as indicated 
 above. Or it may be illustrated thus — Any of the letters at 
 any of the angles has always the same relative letter on the 
 left and right. Thus, a tenuis has alawys a medial on the 
 right, and an aspirate on the left. A medial has an aspirate 
 on the right and a tenuis on the left. An aspirate has a 
 tenuis on the right, and a medial on the left. These inter- 
 relations are curious and interesting, but their origin and 
 the regularity with which they occur are at present quite 
 beyond the reach of our inquiries. 
 
 The table of permutations is as follows — 
 
 Greek, Latin, Gothic and Old High 
 
 Sanskrit. Low German. German. 
 
 Tenues 
 
 Medials 
 
 Aspirates ■ 
 
 P F BorV 
 
 T TH D 
 
 K H G 
 
 B P F 
 
 D T Z or TH 
 
 G K CH 
 
 F B P 
 
 TH D T 
 
 G K 
 
 CH} 
 H J 
 
 I have only space to give one or two illustrations of the 
 operation of this law — 
 
 I. INITIAL CHANGES. 
 
 Sans. Lat. Gr. Gothic. Old High Ger. English. 
 
 twam tu rv thu du thou 
 
 bhri fero tyipaj baira piru bear 
 
 MIDDLE CHANGES. 
 
 upari super ufar ubar upon 
 
 INITIAL AND MIDDLE. 
 
 kapala caput Ke(pa\ri haubith haupit head 
 Grimm's law, though exceedingly valuable, is liable to 
 many limitations and exceptions, principally arising from the 
 fact that most, if not all, of these cognate dialects had under- 
 
6.2 
 
 gone farther changes and corruptions previous to the date of 
 the earliest specimens handed down to us. The most archaic 
 forms of each language approach the nearest to the ascertained 
 law. 
 
 In order to render intelligible the remarks which follow, I 
 must now say a few words on the Sanskrit alphabet, probably 
 the most scientific and elaborate phonetic arrangement which 
 is found in any language. In a rapid sketch like the present, 
 I must pass by the vowels and diphthongs, merely remarking 
 that they consist of long and short a, long and short i 3 long 
 and short u ; o and <?, the diphthongs ai and au ; ri is treated 
 as a vowel long and short, and the combination hi is also 
 classed as a vowel, though only found in a single word. 
 
 The consonants are classified according to the organs 
 employed in producing them, commencing at the throat and 
 ending at the lips. 
 
 GUTTURALS. 
 
 Hard, surd or tenuis ^J k 
 
 Soft, sonant or medial 3j g 
 
 Hard, aspirated ?^ kh 
 
 Soft, aspirated ^ gh 
 
 Nasal ^ 
 
 ng 
 
 Simple aspirate ^ h 
 
 PALATALS. 
 
 Hard ^T ch 
 
 Soft SJ j 
 
 Hard, aspirated ^ chh 
 
 Soft, aspirated ^ jh 
 
 Nasal 3f 
 
 Sibilant ^ sh 
 
 CEREBRALS. 
 
 Hard ^ t 
 
 Soft ^ d 
 
Hard, aspirated 
 
 3 
 
 th 
 
 Soft, aspirated 
 
 s 
 
 dh 
 
 Nasal 
 
 ^ 
 
 nt 
 nd 
 
 Sibilant 
 
 *T 
 
 zh 
 
 DENTALS. 
 
 
 
 Hard 
 
 rf 
 
 t 
 
 Soft 
 
 * 
 
 d 
 
 Hard, aspirated 
 
 ^ 
 
 th 
 
 Soft, aspirated 
 
 T* 
 
 dh 
 
 Nasal 
 
 ^ 
 
 nt 
 nd 
 
 Sibilant 
 
 * 
 
 s 
 
 LABIALS. 
 
 
 
 Hard 
 
 V 
 
 P 
 
 Soft 
 
 ^ 
 
 b 
 
 Hard, aspirated 
 
 XR 
 
 ph 
 
 Soft, aspirated 
 
 ^ 
 
 bh 
 
 Nasal 
 
 *T 
 
 m 
 
 SEMI-VOWELS. 
 
 
 
 ^T y ^ r ^ 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 V 
 
 It will be seen that whilst the Sanskrit possesses many 
 sounds which are lost in the cognate languages, others are 
 deficient, such as the sound of f, and the dental aspirate re- 
 presented by the English th. The palatals are not found in 
 either Latin, Greek, Gothic or High German — that is in their 
 early forms. They have been subsequently introduced into 
 most of the modern European languages. 
 
 I now come to the consideration of the Sanskrit roots, the 
 ultimate results of the closest analysis directed to the subject, 
 and beyond which inquiry cannot go. They are, so to speak, 
 the elementary atoms out of which the wonderful structure 
 of the Aryan family of tongues has been built up. It would 
 be too much to assert that all the radical forms of every 
 
64 
 
 Aryan language are to be found in Sanskrit. A large number 
 have doubtless been lost in Sanskrit, which form essential 
 elements of other tongues, as many exist in Sanskrit which 
 other tongues have not retained, but thus much may be as- 
 serted, that many Sanskrit roots are extensively diffused 
 throughout every Aryan language, and that Sanskrit is the 
 only language in which true roots have been preserved. This 
 arises from the peculiarities of Sanskrit grammar, a large 
 portion of which consists in the formation from the roots of 
 crude forms or bases capable of inflexion. 
 
 A Sanskrit root is a primary monosyllabic sound " which 
 conveys some simple idea appearing under different modifica- 
 tions in the derivatives from it." * Contrary to the theories 
 of our older writers on language, these roots all convey 
 abstract ideas, though of the simplest kind; for instance 
 ^fa jiv conveys the idea of life or living, but it is neither a 
 substantive, verb, nor any other part of speech, and cannot 
 be employed as such until it has undergone certain modifica- 
 tions. To live is ^Vf^cT jivitum ; life is ^cf jivan. The 
 prolific nature of these simple roots we shall see presently. 
 
 There are about two thousand roots in the Sanskrit lan- 
 guage as it exists, but many of these are only secondary and 
 derivative, though grammatically treated as roots. Bopp is 
 of opinion that on close investigation they might probably be 
 reduced to about five hundred. 
 
 The Sanskrit roots are of two classes ; Verbal, from which 
 spring verbs and nouns, and Pronominal, from which spring 
 the pronouns, and all original prepositions, conjunctions and 
 particles. The former class is by far the most numerous and 
 prolific. From this class my illustrations will be chiefly 
 derived. 
 
 The Verbal roots are divided into ten classes according to 
 the mode in which the declinable base is prepared for in- 
 
 * Monier Williams' Sanskrit Grammar, 2nd edit., p. 39. 
 
65 
 
 flexion. Two modes of conjugation are adopted, the Para- 
 smai-pada, (words for another) used for active transitive verbs, 
 and the Atmane-pada, (words for one-self or soul words) used 
 principally in the sense of the middle and passive voices. 
 
 I have made these explanations as short and simple as 
 possible ; but some preliminary remarks were absolutely 
 necessary to enable those who may not have turned their 
 attention to the subject to understand what follows. I will 
 now proceed with my illustrations. 
 
 One of the simplest abstract ideas is that of stability, ex- 
 pressed by the English word to stand. Eadically this word is 
 found in every Aryan language in an almost infinite variety of 
 forms, the connexion between which previous to the study of 
 Sanskrit, it was almost impossible to determine. They are all 
 now traceable to the root ^f stha (1st class Parasmai and 
 Atmane) inflected in the present tense tishtami, iishtasi, tish- 
 tati ; Zend or old Persian histami. In Greek we have craw, 
 which has been abandoned for its derivative itmifu to stand ; 
 (TToa, a place, a colonnade ; arrjXr) a column, ara-Siog standing 
 firm, &c. In Latin — sto, sta-re, sta-tio, sta-tuo, (to cause to 
 stand, to appoint), sta-tor (one who appoints), sta-tua ( a 
 fixed image), sta-tura, sta-tim, sta-tus, sta-bilis, sta-gnum, 
 sta-bulum, dee. In compounds — si-sto, ob-sto, con-sto, re-sto, 
 ex-sto, super-sto, inter-sto, con-sti-tuo, re-sti-tuo, sub-sti-tuo* 
 Slavonic, sto-ju to stand ; Hibernian, sta-d to stop ; Gothic, 
 sta-nden, with its compounds, af-standan, at-standan, bi- 
 standan, mith-standan, in-sfandan, us-standan, dec, sta-ths, 
 a place, stains a rock, a stone. 
 
 In Old German we have the crude form near akin to the 
 root in stan, (Mod. Ger. ste-hen), from which proceed a very 
 large number of derivatives, gi-stan (bestehen), ana-stan 
 (anstehen), ar-stan (erstehen), fora-stan (verstehen), &c, 
 
 * For the change of a into i in these compounds, see Bopp, Comp. Gr., 
 § 6, and cxi. 
 
66 
 
 with a large number of compounds ; stiftan, to appoint, place, 
 with' its compounds. Sto-c, the trunk of a tree, a beam ; 
 statt — stadt, a place, a city. In Anglo-Saxon, sta-ndan, 
 sta-pol, an appointed place, a prop ; sta-thol, a foundation ; 
 stoef, stoc, stow, (a place) ; sta-ith, ste-de, &c. 
 
 The Low German dialects, the Old Saxon, the Old Frisian, 
 the Dutch, and the Norse languages have all corresponding 
 classes of words from the same root. 
 
 In English their name is legion, descended to us both from 
 the Teutonic and Classic sources of our language —sta-nd, 
 sta-te, estate, sta-ndard, sta-tion, sta-tionary, ste-ad, ste-ady, 
 sta-ple, sta-ble, sta-tue, sta-tute, sta-ture, sta-ted, sta-y, 
 sta gnant, sta-unch, sta-ll, sta-ke, sta-ge, sta-ck, sta-ff, 
 sta-ith, sto-ne, dec. When we consider that these (and many 
 more) are merely modifications of the primitive idea expressed 
 by the root sthd, we may begin to appreciate the prolific 
 nature of language ; its vast capability of extension and 
 accommodation to the necessities of human thought, and the 
 simplicity of its laws in its earliest development. 
 
 Our word to " go " expresses the simple idea of volun- 
 tary motion. It finds its root in the Sanskrit — *pfl^ gam, 
 Parasmai 1st class. Present gachchhami, Infin, gantum. 
 The form in Zend is Z'engiu. Lithuanian kan-hu. Gothic 
 gan-gan, with its compounds at-gangan, mith-gangan, &c, 
 gangs — a street, gate, passage — . 
 
 Old Saxon, ) 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, r gan-gan 
 
 Old German, J 
 
 Old Low German, gan-ga 
 
 Old Frisian, gun-ga 
 
 o 
 
 Swedish, ga 
 
 Danish, gaa 
 
 Modern German, ge-hen 
 Bopp is of opinion that to 
 
67 
 
 quam, quiman 
 quem-an 
 
 kom-a 
 
 kum-a 
 
 kom-en 
 
 kom-ma 
 
 kom-me. 
 
 kom-men. 
 
 same root, to which he refers the Latin ven-io, originally 
 guem-io. 
 
 Gothic, 
 
 Old German, 
 
 Old Saxon, ] 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, J 
 
 Old Low German, 
 
 Old Frisian, 
 
 Holl. 
 
 Swedish, 
 
 Danish, 
 
 Modern German, 
 In the Gothic language qui?nan and gangan are not unfre- 
 quently employed to express the same meaning as equivalents 
 for the Greek epxe<r$ai ; so Mat. 3, v. 11 — "He that cometh 
 after me is mightier than I." Gothic — " Sa afar mis gangida 
 svinthoza mis ist." Mar. 1, v. 7 — " There cometh one 
 mightier than I after me." Gothic — " Qimith svinthoza mis 
 sa afar mis." This tends to confirm Bopp's theory of their 
 common origin. 
 
 There is a word much used hy our old writers, steyen, or 
 steighen, expressive of motion upwards, which has unac- 
 countably disappeared from our language since the time of 
 Chaucer and Wickliffe. Its root is found in the Sanskrit 
 f%^ stigh ; 5th class, Parasmai, stighnomi, stighnosi, 
 stighnoti. Greek, ordyu, to go up. 
 
 The only trace of the root in Latin is stega, Greek, crriyri, 
 the deck or raised part of a ship. 
 
 Gothic, steig-an, to ascend, 
 Old Low German, 
 
 stig-a 
 
 a, a path 
 
 Old Frisian, 
 
 Swedish, 
 
 Danish, 
 
 Holl. 
 
 Modern German, 
 
 stig-e 
 
 stij-gen 
 
 steig-en, steg, a wooden bridge. 
 
68 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, stigan, stigh-el (a stile), stlg-rap (stirrup), 
 stceg-ers (stairs), stig-e (a ladder, still 
 called provincially a " stee" or " steigh") 
 
 " Sothely aftir thes dayes we made reedy and steygeden to 
 irlm." — Wickliffe. Acts of the Apos., ch. 21, v. 15. 
 " He steigh up to hevene 
 And on his fader ryght hand 
 Kedelich he sitteth." 
 
 Piers Ploughman. Orede. 
 
 We have in the English language two classes of words 
 descriptive of the relations arising from birth and race. One 
 class is derived from Latin and Greek, such as gentle, ge?iea- 
 logy, genius, generate, &c. ; the other of native Teutonic 
 origin, such as kin, kind, kinsman, &c. Both these classes 
 find their origin in the Sanskrit root — 
 
 ^w^jan. Conjugated in the Parasmai form, 4th class, 
 
 it signifies to produce, originate, beget. 
 Present. jajanmi, jajansi, jajanti. 
 Infinitive, jajanitum. 
 In the Atmane form, 3rd con., it means to be born. 
 Present, jdye, or janye, jdyishe, jdyite. 
 Infinitive, jay turn. 
 Greek, yev-io, yiyvoiicu, to be born, to be. 
 
 yzvzh birth, yev-oQ race, yev-eariQ origin, beginning, &c. 
 Latin, gen-o, altered to gign-o, to beget; gn-ascor, to be 
 born ; gen-s, gen -us, gen -it us, &c. In-gen-ium, in-gen-uus, 
 pro-gen-itor, &c. 
 
 The Sanskrit 5f«TCt janaka is equivalent to Latin geni-tor^ 
 father. W^TSfit janako, woman, corresponds with Greek 
 ywaiK from ywcLKi. ^*[jana, man, probably in the feminine 
 gfwfT jandy corresponds with 
 
 Greek, yvvr\ 
 Gothic, qyino 
 
Theotisc, qvino 
 
 English, 1 wan 
 6 ' queen 
 
 The English words derived from the Classical source are 
 very numerous, and branch out into a great variety of mean- 
 ings — gen-ealogy, gen-eral, gen-erate, gen-ital, gen-eric, gen- 
 erous, gen-ius, gen-ial, gen-tle, gen-teel, gen-tile, gen-uine, 
 gen-us, with their compounds. 
 The Teutonic stem gives us 
 
 Gothic, kuni (race, kin). 
 
 Old German, kun-ni 
 
 Old Saxon, cun-ni 
 
 Old Low German, kyn 
 
 Old Frisian, ken 
 
 Hollandish, kun-ne 
 
 Swedish, kon 
 
 Danish, kjon 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, cyn, cyn-ren 
 
 English, kin, kindred, kinsfolk, kind, 
 
 kinship, kindle, (to bring forth.) 
 
 Our word king, Anglo-Saxon, cyning, has often been 
 fancifully connected with cun-ning and can-ning, i.e., the 
 man that kens, or the man that cans, on the prin- 
 ciple that " knowledge is power." But there can be little 
 doubt that the true etymology is from cyn, race, and ing, son 
 or descendant, the man of birth, or of noble race, in the same 
 manner that cetheling, " the son of the noble one," was used 
 as the title of the king's heir. 
 
 The root ^\jn&, though quite distinct in Sanskrit from the 
 last, has given rise to some confusion in the cognate lan- 
 guages, from the close resemblance of the derivatives. It 
 signifies to " know," and is conjugated in the Parasmai 
 and Atmane forms, 9th class. 
 
 Present, janami, janasi, janati, 
 Greek, yvo-eo), ytvw-<r/ew 
 
70 
 
 Latin, gno-sco, co-gno-sco 
 
 Gothic, kunnan 
 
 Old German, kunnan 
 Swedish, kdnna, kunna 
 
 Danish, kjende, kunne 
 
 Hollandish, kennen 
 Mod. German kennen, kdnen 
 Anglo-Saxon, cnawan, kunnan 
 
 There can be no doubt that our auxiliary can, like the 
 German honnen, is an adaptation of the primary meaning, 
 knowledge, implying ability. Chaucer uses can in the sense 
 of knowing, conne in the sense both of knowledge and ability. 
 
 " I wot wel Abraham was an holy man, 
 And Jacob eke, for as ever I can." 
 
 Wife of Bathe's Tale. 
 
 " Then said Melibee : I shall not conne nswere unto so many faire 
 
 resons as ye putt en to me." 
 
 Tale of Melibeus. 
 
 The double derivation of which I have spoken, is found in 
 
 many classes of English words with changes of meaning more 
 
 or less important. The terms mortal, immortal, dec, referring 
 
 simply to decease, are derived from Sanskrit through Greek 
 
 and Latin. The word murder, implying a violent death, is 
 
 derived from the same root by a Teutonic descent. 
 
 jf mri or mar, to die ; Causative to kill, to slay. 
 
 6th Con. Atmane. 
 Present mriye, mriyase, mriyate 
 ;r<J mrita, mortal 
 
 Latin, mor-i, to die ; mors, death ; morbus, disease ; 
 
 im-mor-talis, deathless. 
 Greek, fiopog, death, fate ; a-fx(3poro£ for a-fipo-roQ, im- 
 
 mortal. 
 Lithuanian, mir-ti, to die 
 Russian, s-mer-ti, death 
 
71 
 
 From this primitive meaning of the root our words mortal, 
 immortal, dec, are derived. 
 
 From the Causative sense, to kill, slay, descend — 
 
 Gothic, maur-thr, murder 
 
 German, mord, morden 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, morth, mor-thor, Sc. 
 Swedish, 
 
 1 
 
 Hibernian, mar-bhaim, I kill ; mar-bhan, a corpse. 
 
 mord 
 Danish 
 
 The recent progress of a sound system of philology and 
 the light derived from the study of Sanskrit are well shewn 
 by reference to the speculations on these words. Home 
 Tooke* derives murder, morrow, and mirth, from the same 
 original, which he says is found in the Gothic and Anglo- 
 Saxon verb merjan, merran, which means to scatter, to dissi- 
 pate. Mirth is the third person singular of the verb, and 
 signifies that which dissipateth care and sorrow. Morrow and 
 Morning are the past tense and past participle, and signify 
 the dissipation of clouds and darkness. The Anglo-Saxon 
 Morthe is that which dissipates life, and hence is derived 
 French Meurtre and Latin Mors. 
 
 The speculation is ingenious, but will not bear examination. 
 To say nothing of the odd notion of a Latin radical being 
 derived from an Anglo-Saxon inflexion, it may suffice to 
 remark that the Gothic merjan has in no case the meaning 
 of " to scatter, dissipate." Its uniform signification is " to 
 declare, announce, preach," and is the equivalent of Greek 
 KTjpvacreLV, SiakaXe'iy, evayyeXiZecrSca ; " merjands daupein idrei- 
 
 gos," " preaching the baptism of repentance." 
 
 Dr. Eichardson adopts Home Tooke's etymology, with a 
 slight difference, suggesting that the Gothic verb maurthrjan 
 was probably formed from the third person singular of Anglo- 
 
 * Diversions of Parley. Taylor's Edition, 1857, pp. 461, 614, 
 
72 
 
 Saxon myrran to mar, and the English noun and verb from 
 this. 
 
 We are not here concerned with the etmology of Mirth and 
 Morrow ; whatever may be their derivation, the direct con- 
 nexion of Latin mors, Gothic maurthr, English murder, with 
 the Sanskrit root mri, is clear and distinct. When such hap- 
 hazard guesses as these are put forth as serious inferences by 
 our highest authorities, it is manifest that the whole system 
 of our English etymology requires revision. 
 
 Many of the Sanskrit roots, in the vital energy which they 
 display in accommodating themselves to the progressive ne- 
 cessities of human thought, have put forth derivatives widely 
 extending the application of the original idea, but in most 
 cases the connexion is capable of being traced, and possesses 
 considerable interest, from the light it throws on the progress 
 of the human race. I will give a few instances of this kind — 
 
 0^ dam, 4th class Parasmai 
 Present damyami, damyasi, damyati 
 Infinite damitum 
 
 The primitive idea in this root, which we shall find more or 
 less involved in all its derivations, is that of arranging, setting 
 in order. In the causative form applied to inanimate objects, 
 it means to put together, to construct fligare, struerej ; 
 applied to living beings it means to tame, to subdue. In the 
 neuter it has the sense of fitting, becoming, ^*TT damana 
 means a tamer, equivalent to the Greek ^afx-og, l-n-nrodafMoe a 
 horse tamer. In this sense we have — 
 
 Greek, dajjL—au), da/x-a^oj 
 
 Latin, dom-o 
 
 In Gothic, according to Grimm's law, the medial " d " is 
 changed into the tenuis " t " and it becomes tam-jan, Anglo- 
 Saxon tam-ian, English tame. In High German the tenuis 
 " t " is further exchanged by Grimm's law for the aspirate 
 
73 
 
 " z " equivalent to " tb," and it beomes zdkm-en, to tanie, 
 whence zautn, a bridle. 
 
 The Swedish, Danish, and Hollandish, follow the Gothic 
 in the word tarn. 
 
 The primary meaning of the root, that of order and ar- 
 rangement, is shewn in the word <^q dama, which means 
 soothing the mind after perturbation. This is further carried 
 out by applying it to the family connexion, diMcft dampati, 
 signifying a married pair, wife and husband. 
 
 The same application is made in Greek, where lafi-ap means 
 " a wife or spouse," whilst a maiden was called adafi-aarog, one 
 untamed or unyoked. 
 
 In Latin this sense is widely applied. Dom-ns, originally 
 means the home, the family, rather than the building in which 
 they dwell. Dom-inus and dom-ina are the master and mis- 
 tress of the household, whence a large class of secondary 
 forms, dom-icilium, do?n-inor, dom-esticus, dom-inium, (a 
 feast in the house), &c. The derivatives from this source 
 are very numerous in the Romance languages, dam-a, donna, 
 don, dame, ma-dame, ma-dem-oiselle, dim-anche, (from dom- 
 inie a,) &c. 
 
 In English also this branch from the root has been very 
 prolific. We have dame, dom-e, dom-estic, dom-ain, dom-inate, 
 dom-ineer, dom-icile, dom-inical, &c, principally through the 
 French, this application of the root not having obtained 
 currency in the Teutonic languages. 
 
 In the sense of being fitting or becoming, we have Gothic 
 tim-an* Luke v, 36 — "The piece out of the new agreeth 
 not with the old." 
 
 Gothic — " thamma fairnjin ni ga-tim-id thata af thamma 
 niujin " — 
 
 * For the law of change from the Sanskrit " a " to the Gothic '■ i," see Bopp, 
 Comp. Gram., I, p. 56. 
 
74 
 
 
 Old German, 
 
 zim-en 
 
 Modern German, 
 
 ziem-en 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 sem-an 
 
 English, 
 
 seem, beseem 
 
 As applied to inanimate things in the sense of construction 
 we have — 
 
 Greek, Se[i-(o, to build, construct 
 $e/j.-ag, the human frame 
 
 Ha building 
 cwfx-a, ) 
 
 According to Grimm's law, the dem of the Greek becomes 
 
 zim in High German, and tim in the Gothic dialects. Our 
 
 word timber is usually supposed to apply exclusively to wood, 
 
 and is traced by Pictet* to Sanskrit, ^$f dambh, to burn. 
 
 This derivation, however, is not borne out on full inquiry. 
 
 In the Old Teutonic dialects — 
 
 Old German, zim-bar 
 
 Gothic, tim-r 
 
 Norse, tim-mer 
 
 signified both a room or building, and the material, whatever 
 it might be, of which it was constructed, and is used more 
 frequently to describe stone than wooden construction, 
 Wachtert gives the meaning " Materia unde aliquid fit." 
 Junius J remarks, " Constat materiam tarn ligneam quam 
 lapideam unde aliquid efficitur, timber appellari, immo me- 
 talla alemannice zimbar vocari." 
 
 In the Old Norse, we read, " Slahans dor up eller hans 
 tymber sonnar." " If they should burst the door, or break 
 open the room." — Stadga om Urbotomal. 
 
 In the Gothic New Test, Ephes. ii, 20-2. — " Built upon the 
 foundation of the apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself 
 being the chief corner stone ; in whom all the building fitly 
 
 * Orig. Indo-Europ., I, p. 211. 
 t Gloss. Ger. sub voc. { Gloss. Ulph. 
 
75 
 
 framed together groweth unto an holy temple in the Lord ; in 
 whom ye also are builded together for an habitation of God 
 through the Spirit." Gothic — " Ana-timridai ana grundu- 
 vaddjau apaustaule jah profete at visandin auhumistin vaih- 
 stastaina silbin Xristau iesu ; in thamma alia gatimrjo 
 gagatiloda vahseith du alh veihai in fraujin ; in thamma jah 
 jus mithgatimridai sijuth du bauanai Guths in ahmin." 
 
 It is remarkable that the word timr is never employed in 
 the Gothic language in the sense of wood. Bagm beam, ans 
 beam, and triu tree, are uniformly employed. 
 
 In Anglo-Saxon, timbrian, getimbrian, to build, getim- 
 brung, a building, are equally used to describe stone con- 
 structions. Mark xiii, 1 — " Master, see what manner of 
 stones, and what buildings are here." " Lareow ! loca hwylce 
 stanas her synd and hwylce getimbrunga thyses temples ! " 
 
 As the German and English forests furnished the readiest 
 material for ordinary building, the term timber naturally 
 became mainly associated with wood, until it gained its present 
 exclusive use. In the same way the French word plancher, 
 which simply means the floor, became in English the word 
 plank applied to the wooden boards of which a floor is with 
 us usually constructed. The German term zimmer-holz, wood 
 applicable for building, preserves a reminiscence of the ori- 
 ginal meaning of the word. 
 
 JTT w «> to measure, to parcel out 
 
 3rd Con. Atmane. 
 Present mime, mimishe, mimite 
 2nd Pret. mame 
 
 Employed also in the sense of giving out — - 
 
 ^ «ft f*nftcF^ wAe no mimitam, give us food. 
 
 Rigveda. 
 
 We have here, as in so many other cases, words in English 
 descended from the same root by both lines of parentage. 
 
76 
 
 Greek, /ne-rpov, a measure or rule, with its numerous derivatives 
 
 /jufieo/jiai, to take the measure of, to imitate 
 
 a-fio-Tog, unmeasured 
 
 /jie-aog, middle 
 
 firj-vi], the moon, the measurer 
 Latin, me-to, me-tior, to measure 
 
 im-ma-nis, huge, unmeasured 
 
 me-nsura, measure 
 
 me-dius, middle 
 
 me-nsa, month 
 
 mo-dus, a measure 
 
 mo-dero, to keep within measure 
 hence modest us, <£c. 
 
 me-ditor, originally to act or speak in a measured way, 
 to exercise. 
 
 From this source, both direct and through the French, we 
 have a large number of words ; measure, with its various 
 compounds and derivatives ; mediate, medium, immediate, 
 dc, meditate, modest, moderate, modulate, &c. 
 
 In the Teutonic division we have — 
 
 Gothic, mi-tan, to measure 
 mi-taths, measure 
 ma-itan, to cut, divide 
 me-na, the moon 
 me-nath, month 
 mid-ja, middle 
 Old High German, me-zan, to measure 
 ma-no, moon 
 ma-noth, month 
 Old Low German, me-ta, mani, manadi 
 The Norse languages correspond. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, me-tan mo-na, mo-nath, mid-de, middle 
 
 English, to mete, moon, month, middle, mean, meet. 
 
 Our word meat for food appears to be derived from the 
 same source. On this word Home Tooke observes, " In 
 
 
77 
 
 Anglo-Saxon meet (whatever is eaten) is the past participle of 
 the Gothic verb matjan ; Anglo-Saxon, metian, edere, to 
 eat. Dr. Richardson quotes Tooke and as usual adopts his 
 etymology. The Gothic verb matjan, from the strict nature 
 of Gothic grammar, is itself derived from mat, meat/ and can- 
 not have given rise to it. The Anglo-Saxon verb metian, 
 metsian, which has its congeners in the sister languages, 
 never signifies to eat, but uniformly " to deal out," to give to 
 eat.* The words Ad glo- Saxon mete, Gothic mat, dec, are 
 really the participles of the verbs metan, mitan, and signify- 
 not food in general, but that which is meted or dealt out at 
 table. The same thing occurs in Sanskrit where *rfaT mdnsa, 
 from the same root, signifies caro, flesh. 
 
 There is every reason to believe that our word mother is 
 derived from the same root. TffrT matri, mother (matar 
 in inflexion), is a noun of agency, formed according to the 
 rules of Sanskrit grammar from the root 3TT m ®> an( l signifies 
 a dispenser, dealer out. From thence it has descended into 
 every branch of the Aryan family 
 
 Greek, firjrrjp 
 
 Latin, mater 
 
 German, mutter 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, meder, moder 
 
 Swedish, moder 
 
 Hollandish, moeder 
 
 The Gothic being the only Teutonic language in which it is 
 wanting, its place being supplied by the term aithei. 
 
 It may be remarked that this mode of forming the noun of 
 agency by the addition of ri or ar to a form of the verb is 
 identical with the mode still adopted in our own tongue ; 
 and which enables us, quite legitimately, to form new words 
 from any verb which may be introduced into the language. 
 
 * Sax. Chron., 1013. " Tha bead he that man sceolde his here, metian, and 
 horsjan." Then commanded he that his army' should be fed, man and horse. 
 Ps. Ixxx, 6. " Thu metsast us." Thou givest us food. 
 
78 
 
 Almost every verb is capable of forming substantives in this 
 manner. Help, help-er, think, think-er, run, run-ner, &c. 
 So from the verb mete, in the sense of dealing out, the noun 
 met-er is exactly equivalent to our word mother, which bears 
 the same original meaning in a more antiquated form. 
 
 The other nouns of relationship are formed in the same way. 
 Father, daughter, sister, brother, are all Sanskrit nouns of 
 agency, formed upon verbal roots. Father is from fqcT yitri, 
 corrupted from Tjrf patri or pat ar, according to Bopp, which 
 is derived from Xf^pat, to defend, sustain. 
 Zend, patare 
 Greek, 7rarr]p 
 Latin, pater 
 By Grimm's law, the initial tenuis changes in the German 
 dialects to the aspirate. 
 
 Gothic, fadar 
 
 Old German, fatar 
 
 Modern German, vater 
 Swedish, 
 
 fader 
 Danish, 
 
 Old Frisian, feder 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, fadar 
 
 Hollandish, vader. 
 
 Daughter is, in Sanskrit, if^d duhitri, or duhitar, derived 
 from , ^| duh, mulgere, extrahere, and signifies literally milker 
 or milkmaid. All the primary names of the family relations 
 are derived from the office each sustained in the primitive 
 household, and in a pastoral state of society the duty of 
 milking naturally devolves on the young maidens of the 
 family. This derivation has been doubted. Mr. Cockayne * 
 says — " This appears to me very doubtful. In general in 
 ancient times men milked : cattle that roam over unlimited 
 pastures are very wild, and it was never convenient to send 
 
 * Spoon and Sparrow, pp. 118, 331. 
 
 . 
 
79 
 
 the maidens far from home. The word, also, is correlative, 
 the maiden is not daughter either to the cow or to the family." 
 This seems hypercriticism. Whatever construction we may 
 put upon the fact, there can be no question either as to 
 the derivation of duhitar from duh, nor of the affiliation of the 
 term in most of the Aryan languages. A parallel case occurs 
 in another family relation, the derivation of which is within 
 our own tongue. Wife, originally wif-man, meant, as is 
 well known, the weaver, in contradistinction from the husband, 
 who was the wcepn-man or soldier, but although weaver to the 
 family, the term became restricted in course of time to her 
 conjugal relation, from the fact of the wife, in our sense of 
 the term, being always, or usually employed in preparing the 
 garments for the family. So, the daughters in our sense of 
 the term, being the ordinary milk-maids, the duhitar became 
 inseparably associated with the filial relation. 
 
 Greek, dvydrrip 
 The Greek aspirate, by Grimm's law, becomes 
 
 Gothic, dauhtar 
 
 Old Low German, dottu 
 
 Swedish, dotter 
 
 Danish, datter 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, dohter 
 
 The medial changes to the tenuis in the High German — 
 Old German, tohtar 
 Modern German, tochter 
 " Brother," Sanskrit ^fg bhrdtri, or bhratdr, appears to be 
 derived from w bhri, and signifies bearer or helper, an expres- 
 sive term, as applied to the fraternal relation. 
 
 The Sanskrit " bh " is usually expressed by the Greek 0, and 
 
 Latin/". 
 
 Greek, <f>parr]p 
 
 Latin, frater 
 
 The classic aspirate changes to the Gothic medial — 
 
80 
 
 Gothic, brothar 
 
 Old Low German, brodar 
 Swedish, ] 
 
 Danish, } broder 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, broihor 
 
 In High German the medial is exchanged for the tenuis. 
 Old High German pruodar, softened in Modern German to 
 bruder. " Sister " is represented in Sanskrit by " swasri " or 
 " swasar." The primary meaning is somewhat obscure. 
 t«U^ swddu, signifies pleasant, agreeable 
 Gothic, sutis 
 Latin, sua vis 
 English, sweet 
 According to this the sister would stand to the brother in the 
 relation of soother, consoler. Let us hope that this is a 
 more probable derivation than the one suggested by Bopp, 
 from ^ swa " suus/' and ^fTT sar " femina." which has re- 
 ference solely to the intimate family relation of the parties. 
 
 Latin, 
 
 sor or 
 
 Gothic, 
 
 svistar 
 
 Old German, 
 
 suestar 
 
 Old Frisian, 
 
 swestar 
 
 Swedish, 
 
 syster 
 
 Danish, 
 
 soster 
 
 Hollandish, 
 
 suster 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 sinister 
 
 Modem German, 
 
 schwesier 
 
 Two of the roots already alluded to in these family relations 
 have other English derivatives. From ^ duh, to draw out, 
 to pull, to milk, comes — 
 
 Gothic, tiuh-an 
 
 Old Saxon, tioh-an 
 
 Old Frisian, ) 
 
 y tog- a 
 Old Low German, J 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, teon 
 
 English, tug, also dug, (for a teat) 
 
81 
 
 The High German substitutes the aspirate for the tenuis 
 and it becomes zieh-en, anciently ziuh-an, to draw or pull. 
 
 From the same root comes the Latin duc-o, the primary 
 meaning of which is to draw. 
 
 " Quo sequar, quo duels nunc me ? " 
 
 Plau. Bac. t 3. 3. 2. 
 
 So the derivatives ductilis, ducto, ductarius, dec, all refer to 
 drawing rather than leading, which is the secondary meaning. 
 
 We have in English many words through this channel ; 
 duct, ductile, ductility, conduct, con-duce, re-duce, dec. 
 
 The root *T bhri or bhar, from which brother is derived, 
 
 a, 
 
 has many other derivatives both in our own and the kindred 
 languages. 
 
 Greek, <pep-oj, tyopioj, Qopog 
 
 Latin, fer-o,fer-re, to bear 
 
 for-tis, that which will bear, strong 
 
 fer-tilis,) . • 
 
 y bearing iruit 
 fer-ax, ) 
 
 Our derivatives from this classic source are not numerous, 
 
 but we have fertile, fertility, fertilize, dec. According to the 
 
 law so often quoted the radical becomes in Gothic bair-an, 
 
 with a large number of compounds and secondary forms. 
 
 Old Saxon, ber-an, giberan 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, ber-an 
 
 Swedish, bdr-a 
 
 Danish, bcer-e 
 
 In the Old German, following the law, it is per-an, now 
 softened down to gebahren. In all the languages it is also 
 employed in the sense of bearing fruit, and bearing children. 
 From the same source comes burden, that which is borne. 
 As a secondary meaning it takes the sense of raising up, 
 elevating; hence "berg" a hill, mountain; Anglo-Saxon, 
 byrian, originally to raise up, from which our word to bury, 
 now meaning to put in the ground, but originally to raise a 
 
82 
 
 mound or harrow over the deceased. A further meaning is 
 that of protection connected with elevation; Anglo-Saxon — 
 beorgan, to protect, fortify ; whence byrg, burg, borough, 
 a city, the early cities heing usually placed on elevated sites 
 for protection — 
 
 The Gothic, bringan, braht 
 
 German, bringen 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, bringan 
 are also derived from the same root in the sense of carrying. 
 U dhru, to stand firm 
 6th class Parasmai dhruvami, dhruvasi, dhruvati 
 From this idea of standing firm comes the Greek fyvg, oak 
 tree ; Camhri dri, oak, hence the term dru-id for the Celtic 
 priests whose worship was connected with groves. 
 
 Gothic, 
 
 triu, tree 
 
 Old Low German, 
 
 tre 
 
 Swedish, 
 
 trd 
 
 Danish, 
 
 tra 
 
 Hollandish, 
 
 tere 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, 
 
 treon 
 
 " English, 
 
 tree 
 
 Old English, 
 
 treen, made of wood 
 
 
 trivet, a wooden bolt, now con- 
 
 
 tracted to " rivet " 
 
 In this sense the term does not 
 
 exist in the High German 
 
 branch. 
 
 
 In the secondary sense of sure, certain, fixed, true, it has a 
 
 wider range — 
 
 
 Sanskrit, ^ dhruva, certain, sure 
 
 Lithuanian, 
 
 dru-tas, firm 
 
 Gothic, 
 
 trau-an, to trust 
 
 
 trau-ains, confidence 
 
 Old High German, 
 
 truen 
 
 Modern German, 
 
 trau-en, to trust 
 
 
 treu, faithful 
 
 
 trosten, to comfort, &c. 
 
83 
 
 Old Low German, tru-a 
 
 Old Frisian, triu-we, trow- a 
 
 Swedish, tro, faithful 
 
 o 
 
 trost, bold 
 
 o 
 
 trosta, to dare 
 
 Danish, troe 
 
 Hollandish, troww 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, treow-ian, to trust, confide 
 
 treow-fcest, faithful 
 treowth, truth 
 truw-a, a treaty 
 
 In English, we have from the root in this sense, truth, 
 true, trow, troth, truism, &c, truce, trust, tryst, trusty, 
 trustee, and their compounds. 
 
 Perhaps the wonderful fertility of a single root cannot be 
 better exhibited than in one with which I shall conclude. 
 
 ^m lubh, to desire, covet, allure. 
 4th class Parasmai lubhyami, lubhyasi, lubhyati. 
 The Greek possesses no remains of this root. 
 
 In Latin we have — 
 
 lubens, willingly, with pleasure. 
 
 lub-et, or Ubet, to be disposed. 
 
 lub-itum, or libitum, at pleasure. 
 
 lub-ido, or libido, desire, lust. 
 Lith. liib-ju, to desire. 
 Slav, liub-iti, to love. 
 The Teutonic tongues are the most prolific. 
 Gothic, liub-an, to love 
 
 liub-s, dear. 
 Old Low German, liuf-r 
 Old Saxon, liqf, lief, gi-lob-ian 
 
 Old Frisian, liqf 
 
 Hollandish. liev-en, lief. 
 
 Old High German, liub-an, lieb-en 
 
84 
 
 Modern German, lieb-en, lieb-e 
 Swedish, ljuf, lyuj-lig 
 
 Icelandic, liuf-r 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, lufan, leqf-lic 
 
 In English we have love, lover, lovely, loveless, loveliness, 
 with various compounds. So far extends the primary 
 meaning. 
 
 There is another group of words, the connection of which 
 with this root is not so obvious, but of which the examination 
 will reward research. 
 
 The derivation of the English word believe has hitherto 
 been an unsettled question with etymologists. Its equivalents 
 in the cognate dialects are as follow — 
 
 Gothic, laubjan, galaubjan 
 
 Old High German, laubjan 
 
 Modern German, glauben, er-lauben 
 
 Danish, lov, love 
 
 Hollandish, ge-loov-en 
 
 Old Low German, leyf-a 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, lyj-an, ge-lyfan 
 
 Johnson simply refers the word to the Anglo-Saxon gelyfan, 
 
 w r hich is perfectly correct so far as it goes. Richardson 
 
 enters into a much more elaborate inquiry. He says — "The 
 
 etymologists do not attempt to account for this important 
 
 word. It is undoubtedly formed from the Dutch leven, 
 
 German leben, Anglo-Saxon lifian, be-lifian, Gothic Ulan, 
 
 'vivere,' to live or be-live, to dwell. Live or leve are used 
 
 indifferently by old writers, whether to denote vivere or 
 
 credere." Amongst others he gives the following examples 
 
 from Robert of Gloucester — 
 
 " He bi-leude without the town, and in wel grete fere." 
 Here bi-leve is to live, or continue to live, to dwell. 
 
 In the following 
 
 * * " hys soule for to amende 
 
 That rygt bi-leue hym tagte and gef him Cristendom," 
 
85 
 
 the meaning is, taught him to live rightly ; taught him a rule 
 by which to hy-leve or to live ; and gave him Christendom or 
 Christianity — made known to him the life of Christ, how he 
 be-leved or lived — as told in the gospels of Christ. 
 In the following, from Piers Ploughman s Vision — 
 " Werfore be het the elemens, to helf you, alle tymes 
 And bring forth youre bylive, bothe lynnen and wollen." 
 
 " To bring forth your bylive" is to bring forth that by 
 which you may live. 
 
 To believe, then, is — to live by, or according to, to abide 
 by ; to guide, conduct, regulate, govern or direct the life by ; 
 to take, accept, assume, or adopt as rule of life ; and, conse- 
 quently — to think, deem, or judge right ; to be firmly per- 
 suaded of, to give credit to ; to trust, or think trustworthy ; 
 to have or give faith or confidence ; to confide, to think or 
 deem faithful." So far Dr. Richardson. 
 
 I have made this extract at some length for the purpose of 
 exhibiting the present condition of the science of English 
 etymology; and the utter absence of sound principle in pur- 
 suing the inquiry. Where a word actually exists in Anglo- 
 Saxon (which is only another name for the older form of our 
 own tongue), the natural and obvious course would be to carry 
 back the analysis as far as possible by comparison with cog- 
 nate languages until a common root be reached from which 
 the various forms have diverged, instead of which we find 
 fanciful conjectures as to the origin, in a later age, of a word 
 co-eval with the existence of the language itself. 
 
 The analogies relied on by Dr. Richardson are without 
 foundation. The remark that " live or leve, be or bi-leve, are 
 used indifferently by old writers, whether to denote vivere or 
 credere " is not borne out by the examples given. 
 
 In the first passage given above, from Robert of Gloucester, 
 " He bi-leude without the town, &c," the word bi-leude is an 
 inflexion of the Anglo-Saxon belifan, " to remain," and 
 
means, " he remained or stayed " outside the town, &c. Two 
 other quotations given from the same author, present the 
 same word with the same meaning. 
 
 The Scottish dialect still preserves a reminiscence of this 
 
 verb — 
 
 " Belyve the elder bairns come drapping in." 
 
 Cotter's Saturday Night. 
 
 Chaucer uses the word in the same seuse. In the " Story 
 of Cambuscan bold," Canace, recounting her sorrows, says — 
 " Swiche barme I felt, for he ne might by-leve, 
 So on a day, of me he took his leve." 
 
 A similar instance occurs in " Troilus and Creseide," 
 Book III, 624. 
 
 The corresponding term is found in the Gothic of the 4th 
 century. 1st Thessalonians, iv, 15 — 
 
 " We who are alive and remain." 
 
 " Veis thai libandans jah oilaibidans." 
 
 Also in Francic of the 9th Century — 
 " Balo ther uns klibit 
 
 Joh leidor nu bilibit." 
 The evil (bale) cleaves to us, 
 And tbe pain now remains. 
 
 Otfrid. Evang., Lib. II, ch. vi, 72. 
 In the quotation from Piers Ploughman, the word by- 
 lyve means sustenance, food and clothing, as in the following 
 passages not quoted hy Eichardson — 
 
 " And some he kennede craft and konnynge of sight, 
 With sellynge and buggynge, hir bilijve to wynne." 
 
 Vision v, 13425. 
 " That thow toke to thi bilyve, to clothes and to sustenaunce."- 
 
 Vision 13939. 
 The word is from bi-libban, to live by, but has not the re- 
 motest connexion with belief. 
 
 In the second passage from Robert of Gloucester — 
 "That rygt bi-leue him tagte, &c." 
 and in the remainder of the quotations the word is simply the 
 modern belief disguised under the antique spelling. 
 
 
87 
 
 The irregularity and uncertainty of mediaeval orthography, 
 frequently confounded words quite distinct in their origin and 
 meaning. This was not that the same word was intended to 
 be employed in different senses, but that words radically 
 distinct, in the absence of any orthographical system, were 
 frequently expressed by the same letters. In Piers Plough- 
 mans Vision, the words leven to leave, leven to dwell, 
 remain, and leven to believe, are all spelled alike, but that 
 they are really different words, and not mere accommodations 
 of the same expression, is evident from the fact of the pre- 
 terite of the first being lafte* of the second lefte,\ and of 
 the third leved, leveden.% 
 
 If Dr. Kichardson were correct in his deviation of believe, 
 belief, from by and life or live, i.e., that which we live by or 
 the by-life, it must have originated since the use of modern 
 English, as no such compound exists in Anglo-Saxon, whilst 
 the actual word itself ge- leaf a, ge-leafan, sometimes spelt ge- 
 lefa, ge-lyfan, was in common use. The difference in the 
 prefix between the Anglo-Saxon ge-leafa and the modern 
 be-lief is unimportant. The same change has taken place 
 with many other words ; bethink, Anglo-Saxon gethencan ; 
 betoken, Anglo-Saxon getmcnan ; besmear, Anglo-Saxon ges- 
 smerian ; besprinkle, Anglo-Saxon gesprengen. 
 
 It may be remarked that the English words belief, believe, 
 and their foreign congeners are purely Teutonic, no cognate 
 terms being met with in any of the other branches of the 
 Aryan family. 
 
 * " For confort of his confessour contricion he lafte." 
 
 Vision 14666. 
 t " There is more pryve pryde 
 In Prechoures hertes, 
 Than there lejte in Lucifere." 
 
 } " Tho that me lovede 
 
 And leved in my comynge.' 
 
 Creed 743, 
 
 Vision 12890. 
 
88 
 
 Wachter derives the German form glauben from lauben, 
 which he says, " Proprie est manu apprehendere, a law,* 
 manus, et simile Attico Xafieiv. Dicitur autem allegorice 
 de fiducia, quia manus ab antiquo fidei data? et acceptee 
 symbolum fuit." 
 
 It is sufficient to remark on this etymology that the oldest 
 form of the German is laubjan, a derivative from another 
 verb, and that the forms in the cognate languages of equal 
 antiquity with the German, give no indications of the deriva- 
 tion to which he alludes. 
 
 Skinner derives the Anglo-Saxon word geleafan from the 
 particle ge, and lyfan, to grant, allow, " concedere." 
 
 The origin and history of these terms may be briefly stated 
 as follows. In the Gothic language, which is peculiarly valu- 
 able from its shewing changes in progress which are only 
 found in their completed results in the sister tongues, the 
 verb liuban, to love, makes its preterite lauf, lubun. From 
 this, by adding the suffix jan, a secondary verb laubjan, with 
 the usual intensive prefix, ga-laubjan is formed. This ex- 
 tends the original meaning of preference, desire, to that of 
 trust, reliance, and then, of faith, belief. Thus in Luke xvi, 
 11, " Who will commit to your trust the true riches?" the 
 Gothic version expresses it " thata sunjeino was izvis galau- 
 beith ? " Eomaos x, 11, " Whosoever believeth on him shall 
 not be ashamed." Gothic, " wazuh sa galaubjands du imma 
 ni gaaiviskoda." In this the Gothic follows exactly the 
 7narrev(o of the original Greek, which similarly combines the 
 two shades of meaning. 
 
 The Gothic galaubjan became contracted into the German 
 glauben, and the parallel forms quoted above are merely dia- 
 lectic variations. The double sense of trust and belief is well 
 shewn in the following passage from the Anglo-Saxon version 
 of the Gospels. Matthew ix, 2, " And Jesus seeing their 
 
 * Scottish " loof" 
 
89 
 
 faith, said unto the sick of the palsy, Son, be of good cheer, 
 (Greek dapaet, Latin confide) thy sins be forgiven thee." 
 Anglo-Saxon, " Tha geseah se Hoeland heora geleafan, and 
 cwoeth to tham iaman, Sa beam gelyfe, the beoth thine synna 
 forgyfene." 
 
 This derivation of belief from love is admitted by several 
 recent etymologists of high authority. Gabelentz and Loebe 
 and Diefenbach, place the words according to this derivation. 
 Junius connects the English believe with Gothic galaubjan, 
 but pursues the analysis no farther. 
 
 It is difficult to resist the feeling of a close etymological 
 connexion between the words live and love, German leben 
 and lieben, Gothic Hub an and liban, Anglo-Saxon lybban or 
 leofian, and lufian. This resemblance runs through all the 
 Teutonic languages. These forms with the exception of a few 
 words in Latin are not found in the other branches of the 
 family. 
 
 This connexion was not unperceived by our older philolo- 
 gists. Junius on the word live observes, " plures petierunt 
 ex lieben amare, diligere, quod miseris mortalibus nihil vita, 
 carius." Should this speculation prove correct, that live, 
 love, and believe, are derived from the same original, it gives 
 a remarkable illustration of the simplicity of the ancient 
 roots, and of their vital power in expanding and giving bodily 
 form to the ever widening demands of the human mind. 
 
 I must here bring these remarks to a close. I have brought 
 under notice a mere fragment of a wide field which lies open 
 for exploration, and in which patient study will produce 
 results of a very important nature as regards English etymo- 
 logy. When the study of the Sanskrit roots shall have been 
 thoroughly and systematically worked out, the philology of 
 the Aryan tongues in general will assume a character of 
 accuracy and science which it has never yet attained. 
 
 In our own tongue this is peculiarly important. The Eng- 
 
90 
 
 lish language, in one respect, may be said to be unique. We 
 have seen that there are two divergent channels along which 
 derivatives from the original roots have descended to 
 modern times. I have called these the Classical and the 
 Teutonic. Some roots have followed the one course and 
 others the other ; many have been transmitted to us through 
 both. The mixed character of modern English speech has been 
 sometimes represented as a defect, but there was never a greater 
 mistake. The two streams, descending from long remote ages, 
 have united on English ground, and nowhere else, and have 
 imparted to our tongue a strength and vigour, combined with 
 a richness and fertility, which have never been surpassed in 
 the world's history, and which render it unrivalled amongst 
 modern languages as a vehicle for thought. I shall be glad 
 if any remarks of mine may have given an impulse, however 
 feeble, to an inquiry of the most interesting character, and 
 which will well repay research. 
 
ON THE 
 
 PHILOLOGY 
 
 ARCHITECTURAL TERMS 
 
 READ BEFORE THE 
 
 LIVEEPOOL AECHIIECTlTtAL AOT) AKCftEOLOGICAL SOCIETY, 
 
 1864. 
 
We are so accustomed to the sound of the terms in ordinary- 
 use in our profession, that we seldom call to mind that they 
 are not mere arbitrary words coined for the purposes to which 
 they are applied, but that they have each a history of their 
 own, always interesting, and frequently very instructive. The 
 history of words is the history of things. Language is the 
 stratification in which the thoughts, feelings, wants, inven- 
 tions, and daily life of humanity in all time lie imbedded, and 
 the exploration of which throws a wonderful light on the 
 condition and progress of the human race, even far beyond 
 the period to which written history can carry us. Just as the 
 fossil remains in the different geological formations indicate 
 the comparative age and the condition of things at the time 
 of their deposition, so the evidence which words present in 
 their derivation, etymology, time of appearance and applica- 
 tion, is frequently of the utmost value in determining the 
 history of any art, in its origin progress and condition at 
 any period amongst any people. I propose in the present 
 paper to follow this method of inquiry into the origin and 
 history of architectural terms. Though I cannot, within the 
 necessary limits, pursue it to any great extent, I think the 
 subject will be found not devoid of interest. I confine my- 
 self of course to the terms employed at the present day in our 
 own tongue. 
 
 I will first call attention to the general terms " building " 
 and " architecture." In its present application building 
 occupies aesthetically a lower position than architecture, the 
 former meaning with us simple construction, whilst the latter 
 is understood to indicate something in addition in the nature 
 of design. Such was not the case originally. The words 
 
92 
 
 come down to us from different sources, and have in the course 
 of their transmission completely changed their primitive 
 signification. 
 
 The original word for building and construction in our 
 Anglo-Saxon mother tongue is timbrian, which has its 
 equivalent in every Teutonic dialect : — 
 
 Gothic, t'mrjan. 
 
 Swedish, timbra. 
 
 Old High German, zimbaron. 
 
 Modern German, zimmern. 
 
 HolL, timmeren. 
 
 This did not originally signify necessarily wooden con- 
 struction, but was applied to every material indifferently. 
 Thus in Ephes. ii. 20-22, " built upon the foundation of the 
 apostles and prophets, Jesus Christ himself being the chief 
 corner stone," &c, the Gothic version employs the words 
 anatimridai, gatimrjo, gatimridai, as equivalents to the Greek 
 oiKolojxeiv. So in the Anglo-Saxon version, Markxiii. 1, "Mas- 
 ter, see what manner of stones and what buildings are here ! " 
 Lareow ! loca hwylce stanas her synd, and hwylce getim- 
 brunga thyses temples ! As, however, wood was the principal 
 material employed by our ancestors for building during the 
 Saxon period, timber and wood became in time synonymous 
 terms. 
 
 To build originally meant to form, shape, fashion, design. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, Byldan. 
 O. H. G., Bildon. 
 
 In modern German it has retained this meaning exclusively, 
 and is applied both to sculpture and painting. Iu our own 
 tongue, from being applied to the ornamental portion of the 
 wooden structures, it gradually extended itself to the general 
 construction, and superseded the ancient timbrian. 
 
 The modern term architecture, which has sprung up since 
 the revival of classical literature, and can hardly be traced 
 further back than the time of Milton, was originally applied 
 
 
 
93 
 
 to simple building. The Sanskrit root tvacJi, to cover, is found 
 in one form or other in all the Aryan tongues. 
 Greek, reKriou. 
 Latin, teyo. 
 Old German, dakjan, whence dach a roof, and deck, the cover- 
 ing of a ship. 
 Anglo-Saxon, theccan, to cover, whence thatch, a straw roof. 
 
 The Greek tektmv was the carpenter who framed the roof, 
 apXtTEKTuv was the chief of the workmen. The word is first 
 used by Herodotus, but rather in the sense of engineer than 
 of artistic designer. It is afterwards employed by Plato, and 
 along with Greek art was borrowed by the Bomans, from 
 whom, principally through the treatise of Vitruivus, we have 
 derived it, and brought it into general use with its modern 
 acceptation. 
 
 Let us now take for illustration the different parts of an 
 ordinary dwelling, and inquire what light is thrown upon their 
 history by the etymology of the terms employed. The method 
 I propose to pursue is the following. We know that our own 
 tongue is intimately connected with all the Teutonic and 
 Norse dialects, and more remotely with the other languages 
 of Europe. There must have been a time before the separa- 
 tion took place when one common language was spoken, and 
 a state of the arts very similar prevailed amongst all. Now 
 we find some building terms common to all the Teutonic 
 nations. These it must be obvious represent a state of things 
 existing previous to their separation. Other terms are differ- 
 ent in the cognate tongues, but are self-originated. This it 
 may fairly be inferred indicates progression in each nation 
 independent of foreign aid. Other terms again are evidently 
 borrowed from foreign sources, and by tracing these to their 
 origin, we can in many cases ascertain the source of the 
 improvement and the period of its adoption. 
 
 The word house, in the sense of habitation, is identical in 
 all the Teutonic and Norse tongues, varied slightly in form. 
 
94 
 
 A similar word exists in some of the Slavonian dialects. The 
 radical is not found either in Greek or Sanskrit. It is 
 impossible, therefore, to ascertain any leading idea in the root 
 beyond its uniform meaning of a dwelling place. The Latin 
 casa there can be no doubt is a congenital term, the guttural 
 in Latin being equivalent to the aspirate in the Gothic. 
 Casa meant a hut or cottage. Caesar describes the cottages 
 of the Gauls as being thatched with straw. " Casas quae 
 more Gallico strumentis erant tectae." 
 
 The door is still wider in its use. We trace it in the San- 
 skrit duara, Greek $vpa, Latin for -is, Persian der, Slavonic 
 doer, Hib. dor, Cymric dor, Old German daur } Anglo-Saxon 
 duru, &c. 
 
 This term also like house seems to be itself a root, since 
 no more elementary radical can be found from which it can 
 have been derived. 
 
 The original meaning of the term wall was an earthen 
 mound, Latin vallum. The word does not seem to be indi- 
 genous in the language. The corresponding term in German is 
 maur. Both are probably derived from the Latin, vallum and 
 murus, the former not unlikely through the Cambrian gwall. 
 
 If the term wall is not indigenous we cannot expect to find 
 the materials of which it is constructed of native growth. 
 
 Stone is a word found in all the Teutonic tongues. Its 
 primitive signification is that of rock, the original root being 
 found in the Sanskrit stlia, indicating stability — the absence 
 of motion. Its application to separate fragments is a secon- 
 dary meaning of later date. 
 
 The word brick is not found in Anglo-Saxon, nor is it 
 found in German aneient or modern. It has been attempted 
 by some etymologists to derive this word from brechan, 
 Latin frang-o, Sansk. bhranj to break. Mr. Hensleigh 
 Wedgwood says* " The radical meaning is simply a bit, a 
 
 * Diet, of Eng. Etymology, vol. i., 234. 
 
95 
 
 fragment, being one of the numerous words derived from break. 
 Anglo-Saxon brice, fragment, hlafes bn'ce, a bit of bread." 
 There is not the slightest evidence to sustain this statement, 
 whereas the regular descent of the term from a Sanskrit root 
 through the Greek and Latin is clear and obvious. Imber 
 in Latin means rain, whence Imbrex (imbrics) a pantile. 
 From the roofing tile the word was next applied to the layers 
 of flat tiles in the Roman walls. In low and mediaeval Latin, 
 brica signifies both tile and brick, the bricks of that period 
 being little thicker than tiles. From brica came the French 
 bri'jue, which in Cotgrave's day signified a flat plate of any 
 kind, as well as a brick, and so from the French it passed 
 with many other building terms into our own language. It 
 is confirmatory of this view that the word has never been 
 naturalised in German; mauer-stein, literally wall-stone, 
 doing duty for it. Had it been derived from brechen, there 
 seems no assignable reason why the Germans should not have 
 adopted it instead of expressing the idea by a circumlocution. 
 
 Mortar again is not an indigenous term. There is no 
 equivalent for it in Anglo-Saxon, and in German the Latin 
 name has had to be borrowed, slightly changed in form. 
 Mortarium originally meant a vessel in which ingredients 
 were braised, as we now employ the term in one sense. It 
 was then transferred to the large hole or basin in which lime 
 and sand were mixed. So it is employed by Vitruvius (book 7, 
 chap 3), " mortario collocato calce et arena ibi confusa," &c. 
 By a natural metonymy, the word came to mean the materials 
 bruised and mixed up in the mortarium, and is so also 
 employed by Vitrurius (book 8, chap. 7), " mortario caBmentum 
 addatur," &c. The term has continued in use down to the 
 present time, passing into the French mortier, German mbrtel, 
 and English mortar. 
 
 The term cement has undergone a singular transformation 
 from its original meaning, and presents a good specimen of 
 
96 
 
 the natural mode by which words gradually slide out of their 
 primary signification into something quite different. Ccemen- 
 tum, more commonly used in the plural ccementa, meant 
 originally in Latin rubble stone as it came from the quarry. 
 Vitruvius (book 2, chap. 7), speaks of quarries — " de quibus 
 et quadrata saxa, et ccementorum ad aedihcia eximuntur copiae." 
 Although somewhat of a digression, I cannot help calling 
 attention to another passage in the same book containing very 
 sound advice as to this subject of stone. " Cum aedificandum 
 fuerit, ante biennium ea saxanon hyeme sed aestate eximantur 
 et jacentia permaneant in locis patentibus ; quae autem a 
 tempestatibus eo biennio tacta, laesa fuerint, ea in fundamenta 
 conjiciantur : coetera quae non erunt vitiata, ab natura rerum 
 probata durare poterunt supra terrain aedificata : nee solum ea 
 in quadratis lapidibus sunt observanda, sed etiam in ccemen- 
 titiis structuris." " When you are about to build, let the 
 stone be quarried two years beforehand, not in the winter but 
 in summer, and let it be laid out in an open place. That 
 which after two years' exposure to the weather is found injured, 
 may be used up in the foundations. The rest which is not 
 injured by this test, will probably be found durable when built 
 above ground. These rules are to be observed not only for 
 hewn stone, but even for rubble constructions." If these 
 simple precautions of the old Eoman architect were more 
 attended to in modern times, we should have fewer instances 
 of beautiful masonry crumbling away almost before the 
 structure is completed. 
 
 To return, however, to our cement. From rubble stone, 
 ccetnentum was applied to marble chippiugs, which were 
 ground up and mixed with lime and sand for plastering, (see 
 Vitr. b,.ok 7, chap. 6). During the middle ages cement are 
 meant to build ; earner? tar ias was the name of a walling 
 mason. It is so used in a document of the date A.D. 1106. 
 But as most of the thick walls in the castle building period 
 
• 97 
 
 were cored with rubble grouting, the cementum gradually 
 came to mean the plastic material which formed the matrix. 
 In Cotgrave's French Dictionary, published in the early part 
 of the seventeenth century, the French cement or ciment is 
 thus explained* — " A strong and cleaving morter, made (for 
 the most part) of tyles, potshards, glasse, flint, the drosse of 
 yron, &c, beaten to dust, and incorporated with lime, oyle, 
 grease, rozen and water. 1 ' The word now has come to mean 
 in general parlance any plastic substance which unites two 
 hard bodies. As a building term it is almost exclusively con- 
 fined to the so-called Roman cement, which owes its hydraulic 
 properties to the combination of lime with iron, silica, and 
 alumina. 
 
 Lime is another name for building material which has 
 equally departed from its original meaning, but in an oppo- 
 site direction. The root is indigenous in all the Teutonic 
 tongues, and is found in the Latin Lim-us. Its primitive 
 meaning is clay, mud, slime, anything sticky or adhesive. 
 We have retained it in that sense in the w r ord birdlime. In 
 the other languages it has never changed its meaning, but in 
 English it has come to mean the solid mineral which is cal- 
 cined forjmortar. The course of the change appears to have 
 been scmewhat as follows. Our early ancestors plastered up 
 the intervals of their wooden framed houses with reeds, and 
 clay which was then called lime. When a better mode of 
 building was introduced by the use of proper mortar, the 
 ingredient which gave plasticity and adhesiveness to the 
 mixture, retained the old name as a matter of convenience, 
 which led to its application to the solid stone from which it is 
 derived. Amongst our Teutonic brethren on the Continent 
 the case was a little different. Like ourselves they borrowed 
 the term mortar or mortel from the French or from the low 
 Latin, but the plastic ingredient was called kalk, Latin cal.r, 
 French chaux, A. S. cealc, which originally signified chalk, 
 
98 * 
 
 but in most European languages, except English, now means 
 stone-lime. 
 
 Sand is an indigenous word found in all the Teutonic 
 languages. 
 
 We have completed our survey of the wall and its materials, 
 let us now look at the window. This is one of those terms 
 which is not primitive, but which each nation has either 
 formed for itself or borrowed from its neighbours. In Gothic 
 the window is called auga daur, eye-door. In old Norse it 
 is glasr-glugg, light-hole. In old German it is tag loch, which 
 has the same signification. In old Saxon it is eagh-ittyrl, 
 eye-hole ; wind-uga the eye or hole for the wind, has been 
 softened into the modern window, and gives but a miserable 
 idea of the abodes of our early ancestors, who had either to 
 sit in darkness or be exposed to the inclemency of the 
 weather. 
 
 Sill — door-sill, window-sill. This is an indigenous term, 
 Anglo-Saxon syl, Ger. said, French seueil, which is doubtless 
 akin with the Lat. sol-am, meaning the plate on the ground. 
 
 Another name for a door-sill, threshold, was probably first 
 applied to the log placed across the barn door to prevent the 
 grain and straw from being driven outside. It does not exist 
 in the kindred tongues. 
 
 Lintel is of French derivation ; Lat. limen, limentellum. 
 It is not found in German or Norse. 
 
 We now come to the roof. This important part of a 
 dwelling must have existed from the earliest period, and must 
 have had a common name amongst all the congenital tribes. 
 We find it in the Greek rUnov, Latin tectum, Ger. dach, 
 decke, Norse tak, Anglo-Saxon thece, whence our thatch. The 
 framework of the roof has taken different names in different 
 languages, the English having a vocabulary of its own. Eoof 
 is the Anglo-Saxon hrof from hroefnan to uphold, support. 
 
 The term gable originally meant anything in a furcated 
 
99 
 
 form, arid was applied in Anglo-Saxon, gaflas, both to the 
 main rafters of a building and to the gallows, which is merely 
 a modification of the same word. It is found in Gothic gihla, 
 Swedish gaffwel, German gibel, in the same sense as our 
 gable. 
 
 The rafters are the supporters, Anglo-Saxon rcefter, from 
 roefnian, to bear. 
 
 In the word eaves we have a curious reminiscence of the 
 original thatched roof. The Anglo-Saxon efesian means to 
 shear, to cut even, to shave. Efese was the lower edge of the 
 thatch clipped straight and even. 
 
 The word thatch, as I bave already explained, means simply 
 covering ; but from the prevalence of straw roofs in the 
 Anglo-Saxon period, it has now become limited to that 
 description of covering. 
 
 Tile is of comparatively late introduction, though found in 
 Anglo-Saxon. It is derived from Latin tegula, either through 
 Ger. tig el or French tuile 
 
 Slate as a covering is not found in iVnglo-Saxon, but the 
 word is indigenous, being derived from slitan, German schlit- 
 zen, to rend assunder, to split. Its earliest appearance is 
 about the time of Wickliffe, the middle of the fourteenth 
 century. 
 
 The ridge sufficiently explains itself. Let us now turn to 
 the inside of the habitation. 
 
 The halL which in one shape or another has formed a por- 
 tion of the dwelling in every age, was, in Anglo-Saxon times, 
 the domicile itself, any other apartments being merely ad- 
 juncts. Tbe origin of the term is somewhat obscure. It is 
 usually derived from lielan, Ger. hiilleii, to cover, meaning a 
 covered room. Spelman and Ducange connect it with haltus 
 " Ramus Siccus," as if the covering were originally brush- 
 wood. It might seem at first sight that hall had some 
 connection with Greek aiAj?, Lat. aula, but in reality it is not 
 
100 
 
 so, these being represented by GcLh. a/hs, Anglo-Saxon alh, 
 Old Ger. alah, words now lost, which signified a temple or 
 palace. 
 
 The word jlonr signifies simply the ground or soil, which 
 constituted in the clays of our early forefathers the only pave- 
 ment, as it does to this day in many an Irish cabin. 
 
 The word hearth, with slight modifications, is common to 
 all the Teutonic family. It signified originally a flat place in 
 the centre of the room on which the fire was made. .In the 
 Gospel of St. John xviii. 18, where it states they " made a fire 
 of coals for it was cold," the Gothic version translates, 
 " haurja vaurkj an clans, unte cald vas." In a damp, cold 
 climate like that of England the associations of warmth and 
 comfort connected with the hearth have elevated it to a posi- 
 tion where its humble origin is forgotten.* 
 
 The chimney is an exotic in all modern languages, 
 neither the thing nor the word having been known until the 
 twelfth century. The word is derived through the French 
 cheminee, Italian camino, Lat. caminus, from the Greek 
 Ka/x~tvoQ, a furnace, which of necessity had a pipe or flue con- 
 nected with it. 
 
 We have now arrived at a point when, from the distinct 
 and clear evidence of philology, we can form a tolerably correct 
 notion of a dwelling house of the time of the Saxon Hep- 
 tarchy, which would not materially differ from those of a 
 much earlier period, nor from those of the succeeding three 
 centuries. The building was erected of wooden framework, 
 the instertices fitted in with wattle work plastered with clay. 
 The roof was constructed with the forked gaffwella or ribs in 
 pairs, and covered with straw there or thatch, which had its 
 evese or eaves neatly shaved and tiimmed. It had a dura or door 
 
 * In Anglo Saxon, a settled householder was called heorlh-fcest, or hearth -fast, 
 in contradistinction from a lover class called folyeras or Jolc. Heortk-werod, 
 
 hearth-people, were the family, the dependants. Heorth-svucepe, a bridesmaid, 
 one that swept the hearth. 
 
101 
 
 with its posts and syl. Within, the Jior was the bare earth. 
 In the centre of the /wall or hall, as the interior was called, 
 was the heorth on which the fire was made, the smoke of 
 which went out through a hole in the roof, of which the 
 Saxon name does not survive, but which was probably the 
 original wind-oga or wind's eye. 
 
 This was really the entire construction of the primitive 
 Teutonic lias or house, to which was subsequently added the 
 window and its wooden shutter. In a wretched, comfortless 
 abode like this, superior in no respect except that of size to 
 the hut of the New Zealander, it is difficult to imagine a 
 people, speaking essentially the same language with ourselves, 
 possessing the rudimentary principles of the same order and 
 freedom of which we boast, and though unlettered and igno- 
 rant, endowed with faculties which were soon to develope 
 into a glorious future. Such, however, was undoubtedly the 
 fact. The halls or palaces of the Anglo-Saxon kings, though 
 larger in size, were constructed on the same principles and 
 with the same materials. 
 
 This rude exposed condition of the Saxon hall is well 
 illustrated by the speech of the old sage to Edwin, king of 
 Northumbria, in 625 A.D., when the question in debate was 
 the acceptation or rejection of Christianity. He said, " The 
 life of man, O king, seems to me, in comparison with that 
 which is hidden from us, to be like the sparrow, who in the 
 winter time as you sit in your hall with your thanes and 
 attendants, warmed with the fire which is lighted in the midst, 
 rapidly flies through to seek shelter from the chilling storms 
 of rain and snow without. As he flies through, entering by 
 one door and passing out at another, he has a brief escape 
 from the storm and enjoys a momentary calm. Again he 
 goes forth to another winter and vanishes from your sight. 
 So also seems the short life of man." 
 
 At this early period separate sleeping chambers were un- 
 
102 
 
 known. In the poem of Beowulf, all the warriors sleep on 
 the hall floor round the hearth. This practice of one general 
 sleeping apartment was continued down to a comparatively- 
 late period. In several of Chaucer's tales, the family and the 
 guests, male and female indiscriminately, sleep in the same 
 apartment, though in separate beds* 
 
 We may now trace the progress of improvement by the 
 derivation of the terms gradually introduced into architectural 
 nomenclature. We have already seen that even the term ivall 
 is not native Anglo Saxon ; that mortar aod cement are im- 
 ported words as well as things, and that lime has completely 
 changed its meaning in accommodation to improved methods 
 of construction. One of the first improvements in the Anglo- 
 Saxon house was the construction of an upper chamber with 
 a boarded floor. This seems to have been an indigenous 
 improvement, as the terms employed are partly of native 
 origin. The chamber was called the solere, and in the middle 
 ages the solar or soller. The term seems to apply to the 
 separate floor, from the old German si/le/?, Goth, suljan, to 
 stand upon. The apartment under the solere was called the 
 cellar, Ger. keller, French cellier, and was used for keeping 
 provisions and stores, entering from the outside. The deriva- 
 tion may be from Old Ger. keie a hollow place, but has more 
 probably descended through the French from the Latin cella 
 a storeroom or granary. There is some confusion in the use 
 of these terms owing to their similarity in sound, Cotgrave 
 on the word " celier," explains it " A sellar, or more properly 
 
 * The same model of habitation prevailed through all the Teutonic and Norse 
 tribes. Mr. Dasent in the story of Burnt Njal, gives a description of the Ice- 
 landic skali or hall of tbe tenth century, which corresponds in its main features 
 with what has been already stated. The homestead of the Icelanders consisted 
 of one main apartment in which the family lived by day and slept at night. In 
 the abodes of chiefs this building was huge but rude. Down the middle were 
 the hearths with holes in the roof above to let out the smoke Along the sides 
 were ranged the sleeping places, those of the females separated at one end. 
 Between the hearths and the walls were ranges of tables, with a raised dais 
 across one end. Outbuildings for cattle and stores were erected in communication 
 with the main building. 
 
103 
 
 a roome above-ground, to lay wine in ; for your vault under- 
 ground is better expressed by cave." Sailer, he explains, 
 " a sellar or low garner ; also as planeher." The former 
 meaning is evidently a mistake ; the latter exactly explains the 
 soller or upper room in the old English houses. 
 
 From j)i 'an che comes the English word plank, which, as we 
 have the native word board to express the same idea, is used 
 to signify a thicker piece of timber. Board, Anglo-Saxon lord, 
 Goth, baurd, had a very wide meaning amongst our ancestors. 
 In addition to its primary signification it was used for a table 
 and a shield. Bord thece was a boarded roof, the first attempt 
 at a ceiling. 
 
 This word ceiling, in our use of it, seems so naturally derived 
 from caelum, heaven, the sky, that it disturbs our sense of* 
 propriety to throw any doubt on the connexion, yet truth 
 compels us to assign to it a very different derivation. Indeed , 
 a moment's reflection will serve to cast a doubt on the usually 
 assigned orign of the term. It is quite consistent and appro- 
 priate as applied to the ceiling of a room, but its relevancy 
 entirely disappears when we speak of the ceiling of a ship. The 
 fact is, the spelling has been altered to suit a fancied con- 
 nexion with the French ciel. The old German sulen, as we 
 have already seen, means to board or plank, and was repre- 
 sented by syll, syllan in Anglo-Saxon. Down to the end 
 of the 1 7th century, the word was spelled seeling or sieling. 
 In Barker's Bible, ed. 1610, Jer. 22 v. J4, we read, "he 
 will make himselfe large windowes and sieling with cedar." 
 In Sherwood's " English and French Dictionary," 1650, the 
 word ceiling is not found, but seeling he explains by lamb/ is, 
 menuiserie. " The upper seeling, of a house," he translates 
 sus-lambris. This shews that at that period the word was 
 applicable not merely to the summit of a room, but to board- 
 ing in general. In Cotgrave's French-English Dictionary, 
 1650, the French substantive ciel is translated by " the sky, 
 
104 
 
 welkin, also the testern of a bed, the canopie that is carried 
 over a prince as he walks in state.' The adjective cielin is 
 explained as "belonging to the firmament or to a canopy 
 testern or upper Heeling" Here the distinction between the 
 French and English words is sufficiently marked, the Eng- 
 lish seeling requiring to be qualified by the term tipper to 
 assimilate it to the French ciel, bat soon after this the con- 
 fusion began. In Skinner's " Etymologica Linguae Anglicanse," 
 published in 1671, we read — " Seeling vel potius deling, ab 
 Italian, cielo, Latin, coelum, quod secondario sensu quemvis 
 etiam excelsum fornicem signat ; vel secundum Minshew a 
 coelare." The word is here wrongfully identified with the 
 French, and has so been considered ever since. 
 
 Ceiling was then in its origin the boarding of the interior 
 face of a room, whether sides or top. The corresponding 
 French word plancher, which signifies a boarded floor, is used 
 for a boarded ceiling also. 
 
 The solar or upper room led to the necessity for stairs. 
 This is a pure Anglo-Saxon word, originally stoegers, from 
 siigan, to ascend, mount upwards. A boarded floor required 
 joists to support it. The derivation of this word is obscure. 
 It does not exist in either French or German, and it is diffi- 
 cult to trace it satisfactorily to its source. The most plau- 
 sible is that from the old French word adjouster, to place in 
 order, adjust, but is by no means clear. To boarded walls 
 and cielings succeeded the use of plaster, which, internally, 
 was not indigenous in this country. The word can be traced 
 back through the French p/dtre, plastrer, the Latin plasma, 
 to the Greek -rrXaaaio, to form, mould, shape, especially in soft 
 substances, such as earth and clay. 
 
 The word beam is an indigenous term, Gothic bagm, Ger- 
 man baum. Its original meaning is a tree, thence transferred 
 to the trunk, when cut down and employed in building. 
 
 Breast-summer or bressummer is an application of the 
 
105 
 
 French sommier or main beam, supporting the breast or front 
 of a building. 
 
 The word girder is now used for the main timbers of a floor, 
 but in its origin it rather meant a tie, from Anglo-Saxon yyr- 
 dan to gird, bind round. Most of our modern terms of car- 
 pentry, such as tie-beam, rafter, ridge, strutt, king and queen- 
 post, valley, wali-plate, pole-plate, sufficiently explain them- 
 selves. Hip is probably from Anglo-Saxon keep, fit, as that 
 to which the timbers are fitted at the angles. 
 
 The words carpenter, carpentry, are derived from the Latin, 
 through the French. Carpentum amongst the old Romans sig- 
 nified a two-wheeled cart or carriage reserved exclusively for 
 females, probably derived from carpinus, the hornbeam, of 
 which timber it might be made ; carpentarius was a carriage 
 maker, wheel-wright. In low Latin the terms became applied 
 to workers in wood generally. The French have given to 
 their word cliarpenie a wider signification than belongs to our 
 word carpentry, applying it to framing of iron as well as wood, 
 in which generic sense we should find it very useful amongst 
 ourselves. 
 
 Most of our terms used in joinery are derived from the 
 French, who preceded this country in the art. 
 
 Plane is from planer to smooth. 
 
 Mortise, French mortaise, from mordre, to bite. 
 
 Tenon, from tenir, to hold. 
 
 Rebate or rabbet, from raboter, which, in French, simply 
 means to plane, to polish, but in English has acquired the 
 further signification of sinking a square check. 
 
 Pannel is derived from the French paneau, which, in its 
 turn descends from Latin pannus, Greek ttyivoq. Its original 
 meaning is that of a web of cloth, then applied to any flat, 
 square surface, cut out or defined. A pane of glass, the 
 panel of a door or wainscot, maintain the primitive idea. 
 Pan, as a term in carpentry, is derived from French panne 
 
106 
 
 de boisy which is a secondary application to a scantling cut 
 out square. 
 
 Sash window. This is from the French chassis. The 
 derivation of this term is somewhat ohscure. Originally, it 
 was applied to a wooden frame over which oiled paper or 
 linen was stretched in place of glass. (See Fenestre Chas- 
 sissee — Ootgrave.) The Latin casses signifies network, 
 and it is possible that this may have heen the original of 
 chassis. 
 
 Most of the terms of joinery sufficiently explain themselves. 
 Stile, rail, molding, frame, lining, casing, "boxing, skirting, 
 are mere adaptations of ordinary phraseology. Others, such 
 as base and plinth, architrave, torus, &c, are borrowed from 
 the terms in classical architecture. 
 
 I have called attention to the nomenclature of the different 
 parts of a house ; let us now glance at the terms employed in 
 sacred architecture. 
 
 The word church, as applied to the house of God, is derived 
 from the Greek to Kvpiatcov, from Kvpwg the Lord, of or belong- 
 ing to the Lord, the Lord's house. This term reached the 
 Teutonic races through the Greek church. The Latins 
 adopted another Greek word ecclesia, used in the New Testa- 
 ment to signify the assembly of the faithful rather than the 
 place in which they met. This derivation of church has been 
 controverted by some etymologists, who connect it with 
 Sanskrit /crit/d, a rite, solemnity, ceremony ; others refer it to 
 Old German circ, circle, and connect it with the old heathen 
 stone circles, but the balance of evidence is very strong in 
 favor of the Christian and Greek derivation. 
 
 Of the word chapel there are several alleged derivations. 
 According to Ducange and Menage, it derives its origin from 
 the legend of St. Martin of Tours, who, on a certain occasion, 
 gave away his cloak to a poor man. The ecclesiastical cape, 
 or capella, which he wore at the time, was treasured up as a 
 
107 
 
 sacred relic by Frankish monarchs, who carried it "with them 
 to the wars, and kept it in a separate tent. The ecclesiastics 
 who had charge of the relics were hence called cappellani, and 
 the term capella became gradually transferred to the build- 
 ings attached to churches in which the relics were preserved. 
 Another derivation, supported by Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood, 
 refers it to the term capella, the hood or covering of the altar 
 where mass was said, the canopy over the sacred elements, and 
 from thence extended to the recess in the church in which the 
 altar was placed, forming the capella or chapel of the saint 
 to whom the altar was dedicated. Spelman gives a third 
 derivation, and all things considered the most probable one. 
 The Latin words capsa, capsella, signified a small box or 
 coffer for keeping treasures, something like what was subse- 
 quently called a " shrine." Transferred to the French lan- 
 guage, which usually eliminated the s in the middle of words, 
 it became first capella, which is frequently used in early 
 documents in the sense of reliquaire ; thence transferred to the 
 small building in which the relics were kept and the saint's 
 altar erected (chapelle), and finally to any succursal to the 
 mother church. The word as now applied to non-conformist 
 meeting houses is utterly inappropriate and meaningless. 
 
 The nave is derived from Greek vaog, a temple, more espe- 
 cially the inner portion, or cella. It is usual to connect this 
 with Latin navis, a ship, from the fancied resemblance of the 
 nave of a Gothic building to a ship turned upside down. 
 There is, however, not the slightest connexion between the 
 words. Navis is derived from no, to swim or float; vcloq 
 means originally simply an abode, a dwelling, though, like 
 the Latin cedes, applied more especially to the dwelling of the 
 gods. 
 
 The aisles are the wings of a church ; French ailes, Latin 
 ala. 
 
 The choir or quire, derives its name from the choral ser- 
 
vice therein performed. It is traceable through the French 
 choeur, Latin chorus, to Greek %op6g, which originally signified 
 a dance in a ring. To dancing, music and singing were 
 afterwards added, out of which arose the Greek tragedy, which 
 was at first nothing more than a story told in the intervals of 
 the choral performances. In course of time any combination 
 of voices in vocal music was called a chorus, which, when 
 introduced into the Christian worship, gave its name to the 
 part of the building in which it was carried on. 
 
 The chancel is so called from its being screened off from 
 the more public part of the church by lattice work, called in 
 Latin cancelli. Some of these cancelli worked in marble 
 still exist at San Clemente and others of the early Italian 
 churches. 
 
 Steeple is a pure Anglo-Saxon word. Stepul, stypel. This 
 originally meant any elevated building, as a tower ; clocye 
 stypel, a bell tower. This is connected with our word steep, 
 meaning anything sheer upright. 
 
 The word tower is usually derived from French tour, Latin 
 turris, but the congenital words, Anglo-Saxon torr, German 
 tliurm, &c, show that the radical is common to all the 
 European languages. 
 
 The word spire has also a double derivation. Kichardson 
 derives it through the French spire, Latin spira, to the Greek 
 (nrelpa, which originally meant a coil or twist, gradually 
 diminishing to a point. This would not apply to a spire in 
 an architectural sense, except to such a one as that of the 
 Felsen kerke at Copenhagen, which has an external spiral 
 stair carried round it to the summit. Nor is the term, in our 
 sense, known in French architecture, in which jleclie, cloclier en 
 aiguille take the place of our spire. The word, in our sense, 
 is pure Teutonic, meaning anything sharp, closely connected 
 with spear, Old German sper. 
 
 A large number of terms in ecclesiastical and castellated 
 
109 
 
 architecture are derived from the French, such as chevron, 
 corbel, chamfer, trefoil, quatrefoil, &c, crocket, crenelles, 
 embrasures, machicolations, mullions, facade, escutcheon, 
 with many others, shewing the source from which progress in 
 architecture in England took its rise. The architectural 
 vocabulary in England previous to ihe conquest was meagre 
 in the extreme. The Gallicised Normans were the great 
 builders of their day, and with the art introduced their own 
 nomenclature. A fair number of English terms came into 
 use in process of time, such as spandrel, buttress, screen, 
 severy, shaft, bench, rood-loft, hammer-beam, pier, batter, &c. 
 
 The terms employed in classical architecture, are of compa- 
 ratively recent introduction, and have come to us principally 
 through the French. 
 
 Cornice, French comiche, Italian cornice, cornicione, Latin 
 corona, Greek icopiorig. This word is employed by Vitruvius to 
 signify the upper member of the entablature, but it is only an 
 adaptation of the word, considerably changed from its primary 
 meaning. The root cor, Kop, or koru enters into many combi- 
 nations both in the classical and Teutonic languages, always 
 with the sense of" crooked," "serrated." Homer employs it 
 to designate the beaked prows of the ships, " vrjvtrl icopojvim." 
 Theocritus applies it to the crumpled horns of a cow. It is 
 used also for a garland or chaplet, and thence transferred to 
 the kingly crown. Its original application in architecture would 
 appear to have been to a serrated edge or border, probably of 
 wood, running along the eaves, of which the Greek antefixes 
 seem to be a remini>cence. The ordinary derivation from the 
 cornice being the crowning or uppermost member, is not at 
 all boras out by the history of the word, which was never 
 employed by the ancients in the sense of " summit," as we 
 now use it. The original idea is still preserved in the Italian 
 cornice, a picture-frame or border. The Latin com-u, Eng- 
 lish, horn, German krunim, Sanskrit krun-clia, crooked, are 
 traceable to the same root. 
 
110 
 
 The word frieze is derived from the French /rise, Ital. 
 fregio, Latin phrygius, a term applied first to embroidered 
 cloth, in which the Phrygians excelled ; thence transferred to 
 any sculptured surface. It is not found in Yitruvius, who 
 employs instead the word zophorus, Greek faotyopog, which has 
 the kindred meaning of " sculpture bearing," especially the 
 figures of animals. 
 
 Architrave. This is a curious word of modern origin. 
 Vitruvius employs the word epistylium, Greek i-maTvXog, " upon 
 the columns " in the same sense. Architrave is found in 
 French, Italian and Spanish, but is most probably of French 
 origin. John Evelyn, in his essay on Architecture, is some- 
 what scandalised at the introduction of the word. He says, 
 " The Greeks named that epistylium, which we, from a mon- 
 grel compound of two languages (apxn-trabs) called archi- 
 trave." This hardly accounts for the origin of the terra 
 which has probably arisen from the circumstance that the 
 French architects, on the revival of classical architecture, 
 finding a difficulty in procuring large stones to reach from 
 column to column, formed the epistylium of smaller stones 
 put together as a straight arch. This is still practised in 
 France at the present clay. Hence the term arche-trave, 
 which may mean either " arched beam " or " arched space/' 
 from travee, a bay or space between two supports. 
 
 Column, French colour) e, Latin columna. The radical of 
 this word is found in culm-us, equivalent to English haulm, 
 the stem of a plant; hence oilmen, columen, anything rising 
 up to a height, whence columna for an upright prop. 
 
 The word style, derived from the Greek arvXog, rrriiXr), has 
 much the same meaning, when applied to the various descrip- 
 tions of colonnade. ariiXog signifies an upright post. Our 
 word style applied to manner, fashion, mode of writing, is 
 derived from Lat. stilus, an iron pen, which Liddell and Scott 
 connect with areXe-^og, a stalk. 
 
 
Ill 
 
 Base, Greek fiao-ig, is derived from /3a«Vo>, to walk, go, and 
 is used by the Greek poets in the sense of the steps by which 
 the temples were approached. It is not employed by Vitru- 
 vius, who uses the word spira in its place. 
 
 Plinth, ivkivQoQ, originally signified a square brick or tile, 
 placed under the upright shaft, thence transferred to the square 
 stone which took its place under the column. 
 
 Htylobate, (TTvXofiarrjg, is employed by Plato for the base of 
 a column, but by Vitruvius it is used for the substructure or 
 pedestal, which sense it still retains. 
 
 Abacus, Greek a/3a£. means a square slab or bearer, and is 
 applied by Vitruvius with its modern meaning. 
 
 Torus, Greek ropog, originally meant a boring instrument, 
 then it was applied to any thing round in shape, a round pro- 
 tuberance or projection, and is applied by Vitruvius in its 
 modern sense. 
 
 Astragal, avrpayaXog, is used by Homer for the vertebral 
 column ; by Herodotus for the ball of the ankle bone. 
 Vitruvius has applied it architecturally to the necking of the 
 column. 
 
 Metope, Greek fxero-n-r}. 6-Kr\ signifies opening, hole, and was 
 applied to the spaces between the triglyphs, which originally 
 represented the ends of the beams. Metope means " within 
 the opening," or the space of the opening. 
 
 It would be possible to continue this inquiry to a much 
 greater length, but enough has probably been said to shew the 
 interest which attaches to the etymology of any art or science. 
 Although not essential to the study of architecture, yet the 
 knowledge of its history, which may be gleaned from the 
 field of its nomenclature, is not without its use. 
 
J, 
 
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