COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 
 
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0° Lonititmlc Enet 30° from GreenivMl CO* 
 
 ■r-l-' *> FALKLAND IS 
 
 '" Vai.J^Uorn. 
 
 THE WORLD 
 
 SHOWING THE 
 
 TERRITOUIAL ACQUISITIONS. 
 
 OF THE 
 
 rXITED STATES 
 
HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNITED STATES 
 
 IVITH MAPS, PLANS, AND ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 BEING A REVISION OF THE 
 "HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS; 
 
 BY 
 
 ALEXANDER JOHNSTON, LLD. 
 
 Revised and continued by 
 WINTHROP MORE DANIELS, M.A. 
 
 FARTHER REVISED AND CONTINUED BY 
 
 WILLIAM MacDONALD, Ph.D. 
 
 P-'ofessor- in Bowdcin Col/eg" 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 1901 
 
BY ALEXANDER JOHNSTON, LL.D. 
 
 Jlj*»*ry o* Congpees 
 
 Iwo Copies Received 
 FFff 8 1901 
 
 FIRST COPY 
 
 HISTORY OF AMERICAN POLITICS. 
 
 Third Edition, Enlarged. Revised by 
 WILLIAM M. SLOANE, Pli.D., L.H.D. 
 New York: HENRY HOLT & CO. i6m(), 
 PP- 355- 
 
 HIGH-SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE 
 UNITED STATES. With Maps, Plans, 
 and Illustrations. Revised and Continued 
 by W. M. Daniels. Farther Revised 
 and Continued by WM. MACDONALD. 
 New York: HENRY HOLT & CO. i2mo, 
 pp. 6oo. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 For Schools. With an Introductory History 
 of the Discovery and English Colonization 
 of North America. With Maps, Plans, IHus- 
 trations, and Questions. Revised and Con- 
 tinued by W. M. DANIELS. New York : 
 HENRY HOLT & CO. i2mo, pp. 499. 
 
 A SHORTER HISTORY OF THE 
 UNITED STATES. For Schools. With 
 an Introductory History of the Discovery 
 and English Colonization of North America. 
 With Maps, Plans, and References to Sup- 
 plementary Reading. New York : HENRY 
 HOLT & Co. i2mo, pp. 340. 
 
 AMERICAN ORATIONS.,.. FROM THE 
 ..GOL.ONUL'/ PF;WiOd |to xh^E- '.Present 
 
 '•flAjff. .',Sela''.te4',4s",s.qt;cimen.'>oIf Eloquence, 
 <*md \Vith ^^pecial'rei'erence to their value in 
 
 *ale3(ander Johnston. New York' 
 
 G. p. PUTNAM'S Sons. Three volumes, 
 i6mo. 
 
 THE UNITED STATES : Its History and 
 Constitution. New York : CHARLES 
 
 Scribner's Sons. 
 
 Copyright, 1901, 
 
 BY 
 
 HENRY HOLT & CO. 
 n: ' ' t, X? 
 
. PREFACE TO THE HIGH-SCHOOL EDITION 
 
 In the present revision of the History of the United States for 
 Schools, the aim has been to bring the book up to date- and 
 add to its practical iisefuhiess, without sacrificing its essential- 
 characteristics or doing violence to the principles on which it 
 was constructed. Some important topics scantily treated in 
 the original have been expanded, and some new topics added, 
 such enlargements being indicated by asterisks after the paragraph 
 numbers. An account of the McKinlcy Administration, includ- 
 ing the Spanish War, replaces the old final chapter. The subject- 
 matter has been further grouped into well-defined periods, and 
 in a few instances rearranged ; short i)aragraphs — even short 
 chapters — -have sometimes been combined ; and the author's 
 later Shorter History has occasionally been drawn upon. The 
 matter formerly printed in small type has been either relegated 
 to foot-notes or incorporated, partly or altogether, with the body 
 of the text, or partly or altogether omitted, as in the case of the 
 formal biograi)hies and State histories. Each chapter has been 
 supplied with topics for further study, in partial substitution 
 for the former questions at the foot of the page, and with a 
 l)rief bibliography in place of the general bibliography at the 
 end of the volume. These new bibliographies have been 
 restricted to the more helpful references and the titles sup[)le- 
 mented by critical comments. Many of the maps have been 
 taken over from the Shorter History, and the other illustrations 
 have been carefully' revised. Beyond these changes, little has 
 been done except to correct a few errors and to remove some 
 blemishes of style. 
 
 William MacDonald. 
 
 BowDOiN CoLLKGE, October, 1900, 
 
 iii 
 
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE 
 " HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS" 
 
 So many school histories of the United States are already in 
 existence, and their preparation has been so excellent in the 
 details of idea and execution, that some apology seems to be 
 needed for this addition to their number. The apology will be 
 found, it is hoped, in the special purpose with which this book 
 has been written. 
 
 It is submitted that the designs which have usually controlled 
 our school histories are impossible of fulfilment, and, even if 
 possible, would not serve the most useful purpose. There are 
 already in existence books in abundance which tell stories in the 
 manner most attractive to pupils at the most imaginative period 
 of life ; and the pupil's mind, if properly directed by the teacher, 
 will turn to them naturally and derive more satisfaction and in- 
 struction from them than can be gained from any school history 
 of usable compass. It hardly seems wise for a school history to 
 to force itself into a hopeless competition in a field which has 
 already been so fully preempted. History is a task and a method 
 of mental discipline ; our school histories attempt to relieve it, 
 as no one attempts to relieve grammar or arithmetic, by story- 
 telling. One result has been that the history of the compara- 
 tively unimportant colonial period has been assigned an inordi- 
 nately large space. So much room is given to the stories of 
 Smith and Pocahontas, Putnam and the wolf, and similar epi- 
 sodes, that the real history of the United States is cramped, 
 marred, and brought to a lame and impotent conclusion. Judg- 
 ing from the space usually assigned to each, a reader must con- 
 clude that the history of the United States deserves a much 
 larger treatment for the time when the United "States did not 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 exist than for the time of its prominence as a nation — for a time 
 when the population was but 200,000 than for the time when 
 the popuhition was 50,000,000. 
 
 The reason generally advanced for the transfer of the stirring 
 stories of the past out of the reading book or general reading 
 into the school histories is that they stimulate the minds of pupils 
 to an emulation of the great deeds which are narrated. In 
 isolated cases the reason may be valid ; there may have been 
 cases in which the mind of some pupil has been thus stimulated 
 with useful effect. But tlie mass of pupils have no opportunity 
 to exhibit any such result ; their need is to learn from the his- 
 tory of the past how best to perform the simple and homely 
 duties of good citizenship. Very few of the boys in our schools 
 will ever have an opportunity to exhibit, in the foundation of a 
 colony, the patient virtues of the Pilgrim Fathers or the exec- 
 utive ability of John Smith ; almost every one of them will soon 
 be called upon to give his conclusion by vote upon questions 
 which involve some understanding of the political, financial, or 
 economic problems of the past. It seems unfair, as well as un- 
 wise, to disregard the needs of the great mass in favor of the 
 desires of the very few, especially as the latter will be certain to 
 gratify their desires in a more natural way elsewhere. 
 
 In the ordinary school course, no place can well be made for 
 treatises on the duties of citizenship, on jjolitical economy, or 
 on finance. Even if they could be introduced, their most valu- 
 able portions would consist of deductions from the events re- 
 corded in a history such as this. The effort to inculcate the les- 
 son with the facts, if applied to the usual school history, would 
 make it hopelessly bulky. Something must be dropped ; and it 
 seems unwise to retain the stories where they conflict with far 
 more important matters whose omission the ordinary school 
 course will never sui)])ly. The typical schoolboy must get his 
 political, economic, and financial education from his school his- 
 tory of the United States, if he is to get it at all. 
 
 The design of this book, then, is not simply to detail the 
 events which make up the history of the United States, but to 
 group those events which seem likely to shed light on the respon- 
 
PREFACE vu 
 
 sibilities of the citizen to the i)resent or future, and to give the 
 student the light in connection with the event. In this process 
 the effort has been made, with caution and with a studied sim- 
 plicity of language, to interest the pupil in the wonderful devel- 
 opment of the United States and the difficult economic problems 
 which have grown out of it. If, in so doing, the peculiar prov- 
 ince of the story-writer has been abandoned, the abandon- 
 ment does not seem to the writer a real sacrifice. Wherever 
 further compression has been necessary, it has been applied at 
 the beginning, at the time when there was no "United States," 
 with the design of giving as much space as possible to our 
 naiioftal history. And in every place where it has seemed 
 possible, the attention of the pupil has been directed to the 
 peculiar circumstances and limitations of the time under con- 
 sideration, and to the idea of growth to be attained by a com- 
 parison with the present. For much the same reasons, other 
 topics, not essential to the main subject, such as the tribal 
 institutions of the aborigines, and the Spanish conquests of 
 Mexico and Peru, have been left untouched. And, in nar- 
 rating the wars of the United States, while the effort has been 
 made to give the pupil a definite idea of the purposes, plans, 
 and results of campaigns, it has not seemed best to cumber 
 the narration with a catalogue of engagements and com- 
 manders, whose very names are only a spring of confusion to 
 the mind of the pupil. 
 
 As the book is not intended to be a story-book, so it is not 
 intended to be a picture-book. Maps in abundance seem to 
 the author the only legitimate embellishment of a school his- 
 tory. While the pictures in this volume have been restricted 
 to illustrations of such persons and things as are pertinent to 
 the text, they have been introduced with regret, and only as 
 a yielding to the present prejudice which denies an effective 
 audience to the school history not so illustrated. It is to be 
 hoped that the time will soon come when the space now sur- 
 rendered to the graphic additions of the average schoolboy's 
 pencil will be utilized to better purpose. 
 
 The commanding position already attained by the United 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 States, which can only become more overshadowing in the future, 
 has made it evident that the future American citizen must be 
 taught to think more of the responsibilities of the present than 
 of the picturesque events of the past. The enormous political 
 edifice which has appeared in central North America is ris- 
 ing with such increasing swiftness that every good citizen must 
 feel a sense of personal responsibility for its continuance and 
 good management. This volume is an attempt to lead Amer- 
 ican youth to be "good citizens," in this sense of the phrase ; 
 and, whatever defects of execution it may show, the writer is 
 confident that the spirit of the attempt will have the sym- 
 pathy of every friend of education. 
 
 Princeton, N. J., June i, 1885. 
 
 PUBLISHERS' NOTE 
 
 To THE Third Edition (1897) 
 
 The previous editions of this work have undergone a revision 
 at the hands of Prof. W. M. Daniels of Princeton University. 
 The changes made consist in minor alterations in the body of 
 the text ; in the substitution of the returns of the Census of 1890 
 for the earlier figures ; and in the addition of two chapters 
 covering the last two Administrations, and a Bibliography. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. — Discovery and Early Exploration: 1492-1540... i 
 
 Chapter II. — Attempts at Settlement : 1540-1607 13 
 
 Chapter III. — General Characteristics of English Coloniza- 
 tion : 1607-1750 22 
 
 Chapter IV. — The New England Colonies: 1620-1750 30 
 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony 30 
 
 New Hampshire 37 
 
 Connecticut 37 
 
 Rhode Ishmd 41 
 
 Vermont 42 
 
 New England in General 43 
 
 Chapter V. — The Southern Colonies : 1607-1750 51 
 
 Virginia 51 
 
 Maryland 55 
 
 North Carolina 57 
 
 South Carolina 60 
 
 Georgia 62 
 
 The Southern Colonies in General 64 
 
 Chapter VI. — The Middle Colonies: 1623-1750 67 
 
 New York 67 
 
 New Jersey 72 
 
 Pennsylvania 73 
 
 Delaware 76 
 
 The Colonies in General. 76 
 
 Chapter VII. — The Struggle for English Supremacy : 1750- 
 
 1763 83 
 
 French Settlement 83 
 
 The French and Indian War 88 
 
 State of the Colonies in 1763 97 
 
 Chapter VIII. — Colonial Resistance : 1 763-1775 102 
 
 The Stamp Act 102 
 
 Lexington and Concord 113 
 
 State of the Colonies in 1775 115 
 
 Chapter IX. — The Revolution : 1775-1781 120 
 
 ix 
 
X TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PACE 
 
 Events at Boston 124 
 
 Events in Canada 127 
 
 Events in England and on the Coast 128 
 
 Independence 130 
 
 Events in the Middle States : 1776-1778 131 
 
 Burgoyne's Expedition, 1777 139 
 
 Aid from France 144 
 
 Events in the North after 1778 146 
 
 Events on the Sea 153 
 
 Events in the South : 1 778-1 781 155 
 
 Yorktown, 1781 162 
 
 Peace, 1783 165 
 
 Chapter X. — The Confederation : 1777-1789 171 
 
 Failure of the Confederation 171 
 
 Formation of the Constitution 176 
 
 State of the Country in 1789 183 
 
 Chapter XL— Federalist Control : 1789-1801 189 
 
 Washington's Administrations : 1789-1797 189 
 
 John Adams's Administration : 1797-1802 202 
 
 Chapter XII. — Republican Supremacy : 1801-1809 210 
 
 Jefferson's Administrations : 1801-1809 210 
 
 Domestic Affairs. . . 213 
 
 Foreign Affairs 217 
 
 Chapter XIII. — The Second War with Great Britain: 1812-14. 222 
 
 Madison's Administrations : 1809-1817 222 
 
 Failures in the North : 1812-14 225 
 
 Successes on the Ocean 229 
 
 Successes on the Lakes : 1813-14 236 
 
 Disasters on the Atlantic Coast 239 
 
 Dissatisfaction at Home 241 
 
 Successes in the North, 1814 242 
 
 Successes in the Southwest : 1813-15 243 
 
 Peace 246 
 
 Chapter XIV. — Social and Political Readjustment: i8- -28. 254 
 
 Monroe's Administrations : 1817-25 254 
 
 John Quincy Adams's Administration : 1825-9 263 
 
 Chapter XV.— Jackson and Van Buren : 1829-41 271 
 
 Jackson's Administrations : 1829-37 271 
 
 Political Affairs 285 
 
 Van Buren's Administration : 1837-41 292 
 
 Chapter XVL— Texas and the Mexican War: 1841-9 301 
 
 Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations : 1841-5 301 
 
 Polk's Administration : 1845-9 309 
 
 Internal Affairs 309 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 I'AGE 
 
 Origin of the Mexican War 312 
 
 Operations on the Pacific 315 
 
 Operations in Northern Mexico 316 
 
 Operations in Central Mexico 317 
 
 Peace 321 
 
 Chapter XVII. — The Struggle for Slave Territory : 1849-57. 327 
 
 Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations : 1849-53 327 
 
 Pierce's Administration : 1 853-7 333 
 
 Internal Affairs 333 
 
 Foreign Affairs 334 
 
 Slavery and Politics 336 
 
 Chapter XVIII. — The Eve of the Civil War: 1857-61 343 
 
 Kuciianan's Administration : 1857-61 343 
 
 Internal Affairs 343 
 
 Slavery and Politics 348 
 
 Sectional Division 352 
 
 Secession 354 
 
 Chapter XIX. — The War for the Union : 1861-65 362 
 
 Lincoln's Administration : 1861-65 362 
 
 Events of 1861 362 
 
 Events of 1862 375 
 
 On the Coast 381 
 
 Events of 1863 398 
 
 In the East 398 
 
 In the West 400 
 
 On the Coast 405 
 
 Internal Affairs 407 
 
 Foreign Affairs - 408 
 
 Events of 1864 409 
 
 In the East. 
 
 409 
 
 In the West 413 
 
 On the Coast 418 
 
 On the Ocean 421 
 
 > Internal Affairs 422 
 
 Events of 1865 423 
 
 Conclusion of the War . 
 
 423 
 
 Death of PrQ'^ident Lincoln 428 
 
 Military Summary of the War 429 
 
 Chapter XX. — Reconstruction 440 
 
 Johnson's Administration 440 
 
 Reconstruction 441 
 
 Impeachment 446 
 
 Internal Affairs 448 
 
 Grant's Administrations : 1869-77 450 
 
xu TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Foreign Affairs 450 
 
 Internal Affairs 452 
 
 The End of Reconstruction 455 
 
 Political Affiirs 458 
 
 Chapter XXI. — Economic Development 464 
 
 Hayes's Administration : 1877-81 464 
 
 Internal Affairs 464 
 
 Finances 466 
 
 Foreign Affairs 468 
 
 Political Affairs 468 
 
 Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations : 1881-5 469 
 
 Chapter XXII. — Cleveland and Harrison 475 
 
 Cleveland's First Administration ; 1885-9 475 
 
 Harrison's Administration : 1889-93 4^0 
 
 Cleveland's Second Administration : 1893-7 488 
 
 Chapter XXIII. — Exp.\nsion : 1897-1900 500 
 
 Appendix I. — The Declaration of Independence 531 
 
 Appendix II. — The Articles of Confederation 535 
 
 Appendix III. — The Constitution of the United States 543 
 
 Appendix IV. — Formation of the States 559 
 
 Appendix V.— Growth of the States 560 
 
 Appendix VI. — Growth of the Cities 562 
 
 Appendix VII. — Population of the Sections 564 
 
 Appendix VIII. — Congressional Representation of the Sec- 
 tions 564 
 
 Appendix IX. — The Sections in 1870-1890 565 
 
 Appendix X. — Cabinet Officers of the Administrations 567 
 
 Appendix XI. — Washington's Farewell Address (Extracts). . . 575 
 
 Index 577 
 
MAPS 
 
 In the historical maps, the colors show the political divisions at the time 
 the map refers to ; but, to aid in impressing these on the memory, other 
 political divisions, and prominent facts that may not strictly belong to the 
 time, are sometimes indicated in black. 
 
 COLORED. 
 
 FACING PAGE 
 
 The World, Showing the Territorial Acquisitions 
 
 OF THE United States Frotitispicxe 
 
 Physical Map of the United States i 
 
 European Provinces, 1655 22 
 
 British Cessions to i 732 76 
 
 The United States at the Peace of 1783 166 
 
 Acquisitions of Territory (1776-1867) 214 
 
 The United States in 1830 276 
 
 The Areas of Secession. 
 
 354 
 
 The United States in 1900, exclusive of Insular Possessions 500 
 
 uncolored. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Columbus's Voyage 6 
 
 Atlantic Discoveries 8 
 
 De Soto's Expedition 10 
 
 Atlantic Settlements 14 
 
 Massachusetts Bay Colony 36 
 
 New Hampshire Colony 37 
 
 Connecticut Colony 38 
 
 Rhode Island Colony 42 
 
 Earx,y French Wars 47 
 
 Virginia Colony 55 
 
 Maryland 56 
 
 Carolina 60 
 
 The Middle Colonies 71 
 
 French Forts ge 
 
 The French War 95 
 
 The Revolution in New England 124 
 
 Battle of Bunker Hill 125 
 
 Campaign in Middle States 133 
 
 xiii 
 
XIV MAPS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Capture and Evacuation of Philadf.lpiiia i86 
 
 Burgoyne's Expedition. 141 
 
 The British Isles 154 
 
 Revolution in the Southern Sta tes 156 
 
 The Yorktown Campaign 163 
 
 Main Movements of British Troops i;y Land and Sea 164 
 
 Barbary States , 217 
 
 Operations on the Lakes 227 
 
 Attack on Washington — Course of the British 240 
 
 Niagara Frontier 243 
 
 Expedition against New Orleans 245 
 
 Seminole War 283 
 
 War with Mexico 313 
 
 Scott's March to Mexico 319 
 
 Fort Sumter and Charleston Harijor 364 
 
 Operations in Virginia 369 
 
 Washington and Vicinity 372 
 
 Operations in the West 378 
 
 Hampton Roads 382 
 
 New Orleans ' 384 
 
 Operations in the East 387 
 
 Seven Days' Battles 391 
 
 First Invasion of the North 393 
 
 Second Invasion of the North 399 
 
 The Vicksburg Campaign 401 
 
 Murfreesboro to Atlanta 405 
 
 Operations in the East 410 
 
 Sherman's March 417 
 
 On the Coast 419 
 
 Operations in Virginia , 424 
 
 Hawaiian Islands 511 
 
 PiiiLM'PiNE Islands , 520 
 
 Por TO Rico 523 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section of Behaim's Globe 3 
 
 Christopher Columbus .... 4 
 
 The Caravels of Columbus 5 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh 16 
 
 Henry Hudson 19 
 
 The Mayflower 31 
 
 Governor John Winthrop 33 
 
 Site of Boston in 1620 35 
 
 Charter Oak 40 
 
 Captain John Smith 52 
 
 Peter Stu yves ant 68 
 
 New York City in 1656 70 
 
 William Penn 75 
 
 Samuel De Champlain 84 
 
 William Pitt 91 
 
 James Wolfe 92 
 
 Quebec , 93 
 
 British Stamp 103 
 
 Patrick Henry 104 
 
 George HI 106 
 
 Faneuil Hall, Boston 107 
 
 John Hancock 108 
 
 Carpenter's Hall 121 
 
 Benjamin Franklin 123 
 
 Union Flag 126 
 
 Rattlesnake Flag 127 
 
 Philip Schuyler 128 
 
 Liberty Bell 131 
 
 Independence Hall in 1776 132 
 
 Marquis De La Fayette 137 
 
 Gen. John Burgoyne 140 
 
 Horatio Gates 143 
 
 Continental Money 149 
 
 Anthony Wayne 151 
 
 XV 
 
'^^^ ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 John Andre >*agr 
 
 John Paul Jones ' " * ' ' '52 
 
 Nathaniel Greene *53 
 
 State-house at Annapolis '.' ". '59 
 
 Alexander Hamilton , '77 
 
 Washington ^^2 
 
 Mount Vernon ^^^ 
 
 Fitch's Steamboat '. '99 
 
 Cincinnati in 1787 (Fort WASHiNGTON) """^ 
 
 John Adams 201 
 
 The Capitol at Washington. .."'.'''. ^°^ 
 
 Thomas Jefferson ^°^ 
 
 Robert Fulton 2^2 
 
 James Madison , 215 
 
 American Gunboat '. ^^^ 
 
 James Lawrence ^32 
 
 Oliver H. Perry ^^^ 
 
 Thomas Macdonough ^37 
 
 James Monroe ^3^ 
 
 John C. Calhoun ^^^ 
 
 John Quincy Adams '.'.' ^^3 
 
 Henry Clay 264 
 
 Andrew Jackson ^^7 
 
 Early Railroad Train ^^^ 
 
 Chicago in 1830— Fort Dearborn."."'.' ^^^ 
 
 Bryant, Whittier, Longfellow, Holmes' ^^l 
 
 Hawthorne. Irving, Poe, Cooper ^^ 
 
 Daniel Webster ^^° 
 
 Martin Van Buren .'........ ^^* 
 
 William Henry Harrison .'. ^^3 
 
 John Tyler 3^2 
 
 Samuel F. B. Morse ". ^02 
 
 James K. Polk '.'..'.".. -^"^ 
 
 The Hoe Printing-machine -^^^ 
 
 Ancient Hand Printing-press. ....'.'.'.".'. ^'° 
 
 Winfield Scott 3 10 
 
 Zachary Taylor 3i8 
 
 Millard Fillmore , ^27 
 
 Salmon P. Chase ^27 
 
 Franklin Pierce 33^ 
 
 Charles Sumner ^^^ 
 
 James Buchanan ,' ' 34° 
 
 Lowell, Emerson, Parkman, Motley ^'^^ 
 
 King Cotton 34^ 
 
 349 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Secession Hall 355 
 
 Secession Cockade 355 
 
 Jefferson Davis 356 
 
 Alexander H. Stephens 358 
 
 Abraham Lincoln 362 
 
 Fort Sumter 365 
 
 George B. McClellan - 370 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant 373 
 
 Albert Sidney Johnston 376 
 
 Western Gunboats 380 
 
 Confederate Ram 381 
 
 John Ericsson . . 382 
 
 The Monitor and the Merrimac 383 
 
 David G. Farr agut 385 
 
 Joseph E. Johnston 388 
 
 Robert E. Lee 389 
 
 Thomas J. Jackson 390 
 
 Ambrose E. Burnside 394 
 
 The Alabama 397 
 
 George G. Meade 400 
 
 W. T. Sherman 414 
 
 George H. Thomas 416 
 
 Philip H. Sheridan 426 
 
 Signatures of Grant and Lee 426 
 
 William H. Seward 429 
 
 Andrew Johnson 440 
 
 Edwin M. Stanton 447 
 
 R. B. Hayes 465 
 
 James A. Garfield 470 
 
 Chester A. Arthur 470 
 
 Grover Cleveland 475 
 
 Benjamin Harrison 480 
 
 William McKinley 500 
 
rAt, ait ut Juan's^ \ "^ J ^ 
 
 .— ■• Q^ ' 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 
 
 Deep yellow represt 
 
Ki feet and over. 
 
HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 
 
 1492-1540 
 
 1. The United States of America cover the central por- 
 tion of North America, from the Atlantic Ocean to the 
 Pacific. Four hundred years ago this territory was 
 unknown to men of the Eastern Hemisphere. Its lakes, 
 rivers, and mountains were just as we know them now; 
 and the face of the country has changed very little, 
 except in the disappearance of the forests. But the great 
 cities, the railroads, the telegraphs, and all the works of 
 civilized man were lacking. The territory has been 
 changed from a wilderness to the abode of one of the most 
 powerful nations of the earth ; and the story of this change 
 is the history of the United States of America. 
 
 2. The Inhabitants of America, when the country was 
 discovered by Europeans, were copper-colored savages, to 
 whom Columbus gave the name of Indians, because he 
 thought that he had found the eastern coast of Asia, or 
 India. The Indians built no cities or towns, made no great 
 inventions, had no written language, and led a rude and 
 wandering life. Their chief business and pleasure were 
 in war and hunting, the women doing the work of the 
 wigwam and the field. Whence the Indians came we do 
 not know. Only in Mexico and Peru did the European 
 
2 DISCO yERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 
 
 explorers find anything resembling permanent com- 
 munities or orderly governments. 
 
 3. The Indians have been gradually pushed back from 
 the coast by the white settlers, until now they are almost 
 all beyond the Mississippi, controlled and cared for, by the 
 Government of the United States. When America was dis- 
 covered the Indians were grouped in tribes, though there 
 was no exact boundary line between the countries of 
 different tribes. The Indians of the Atlantic coast were 
 generally Algonquins ; the names of some of their tribes 
 are preserved in our names of places, such as Narragansett, 
 Massachusetts, and the Indian names of Maine. The 
 Indians of the interior or Middle States were Iroquois; 
 their strongest branch was a confederacy in New York, 
 called the Six Nations, composed of the Mohawks, 
 Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, Senecas, and Tuscaroras 
 (§ 95)- Oi"' the other side of the Iroquois, along the 
 Mississippi, there were other Alonquins, some of whom, 
 as the Shawnees, Peorias, Pottawattomies, Sacs, and 
 Foxes, still survive in the Indian Territory across the 
 Mississippi; while others, as the Illinois, are remembered 
 only by names of places. The tribes of the south. Creeks, 
 Cherokees, Chickasaws, and others, were kindred to the 
 Iroquois. Their descendants are also in tlie Indian Ter- 
 ritory. 
 
 4. Europe had advanced so far in civilization, about the 
 year 1450, that its people were prepared to discover and 
 conquer a new world. They had discovered the use of 
 gunpowder, which made them superior to peoples who did 
 not possess it; of the mariner's compass, which enabled 
 them to sail out of sight of land, and thus discover new 
 countries ; and of printing by movable types, which made 
 books abundant, and thus spread the news of discoveries. 
 Many of them had come to believe that the earth was 
 
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 
 
 round, though nobody suspected that there was a great 
 continent between western Europe and eastern Asia. 
 Portuguese sailors were exploring the west coast of Africa, 
 
 Q 
 
 AZORES J ^,^^9V'. 
 
 tPO 
 
 Section of Behaim"s Globe.' 
 
 and one of them, in i486, succeeded in reaching the Cape 
 of Good Hope. Everywhere men were beginning to think 
 and talk of geographical discovery ; and the man who was 
 to make the greatest of modern discoveries was already 
 planning it. 
 
 5. Christopher Columbus, a sailor of Genoa, in Italy, 
 had led from his youth a seafaring life, and had come to 
 the conclusion that the earth was round, and that he 
 
 1 "It has always been supposed that in the well-known globe of Martin 
 Behaim we get in the main an expression of the views held by Toscanelli, 
 Columbus, and others of Behaim's contemporaries, who espoused the notion 
 of India lying over against Europe." — JVinsor's History of America. 
 
4 DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 
 
 could reach the Indies, or eastern Asia, by saihng west- 
 ward part of the distance around the world. He had no 
 money to fit out ships, and when he asked for money 
 from Genoa, Portugal, England, and Spain, they refused 
 it. Finally Queen Isabella of Spain supplied him with 
 money enough to fit out three small vessels. The largest 
 of them would hardly be thought safe for a sea-voyage at 
 present. 
 
 6. Columbus's First Voyage began at Palos, in Spain 
 (August 3, 1492). As far as the Canary Islands the way 
 was well known. Thence he sailed out into the west on 
 
 Christopher Columbus. 
 
 a way that no man had ever sailed before. His men 
 became frightened and rebellious as the days passed by 
 without the sight of land, but he induced them to press 
 onward. On the morning of October 12, the sailors saw 
 before them one of the Bahamas (probably Watling's 
 
DISCOVERY AND E/iRLY EXPLORATION 
 
 Island), to which Columbus gave the name of San Sal- 
 vador. Sailing slowly south and southeast for several 
 months, he explored the West Indies to their north- 
 east corner. Then his little fleet spread its sails and 
 returned to Europe, carrying unknown men and spec- 
 imens of plants as proofs that a new world had been dis- 
 covered. 
 
 7. Columbus's Discovery caused a great excitement in 
 Europe, as the printing-press scattered the news of it. 
 Spanish ships, with soldiers and sailors, at once began to 
 sail boldly westward, now that it was known that there 
 
 was a new world and wealth i ^ ^ 
 
 across the Atlantic. Their ad- ^ ^ ^ 
 
 ventures, particularly in Mex- 
 
 500 1000 2000 
 
 Columbus's Voyage. 
 
 ico and Peru, make up a w'onderful and interesting story, 
 but it does not fall within the limits of our own history. 
 Before many years had passed, Spain had conquered for 
 itself nearly all South America, and that part of North 
 America which is now called Mexico. But the Spaniards 
 paid little attention to the territory which now belongs 
 to the United States, preferring countries where gold and 
 silver were easily obtained. 
 
 8. Four Voyages in all were made by Columbus, but 
 without any further great discovery. He was treated 
 
SPANISH AND ENGLISH DISCOVERIES 7 
 
 unkindly by Ferdinand, king of Spain, and on one occa- 
 sion was sent home in chains by one of the king's officials. 
 He never touched on the continent of North America, 
 though on his third voyage, in 1498, he landed on the 
 continent of South America, near the Orinoco River. 
 He died without knowing that he had discovered a new 
 world, but still supposing that he had only reached the 
 East Indies. The world which he had discovered was 
 not named for him. It was called America, from Amerigo 
 Vespucci (in Latin Auicricus Vcspiicius), a merchant and 
 traveller of Florence, who was the first to describe it as a 
 separate continent. Before this happened, the native 
 inhabitants were generally called Indians, from the belief 
 that their country was the Indies ; and the name has been 
 retained. 
 
 9. Spanish Discoveries soon made known that part of 
 the coast of North America which lies on the Gulf of 
 Mexico and the southern Atlantic. In 15 12, Ponce 
 de Leon discovered the coast of what is now eastern 
 Florida, giving it the name of Florida because he dis- 
 covered it on Easter Sunday, called in Spanish Pasaia 
 Floi-ida. In 1520, Ayllon explored the coast of what 
 is now South Carolina; and in 1528, Narvaez explored 
 the northwest coast of Florida, along the Gulf of 
 Mexico. 
 
 10. English Discoveries were the ones which had the 
 most to do with the country which is now the United 
 States. John Cabot, a merchant of Venice, in Italy, then 
 living in Bristol, England, and his son Sebastian, fitted 
 out a ship, the Matthciv, which in 1497 discovered land 
 in the region of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They called 
 it Prima Vista ("first sight"). In 1498, Sebastian 
 Cabot explored the whole Atlantic coast from Cape 
 Breton to Albemarle Sound, and claimed it for England. 
 
8 
 
 DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 
 
 No attempt to settle the 
 country was made for many 
 years, except an unsuccessful 
 effort by Martin Frobisher to 
 colonize Labra- 
 dor; but Eng- 
 lish sailors con- 
 tinued to follow 
 the path of the 
 Cabots across 
 the northern 
 Atlantic, in 
 order to share 
 in the New- 
 foundland fish- 
 eries. 
 
 11. French 
 Discoveries had 
 at first very little 
 to do with the 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 400 600 800 
 
 Atlantic Discoveries. 
 
 future history of the 
 United States. The 
 Newfoundland fish- 
 eries attracted 
 French sailors across 
 the Atlantic, and, in 
 1506, Denys dis- 
 covered the Gulf of 
 St. Lawrence. In 
 1524, Verrazzani, a 
 Florentine sailor in 
 the French service, 
 explored the Atlantic 
 coast, north of 
 what is n o w 
 South Carolina. 
 In 1534, Cartier 
 discovered the 
 great river St. 
 Lawrence, and 
 this drew the 
 
PORTUGAL AND SPAIN 9 
 
 French off in that direction, so that whatever discoveries 
 they made were made in Canada (§ 19). 
 
 12. Portugal and Spain had made an agreement in 
 1493, by which Portugal was not to interfere with Spain 
 in America, and Spain was not to interfere with Portugal 
 in Africa or the East Indies. Portugal, therefore, took 
 no part in American discovery, except that Cortereal, a 
 Portuguese sailor, explored the Atlantic coast, in 1501, 
 from Maine to Newfoundland. The maritime nations of 
 western Europe were then Spain, England, France, and 
 Portugal ; no other nation was at all likely to attempt 
 settlements in America. Holland was then subject to 
 Spain, and attempted no settlements until it had become 
 independent (§ 28). Italy and Germany were then 
 divided into many weak states ; and Sweden was not 
 strong enough to dispute the new continent with the great 
 nations (§ 29). 
 
 13. The Interior of North America was not touched by 
 any of the discoveries above mentioned. Some of the 
 Spanish governors of Mexico sent expeditions northward 
 into what is now New Mexico and California; but they 
 accomplished little. The only important effort to explore 
 the interior, before the English colonies began to grow 
 inward from the coast, was the remarkable expedition of 
 De Soto. 
 
 14. De Soto was the Spanish governor of Cuba. In 
 1539, he landed at Tampa Bay, in Florida, with a force 
 of about 600 men, and marched through the continent for 
 three years, vainly hoping to find and conquer a rich 
 Indian kingdom. He went north nearly to the Tennessee 
 River, then southerly to where Mobile now stands, and 
 thence northwesterly to the Mississippi River, which he 
 crossed in April, 1541, near the present southern boundary 
 of Tennessee. He marched westward for several hundred 
 
10 
 
 DISCOVERY AND EARLY EXPLORATION 
 
 60 100 200 300 
 
 De Soto's Expedition. 
 
 miles across the present State of Arkansas, but found 
 everywhere only savages wandering in a wilderness. All 
 
 this time, it was 
 
 De Soto's courage 
 which had kept up 
 the courage of the 
 men, but even De 
 Soto's courage 
 gave out at length, 
 and he began to 
 m o V e southward 
 on the way home. 
 He died, worn 
 out, on the banks 
 of the Mississippi, 
 near the mouth of 
 the Red River, and was buried beneath the waters of the 
 great river which he had discovered. His soldiers then 
 built boats, and sailed down the river to the Gulf of 
 Mexico, and so to Mexico, which the Spaniards had con- 
 quered in 152 I. 
 
 15. The Pacific Coast was explored in 1543 by Cabrillo 
 and Ferelo, two Spaniards, as far north as Oregon. In 
 1579, Drake, an English navigator, sailed along the coast 
 and called it New Albion. In 1592, Juan de Fuca, a 
 Spanish pilot, explored the coast as far as the strait which 
 bears his name. The territory remained under the control 
 of Spain, and a few settlements were made by Spanish 
 missionaries ; but little was known about the country until 
 it became a part of the United States in 1848 (§ 544.) 
 
 16. The Discoveries of Spain, England, France, and 
 Portugal have been given separately above. They may 
 be collected, as follows: 
 
SUMMARY II 
 
 (S., Spanish; E., English; F., French; P., Portuguese.) 
 ATLANTIC COAST. 
 
 1492 — Columbus (S. ) : West Indies § 6 
 
 1497 — Cabots (E.) : Cape Breton Island 10 
 
 1498 — Sebastian Cabot (E.): Albemarle Sound to Caf)e 
 
 Breton Island 10 
 
 1 501 — Cortereal (P.) : Maine to Newfoundland 12 
 
 1506 — Denys (F.) : Gulf of St. Lawrence 11 
 
 1 5 1 2 — Ponce de Leon (S. ) : Florida 9 
 
 1520 — Ayllon (S. ): South Carolina 9 
 
 1524 — Verrazzani (F. ): South Carolina to Nova Scotia. . . 11 
 
 I 534— Cartier (F. ) : River St. Lawrence 11 
 
 GULF OF MEXICO. 
 
 1528 — -Narvaez (S. ) : Northwestern Florida 9 
 
 PACIFIC COAST. 
 
 1543 — Cabrillo (S. ): Pacific coast to Oregon 15 
 
 1 579 — Drake (E. ) : Pacific coast 15 
 
 1592 — De Fuca (S. ): Pacific coast to British America.. . . 15 
 
 INTERIOR. 
 
 1540 — Coronado (S. ) : New Mexico 13 
 
 I 540 — Alar^on (S. ) : Colorado River 13 
 
 I 54 I — De Soto: Mississippi River and Southern States. . . 13 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. The personal appearance of a typical Indian. 
 
 2. The character of Columbus. 
 
 3. The reasons for the activity of Spain in explorations. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — Extracts from the Sagas, describing the supposed 
 voyages to Vinland, are given in American History Leaflets, 
 No. 3; the same series, No. i, gives the letter of Columbus to 
 Santangel announcing his discovery. There are various extracts 
 from documents in Iligginson's American Explorers. 
 
 Narrative Works. — The best general account of the events 
 included in this chapter is Fiske's Discovery 0/ America. There 
 
12 bISCOyERY /iND EARLY EXPLORATION 
 
 are lives of Columbus by Irving and Winsor. Winsor's Nar- 
 rative and Critical History of America is especially detailed for 
 this period, and is rich in geographical matter. Bryant and 
 Gay's Popular History of the United States covers the whole 
 course of American history from the discovery of the continent. 
 Bancroft's United States and Hildreth's United States begin with 
 1492, as does Doyle's English in America; but these works 
 deal briefly with the period of discovery and exploration. On 
 the Spanish conquest, Plelps's Spanish Conquest of America, and 
 H. H. Vizucroii' & Mexico and Central America, are perhaps the 
 most useful extended works. Prescott's Conquest of Mexico 
 and Conquest of Peru are well known, but must be corrected 
 by later works. A good popular account is Higginson's 
 American Explorers. On the aborigines, see Bancroft's Amative 
 Races. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — 'Lon^ieWo'w' s Hiawatha; Lowell's 
 
 Voyage to Finland ?Lnd Columbus ; Cooper's Mercedes of Castile ; 
 Lew Wallace's Fair God ; W. G. Simms's Damsel of Darien, 
 
 Vasconselos, awd Lily and Totetn ; Kingsley's Westward Ho / 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 
 
 1540 1607 
 
 17. The Discoveries which we have been considering 
 had made the Atlantic coast of North America pretty 
 well known before the year 1530, but settlement did not 
 begin until some seventy years later. Spain did not seem 
 inclined to settle this part of the continent. Our two 
 oldest towns, at present, St. Augustine, in Florida (founded 
 in 1565), and Santa Fe, in New Mexico (founded in 
 1582), were originally Spanish settlements, but were not 
 in the territory of the United States when our national 
 history began. France and P^ngland made a number of 
 unsuccessful attempts to found settlements before England 
 at last succeeded in getting control of the coast. We 
 will first consider the failures. 
 
 18. French Failures began in 1540, when Cartier, who 
 had discovered the St. Lawrence River in 1534 (S ii)- 
 made a settlement at Quebec ; but it was given up after 
 the second winter. French vessels still sailed up the 
 St. Lawrence from time to time, but for sixty years the 
 people in France made no further attempt to found a 
 settlement here. In i 562 and i 564, French settlements 
 were attempted on the southern Atlantic coast, but with- 
 out success. The first was at Port Royal ; but the 
 colonists became discouraged, left for home, and came 
 near starving on the voyage. The second, near where 
 
 13 
 
14 
 
 /ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 
 
 St. Augustine now stands, was too near the Spanish pos- 
 sessions, and the Spaniards destroyed it. Another French 
 expedition took revenge on the Spaniards, but made no 
 
 further attempt to 
 continue the settle- 
 ment. 
 19. Canada finally 
 became the seat of suc- 
 cessful French settlement 
 in North America. In 1605, 
 De Monts, with a commission 
 from the king of France, made a 
 successful settlement in Acadia (the 
 French name for Nova Scotia).^ In 
 1608, Champlain made a settlement 
 at Quebec. Other Frenchmen settled 
 along the St. Lawrence, and took possession of what is 
 now the Dominion of Canada. It remained a French 
 possession until 1763 (§ 154), ^md the descendants of the 
 old settlers are still known as French-Canadians. 
 
 1 De Monts also n ade efforts to settle within the' limits of what is now 
 New Entjland, but failed. The French did not bcs^in permanent settlements 
 within the territory of the present Uniled States until about 1668 (§ 137). 
 
 Atlantic Settlements. 
 
ENGLISH F/1ILURES 15 
 
 20. English Failures. — For nearly a century after 
 Columbus's discovery, the English did little in support of 
 the claims which the Cabots had made for them, except 
 that an English captain, Martin Frobisher, searching for 
 gold, made an unsuccessful attempt to found a settlement 
 in the cold and barren region called Labrador. After a 
 time, England and Spain drifted into war ; and while 
 Elizabeth was queen of England, English sailors like 
 Drake( § 15) were fighting the Spaniards on every sea. 
 Most of these were little better than pirates. One brave 
 and pious gentleman. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, saw that the 
 American fisheries had more real value than any war 
 could have ; and he undertook to make a settlement in 
 Newfoundland. His first attempt (1578) was a failure; 
 but he made another attempt, with five ships, five years 
 afterward. His men were ungovernable, and he was 
 compelled to return, taking for himself the smallest and 
 weakest vessel of the five. A violent storm arose; 
 Gilbert was besought to go on board of a larger vessel ; 
 but he refused to desert his men, saying manfully, "We 
 are as near heaven by sea as by land." So they left the 
 Admiral, sitting at the stern of his vessel, "reading a 
 book." During the night, the watchers on the other 
 ships suddenly saw the lights of his vessel go out, and 
 Sir Humphrey Gilbert disappeared from history. 
 
 21. The Northwest Passage continued for a long time to 
 be one of the great objects of the early English and 
 Dutch voyages. The Portuguese claimed the sea-route 
 from Europe to the East Indies, around Africa (§ 4). 
 The Spaniards claimed the route around South America, 
 which Magellan had discovered in 1520. It was supposed 
 either that North America was not very broad, or that it 
 was a collection of islands, like the West Indies, and the 
 English hoped to find a passage for themselves through it 
 
i6 
 
 y^T TEMPTS ^T SETTLEMENT 
 
 [1540 
 
 to the Pacific Ocean. In 1609, Hudson (§ 28) sailed up the 
 river which bears his name until he ran aground, hoping 
 every hour to sail out into the Pacific. In 1850, Captain 
 McClure at last found a "northwest passage" through 
 the Arctic Ocean, but the ice makes it useless (§ 783). 
 Long before this, however, the Spaniards and Portuguese 
 had been compelled to give up their asserted right to 
 prevent ships of other nations from using the ocean route 
 around Cape Horn and the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
 22. Raleigh. — Brave men were plenty in England, and 
 Gilbert's half-brother, Sir Walter Raleigh, next took 
 
 up the work. Wonderful 
 stories are told of Raleigh, 
 of his wit, his learning, 
 his never-failing courtesy, 
 which made friends for 
 him everywhere ; of the 
 liking which Elizabeth 
 had for him ; of the dislike 
 which her successor. King 
 James I., felt for him; of 
 the manliness which he 
 showed through thirteen 
 years of imprisonment, 
 and at his final execution. 
 The common story is that 
 he introduced into P^ngland, from the American Indians, 
 the practice of smoking tobacco ; and that one of his 
 servants, seeing him smoking and thinking him on fire, 
 threw a pitcher of beer on him to put out the fire ; but 
 it is quite certain that tobacco was used in England 
 before Raleigh's time. He has, however, a better claim 
 to our remembrance. He was the father of English 
 colonization in America. He himself was never in 
 
 Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
i6o7] RALEIGH'S COLONIES i? 
 
 North America ; but he made every effort to make settle- 
 ments there; he talked and wrote of the importance of 
 such settlements ; and he was the man who did most to 
 set Englishmen thinking of it, and to prepare the way for 
 final colonization. 
 
 23. Raleigh's Colonies. — The colonies which Raleigh 
 sent out landed on the coast of the present State of North 
 Carolina. Two of his vessels found a place for a colony 
 on Roanoke Island (1584). Raleigh named the whole 
 coast Virginia, in honor of Queen Elizabeth, who was 
 unmarried and was fond of being called the ' ' Virgin 
 Queen," and the name is still given to a part of it, the 
 present State of Virginia. A colony was sent out the 
 next year, but careful preparation had not been made, 
 and the colony was starved out in a year. Another 
 colony was sent out under White (1587). It began well. 
 White's granddaughter, Virginia Dare, the first child of 
 English parents born within the present limits of the 
 United States, was so named because the colonists 
 believed that the great colony of Virginia had now been 
 begun. No one knows what calamity happened ; but 
 when the colony was searched for three years afterward, 
 it had disappeared, and no trace of the hundred or more 
 persons who perished was ever found. This failure ex- 
 hausted Raleigh's money for the time. 
 
 24. Bartholomew Gosnold, in 1602, found a new route 
 across the Atlantic, by the Azores Islands, which saved 
 1500 miles in distance. He made a settlement in what 
 is now called Buzzard's Bay, in Massachusetts; but his 
 men lost courage, and he returned with a ship-load of 
 sassafras. At this time, more than a century after 
 Columbus's discovery, there was not an English settler 
 in all North America ; but English trading and fishing 
 vessels were often seen along the coast, and their ac- 
 
1 8 ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 
 
 counts of the country kept alive the English desire for 
 American settlements. 
 
 25. English Settlement took a new form in 1606, under 
 King James I. Two great companies were formed, one 
 at London, called the London Company, the other at 
 Plymouth, called the Plymouth Company. To the 
 London Company the king granted the coast of North 
 America from latitude 34° to latitude 41°; that is, from 
 about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Hudson River. To 
 the Plymouth Company he gave the coast from latitude 
 38° to 45°; that is, from the Rappahannock River to the 
 eastern point of Maine. The coast between the Rappa- 
 hannock and the Hudson was thus granted to both com- 
 panies ; but neither was to fix a colony within 100 miles 
 of any colony already planted by the other. There was 
 no western boundary to the grants, which were supposed 
 to extend across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. 
 
 26. Successful Settlement began with the formation of the 
 companies, the first successful colony being established at 
 Jamestown in Virginia, in 1607 (§ 7^)- The first attempts 
 had failed because of natural difficulties. A few people, 
 placed in a wilderness, with 3000 miles of stormy ocean 
 between them and help of any kind, and without protec- 
 tion of any sort from hostile Indians, soon died from 
 accident or disease, or were forced to return to England. 
 But the new companies were richer, and were able to 
 send out colonies large enough and well enough equipped 
 to protect themselves from the beginning; and when 
 this had been done, many of the difficulties disappeared. 
 Every year a greater number of persons came to 
 America, to get land for nothing and to escape poverty 
 or persecution at home ; and it was not long before the 
 coast was dotted with little settlements, and a few persons 
 began to press inland. 
 
COLONIZATION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 19 
 
 27. The Colonization of the United States also begins 
 with the formation of these companies. The territory 
 granted to the companies was gradually cut up into 
 separate colonies, and new colonies were formed to the 
 southward. Thus there came to be, in time, thirteen 
 English colonies, Virginia and Massachusetts being the 
 remnants of the first grants to the two companies, after 
 the other colonies had been cut out of them. In making 
 these first grants, the king had been careful to avoid the 
 territories of the Spaniards on the south, and the French 
 on the north; and it thus happened that the English 
 colonies in North America were planted near together, 
 and within the present limits of the United States. The 
 advantages of this were that it placed an enterprising and 
 ambitious people in the best part of the continent, where 
 the climate was neither too hot nor too cold ; and that it 
 gave them the opportunity to unite in future and grow 
 into a great nation. 
 
 28. Holland had rebelled against Spain, about the time 
 of the first English failures (§ 20), and had become a 
 strong naval power. In 
 1609, Henry Hudson, an 
 Englishman in the service 
 of Holland, discovered the 
 Hudson River, and explored 
 the coast as far as Chesa- 
 peake Bay more closely than 
 previous voyagers had done. 
 Dutch traders at once sent 
 vessels to Manhattan Island 
 (now New York City), to 
 trade with the Indians ; and 
 in 1 62 1 , Holland granted the ~" 
 territory from Delaware Bay "'''"''■ Hudson. 
 
 to the Connecticut River to the Dutch West India Com- 
 
20 ATTEMPTS AT SETTLEMENT 
 
 pany. This company established the city of New Amster- 
 dam (now New York) in 1623, and called the whole 
 territory New Netherland.^ For the next forty years, 
 this continued to be a Dutch colony, set in between 
 English colonies to the north and to the south of it. It 
 was then conquered by the English (i^ 109). 
 
 29. Sweden, without any claims by discovery, fixed a 
 colony in what is now the State of Delaware, in 1638. 
 Its leader was Peter Minuit, who had been a Dutch 
 governor of New Netherland, but had gone over to the 
 service of Sweden. The chief town of this colony was 
 Christina, near the present city of Wilmington. In 1655, 
 a Dutch force from New Amsterdam compelled the Swedes 
 to acknowledge themselves uncier the government of 
 Holland ; and the colony finally passed under English 
 rule, with the rest of New Netherland (§ 109). It was 
 later transferred to Penn (§ 121). 
 
 30. Summary. — We have thus traced the steps by 
 which England established her colonies on the Atlantic 
 coast of North America. Spain had chosen the territory 
 to the south, and France the territory to the north ; while 
 the territory between them fell to PLngland. At first, 
 England had Holland and Sweden as rivals ; but these 
 were not strong enough to resist her ; and the whole At- 
 lantic coast, from Florida to Nova Scotia, finally became 
 English. The dates of the more important steps in the 
 settlement are as follows: 
 
 (Sp., Spanisli; E., English; F., French; D., Dutch; Sw., Swedish.) 
 CANADA. 
 
 1540 — Cartier (F. ) : Quebec (failure) § 18 
 
 1 576 — Frobisher (E. ) : Labrador (failure) 20 
 
 1 The price paid to the Indians by the Dutch for Manhattan Island was 
 60 guilders (about $24). 
 
SUMMAR Y 21 
 
 1583 — Gilbert (E. ): Newfoundland (failure) 20 
 
 1605 — De Monts (F. ): Acadia, or Nova Scotia (success). 19 
 
 1608 — Champlain (F. ): Quebec (success) 19 
 
 (Here begins the French colonization of Canada, § 136.) 
 
 THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 1562 — South Carolina (F. ): Port Royal (failure) 18 
 
 1564 — Florida (F.): Near St. Augustine (failure) 18 
 
 1565 — Florida (Sp.) : St. Augustine (success) 17 
 
 1582 — New Mexico (Sp. ) : Santa Fe (success) 17 
 
 1585 — North Carolina (E. ): Roanoke Island (failure). ... 23 
 
 1587 — North Carolina (E.): Roanoke Island (failure). ... 23 
 
 1602 — Massachusetts (E.): Buzzard's Bay (failure) 24 
 
 1607 — Virginia (E. ) : Jamestown (success) 26, 31 
 
 (Here begins the English colonization of the United States.) 
 
 1609 — New York (D. ) : Hudson's discovery 28 
 
 1623 — New York (D.) : Dutch settlement (became English 
 
 in 1664) 28 
 
 1638 — Delaware (Sw. ): Swedish settlement (became Eng- 
 lish in 1664) 29 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. The physical characteristics of the St. Lawrence valley. 
 
 2. Raleigh's connection with exploring and colonizing 
 schemes. 
 
 3. The life of Cartier. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The general authorities are the same 
 as for Chapter I., with the addition, for English attempts, of 
 Palfrey's History of New England and Doyle's English 171 
 America, vol. i., chaps. 4 and 5; and, for French attempts, of 
 Parkman's Pioneers 0/ France and La Salle, and Winsor's Cartier 
 to Frontenac and Mississippi Basin. The works of Winsor are 
 very detailed. There are brief lives of Raleigh by Gosse and 
 Creighton. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH COLONIZA- 
 TION 
 
 1607-1750 
 
 31. The London Company (§25) sent out Captain Chris- 
 topher Newport, with one hundred and twenty emigrants, 
 to settle at Roanoke Island. A storm drove him out of his 
 course and into Chesapeake Bay ; he discovered the James 
 River, which he named in honor of James I. ; and about 
 fifty miles from its mouth, on the northern bank of the 
 river, he planted the settlement of Jamestown, in May, 
 1607. This was the first successful English settlement 
 within the present limits of the United States, and was 
 the beginning of the colony of Virginia (§ y6).''- 
 
 32. The Southern Colonies were in the end five in num- 
 ber: Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 and Georgia. These were formed out of the grant to the 
 London Company by the king through the following 
 changes: (i) in 1632, the new colony of Maryland was 
 formed out of the northeastern part of Virginia (§85); 
 (2) in 1665, Charles II. took off the southern part of 
 Virginia, the present State of North Carolina, added to 
 it the present territory of South Carolina and Georgia, and 
 called the whole Carolina; (3) in 1729, Carolina was 
 divided into North Carolina and South Carolina (§ 92) ; 
 (4) in 1732, the new colony of Georgia was formed out 
 of South Carolina (§ 103). The London Company could 
 
 ijamestown was destroyed in 1676, during Bacon's rebellion (§ 82). 
 
 22 
 
EUROPEA?^" PROYINCES 
 less 
 
 French \ | Dutch | | 
 Spanish ] I 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 100 200 300 
 
1\IEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 23 
 
 make no objection to these changes, for in 1624 the king 
 had taken away its charter and put an end to the com- 
 pany, which, as he claimed, was not using its charter 
 properly and faithfully. Florida was not an English 
 colony until 1763 (§ 154); nor a part of the United States 
 until 1 819 (§ 414). The names of the first four English 
 colonies on the southern coast were all royal : Virgi)iia, 
 from Elizabeth, the virgin queen; Maryland, from Hen- 
 rietta Maria, Charles I.'s queen; Carolina, from Charles 
 II. of England; and Georgia, from George II. of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 33, The New England Colonies. — The Plymouth Com- 
 pany (§25) attempted to make a settlement in 1607, 
 near the mouth of the Kennebec River, in Maine ; but it 
 was a failure, and the company made no more settlements 
 on its own account. In 1620, a new company Avas formed, 
 known as the "Council for New England." To this 
 company the king gave the territory between north lati- 
 tude 40° and 48°; that is, from about Philadelphia to the 
 northern point of Maine. Almost the only work done by 
 this company was to grant lands to various other colonies ; 
 and in 1635 it also gave back its powers to the king.^ 
 The New England Colonies, formed from the original 
 Plymouth Company's grant, were at first seven : Plymouth, 
 Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, New Haven, Providence, 
 Rhode Island, and New Hampshire. Plymouth was 
 afterward united with Massachusetts Bay, New Haven 
 with Connecticut, and Providence with Rhode Island. 
 There were thus finally four New England colonies: 
 Massachusetts Bay (§ 48), New Hampshire (§ 55), Con- 
 necticut (§ 57), and Rhode Island (§ 63). ^ 
 
 ^ The name New England was given to this coast in 1614 by Captain 
 John Smith (§ 77). 
 
 "^ Maine was a part of Massachusetts until i8;o. Vermont was claimed 
 by New Hampshire and New York (§ 65). 
 
24 GENERyiL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH COLONIZATION 
 
 34. The Middle Colonies, New York, New Jersey, Penn- 
 sylvania, and Delaware, were for the most part conquered 
 soil, taken from the Dutch (§ 28). Neither of the two 
 great companies attempted to colonize this part of the 
 coast, and it did not come into English possession until 
 1664. 
 
 35. *The Governments of the English colonies were not 
 all alike, and some had different forms of government at 
 different times. Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Con- 
 necticut had royal charters, written documents giving the 
 colonists the right to elect their own officers and manage 
 their own affairs. Virginia was also a charter colony 
 until 1624. Pennsylvania (including Delaware), Mary- 
 land, and Carolina were given by the king to proprietors 
 or owners, who formed governments in them, and ap- 
 pointed the governors and some other officers. But even 
 in these proprietary colonies the people largely controlled 
 their political affairs. New Hampshire, New York, and 
 New Jersey were royal colonies, ruled through governors 
 appointed by the king. Virginia became a royal colony 
 in 1624, and Carolina in 17 19. The charter of Georgia, 
 granted in 1732 to trustees, was surrendered to the king 
 in 1752, and the colony became a royal province. 
 
 36. The Colonies in General were at first little interfered 
 with by the king, who considered them more often as an 
 annoyance than as an honor or a benefit. Thus the 
 colonies, even those which had no charters, obtained the 
 power to elect assemblies,^ which made the laws for the 
 colonies. The governors sent out by the king had the 
 power to forbid the passage of any law which seemed to 
 them wrong or un\\ise ; but the governors were far from 
 England, and for a long time interfered very little. Thus 
 
 1 The first representative assembly in America met in Virginia in 1619 
 (§ 76). 
 
GOVERNMENT OF THE NEIV COUNTRY 25 
 
 it came to pass that the colonies really governed them- 
 selves almost from the beginning. But all of them 
 acknowledged the same king, and were parts of the 
 British Empire. Their inhabitants were Englishmen, who 
 moved, when they wished, from one colony to another, 
 without any notion that they were going to a foreign 
 country. English colonization really gave the king of 
 England a new country to govern. 
 
 37. The New Country was not like the old one, how- 
 ever, though both had the same king, laws, and language, 
 and many of the same customs. England had a class of 
 nobles who helped to make the laws simply because they 
 had been born in particular families, and without being 
 elected ; but there was no such class in the colonies. In 
 England, only a very few men had the power to vote for 
 members of the Parliament which made English laws; in 
 the colonies, almost all men had the power to vote for 
 members of the assemblies which made their laws. In 
 England, there were a few rich men and many poor men, 
 a few educated men and many ignorant men ; in the 
 colonies there were few who were either very poor or very 
 rich, and few who could not at least read and write. 
 
 38. These Differences made it much more difficult for 
 the king to govern both countries well, for the laws which 
 suited one of them were quite unsuited to the other. But 
 the kings of England seem not to have understood this. 
 England was their own country, and they were familiar 
 with it; America was far away, and they knew little 
 about it. It was therefore difficult for the king, when it 
 was necessary for him to interfere in the government of 
 America, to know what was best for that country; and 
 there were many cases of bad government in all the 
 colonies, because the king was not able to judge their 
 needs wisely. As the colonies grew richer, these inter- 
 
26 GENERAL CH A R/iCT ERISTICS OF ENGLISH COLONIZATION 
 
 ferences became more troublesome, until in 1776 the 
 colonies broke away from England altogether (§ 205). 
 
 39. Negro Slavery in the colonies was one of the worst 
 of these cases of bad judgment. The first mention of it 
 is in Virginia, in 1619, Avhen a Dutch man-of-war 
 exchanged some negro slaves for provisions. Negroes 
 were soon held as slaves in all the colonies, though they 
 increased most rapidly in the warmer southern colonies. 
 Labor is the most important thing in a state. But, where 
 laborers are generally known as slaves, no free man likes 
 to labor, because there labor is thought to degrade the 
 laborer to the level of a slave. A wiser government would 
 therefore have forbidden slavery in the colonies : but the 
 king of England not only did not forbid it, but became an 
 active partner in the slave-trade, and refused to allow the 
 colonies to forbid it. Thus the southern colonies came to 
 believe that slavery and slave labor were absolutely 
 necessary to them. But at that time there was no general 
 feeling, as there is now, that slavery not only had a bad 
 effect upon the industry of a country, but was also morally 
 wrong. 
 
 40. European Affairs. — While English settlement in 
 America was going on, between the years 1600 and 
 1690, great events were taking place. in Europe; and it is 
 necessary to bear them in mind while studying the next 
 period, for they had a great influence on the history of the 
 English colonies in America. ■ In England the powers of 
 government were divided between the king, the House of 
 Lords (hereditary nobles, § 37), and the House of Com- 
 mons (elected by a part of the people). The two Houses 
 together were called the Parliament; and this body had 
 little by little gained for itself the power of taxing the 
 people. When Queen Elizabeth died (1603), and a new 
 king, James L, came from Scotland, Parliament became 
 
EUROPEAN AFFAIRS 27 
 
 bolder in declaring its power. James, and still more his 
 son, Charles I., resisted the claim, and even attempted at 
 times to govern and lay taxes without calling the Parlia- 
 ment together. But the people refused to pay such taxes, 
 and the king was repeatedly compelled to call the Parlia- 
 ment together and ask for money. Then the Parliament 
 refused to lay taxes unless the king would give up other 
 powers which were considered objectionable. 
 
 41. The Commonwealth and the Protectorate In 1642, 
 
 the quarrel broke out into open war. The Parliament was 
 successful, defeated and captured the king, Charles I., 
 and in 1649 beheaded him as a traitor and tyrant. Oliver 
 Cromwell, the leader of the Parliamentary army, soon 
 afterward became ruler of England, with the title of Lord 
 Protector, and held power until his death in 1658. This 
 period is usually called, in English history, the period of 
 the Commonwealth and the Protectorate. The king's 
 friends were often called Cavaliers, and the supporters of 
 the Commonwealth Puritans or Roundheads, the latter 
 name being given because they cut their hair short, while 
 the Cavaliers wore long, curling wigs. 
 
 42. The Restoration. — In 1660, the people, tired of the 
 Protectorate and the rule of the army, called back 
 Charles I.'s son, who had been living in exile, and made 
 him king, with the title of Charles II. In 1685, he was 
 succeeded by his brother, who had been Duke of York, 
 but was now called James II. He endeavored, as 
 Charles I. had done, to rule by his own will. In 1688, 
 his subjects rebelled, drove him and his son away to 
 France, and called in his son-in-law and daughter, 
 William of Orange and Mary, as king and queen. This 
 event is commonly called the English Revolution of 1688. 
 
 43. In France, events took an exactly opposite course. 
 Louis XIII. in 161 4 got rid of the body which had made 
 
28 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ENGLISH COLONIZATION 
 
 laws, and the French kings ruled by their own will until 
 the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 (§ 305). 
 In 1685, a religious persecution was begun in France, and 
 drove many of the Protestants, commonly called Hugue- 
 nots, out of that kingdom. Many of these came to 
 America. 
 
 44. The American Colonies were very much neglected 
 under James I. and Charles I. ; they enjoyed great free- 
 dom from interference under the Commonwealth; and 
 they were subjected to great annoyances and interferences 
 under Charles II., and still more under James II. (§ 70). 
 But all through the early part of the century, the troubles 
 in England were driving great numbers of people across 
 the Atlantic, and increasing the population of the colonies 
 very rapidly. The population grew from nothing in 1600 
 to about 200,000 in 1700. 
 
 The following are the leading European events referred to: 
 
 1 603-1 62 5 : Reign of James I. 
 
 1625-1649: Reign of Charles I. (son of James I.). 
 
 1640: The fifth Parliament of the reign meets. 
 
 1642: War breaks out. Battle of Edgehill. 
 
 1645 : Battle of Naseby. The king captured. 
 
 1649: The king beheaded. 
 
 1 649-1 660: The Commonwealth. 
 
 1653: Cromwell is made Lord Protector. 
 
 1658: Death of Cromwell. 
 
 1660: Restoration. 
 
 1660-1685 
 1685-1689 
 1689-1702 
 
 Reign of Charles II. (son of Charles I.). 
 Reign of lames II. (son of Charles I.). 
 Reign of William and Mary. 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. The early colonial policy of England. 
 
 2. The meaning of " the rights of Englishmen," as applied 
 to the American colonists. 
 
 3. The government of a proprietary colony {e.g., Maryland). 
 
 4. A comparison between a southern colony {e.g., Virginia) 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY READING 29 
 
 and a northern colony {e.g., New York) in the matter of the 
 condition and treatment of slaves. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — For references on the several colonies 
 see under Chapters IV., V., and VI., posi. The course of 
 events in England may be conveniently followed in Gardiner's 
 Student's History of E7igland. Seeley's Expansioti of Englatid, 
 Lectures i.-vii., is a brilliant discussion of English colonial 
 experience. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES ; 
 
 1620-1750 
 
 (i) MassacJinsctts Bay Colony. 
 
 45. The Plymouth Colony occupied the irregular south- 
 eastern portion of the present State of Massachusetts. 
 The region was settled by a company of ' ' Separatists, 
 as they were called, who separated themselves from the 
 worship of the church estabhshed by law in England. 
 They had been persecuted in England under James I. and 
 Charles I. ; and many of them fled to Holland, where 
 they found peace. After a time, a number of them 
 who had settled in Leyden set sail for New Amsterdam 
 (New York), in order to settle there in the possessions 
 of the Dutch. Storms drove their ship, the Mayflo%vcr, 
 from her course, and they landed, about one hundred in 
 number, in the present State of Massachusetts, at Ply- 
 mouth. The date of the landing was December 2i, 
 1620.^ 
 
 46. The Pilgrims, as the colonists called themselves, 
 suffered greatly during the winter, and half of their 
 number died. They had been too poor to provide many 
 of the comforts necessary for a new settlement ; they did 
 not find a fertile soil ; and there seemed little chance of 
 
 ' Tlie rock on which they are said to liave hinded is still seen, and is 
 called Plymouth Rock, or Forefathers' Rock. Captain John Smith (§ 33, 
 note) had already named the spot riyniouth. 
 
 30 
 
THE PILGRIMS 
 
 31 
 
 getting rich by trading. Other settlers followed, how- 
 ever, and the little colony held its ground. It had no 
 charter, but governed itself at first under a covenant, or 
 agreement, made by the Pilgrims in the cabin of the 
 Mayflcnvc}'. This covenant has generally been held to 
 
 The Mayflower. 
 
 mark the beginning of that tendency toward democracy 
 which finally prevailed in all the English colonies. It 
 was in Virginia that the first Assembly was held ; but the 
 Assembly was convened by the governor under the 
 authority of the Virginia Company, and the control of it 
 was mainly in the hands of the \\'ealthier planters; while 
 the Pilgrims acted on their own responsibility, and had 
 regard to rich and poor alike. The history of Plymouth, 
 until its union with the Massachusetts Bay colony in 1691, 
 was in the main uneventful. The colony was never a 
 large one ; but it opened the way for the emigration to 
 New England of a great number of other persons who 
 were opposed to the Church of England and the king, and 
 did much to give New England a character of its own. 
 
32 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 
 
 47. The Leaders of the Pilgrims were John Robinson, 
 Miles Standish, John Carver, and William Bradford. 
 Robinson was their minister in Holland, but did not 
 accompany them to America. Standish was an old 
 soldier, and the colony's military leader. He was "a 
 man of a very small stature, yet of a very hot and angry 
 temper," and was much dreaded by the Indians. On 
 one occasion, he stabbed a hostile chief in the midst of his 
 tribe. Carver was the first governor. He died during 
 the first winter. Bradford was chosen in his place, and 
 was re-elected yearly for about thirty years, until his 
 death. The only years in which he was not re-elected 
 were those in which, "by importunity, he got off" 
 
 48. The Massachusetts Bay Colony comprised the north- 
 ern part of the present State of Massachusetts. ^ It was 
 founded by Puritans, who had not altogether separated 
 from the Church of England, but disliked some of its 
 ceremonies. They sided with the Parliament against the 
 king and the Cavaliers, and were persecuted as the 
 Separatists had been. In 1628, a company of them 
 bought their territory from the Council of Plymouth, and 
 sent out a colony which settled at Salem. The next 
 year, Charles I. gave them a charter, and they sent out 
 more colonists, who settled at Salem and Charlestown. 
 In 1630, a highly important step was taken. The com- 
 pany itself moved over to America, with its officers, 
 charter, and all its powers; and thus the Puritans obtained 
 a colony of their own in America, with little real depend- 
 ence upon England. 
 
 49. The Population of the colony increased rapidly. 
 In 1630, John Winthrop and 1500 others came from 
 
 ' In the charters the name is variously spelled Massachusetts, Matta- 
 chusetts, and Massathusetts. It is an Indian word, and is said to mean 
 "blue hills." 
 
MASSACHUSETTS LEADERS 
 
 33 
 
 England and settled Boston, Cambridge, Lynn, and other 
 towns. For a few years the new settlers suffered severely 
 from cold, hunger, and other hardships, but not so much 
 as the Plymouth settlers had suffered ten years before. 
 The Massachusetts Bay settlers were richer, and had 
 
 Governor John Winthrop. 
 
 brought more supplies. There were more Puritans than 
 Separatists in England, and so there were more emigrants 
 to Massachusetts Bay than to the rest of New England. 
 The men brought mone}' and laboring power ; the people 
 worked hard ; and Massachusetts Bay soon became one 
 of the most prosperous of the colonies. 
 
 50. The Leaders of this colony were John Endicott, 
 John Winthrop, Sir Henry Vane, John Cotton, Thomas 
 Hooker, Samuel Stone, and a great number of other 
 ministers. Endicott was a rigid Puritan, who at one time 
 cut the cross out of the British flag in the colony, and 
 
34 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 
 
 compelled the women to wear veils at church, and the 
 men to cut their hair short. Winthrop was an English 
 lawyer, a highly educated man, and more gentle than 
 Endicott in his religious feeling. Vane was rich, able, 
 and accomplished, and was elected governor when only 
 twenty-four years old. He returned to England, helped 
 to overthrow the king, opposed Cromwell, and was 
 beheaded after the restoration. The last three named 
 above were able ministers ; and the colonists said that 
 God had given them " Cotton for their clothing, Hooker 
 for their fishing, and Stone for their building. 
 
 51. Religious Feeling marked most of the New England 
 colonists. They had fled from religious persecution in the 
 old world, and in the new world they made the building 
 of churches, the founding of religious schools, and the 
 preaching of the gospel a great part of their work. In 
 Massachusetts Bay, particularly, they were determined to 
 found a religious state. Their ministers were their leading 
 men, and for many years no one could vote unless he was 
 a member of the church. They dealt harshly with men 
 of other religious beliefs who came to the colony and 
 annoyed them by disputing with the Puritan ministers. 
 Roger Williams held objectionable views on religious 
 liberty and on the relation of the colony to the crown. 
 He was ordered to leave the colony; and, fleeing from 
 Massachusetts, he went into the wilderness and founded 
 the colony of Rhode Island (§ 62). Afterwards, in 1637, 
 Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and her followers were banished 
 for teaching new religious doctrines. She also went to 
 Rhode Island, and thence to New Netherland, where she 
 was killed in a night attack by the Indians. 
 
 52. The Quakers gave the New England colonists most 
 trouble, for they insisted on freedom of worship, and dis- 
 obeyed the laws which forbade preaching by any but 
 
THE SALEM IVITCHCRAFT 
 
 35 
 
 Puritan ministers. They were often guilty of extravagant 
 conduct. They persisted in entering Puritan meetings 
 and arguing with the ministers, and were punished in 
 various ways. In 1656, a law was passed that any 
 
 Site of Boston in 1620. 
 
 Quaker who returned to the colony after banishment 
 should be put to death. The king stopped the execution 
 of the law after the restoration ; but it shows the spirit of 
 the times. 
 
 53. The Salem Witchcraft. — Before this spirit of religious 
 persecution died away, the colony was shaken by the de- 
 lusion known as the Salem witchcraft. Most people at the 
 time, and the Puritans as strongly as others, believed that 
 there were witches, who had received power from the 
 devil to hurt or kill men and cattle. Both Massachusetts 
 and Connecticut had made laws against witchcraft, and had 
 hanged a number of persons for being witches. In 1692, 
 the whole town of Salem became crazed with the belief 
 that witches were at work there. Two silly or wicked 
 little girls declared that different persons had taken the 
 form of black cats or black dogs, and had bitten, pinched, 
 and choked them. The people believed them, and 
 even the great minister of the colony, Cotton Mather, 
 supported them. The supposed witches were punished 
 with religious fury; and wicked people seized the oppor- 
 tunity to charge their enemies with being witches. Before 
 the terror died away, about twenty innocent people, 
 
36 
 
 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 
 
 mostly old women and Indians, had been put to death. 
 Finall)', the magistrates and people came to their senses; 
 and punishments for witchcraft were stopped. 
 
 54. The Colonies United. — The New England colonists 
 sided with the Parliament against the king; and during 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Massachusetis Bay Colony. 
 
 the Commonwealth period the 
 -y Massachusetts Bay Colony was al- 
 
 lowed to take possession of all the rest 
 of New England to the north ; and this 
 new territory was left to the colony for some 
 years after the restoration. In 1684, the king's 
 judges declared the Massachusetts charter at an end ; 
 and James II. attempted to make the whole of New 
 England one royal colony (>$ 70), when he was driven 
 from the throne in 1689. The new sovereigns, William 
 and Mary, instead of restoring the old charter, granted a 
 new charter in 1691. It united the colonies of Plymouth 
 and Massachusetts Ba}', the province of Maine, and the 
 territory of Nova Scotia, into one colony, by the name of 
 Massachusetts Bay ; and made New Hampshire a separate 
 
NEIV HAMPSHIRE 
 
 37 
 
 colony (§ 56). But the right to elect the governor was 
 taken from the people, and all religions except the Roman 
 Catholic were to be permitted. The colony remained 
 under this charter until the colonies finally rebelled against 
 Great Britain (^ 188). 
 
 (2) Xc70 HmupsJiirc. 
 
 55. New Hampshire was John Mason's share of a tract 
 of land granted to him and Sir Ferdinando Gorges, in 
 1622, by the Council of Ph'mouth (§ t^-}^). The grant 
 covered the territory between the Merrimac and Kennebec 
 rivers. Small settlements were made at Portsmouth and 
 Dover, in 1623; and in 1629, the proprietors divided their 
 grant. Mason named his share New Hampshire, from 
 his own county of Hampshire, in England. 
 
 56. The Colony was for years hardly more than a 
 few fishing villages. In 1641, it 
 joined Massachusetts ; but the 
 king separated them in 1679, 
 and made New Hampshire a royal 
 colony. In 1688, the colony 
 again joined Massachusetts ; and 
 in 1 69 1, the king again separated 
 them (§ 54). New Hampshire 
 then remained a royal colony until 
 the colonies rebelled against Great 
 Britain (§ 188). It never was a 
 large colony ; its interior settle- 
 ments were farming townships ; 
 and its history was uneventful. 
 
 (3) Coiuiccticut. 
 
 57. The Connecticut Colony consisted of the territory 
 now within the State of Connecticut, with the exception 
 
 SCALE OF MILES. 
 
 New Hamfshire Colony. 
 
38 
 
 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 
 
 of the few townships, on the shore of Long Island Sound, 
 which formed the New Haven colony (§ 60). It is said 
 to have been granted in 1630 to the Earl of Warwick by 
 the Council of Plymouth (§ 33). In 1631, Warwick 
 transferred it to Lord Say, Lord Brooke, and others. In 
 1635, they made a settlement, which they called Say- 
 brook, at the mouth of the Connecticut River, but made 
 no further attempts to colonize. Their claims were after- 
 ward purchased by the Connecticut settlers. 
 
 58. Settlement had already been begun by immigrants 
 from Massachusetts, without permission of the proprietors. 
 Their principal leader was Thomas Hooker (§ 50). They 
 travelled on foot through the Massachusetts wilderness to 
 the Connecticut River, driving their cattle before them, 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 10 20 -10 Ml 
 
 Connecticut Colony. 
 
 and sometimes living chiefly on milk. They settled the 
 towns of Wcthersfield in 1634, Windsor in 1635, and 
 Hartford in 1636. In 1639, they formed the first written 
 constitution in America, and took the name of the Con- 
 necticut colony. Saybrook joined them ; new towns were 
 settled ; and they retained their separate government 
 throughout the Commonwealth period. 
 
CONNECTICUT AND NElV HA^EN 39 
 
 59. The Early History of the Connecticut colony was 
 not very eventful. The principal Indian difficulties were 
 with the Pequots, a powerful tribe of eastern Connecticut. 
 In 1637, the settlers made war on the tribe, surrounded 
 the Indians in their fort near Groton, and killed many of 
 them. Another defeat near Fairfield put an end to the 
 tribe: its members joined other tribes, or were sold as 
 slaves. The Dutch in New Netherland claimed the terri- 
 tory up to the Connecticut River; but this dispute was 
 settled in 1650 by a treaty at Hartford, fixing the boun- 
 dary between Connecticut and New Netherland (New 
 York) very nearly as at present. 
 
 60. The New Haven Colony was settled in 1638, by a 
 company of English immigrants, under Rev. John Daven- 
 port and Theophilus Eaton, who bought lands from the 
 Indians. Other settlers followed them and formed new 
 towns near by, on the shore of Long Island Sound. In 
 1639, these towns united under the name of the New 
 Haven Colony. There were thus two colonies within the 
 present State of Connecticut, neither of them having a 
 royal charter; and each tried to gain to itself the new 
 towns as they were formed. These, however, generally 
 preferred to go into the Connecticut colony, for New 
 Haven, like Massachusetts Bay, allowed no one but 
 members of the church to vote or hold office (§ 51). 
 
 61. The Colonies United. — In 1660, when the Common- 
 wealth came to an end in England, and Charles II. was 
 recalled, the Connecticut colony, the stronger of the 
 two, set about to obtain a charter. The governor, 
 Winthrop, was at once sent to England for that purpose. 
 In 1662, he obtained a charter covering the territory of 
 both colonies. It allowed the people to elect their 
 governor as well as their assembly, and practically to 
 ijovern themselves. It suited them so well that it re- 
 
40 
 
 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES 
 
 [1620 
 
 maincd in force after the Revolution, and until 1818. 
 New Haven unwillingly accepted the charter, and in 
 1665 the two colonies were united under the name of 
 the Colony of Connecticut. In 1687, Andros (§ 70) 
 appeared at Hartford and demanded the charter. While 
 the argument was going on in the evening, the lights, 
 so the story goes, were suddenly blown out; and before 
 they could be relighted, the charter had been taken out 
 
 -i t^iitVwtei/z 
 
 
 ^ ^x^(>' 
 
 
 Charter Oak. 
 
 and hidden near by, in a hollow oak-tree. When 
 William and Mary came to the throne in 1689, the 
 charter was brought out again, and the government went 
 on as before until the Revolution (§ 204). The tree in 
 which the charter is said to have been hidden, called the 
 Charter Oak, stood and was well cared for until it was 
 blown down in a storm in 1856. The early division into 
 two colonies was long marked by the fact that Connecti- 
 cut had two capitals, Hartford and New Haven. Since 
 1873 Hartford has been the sole capital. 
 
175°] RHODE ISLAND 41 
 
 (4) Rhode Island. 
 
 62. Roger Williams, after he had been driven from 
 Massachusetts (§ 51), took refuge among the Indians at 
 the head of Narragansett Bay. In 1636, their chief, 
 Canonicus, sold him a large tract of land, which Williams 
 called Providence, in remembrance of the manner in 
 which he felt that God had guided him thither. Others 
 followed him, and settled on the large island in the bay, 
 called Rhode Island. Portsmouth, in the northern part 
 of the island, was settled in 1638, and Newport in 1639. 
 These two colonies, or "plantations," were separate for 
 several years, having no charter, and governing them- 
 selves. In 1643, a third and smaller colon)^ was founded 
 at Warwick, on the western shore of the bay. 
 
 63. A Charter was obtained by Williams in 1643 from 
 Parliament, which gave liberal rights of government, but 
 did not confirm the title of the colonists to the land. 
 In 1663, a new charter was obtained from Charles II. 
 The different settlements were now gathered inio one 
 colony, under the name of Rhode Island and Providence 
 Plantations. The people were to elect their own gover- 
 nor, assembly, and other officers, and govern themselves. 
 The charter suited the people so well that they kept it in 
 force after the Revolution, and until 1842 (§ 513).' 
 
 64. The Early History of Rhode Island was marked by 
 frequent controversies, fortunately bloodless, as the laws 
 were tolerant. All religious denominations were per- 
 mitted, and the colony became a place of refuge for those 
 who were persecuted elsewhere. There were few troubles 
 with the Indians, but often vigorous disputes with the 
 neighboring colonies. Plymouth, on the east, claimed 
 
 1 For the attempt of Andros to destroy tlie charter, see § 70. 
 
42 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620 
 
 the territory up to the eastern shore of the bay. Con- 
 necticut, on the west, claimed the territory up to the 
 western ' shore of the bay. Massachusetts claimed the 
 northern part of the colony. These claims would have 
 
 ir 10 20 40 
 
 Rhode Island Colony. 
 
 left only the islands in the bay to the little colony. 
 Rhode Island resisted stubbornly, and succeeded, in 1741 
 and 1752, in fixing its boundaries as at present.^ 
 
 (5) Vcniiont. 
 65. Vermont was part of the grant to the Duke of York 
 (see Map. p. 78), like western Connecticut and Massa- 
 chusetts. The grant was given up as to the two latter 
 colonies; and so, about 1750, New Hampshire claimed 
 Vermont and sold it to settlers. For this reason Vermont 
 was long known as the ' ' New Hampshire Grants. ' ' New 
 York urged a claim to it, and attempted to make the 
 people pay for their land again. The Green Mountam 
 
 1 The legal name is still "The State of Rhode Island and rrovidence 
 Plantations;" and the State retains its two capitals, Providence and New- 
 port, the legislature meeting in them alternately. 
 
175°] f^ElV ENGLAND CONFEDERATION 43 
 
 Boys, as the settlers called themselves, treated the New 
 York officers very roughly, and formed a government of 
 their own. At first they called it New Connecticut, and 
 then Vermont, a French word meaning Green Mountains. 
 They kept up this separate government throughout the 
 Revolution. Vermont had little to do with the other 
 colonies during the colonial period, and remained practi- 
 cally independent, save for its controversy with New 
 Hampshire and New York, throughout the Revolutionary 
 War. 
 
 (6) N'cw England in General. 
 
 66.* New England Confederation — In 1643, the colonies 
 of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New 
 Haven formed a confederacy, under the name of " The 
 United Colonies of New England." By the articles of 
 union which were drawn up and agreed to, each colony 
 was to be represented by two commissioners, who were 
 empowered to meet and decide on questions of peace and 
 war, and on a few other matters of common interest. So 
 far as its own affairs were concerned, each colony con- 
 tinued to govern itself No colony was to engage in war, 
 unless attacked, without the consent of the others, and 
 the expenses and profits of the war were to be shared by 
 the members of the confederation. Rhode Island, whose 
 territory was claimed by the other colonies, was refused 
 admission. The practical importance of the New England 
 Confederation came to an end in 1662, when Connecticut 
 and New Haven were united (§61); but it had showed 
 the colonies the advantage of joint action, and was a step 
 in the direction of more permanent union. 
 
 67. The Navigation Acts. — At first, the colonists every- 
 where were busied only in agriculture, hunting, and fish- 
 ing. As they grew richer, they turned to manufactures, 
 
44 THE NHIV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620 
 
 ship-building, and commerce, and their asscmbHes offered 
 to grant money to persons who would engage in such 
 pursuits. This was not at all pleasant to English 
 merchants, who wished to keep the trade of the colonies 
 in their own hands. In 1651, Parliament passed the first 
 of what were called the Navigation Acts. These laws 
 forbade the colonies to trade with any other country than 
 England, or to receive foreign ships into their ports. 
 They were particularly aimed at New England, whose 
 people had gone eagerly into commerce ; but they were 
 not well enforced for many years (see also § 80). ^ The 
 revenue officers were careless, or took bribes to allow 
 vessels to trade with foreign countries ; and thus most 
 of the Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut 
 merchants were compelled to be smugglers, and to engage 
 in trade that was forbidden by law. About a hundred 
 years after the passage of these laws, the attempt was at 
 last made to enforce them in earnest; and this, as will be 
 seen, helped to bring about the Revolution (§ 169). 
 
 68. The Indians soon saw very plainly that the white 
 strangers were driving them awa}' from the coast and out 
 of their ancient possessions. One of them, Philip, chief 
 of the Wampanoags, a Rhode Island tribe, was bold 
 enough to strike a blow for his race. He travelled 
 through New England until he had united the Indians 
 from Maine to the Hudson River in a league against the 
 English. The war broke out in June, 1675. The Indians 
 attacked Swansea, Massachusetts, and killed a number of 
 persons; and, almost at the same time, similar attacks 
 were made on the villages all along the frontier. The 
 towns of western Massachusetts suffered most severely. 
 
 ' As a part of the same system, various acts of Parliament forbade tlie 
 transportation of manufactures, such as wool, iron, paper, hats, and leather, 
 from colony to colony. These laws were also evaded. 
 
175°] KING PHILIP'S IV AR 45 
 
 69. King Philip's War lasted for nearly two years. 
 About thirteen towns were destroyed ; many others 
 were attacked ; about six hundred whites were killed in 
 battle ; and an unknown number perished by massacre or 
 starvation. The most severe battle, called "the swamp 
 fight," took place in December, 1675. It was fought by 
 Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut troops, who 
 surrounded and captured a Narragansett fort, in a swamp 
 near Kingston, Rhode Island, and slaughtered its 
 defenders. The colonies were too strong for the Indians. 
 Philip was driven out of one place after another ; and in 
 August, 1676, he was finally hunted down to his principal 
 residence at Mount Hope, near Bristol, Rhode Island. 
 Here he was surrounded by a force under Benjamin 
 Church, a Plymouth Indian-fighter. In attempting to 
 break through and escape, Philip was shot and killed. 
 His men were killed or sold into slavery, and the power 
 of the New England Indians was broken forever. 
 
 70. The Andros Government. — It has already been said 
 that the colonies were subjected to great annoyances under 
 James II. This was particularly the case with the New 
 England colonies. The king was vexed to know that 
 they were governing themselves under their charters, and 
 determined to show that he was their master. The 
 English courts had already decided that the Massachusetts 
 charter was void (§ 54) ; and Sir Edmund Andros, who 
 had lately been governor of New York, was appointed 
 governor of New England, with orders from the king to 
 demand the charters of the colonies. He landed at 
 Boston in December, 1686, and Massachusetts submitted 
 to him for the time. He then went, in 1687, to Hartford 
 and Newport. The charter of Connecticut disappeared 
 (§61), and the charter of Rhode Island could not be 
 found; but he declared both governments at an end. 
 
46 I HE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620 
 
 The colonists hated him, for he governed harshly and 
 tyrannically. But his service pleased the king, who added 
 New York and New Jersey to his government the next 
 year. Early in 1689, when rumors of the English revo- 
 lution reached New England, he was seized at Boston by 
 the people, and sent back to England. Connecticut and 
 Rhode Island were allowed to resume their old charters, 
 but the charter of Massachusetts was not restored, although 
 the colony received a new charter in 1691 (§ 54). The 
 new government in England sent Andros back again to 
 America as governor of Virginia. 
 
 71. Early French Wars. — When James II. and his son 
 were driven from England, the king of France received 
 them and gave them help. For this and other reasons, 
 France and England were frequently at war for the next 
 seventy years, and the French and English colonies in 
 America took part in the wars. The first three of these 
 were called, from the names of the English rulers, King 
 William's War (1689-1697), Queen Anne's War (1702- 
 171 3), and King George's War (i 744-1 748). In Amer- 
 ica they were waged mainly by New England and 
 New York against Canada; and the southern colonies 
 took little part in them. But the treaties which ended all 
 these wars agreed that each party should give back its 
 conquests, except that, at the end of Queen Anne's War, 
 England kept Port Royal and Nova Scotia. This was 
 the only gain to the colonies from any of these wars. 
 
 72. The French Strongholds were four: Montreal and 
 Quebec in Canada; Port Royal (now Annapolis), a fine 
 harbor in Nova Scotia (or Acadia) ; and Louisburg, a 
 strong fortress on the southeast coast of Cape Breton 
 Island. The New-P^nglanders were most anxious to 
 capture Port Royal and Louisburg, which were especially 
 dancferous to their fishing-vessels on the Newfoundland 
 
175°] 
 
 FRENCH AND INDIAN IVARS 
 
 47 
 
 banks. In 1690, Massachusetts sent an expedition under 
 Sir William Phips, which captured Port Royal ; but the 
 place was given up at the end of the war. In 1710, Port 
 Royal was captured again, after one failure, and this time 
 it was kept. In 1745, the New England colonies united 
 
 ICO 200 400 600 
 
 Early French Wars. 
 
 and captured Louisburg, with the assistance of a British 
 fleet ; but this was given back at the end of the war. 
 Several land expeditions were made against Montreal and 
 Quebec, but they were entirely unsuccessful (§ 151). 
 
 73. The Indians in western New York and Canada took 
 the side of the French, for the French were always more 
 successful than the English in gaining the liking of the 
 Indians. Thus the whole frontier was kept in alarm. 
 The secret and savage fashion in which the Indians, often 
 under the lead of French officers, attacked the border 
 towns, and killed the people or carried them as captives 
 to Canada, embittered the colonists against the French as 
 well as the Indians, and united them in the final French 
 and Indian war (§ 143).^ 
 
 ^ The "Five Nations" of Indians, afterward called the "Six Nations'' 
 (§3), joined the English at first, but usually refused to take part in the 
 
48 THE NEfV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620 
 
 74. Growth of New England. — No one can do anything 
 more than guess at the population of the colonies before 
 the first census of the United States was taken in 1790 
 (§ 312). We can only know that, after the colonies were 
 fairly settled, the population of most of them doubled 
 about once in thirty years. In 171 5, British officials 
 estimated the population of this section at 161,650.^ In 
 1750, New England contained probably about 430,000 
 persons. 
 
 75. The People had been made a thrifty and hardy race 
 by constant struggles against a severe climate. They had 
 not only agriculture, but ships, commerce, and fisheries, 
 and had begun to introduce manufactures. None of them 
 were very rich, and few were very poor. They were 
 accustomed to govern themselves in their towns and in 
 accordance with the terms of their charters. They were 
 therefore always ready to resist any attempt to take away 
 the smallest of their privileges ; and the royal officials 
 found no part of America so hard to manage as New 
 England. Education was very general. The first two 
 of the present colleges in America were founded in New 
 England: Harvard, at Cambridge, in Massachusetts, in 
 1636; and Yale, at New Haven, in Connecticut, in 1700. 
 Both negroes and Indians were held as slaves in this 
 section ; but the climate was not favorable to slavery, and 
 the system showed no signs of increase. 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. Town government in New England. 
 
 2. The New England Confederation. 
 
 ^ The population in 1715 was supposed to be divided as follows: Massa- 
 chusetts, 96,000; New Hampshire, 9,650; Connecticut, 17,000; Rhode 
 Island, 9,000. In 1750: Massachusetts, 210,000; New Hampshire, 50,000; 
 Rhode Island. 40,000; Cc^mccticut, 135,000. 
 
175°] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 49 
 
 3. The Dutch in Connecticut. 
 
 4. Life in a typical New England town in the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 5. History of the first Massachusetts charter. 
 
 6. Treatment of Roger Williams by IMassachusetts. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — The principal charters and grants are in Mac- 
 Donald's Select Charters, Nos. 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18, 24, 
 27, and 42; the same volume contains the Mayflower Compact 
 (No. 5), the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (No. 14), the 
 Fundamental Articles of New Haven (No. 16), the scheme of 
 government for New Haven (No. 20), the Massachusetts Body 
 of Liberties (No. 17), the Articles of the New England Con- 
 federation (No. 19), and extracts from the Navigation Acts 
 (Nos. 22, 23, 25, 28, 34, and 43). Hart's Amen'caft History 
 told by Contemporaries, vol. i., chaps. 14-21, gives well-chosen 
 extracts, from contemporary sources, illustrating social and 
 economic conditions in the several colonies. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The best brief work is Fiske's Be- 
 ginnings of Neiv England. Lodge's Short History of the English 
 Colonies in America, chaps. 18-22, is valuable, but more detailed. 
 Eggleston's Beginners of a Nation, bk. 11., chaps. 1-4, bk. iii., 
 chaps, 2 and 3, is brilliantly written and of marked worth. Of 
 the more elaborate special histories, Palfrey's New England is 
 still the best. For a scholarly English view, Doyle's English in 
 America should be consulted. The best account of the New 
 England Confederation is in Frothingham's Rise of the Republic. 
 State histories are of unequal merit: Barry's Alassachusetts, 
 Belknap's N'ezv Hampshire, Greene's Rhode Island, Johnston's 
 CoJttiecticut, Williamson's Maine, and Heaton's Vermont are 
 perhaps the best. Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation 
 and Winthrop's History of Neiv Ejigland are contemporary 
 narratives. Hutchinson's Histoty of Massachusetts is of prime 
 value. Important special works are: Lfe and Letters of fohn 
 Winthrop; Ellis's Puritan Age and Rule; Hosmcr's Voung 
 Sir Harry Vane; Upham's Salem Witchcraft; Wendell's Cotton 
 Mather. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — Alice M. Earle's Customs and 
 Fashions in Old Neiv England, Social Life in Old A^eiv England, 
 and Child-life in Colonial Days; Lowell's New England Two 
 
50 THE NEIV ENGLAND COLONIES [1620-1750 
 
 Centuries Ago; [ane G. Austin's Beliy Alden, A A'ameless Noble- 
 man, S/andis/i 0/ Standuh, Dr. Le Baron and Hu Daughters, and 
 David Alde?is Daughters (Plymouth); Longfellow's Miles 
 Standish, John Endicott, and Giles Corey; Hawthorne's Tivice- 
 Told Tales and Scarlet Letter ; Whittier's Mabel Martin; Motley's 
 Merry Mount; Holland's Bay -Path; E. L. Bynner's Penelopes 
 Suitors; V. J. Stimson's A''ing Noanett. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 
 
 1607-1750 
 
 (i) Virginia. 
 
 76. The First Settlement of Virginia was at Jamestown, 
 in 1607 (§ 31). For several years, the colony had a hard 
 struggle for life. Most of the colonists at first were 
 broken-down gentlemen, who neither wished to work nor 
 knew how to work ; and the people had quite decided, 
 several times, to return to England, when new supplies of 
 men and food changed their purpose and saved the colony. 
 In about ten years the colony became established firmly 
 enough to take care of itself. It obtained from the 
 London company the power to make its own laws in an 
 assembly, or legislature, elected for that purpose; and in 
 16 1 9, the first assembly ever elected in America met at 
 Jamestown. In the same year we first hear of negro 
 slavery in America. 
 
 77. Captain John Smith was the most prominent man in 
 the first two years of the colony's history. He seems to 
 have been a bold and shrewd man, who did the colony 
 good service in controlling the Indians and the colonists, 
 and in exploring the surrounding country. He had a 
 vivid imagination, and was a wonderful story-teller; but 
 many of his stories are very doubtful. Smith was not 
 liked by those colonists whom he forced to work. In 
 
 §1 
 
52 
 
 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 
 
 [1607 
 
 1609, he went back to England, but afterward returned 
 to America, and explored and named the coast of New 
 England. 
 
 78. The Colony soon became prosperous through the 
 cultivation of tobacco. Tobacco was the money of the 
 colony, everything being paid for in so many pounds of 
 
 Caiiain Jlihn Smith. 
 
 tobacco. One pound was then worth from two to twelve 
 cents of our money, but could buy five or six times as 
 much as at the present time. The settlers built their own 
 vessels, and carried on commerce with England. The 
 population grew steadily. In 17 15, it was believed to be 
 about the same as that of Massachusetts, 95,000; and in 
 1750, it was estimated at 285,000. When the Revolution 
 
T75o] VIRGINIA 53 
 
 (§ 183) broke out, Viri^inia was one of the richest and 
 most important of the thirteen colonies. 
 
 79. The Territory of Virg-inia at first covered nearly all 
 of the present Southern States, north of South Carolina, 
 but was gradually reduced by the formation of new 
 colonies. Thus, when the Revolution began, Virginia 
 covered the present States of Virginia, West Virginia, and 
 Kentucky. But Virginia claimed that its northern boun- 
 dary ran northwest, instead of west, so as to take in the 
 western part of Pennsylvania, and the present great 
 northwestern States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
 and Wisconsin (§ 270). 
 
 80. Virginia became a royal colony in 1624 (§ 32). 
 The king did not take away the privileges already enjoyed 
 by the colonists, and they continued to govern them- 
 selves. During the Commonwealth period (§ 41), they 
 sided with the king, until the Parliament threatened to 
 send over a force to conquer them. The Navigation Acts 
 (§ 67) were also intended to punish them. They sub- 
 mitted unwillingly, and rejoiced at the restoration of 
 Charles II. ^ But the new king showed them no favor. 
 In 1673, he actually presented the colony to one of his 
 court favorites, although he took the gift back again nine 
 years afterward. 
 
 81. Indian Wars were not numerous in Virginia. In 
 the first, in 1622, about 350 settlers were killed, and there 
 was some danger of the destruction of the colony. In the 
 second, in 1644, about 300 settlers were killed. In both 
 of these wars the Indians were conquered, and after the 
 second they were no more troublesome. In 1675, the 
 year of King Philip's War (§ 68), the Maryland Indians 
 
 ' At the restoration, Virginia called herself the new [^king's " ancient 
 dominion," because of her steady loyalty ; and the State is still often called 
 " The Old Dominion." 
 
54 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [1607 
 
 became troublesome to the Virginia settlers, and this was 
 one of the reasons for the rebellion which followed. 
 
 82. Bacon's Rebellion. —Governor Berkeley and a few 
 of his friends had got the powers of government into their 
 own hands. They believed that the Maryland Indians 
 had been unjustly treated, and refused to make war on 
 them. In 1676, a young planter, named Nathaniel 
 Bacon, raised troops among the settlers, compelled the 
 governor to conquer the Indians, and finally drove him 
 out of Jamestown. In the struggle, Jamestown was 
 burned, and it was never rebuilt; Williamsburgh became 
 the capital. Bacon died suddenly, and his rebellion fell 
 to pieces. The enraged governor hanged twenty-two of 
 the principal rebels, and for a time governed the colony 
 very harshly, but was soon recalled to England, where 
 he shortly afterwards died. "The old fool," said the 
 king, ' ' has taken away more lives in that naked country 
 than I did for the murder of my father. 
 
 83. The Virginian Colonists generally lived on large 
 plantations, for they had plenty of fertile land at com- 
 mand, and were not afraid of Indians. There were thus 
 very few towns in the colony. The people were not so 
 nearly equal in wealth as in New England: there were 
 more very rich men, and more very poor ones; and the 
 rich men were generally able to get most of the powers 
 of government to themselves. Most of them were mem- 
 bers of the Church of England, and their assemblies 
 passed severe laws against the entrance of men of other 
 religious beliefs to the colony. In this respect Virginia 
 was like most of the other colonies (§ 51). It was not 
 until after the Revolution that this spirit of religious per- 
 secution altogether died away. 
 
 84. Education. — The Virginians were so scattered that 
 schools were very few, and education was confined to the 
 
T75o] 
 
 MARYLAND 
 
 55 
 
 rich, who could send their sons to England. Governor 
 Berkeley said, "I thank God there are no free schools, 
 nor printing, and I hope we shall not have them these 
 hundred years." In 1693, 
 William and Mary College, 
 the second college in the 
 United States, was founded 
 at Williamsburgh. It suffered 
 much from the ravages of war, 
 both in the Revolution and 
 in the Civil War, but after 
 having been closed several 
 times, it has of late been re- 
 organized and is now in opera- 
 tion. 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 50 
 
 100 
 
 Virginia Colony. 
 
 (2) Maryland. 
 
 85. Roman Catholics were 
 persecuted by the laws of 
 
 England, as the Puritans and Quakers were persecuted, 
 and the colony of Maryland was founded as a Catholic 
 place of refuge. One of the leading English Catholics 
 was Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore. He at first 
 tried to found a Catholic colony in Newfoundland, but the 
 unfavorable climate defeated it. He then fixed on that 
 part of Virginia east of the Potomac River. Virginia had 
 already explored it, and was preparing to settle it ; but 
 Charles I. granted it to Baltimore without asking Vir- 
 ginia's consent. Baltimore died, but the patent was given 
 to his son, Cecil Calvert, in 1632. The name of Mary- 
 land was given by the king in honor of the queen, 
 Henrietta Maria. 
 
 86. Settlement was begun in 1634, by Leonard Calvert, 
 a brother of the new Lord Baltimore. He settled, with 
 
56 
 
 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 
 
 [1607 
 
 200 immigrants, at a little Indian village near the mouth 
 of the Potomac, and called the place St. Mary's. The 
 town of Annapolis was founded about 1683, and Baltimore 
 in 1729. In 1635, the proprietor called a legislative 
 assembly; and from that time the people governed them- 
 selves, paying the proprietor some small taxes. The 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 proprietor, in 1691, was a supporter of James II. ; and the 
 new king, William, deprived him of his colony, and 
 appointed the governors himself. In 17 16, the pro- 
 prietor's rights were restored to him. The family of 
 Calvert died out in 1771, and the people of Maryland 
 became proprietors in 1776. 
 
 87. Mason and Dixon's Line. — The territory of Mary- 
 land, as it was granted to Lord Baltimore, included also 
 the present State of Delaware and the southern part of 
 Pennsylvania. When Pennsylvania was granted to Penn, 
 in 168 1 (§ 121), a long dispute followed between Penn 
 and Lord Baltimore as to the boundary between their 
 grants. The matter was settled in 1763, and the boun- 
 dary-line was run as at present. This was called 
 "Mason and Dixon's line," from the names of the sur- 
 veyors who marked it, and was long considered the 
 boundary between the Northern and the Southern States. 
 
 880 Religious Persecution was not allowed in Maryland 
 
ryso] NORTH CAROLINA 57 
 
 while the Catholics retained control of the province. In 
 this respect the Baptist colony of Rhode Island, the Catho- 
 lic colony of Maryland, and the Quaker colony of Penn- 
 sylvania deserve credit above the other colonies. Other 
 settlers soon came into Maryland, and they were not so 
 liberal. Some were from Virginia, and disliked the Mary- 
 land government; others were Puritans, and disliked the 
 Roman Catholics. In 1692, Maryland became an Episco- 
 palian colony, like Virginia (§ 83). Laws were passed 
 to support the Church of England by taxes, and religious 
 toleration was checked. The unfortunate Roman Catho- 
 lics, who had founded the colony and admitted others to 
 it, were now harshly treated, forbidden to vote, and forced 
 to pay taxes for the support of another church. This 
 state of things lasted until the Revolution, when religious 
 intolerance came to an end. 
 
 89. The Maryland Colonists lived very much like those 
 of Virginia (§§ 83, 84). Chesapeake Bay furnished great 
 advantages for ships engaged in foreign commerce, and 
 the Susquehannah River at its head opened up the Indian 
 trade to the merchants of Maryland. Baltimore became 
 one of the busiest towns on the coast, and the population 
 of the colony grew from 200 in 1634 to 30,000 in 1700, 
 50,000 in 17 1 5, and about 150,000 in 1750. There were 
 hardly any serious Indian wars to disturb the peace of the 
 colony. 
 
 (3) NortJi Carolina. 
 
 90. Carolina was granted in 1663 and 1665, by Charles 
 II., to eight proprietors.^ It included the territory now 
 
 1 Among the proprietors were Hyde, Lord Clarendon; Monk, Duke of 
 Albemarle, who had been a leader in restoring Charles II. ; I/Ord Ashley 
 Cooper, afterward Earl of Shaftesbury; Governor Berkeley of Virginia 
 (§82); and his brother and Carteret, afterward proprietors of New Jersey 
 (§118). 
 
$8 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [1607 
 
 in the States of North CaroHna, South CaroHna, and 
 Georgia, and westward to the Pacific Ocean. The French 
 at Port Royal had called the country Carolina, a hundred 
 years before (§ 18), in honor of their king, Charles IX. 
 {Cai'olus, in Latin) ; and the English now retained the 
 name, in honor of their king, Charles II. The country 
 had remained uninhabited since the failure of the French 
 colony, except that a few Virginians had pushed down the 
 coast and settled the northern shore of Albemarle Sound. 
 
 91. The Plan of Government which the proprietors 
 formed for their new colony was very remarkable. There 
 were to be nobles, called barons, landgraves, and cas- 
 siques, each with a certain number of acres of land. The 
 rest of the people were to have no share in the govern- 
 ment, and were to be bought and sold with the soil. 
 The plan was wholly unfit for an American settlement, 
 and the colonists refused to have anything to do with it; 
 but for more than fifty years the proprietors tried at inter- 
 vals to force it on the colony. ^ 
 
 92. The Province remained united for about seventy 
 years. But it was found from the beginning that North 
 Carolina and South Carolina covered too much space to 
 be easily governed as one colony. They were therefore 
 considered two counties of the same province, and each 
 had its own assembly and governor. In 1729, the pro- 
 prietors gave up their rights to the king. Both North 
 Carolina and South Carolina then remained royal colonies 
 until the Revolution. 
 
 93. In North Carolina the proprietors adopted the Vir- 
 ginian settlement (j:^ 90) as their own, and called it the 
 
 ^ This was the only colony in which there was an attempt to have a 
 nobility (§37). John Locke, an English philosopher, who was atone time 
 Ashley's secretary, drew up the plan, which is known as the "Fundamental 
 Constitutions." 
 
175°] NORTH CAROLINA 59 
 
 Albemarle colony. In 1665, a colony from Barbadoes 
 settled near the Cape Fear River. It was called the 
 Clarendon colony, but was soon removed into South 
 Carolina. The population of the whole colony grew very 
 slowly for a time. There were a few settlers from New 
 England, and more fled to North Carolina from Virginia 
 after the failure of Bacon's rebellion (§ 82). New Berne 
 was settled by a colony of Swiss in 171 1. After 1740, 
 there was an increase of settlement, because of rebellions 
 in Scotland. Those who had been engaged in the out- 
 breaks were allowed by the British Government to leave 
 Scotland, and many of them settled in North Carolina. 
 Fayetteville was settled by Scotch immigrants in 1746. 
 The population of the colony was estimated at 1 1,200 in 
 17 15, and at about 90,000 in 1750. 
 
 94. The Government was generally bad. Hardly any 
 colony had such a remarkable succession of bad men 
 sent out as governors ; and the early history of North 
 Carolina is mainly one of resistance by the people to the 
 governors' illegal taxation. In 1677, one governor 
 attempted to enforce the Navigation Acts (§ 6^); and the 
 people imprisoned him and set up a new government for 
 themselves. In 1688, another governor was driven away 
 from the colony. In 177 i, Governor Tryon collected an 
 army, fought a pitched battle with his people, who called 
 themselves Regulators, and defeated them. The cruel 
 manner in which he punished the leaders drove many of 
 them across the mountains, and helped to settle Tennessee 
 (§301). 
 
 95. Indian Wars were few. The most important was 
 with the Tuscaroras, in 171 1. With the help of South 
 Carolina, the colony defeated the Indians, and drove most 
 of them away to New York, where they became one of 
 the Six Nations (§ 3). 
 
6o 
 
 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 
 
 [1607 
 
 96 Scattered Population. — The North CaroHna colonists 
 were at first more widely scattered than the settlers in any 
 other colony. The great pine forests had no good roads; 
 and the people were mainly engaged in making tar and 
 
 turpentine from the 
 trees. As they ex- 
 plored the country 
 farther from the coast, 
 they found it much 
 more open and fertile, 
 and here they engaged 
 in farming and hunt- 
 But they were still very 
 much scattered, and were unable 
 to introduce schools in any great 
 number, or the conveniences of set- 
 tled life. Nevertheless, the colony 
 Carolina. became firmly established. It refused 
 
 to allow religious persecution, defeated 
 the attempt to make the Church of England the official 
 church, and became a place of refuge for those who were 
 persecuted in neighboring colonies. But the spirit of 
 independence which marked the people was not pleasant 
 to the governors, who often called them ' ' a turbulent 
 people. " 
 
 (4) SoutJi Carolina. 
 
 97. The First English Settlement in South Carolina was 
 made in 1670. A colony, sent out by the proprietors, 
 reached the coast at Port Royal, then sailed north to the 
 Ashley River, and on the first highland above the mouth 
 of the river established a settlement, which was afterward 
 called Old Charlestown. The location was found to be 
 a poor one, and in 1680 the settlement was moved down 
 
175°] SOUTH CAROLINA 6 1 
 
 to the point of land between the Ashley and Cooper 
 rivers, where Charleston now stands. The Clarendon 
 colony from North Carolina soon joined it (§ 93). Dutch 
 families, dissatisfied with English rule in New York 
 (§ III), also came to South Carolina, and so did a num- 
 ber of French Huguenot settlers, driven from home by 
 religious persecution. As in North Carolina, there were 
 many Scotch settlers. The population of the colony was 
 estimated at 16,750 in 171 5, and about 80,000 in 1750.^ 
 
 98. The Colony first became prosperous through the 
 cultivation of rice, which began in 1693. For a time, 
 rice was the money of the colony, as tobacco was in Vir- 
 ginia and Maryland (§ 78). In 1740, it required two 
 hundred and fifty-seven British vessels to carry the 
 colony's produce to Europe. In 1754, indigo was intro- 
 duced with still more success. These two articles made 
 South Carolina one of the richest of the colonies. Cotton 
 was not successfully cultivated until after 1793 (§ 315). 
 
 99. Two Districts, the uplands and the lowlands, were 
 formed in the colony as population grew. The uplands, 
 toward the mountains, were settled by foreign immigrants 
 and mountaineers, who cultivated small farms or engaged 
 in hunting. This part of the colony had little money and 
 few negro slaves. The lowlands, where the rice, indisro, 
 and cotton grew, contained the wealthy people and the 
 large plantations. This part of the colony was cultivated 
 by negro slaves, for it was unhealthy for white laborers; 
 and before many years there were more than twice as 
 many negroes as whites. In 1740, there was a small 
 negro insurrection. 
 
 100. The People were thus very poor in the uplands, 
 and very much scattered in the lowlands. There were 
 
 1 Charleston was the only important town. It was known as Charles 
 Town until after the Revolution, 
 
62 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [1607 
 
 hardly any schools except in Charleston ; but the rich 
 planters of the lowlands sent their sons to England to be 
 educated. The people of the lowlands were generally 
 members of the Church of England, and in 1706 they 
 made that the established church of the colony. But there 
 can hardly be said to have been any religious persecution 
 in this colony. 
 
 101. Early Wars. — None of the southern colonies took 
 part in the early French wars, with the exception of 
 Queen Anne's War (§71)- In 1702, South Carolina, then 
 the southernmost colony, sent an expedition to the 
 Spanish territory of Florida. It captured St. Augustine, 
 but was driven away by the arrival of two Spanish war- 
 vessels. In 1706, a French and Spanish expedition from 
 Cuba appeared before Charleston, but the South Caro- 
 linians fought so well that it was beaten off with the loss 
 of half its men. Before the next war took place, Georgia 
 had become the southernmost colony, and did most of the 
 fighting (§ 106). 
 
 102. Indian Wars The Indian allies of France and 
 
 Spain were always troublesome. In 171 5, they formed a 
 confederacy to destroy the white settlers. The colony 
 was aided by Virginia and North Carolina ; and the 
 Indians were defeated, and their power was broken. The 
 proprietors refused to pay their share of the expense of 
 these wars; and in 1719, before they had given up their 
 rights, the people overturned the government, and ob- 
 tained a governor from the king. South Carolina then 
 remained a royal colony until the Revolution. 
 
 (5) Georgia. 
 
 103. The English Poor suffered terribly at the beginning 
 of the last century. Those who could not pay their debts 
 were imprisoned in jails, whose condition was filthy 
 
175°] GEORGIA 63 
 
 beyond description. Their sufferings, and those of the 
 EngHsh poor generally, touched the heart of James 
 Oglethorpe, an English officer and a kindly man. In 
 1732, he obtained from King George II. a grant of that 
 part of South Carolina west of the Savannah River. ^ He 
 named this territory Georgia, in honor of the king. The 
 English Parliament made grants of money to assist those 
 who wished to emigrate. 
 
 104. The First Settlement was made in 1733, at Savan- 
 nah, where Oglethorpe himself planted a colony of one 
 hundred and fourteen persons. Colonies of Germans and 
 Scotch followed. Darien and Augusta were founded in 
 1736. But the colony increased so slowly that in 1750 
 there were but five thousand inhabitants, living in these 
 three towns and on a few scattered plantations. Its terri- 
 tory extended to the Mississippi River, covering the 
 larger part of the present States of Georgia, Alabama, 
 and Mississippi ; but most of it was still in the hands of 
 the Indians. Oglethorpe treated the Indians justly, and 
 bought from them the land that he needed. The Indians 
 gave the colonists very little trouble. 
 
 105. Georgia was the latest and the weakest of the 
 colonies. Slavery was at first forbidden in it, and many 
 of the colonists believed that this was the reason for their 
 lack of prosperity. In 1747, the trustees yielded to the 
 wishes of the colonists, and allowed negro slaves to be 
 brought into the colony. In 1752, the trustees gave up 
 the colony to the king, and Georgia became a royal 
 colony. 
 
 1 As the territory of South Carolina had been surrendered to the king in 
 1729 (§92), its people could make no objection to the king's formation of a 
 new colony within their territory. Indeed, they favored it, in order to 
 have a new colony as a barrier between themselves and the Spaniards in 
 Florida (§ loi). 
 
64 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [1607 
 
 106. The Spanish War. — England declared war against 
 Spain in 1739, and the whole burden of the war in 
 America fell on the southernmost colonies. Early in 
 1740, Oglethorpe attacked Florida with Georgia troops, 
 and captured two towns. He went again to Florida some 
 months afterward, with fresh troops from South Carolina, 
 and laid siege to the principal town, St. Augustine. 
 Sickness in his army broke up the siege, and he retired to 
 Georgia. In 1742, a Spanish expedition returned the 
 attack. Oglethorpe met it near the mouth of the 
 Altamaha River, and defeated the Spaniards in one battle. 
 They then retired to Cuba, and warlike operations 
 ceased. 1 
 
 (6) 77u- SoiitJicrn Colonics in Coieral. 
 
 107 Their Independent Position. — The southern col- 
 onies, in their early history, did not generally act together 
 as the New England colonies did (§ 6G). New England 
 was not a large territory. Its people were more closely 
 settled, were nearly all of the same blood, and were thus 
 very likely to act together. The territory covered by the 
 southern colonies was very large, and was crossed by very 
 many large rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. Most 
 of the people were English, but there were also many 
 Scotch, Irish, French, Germans, and Dutch. Each 
 planter lived at a distance from others, on a great planta- 
 tion. For all these reasons, life in the southern colonies 
 was quiet, and had little to do with neighboring colonies. 
 
 108. The People of the southern colonies lived generally 
 as in Virginia (§ 83). There were many large planta- 
 
 * Oglethorpe returned to England in 1743 and remained there. While 
 he lived he continued to be a warm friend to the colonies. He died in 
 1785, at the age of 97, having seen the independence of the United States 
 jicknowledged by Great Britain (§ 263). 
 
175°] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 65 
 
 tions, and few larg^e towns or attempts at manufactures. 
 Many of the planters owned their own vessels, and sent 
 them directly to Europe from their plantations. Many of 
 them also kept their accounts very carelessly, and were 
 hopelessly in debt to the aj^ents in Europe who sold their 
 cargoes and bought goods in return for them. There 
 were very few schools; the children of the planters were 
 educated in Europe or at home on the plantation, while 
 poorer children were educated very little or not at all. 
 As a general rule, it may be said that neighboring colonies 
 and neighboring people had most to do with one another 
 in New England, less in the middle colonies, and least of 
 all in the southern colonies.^ 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 The life of a Virginia planter. 
 
 Bacon's rebelHon. 
 
 Local government in a southern colony {e.g., Maryland). 
 England and the African slave-trade. 
 
 Why was there no colonial union, such as the New 
 England Confederation, in the south ^ 
 
 6. Class distinctions in the southern colonies. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — For the charters, see MacDonald's Selecl Charters, 
 Nos. I, 2, 3, 12, 26, 32, and 49. The extracts in Hart's 
 Contemporaries, vol. i., chaps. 9-13, illustrate from contemporary 
 sources the social conditions in the southern colonies. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — Fiske's Old Virginia and Her Neigh- 
 bors is the best recent account of the early history of the 
 southern colonies. It should be compared with Doyle's English 
 in America, vol. i., chaps. 6-12, and Eggleston's Beginners of a 
 
 ^ The separation of life in the Southern States influenced their history 
 strongly down to recent times. The people of each State, separated from 
 the rest of the country by long distances and poor communication, were apt 
 to think the State the most important and powerful part of the country. 
 
66 THE SOUTHERN COLONIES [175° 
 
 Xalion, hk. i., chaps. 2 ami 3. Lodge's Short History, chaps. 
 i-io, is also useful. Bruce's Economic History of Virginia is 
 of prime importance, and not too learned for general use. Of 
 histories of separate colonies and states, Browne's Maryland, 
 Cooke's Virginia, Moore's North Carolina, and Jones's Georgia 
 are favorably known. McCrady's South Carolina under the 
 Proprietary Government and South Caroli7ia under the Royal 
 Government are more elaborate, but indispensable for that 
 colony. There is a life of Oglethorpe by Bruce. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — Mary Johnston's Prisoners 0/ 
 Hope and To Have and To Hold; N. B. Eyster's A Colonial Boy; 
 Tucker's Hansford; J. P. Kennedy's Rob of the Bowl; W. G. 
 Simms's Cassique of Kiawah and Yemassee. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
 
 1623-1750 
 
 (r) Ne%v York. 
 
 109. The Dutch Settlement of New Netherland has 
 already been narrated (§ 28). Four governors, Peter 
 Minuit, WoLiter van Twiller, William Kieft, and Peter 
 Stuyvesant, sent out by the Dutch West India Company, 
 ruled New Netherland successively from 1626 until 1664. 
 By that time, the English colonies to the north and south 
 had grown so strong that they began to feel it to be 
 troublesome and dangerous to have a foreign colony 
 between them. In 1664, King Charles II., claiming that 
 the territory of New Netherland belonged to England by 
 discovery, and that the Dutch were only intruders, granted 
 the territory to his brother, the Duke of York. The duke 
 sent out a force, the same year, under Colonel Nichols, 
 who compelled Stuyvesant, the last Dutch governor, to 
 give up possession. The territory then became the Eng- 
 lish colonies of New York and New Jersey (§ 118). 
 
 110. New York became a royal colony in 1685, when 
 its owner, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne. 
 A large part of Long Island was settled by Connecticut 
 people, who claimed it as part of their colony; but the 
 duke's power was too great for them to resist, and Long 
 Island became a part of New York. But New York 
 was then no such important power as it has since become. 
 
 67 
 
68 
 
 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
 
 [i6: 
 
 To the north, it inchided both banks of the Hudson to 
 Albany. Beyond Alban}% there were a few scattered 
 settlements, such as Schenectady, but almost the whole 
 territory was in the possession of the Indians or the French, 
 
 Peter Siuvvesant. 
 
 and could hardly be considered a part of New York at all. 
 New York was thus a small colony, a narrow strip of land 
 on the Hudson, with a fine harbor and island at the south, 
 and at the northwest an excellent opportunity for growth. 
 111. Holland had good reason to complain of the con- 
 quest of New York, and in 1673, while at war with 
 England, the province was retaken by the Dutch. Man)' 
 of the people were not sorry for the change; but the 
 
1750] NEIV YORK 69 
 
 colony was given back to the English when peace was 
 made in 1674. 
 
 112. The Settlement of the colony, under the Dutch, 
 had been accomplished by granting large tracts of land to 
 " patroons, " that is, men who brought over a number of 
 settlers for their estates. New York was thus different 
 from New England ; instead of little townships, divided 
 into farms owned by the farmers, it had large tracts of 
 land owned by patroons, and the farmers were only 
 tenants. 1 On the other hand, it was also different from 
 the southern colonies ; for the people lived rather closer 
 together, and had more to do with one another. 
 
 113. The English Government of New York was almost 
 always bad. The Duke of York did not allow the people 
 to elect an assembly until 1683, ^i""^' '^^ soon as he became 
 king, in 1685, he took the privilege away. It was restored 
 by William and Mary in 1691, and was not taken away 
 again. Very many of the governors were men unfit to 
 govern. The people drove one of them out in 1689, ^^"''^ 
 put one of their own number, Jacob Leisler, into his place. 
 Leisler refused to recognize the authority of the new 
 governor, Sloughter, sent out by William and Mary in 
 1691, and the governor arrested him for high treason. 
 When Leisler had been convicted, Sloughter was per- 
 suaded to sign his death-warrant. Other governors 
 were no better than Sloughter. One was believed to be 
 a partner of the pirates who infested the coast; another 
 swindled the colony and robbed its treasury ; and another 
 cheated the people by making them pay illegal fees. 
 
 114. Pirates, or buccaneers, were very troublesome to 
 all the colonies in their early history, particularly to New 
 York. They made navigation so dangerous that, in 1697, 
 
 ' The patroon system was not cliaiiged under the English, and traces of 
 it have remained until our own day (§ 514). 
 
70 
 
 THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
 
 [1623 
 
 Captain Kidd,^ a New York shipmaster, was sent against 
 them by the governor. He ran away with the vessel and 
 
 New York City in 1656. 
 
 turned pirate himself. He returned some three years 
 afterward, was arrested, tried in England and hanged. 
 Piracy in American waters was finally put down about 
 1720. 
 
 115. Negro Slavery existed in the colony, though there 
 were not so many slaves as in the southern colonies. In 
 1 741, it was believed that the negroes in New York City 
 had made a plot to kill all the whites. Before the excite- 
 ment ceased, 4 whites and iS negroes were hanged, 14 
 negroes were burned at the stake, and 71 negroes were 
 banished. It is almost certain now, however, that there 
 was in reality no such plot. 
 
 116. New York City had become one of the most im- 
 portant places on the coast before 1750. Its great advan- 
 tages were its fine harbor, and the noble river which 
 emptied into it. The other towns on the coast were shut 
 off from the far west by the Appalachian or Alleghany 
 Mountains, which follow the Atlantic coast, at a distance 
 of one or two hundred miles from the sea, from Georgia 
 to Maine. But the Hudson River breaks through this 
 
 ^ Kidd's name is variously given :is William or Robert. There are many 
 stories as to the places in which he is said to have buried his money. 
 
75°J 
 
 hIElV YORK 
 
 71 
 
 barrier, and thus New York had easy access to Canada 
 and the profitable Indian trade. In 1697, the city con- 
 tained about 4, 300 inhabitants, one third of them being 
 slaves. The city extended from the Battery to a palisaded 
 
 The Middle Colonies. 
 
 wall where Wall Street now runs. All above Wall 
 Street was in the country. The population grew to about 
 8,500 in 1730, and about 12,000 in 1750. 
 
 117. The Growth of the Colony was slow but steady. 
 The population was about 31,000 in 17 15, and about 
 
72 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [1623 
 
 90,000 in 1750. The principal places were New York 
 City, Albany (called by the Dutch Fort Orange), and 
 Kingston. Brooklyn was only a ferry station from New 
 York City to Long Island. To the north and west of 
 Albany, Schenectady was founded in 166 1. It was but 
 a frontier village, and was captured and plundered by the 
 French and Indians in 1690, and again in 1748. 
 
 (2) JVi'zc Jersey. 
 
 118. New Jersey was a part of New Netherland under 
 the Dutch (§ 28). In 1664, the Duke of York granted 
 it to Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret.^ In 
 1676, it was divided, East Jersey going to Carteret, and 
 West Jersey to a company of Quakers, who had bought 
 out Berkeley's interest. In 1702, all the proprietors gave 
 up their rights to the queen, and New Jersey became a 
 royal colony. It had the same governor as New York 
 until 1738 ; but in that year it became an entirely separate 
 colony. 
 
 119. The First Settlement was made in 1664 at Eliza- 
 bethtown (now Elizabeth), by Puritans from Long Island. 
 Newark was settled by Connecticut people in 1666. Bur- 
 lington, a Quaker town, founded in 1677, was one of the 
 capitals of the colony ; Perth Amboy was the other, and 
 it was thought for a long time that it was to be a greater 
 city than New York. The population of the colony was 
 estimated at 22,500 in 17 15, and at about 75,000 in 1750. 
 
 120. The Government was at first very satisfactory. 
 The proprietors, in 1665, granted to the people certain 
 "concessions," which were practically a charter. The 
 colony was to be governed by an assembly elected by the 
 
 ' Tlie name New Jersey was given in compliment to Carteret, wlio had 
 been governor ol the island of Jersey in the English Channel. 
 
1750] PENNSYLVANIA 73 
 
 people, and a governor and council appointed by the pro- 
 prietors. When New Jersey became a royal colony, the 
 governors often attempted to overrule the assembly, and 
 frequent disputes took place. But the people were very 
 little annoyed by these disputes. Most of them were 
 prosperous farmers, and the mild laws and freedom of the 
 colony attracted many immigrants, particularly Dutch 
 from New York and Long Island. In 1746, the College 
 of New Jersey, the fourth American college, was founded 
 at Elizabethtown ; in 1756 it was removed to Princeton 
 and has since remained there. 
 
 (3) Poinsylvania. 
 
 121. The Quakers were persecuted in England, and 
 they, too, longed for an American place of refuge. It 
 was for this reason that some of them had bought a part 
 of New Jersey (§ 118). In 168 1, their most influential 
 leader, William Penn, obtained from Charles II., in pay- 
 ment of a debt which the British Government owed to his 
 father, a grant of the territory which is now the State of 
 Pennsylvania.^ Although he meant this to be a Quaker 
 colony, he did not shut out persons of other religious 
 beliefs, and he did not allow religious persecution of any 
 kind. In 1682, he obtained from the Duke of York what 
 is now the State of Delaware, and added it to his colony 
 (§ 128). 
 
 122. The Quakers differed from the Church of England 
 in many respects, but particularly in their refusal to serve 
 as soldiers, or to encourage war in any way. Further, 
 they made it a point of conscience to take no oaths, and 
 
 1 The name Pennsylvania means " Penn's woods" or " Penn's forest 
 country." It was given by the king, not by Penn. The southern boundary 
 was settled only after long disputes with Lord Baltimore (§87). 
 
74 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [1623 
 
 not to take their hats off in the presence of other men. 
 Such ideas and practices were considered highly dis- 
 respectful by English magistrates, and the harmless 
 Quakers were sent to jail or otherwise punished for persist- 
 ing in them. 
 
 123. Settlement had been begun already by the Swedes 
 and Dutch, principally in Delaware. Chester (then called 
 Upland) was founded by them in 1643. Penn at once 
 sent out a company of emigrants, and in 1682 came over 
 himself with a still stronger company. He is said to have 
 met the Indians under a great elm-tree, by the side of the 
 Delaware River, where he bought the land from them, 
 and made with them a treaty of peace and good-will which 
 was not broken for seventy years. Early in 1683, he laid 
 out a capital city for the colony, calling it Philadelphia, 
 a name which means "brotherly love." 
 
 124. The Government of the new colony was unusually 
 good. The governor was to be appointed by the pro- 
 prietor; the assembly was to be elected by the people; 
 and the governor and assembly were to make the laws. 
 No one believing "in one Almighty God" was to be 
 annoyed for his religious belief. Christians of every sect 
 could vote or hold office. All this was due to Penn, who 
 made out the plan of government and offered it to the 
 colonists. With some changes, this plan of government 
 remained in force until 1776. 
 
 125. Penn and his Province. — Penn was deprived of his 
 province in 1692, because he was suspected of siding with 
 James II. ; but in a short time it was given back to him. 
 In 1699, he made another visit to the colony. He died 
 in 1718, and his sons became proprietors. Part of the 
 land had been reserved for them, and as the colony grew 
 older, the people became more discontented with the pay- 
 ment of rents. There were man\' disputes and much ill 
 
175°] 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 75 
 
 feeling' between the people and the proprietors, and during 
 the Revolution the State abolished the rents, paying the 
 proprietors ;<^i 30,000 ($650,000) for them. 
 
 126. Philadelphia grew rapidly, and was larger than 
 New York City until after the Revolution. In 1740, it 
 had about 12,000 inhabitants, and was as thriving a place 
 as any on the coast. It was noted above other cities for 
 its excellent buildings, its cleanliness, and its care for 
 
 William Penn. 
 
 education. The printing-press was introduced in 1686, 
 and a public high-school in 1689. The University of 
 Pennsylvania dates from 1779, and has absorbed certain 
 other educational institutions established in Philadelphia 
 as early as 1749. 
 
76 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [1623 
 
 127. The Growth of the Colony was steady. Its popula- 
 tion (with Delaware) was estimated at 45,800 in 17 15, 
 and about 200,000 in 1750. Most of these were farmers, 
 and Philadelphia was the only important city. The 
 western part of the province, where Pittsburgh now stands, 
 was for many years unsettled (§ 307) ; and the coal and 
 iron of the eastern part, which now support thriving 
 towns, were quite unknown. No colony except New 
 York had among its settlers such a variety of peoples and 
 languages. As a general rule, the English kept to the 
 southeastern part of the colony, the Dutch and Germans 
 to the east and northeast, and the Scotch and Irish to the 
 central part. 
 
 (4) DclaziHxrc. 
 
 128. Delaware, or New Sweden, was settled by the 
 Swedes in 1638, and conquered by the Dutch in 1655 
 (§ 29). It passed with New Netherland to the Duke of 
 York, who transferred it to Penn in 1682 ($ 121). Its 
 people were allowed a separate assembly in 1703, but had 
 the same governor as Pennsylvania, and were considered 
 a part of Pennsylvania until the Revolution. They then 
 formed a State government of their own, at first under the 
 name of "the Delaware State," and then under that of 
 the State of Delaware. Their colony had previously been 
 known only as "the Territories," or "the three lower 
 counties on the Delaware." ^ 
 
 (5j TJic Colonics in General. 
 
 129. The Population of the American colonies had 
 grown from nothing in 1606 to about 1,260,000 in 1750. 
 We have only estimates of the population at different 
 
 1 Delaware takes its name from the river ami bay which front it, and 
 these were, named from Lord Delaware, who is said to have visited the bay 
 in 1610. 
 
175(^1 COLONIAL ASSBMBLIBS 77 
 
 times, but these estimates, made by careful men, are 
 probably not far from the truth. In 1688, the colonies 
 had about 200,000 inhabitants; in 1714, about 435,000; 
 in 1727, about 600,000; and in 1750, about 1,260,000.^ 
 Evident!)' these were growing colonies, growing far faster 
 than England was growing, or than any other country 
 had ever grown. All these people considered themselves 
 Englishmen, and were proud of the name. Most of 
 them had never seen the king, but all were proud of 
 being his subjects. The king of Great Britain had thus a 
 fair chance of becoming more powerful than other kings 
 in Europe, for he had a new and fast-growing kingdom 
 across the Atlantic. 
 
 130.* The Assemblies — The characteristic feature of the 
 government of the l'>nglish colonies was the assemblies. 
 These were elected by the people, and constituted the 
 law-making bodies of the colonies, although in some 
 colonies the power was shared \\\i\\ a council, appointed 
 by the king. Where not provided for in the charter, as 
 in Massachusetts, they were supposed to act by permission 
 of the king or the proprietor, and subject more or less to 
 instructions given to the governors ; but the distance of 
 the colonies from England made necessary the existence 
 of a legislative body close at hand and acquainted with 
 the condition and needs of the colony. When coloniza- 
 tion began in North America, the people of Europe as a 
 whole had no share in making laws or in choosing those 
 who did make them, that privilege being confined either 
 to certain families or to certain classes of people. In the 
 colonies, the franchise, or right of voting, was not at first 
 free, but was restricted, for example, to men who had a 
 
 ' Bancroft divides the population in 1754 as follows : New England, 
 436,000 ; middle colonies, 380,000 ; southern colonies, 609,000 (222,000 
 being slaves); total, 1,425,000. 
 
78 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [1623 
 
 prescribed amount of property, or who professed a par- 
 ticular religious belief, l^ut the number of those who 
 could vote for members of the assemblies was at first 
 relatively large, and tended constantly to increase. Since 
 laws made by these local legislatures were more satisfac- 
 tory to the people than those made by some remote body 
 could have been, the assemblies came to be. looked upon 
 as valuable safeguards against unfair discrimination or 
 oppression; and when, years afterwards, the British Par- 
 liament began to exercise more generally its right to 
 make laws for the colonies, it was the assemblies that led 
 the resistance. 
 
 131. The Industry of the Colonies was remarkable. 
 The people grew tobacco, rice, indigo, and other products, 
 which the people of Great Britain were glad to take and 
 pay for with their own manufactures. A great trade with 
 the colonies had thus grown up, and it made both Great 
 Britain and the colonies richer. The colonies were now 
 so much richer and stronger that they were already able 
 to vote money, ships, and men to help the king in his 
 wars. All this increase of wealth and power had hardly 
 cost England or the king anything. The colony of 
 Georgia, the weakest of all, was the only one which had 
 ever received help in money from the British Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 132.* Great Britain's Feeling seemed to be one more of 
 alarm than of pleasure at the rapid growth of the colonies. 
 The kings of England had always considered the colonies 
 as very subordinate parts of their possessions. The 
 governments of Europe had always looked upon colonies 
 primarily as sources of wealth, whose trade and natural 
 resources were to be managed for the benefit of the 
 mother country. It was to carry out this policy that the 
 Navigation Acts had been passed. In 1C96, a Board of 
 
175°] GROIVTH OF THE COLONIES 79 
 
 Trade and Plantations had been formed, to watch the 
 progress of the colonies and enforce the Navigation Acts. 
 As the colonies grew richer and more populous, the task 
 of the Board became more difficult; while the colonies, 
 at the same time, found the Navigation Acts an increasing 
 annoyance, and began systematically to evade them. 
 
 133. The Scattered Settlements along the coast were at 
 first widely separated. There was a long stretch of forest 
 between each colony and its nearest neighbor ; and it was 
 easier for a man at Boston to get to London than to get 
 to New York or Charleston. The colonies, except in 
 New England, had very little to do with their neighbors; 
 and it is for this reason that the history of each colony 
 has so far been given separately. In 1750, things had 
 changed very much. The spaces between the original 
 colonies were now pretty well filled with settlements; and 
 men might travel overland along the whole coast, with- 
 out running any great danger from Indians, wild beasts, 
 or starvation. In 1740, George Whitefield, the great 
 revivalist preacher, travelled through the whole of the new 
 country, from Georgia to New England. A journey in 
 America was a far morer aduous affair than now, however, 
 for the roads were very bad, there were few bridges, and 
 steam was not yet used for travel ; but it was far easier 
 than it had been at first. Intercourse between the colo- 
 nies had become more common. It was now easier for 
 them to act together than to act separately; and, as they 
 did act together from this time, their history must hence- 
 forth be given as one.^ 
 
 134. Summary. — It has seemed best, so far, to give the 
 
 ^ The New England colonies had already often acted together, and 
 even formed a union in 1643. Nearly all the colonies were now to act 
 together in the French and Indian War. All the colonies finally united 
 in resisting the king and Parliament, in beginning the Revolution, and in 
 making a new nation, the United States of America. 
 
8o THE MIDDLE COLONIES [^623 
 
 history of the different colonies in ideographical groups. 
 
 The leading events in their history, in order of time, are 
 as follows : 
 
 1606 : English Colonizalioti begun §25 
 
 1607 : Virginia first settled at Jamestown 31 
 
 1619: First legislative assembly 76 
 
 Slavery first mentioned 39 
 
 1676: Bacon's Rebellion 82 
 
 1620: Massachusetts first settled at Plymouth 45 
 
 1630: Massachusetts Company transferred to 
 
 America 48 
 
 1691 : The two colonies united 54 
 
 1692 : The Salem witchcraft , 53 
 
 1623: New Hampshire first settled at Dover and Ports- 
 mouth 55 
 
 164 1 : Became part of Massachusetts 56 
 
 1691 : Became a separate colony 56 
 
 1623 : New York settled at New Amsterdam by the Dutch. 28 
 
 1664 : Conquered by the English 28 
 
 1691 : Leisler's execution 113 
 
 1 74 1 : Negro plot 115 
 
 1634 : Maryland first setded at St. Mary's 86 
 
 1692 : Toleration ceased 88 
 
 1763 : Mason and Dixon's line settled 87 
 
 1634-6 : Connecticut first settled at Wethersfield, Windsor, 
 
 and Hartford 58 
 
 1638: New Haven settled 60 
 
 1639: The first constitution adopted 58 
 
 1665 : The two colonies united 61 
 
 1636 : Rhode Island first settled at Providence 62 
 
 1 644 : Its plantations united 63 
 
 1638 : Delaware first settled by the Swedes 29 
 
 1655 : Conquered by the Dutch 29 
 
 1664 : Conquered by the English 29 
 
 1682: Sold to Penn 121 
 
 1 703 : Became a separate colony 128 
 
 1643 : The New England Confederation formed 66 
 
 165 1 : The Navigaiion Ac/s begun 67 
 
 1663: North Carolina first settled at Albemarle 90 
 
 1 7 1 1 : The Tuscarora War 95 
 
 1729: The colony transferred to the king 92 
 
175°] SUMMARY 8 1 
 
 1664 : New Jersey first settled at Elizabethtown §119 
 
 1702 : Became a royal colony 118 
 
 1 738 : Became a separate colony 118 
 
 1670: South Carolina first settled at Old Charlestown. . . 97 
 
 1729: Became a royal colony 92 
 
 1675 : King Philip's War begun 68 
 
 1682 : Pennsylvania settled near Philadelphia 123 
 
 1683: Philadelphia founded 123 
 
 1 701 : The new charter given 124 
 
 1686 : The Andros Governmetit begun 70 
 
 1 702 : Queen Anne's War begun 71 
 
 1 7 10: Port Royal (Annapolis) taken 72 
 
 1 7 13: Queen Anne's War ended 71 
 
 1733 : Georgia first settled at Savannah 104 
 
 1740: The Spanish War 106 
 
 1752: Georgia became a royal colony 105 
 
 1744 : King George's War begun 71 
 
 1745 : Louisburg captured 72 
 
 1748: King George's War ended 71 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. Dutch life in New Amsterdam. 
 
 2. The Quakers in England. 
 
 3. The Quakers in New Jersey. 
 
 4. A Delaware hundred. 
 
 5. The Quaker schism in Pennsylvania. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — The charters, and extracts from the principal 
 grants, are given in MacDonald's Select Charters, Nos. 9, 29, 
 30. 35. 36, 38, 39. 40, 41, 44, and 46; the New Jersey "con- 
 cessions and agreements," ibid., Nos. 31 and 37. Hart's Con- 
 temporaries, vol. I., chaps. 22-26, deals with the period covered 
 by this chapter. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The best general account of the 
 middle colonies, and also the most recent, is Fiske's Dutch and 
 Quaker Colonies. Lodge's Short History, chaps. 11-17, gives a 
 narrative more closely packed with facts. Of state histories, 
 Roberts's New York, Brodhead's New York, vols. i. and 11. (to 
 1 691), Scharf's Delaware, Raum's Neiv Jersey, Cornell's Pemi- 
 sylvania, and Y.^\q.'s Pennsylvania, part i., are the most useful; 
 
82 THE MIDDLE COLONIES [175° 
 
 Lamb's History of the City of New York and Scharf and West- 
 cott's History of Philadelphia are also important. The best life 
 of Penn is that of Janney. Of contemporary Pennsylvania 
 writers, none is so important as Franklin, who made his home 
 in Philadelphia after 1723. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — J. K. Paulding's Koningsmarke ; 
 Irving's Knickerbocker s History of New York; E. L. Bynner's 
 The Begum'' s Daughter ; Eldridge Brooks's hi Leister's Times; 
 Cooper's Water Witch; Whittier's Pennsylvajiia Pilgrim; Whar- 
 ton's Through Colonial Doorways. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY 
 
 1750-1763 
 
 (i) Frciu/i Scttlcviciit. 
 
 135. English Colonization had now seized firmly on the 
 Atlantic coast of North America, between Canada and 
 Florida, and had there formed thirteen colonies. These 
 colonies were most of them supposed to extend westward 
 to the Pacific Ocean ; but their actual population did not 
 extend half as far westward as did their boundaries when 
 they became States. From New England to Georgia the 
 Appalachian or Alleghany Mountains w'ere a western 
 barrier for all the colonies, beyond which population had 
 not yet passed. Between the Alleghanies and the Missis- 
 sippi River the whole country was now claimed by the 
 French, who had passed into it from Canada, and called 
 it New France, or Louisiana.^ 
 
 136. Canada fell into the hands of the French after 
 1605, without any opposition from the English (§ 19). 
 Champlain pushed westward and explored western 
 Canada and northern New York : Lake Champlain was 
 named after him. Other Frenchmen followed him, 
 
 ' The French claim really included the whole of western New York also. 
 Properly, the name New PVance included Canada and all the French posses- 
 sions in North America. The name Louisiana was given to such French 
 possessions as are now within the United .States. After 1763, the name was 
 given to the territory west of the Mississippi (§ 155). 
 
 83 
 
84 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 
 
 the most cnteri)ri.sini^ being French missionaries to the 
 Indians. In 1673, one of them, named Marquette, 
 
 with a trader named Joliet, 
 entered what is now the 
 United States, in search of 
 a great river of which the 
 Indians had told them. 
 They found the Mississippi, 
 and sailed down that river 
 to about the place where De 
 Soto had crossed it (§ 14). 
 In much the same way, 
 "■f ^^^'""■"■^=5^^^ ^ R%^-- French explorers made 
 
 known a large part of what 
 are now the northwestern 
 
 Samuel deChampla.n. g^^^^^ j,^ j^g^^ L^ g^jj^ 
 
 sailed down the Mississippi to its mouth, and named the 
 whole region Louisiana. In 1684, he attempted to plant 
 a colony, which he brought from France, at the mouth 
 of the Mississippi, but could not find the river, and sailed 
 on to Texas. Here he was murdered, and his colony 
 was broken up by sickness and starvation. 
 
 137. The First French Settlement within the north- 
 western United States was the mission of St. Mary, near 
 Sault Ste. Marie, now in Michigan. It was established 
 in 1668 (§ 19). Other French missions were gradually 
 established at different points in the northwest, but none 
 of them came to be important places. 
 
 138. French Colonization within the United States really 
 began in 1699, when UTberville was sent by way of the 
 Gulf of Mexico to find the mouth of the Mississippi. He 
 found it, and fixed a settlement at Biloxi, within the 
 present State of Mississippi. In 1702, he removed it to 
 Mobile, which became his capital. In 17 16, a French 
 
I763J 
 
 THE FRENCH POSSESSIONS 
 
 85 
 
 company, the 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Company, 
 
 ■j\ obtained a 
 
 grant of 
 
 Louisiana; and in 1718, it sent 
 
 a colony and founded the city 
 
 of New Orleans, which soon 
 
 became the principal settlement 
 
 in the Mississippi valley. 
 
 139. The French Possessions 
 in North America had thus be- 
 come very large before 1750. 
 To secure them, the French 
 had erected a chain of some 
 sixty forts, stretching from New 
 Orleans to Montreal, many of 
 which have since become im- 
 portant towns. The present 
 cities of New Orleans, Natchez, Vincennes, Fort Wayne, 
 Toledo, Detroit, Ogdensburg, and Montreal are near 
 
 Gulf of Mexico 
 
86 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [iTS^ 
 
 enough to the sites of some of these old forts to mark out 
 the general course of the chain. Back of it, toward the 
 Mississippi and the great lakes, were other forts, as at 
 Mackinaw and Peoria. Not all of these forts have grown 
 into cities: some of them have entirely disappeared. One 
 of these is Kaskaskia, on the river of the same name, which 
 was long the most important place in what is now the 
 State of Illinois. 
 
 140.* The Weakness of the French empire in America 
 was in the fewness of its inhabitants in comparison with 
 the extent of its territory. The whole population of New 
 France, including Canada, was only about 100,000 in 
 1750, while the population of the English colonies was 
 nearly fifteen times as large (§ 129). Within the present 
 territory of the United States, east of the Mississippi, there 
 were perhaps not more than 7,500 Frenchmen, and most 
 of these were fur-traders or adventurers, strong enough 
 to keep the Indians in check, but not numerous enough 
 to settle the country. France had never tried to build up 
 its colonies in the same way that England had done, by 
 peopling the country with settlers and their families, and 
 developing agriculture as well as trade. In consequence, 
 the French colonies in America were much more depend- 
 ent upon France than the English colonies w^ere upon 
 England. Then, too, New France was governed by 
 officials sent from France, many of whom cared nothing 
 for the country, and were often corrupt. But the French 
 commanders were energetic and skilful in defending 
 themselves and harassing the English, and had, more- 
 over, the friendship of the Indians; while their geo- 
 graphical position was one difficult to attack, but rela- 
 tively easy to defend. 
 
 141. The Ohio Company. — Just as Raleigh's unsuccess- 
 ful colonies came before the successful settlement of the 
 
1763] THE FRENCH ON THE OHIO 87 
 
 coast, so a number of unsuccessful l^nglish land com- 
 panies came before the successful settlement of the g^reat 
 West. Their object uas to buy up vast tracts of land at 
 a low price, induce settlers to move thither by givinij 
 them part of the land, and thus make the rest of the land 
 so valuable as richly to repay all expenses. One of the 
 earliest of these land companies, the Ohio Compan)% was 
 organized in 1749 by some London merchants and some 
 leading Virginians. Its lands lay in western Pennsylvania, 
 which was then claimed by Virginia (§ 79). The com- 
 pany at once sent out surveyors and traders, and began 
 opening roads for emigrants. 
 
 142. The French took the alarm as soon as the Ohio 
 Company was formed, and sent men to secure the country 
 between the Alleghanies and their chain of forts. In 
 1753, they erected a strong fort at Presque Isle, where 
 Erie now stands, and prepared to build a new chain of 
 forts southward, toward the Ohio River. Governor Din- 
 widdle, of Virginia, determined to send an agent to 
 remonstrate with the French commander. George Wash- 
 ington (§ 294), then a Virginia land-surveyor, not quite 
 twenty-two years old, but already known for his prudence 
 and clearheadedness, was selected as the agent. He made 
 his way through the wintry wilderness up the Potomac 
 River to the Monongahela, down that river to its junction 
 with the Alleghany, and up the Alleghany until he met 
 the French commander. That officer refused to leave the 
 disputed territory, and Washington returned with what 
 was really a declaration of war. ^ 
 
 ^ The " French and Indian War" which followed was at first entirely an 
 American war : hostilities did not break out in Europe until 1756 (§ 147). 
 
8.B THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [1750 
 
 (2) The French and India)! War. 
 
 143. Virginia had raised about 400 troops in the mean 
 time, and Washington, who knew the country well, was 
 put in command of them, with the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel.' He turned back with them on the road which 
 he had just travelled, for the purpose of protecting a fort 
 which the Ohio Company was building at the junction of 
 the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, where Pittsburgh 
 now stands. Both parties knew very well the importance 
 of this place, and were pushing to secure it. The French- 
 men won in the race, and captured and strengthened the 
 fort, which they named Fort Duquesne. They then 
 passed on to attack Washington, who was coming down 
 the Monongahela River. 
 
 144. The First Fight of the war followed their meeting. 
 Washington, with a part of his force, met an advance 
 party of the French and Indians, and killed or captured 
 nearly all of them. But the French main body was so 
 much superior in numbers that he moved back a few miles 
 up the Monongahela, to a fort which he named Fort 
 Necessity. Here he surrendered, July 4, 1754, on con- 
 dition that he and his men might return to Virginia. He 
 had done so well with the small force at his command, 
 that he became Virginia's principal military officer for the 
 rest of the war. 
 
 145. The English Colonies were now all acting together 
 for the first time in their history. There were South 
 Carolina troops with Washington at Fort Necessity; and 
 all the colonies voted money, men, and arms to help 
 Virginia. Heretofore the colonies had been dragged into 
 
 ^ At first the colonel in command was a man named Frye. But he died on 
 the road, leaving the command to Washington. 
 
1763] THE FRENCH AND INDIAN IV A R 89 
 
 wars by England ; now they were disposed to make war 
 on their own account, for they all felt that this western 
 territory was necessary to their future growth. The 
 British Government was at first disposed to let them fight 
 it out for themselves, and advised them to form a plan of 
 united action. Accordingly, in 1754, Maryland, Penn- 
 sylvania, New York, and the New England colonies sent 
 delegates to a meeting at Albany. Here the ' ' Albany 
 plan of union," proposed by Benjamin Franklin, was 
 agreed upon. The Albany plan proposed a congress of 
 not more than seven or less than two delegates from each 
 colony, according to the colony's proportion of taxes paid ; 
 and a governor general, appointed by the king, with 
 the power to veto (forbid) any law of the congress which 
 he should consider wrong or unwise. But it looked so 
 much like an American government, independent of Great 
 Britain, that the British Government rejected it; while it 
 gave the king so much power that the colonies rejected it 
 also. It is important, however, as a step towards union. 
 146. England and France both began to send troops to 
 America, for both knew that war must soon come. The 
 colonies also were everywhere stirring with warlike prep- 
 arations. In June, 1755, a force of British regulars and 
 provincial (colonial) troops sailed from Boston, and 
 captured the few remaining French forts in Acadia (Nova 
 Scotia). From this time the whole of Acadia (Nova 
 Scotia and New Brunswick) became English territory, as 
 it still remains. The expedition was disgraced by an act 
 of harshness on the part of the P^nglish. The French 
 inhabitants were ordered to assemble at their churches. 
 They were then seized and sent southward along the 
 coast to different English colonies ; and their houses and 
 crops were burned to prevent their return to their homes. 
 In the same month that Acadia was taken, General Brad- 
 
90 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 
 
 dock, a brave, obstinate, and self-confident British officer, 
 marched from Virginia through Pennsylvania against Fort 
 Duquesne. He expected to fight the French and Indians 
 in line of battle, and refused to heed the advice of Wash- 
 ington, who was one of his aides, to send scouts in 
 advance. Within a few miles of Fort Duquesne, the 
 French and Indians completely surprised Braddock's long 
 line, killed him and more than half his men, and chased 
 the rest for miles on the road back to Virginia. The only 
 real resistance was made by Washington and his Vir- 
 ginians, who fought from behind trees in Indian fashion, 
 and checked the pursuit. A month later, a New York 
 expedition against Crown Point, under Sir William John- 
 son, defeated the French and Indians, under Baron 
 Dieskau, near the southern end of Lake George, but did 
 no more. The year 1755 thus closed badly for the 
 English. 
 
 147. Declaration of War was made by both England and 
 France in the spring of 1756, so that the war was no 
 longer confined to America. The British Government was 
 at first very inefficient, and sent out incompetent officers 
 to America, so that little was accomplished during the 
 two years 1756 and 1757. The luiglish and provincial 
 forces ^ marched hither and thither, fighting little, and 
 gradually drawing back before their enemies. The 
 French were now commanded by a great soldier, Mont- 
 calm. His forces were not large, but he made the most 
 of them. P2ach English force acted for itself, while he 
 used all his men together against one point after another. 
 He thus, for two years, kept the English out of the dis- 
 jDuted territory, captured the few forts which they had 
 
 ' By provincial troops are meant the soldiers furnished by the provinces or 
 colonies. The British troops in America in 1758 numbered about 50,000. Of 
 these, 28,000 were provincials, and 22,000 were regulars. 
 
1763] 
 
 WILLIAM PITT 
 
 91 
 
 built along' the northern border of New York, and gained 
 all the Indians to his support. 
 
 148. The Year 1758 changed all this. One of the 
 greatest men in English history, William Pitt, was called 
 to the head of the I^ritish 
 
 Government, and every- 
 thing felt his influence. 
 Inefficient officers were 
 removed, and the whole 
 English force was thrown 
 upon the French at three 
 points. In July, a sea ex- 
 pedition captured Louis- 
 burg, on Cape Breton 
 Island (§ 72). In No- 
 vember, a land expedition 
 captured Fort Duquesne 
 without resistance, and 
 renamed it Fort Pitt (now 
 Pittsburgh). The only 
 failure of the year was that of an expedition against 
 Ticonderoga, where Montcalm commanded in person. 
 The British assaulted the French works, and were defeated 
 after losing about 1,600 men. But a part of the English 
 force drove the French out of northwestern New York, 
 and captured Fort PVontenac, on the Canada side of Lake 
 Ontario, where Kingston now stands. 
 
 149. These Successes were largely due to the manner 
 in which Pitt brought in the colonies to help the regular 
 troops. Provincial troops took part in all these expedi- 
 tions, and thus learned to make war and to have confi- 
 dence in themselves. Many of the American officers who 
 afterward took part in the Revolution received their 
 training in the campaigns of the French and Indian War. 
 
 William Pitt. 
 
92 
 
 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [i759 
 
 150. The Year 1759 was still more successful. It was 
 known that the English intended to attack Quebec this 
 year, and Montcalm was forced to draw off most of his 
 
 jAMEb W'uLFE. 
 
 troops to defend that city. Consequentl)% Ticonderoga, 
 Crown Point, and a strong French fort, Fort Niagara, fell 
 into the hands of the English without much resistance. 
 From Louisburg the English, under General Wolfe, sailed 
 
I759J 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 93 
 
 up the St. Lawrence River to attack Quebec. Their 
 ships gave them command of the river, but above them 
 rose the lofty cHffs on whose top the fortifications of 
 Quebec had been built. The French could not be tempted 
 to come out of their stronghold; and, after a siege of 
 
 Quebec. 
 
 nearly three months, the English were very much dis- 
 couraged. Finally Wolfe decided to climb the cliffs and 
 find the enemy. 
 
 151. Quebec. — On the appointed night, Wolfe's army 
 floated down the river in boats, and was landed on the 
 little river-beach at the foot of the cliffs. All through the 
 night the men were clambering up a path which the 
 French had not taken the trouble to guard ; the sailors 
 dragged up eight or ten small cannon; and, in the morn- 
 ing of September 13, the English army was drawn up on 
 
94 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [1750 
 
 the Plains of Abraham, in front of the upper city. There 
 were still walls to be attacked; but Montcalm, startled by 
 the sudden appearance of the Ent^lish, moved his army 
 out, and fought a battle on the open plain. Both Wolfe 
 and Montcalm were killed, but the French were com- 
 pletely defeated. Five days afterward, the city was sur- 
 rendered. Both generals lived long enough to know the 
 result of the battle. Wolfe, when told of it, said, "Then 
 I die happy." Montcalm, when told that he must die, 
 said, "So much the better; I shall not live to see the 
 surrender of Quebec. 
 
 152. The Conquest of Canada followed in 1760. Mon- 
 treal surrendered to the English. Then the other French 
 forts were given up^s rapidly as English troops could be 
 sent to take them. The French troops were sent home 
 to France, and the French dominion in North America 
 was over.^ Many of the Indians disliked to see the 
 British troops holding the forts in their territory. In 
 1763, Pontiac, an Ottawa chief living near Detroit, formed 
 a league of Indian tribes to destroy the newcomers. 
 But the plan was revealed by a friendly Indian ; the attack 
 on Detroit was beaten back; and the Indians, after some 
 hard fighting, begged for peace. 
 
 153. Spain entered the war, in 1762, to assist France. 
 In that year, an English expedition, with many provincial 
 troops in it, sailed to the Spanish island of Cuba, and 
 captured the rich city of Havana. The people of the 
 colonies now sent out privateers against Spanish com- 
 merce ; and the growth of the colonies was shown by 
 the fact that their privateers in this war outnumbered, in 
 
 ' Though the war was over on the continent of North America, it con- 
 tinued elsewhere for about three years. England and France were still 
 fighting on the ocean, and wherever either could reach the other's do- 
 minions. 
 
[1763 
 
 RESULTS OF THE IV AR 
 
 95 
 
 vessels, guns, and men, the whole English navy of 150 
 years before, when the colonies were founded. 
 
 154.* The Peace of Paris closed the war in 1763. Great 
 Britain had completely conquered both France and Spain, 
 and the two conquered nations consented to surrender to 
 her the whole of North America east of the Mississippi. 
 Spain gave up Florida to Great Britain in exchange 
 for Havana (§ 153). France gave up practically all 
 her possessions in North 
 America, giving her con- 
 queror. Great Britain, all 
 the portion east of the 
 Mississippi 
 River, and 
 
 The French War. 
 
 her ally, Spain, 
 the portion west 
 of that river, in- 
 cluding the city of New 
 Orleans. In October a 
 ro}'al proclamation was 
 issued, to provide for the 
 government of the region 
 acquired from France, and regulate trade with the Indians. 
 The territory ceded to Great Britain was divided into four 
 governments, Quebec, East Florida, West Florida, and 
 Grenada. The southern boundary of Quebec, and the 
 northern boundaries of the Floridas, were followed later in 
 defining the northern and southern boundaries of the 
 United States in 17S3 (§ 263). The southern boundary 
 of Georgia was extended to the St. Mary's River. The 
 
96 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 
 
 region between Quebec and the Floridas, and west of the 
 Appalachian Mountains, was reserved as an Indian coun- 
 try, and the governors of the Enghsh colonies were for- 
 bidden to make any grants of land therein. The Indian 
 trade was declared to be free to all English subjects, on 
 the condition of obtaining a license from a governor. 
 
 155. Louisiana. — Spain kept the name of Louisiana for 
 the territory west of the Mississippi River, which she had 
 received from France. It covered, in general, the great 
 region between the Rocky Mountains and the Mississippi 
 River, from British America to the Gulf of Mexico (§ 334). 
 Almost all this region, however, was then a wilderness, 
 excepting small portions of the present States of Louisiana 
 and Missouri. New Orleans was the only important city. 
 St. Genevieve was the oldest settlement in Missouri. 
 St. Louis was founded in 1764.* 
 
 156. The Leading Events of the war are as follows: 
 1754—7: French Success. 
 
 1754 : Surrender of Fort Necessity §i44 
 
 Albany Plan of Union 145 
 
 1755: Braddock's defeat 146 
 
 Conquest of Nova Scotia (English suc- 
 cess) 146 
 
 Battle of Lake George (English success) 146 
 
 1756: War declared 147 
 
 1756-7: General French success 146 
 
 1758-63: English Success. 
 
 1758: Pitt becomes head of the British Gov- 
 ernment 148 
 
 Capture of Louisburg 148 
 
 Capture of Fort Diiquesne 148 
 
 Battle of Ticonderoga (French success) 148 
 1759: Capture of Ticonderoga, Crown Point, 
 
 and Niagara 150 
 
 Capture of Quebec 151 
 
 1760: Conquest of Canada 152 
 
 ' One of the founders of St. I.ouis, Pierre Chouteau, lived in the city until 
 his death in 1849, and witnessed the enormous changes in its condition. 
 
1763] STATE OF THE COLONIES 97 
 
 1762: Capture of Havana §^53 
 
 1763 : Pontiac's conspiracy 152 
 
 Peace of Paris 154 
 
 (3) Stafr of the Colonics. 
 
 157. The Population of the colonies was about 2,000,000 
 in 1760; and the colonies had grown not only in num- 
 bers, but in strength and confidence. Their men had 
 fought beside British regulars, and had sometimes held 
 their ground when the regulars had run away. Thirty 
 thousand of them hid given up their lives in the war, and 
 many of the colonists were inclined to feel and say that 
 the colonies had done more than their share of the fight- 
 ing. None of the colonies had yet spread beyond the 
 Alleghanies, but a few adventurous hunters were in the 
 habit of crossing the mountains yearly ; and they brought 
 back such favorable reports of the beauty and fertility of 
 the new country that settlements there were begun within 
 a few years. ^ 
 
 158. In Wealth, the colonies were growing still faster, 
 and they began to look like a well-settled country. The 
 people had become comfortable and even prosperous, and 
 some of them were considered wealthy. Agriculture had 
 improved, and a great variety of crops was grown. The 
 Navigation Acts (§ 6']') had not destroyed trade. In 
 1700, the colonies had sent to England about $1,300,000 
 worth of produce, and received about the same amount of 
 English manufactures. In 1760, they sent about four 
 times as much, and received nearly seven times as much. 
 All trade to other countries than England was illegal, 
 but was nevertheless carried on largely. Newspapers and 
 
 • The first settlement in Tennessee, led by James Robertson, was made in 
 1768; the first in Kentucky, led by Daniel Boone, in 1769. There was no 
 eftbrt to settle the country north of the Ohio River for nearly twenty years to 
 come. 
 
98 THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 
 
 books had become common since the first American 
 printing-press had been set up at Cambridge, in 1639. 
 The estabhshment of King's College (now Columbia) in 
 New York City, in 1754, increased the number of colleges 
 to six.^ 
 
 159. The Spirit of Union in the colonies had grown still 
 more rapidly. During the war, the colonists had at first 
 called themselves provincials, to distinguish themselves 
 from the British. Now, for the first time, some of them 
 began to call themselves Americans, instead of English- 
 men, Virginians, or New-Englanders. The colonies were 
 no longer altogether separate peoples. They had come 
 to have common interests and a common spirit, and they 
 were now very certain to unite against any enemy that 
 was dangerous to all of them, just as they had united 
 against the F'rench power of the north and west. There 
 was no longer any need to unite against the French ; but 
 it was certain that they would act toward any new enemy, 
 even their mother country, just as they had acted toward 
 the French. It ought to have been evident in England 
 that the colonies in North America had come to be so 
 strong and so united that it was now needful for the 
 British Government to be wise and prudent, in order that 
 it might not make itself appear to be their enemy. 
 
 160. The British Government was neither wise nor 
 prudent. Most of its power was in the hands of the 
 Parliament, which was at that time not elected by the 
 whole people. By artful contrivance or by accident, the 
 laws of election were such that a few rich men, nobles or 
 
 ' The six colleges were Ilarvanl, in Massachusetts, founded in 1636 ; 
 William and Mary, in Virginia, in 1692 ; Yale, in Connecticut, in 1701 ; the 
 College of New Jersey (now Princeton), in 1746 ; King's (now Columbia), in 
 New York, in 1754; and the University of Pennsylvania, at Philadelphia, in 
 1779 (§ 126). 
 
1763] T/1XATION OF THE COLONIES 99 
 
 landowners, controlled the election of most of the mem- 
 bers of the House of Commons. In most matters, these 
 richer men were divided into two parties, which opposed 
 one another. In ret^ard to American affairs, however, 
 they were now united, by reason of heavy taxes, in a 
 claim which could not help making them the enemy of 
 the colonies. 
 
 161. Taxes in Great Britain were nov/ large, and most 
 of them fell on the richer men. Heretofore Englishmen 
 had thought little about America, considering it only a 
 wilderness, from which no money could be obtained. 
 Now they saw the colonies voting large sums of money 
 to carry on the war, and they at once began to think of 
 lightening their own taxes by laying taxes on the colonies. 
 The Parliament had forced the kings to yield to it the 
 power to lay taxes in Great Britain : it now began to claim 
 a right to lay taxes on the colonies, even against the will 
 of the colonies themselves. The English debt^ had 
 steadily increased from about $3,300,000 in 1689 to about 
 $700,000,000 in 1763. Great Britain claimed that much 
 of the debt had arisen in defending the colonies from the 
 French, and that the colonies ought to be willing to be 
 taxed for a part of the interest. The colonies claimed 
 that neither they nor the French colonies had desired 
 war, that they had been dragged into war by France and 
 England, and that the English colonies had fully paid 
 their share of the expense. At any rate, they were 
 determined not to submit to be taxed by another people. 
 
 162. The Feeling of the Colonies was that the claim of 
 the Parliament was unjust. Each colony was ruled by 
 
 ' A nntion very often provides for wars or other unexpected expenses by 
 borrowing money. Tlie written promises to pay are called bonds, and the 
 nation pays interest on them yearly, raising the money for the payments by 
 taxes. 
 
loo THE STRUGGLE FOR ENGLISH SUPREMACY [175° 
 
 its own assembly, or legislature, elected by nearly the 
 whole people. As the representatives of the people, 
 these assemblies alone had always taxed the people; and 
 the king's governors had only named the amount which 
 they desired. The colonists had thus always taxed 
 themselves, through their assemblies, as the people of 
 Great Britain had taxed themselves, through their Parlia- 
 ment. The colonists were not allowed to send repre- 
 sentatives to Parliament. P2nglishmen have never sub- 
 mitted willingly to be taxed by a body in \vhich they are 
 not represented, and the colonists were already too strong 
 to be forced to submit. On this question of "Taxation 
 without Representation," the Parliament and the colonies 
 were now to quarrel for twelve years until force was used: 
 then came the Revolutionary War. 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. The government of New France. 
 
 2. The exploration of the Mississippi. 
 
 3. The early life of Washington. 
 
 4. Plans of colonial union. 
 
 5. The expulsion of the Acadians. 
 
 6. The Seven Years' War in Europe. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — MacDonald's Select Chai-ters gives extracts from 
 the treaties of Ryswick (No. 45), Utrecht (No. 47), Aix-la- 
 Chapelle (No. 51), and Paris (No. 54); the royal proclamation 
 of 1763 (No. 55); and the Albany plan of union (No. 52). 
 Texts of a number of other plans of union are collected in 
 Ajnerican Hisiory Leaflets, No. 14. The extracts in Hart's 
 Contemporaries, vol. 11., chaps. 1-20, deal with various aspects 
 of the period 1689-1763 ; chaj)s. 17-20 relate to the French and 
 Indian wars. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The period from 1700— 1750 has been 
 scantily treated by historians. Parkman's Old Regime iti 
 Canada, Frontenac and A^cw France, Half-century 0/ Cotjflici, 
 
1763] SUPPLEMENTARY READING lOi 
 
 Moii/calm and Wol/e, and Conspiracy of Poniiac are of the first 
 importance, and tell with great skill the history of New France; 
 the same author's Pioneers of France in the New World and 
 fesiiits in North America contain also more or less which falls 
 within the limits of this chapter. On the English side there is 
 nothing equally good; the most scholarly is Winsor's Narrative 
 and Critical History, vol. v., chaps, i, 7, and 8. The separate 
 accounts in Lodge's Short History extend to 1765. Useful 
 brief narratives are Hart's Forttiation of the Unio?i, chaps, i 
 and 2; Sloane's Fretich War and the Revolution, chaps. 1-9. 
 Early schemes of colonial union are discussed in Frothingham's 
 Pise of the Republic, chap. 4. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — Franklin's Antobiographv ; Thack- 
 eray's The Virginians; Cooper's Leather-stocking Tales; Gilbert 
 Parker's The Seats of the Mighty; Longfellow's Evangeline ; 
 C. G. D. Roberts's The Forge in the Forest; J. E. Cooke's llie 
 Youth offeffersoji, Fairfax, and Doctor Van Dyke. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 COLONIAL RESISTANCE 
 
 1763-1775 
 
 (i) TJic Stamp Act. 
 
 163. British Regulation of the Colonies. — Laws to regu- 
 late the colonies and their affairs had frequentl}' been 
 passed by Parliament. Some of these, such as the act to 
 establish a post-office system, were useful to the colonies, 
 and were accepted by them ^\■illingly. Others, such as 
 the Navigation Acts and the acts to forbid manufactures 
 in the colonies (§ 6'j'), they had not been strong enough 
 to resist openly, but had evaded or disobeyed as far as 
 possible. Of late years, whenever the British Govern- 
 ment had tried to enforce these laws, it had failed. In 
 1 761, when the customs officers in Massachusetts tried to 
 obtain writs of assistance from the courts, empowering 
 them to search houses and stores for smuggled goods, 
 James Otis (§ 169) made an impassioned plea against such 
 a violation of the hereditary liberties of Englishmen. In 
 1764, soon after peace was made, Parliament announced 
 its intention to raise a revenue in the colonies. It went 
 no further at the time, but waited to see how the colonies 
 would receive the proposition. But the colonies were, as 
 usual, very busy with their own affairs, and paid little 
 attention to the declaration of Parliament. 
 
 102 
 
775] 
 
 THE STAMP ACT 
 
 r/'> 
 
 
 
 British Stamp. 
 
 164. The Stamp Act was passed by Parliament in tlie 
 spring of 1765. It had been prepared by the head of the 
 British Government, George Gren- 
 ville, and was to go into force in the 
 following November. I'^rom that 
 time, no newspapers or almanacs 
 could be published in the colonies, no 
 marriage-certificate could be given, 
 and no documents could be used in 
 lawsuits, unless stamps, bought from 
 British government agents, were 
 placed on them, or the documents 
 themselves were printed on stamped paper. ^ Laws were 
 also passed to enforce the Navigation Acts, and to send 
 soldiers to America. It was by no means certain how 
 long the peace with France (§ i 54) would last, and England 
 thought it well to keep a few thousand troops in the 
 colonies. The expenses of the soldiers were to be paid 
 out of the money received from the sale of the stamps. 
 
 165. In America, when the news of the Stamp Act 
 reached it, there was no longer any want of attention. 
 All the colonies hummed with the signs of resistance. 
 Able and eloquent men, like James Otis in Massachusetts, 
 and Patrick Henry in Virginia,- only spoke for the whole 
 
 ' .Such stamp-dulies are one of the easiest ways of paying taxes. Tliey 
 have been used since, and are still used, in this country. We submit to such 
 taxes now because they are laid by ourselves through our representatives, and, 
 if the people think the taxes unjust, they can change the taxes by changing 
 their representatives. The colonists resisted the taxes because they were laid 
 by the representatives of another people. They knew that, if they submitted 
 in this little matter, they would soon be taxed in far heavier ways, and yet 
 would never be able to change the representatives or the taxes. 
 
 ^ Patrick Henry, a young lawyer and brilliant orator, was a member of the 
 Virginia assembly. In his speech on the Stamp Act, he named several tyrants 
 who had been killed, "Ciissar," said he, " had his Brutus, Charles I. his 
 Cromwell, and George*TlI.»<— " He was interrupted by cries of " Treason ! " 
 
104 
 
 COLON ML RESISTANCE 
 
 [1763 
 
 people in declaring that the colonics would never submit. 
 
 The assemblies, as fast 
 IS they met, declared 
 that Parliament had no 
 11 jht to tax the colonies. 
 \ssociations, called Sons 
 of Liberty, were formed 
 to help the resistance. 
 As soon as the stamps 
 were sent over, mobs 
 seized and burned them, 
 or prevented them from 
 being offered for sale ; and 
 the stamp-officers were 
 frightened into resigning. 
 When the day came for 
 the act to go into force, 
 there were no stamps to 
 be bought, and no officers 
 to sell them. The Stamp 
 Act had failed. 
 166. The Stamp-Act Congress, the first sign of united 
 resistance (§ 159), met at New York City, October 7, 
 1765. It had been proposed by Virginia and Massa- 
 chusetts about the same time. All but four of the colonies 
 sent delegates to it; and all the colonies supported it. 
 It had no authority to make laws; but it agreed on a 
 declaration of the rights of the colonies, and sent petitions 
 to the king and Parliament to respect those rights. The 
 language of the congress was carefully made as gentle as 
 
 Patrick Henry 
 
 When the noise died away, he concluded : " George III. may profit by their 
 example. If this be treason, make the most of it." His resolutions, adopted 
 by the assembly, were the boldest declaration of colonial rights that had yet 
 been made. 
 
17 75] THE BRITISH GOl^ERNMENT 105 
 
 possible; but its meeting was evidently a sign of danger, 
 if the attempt should be made to punish any one for resist- 
 ing the Stamp Act. 
 
 167. The British Government was taken aback by the 
 stir in America. English manufacturers petitioned for 
 the repeal of the Stamp Act, for the American merchants 
 and people had agreed not to buy any more English goods 
 until the repeal should take place. Pitt and other friends 
 of the colonies in Parliament urged the repeal. Finally, 
 there was a change of ministry in Great Britain, 
 another political party came into power, and early in 1766 
 the act was repealed. Parliament still declared its rigJit 
 to tax the colonies, if it should wish to do so; but the 
 Americans were convinced that it A\ould never again 
 attempt to do so, and were willing to make the repeal 
 pleasant for Great Britain. And so, for more than a year, 
 they endeavored in every way to show their affection for 
 the mother country. Some difficulties yet remained. 
 The New York assembly refused to furnish supplies to 
 the British troops, as Parliament had directed ; and the 
 assemblies of some of the other colonies engaged in small 
 quarrels with their governors ; but the colonists in general 
 were very anxious to show that they were " loyal subjects 
 of the king — God bless him! 
 
 168. The Right of Parliament to regulate the trade of 
 the colonies had not hitherto been denied by the colonists 
 (§ dj). They had not thought very much about the 
 matter, but they knew that Parliament paid for a large 
 navy to protect trade, and they agreed that Parliament 
 had the right to regulate the trade which was thus pro- 
 tected. They had therefore submitted to the Navigation 
 Acts, though they obeyed them as little as possible, 
 l^ut the unfortunate Stamp Act had compelled the colo- 
 nists to think about the matter, and many of them began 
 
io6 
 
 COLONIAL RESISTANCE 
 
 [1763 
 
 George III. 
 
 to think that a ParHament in which they were not repre- 
 sented had no more right to interfere with their property 
 
 on the sea than on the land. 
 At first, they only suggested 
 different means by which 
 members from the colonies 
 might be admitted to Parlia- 
 ment. Many eminent men in 
 Great Britain desired such an 
 arrangement, and it is possi- 
 ble that it might have been 
 successful. But the king, an 
 honest but very obstinate 
 man, had lofty ideas of his 
 own dignity, and was deter- 
 mined to make the colonies 
 submit without debate. His friends in Parliament now 
 began a new scheme, which increased all the previous 
 difficulties a hundredfold. 
 
 169. Commercial Taxation. — In 1767, Parliament passed 
 an act to lay taxes on tea and a few other articles exported 
 to America; another to send revenue commissioners to 
 America, to secure obedience to the law ; and another 
 ordering the New York assembly to pass no more laws 
 until it should furnish supplies to the soldiers (§ 167). 
 These acts left the colonists no choice. They had now 
 no time to devise plans for being represented in Parlia- 
 ment. Their first business was to resist what they now 
 began to consider a foreign tyranny. 
 
 As Massachusetts was the leading commercial colony, 
 much of the first resistance centred there. Its leaders 
 were James Otis, an eloquent speaker, who afterward 
 became insane; John Hancock, a Boston merchant; John 
 Adams, a }'oung lawyer, afterward President; Samuel 
 
775] 
 
 IVHIGS AND TORIES 
 
 107 
 
 Adams, one of the first advocates of independence; and 
 Benjamin Franklin, the colony's agent and adviser in 
 
 London. The leading royalists were Governor Thomas 
 Hutchinson, a native of the colony, and his brother-in-law 
 Andrew Oliver, one of the council. 
 
 170. Whigs and Tories. — For nearly six years the colo- 
 nists kept up a peaceable resistance to the taxing acts of 
 Parliament. The resistance took the shape of a general 
 agreement by the people not to buy, sell, or use the 
 articles on which the taxes had been laid, so as to avoid 
 
COLONIAL RESISTANCE 
 
 [1763 
 
 paying the taxes. Those who adopted this plan wilhngly, 
 and who supported the colonies against the mother 
 country, took the name of Whigs. Those who refused 
 to resist the mother country in any way were called 
 Tories.^ As the Whigs were in a majority, and were 
 very much in earnest, the few Tories were compelled by 
 bodily fear to join in the general agreement. 
 
 171. The Six Years' Struggle, though it was meant to 
 be peaceable, was continually resorting to open violence. 
 
 In 1768, the revenue 
 commissioners in Boston 
 seized John Hancock's 
 sloop Liberty, and a mob 
 chased them to a British 
 frigate in the harbor. 
 Four British regiments, 
 under General Gage, 
 then took possession of 
 Boston. There was con- 
 stant bad feeling between 
 the Boston people and 
 the soldiers, or "red- 
 coats"; insulting lan- 
 guage was used on both 
 sides ; and there were a 
 number of street-fights 
 with sticks, fists, or 
 snowballs. All this re- 
 sulted in the so-called 
 "Boston Massacre," March 5. ly/O, in which the sol- 
 diers fired on the people, killed three, and wounded 
 many others. In New York, a little earlier, the people 
 
 1 Whig and Tory liad for many years been the names of the two great 
 jK)lilical parties in England (§ 479)- 
 
 John Hancock. 
 
17 75] P/1RUAMENT AND THE ASSEMBLIES 109 
 
 beat the soldiers in a street-fight. In North CaroHna, 
 the governor defeated a part of the people in a pitched 
 battle (§ 94). In 1772, a number of the Rhode Island 
 people captured and burned a ro}-al vessel, the Gas pec, 
 which had been unpleasantly active in collecting duties 
 from vessels belonging to Providence. Those who took 
 part in such affairs were evidently growing bolder, and 
 any attempt to punish them, if they had been caught, 
 would have met with resistance from the colonies, and 
 that would have been war. 
 
 172. Parliament and the Assemblies. — All these affairs 
 occasioned much anger in Parliament, though it was not 
 easy to see what was to be done to prevent or punish 
 them. Angry resolutions declaring the Massachusetts 
 people rebels were passed, together with acts to make the 
 collection of taxes more certain. The assemblies answered 
 by declaring their own rights, and den}-ing the right of 
 Parliament to pass any such laws. The colonists cared 
 very much more for the resolutions of thcirjotvn assemblies 
 than they did for those of Parliament, and their resistance 
 became so much the bolder. In 1772, Parliament ordered 
 those who had burned the Gaspee to be sent to England 
 for trial, if they should be caught. Again the assemblies 
 denied the right of Parliament to pass such a law ; and 
 the colonists were ready to resist the enforcement of it. 
 The plain question had come to be whether Parliament 
 was or was not to govern the colonies as it saw fit. 
 
 173. The Tea Tax. — In 1770, Parliament tried a change 
 of plan. The taxes were taken off all the articles except 
 tea, and the tax on tea was fixed at only threepence, or 
 about six cents, a pound. Arrangements were made with 
 English tea-merchants, in 1773, to send cargoes of tea to 
 America at a price threepence lower than that which had 
 always been paid, so that the price would be no greater 
 
no COLONIAL RESISTylNCE [1763 
 
 than it had always been, even after the tax was paid. It 
 was hoped that in this way, when the tea Avas distributed 
 throLiL^di the colonies, not only the Tories, but the women, 
 and all who liked to drink tea, would buy it at the old 
 price, without seeing that they were really paying the 
 taxes and obeying Parliament. 
 
 174. This Plan was an ingenious way of getting around 
 the difficulty, but the Americans resisted with a kind of 
 angry contempt. At Charleston they stored the cargoes 
 of tea in damp cellars, where the tea was soon spoiled. 
 At New York, Philadelphia, and other places, they refused 
 to allow the tea-ships to land their cargoes, and sent them 
 back to England. At Boston they tried to do the same 
 thing, but the British officers would not allow the ships 
 to leave the harbor. The Boston people therefore took a 
 more violent means, which is commonly called the 
 ' ' Boston Tea Party. ' ' An orderly mob, disguised as 
 Indians, boarded the ships, December 16, 1773, and 
 threw the 340 chests of tea into the harbor. In one way 
 or another, at all the towns on the coast, the colonists 
 were successful in their efforts to prevent the tea from 
 being distributed through the colonies to tempt the people 
 to buy it. Parliament was again defeated. 
 
 175. The Four Intolerable Acts. — Parliament now so 
 completely lost its temper that it took the last steps to 
 open conflict. It passed, among other measures, four acts 
 which the colonies could not help resisting. The first 
 was the Boston Port Act: it forbade all vessels to leave 
 or enter Boston harbor. Its object was to punish the 
 Boston people by destroying their trade ; but its effect was 
 to anger all the colonists against Parliament. The second 
 was the Massachusetts Government Act: it changed the 
 charter of that qolony so as to take away the government 
 from the people, and give it to the king's agent. The 
 
1775] THE FOUR INTOLERABLE ACTS m 
 
 effect of this was to unite all the colonies in resistance, for 
 they all felt that they would soon meet the same treat- 
 ment themselves if they allowed Massachusetts to be so 
 treated. The third was the Administration of Justice 
 Act: it ordered that Americans who should be charged 
 with murder because of any efforts to enforce the laws 
 should be sent to England for trial. The fourth was the 
 Quebec Act: it made the country north of the Ohio and 
 east of the Mississippi a part of Canada. Its effect was 
 also to unite the colonies, for they felt that this territory 
 belonged to them ; that the king had given it to them 
 (§ 25), and they had helped to conquer it from the French ; 
 and that the Parliament had no right to take it away. 
 Parliament expected to enforce these acts by its standing 
 army in the colonies (§ 164). 
 
 176. The Excitement in America now rose higher than 
 it had ever done before. The assemblies passed resolu- 
 tions severely condemning Parliament, and many of them 
 requested the people to keep the day of the shutting up of 
 Boston as a day of fasting and prayer. In most of the 
 royal colonies the assemblies spoke^ so boldly that the 
 governors dismissed them, and they did not meet again 
 as part of the royal government. The excitement was so 
 great, and the calls for a Continental Congress ^ were so 
 numerous, that delegates were chosen almost by common 
 consent, and without a summons. Georgia alone took 
 no part in the Congress, though her people s}'mpathized 
 with it.~ 
 
 177. The First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia, 
 September 5, 1774. It agreed upon a new declaration 
 
 ^ " Continental" had already come to have very much the same meaning 
 that " American " has now. It mQAni gc'fwrai, belonging to the whole con- 
 tinent, not to one colony or a part of them. Thus the Stamp-Act Congress 
 (§ 166), from only nine of the colonies, was not a " Continental " Congress. 
 
 ^ The action of the governor prevented the appointment of delegates. 
 
112 COLONIAL RESISTANCE [1763 
 
 of rights : it asserted the right of the colonies to govern 
 and tax themselves, and named eleven acts of Parliament 
 which were attacks upon these rights. It sent an address 
 to the people of Great Britain and a petition to the king, 
 but did not now petition Parliament. It drew up an 
 agreement, called The Association, which was signed by 
 very many of the colonists, not to buy goods from Great 
 Britain, or sell to British merchants, until the objection- 
 able acts were repealed by Parliament. It commended 
 the people of Massachusetts for their peaceable resistance, 
 and declared that, if Parliament should use force to make 
 Massachusetts submit, all the other colonies would use 
 force to help her. Finally, it called a new Congress for 
 the following May, and adjourned. 
 
 178. Representation as a question had now taken a new 
 form. At first, the colonies had demanded that Parlia- 
 ment should not tax the colonies while the colonies were 
 not represented in it ; that is, that there should be ' ' No 
 Taxation without Representation. " Now they demanded 
 that Parliament should pass no laws whatever about the 
 colonies while the colonies were not represented in it; 
 that is, that there should be "No Legislation without 
 Representation. " 
 
 179.* Suspension of Royal Government. — The people of 
 the colonies were much more inclined to forcible resistance 
 than was the Congress, whos'»» language, notwithstanding 
 its firmness, had been temperate and restrained. Every- 
 where there was much confusion. In New England, 
 General Gage had been appointed governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, and held Boston with a British garrison; but his 
 authority was hardly recognized beyond his line of troops, 
 and most of the work of government was carried on by 
 the towns. Elsewhere, the royal governors attempted to 
 suppress the colonial assemblies, and the people fell back 
 
1775] LEXINGTON AND CONCORD 113 
 
 either upon their local governments, as in Massachusetts, 
 or upon legislatures irregularly chosen. Committees of 
 Correspondence, as they were called, were busy collecting 
 arms and military supplies, organizing and drilling com- 
 panies of militia, and preparing for war in case it should 
 come. The feeling against Great Britain was most intense 
 in Massachusetts, and it seemed likely that the first con- 
 flict would occur there if Gage should attempt to enforce 
 the acts of Parliament against the colony. It must be 
 remembered, however, that all this vigorous resistance 
 did not indicate any general desire for independence. 
 The colonies were prepared to resist, by force if need be, 
 demands of Great Britain which they regarded as illegal 
 or unjust; but at heart the people still loved the mother 
 country, and were not to assert their independence until, 
 in the judgment of Congress, no other course was left to 
 them. 
 
 (2) Lexington and Concord. 
 
 180. Massachusetts, at the opening of the year 1775, 
 was much like a powder-magazine, which the first spark 
 would explode. The provincial assembly, which now 
 governed the colony, had collected powder and arms, 
 and had ordered 20,000 "minute-men" to be enrolled 
 and to be ready to march at a minute's warning. Gage, 
 in Boston, felt so insecure^hat he began to erect fortifica- 
 tions on the neck of land which joined the town to the 
 mainland, and sent out spies into the surrounding country 
 to find out what the people were doing. Finally, he dis- 
 covered that military stores had been collected at Con- 
 cord, a village about twenty miles from Boston. He 
 ordered out 800 men to destroy them, and this was the 
 spark which brought on the Revolutionary War. Secret 
 as the movement was meant to be, signals of it were sent 
 
114 COLON UL RESISTANCE [1763 
 
 by the Boston people to the mainland; and, all through 
 the night, men were riding through the country, rousing 
 the minute-men. 
 
 181. Lexington is a village on the road between Boston 
 and Concord. As the British marched into it, just before 
 sunrise, April 19, 1775, they found about sixty half-armed 
 minute-men assembled on the village green. There was 
 a hasty order from the British officer. Major Pitcairn, a 
 volley from his men, and a few answering shots. Eight 
 of the minute-men were killed, many were wounded, and 
 the rest dispersed. This was the first blood of the Revo- 
 lution. The British then marched on to Concord, dispersed 
 the minute-men who had collected there, and destroyed 
 the supplies. They then prepared to return to Boston. 
 By this time the whole country was up ; for miles around 
 the church-bells were ringing wildly ; and the minute-men 
 from the surrounding towns were hurrying toward Con- 
 cord. 
 
 182. The British Retreat was orderly at first, the troops 
 steadily returning the fire which met them from every 
 house, fence, and rock along the roadside. But the num- 
 bers of the minute-men were increasing; their fire was 
 deadly; and the retreat became more disorderly. At 
 Lexington they met 900 fresh troops from Boston, with 
 cannon, who sheltered them for a few minutes, while they 
 lay on the ground and rested, "their tongues hanging 
 out of their mouths, like dogs after a chase. ' ' The whole 
 British force then set out for Boston. The minute-men 
 kept up the pursuit as hotly as ever until, toward night, 
 the worn-out regulars found shelter on the waterside, 
 under the guns of the ships of war. ^ 
 
 1 The British loss was 273 in killed, wounded, and missing. The rebels, 
 as the British called the minute-men, lost 88. There were not more than 400 
 of the minute-men engaged at any one time. 
 
1775] STATE OF THE COLONIES 115 
 
 183. Boston was now besieged. Many of the minute- 
 men, who had kept up the pursuit, remained in front of 
 Boston to attack any of the regulars who might venture to 
 come out. As the news of the fight spread abroad, men 
 from the different New England colonies started for 
 Boston, and within a few days the town was closely shut 
 up, except by sea. This state of affairs was nothing else 
 than war. The agents of Parliament had used force ; the 
 Massachusetts men had used force in return ; and the other 
 colonies were now to use force to help Massachusetts, as 
 they had already declared they would do. The American 
 Revolution had begun, and Avith it the Jiatioiial history of 
 the United States of America (§ 190). 
 
 (3) State of the Colonics. 
 
 184. The Population of the Colonies was about 2,600,000 
 in 1775. If this seems small, compared with the 70,000,- 
 000 and more now dwelling in the United States, we must 
 bear in mind that England and Wales contained only 
 6,400,000 persons in 1750. And the English population 
 increased very slowly, while that of the colonies was 
 doubling steadily about every twenty-five years. 
 
 Population has been wonderfully changed since 1775. 
 The population of the " old thirteen " in 1775, and of the 
 first thirteen States in 1890, was as follows: 
 
 1775- 
 
 Virginia 56^)0°° 
 
 Massachusetts 360,000 
 
 Pennsylvania 300,000 
 
 North Carolina 260,000 
 
 Maryland 220,000 
 
 Connecticut 200,000 
 
 South Carolina i(So,ooo 
 
 New York , , , iSo,ooo 
 
 New Jersey 130,000 
 
 New Hampshire 80,000 
 
 Rhode Island 50,000 
 
 Delaware 40,000 
 
 Georgia 30,000 
 
 1090. 
 
 New York 5.997,853 
 
 Pennsylvania 5,258,014 
 
 Illinois 3,826,35 1 
 
 Ohio 3,672,316 
 
 Missouri 2,679,184 
 
 Massachusetts 2,238,943 
 
 Texas 2,235,523 
 
 Indiana 2, 192,404 
 
 Michigan 2,093,889 
 
 Iowa 1,911,896 
 
 Kentucky 1,858,635 
 
 peorgia i,S37>353 
 
 Tennessee 1,767,518 
 
Ii6 COLONIAL RESISTANCE [1763 
 
 Only four of the thirteen of 1775 appear in the first 
 thirteen of 1 890. The population of the other States in 
 1890 A\'ill be found in Appendix IV. 
 
 185.* The Difficulty of Governing such a growing popu- 
 lation, without allowing it any share in the government, 
 would have been exceedingly great, even if nature had 
 placed it close to Great Britain. It was far more difficult 
 to govern it across a stormy ocean, 3,000 miles wide, 
 over which troops had to be carried in sailing-vessels, 
 often taking months to make the passage, or waiting 
 weeks for fair weather. But Great Britain was governed 
 at the time by men who represented the trading and 
 aristocratic classes only, and who cared more about 
 lightening their own taxes, and making a large profit out 
 of the American trade, than they did about giving the 
 colonies good government. These men saw no reason 
 why America should not submit absolutely to the king and 
 Parliament. The attempt to enforce obedience cost the 
 British Empire the larger part of its American territory. 
 
 186. In Wealth the colonies were still growing. Their 
 trade with Great Britain and other countries had been 
 injured by the troubles of the past twelve years. The 
 British war-vessels on the coast no longer allowed foreign 
 trade, but seized every vessel that took part in it ; and the 
 colonists had ceased to trade with Great Britain in many 
 articles. To make up for this, there was a great increase 
 in colonial manufactures. Enterprising men began to 
 make silk and other goods, which Great Britain had for- 
 bidden to be manufactured in the colonies (§ Oy, note); 
 and the different colonies encouraged them b)^ voting 
 money to help them. During the Revolution, the colonists 
 even began to make powder and other munitions of war. 
 
 187. In Literature the productions of the colonists were 
 as yet almost entirely political ; and in this field their 
 
1775] SLAVERY 117 
 
 work Avas certainly admirable. Their addresses and 
 petitions, their declarations of rights, and their declaration 
 of independence (§ 206) cannot well be read without being- 
 admired. Poetry, music, and the drama hardly existed ; 
 but two fine painters, Copley and West, had appeared. 
 New colleges were springing up : Rhode Island College 
 (now Brown University) was founded at Providence in 
 1764; Dartmouth College, at Hanover, N. H., in 1769; 
 and Queen's College (now Rutgers College), at New 
 Brunswick, N. J., in 1770. There were but 14 news- 
 papers in all New England, 4 in New York, 9 in Penn- 
 sylvania, 2 each in Maryland, Virginia, and North 
 Carolina, 3 in South Carolina, and i in Georgia: 37 in 
 all. 
 
 188. Slavery had grown much faster in the South than 
 in the North. In New England there were signs that it 
 would not last much longer; and some of the courts 
 began to declare it illegal, and to give the slaves their 
 freedom. Vermont (§ 65) never permitted slavery. The 
 first Continental Congress recommended that the slave- 
 trade should be stopped, and all the colonies agreed ; but 
 this was not because the Congress wanted to put an end 
 to slavery, but because the American slave-trade was 
 particularly profitable to British merchants. For a time 
 — perhaps all through the Revolution — no slaves were 
 brought into the country. As soon as the Revolution 
 was ended, commerce revived, and the slave-trade with 
 it; but by this time it was confined to the Southern States, 
 for the Northern States had forbidden it for themselves. 1 
 
 189. The Leading Events of this twelve years' struggle 
 against England were as follows: 
 
 1 In 1715, there were 13,000 negro slaves north of Mason and Dixon's 
 Hne (§87), and 47,000 south: 60,000 in all. In 1775, there were 50,000 
 north, and 450,000 south : 500,000 in all. 
 
Ii8 COLONUL RESIST/INCE [1763 
 
 1 763-6 : hiternal Taxation §163 
 
 1764: Parliament claims the right to tax the 
 
 colonies 163 
 
 1765 ; The Stamp Act passed 
 
 Stamp-Act Congress 
 
 1766 : The Stamp Act repealed 
 
 1767-73 : Commercial Taxation 
 
 1767: Parliament lays taxes on commerce. . . 
 The Americans give up trade in the 
 
 articles taxed 
 
 1768 : Boston occupied by British troops. . . . 
 
 1770: The Boston massacre 
 
 The taxes removed, except that on tea. 
 
 1772 : Burning of the Gaspcc 
 
 1773 : Tea sent to America 
 
 The colonies refuse to receive it 
 
 Boston Tea Party 
 
 1 774-5 : Legislation 
 
 1774: Boston Port Act; Massachusetts Act; 
 Transportation Act ; and Quebec 
 
 Act passed 
 
 First Continental Congress 
 
 The Association 
 
 1775: War 
 
 1775: Lexington and Concord fights 
 
 Siege of Boston 
 
 64 
 66 
 67 
 68 
 69 
 
 70 
 71 
 71 
 7Z 
 71 
 74 
 74 
 74 
 75 
 
 75 
 77 
 77 
 81 
 81 
 83 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. English politics, 1763-1775. 
 
 2. Why did not all the English colonies in America oppose 
 Parliament and the king .? 
 
 3. Committees of correspondence. 
 
 4. Parliamentary interference, prior to 1763, with trade and 
 manufactures in the colonies. 
 
 5. New England and the slave-trade. 
 
 6. The organization of resistance in a particular colony 
 {e.g., New Hampshire). 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — MacDonald's Select Charters gives a form of a 
 writ of assistance (No. 53), and the texts of the Stamp Act 
 (No. 57), Quartering Acts (Nos. 58 and 71), the resolutions 
 
1775J SUPPLEMENTARY READING 119 
 
 of the Stamp Act Congress (No. 59), the Declaratory Act of 
 1766 (No. 60), the Townshend Acts (Nos. 61-64), the i\Iassa- 
 chusetts circular letter (No. 65), the Virginia resolutions of 
 1769 and 1773 (Nos. 66 and 67), the acts of 1774 (Nos. 
 68-70), and the " Declaration and Resolves" and "Associa- 
 tion" of the first Continental Congress (Nos. 72 and 73). 
 Numerous miscellaneous documents are collected in Niles's 
 Prmciples and Acts of the Revohi/ion. The collected writings 
 of American statesmen, especially Washington, Franklin, John 
 Adams, and Jefferson, are of the highest importance. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — Most of the works on the Revolution 
 enumerated under Chapter IX. deal also with the period 
 covered by this chapter. The following are of especial im- 
 portance here: Frothingham"s Rise 0/ the Republic; Weeden's 
 Eco7iomic and Social History of New England; Barry's Massa- 
 chusetts; Hutchinson's Massachusetts ; Lecky's England in the 
 Eighteenth Cefituty; lives of John Adams by C. F. Adams and 
 Morse; Wells's Samuel Adams; Tudor's Otis; Quincy's ytu/a/i 
 Quincy; Morse's Eranklin; lives of Patrick Henry by W. W. 
 Henry and M. C. Tyler, of Jefferson by Randall and Morse, 
 and of Washington by Marshall, Irving, Sparks, and Lodge. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — See under Chapter IX., post. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE REVOLUTION 
 
 1775-1781 
 
 190. Rise of the Republic — The history of the United 
 States, as a separate country, begins with the fight at 
 Lexington, though the name of the United Colonies was 
 kept up until July 4, 1776 (§ 205). During this period of 
 more than a year, the colonists still claimed to be loyal 
 subjects of the king, fighting only against the attempts of 
 Parliament to govern them by its own will. But, as the 
 king refused to govern the colonies with the aid of their 
 Congress, the Congress did all the governing itself, and 
 the colonies became at once, in reality, a separate 
 country. 
 
 191. The Second Continental Congress met at Philadel- 
 phia, May 10, 1775. The business of the First Congress 
 (in 1774) had been only to pass resolutions: the Second 
 Congress had to make laws. Men like to feel that they 
 are acting under some lawful authority, and all such 
 authority in the colonies had almost disappeared. Most 
 of the royal governors had withdrawn as soon as open 
 fighting began, and no new governments had been 
 formed. Congress became, by common consent, the 
 general governing body of the country. It adopted the 
 forces around Boston as a continental army, appointed 
 Washington to command it, and raised money to support 
 the war. Toward the end of the year, it began to form 
 
 120 
 
1775] THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS 
 
 121 
 
 a navy (§ 240). At first, therefore, the war was between 
 the British Parhament and the American Congress, both 
 acknowledging the same king. When it was found that 
 the king sided altogether with the Parliament, Congress 
 
 Carpenter's Hall, where the First Continental Congress mrt. 
 
 made war on the king also, and, in 1776, declared the 
 colonies independent of him as well as of Parliament 
 (§ 205). 
 
 192. Membership of the Congress. — The Second Con- 
 tinental Congress Avas a body of distinguished and able 
 men. Each colony had chosen some of its strongest men 
 as delegates. Among the delegates from Massachusetts 
 Avere John Adams, one of the best qualified men in the 
 country for public service, and afterward President of the 
 United States; Samuel Adams, a trusted popular leader 
 and an earnest advocate of independence ; and John Han- 
 cock, a Boston merchant, whose bold signature heads the 
 list of signers of the Declaration of Independence. Con- 
 
12 2 THE REI^OLUTION [1775 
 
 necticLit was represented by Roger Sherman and Oliver 
 Ellsworth. New York sent John Jay, afterward chief 
 justice of the Supreme Court. Pennsylvania sent Robert 
 Morris, whose skilful management later earned him the 
 title of the "financier of the Revolution," and Benjamin 
 Franklin. From Virginia came Patrick Henry, already 
 known as an orator and enthusiastic opponent of Great 
 Britain; Thomas Jefferson, who was later to write the 
 Declaration of Independence ; and George Washington. 
 
 193.* Leading Men. — The leading men in the Congress 
 were Franklin, Washington, and Jefferson. Franklin was 
 born in Boston, but went to Philadelphia early in life, and 
 soon built up a successful business as a printer. He was 
 self-taught, but became widely known through his writings 
 and scientific investigations. His "Poor Richard's 
 Almanac," published annually, and filled with proverbs 
 embodying sound practical advice in pithy phrases, made 
 his name a household word in America. He was now a 
 man of independent means, had been long in public life, 
 and had represented the colonies in P^ngland at the time 
 of the Stamp Act ; and his experience and judgment made 
 him invaluable to the American cause. He was, more- 
 over, a consummate diplomatist, and much of the success 
 of the Revolution was due to the skill with which Franklin 
 represented the country abroad. Washington was not 
 yet so widely known as Franklin. He was now somewhat 
 over forty years of age, and was soon to show, on a 
 larger scale, the military ability which he had first ex- 
 hibited in the resistance to the French twenty years 
 before. Washington was not a ready speaker, but he 
 knew how to choose the best men for important positions, 
 to bear patiently with their imperfections, and to follow 
 the wisest course in the midst of conflicting and hostile 
 advice. Above all, he was absolutely unselfish, refused 
 
1775] 
 
 LEADING MEN 
 
 123 
 
 all suggestions of mercl)' personal gain, and cared only 
 for the good of his country. Jefferson was a poor speaker, 
 but an effective writer, and his influence increased rapidly 
 as time went on. Men liked to have him write out what 
 
 l,.i. i| P'l'i V' -'■ 
 
 ii!ili!!iBi!isii!iiiiM^ 
 
 Benjamin Franklin. 
 
 they had decided upon, but they had not yet come to set 
 so much store by his judgment on public questions. 
 Jefferson was an advocate of what were then regarded as 
 extreme democratic opinions, under which the goodness 
 
124 
 
 THE REyOLUTlON 
 
 [1775 
 
 of laws was tested largely by the liberty they left to the 
 individual; but he was not to have an opportunity to 
 apply those ideas on a large scale until he became Presi- 
 dent, in 1 80 1. 
 
 (i) At Boston. 
 
 194. British Reinforcements, under three generals, 
 Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, arrived at Boston soon 
 after the fight at Lex- 
 ington. Gage had 
 now about 10,000 
 men. These held the 
 town of Boston, which 
 lay on a peninsula occupying the 
 middle of the harbor. Around 
 them, on the hills of the mainland, 
 there were about twice their num- 
 ber of undisciplined and poorly 
 armed Americans, without cannon and almost without 
 food. Just north of Boston, another peninsula ran out into 
 the harbor. On it there were several hills overlooking 
 the city, and the Americans determined to seize and 
 fortify one of them, called Bunker Hill. About a thousand 
 men, under Colonel Prescott, were sent into the peninsula 
 for this on a suitable night. For some reason, they 
 passed beyond Bunker Hill and seized Breed's Hill, much 
 closer to Boston.^ 
 
 195. The American Fortification was continued silently 
 and swiftly through the night. In the morning of June 
 17. 177 5' ^^^^ British in Boston woke to see a long line of 
 intrenchments running across the hill above them, and an 
 American working-party busily strengthening it. For a 
 
 Dgrfhesteu /j 
 
 The Revolution in New 
 England. 
 
 ' lirecd's Hill is now usually called IJunker Hill, and the Bunker Hill 
 monument is creeled upon it. 
 
775] 
 
 BUNKER HILL 
 
 125 
 
 time, the British frigates in the liarbor kept up a slow and 
 distant fire, to which the working-part}' paid no attention ; 
 but at noon the work was stopped, for the British troops 
 were coming across the harbor in boats. Three thousand 
 well armed, uniformed, and drilled soldiers, who had 
 never kno\\n defeat in equal fight, landed near Charles- 
 town, under General Howe. Here they formed at the 
 waterside, and in a long, steady line began to move 
 upward to scatter the 1,500 farmers who were watching 
 them from the top of the hill. From the roofs of the 
 houses in Boston the townspeople were watching, A\hile 
 the rest of the British army were anxious to see " whether 
 the Yankees would fight. ' ' Most of the watchers ex- 
 pected to see the untrained soldiers in the fort fire a few 
 hasty shots at a safe distance, and run. 
 
 196. Battle of Bunker Hill — The fort held a threatening 
 silence until the attacking column was within 150 feet. 
 Then, at the word, came a 
 sheet of fire from the marks- 
 men within; and, when the 
 smoke lifted, part of the 
 British line was lying dead 
 or wounded, and the rest 
 were retreating down the 
 hill. The British were not 
 cowards : the officers re- 
 formed the line at the bottom 
 of the hill, and, after setting 
 fire to Charlestown, again 
 advanced to the attack. 
 Again there was a steady 
 silence in the fort, a close and deadly fire, and the British 
 line was driven down the hill again. The British then 
 moved up the hill for the third time. The powder in the 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 Battle of Bunker Hill. 
 
126 THE REVOLUTION [177^ 
 
 fort was now gone, antl the garrison fought for a few 
 minutes with gunstocks and stones against the British 
 bayonets. But such a struggle was hopeless, and the 
 British gained the fort. They were too tired to pursue 
 the garrison, who escaped to the mainland.' 
 
 197. Washington, early in July, took command of the 
 Americans who had gathered around l^oston, and began 
 the difficult task of forming them into 
 a real army. Supplies of powder, arms, 
 and other materials of war grew more 
 abundant, as the American privateers 
 (§ 240) captured supply-ships from Eng- 
 land. But the men were not willing 
 to remain in camp for a long time, and 
 had been so accustomed to independence 
 that they disliked strict military discipline. This difficulty 
 lasted throughout the war, and sometimes drove Washing- 
 ton almost to despair. In the spring of 1776, however, 
 he had formed something like an army. The color of its 
 uniform, when it could afford one, was blue and yellow 
 (or buff), and these \\'erc the " rebel " colors throughout 
 the Revolution. Usually, however, the soldiers wore 
 hunting-shirts, dyed brown, as the best available substi- 
 tute. The flag was unfurled for the first time on New- 
 Year's Day, 1776, at Cambridge. It had the stripes as 
 at present, and the double cross of the British flag instead 
 of the stars. The stars were added in 1777."^ 
 
 * The American loss was 449, out of 1,500 men in the Imttlc. Among the 
 killed was General Joseph Warren, a Boston physician, one of tlie leading 
 Whigs of Massachusetts. The Iiritish loss was 1,054, one third of their 
 number. This tremendous kjss had its effect all through the war, for the 
 British regulars would no longer fight except in the open field. On several 
 occasions, American armies .were relieved from dangerous positions because 
 the British did not like to attack intrenchments. 
 
 * At first there had been flags of all kinds, the commonest having a rattle 
 snake upon it, with the motto, " Uon't tread on me.'' (See p. 127.) 
 
1776] 
 
 OPERATIONS IN CANADA 
 
 127 
 
 Rattlesnake Flag. 
 
 198. British Evacuation of Boston. — Washington's new 
 army was now ready to renew the attempt which had 
 been made at Bunker 
 Hill. This time a penin- 
 sula on the south side 
 of Boston, called Dor- 
 chester Heights, was se- 
 lected. It was silently 
 seized by night, and 
 before Howe, who had 
 succeeded Gage, could 
 attack it, the fortifica- 
 tions had been made 
 very strong. The Brit- 
 ish commander therefore decided not to attack them, but 
 to leave Boston. He embarked his men on the fleet, 
 March 17, and set sail for Halifax. The American army 
 then entered the town. From this time the British made 
 hardly any serious effort to conquer New England ; and 
 for a few months, until they attacked the Middle States, 
 there were no longer any British forces within the United 
 States (§ 207). 
 
 (2) Operations in Canada. 
 
 199. Canada, it was hope^l, would join the other 
 colonies, and the first thought of the colonists was to 
 drive the British troops out of that province. The easiest 
 road into Canada was through northeastern New York, 
 by way of Lake Champlain and Lake George. On this 
 road the British held the strong fort of Ticonderoga ; but 
 this was taken by surprise, three weeks after the fight at 
 Lexington, by Ethan Allen and a small party of men 
 from Vermont. The captured stores were sent to the 
 army before Boston, where they were very welcome. 
 
128 
 
 THE RESOLUTION 
 
 [mis 
 
 Philip Schuyler. 
 
 200. The Invasion of Canada was now begun. During 
 the summer of 1775, American troops, led by Schuyler 
 
 ^:-— 5-^.^ and Montgomery, two 
 
 / - New York officers, 
 
 pushed into Canada. 
 They captured Montreal 
 in November. Here they 
 were joined by fresh 
 troops, under Benedict 
 Arnold, who had forced 
 their way through the 
 Maine wilderness, up the 
 Kennebec River, and 
 across into Canada. The 
 whole force now num- 
 bered about 1,000 men, 
 and these found Quebec 
 too strong for them (§ 150). In an attack upon it, 
 Montgomery was killed, and his troops were beaten 
 back.^ Arnold held the army before Quebec until the 
 spring of 1776, when the Americans were finally driven 
 out of Canada, back to Ticonderoga. Canada remained 
 a British province. 
 
 (3) /// E>igland and on iJic Coast. 
 
 201. The People in England had offered expressions of 
 sympathy for the colonies. A number of officers in the 
 army had resigned their commissions rather than serve in 
 America. Petitions against the war had been presented 
 to the king and Parliament from many towns. The city 
 of London had declared its abhorrence of the measures 
 
 ^ Montgomery had been a distinguished British officer, but had mairied and 
 settled in New York. His bones were brought to New York City in l8l8, 
 and again buried with appropriate ceremonies. 
 
1775] PARLIAMENT AND THE COLONIES 129 
 
 designed to oppress " our fellow subjects in the colonics," 
 and had begged the king to change his government. 
 But none of these representations had any influence upon 
 those who had power in Great Britain ; and, as the war 
 went en, English expressions of sympathy for the colonies 
 became for a time less frequent. 
 
 202. Parliament proposed, early in 1775, that, if any 
 colony would promise to lay taxes sufficient to support a 
 royal government, no Parliamentary taxes should be im- 
 posed on that colony. Edmund Burke, in an elaborate 
 and eloquent speech, pleaded the cause of the colonies, 
 and urged a return to the old plan of relying upon the 
 good will of the assemblies. But the proposition of 
 Parliament, suggested by Lord North, was rejected, and 
 Parliament was soon as angry as the king. It voted to 
 send 25,000 men to America; to hire and send over 
 17,000 soldiers from Hesse-Cassel, in Germany ;i to forbid 
 all trade with the colonies ; and to declare American ships 
 lawful prize, that is, to permit them to be captured by 
 English or foreign ships. Congress answered by open- 
 ing American harbors to ships of all nations, and declar- 
 ing British ships lawful prize. All this time. Congress 
 was declaring that it had no desire for independence; 
 and the different colonies were directing their delegates 
 not to vote for a separation. This state of things could 
 not last long. The king's loyal subjects could not go 
 on shooting the king's soldiers without soon learning to 
 detest the king himself. 
 
 203. Along the Coast, where the British frigates com- 
 manded the ocean, the exposed towns were harshly 
 treated. Any refusal by the people to supply the ships 
 
 1 These hired soldiers, called Hessians, who could speak no English, were 
 particularly hated by the colonists, and were accused of numberless cruelties 
 during the war. 
 
130 THE RESOLUTION [1776 
 
 with provisions was likely to be answered by a cannonade. 
 In 1775, the towns of Gloucester, Bristol, and Falmouth 
 (now Portland) were bombarded and destroyed ; and early 
 in 1776, Norfolk met the same fate. Charleston was 
 attacked, June 28, by a squadron of ten British ships, 
 with 2,500 troops on board, under General Clinton. 
 They were beaten off b)' the South Carolina troops under 
 Moultrie, one of the ships being burned.^ The fleet then 
 sailed for New York, and the Southern States for nearly 
 three years felt little of the war 
 
 (4) Indcpcmiciice. 
 
 204. The Desire for Independence began to grow rapidly 
 in the spring of 1776. The king was wholly on the side 
 of the enemies of the colonists, had declared the colonists 
 to be rebels, and had allowed his ships to burn their 
 towns. The colonists were therefore beginning to forget 
 that they were his loyal subjects. Just at this time, a 
 pamphlet called Connnoii Soisc was published, written by 
 Thomas Paine: it urged these considerations with great 
 force and effect. The first strong sign of the change of 
 feeling was a recommendation by Congress, in May, 
 1776, that the different colonies should form governments 
 of their own, in place of those which had been overthrown. 
 This was done, and the colonies now took the name of 
 States. 
 
 205. Independence. — Virginia led the way in instructing 
 her delegates in Congress to vote for independence, and 
 the other States gradually followed. June 8, a resolution 
 that the colonies were free and independent States was 
 offered in Congress ; and a committee of five was ap- 
 
 ^ The name of Fort Sullivan was changed to Fort Moultrie in honor of the 
 commander. One of the heroes of the defence was Sergeant Jasper, who 
 climbed the parapet during the hottest of the fire, and restored the flagstaff, 
 which had been shot away. 
 
7/6] 
 
 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 Liberty Bell. 
 
 pointed to draw up a fitting' declaration. The com- 
 mittee fini.shcd its work- 
 June 28. July 2, the reso- 
 lution was adopted ; and 
 the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence was adopted July 
 4, 1776. The United 
 Colonies were now the 
 United States, claiming to 
 be independent of both king 
 and Parliament. 
 
 206. The Declaration of 
 Independence is in Appen- 
 dix I. It was drawn up 
 by Jefferson. The other 
 members of the committee, 
 John Adams, Franklin, 
 Sherman, and Livingston, did little of the work ; but Adams 
 did most of the speaking in its favor, as Jefferson was not 
 a good public speaker. Parliament is not mentioned in 
 the Declaration, except as a body of men whom the king 
 had aided in ' ' acts of pretended legislation ' ' over the 
 colonies. The new idea in the Declaration is that gov- 
 ernments are to be made and changed by the people; 
 elsewhere, up to that time, it was held that the people 
 were bound to obey the government, as long as it pro- 
 tected them. The success of the American Revolution 
 aided to bring about the I'rench Revolution in 1789 and 
 the following years. The same idea now controls every 
 government whose people care to assert it. 
 
 (5) In the Middle States : lyyd-yS. 
 
 207. The Middle States were now, for nearl}' three 
 years, to be the theatre of the war. P'or the time. Great 
 
132 
 
 THE REVOLUTION 
 
 [1776 
 
 Britain had g-iveti up New England, because of its stormy 
 coast in winter, and the stubborn temper of its people. 
 The Southern States were not yet rich enough to be a 
 great prize. The Middle States seemed to be a better 
 
 Independence Hall in 1776. 
 
 point of attack. Their people were of mixed races, not 
 all of one blood as in New England. Many of them were 
 tenants and cared little about taxes, while the owners of 
 great tracts of land, like most rich and comfortably settled 
 people, disliked sudden changes, and were apt to .sympa- 
 
1776] 
 
 IN THF MIDDLE STATES 
 
 ^ZZ 
 
 thize with the i^oxxM'iinicnt. 
 Most of the Tories were in 
 the Middle States, and the 
 l^ritish could expect assistance 
 from them. Above all, the 
 British hoped, by means of 
 their fleet, to control the 
 harbor of New York and the 
 Hudson River, thus opening 
 up the road to Canada (§ 199), 
 and at the same time, by 
 
 serious part of the war began. 
 
 forts and garrisons along 
 the river, cutting off New 
 England from the rest of 
 the Union. Late in 
 June, 1776, a British 
 army from Halifax, under 
 General Howe, landed 
 on Staten Island, near 
 New York City ; and the 
 The fic[-htino: in New 
 
134 THE REVOLUTION [1776 
 
 England at the beginnin*; of the Revokition, and in the 
 South at the end of it, is interesting; but the decisive 
 struggle was in the Middle States from 1776 until 1778. 
 
 208. Washington had hurried to New York with his 
 troops immediately after the evacuation of Boston (§ 198), 
 and had begun to erect fortifications. He had succeeded 
 in getting toge^'her about 20,000 men. But they were 
 poorly armed, equipped, and drilled, and were to be 
 beaten again and again by the British before they could 
 be trained to win victories in their turn. The great dis- 
 tinction of Washington, in the war, is the skill with which 
 he avoided a battle with the whole British force, and the 
 patient courage with which he submitted to being beaten 
 until his army \\'as formed and trained. 
 
 209. Battle of Long Island. — During the next two 
 months of 1776, Howe's force was increased to about 
 30,000 well-trained soldiers. With half of these he 
 crossed to Long Island, where about 5,000 Americans 
 were posted near Brooklyn, then only a ferry station. 
 Howe nearly surrounded them, and completely defeated 
 them in the battle of Long Island (August 27, 1776). 
 Only 3,000 of the Americans escaped to Brooklyn, where 
 a fort had been built. For two days the British hesitated 
 about attacking the fort, and then a heavy fog enabled 
 Washington to bring the garrison over to New York. 
 Howe followed slowly to New . York. Washington 
 retreated before him, skirmishing at Harlem and White 
 Plains, thus reaching the hills east of the present town of 
 Peekskill, where he halted and faced about. Again Howe 
 refused to attack him, but moved back to enter New 
 Jersey. On his way he captured Fort Washington, now 
 in the upper part of New York City, where Washington 
 had left 3,000 men.^ 
 
 ' It was during this iclicat that tlie IJritish captured and lianged a young 
 
1776] IVASHINGTON'S RETREAT 135 
 
 210. Washington's Retreat — Washington left General 
 Charles Lee to hold the position near Peekskill, and with 
 5,000 men crossed the Hudson River, and moved down 
 to a point nearly opposite New York City. Early in 
 December, the British, under Lord Cornwallis, crossed 
 the Hudson River. Washington retreated before them 
 through New Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton, across 
 New Jersey, and finally put the Delaware River between 
 him and his pursuers. The cold weather, the hasty 
 retreat, and other discouragements decreased his forces 
 so much that he had but 3,000 men ; and the British were 
 confident that they would " catch him and end the war " 
 as soon as the Delaware River should freeze over so that 
 they could cross. ^ 
 
 211. Congress abandoned Philadelphia and went to 
 Baltimore. Before leaving, it gave Washington almost 
 supreme power, authorizing him to seize property and 
 arrest persons as he should judge best. There was terror 
 everywhere through the Middle States, and many persons 
 hastened to put themselves under British protection and 
 become again loyal subjects of the king. But Washington 
 had not lost courage, and he revived the courage of others 
 by an unexpected blow. 
 
 212. Trenton and Princeton. — On Christmas night of 
 1776, Washington recrossed the Delaware River into New 
 Jersey with 2,500 picked men, and before daylight, De- 
 cember 26, he had surrounded Trenton. The garrison, 
 1,000 Hessian soldiers, was surprised and captured with 
 the loss of but four Americans. Washington took his 
 
 American officer, Captain Nathan Hale. He was a spy, like Andre (§ 238), 
 but was not treated as was Andre. He was not given time to write a letter, 
 or prepare for death, and was shown no sympathy. 
 
 1 Washington summoned Lee from Peekskill to his help, but Lee was 
 treacherous, moved slowly, and allowed himself to be captured in New 
 Jersey. 
 
136 
 
 THE REVOLUTION 
 
 [1776 
 
 prisoners to Philadelphia and returned to Trenton, 
 the news spread, the 
 British forces in New 
 Jersey started for 
 Trenton, w here 
 Washington was for 
 the moment hemmed 
 in between his ene- 
 mies and the Dela- 
 
 As 
 
 ware River. Another quick movement saved him. 
 
 During the night he broke camp, marched around the 
 l^ritish forces to Princeton in their rear, and there, January 
 3, 1777, defeated and scattered three British regiments. 
 Cornwallis instantly turned and pursued him. But 
 Washington was soon safe in the mountains of northern 
 New Jersey, at Morristown, where the British did not 
 venture to attack him. 
 
 213. Winter Quarters. — The American army passed the 
 winter of ly/G-j in a long line stretching from the 
 
7 76] 
 
 THE IVINTER OF //Z''' 7 
 
 137 
 
 Hudson Ri\'cr to the Delaware, as the mountains run. 
 The British hue at first faced that of Wasliington in a 
 correspondinij Hne through the flat country below ; but 
 the country people were so hostile that the whole British 
 force gradually drew in around New l^runswick and near 
 Sandy Hook. The winter thus passed without much ad- 
 vantage to either side, except that the l^ritish had failed 
 to capture Philadelphia. 
 
 214. During the Winter, plundering expeditions were 
 sent out by the British from New York to the towns in 
 
 Marquis ue La Fayette. 
 
 the neighborhood. In December, 1776, Newport, Rhode 
 Island, was captured by the British, and was held for 
 
13^ THE REVO LUT ION [1777 
 
 three years. In April, 1777, an expedition landed at 
 Norwalk, Connecticut, marched inland, and burned the 
 supplies at Danbury. A number of officers from the con- 
 tinent of Europe crossed the ocean during the year to 
 enter the American army. The most important of these 
 was the Marquis de La Fayette, a youth of nineteen, who 
 had secretly fitted out a ship and sailed for America 
 against the orders of the French Government. Others 
 were the Baron de Kalb, an experienced German officer; 
 Kosciusko and Pulaski, two Polish patriots; and Conway, 
 a troublesome Irish officer (§223). In 1778 came the 
 Baron von Steuben, a veteran German officer, who first 
 instructed the American troops in the tactics used in 
 Europe. 
 
 215. Howe tried in vain to draw the Americans out of 
 their stronghold in northern New Jersey. He did not 
 venture to attack Philadelphia by marching his army 
 across New Jersey in front of the Americans, lest they 
 should strike his army in flank on the march. In July, 
 1777, he embarked 18,000 men on transports at Staten 
 Island, and put out to sea, leaving a sufficient garrison to 
 hold New York City. No one knew where he was going, 
 and Washington was compelled to wait in New Jersey 
 until he heard that the British vessels had been seen in 
 Chesapeake Bay. He then hurried his army to Phila- 
 delphia to defend that city. Howe sailed up Chesapeake 
 Bay, and landed near Elkton. He avoided the Delaware 
 River, because the Americans had filled it with obstruc- 
 tions. 
 
 216. Brandywine and Germantown. — Between Elkton 
 and Philadelphia, the Brandywine River crosses the road. 
 Here, at Chad's I'ord, Washington met Howe, and was 
 defeated with a loss of 1,200 men. But the American 
 army did better fighting than it had }'ct tl(Mie ; and, though 
 
17 77] BOURGOYNE'S EXPEDITION 139 
 
 Mowe captured Philadelphia, Washington did not hesitate 
 to attack him again at Germantown (now a part of Phila- 
 delphia). The Americans were again repulsed after hard 
 fighting. 
 
 217. Winter Quarters. — The British troops in Philadel- 
 phia enjoyed every comfort which a large city could give 
 them. The Americans went into winter quarters at 
 Valley P'orge, a little place on the Schuylkill River, just 
 above Norristown. Here they passed a dreadful winter, 
 half starved, poorly clothed, and many of them without 
 shoes to protect their feet against the snow and ice. In 
 spite of the horrors of the winter, Washington held his 
 army at Valley Forge, because it was the best possible 
 position from which to attack the enemy if they should 
 move out of Philadelphia in any direction. In October, 
 1777, after a long siege and hard fighting, the British 
 drove the Americans out of Forts Mercer and Mifflin, 
 opposite each other, on the banks of the Delaware, just 
 below Philadelphia. Congress thereupon fled to Lancaster 
 and then to York, again leaving Washington in almost 
 supreme command. But things were not quite so dark 
 as during the previous winter; for, while Washington had 
 been fighting around Philadelphia, a whole British army 
 had been captured at Saratoga in northeastern New York 
 (§ 222). 
 
 (6) Bitrgoync s Expedition, IJJ'J. 
 
 218. The Hudson River was of great importance as a 
 waterway (with Lake Champlain) to Canada, and as a 
 dividing line between New England and the other States 
 (§ 207). The British had found Washington's position on 
 the Hudson, near Peekskill, so strong that they could not 
 capture it from the south : they were now to try it from 
 
146 
 
 THE RESOLUTION 
 
 bin 
 
 the north. Durin<j the summer of 1777, while Howe was 
 g-etting- ready to sail for Philadelpliia, Gen. John Bur- 
 goyne was moving from Canada to Lake Champlain A\'ith 
 an army of about 10,000 men. Of these, 7,000 were 
 
 Gen. John BuKGovNii. 
 
 regular troops which he had brought from England, and 
 the rest Canadians and Indians. In July, he reached 
 Ticonderoga, which he captured without difficulty. 
 
 219. Schuyler, the American general (Jj 200), had but 
 4,000 men, and could only retreat through Skenesborough, 
 
777] 
 
 FORT SCHUYLER AND lil-NNINGTON 
 
 141 
 
 did so slowly, destroying 
 
 toward vYIbany. But he 
 
 the bridg'cs behind hini, fell- 
 ing" trees across the roads, 
 and delaying the passage of 
 the British as much as possi- 
 ble. Finall}', he took up a 
 position on some islands at 
 the mouth of the Mohawk 
 River, where it empties into 
 the Hudson. Here both 
 
 armies halted for a time. 
 Schuyler was waiting for re- 
 inforcements. B u r g o x' n e 
 thought Schuyler's position 
 too strong to be attacked, 
 and was also searching for 
 provisions, of which he was 
 now in need. 
 
 220. Fort Schuyler and 
 Bennington. — Burgoyne had 
 sent a detachment to the 
 west, to capture Fort Schuyler 
 (now the city of Rome) . The 
 detachment routed a militia 
 force at Oriskany ; but the 
 garrison of Fort Schu}der held 
 out stoutl}^ until Arnold, with 
 an American detachment, 
 arrived and drove the British 
 back to Canada in great 
 confusion. To the eastward 
 was Vermont, whose people 
 claimed to be a State separate Burgoyne's Expedition. 
 
 from New Hampshire, though Congress as yet refused to 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
142 THE REVOLUTION [i7 77 
 
 recognize them (§ 65). Parti)' in the hope of bringing the 
 Verinonters to the British side, Burgoyne sent 800 men 
 to Bennington, under Colonel Baum. They were met by 
 Colonel John Stark and 400 militia, who entirely defeated 
 them. Burgoyne had sent reinforcements, under Colonel 
 Breyman, to support Baum; but, before they could reach 
 the battle-field, the Americans also received reinforce- 
 ments, under Colonel Seth Warner, and the second 
 detachment was defeated as completely as the first had 
 been.^ 
 
 221. Burgoyne's Position was by this time very danger- 
 ous. His Indian allies were leaving him ; many of his 
 best men had been killed or captured , and he was getting 
 short of provisions. The army opposed to him was in- 
 creasing: Congress was hurrying men up the Hudson; 
 and the country militia were coming in rapidly. Bur- 
 goyne, therefore, desperately attempted to force his way 
 through the American army. He crossed the Hudson, 
 and moved slowly down its west bank toward the Mohawk. 
 About the same time. Gates, who had been sent by 
 Congress to take Schuyler's place, felt strong enough to 
 move up the west bank of the Hudson, away from the 
 Mohawk. 
 
 222. Bemis Heights. — The two armies met at Bemis 
 Heights, between Saratoga Lake and the Hudson. The 
 battle which followed was not decisive : the British held 
 the ground ; but the Americans had shown that Burgoyne 
 could not break through. He was soon forced to make 
 a last desperate attempt to do so ; but was defeated again 
 in the battle of Stillwater and gave up hope of escaping 
 
 * The British loss was al)out i^oo in Ixith battles; that of the Americans, 54. 
 Stark's speech to his men, before the battle, is said to have been, " There 
 they are, boys ; we must beat them to-day, or this night Molly Stark's a 
 widow." 
 
1777] 
 
 SURRRND/:R OF RURGOYNB 
 
 143 
 
 southward. lie now tried to retreat to Canada; but the 
 triumphant Americans pressed on and surrounded his 
 camp. At Saratoga, the pivotal point of the war (§ 
 226), he surrendered his remaining army of 6,000 men. 
 
 
 Horatio Gates. 
 
 Chnton, in the mean time, was endeavoring to come to 
 Burgoyne's rehef with troops from New York City. He 
 captured some of the forts on the Hudson, but fell back 
 on learning of Burgoyne's surrender. 
 
 223. The Conway Cabal.— Most of the glory of these 
 victories was due to the careful preparations of Schuyler, 
 and the personal daring of Arnold ; but Gates took all the 
 glory to himself During tlie winter, an effort was made 
 
144 THE RHyOLUTION [}n^ 
 
 by him and a number of leading men in Congress and in 
 the army to make him commander-in-chief, instead of 
 Wasliington. It failed on account of the general indigna- 
 tion when it became known. It is generally known as 
 the " Conway cabal, " from the name of one of its leaders 
 (§ 214) ; but there w^ere many others engaged in it, whose 
 share has been more carefully covered ov'br. Almost all 
 the meannesses of the Revolution centred in this ' ' time 
 that tried men's souls." Some public men were afraid 
 that the war would be a failure, and were anxious to make 
 their peace with the British ; others were jealous of one 
 another or of the army ; others were anxious only to make 
 money. Their selfishness and cupidity made the task of 
 Washington and the great men of the Revolution far more 
 difficult, and the final success far more brilliant, than if all 
 had been patriots. 
 
 (7) Aid from Fi-ancc. 
 
 224. France had been, waiting since 1763 for the time 
 when Great Britain should be deprived of her territory 
 in North America by the growing strength of her colo- 
 nies. The French Government was therefore not at all 
 sorry to see the English colonies rebel, and supplied 
 them with arms and clothing from the beginning. But, 
 in order to avoid war with Great Britain, the supplies 
 were sent secretly, and the American agents were not 
 publicly recognized.^ Openly, the French Government 
 was on the side of Great Britain, and declared that, as it 
 still had colonies outside of North America, it would not 
 encourage them to rebel by helping the United States. 
 
 225. The Appointment of Franklin as minister to France 
 was a most fortunate selection. He was one of the 
 
 ^ Tlie first American agent in France was Silas Deane, appointed in 1776. 
 Franklin, Deane, and Arthur Lee were made agents later in 1776. In 1778, 
 Benjamin Franklin was made sole minister to France, 
 
I 778] ^/D FROM FRANCE T45 
 
 slirewdest and most active diplomatists that ever serv'cd 
 any country ; and yet he took care to seem only a plain 
 and simple colonist. His plain dress, his modest manners, 
 and his homel}' wit captivated the Frencli, and he became 
 the favorite of Paris. He brought French public opinion 
 over to the side of the colonies ; but for a long- time he 
 could get no recognition from the government. When 
 other French officers followed La Fayette to America, to 
 enter the army of the United States, the French Govern- 
 ment took care that the British ministers should know how 
 angry it was, but it never succeeded in arresting the 
 officers. 
 
 226. The French Treaty. — The Declaration of Independ- 
 ence had convinced the French Government that the 
 Americans intended to separate from Great Britain for- 
 ever ; but it required some further evidence that, if France 
 should help, France would not have to do all the fighting. 
 This doubt was removed by Burgoyne's surrender, and 
 Franklin was made happy by a treaty of alliance between 
 France and the United States, early in 1778. France was 
 to send to the assistance of the United States a fleet of 16 
 war-vessels, under D'Estaing, and an army of 4,000 men. 
 
 227. Great Britain at once declared war against France.^ 
 She offered the United States all that the colonies had 
 asked three years before — freedom from taxation, and 
 representation in Parliament. But the offer came too late. 
 Independence had become the settled purpose of the 
 Americans, and the war was to last nearly five years 
 longer before Great Britain would consent to this. 
 
 228. The Battle of Monmouth.— We left Howe in Phila- 
 delphia, and Washington at Valley I'orge, near Norris- 
 
 ^ The ruling families of France and Spain were related, and Spain joined 
 France in the war against Great Britain in 1779. Holland joined them in 
 1780, for commercial reasons. 
 
146 THE REVOLUTION [1778 
 
 town. Clinton succeeded Howe during the winter. When 
 the news of the French alhance reached CHnton, he left 
 Philadelphia and started across New Jersey, in order to 
 unite all the British forces at New York City before the 
 French fleet and army should arrive. Washington hurried 
 after him, intending to keep him busy in New Jersey until 
 the French should come. The van of the American army 
 overtook the British rear at Monmouth Court-house (Free- 
 hold), in June, 1778, and the battle lasted until nightfall 
 without any decided result. The British drew off during 
 the night, and embarked at Sandy Hook for New York 
 City.i 
 
 229. Washington moved farther toward the north, 
 crossed the Hudson above New York City, and took his 
 former position near Peekskill. From this point he could 
 operate with effect if Clinton should make any movement 
 toward New Englanci, toward Canada, or toward Phila- 
 delphia. These positions in the Middle States were 
 maintained for the rest of the war, the British occupying 
 New York City, Staten Island, and a part of Long Island, 
 and Washington's line running from Peekskill to Morris- 
 town. The British had failed in the Middle States as they 
 had done in New England, and were now about to attack 
 the Southern States. 
 
 (8) /// the North after i/yS. 
 
 230. The French Fleet and Army arrived in July, 1778, 
 soon after the British retreat from Philadelphia. The 
 
 1 Clencral Charles Lee, who was afterwards discovered to have been a 
 traitor, was disgraced at Monmouth. Instead of attacking, as he was ordered 
 to do, he allowed his men to retreat. Washington spoke to him hastily and 
 passionately as he sent the men hack into the fight, and Lee afterward wrote 
 Washington several very disrespectful letters- For this and other acts of the 
 kind he was dismissed from the service. At the beginning of the war, he 
 had been considered one of the best of the American generals. 
 
1778] IN THF. NORTH AhTER 17 7 S 147 
 
 larger vessels were unable to enter New York harbor, 
 so that no attack was made on the city. The French 
 therefore sailed for Newport, which was still in the hands 
 of the British (§214). An American army, under Greene, 
 Sullivan, and La Fayette, was sent to assist in the attack. 
 But a storm blew the French fleet off the coast, and the 
 attack was given up. The whole P'rench force then sailed 
 to the West Indies, where France had possessions to 
 defend.' 
 
 231. The British now held but two cities in the United 
 States, Newport and New York, with Staten Island and 
 part of Long Island. These were all the results of their 
 three years' w^ar against the colonies alone. Now they 
 were struggling on every sea with their old enemy, 
 France, and had still less attention to spare for America. 
 As their chances of success grew less, their manner of 
 fighting grew more savage. Plundering expeditions along 
 the coast of New England and New Jersey burned the 
 houses and alarmed the country, but made no attempt to 
 hold any place. 
 
 232. The Horrors of War. — Instances of the new manner 
 of warfare were numerous. Wyoming, a Connecticut 
 settlement in northern Pennsylvania, was captured in July, 
 1778, by a force of British and Indians from western New 
 York, commanded by a Tory, Colonel John Butler, and 
 Brant, an Indian chief. The inhabitants were cruelly 
 treated, and most of the men were killed. In November, 
 the village of Cherry Valley, in New York, met a like 
 fate. But the Indians were now to learn for the first time 
 
 ^ The French forces were never of any great assistance to the United States 
 until the Yorktown campaign (§ 260). Whenever they were most needed, 
 they were Hkely to be called off to the West Indies, to defend the French 
 colonies there. But France helped the United States most liberally with 
 money and supplies. 
 
148 THE RESOLUTION [i779 
 
 that a new power had risen, and that it could strike, and 
 strike hard. In the following }'ear, 1779, Congress sent 
 an army, vuider General Sullivan, into western New York, 
 to punish the Indians. Sullivan killed, burned, and 
 destroyed until he had left the Indian country a desert. 
 The British treatment of prisoners at New York was par- 
 ticularly cruel. The prisoners were placed in worn-out 
 war-vessels in the East River, near the Brooklyn shore, 
 and were so scantily supplied with food, water, clothing, 
 and medicine that they died in great numbers. The 
 most notorious of these "hulks," or prison-ships, was the 
 
 233. Paper Money was one of the severest discourage- 
 ments under which the Americans labored. It had been 
 issued by Congress to pay the expenses of the war, and 
 had increased largely in amount. When a country has 
 more paper money than it can use for business purposes, 
 two or more dollars are made to do the work of one, and 
 each "dollar" consequently decreases in value. The 
 loss, of course, falls most severely on the poor. By 1778, 
 Congress had issued so much paper money that eight 
 paper dollars would buy only as much as one gold dollar. 
 This made the difficulty worse, for Congress now had to 
 issue eight times as much paper money as at first, and its 
 value fell faster than ever. The British in New York 
 counterfeited it skilfully, and passed off their counterfeits 
 on the farmers. Before the war ended, the "continental 
 money" was worthless: no one would take it, and a 
 worthless thing was said to be " not worth a continental, ' ' 
 meaning a continental dollar. 
 
 234. Congress itself was not so much respected as at 
 first, and the States did not submit to its authority as 
 willingly as when they were all in terror of the British. 
 No regular government for the whole people had yet been 
 
:7 79] 
 
 FIN AN CM I. STRAITS 
 
 149 
 
 formed, and Congress could only go on begging the States 
 for soldiers, issuing paper mone}', and running into debt 
 in France and Holland, without the power to lay taxes 
 
 Try 
 
 
 OTj Bill entiffes 
 Bearer to recel'us 
 ^Sixty Spanifh mill- 
 ed Dollar Si or 
 t/ie Value fliereo/ in 
 Gold or Silvec, a.c- 
 c or ding to a Refolu- 
 Ition ta^eS, ^ <Son- 
 
 ^'U9e/it.26t^, 1778. 
 
 Ckntinentai. MmNEV. 
 
 (§ -39) oi* redeem the debt. The pay of the army was 
 small, and toward the end of the war the men were not 
 paid at all ; ^ so that it was difficult to obtain recruits, 
 except wdien a British force entered a State and frightened 
 men into the army. The people generally were begin- 
 ning to rely on France, and even to think the war really 
 over. Most of the burden of these difficulties fell on 
 Washington, and taxed his patience to the utmost. 
 
 235. The West. — Settlements had already been begun, 
 in 1768-69, in Kentucky and Tennessee (§ 157, note), 
 but they were not large, and were just beginning to feel 
 
 ^ After the war, the soldiers were partly paid by giving them western lands. 
 Those who lived until the people and government grew richer were supported 
 in their old age by pensions. 
 
15° THE RESOLUTION [i7 79 
 
 secure against the Indians. North of the Ohio, there 
 were only the remnants of the French settlements (§ 139), 
 with a few British officers and soldiers. In 1778 and 
 1779, George Rogers Clarke crossed the Ohio with a 
 Kentucky force, captured Vincennes, and conquered the 
 territory now in the States of Illinois and Indiana. Vir- 
 ginia claimed it (§ 79), and made it the county of Illinois. 
 But no American settlements were undertaken in it for a 
 number of years. 
 
 236. The British Government seems to have become 
 convinced, when France entered the war, that in the end 
 the independence of the United States must be acknowl- 
 edged. But it wished to save some of its former territory. 
 It had failed in New England and in the Middle States. 
 It now determined to attack the Southern States, since 
 they had fewer white inhabitants than the North, and the 
 negro slaves would not count as soldiers. During the 
 next five years, 1779-83, the fighting was mainly in the 
 South, while the armies elsewhere did little more than 
 watch one another. Three noteworthy events took place 
 in the North, and these we will give at once. 
 
 237. Stony Point : 1779. — A rocky hill, called Stony 
 Point, ran out into the Hudson, nearly opposite Peekskill, 
 and the British had taken possession of it and fortified it. 
 Washington sent General Anthony Wayne, an officer of 
 distinguished courage and skill, to recapture it. Just before 
 midnight, July 15, 1779, Wayne silently formed his men in 
 two columns on opposite sides of the foot of the hill, giving 
 them orders not to fire, but to trust to the bayonet. The 
 charge was completely successful ; the two columns met in 
 the centre of the fort, and captured it and the garrison 
 without firing a shot.* The fort was too near New York 
 
 ^ Wayne's daring gave him the popular name of " Mad Anthony " ; but he 
 was really as prudent as he was brave (§ 308). 
 
yso] 
 
 ARNOLD'S TREASON 
 
 151 
 
 Anthony Wayne. 
 
 to be held, aiul the Americans, after dcstroyiiif^ the works, 
 
 rcth'cd. The object of the 
 
 movement was mainly to 
 
 encourage the men, by 
 
 showing them that they 
 
 were now so well trained 
 
 that they could trust to the 
 
 bayonet as well as the 
 
 British. 
 
 238. Arnold's Treason: 
 1780. — In September, 
 1780, the country was 
 shocked by the discovery 
 that Benedict Arnold, one 
 of its bravest generals, and 
 commander of the impor- 
 tant fortress of West Point, 
 had planned to betray his post to the British in return for a 
 large sum of money and a brigadier-general's commission 
 in the British army. He had been reprimanded for mis- 
 using the public money, and took this road to revenge. The 
 British agent in making the bargain was Major John Andre, 
 an amiable young officer, Clinton's aide-de-camp. On his 
 return down the Hudson River from an interview with 
 Arnold, he was made prisoner, near Tarry town, by three 
 militiamen. He was allowed by an American officer to 
 send warning to Arnold, who escaped to the British lines 
 and received his reward, though the plot had failed. Andre 
 was hanged as a spy, since he had been caught in disguise 
 within the American lines. The fate of Andre was 
 lamented'by the whole American army; but Washington 
 felt that it was necessary as a warning to other British 
 officers not to engage in such affairs. Efforts were made 
 to capture Arnold, in order to hang him also, but they 
 
152 
 
 THE REVOLUTION 
 
 [178. 
 
 failed. At the end of the war, he went to England, 
 where he lived and died despised by Englishmen as well 
 as by Americans. 
 
 239. Revolt of the Troops: 1781 — In January, 1781, 
 the misery of the unpaid and half-starved American soldiers 
 
 John Andre. {Drawn by himself.) 
 
 at Morristown became unbearable. The Pennsylvania 
 troops revolted, and set out for Philadelphia to demand 
 pay from Congress, which was in session there. On the 
 march, British agents attempted to bring them over to 
 Clinton's army, but were arrested by the soldiers. A 
 committee of Congress met them at Princeton, and by fair 
 promises induced them to disband peaceably. A few 
 weeks later, the New Jersey troops also revolted, but 
 Washington surrounded their camp and forced them to 
 return to duty. At the end of the war, there were serious 
 fears of a more extensive mutiny among the officers and 
 soldiers at Newburgh, N. Y., because of failure to pay 
 them; but it was stopped by Washington's influence. 
 
7 7-^] 
 
 AMERICAN NAl^AI. SUCCFSSES 
 
 is: 
 
 (9) On the Sea. 
 
 240. The American War- Vessels were mainly privateers, 
 that is, \c.sscl.s owned b)' pri\atc persons, but commis- 
 sioned by Congress, or b}' one of the States, to capture 
 British vessels. Late in 1775, Congress ordered fourteen 
 
 John Paul Jones. 
 
 vessels to be built as a regular navy (§ 191). Most of 
 these were of small size, but together with the privateers 
 they captured a great number of merchant- vessels and 
 small war-vessels, and seriously injured the commerce of 
 Great Britain. Two vessels, the Reprisal and the 
 Revenge, cruised around the British Isles in 1777, and 
 almost put a stop to commerce for the time. In 1778, 
 
154 
 
 THE REyOLUTION 
 
 [1779 
 
 Captain John Paul Jones, in the Ranger, repeated the 
 exploit, and even landed to attack various places on the 
 coast of England and Scotland. The number of vessels 
 captured from the British is not exactly known, but has 
 been estimated at about 700. 
 
 241. The American Navy was not successfully formed, 
 owing to the poverty of Congress and the number of 
 British vessels on the coast. A number of vessels were 
 built, but they were captured by heavier British vessels, 
 or burned in the Delaware and Hudson rivers to prevent 
 their falling into the hands of the enemy. The alliance 
 with France, in 1778, gave Franklin an opportunity to 
 purchase vessels which became American cruisers. 
 
 242. The Richard and the Serapis. — In 1779, Franklin 
 fitted out a fleet of five vessels, under command of Paul 
 
 Jones. Only one of them, an 
 
 SCALE OF WILES. 
 
 y O R T 11 
 
 
 old and rotten merchant- 
 vessel, was of respectable 
 size, and Jones named it 
 the Bonliovnnc RicJiard. ^ 
 The crew were disorderly 
 and disobedient, and Jones 
 had the greatest difficulty 
 in controlling them. The 
 captains of the other vessels 
 were fully as troublesome. 
 For a month, however, the 
 fleet kept the eastern coast 
 of Scotland and England in 
 alarm, and made many prizes. September 23, 1779, it 
 
 The British Isles. 
 
 ^ Jones was a native of Scotland, He afterward entered the Russian navy, 
 but died in poverty and neglect. The name of his ship (" Goodman 
 Richard") was given in compliment to Franklin, who, while a Pennsylvania 
 printer, had for many years published " Poor Richard's Almanac.'' 
 
1781] M THE SOUTH 155 
 
 fell in with twci Britisli frii^atcs, the Scrapis, of forty i^uns, 
 and the Countess of ScarborougJi, of twenty-two guns, off 
 Flamborough Head, and one of the most desperate sea- 
 fights in history follow^ed. The RicJiard 2i\\A the Serapis 
 were of equal force, and Jones succeeded in tying them 
 together. After two hours of frightful slaughter, in which 
 both vessels were on fire several times, the Scj^apis sur- 
 rendered. The Richard was so badly injured that she 
 sank next morning. The Cojintcss of Scarborongh was 
 captured by the rest of the fleet, and this was the only 
 assistance given to the Richard. 
 
 243. The French Fleets on the American coast did little 
 except to protect the French islands in the West Indies, 
 until De Grasse, in 1781, gave great assistance in captur- 
 ing Cornwallis (§ 258). During the last three years of 
 the war there were but two American frigates in active 
 service, and both were of small size. One large vessel, 
 the America, of seventy-four guns, was built, but Congress 
 presented it to the king of France. The New England 
 States did not cease to send out privateers. In 1779, a 
 fleet of nineteen armed vessels and twenty-four transports, 
 from Boston, attacked Castine, then held by the British. 
 During the attack, a British fleet arrived and captured all 
 the vessels. The men escaped by land. 
 
 (10) In the South: iyj8-8i. 
 
 244. Savannah was attacked by a British expedition 
 from New York, late in 1778, and was easily captured. 
 British troops from Florida then joined the expedition. 
 Augusta was taken, and the whole State of Georgia soon 
 fell under British control. General Benjamin Lincoln, 
 the American commander, could do little except keep the 
 British out of South Carolina, and prevent the South 
 
156 
 
 THE RESOLUTION 
 
 [1779 
 
 Carolina Tories from escaping to Georgia. In September, 
 
 J 779, he crossed into Georgia, and, with the help of the 
 
 French Hcct under D'Estaing 
 
 (§ 226), attacked Savannah. 
 
 He was repulsed with heavy 
 
 loss, and D'Estaing sailed 
 
 away to the West Indies. 
 
 Among the dead was 
 
 (§ 214). Th 
 
 then re-establish 
 
 king's author 
 
 t h r o u g h o 
 
 Geor<iia 
 
 very little resistance, and Lincoln retired to South Caro- 
 
 245. Minor Movements — In r\'bruary, 1779, ^ body of 
 700 Tories from North Carolina, while marching to 
 Georgia, were defeated and scattered in South Carolina 
 by the militia under Colonel Pickens. The next month, 
 
17 79] GEORGIA AND THE CAROUNAS 157 
 
 a force of 2,000 Americans crossed into Georgia and was 
 defeated at Briar Creek. In April, the British in their 
 turn made a movement toward Charleston, but found 
 Lincoln ready for battle, and withdrew to Georgia. 
 Operations in the South then ceased for the summer of 
 1779. Elsewhere, the British sent plundering expeditions 
 from New York into Connecticut and Virginia, in order 
 to prevent the sending of American reinforcements to the 
 South. In this way the towns of New Haven and Nor- 
 walk, in Connecticut, and Portsmouth and Norfolk, in 
 Virginia, were plundered. 
 
 246. Georgia was the first State which the British had 
 completely conquered, and they treated the Whigs (§ 170) 
 with severit}'. The Tories in the State were allowed to 
 injure their Whig neighbors almost as they pleased. 
 In the neighboring States of South Carolina and North 
 Carolina, the Whigs were quick to inflict similar harshness 
 on their Tory neighbors. Thus the war in the South 
 immediately became more ferocious on both sides than it 
 had ever been in the North. As each arm)- gained new 
 territory, its enemies among the inhabitants were treated 
 as traitors. In consequence, nearly all the people were 
 forced to take part in the war, either against the regular 
 armies or against their neighbors. For the next t\\o 
 years there was no peace, no work, and no good feeling 
 in the South; while the hanging or shooting of men by 
 their neighbors, and even of brother b\' brother, made the 
 results of the war more horrible than open battle. 
 
 247. Charleston. — In October, 1779, Clinton ordered 
 Newport to be evacuated, and collected all his available 
 forces at New York. Then, leaving only enough troops 
 in New York to defend it against Washington, late in 
 December he sailed with the rest to Charleston. Here 
 the British from Georgia met him ; the fleet forced its 
 
158 THE RESOLUTION [1780 
 
 way through the harbor to the city; and in May, after a 
 vigorous defence, Lincoln was compelled to surrender 
 Charleston, together with his army of 6,000 men. Clinton 
 refused to allow the garrison to surrender unless it would 
 go through a public ceremony of laying down its arms 
 (§ 261). He then sent out expeditions to various parts 
 of the State, under his best cavalry officer, Tarleton, and 
 scattered every American force that made its appearance. 
 Tarleton was for a long time very successful. During 
 the siege of Charleston he surprised a body of Americans 
 at Monk's Corner, thirty miles from Charleston, and 
 routed them. Soon after, he scattered another American 
 force at the Wa.xhaws, near the North Carolina line. 
 
 248. South Carolina was now under British control. 
 Clinton considered his work done, and sailed back to 
 New York with part of his troops, leaving Cornwallis in 
 command of the rest. But the State was never entirely 
 quiet, even when the British seemed to control it. 
 Sumter, Marion, and other South Carolina leaders found 
 places of refuge in the great swamps in different parts of 
 the State ; and from these they kept up an active warfare 
 with the British. Their desperate battles, night-marches, 
 surprises, and hair-breadth escapes make this one of the 
 most exciting and interesting periods of the Revolution. 
 
 249. Camden. — Congress sent Gates, the victor of 
 Saratoga, to take command of the forces in the South. 
 He passed across North Carolina with nearly three times 
 as many men as the British, and met them at Camden in 
 August, 1780. Most of Gates's men were untrained 
 militia, who at the first fire from the British fled without 
 firing a shot in return. The few Continental troops from 
 Maryland fought obstinately, but finally retreated, losing 
 their commander, De Kalb (§ 214). Gates fled ahead of 
 his army to Hillsboro (near the present city of Raleigh), 
 
78i] 
 
 KING'S MOUNTAIN AND THE COJ^TENS 
 
 159 
 
 and South Carolina was left still more completely at the 
 mercy of the British. Gates had been so unsuccessful that 
 Congress removed him, and 
 sent one of the most cautious 
 and successful of the Ameri- 
 can generals, Nathaniel 
 Greene, of Rhode Island, 
 to take his place. 
 
 250. King's Mountain. — 
 After the battle of Camden, 
 Cornwallis sent Colonel 
 Ferguson, with 1,100 men, 
 to arouse the Tories in North 
 Carolina. He was not suc- 
 cessful, and soon found it ad- 
 visable to fortify himself on 
 King's Mountain, between 
 the Broad and Catawba 
 rivers. Here, in October, 
 1780, he was attacked and 
 utterly defeated b}' a force of 
 about a thousand riflemen 
 hastily gathered from western North Carolina and eastern 
 Tennessee. About the same time, Tarleton surprised 
 Sumter at Fishing Creek, and scattered his men for a 
 time. 
 
 251. The Cowpens. — Greene sent Morgan, a Virginia 
 officer, into South Carolina with a thousand riflemen to 
 gather recruits. Tarleton was sent after him with about 
 an equal force, and attacked him in January, 1781, at the 
 Cowpens, a pasture-field near Spartanburgh. F'or the 
 first time, Tarleton was completely beaten, losing nearly 
 all his men. Cornwallis immediately moved with all 
 his force after Morgan, who had begun to retreat with 
 
 Nathaniel Greene. 
 
i6o THE REVOLUTION [1781 
 
 his prisoners. Morgan and Greene together were too 
 weak to meet CornwalHs, and they managed a skilful and 
 fortunate retreat across North Carolina into Virginia. As 
 they crossed the Catawba, the Yadkin, and the Dan 
 rivers, Cornwallis was just behind them ; but in each case 
 a sudden rise of the river prevented him from crossing in 
 time to overtake them. At the Dan, Cornwallis gave up 
 the chase, and turned back to Hillsboro. 
 
 252. Arnold in Virgina. — Benedict Arnold (§ 238) was 
 now a general in the British service. In January, 1781, 
 he was sent from New York, with 1,600 men, to ravage 
 Virginia and prevent reinforcements from being sent to 
 Greene. The Americans were naturally very anxious to 
 capture him. La Fayette was sent by Washington to 
 oppose him by land, while a few French vessels were 
 to cut off his retreat by sea. A British fleet drove the 
 French vessels back to Newport. Reinforcements under 
 General Phillips were sent to Arnold, who plundered 
 Virginia without mercy, while La Fayette could do little 
 more than watch him. 
 
 253. Guilford Court-house. — Greene soon obtained re- 
 cruits enough to enable him to turn back into North 
 Carolina, and the two armies met at Guilford Court-house 
 (now Greensboro), in March, 1 781 . A part of the Ameri- 
 can militia again gave way at the first fire, but the rest of 
 Greene's army held its ground stubbornly, and at last 
 retreated in excellent order. The British loss was so 
 heavy that Cornwallis did not venture to pursue, but 
 retired to Wilmington to obtain supplies from his ships. 
 There were no further battles between these two armies, 
 for during the next two months they passed one another, 
 Greene moving south into South Carolina, and Cornwallis 
 moving north into Virginia. 
 
 254. South Carolina, — As soon as Cornwallis retired to 
 
1781] SOUTH CAROLINA AND VIRGINIA 161 
 
 Wilmington, Greene moved across North Carolina into 
 South Carolina, where the British were under command 
 of Lord Rawdon. Battles followed, in April and May, 
 1 78 1, the principal one beini;' foui^iit at Hobkirk's Hill 
 (near Camden). Greene was again forced to retreat, but 
 inflicted heavy loss upon his enemy. He spent the 
 summer at the hills of the Santee, near Camden. In 
 September he again moved down toward the coast, and 
 fought the last battle of the Avar in this State, at Eutaw 
 Springs, near Charleston. Again the British had the 
 advantage, but their loss was so heavy that they retreated 
 during the night, and took refuge in Charleston. Greene 
 had finished his work. By sheer caution, activity, and 
 perseverance, and without winning a single victory, he 
 had almost cleared the South of the enemy. He now held 
 every part of South Carolina and Georgia, excepting 
 Charleston and Savannah, to which cities he kept the 
 British closely confined for the rest of the war. 
 
 255. Virginia. — Cornw^allis at Wilmington knew noth- 
 ing of Greene's movement until it was too late to intercept 
 him. Then, thinking that Rawdon was strong enough to 
 defeat Greene, he decided to move north into Virginia, 
 join the British troops already there, and endeavor to 
 conquer that State. He met no great opposition on his 
 march, and Tarleton's cavalry plundered the country at 
 will. On reaching Virginia, Cornwallis found that he had 
 about 8,000 men, twice as many as the force under 
 La Fayette which was opposed to him. Orders were 
 sent from New York by Clinton to seize and fortify some 
 strong place on the coast which could be reached easily 
 by the British vessels. Yorktown, on the peninsula 
 between the James and York rivers, appeared to Corn- 
 wallis to be the best location ; and here he fixed the 
 headquarters of his army. 
 
i62 THE REVOLUTION [1781 
 
 (11) Ycwktozvn: ijSi. 
 
 256. Washington had not yet himself won a victory, 
 unless we are to consider the smaller battles of Trenton, 
 Princeton, and Monmouth as such. He had surmounted 
 the very greatest difficulties; he had gone into battle 
 knowing that defeat was almost certain, and yet he had 
 made each defeat a training-school for his men ; he had 
 shown the best qualities of a general in camp and battle- 
 field ; he had been worth more than an army in keeping 
 resistance alive; and he had well earned the universal and 
 unfailing confidence of the people. But it certainly 
 seemed fitting that he should also have the crowning 
 glory of a great victory to close the war. 
 
 257. Rochambeau, with a French army of 6,000 men, 
 had landed at Newport in the summer of 1780. They 
 were afterward marched to Washington's camp near 
 Peekskill and Morristown. With these soldiers to help 
 him, Washington, early in 1781, began active operations 
 around New York, and kept Clinton in a state of constant 
 alarm. In August his plan was changed by the arrival 
 of a French frigate with the news that a strong French 
 fleet and army would soon arrive in Chesapeake Bay, and 
 cut off Cornwallis from all assistance. Washington at 
 once decided to leave New York, march rapidly south- 
 ward, and capture Yorktown and Cornwallis before the 
 British fleets could reach the Chesapeake and drive the 
 French fleet away.' The change of plan was kept a 
 profound secret. Clinton was kept in daily expectation 
 of an attack on New York, and did not discover the truth 
 
 1 The French fleet was sent from the West Indies to Chesapeake Bay, to 
 remain about four months. It was stronger than any single British fleet then 
 on the coast of the United States, and the British admirals did not work 
 together well enough to unite their fleets and beat it off. 
 
lySi] 
 
 YORKTOIVN 
 
 ^(>?> 
 
 for several days after \Vas]iinc,'^ton and Rocliambeau liad 
 started for Virginia. 
 
 258. The March to Yorktown. — The P^rench fleet, under 
 De Grasse, arrived in Chesapeake Bay August 30. It 
 not only blocked Corn- 
 wallis's escape b)' sea, but 
 landed soldiers enough to 
 enable La Fa\-ette to pre- 
 vent his escape by land. 
 On the same da>', Wash- 
 in<rton and Rochambeau, 
 who had been moving 
 slowly down the west bank 
 of the Hudson Ri\'er, as if 
 to attack Staten Island, 
 suddenly struck off through 
 New Jersey to Philadelphia, 
 and thence to Elkton. Here 
 they took shipping and 
 sailed down Chesapeake 
 Bay to the James River, 
 where they joined La Fay- 
 
 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 The YdRKTowN Campaign. 
 
 ette's army before York- 
 town. While the march 
 was taking place, a British 
 fleet had tried to relieve Cornwallis, but had been beaten 
 off by the French fleet. 
 
 259. New London. — The march southward was as much 
 of a surprise to the American and I'^rench soldiers as to 
 Clinton. When Clinton discovered its purpose, he tried 
 to draw off a part of the American troops by sending the 
 traitor Arnold to attack New London, Conn. Fort 
 Griswold, which defended the town, was captured Sep- 
 tember 6, and its commander and most of the garrison 
 
164 
 
 THE RESOLUTION 
 
 [1781 
 
 Were killed after they 
 had surrendered. This 
 useless butchery had no 
 effect on Washington's 
 march to Yorktown. 
 
 260. The Siege of 
 Yorktown — The allied 
 armies of France and 
 the United States formed a half-circle 
 in front of Yorktown, and the sieg-e 
 began September 30, 178 1. The 
 French troops were brilliant with new 
 and bright uniforms, while the dress of 
 the Americans was faded and ragged. 
 But there was no such difference in 
 the fighting power of the two armies, and there was 
 a constant rivalry between them for the lead in the 
 
1783] PEACE 165 
 
 attacks. After three weeks of siege and hard fighting, 
 Cornwalhs found that it was impossible to resist longer. 
 He made one attempt to take his army across the York 
 Ri\er and hurr)' northward before the allies could follow 
 him ; but a sudden storm scattered his boats and defeated 
 his plan. He then decided to surrender. 
 
 261. The Surrender took place October 19, 1781, in a 
 large field near Yorktown.^ The British troops, 8,000 in 
 number, went through the same public ceremony of sur- 
 render which had been imposed on the Americans at 
 Charleston ; and Lincoln, who had commanded at Charles- 
 ton, was appointed to receive Cornwallis's sword (§ 247). 
 Cornwallis, however, was worn out by long work and 
 fighting, and sent a subordinate to make the surrender. 
 It had hardly taken place, when an expedition sailed from 
 New York, with 7,000 men, to relieve Cornwallis, but it 
 returned on finding that the surrender had taken place. 
 The allied forces then separated. De Grasse sailed for 
 the West Indies. The French troops remained in Vir- 
 ginia. The Americans marched back to New York, 
 except a detachment \\'hich went southward and recap- 
 tured Wilmington. 
 
 (12) Peace: lySj. 
 
 262. Peace. — The terms of peace were not at once 
 arranged. But it was difficult and expensive for the 
 British Government to obtain men to serve in America, 
 and the loss of Cornwallis's army could not be made up. 
 When the news reached London the ministry resigned, 
 and Parliament demanded peace so decidedly that the 
 king gave way. l^oth parties agreed to cease hostilities 
 and appoint commissioners to agree on terms. The 
 
 ^ For the centennial celebration of the surrender, see § 820. 
 
i66 THE REyOLUTlON [1783 
 
 British still held New York, Charleston, and Savannah, 
 and the Americans were encamped near those places ; but 
 there were no more battles. 
 
 263. The Final Treaty of peace was made in 1783. 
 Great Britain acknowledged the United States to be free 
 and independent, with Canada as a boundary on the 
 north, the Mississippi River on the west, and Florida, 
 extending west to the Mississippi, on the south. Spain 
 owned the territory west of the Mississippi, called Louisi- 
 ana (§ 155); and Great Britain now transferred to her 
 Florida also. The United States thus had Great Britain 
 as a neighbor on the north, and Spain on the south and 
 west. The treaty also secured the right of Americans to 
 fish on the Newfoundland Banks. 
 
 264. The American Army was now disbanded, having 
 been paid principally in promises. Officers and men 
 retired to their homes very much dissatisfied with their 
 unjust treatment by Congress and the country. Washing- 
 ton then appeared before Congress at Annapolis and 
 resigned his commission. The British evacuated Savan- 
 nah in July, 1782, Charleston in the following December, 
 and New York Cit\% their last post on the coast, Novem- 
 ber 25, 1783. But they refused to evacuate the forts 
 north of the Ohio River, and held them for some twelve 
 years longer (§ 309). 
 
 265. The Expenses of the war cannot be exactly stated. 
 Those of the United States have been estimated at 
 $135,000,000 in specie. The debt of Great Britain was in- 
 creased during the war about $610,600,000. The British 
 forces in the whole of North America probably never at 
 any one time exceeded 40,000 men; and the American 
 regular troops were about the same number. Most of 
 the larger American armies were made up of minute-men 
 or militia, who remained in the service but a short time. 
 
THE UmTED STATES 
 
 AT THE 
 
 PEACE OF 1783 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 irom 3 WasbiDgton 
 
1777] LEADING EVENTS IN THE l^'AR. 167 
 
 266. The Tories. — During; the war, most of the States 
 had passed laws to confiscate the estates of persons who 
 had taken the British side. Therefore, at the end of the 
 war, many of the Tories retired from the United States 
 with the British troops ; those from the North going to 
 Canada and Nova Scotia, and those from the South to the 
 West Indies. Some of them returned, years afterward, 
 without hindrance, after the angry feeHngs excited by the 
 war had died awa)^ 
 
 267. The Leading Events in the war of the American 
 Revolution were as follows: 
 
 1775-6 : Principally in A^eiv England and Ccmada § ^94 
 
 1775 : Lexington; American success (April 19) 181 
 Ticonderoga; American success (May 
 
 10) 199 
 
 Bunker Hill; British success (June 17) 196 
 Quebec; British success (December 31) 200 
 1776: Evacuation of Boston; American suc- 
 cess (IMarch 17) 198 
 
 Fort Moultrie, S. C. ; American suc- 
 cess (June 28) 203 
 
 Dfxlaration of lNDEPf:xuKXCE, July 4 205 
 
 I 776-8 : Principally in the Middle Slates 209 
 
 1776: Long Island; British success (August 
 
 27) 209 
 
 Evacuation of New York; British suc- 
 cess (September 16) 209 
 
 Washington's New Jersey retreat ; Brit- 
 ish success 2 1 o 
 
 Trenton; American success (Decem- 
 ber 26) 212 
 
 1777: Princeton ; American success (Jan- 
 uary 3) 212 
 
 British army transferred to Chesapeake 
 
 Bay 215 
 
 Brandywine; British success (Septem- 
 ber 11) 216 
 
 Germantown; British success (October 
 
 4) 216 
 
i68 THE REyOLUTlON [178 
 
 1777: Burgoyne's invasion §218 
 
 Bennington; American success (Au- 
 gust 16) 220 
 
 Bemis Heights; drawn battle (Septem- 
 ber 19) 222 
 
 Stillwater; American success (Octo- 
 ber 7) 222 
 
 Burgoyne's surrender; American suc- 
 cess (October 17) 222 
 
 American winter quarters at Valley 
 
 Forge 217 
 
 1778: Treaty with France (February 6) 226 
 
 British retreat from Philadelphia; 
 
 American success (June 18) 228 
 
 Monmouth; drawn battle (June 28).. 228 
 Wyoming; massacre by the British 
 
 (July 4) 232 
 
 1778-81 : Principally in the Southern States 244 
 
 1778: Capture of Savannah; British success 
 
 (December 29) 244 
 
 1779: Conquest of Georgia; British success.. 246 
 Attack on Savannah; British success 
 
 (September) 244 
 
 Stcmy Point, N. Y. ; American success 
 
 (July 15) 237 
 
 1780: Capture of Charleston; British success 
 
 (May 12) 247 
 
 Conquest of South Carolina; British 
 
 success 248 
 
 Arrival of the French army at Newport, 
 
 R. I. (July 10) 257 
 
 Camden; British success (August 16). 249 
 Arnold's treason, N. Y. (September).. 238 
 King's Mountain; American success 
 
 (October 7) 250 
 
 Greene takes command in the South. . 249 
 1 78 1 : Cowpens; American success (January 
 
 17) 251 
 
 Greene's retreat across North Carolina. 251 
 Guilford Court-house; British success 
 
 (March 15) 253 
 
 Hobkirk's Hill; British success (April 
 
 25) 254 
 
1783] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 169 
 
 1 781: Eutaw Springs; Ikitish success (Sep- 
 tember 8) § 254 
 
 End of the war in the South 254 
 
 Invasion of Virginia by Arnold and 
 
 Cornwall is 255 
 
 Washington's army transferred to \'ir- 
 
 ginia 260 
 
 Capture of Yorktown ; American suc- 
 cess (October 19) 261 
 
 1782: Suspension of hostilities 262 
 
 I 'j'i-^ : Peace (September 3) 263 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. The causes of the Revolution. 
 
 2. Early predictions of independence. 
 
 3. The American loyalists. 
 
 4. Washington as a general. 
 
 5. Military resources of the colonies. 
 
 6. Events of the war in a particular state {e.g., North 
 Carolina). 
 
 7. Franklin in France. 
 
 8. The military importance of New York. 
 
 9. Why did Great I3ritain fail to subdue the colonies .? 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — The documents in MacDonald's Selecl Charters, 
 Nos. 74-80, show the failure of conciliation, and the final steps 
 taken by the colonies and the mother country. Niles's Prin- 
 ciples and Acts, and the writings of leading Americans, are of 
 importance for the entire period of the war. The treaty of 
 1783 is in IMacDonald's Select Documents, No. 3. Wharton's 
 Diplomatic Corrcsponde7ice 0/ the American Revolution, a govern- 
 ment publication, is indispensable in its field. Sparks's Corre- 
 spondence of the Revolution gives many letters to Washington. 
 On the English side are Donne's Correspondence of George III. 
 and Lord North, the Chatham Correspondence, and the works of 
 Burke. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The general histories already cited 
 are very full for the Revolutionary period. To them may 
 profitably be added the older works of Grahame and Pitkin, 
 Ramsay's History of the A?nerican Revolution, Gordon's History 
 
lyo THE RESOLUTION 
 
 of the American Revolution, and Greene's Historical View of the 
 America7i Revolution. The best recent English view is set forth 
 in Lecky's E7ighmd in the Eighteenth Century and Trevelyan's 
 A?nerican Revolution. The best concise account of the war is 
 Fiske's American Revolution. Important works of a special 
 character are: Moore's Z^/ary of the American Revolution; Car- 
 rington's Battles of the American Revolution ; Dawson's Battles 
 of the United States; hossing's Pictorial Eield-iook of the Revolu- 
 tion; E. J. Lowell's Hessians in the Revolution ; Sabine's Ameri- 
 can Loyalists; Stone's Ca?npaigJi of Burgoyne; Lyman's Diplomacy 
 of the United States; Schuyler's American Diplomacy; E. E. 
 Hale's Franklin in France. The more important biographies, 
 in addition to those already cited, are Hosmer's Hutchinson, 
 Arnold's Artiold, Lossing's Schuyler, Fonblanque's Burgoyne, 
 Stone's Brant, Amory's Sullivan, Graham's Morgan, Greene's 
 Greene, R. H. Lee's Arthur Lee, Wm. ]?iy'sfay, Ross's Corn- 
 wallis, Russell's Fox, Stanhope's Pitt, Morley's Burke, and 
 Fitzmaurice's Shelburne. 
 
 Illustrative Literature.- — -Tyler's Literary History of the 
 American Revolution; Moore's Songs and Ballads of the Ameri- 
 can Revolution; Hawthorne's Septitnius Felton; Churchill's 
 Richard Carve!; Coi^m s Bovs of 'yd and Daughters of the Revo- 
 lution; Longfellow's Paul Revere' s Ride; Holmes's Ballad of 
 the Bosto7i Tea Party, Lexington, and Grandmother'' s Story of 
 Bunker Hill Battle; Lowell's Concord Ode; Cooper's Lionel 
 Lincoln (siege of Boston), The Spy, and The Pilot (Paul Jones); 
 Thompson's Green Mountain Boys and The Ra?igcrs; G. W. 
 Curtis's Burgoyne' s Surrefider (centennial oration); Butter- 
 worth's Knight of Liberty (La Fayette), Burdett's Margaret 
 Moticrieffe (Burr); S. W. Mitchell's Hugh Wynne (Philadel- 
 phia), Harte's Thankful Blossom (New Jersey); P. L. Ford's 
 Janice Meredith (New Jersey campaign); J. E. Cooke's Bonnybel 
 Vane; Bryant's Song of Marion'' s Men, Kennedy's Horseshoe 
 Robinson; W. G. Simms's Partisan, Mellichampe, The Scout, 
 Katherine Walton, The Forayers, The Eutaws (the last seven on 
 the war in the South). 
 
CHAPTER X 
 THE CONFEDERATION 
 
 1777-1789 
 
 268. The New Nation. — The United States had thus 
 become a nation, recognized as such by treaties with 
 France, Great Britain, and other countries. But the new 
 nation had come into existence rather because the Ameri- 
 can people could not help it than because the American 
 people had any great desire for it. Most Americans at 
 this time loved their State far better than they did the 
 United States ; and many of them really believed that they 
 could keep each State practically independent of all the 
 other States, as well as of the rest of the world, with 
 little more than a promise that the States should help 
 one another in foreign affairs. They were afraid of any 
 ' ' government of the United States, ' ' lest it should attempt 
 to tryannize over the States, as the British Government 
 had done over the colonies. 
 
 (i) The Failure of the Confederation. 
 
 269. The Continental Congress had managed the affairs 
 of the Union throughout the war. It had never received 
 any authority to govern the country; and as far as it 
 governed at all, it did so because the mass of the people 
 consented to allow it to govern, and because those who 
 disliked its government were not strong enough to resist 
 
 171 
 
172 THE CONFEDERATION [i7 77 
 
 it. The people had given authorit)- to their State govern- 
 ments, by forming State constitutions, and thus the State 
 governments had something to show for their claims to 
 govern their States. Congress had nothing to show; it 
 only existed because the States had sent delegates to it, 
 and it was hoped that they would continue to do so. 
 Now, such a government was really no government; and, 
 as Hamilton once said, "a nation without a national 
 government is an awful spectacle." People obeyed it 
 when they chose to obey it, and disobeyed it when they 
 chose to disobey it, which was more commonly the case; 
 and no one felt safe in thinking of the future. Congress 
 was the only means to unite the States, and for this reason 
 it was obeyed cheerfully as long as the danger from the 
 British was pressing ; but, as that danger grew less, the 
 State governments began to seize more and more of the 
 power, until very little was left to Congress. As the 
 State governments appointed the delegates to Congress, 
 and could recall them at any time, the delegates soon 
 came to do nothing more than obey their State govern- 
 ments. Thus the Continental Congress became almost 
 powerless after 1778. 
 
 270.* A Plan of Government, called the Articles of Con- 
 federation, was agreed upon by Congress in 1777. There 
 was to be a Congress, composed of delegates from each 
 State, no State to be represented by less than two nor 
 more than seven delegates, but each State to have one 
 vote. The States were forbidden to engage in war unless 
 invaded, or to make agreements with each other without 
 the consent of Congress. In case of disputes between 
 States, a method was prescribed by which the United 
 States might decide the question. The charges of w'ar 
 and the expenses of the national government were to be 
 apportioned among the several States according to the 
 
lySi] tVESTERN LAND CLAIMS I73 
 
 value of land in each. I'^or the administration of govern- 
 ment when the Congress was not in session, a committee, 
 consisting of one delegate from each State, was provided. 
 To amend the Articles, the approval of the legislatures of 
 all the States was necessary. The Articles were not to 
 go into force until all the States should agree to them. 
 Twelve of the States agreed within the next two years, 
 but Maryland refused until March i, 1781. The United 
 States thus went through nearly the entire period of the 
 Revolutionary War without any frame of national govern- 
 ment. The main cause of this long delay was in disputes 
 about the western territory. 
 
 271. Land Claims. — Much of the difficulty of arranging 
 a new government came from the claim of some of the 
 States to western territory. The king had given western 
 boundaries to six of the colonies, New Hampshire, Rhode 
 Island, New Jerse}-, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Mary- 
 land ; and these could not expect to extend farther west- 
 ward. New York claimed to have no western boundary; 
 but was willing to be bounded as at present. The 
 remaining six States, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Vir- 
 ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, were 
 at first supposed to extend westward to the Pacific (§25). 
 When Louisiana (§ 155) was transferred to Spain in 1763, 
 the western claims of these colonies were cut off by the 
 Mississippi River. But they still claimed that they 
 extended west as far as the Mississippi. The claim of 
 Virginia was the most extraordinary of ail (§ 79). The 
 other States which claimed to extend to the Mississippi 
 were bounded by parallel lines on the north and south, 
 so that they grew no wider as they extended westward. 
 But Virginia claimed that its northern boundary ran north- 
 west instead of west, so that its territory constantly 
 widened as it left the coast. Virginia thus claimed the 
 
174 THE CONFEDERATION [178? 
 
 whole of the territory now in the States of Kentucky, 
 Ohio, Indiana, Ilhnois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. The 
 claims of Massachusetts and Connecticut crossed those of 
 Virginia and conflicted with them. 
 
 272. These Western Claims seemed unfounded and 
 highly unjust to the States whose western boundaries were 
 fixed already. Those States asserted, first, that the king, 
 by forbidding the sale of lands west of the Alleghanies, 
 had fixed those mountains as a western boundary for all 
 the colonies not formerly bounded ; and, second, that all 
 the States had together won this western territory from 
 Great Britain, and should all own it together. The 
 result was a general confusion, some of the States selling 
 lands in the west, and quarrelling with each other where 
 their sales conflicted, and the rest of the States crying out 
 against the wrongfulness of such sales. Maryland, the 
 State most determined in resistance, refused to agree to 
 the Articles of Confederation until assurances were given 
 that these western claims would be surrendered. 
 
 273. Land Cessions. — New York gave up its western 
 claims to the United States in 1780, and Congress 
 earnestly requested the other States to do likewise. In 
 1784 Virginia gave up its claim north of the Ohio, Massa- 
 chusetts in 1785, Connecticut in 1786. South Carolina 
 gave up its western claims in 1787, North Carolina in 
 1790, and Georgia in 1802. These cessions gave the 
 United States a large western territory (§ 274). Con- 
 necticut retained and sold a large strip of land in north- 
 eastern Ohio, along Lake Erie, which has ever since been 
 known as the Western Reserve. Connecticut also claimed 
 the Wyoming country, in the northern part of Penn- 
 sylvania, but this claim was given up. A claim of 
 Massachusetts to a part of New York was purchased by 
 the latter State. 
 
lySy] THE ORDlNylNCE OF 17 S7 175 
 
 274. The Ordinance of 1787 — The surrender of these 
 western lands gave the national government a vast terri- 
 tory, for which it soon undertook to provide a form of 
 government. As soon as Virginia had given up its claim 
 to the northwest, the Congress of the Confederation 
 adopted a plan, commonly known as the Ordinance of 
 1787, for the government of the territory northwest of the 
 Ohio River, or the ' ' Northwest Territory. ' ' Slavery was 
 forever prohibited in the Territory. The inhabitants were 
 to enjoy religious freedom, trial by jury, and equal civil 
 and political privileges ; and common schools were to be 
 supported and encouraged. The most important feature 
 of the Ordinance, however, was its extension of the system 
 of self-governing States. Congress might have attempted 
 to govern the new region much as the British Parliament 
 governed its colonies, and thus build up an American 
 colonial system ; but it chose otherwise. While the 
 population was small, indeed, the Territory was to be 
 governed by persons appointed by Congress ; but as the 
 population increased, it was to be divided into States, not 
 more than five in number, each of which was then to be 
 admitted into the Union on an equal footing with the 
 original States. The five great States of Ohio, Indiana, 
 Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin are the outcome of this 
 provision. The provisions of the Ordinance, except in 
 regard to slavery and the number of States, were soon 
 extended to the territory south of the Ohio River. 
 
 275. The Articles of Confederation were found to be 
 almost worthless as soon as they were put into effect. 
 There was to be one governing body, Congress, and yet it 
 was to have no power to lay taxes, regulate commerce, or 
 punish law-breaking. It could only advise the States to 
 do these things, and the States soon came to pay little at- 
 tention to the advice of Congress. Before long, Congress 
 
176 THE CONFEDERATION [1786 
 
 could get no money to pay the debts of the country, or even 
 the interest. Strong States passed laws which injured the 
 people of weaker States, and there was no power to hinder 
 them. Great Britain still discriminated against American 
 commerce, and Congress had no power to prevent it. 
 
 276. Shays's Rebellion. — The people had expected pros- 
 perity to come with peace, but they were bitterly dis- 
 appointed. Little business was done; every one was 
 trying to collect debts, and no one had money to pay; 
 and the people were growing poorer and desperate. In 
 the winter of ly^G-y, Massachusetts had great difficulty 
 in suppressing an insurrection of the poorer farmers in the 
 western part of the State, around Worcester and Spring- 
 field, who wished to stop the further collection of debts 
 by the courts. The affair is usually called Shays's 
 Rebellion, from the name of the leader, Daniel Shays. 
 Other States were afraid of similar outbreaks, and they 
 knew that Congress had no power to help them. 
 
 277. A Change of Government was often proposed, but 
 at first there seemed to be little hope of it. The agree- 
 ment had been made that the Articles of Confederation 
 were not to be changed in the least unless all the States 
 should consent. Whenever a change was proposed, in 
 order to give Congress more power, some State refused 
 to consent, and the plan fell through. Men became dis- 
 couraged ; many began to regret the Revolution; and 
 some even fell to talking of a monarchy, with Washing- 
 ton as king.i 
 
 (2) Foniiation of the Coistitiitioii. 
 
 278.* The First Convention. — The leading men of the 
 country, among them Washington, Hamilton, and Madi- 
 
 1 This notion of a monarcliy had been proposed to Washington in 1782 by 
 some of the army officers ; but lie had rejected it with indignation. 
 
1786] 
 
 THE ANNAPOLIS CONVENTION 
 
 177 
 
 son, had been busily corresponding^ with each other, and 
 liad reached the conclusion that the root of the trouble 
 was in the weakness of the national government, and 
 that, somehow or other, the Articles of Confederation 
 must be changed. It seemed to them that a convention 
 of delegates from the States would do the work better 
 
 State-house at Annapolis. 
 
 than either Congress or the State legislatures. Washing- 
 ton induced the Virginia Legislature to call for a conven- 
 tion of delegates from the States, to meet at Annapolis 
 in 1786. Only five States responded, and the delegates 
 took no action beyond recommending the calling of 
 another convention to meet the following year, at Phila- 
 delphia, to revise the Articles of Confederation. Congress 
 approved this call, and all the States except Rhode Island 
 appointed delegates. In the mean time, Shays 's Rebellion 
 (§ 276) gave a tangible proof of the weakness of the Con- 
 
1 78 THE CONFEDERATION [1787 
 
 federation, and its inability to give cffccti\'e aid to a State 
 in putting down domestic insurrection. 
 
 279.* The Federal Convention met at Philadelphia in 
 May, 1787, and chose Washington, who was a delegate 
 from Virginia, as its presiding officer. Each State seems 
 to have taken pains to send its ablest men as representa- 
 tives, and the convention must be regarded as one of the 
 most distinguished bodies that ever met. For months, in 
 secret session, it held meetings, argued, and settled diffi- 
 culties. More than once it was on the point of breaking 
 up because of disagreements among its members. Most 
 of the difficulty came from what were then "small 
 States " — New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Dela- 
 ware, and Maryland — which wished to give the general 
 government as little power as possible, for fear it would 
 oppress and injure them. This objection was overcome 
 by providing for a Senate in which each State should have 
 equal representation, and by making the consent of the 
 Senate necessary to the passage of laws. Another diffi- 
 culty arose in the unwillingness of northern States to allow 
 the slaveholding States to count their slaves in estimat- 
 ing their population as a basis for representation in the 
 House of Representatives. It was finally agreed that 
 three fifths of the slaves should be counted. A third 
 compromise protected the slave-trade from interference 
 until 1808. September 17, 1787, the convention agreed 
 upon a Constitution, and adjourned. The Constitution 
 was transmitted to Congress for submission to the States, 
 and was to go into effect when approved b}* conventions 
 in nine States. 
 
 280. The Constitution provided for a general govern- 
 ment which should have power to act, and not simply to 
 advise the States. It was to be in three departments: a 
 legislative department, or Congress, to make laws; an 
 
17S7] THE NFAV GOVFRNMENT 179 
 
 executive department, the l^resident and his officers, to 
 carry out and enforce the laws made by Congress; and a 
 judiciary department, the federal courts, to decide dis- 
 puted questions under the laws. The Constitution was 
 to be the supreme law of the land, to be obeyed by the 
 general government. State governments, and people. If 
 the laws passed by Congress were disobeyed, the general 
 government was to punish the offence : Congress .was to 
 determine the punishment; the President's officers were 
 to arrest the offender; and the federal courts were to try 
 him. But the punishment was always to be determined 
 by Congress, before the offence was committed. 
 
 281. The Legislative Department, or law-making power, 
 was represented by a Congress, composed of two branches, 
 the Senate and the House of Representatives. Senators 
 were to serve for six years, and each State, large or small, 
 was to choose two. Representatives were to serve for two 
 years, and were to be chosen by the States according to 
 population, large States thus choosing more, and small 
 States fewer. The two Houses together were authorized 
 to lay taxes, borrow money, regulate commerce, coin 
 money, establish post-offices, declare war, raise and sup- 
 port armies and navies, and employ militia to suppress 
 insurrections ; and the States were now forbidden to do any 
 of these things, except to lay their own taxes, borrow 
 money for themselves, and employ their own militia. As a 
 general rule, a majority of each House was to be enough to 
 ■pass a law ; but, when the President should veto (object 
 to) a bill within ten days after its passage, a two-thirds 
 vote of each House was necessary to make it a law (§ 469, 
 note). Treaties made by the President were to be approved 
 by two-thirds of the Senate before going into effect. 
 
 282. The Executive Department, or power to execute 
 the laws made by Congress, was represented by a Presi- 
 
I So THE CONFEDERATION [17^7 
 
 dent, chosen for four years by electors whom the people 
 were to choose (§ 295). He was to be commander-in- 
 chief of the army and navy, and to appoint most of the 
 public officers; but most of the appointments were not to 
 take effect until confirmed by the Senate. If he himself 
 should misbehave, he was to be impeached (accused) by 
 the House of Representatives, and tried by the Senate. If 
 he should be convicted and removed, or should die, resign, 
 or be unable to perform his duties, the Vice-President 
 was to take his place, and become President. Except 
 in this case, the Vice-President was merely to preside 
 over the Senate, without voting, except in case of a tie. 
 
 283. The Judiciary Department, or power to interpret the 
 laws made by Congress, was represented by one Supreme 
 Court, and such inferior courts as Congress should estab- 
 lish. The judges were to be appointed by the President 
 and Senate, and were to hold office for life, except in 
 case of misconduct. Whenever an offence should be 
 committed against a law of Congress, or whenever the 
 m.eaning of a law should be in doubt, or whenever it was 
 claimed that the Constitution gave Congress no power to 
 pass the law, the case was, generally, to be tried first and 
 decided by the inferior courts. If either party was dis- 
 satisfied with the decision, he could appeal to the Supreme 
 Court, whose decision was to be final. 
 
 284. Other Features. — Three-fifths of the slaves were to 
 be counted in calculating the population for Representa- 
 tives. Runaway slaves were to be arrested in the States 
 to which they should flee, and returned to their owners. 
 Congress was to govern the territory of the United States, 
 and admit new States to be formed from it. Three 
 fourths of the States could change the Constitution by 
 Amendments. Each .State was to be guaranteed b}^ the 
 United States a republican fcjrm of government. 
 
i7<^7l l-OKMATION Oh' rAKTIFS i8i 
 
 285.* Formation of Parties. — When the Constitution 
 came to be discussed by the people, before the election of 
 the conventions to decide upon it, two opposing" political 
 parties were at once formed. The people had hitherto 
 known very little of any governments except those of their 
 States, and the new Constitution, in enlarging the powers 
 of the Federal Government, necessarily took something 
 from the powers of the States. Those who felt that the 
 new Federal Government was absolutely necessary took 
 the name of Federalists, and supported the new Constitu- 
 tion. Those who feared lest the State governments might 
 suffer, or who thought the proposed national govern- 
 ment went too far, took the name of Anti-Federalists, and 
 opposed the new Constitution. The contest lasted for 
 nearly a year. Most of the leading men of the country 
 at this time were Federalists. In commending the Con- 
 stitution to the thinking people of the country, no one 
 rendered so great a service as Alexander Hamilton. 
 Hamilton, although but thirty }'ears old, had served with 
 credit in the Revolutionary War, and now came forward 
 as one of the most brilliant of political writers. In a 
 series of papers known as the Federalist,^ Hamilton 
 showed in a masterly way the advantages of the Constitu- 
 tion, the meaning and scope of its provisions, and the 
 benefits likely to follow the adoption of it. The Federal- 
 ist has ever since been considered as a masterpiece of 
 legal and constitutional exposition. 
 
 286. The Adoption of the Constitution was assured b}- the 
 ratification of the ninth State, New Hampshire, in June, 
 1788. There were still four States left. Two of them, 
 New York and Virginia, ratified soon afterward ; the other 
 two, Rhode Island and North Carolina, refused to ratif)-, 
 and the Constitution went into force without their assent. 
 
 ' A few of the papers under that title were written by Madison and Jay. 
 
I 82 
 
 THE CONFEDERATION 
 
 [1791 
 
 The last two States had issued paper money, and disUked 
 the Constitution, which forbade any State to do so in 
 future. The opposition in other States came from a fear 
 
 Alexander Hamilton. 
 
 that the new Federal Government was given too much 
 power. To remove this objection, the first ten Amend- 
 ments to the Constitution were adopted and ratified in 
 1 79 1 (§ 2.97)- 
 
n^9] THF. UNiriU) STATl-S IN //^V 183 
 
 287. Preparations for Inauguration.— As soon as the 
 ninth State had ratified tlie Constitution, the Congress of 
 the Confederation appointed March 4, 1789, as the day 
 on which the new government should go into operation, 
 and New York City as the pLace. It also named a day 
 on which the people should choose electors, and another 
 day on which the electors should meet in their States and 
 vote for President and Vice-President. When the votes 
 of the electors were opened and counted, it was found 
 that each of them, sixty-nine in number, had cast one of 
 his two votes for Washington, so that Washington became 
 President by a unanimous vote. Thirty-four of the elec- 
 tors had cast their second vote for John Adams, and he 
 became Vice-President, as this vote was next largest to 
 that for Washington.^ From this time, the Congress of 
 the Confederation did little or nothing further. All men 
 were waiting anxiously to see whether the new govern- 
 ment was to be good or bad. 
 
 (3) Statr of the Country. 
 
 288. The Country was still very thinly settled, and the 
 whole of it did not contain as many inhabitants as the 
 single State of New York did in 1880. There were hardly 
 any important towns except on the coast, and none of 
 these were such as we are accustomed to call cities. The 
 largest American cities of that time, Boston, New York, 
 Philadelphia, and Charleston, had hardly more than 20,000 
 persons in any of them, and other towns were only small 
 collections of houses. The streets were poorly paved, 
 dirty, and rarely lighted at night. Some of the houses 
 were large and well furnished, but none of them had the 
 conveniences that are so common now. There were no 
 
 ^ The manner of voting for President and Vice-President was sliglitly 
 changed in 1804 (§ 323). 
 
184 THE CONFEDERATION [1789 
 
 lucifer-matches, no gas, no oil-lamps. Water was every- 
 where carried from the town pump or well. The richest 
 people labored under difficulties which are almost unknown 
 now, and the life of the poor was very, hard.' 
 
 289. The People generally lived outside of the cities, on 
 farms, where life was still harder than -in the cities. It 
 was not easy to work with wooden ploughs, and without 
 any of the farming tools and machinery which have since 
 been introduced ; and the farmer who raised more than he 
 wanted found it difficult to sell his surplus. Nearly every- 
 thing used by the farmer and his family, even their cloth- 
 ing, was made at home ; and a New England farmer 
 usually spent very little money during the year for things 
 not produced on his farm. In the Middle States and the 
 South life was easier, for crops cost less labor, and were 
 easily sold for ready money; but even here the farm or 
 plantation grew almost everything that was used. News- 
 papers and books were very scarce; there were hardly 
 any amusements, except hunting and fishing ; and life 
 consisted mainly in work and rest. 
 
 290. Travelling was slow, difficult, and often dangerous. 
 Along the coast, sailing-vessels were the usual means of 
 travel, and a contrary wind might delay the traveller for 
 weeks. The voyage from New York to Albany often 
 required two weeks. The stage-coaches were slow and 
 clumsy. They took from two to three days (as many 
 days as the railroad takes hours) to go from New York to 
 Philadelphia, and a week to go from New York to Boston. 
 The roads were exceedingly bad ; there were still hardly 
 any bridges ; and the rivers were crossed by means of 
 
 1 The life of the poor man was made still harder than now because of the 
 law of imprisonment for debt. lie who owed money and was unable to pay 
 could be arrested and kept in prison, while his wife and children were left to 
 care for themselves as well as they could. 
 
n^g] SETTLEMENT OF THE NORTHIVEST 185 
 
 clumsy and dangerous flat-boats. There was more danger 
 then in a voyage from New York City to Brooklyn or New 
 Jersey than there is now in a voyage round the world. 
 
 291. Settlement had not yet spread far from the coast. 
 Beyond Schenectady, the whole State of New York was 
 still an Indian hunting-ground. The great coal and iron 
 fields of Pennsylvania were almost unknown. Along the 
 coast to the southward, the country was settled only up 
 to the headwaters of the rivers that flow into the Atlantic. 
 Between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, the whole 
 country was a wilderness, excepting the few settlements 
 in Kentucky and Tennessee (§ 157). The northwest was 
 almost entirely an Indian territory; and Ohio and the 
 present States northwest of it were less known than 
 Alaska is now. 
 
 292. Land Companies led the way in the settlement of 
 the northwest. Many of them were made up of former 
 soldiers of the Revolution, who wished to settle in Ohio 
 and found it safer to unite for mutual protection against 
 the Indians. One of the first of these, the Ohio Company, 
 was formed in 1787; and, partly in order to give it 
 encouragement, the Congress of the Confederation passed 
 the Ordinance of 1787, for the government of the region; 
 and this was confirmed by Congress under the Constitu- 
 tion. The company began the settlement of Ohio in the 
 following year, at Marietta. Cincinnati, at first called 
 Losanti\'ille, was founded in the same year (1788). 
 
 293. The Leading Events of this period were as follows : 
 
 1 78 1-9 : The Confederation § 269 
 
 1781 : The Articles of Confederation s;o into 
 
 force 2 
 
 o 
 
 1783 : Peace with Great Britain 263 
 
 1784: Land cession by Virginia 273 
 
 1786: The Annapolis Convention 278 
 
 Shays's Rebellion 276 
 
1 86 THE CON hE DERATION [^1^ 
 
 1787: The Federal Convention forms the 
 
 Constitution § 279 
 
 The Ordinance of 1787 adopted 274 
 
 1788: Ratification of the Constitution 286 
 
 Settlement begun in Ohio 292 
 
 1789: The Constitution goes into force .... 2S7 
 
 Topics for Furiker Study. 
 
 1. Why may the years 1781-1787 be called the "critical 
 period " of American history .? 
 
 2. Proposed amendments to the Articles of Confederation. 
 
 3. The ratification of the Constitution by a ])articular State 
 {e.g., New York). 
 
 4. The meeting-places of the Congress of the Confederation. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — The Articles of Confederation and the Ordinance 
 of 1787 are in MacDonald's Select Documents, Nos. 2 and 4 ; 
 for the text of the Constitution, see Appendix II., this volume. 
 T\iQ Journals 0/ Congress, 1 774-1 788, give somewhat meagre 
 accounts of proceedings; there are also the Secret Jouriials for 
 the same period. The proceedings of the constitutional con- 
 vention, and of the conventions in the several States, are to be 
 found in Elliof s Debates. There are numerous editions of the 
 Federalist, the latest being that of Ford. The writings of public 
 men continue to be from this time sources of the utmost 
 importance. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The best concise account is Fiske's 
 Critical Feriod of American History. Bancroft's work ends 
 with 1783, but the elaborate histories of Curtis, McMaster, 
 Schouler, and Von Hoist now become available. On the 
 finances of the Confederation see Sumner's Financier and 
 Fitiances 0/ the Revolutio7t and History of American Currency, 
 and Bolles's Financial History of the Utiited States. On the 
 Northwest Ordinance and public lands see Hinsdale's Old 
 Northivest, King's Life and Correspondence of Fufus King, and 
 Cutler's Fife and Journals of Manasseh Cutler. The slavery 
 restriction in the Ordinance is discussed at length in the works 
 of Wilson, Greeley, Ste])hens, and others cited under Chapters 
 XVII. and XVIII. , post. Roosevelt's Winning of the West is 
 the best comp'"ehensive work on the settlement of the west and 
 
ly^^^y] surrLBMi-NTAKY reading 187 
 
 the formation of new States. Tlic best account of the present 
 working of government under the Constitution is Bryce's 
 American Comr/iouweailh. Important biographies, in addition 
 to those previously cited, are: Morse's Hamilton; Gay's JMadi- 
 soft; Rives's Madison; Austin's Eibridge Gerry; Stille's Dickin- 
 son; Lodge's Cabot. 
 
George Washington. 
 
CFIAPTER XI 
 
 FEDERALIST CONTROL 
 
 1789-1801 
 
 (I) Washington's Administrations: 1789-1797 
 
 George Washington, Va., President. John Adams, Mass., Vice-President. 
 
 294.* Inauguration. — The new government was to have 
 been organized at New York City, March 4, 1789; but 
 travelHng was slow and difficult, and the members of 
 Congress from distant States did not arrive for several 
 weeks. When a sufficient number of them had assembled, 
 the votes of the electors were counted, and Washington 
 was notified of his election as President. He journeyed 
 slowly northward from his home in Virginia to New York, 
 receiving enthusiastic greetings from the people on the 
 way; and on April 30 was sworn into office by the chief 
 judge of the State of New York, in the presence of Con- 
 gress and a great number of spectators.^ No man was 
 so well fitted as Washington to be the first executive head 
 of the new republic. He was in his fifty-eighth year, and 
 from early manhood his life had been mainly passed in the 
 public ser\'ice. In the important positions to which he 
 had been successively called, his services were seen to be 
 indispensable ; yet he accepted each call with great reluc- 
 tance, and with anxious fear lest he might prove a failure. 
 
 ' Tlie building {" Federal Hall ") in which the ceremony took place was 
 on Wall Street, where the Subtrcasury now stands. 
 
 i8g 
 
19° FEDERALIST CONTROL [^1^9 
 
 He was one of the richest men in America, and an 
 aristocrat by birth, position, and inchnation; and he did 
 much to commend the new government to the wealthy 
 and aristocratic classes. On the other hand, his dignity, 
 self-control, sympathy, and unfailing judgment made him 
 revered by the masses of the people, who looked upon him 
 as a great leader, in whose hands the affairs of the nation 
 were safe. 
 
 295. The Electoral System. — The President and Vice- 
 President of the United States are not elected directly by 
 the people. When we read that a candidate has received 
 a majority of several hundred thousand votes for the 
 Presidency, it does not mean that he is elected ; if he 
 receives a majority of the electoral votes, he is elected 
 even though his opponent should have more popular votes 
 than he. Each State chooses as many electors as it has 
 Senators and Representatives together ; and whichever 
 party gains a majority of these electors secures the Presi- 
 dent and Vice-President. At first, each elector merely 
 named two persons, and the highest two names on the 
 list of those voted for became President and Vice-Presi- 
 dent. In 1804 (§ 323), this was changed so that each 
 elector now votes for one person for President and one for 
 Vice-President. At first, too, the electors voted for whom 
 they chose ; but after the first two elections, it became the 
 custom for the electors to vote only for the men nominated 
 by their party, and it would now be considered extremely 
 dishonorable for an elector to vote for any one else. 
 
 296. The Cabinet. — The chief officers of the principal 
 departments are called the Cabinet, though there is no 
 such word in the Constitution. In Washington's time, 
 there were four of these departments, which he filled as 
 follows: Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson; Secretary 
 of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton ; Secretary of War, 
 
lySg] ORGANIZING THE GOl^HRNMF.NT 191 
 
 Henry Knox, of Massachusetts ; Attorney-General, Ed- 
 mund Randolph, of Virt,nnia. The Navy Department 
 was added in 1798 (J^ 319); it had previously been a part 
 of the War Department. The Post-office Department 
 was added in 1829; it had previously been a part of the 
 Treasury Department. In 1849, the Department of the 
 Interior was organized (§ 520). In 1870, the Department 
 of Justice was made an independent department. The 
 eighth and last department, that of Agriculture, was 
 added in 1889, so that there are now eight members of 
 the Cabinet. 
 
 297. Congress then proceeded to pass the laws necessary 
 to put the new form of government into active operation. 
 This was a work of the greatest difficulty, for everything 
 had to be done anew; but it was done so skilfully that it 
 has since been necessary to change it very little, except 
 by enlarging its operation. Much of the credit for plan- 
 ning it must be given to Hamilton. While this work was 
 going on, the new Constitution was ratified by North 
 Carolina in 1789, and by Rhode Island in 1790 (§ 286); 
 so that the original thirteen States were now all under the 
 ' ' new roof, ' ' as the Constitution had been called. Twelve 
 Amendments to the Constitution were proposed by Con- 
 gress; and ten of them, having been ratified by three 
 fourths of the States, became a part of the Constitution. 
 
 298.* Organizing the Government The old Confedera- 
 tion had been so little respected during the last months of 
 its existence that people had little interest in remembering 
 what it had tried to do ; and Congress now had before it 
 the task of organizing the new government from the 
 beginning. It is the lasting honor of the Federalists, who 
 controlled both the Senate and the House of Representa- 
 tives, that they so performed this work that the lines they 
 laid down are the ones which, in the main, have been 
 
192 FEDERALIST CONTROL [17S9 
 
 followed ever since. The three executive departments, 
 State, Treasury, and War, were organized and their 
 duties defined. The Supreme Court, provided for by the 
 Constitution, was established, together with three circuit 
 courts and thirteen district courts ; thus bringing the 
 judicial system of the United States within easy reach of 
 all parts of the country. An Attorney-General, to act as 
 a legal adviser to the government, was provided for, and 
 the incumbent soon became a member of the so-called 
 " Cabinet. " The organization of the judicial .system was 
 especially important, because the judiciary had been very 
 weak under the Articles of Confederation, and the United 
 States had had no legal means, as it now had, of enforc- 
 ing its acts and making effective the powers granted to 
 it. John Jay was the first chief-justice, but it was some 
 years before the Supreme Court rendered decisions of 
 great importance. 
 
 299.* Financial Measures. — One of the most important 
 questions, and in many ways the most difficult, to be 
 dealt with was that of finance. The debt of the United 
 States, including unpaid interest, was estimated at about 
 $54,000,000; that of the States, at about $25,000,000. 
 The annual interest charge on the combined debt would 
 amount to over $4,500,000. It was necessary to provide 
 for the payment of this debt, if the credit of the United 
 States w'as to be maintained ; but the prospect of doing 
 so, in view of the unsettled condition of the country, 
 seemed dark. The financial genius of Hamilton, who 
 early showed himself the strongest member of the Cabinet, 
 proved its power in no direction more distinctly than in 
 meeting and overcoming these difficulties. Hamilton 
 proposed to pay the foreign and domestic debt in full, 
 including the arrears of interest, and to have the United 
 States assume the Revolutionary debts of the States. The 
 
179°] NAT ION ^U. BANK I93 
 
 first part of the plan was accepted without difficult}', but 
 the proposed assumption of the State debts aroused strong 
 opposition. Some of the States had made large payments 
 on their debt, while others had paid nothing; and it was 
 charged that the general assumption of these debts would 
 be grossly unfair. The matter was further complicated 
 by a controversy over the location of the national capital. 
 Pennsylvania and Virginia were rival claimants for the 
 honor, and neither side was disposed to yield to the other. 
 Hamilton, with Jefferson's aid, finally arranged a com- 
 promise, by which, in return for enough votes to carry 
 through the assumption plan, Philadelphia was to be the 
 capital for ten years, but after that time the capital was to 
 be located on the Potomac. To meet the annual charge 
 for interest on the debt, Hamilton proposed a scheme of 
 duties on imports and on some articles of domestic pro- 
 duction ; and this also was adopted. 
 
 300.* National Bank. — As a further aid to putting the 
 finances of the government on a firm basis, Hamilton, in 
 1790, proposed the incorporation of a national bank. 
 The opposition which had developed over the assumption 
 scheme broke out with renewed violence in Congress, and 
 was taken up in the country. The relations between 
 Hamilton and Jefferson, meantime, had become strained, 
 and served to increase the opposition. The Constitution 
 says nothing about a bank ; but Hamilton argued that a 
 bank was a customary and useful means of assisting 
 national credit, and since it was not forbidden by the 
 Constitution, Congress might rightfully create a bank as 
 a means "necessary and proper" for the execution of 
 powers explicitly granted. This "broad construction" 
 of the Constitution was strongly opposed by Jefferson. 
 Washington was in doubt as to the propriety of signing 
 the bill, and called for the written opinions of the mem- 
 
194 FF.DBRy^UST CONTROL [i79i 
 
 bers of the Cabinet. Hamilton's opinion, with whicli 
 Washing-ton concurred, still remains one of the clearest 
 and most convincing expositions of the doctrine of " im- 
 plied powers" ever written. The bank was at once 
 established, and had a prosperous career until i8i I, when 
 its charter expired by limitation. 
 
 301.* Slavery. — It will be remembered that slavery and 
 the slave-trade had been the occasions of two of the com- 
 promises agreed upon by the constitutional convention 
 in 1787. There was as yet no general discussion of 
 slavery as an institution, nor any general desire to inter- 
 fere with it. But in 1790 the subject came before Con- 
 gress in such a way as to compel Congress to decide upon 
 the principles it would follow in dealing with the matter. 
 Certain memorials from societies in Pennsylvania and New 
 York, praying for the abolition of the slave-trade, were 
 presented in the House of Representatives. In response, 
 the House declared that it could not, under the Constitu- 
 tion, lawfully prohibit the slave-trade until 1808, although 
 it could prohibit American citizens from engaging in the 
 African trade for the purpose of supplying foreigners with 
 slaves; and that it had no authority to emancipate slaves, 
 or interfere with the treatment of them by any State. 
 These principles were consistently adhered to by Congress 
 for more than seventy years. 
 
 302. New States. — Two of the "old thirteen " States, 
 North Carolina and Rhode Island, which had not at first 
 ratified the Constitution, ratified it during Washington's 
 first term, and thus made the original States unanimous. 
 But the State system was not to stop here. In 1791, 
 •Vermont (§ 65) was admitted as a State, with the same 
 privileges of self-government as the "old thirteen." 
 Then, in 1792, came Kentucky, which had been a part 
 of Virginia, but which Virginia was now willing to allov/ 
 
1 79-] FEDERALISTS AND REPUBLICANS 195 
 
 to ijovcrn itself as a State. This was followed, in 1796, 
 by Tennessee, which had been a part of North Carolina, 
 so that there were sixteen States in the Union \\hen 
 Washington's administrations were ended. 
 
 303. Political Contest did not occur for some time. The 
 Anti-Federalists (§ 285) had broken up, for the peace and 
 quiet which followed the adoption of the Constitution had 
 for a time silenced all opposition to it. But man)' of those 
 who had been Federalists began to be alarmed by the 
 strength shown by the new government. They were 
 anxious to keep the State governments strong and vigor- 
 ous, for they believed that good government \\as in most 
 cases surer from the States, each of which best knew the 
 needs of its own people ; and they began to fear that the 
 new Federal Government would grow so strong as to 
 destroy the States. About 1792, they took the name of 
 the Republican party. Washington himself was not a 
 party man, but his s}-mpathies were with the Federalists. 
 It was not long before his Cabinet (>J 296) was divided by 
 the new feeling: Jefferson and Randolph became the 
 Republican leaders, and Hamilton and Knox the Federal- 
 ist leaders. 
 
 304. The Two Parties were thus the Federalists and the 
 Republicans.^ Both parties desired good government: 
 but the Federalists thought that this could best be obtained 
 through the Federal Government; the Republicans, 
 through the State governments. The Federalists wished 
 the laws to give as much, and the Republicans as little, 
 power as possible to the Federal Government. The 
 Federalists were more numerous in the North, the 
 
 1 The name Republican was gradually ehanged, in the next twenty years, 
 to Democratic, which is still the name of the party. The present Republican 
 party is not the original party of that name, but is more like the old Federalist 
 party. 
 
196 FEDERALIST CONTROL [^19- 
 
 Republicans in the South. The FederaHsts were more 
 numerous among the merchants, business men, and com- 
 mercial classes; the Republicans, among the farmers. 
 Finally, the I'ederalists inclined somewhat toward Fnglish 
 ideas of government; the Republicans, a great deal 
 toward France, and the right of all men to share in the 
 government. When the time came for the second Presi- 
 dential election, in 1792, the Republicans had not grown 
 sufficiently to contest the election warmly. All the 
 electors again voted for Washington ; and John Adams, 
 who was a Federalist, received the next largest number 
 of votes, and was re-elected Vice-President. 
 
 305. The French Revolution began in 1789. For more 
 than I 50 years, the P^rench kings had ruled by their own 
 will. All this time the people of P" ranee were grievously 
 misgoverned, and were taxed so heavily, for the luxurious 
 support of the king and nobles, that they could hardly 
 find means to live. Affairs finally became so bad that 
 the king was compelled to call the States General together 
 again, to consult about raising money. When it met, it 
 gradually began to take all the power to itself; and in the 
 next few years it abolished the former government, drove 
 the nobles out of the country, put the king and queen to 
 death, and engaged in a general war against the neigh- 
 boring kingdoms of Europe. Great Britain was its prin- 
 cipal enemy, and there was very little peace between the 
 two countries until 181 5. 
 
 306. Genet's Mission. — France, now a republic, ex- 
 pected help from the L^nited States in its war against 
 England. A treaty had been made between France and 
 the United States in 1778, and P^rance had greatly aided 
 this country during the Revolution. The British navy 
 was far the most powerful in the world, and was able to 
 shut up the P'rench vessels in their own ports; but France 
 
1793] THE IVHISKEY INSURRECTION 197 
 
 hoi)cd to attack her enemy from America. In 1793, the 
 I'^rench Government sent a minister, Genet, to tlic United 
 States, to fit out privateers (§ 240) in yVmerican ports 
 against British commerce. It was impossible for the 
 United States to allow this to be done without joining in 
 the war against Great Britain, and Washington firmly 
 prevented it, and in addition issued a proclamation declar- 
 ing the purpose of the United States to remain neutral 
 during the war. The issuance of the proclamation greatly 
 offended France. Genet was troublesome and insolent 
 all through the year, and was then recalled by France, 
 at Washington's request. 
 
 307. The Whiskey Insurrection. — One of the laws passed 
 by Congress laid a tax on whiskey. The roads in the 
 United States were at that time so bad that the settlers in 
 the western part of Pennsylvania and Virginia could not 
 carry their grain to market without paying for the carrying 
 more than they could sell it for. They had therefore been 
 in the habit of turning it into Avhiskey, which had greater 
 value for its bulk than the grain from which it was made, 
 and was more easily carried. The}' disliked to pay the 
 new tax, and, in 1794. their resistance became so angry 
 that Washington was compelled to send a small force of 
 militia to Pittsburgh to restore order. The disturbance 
 was known as the Whiskey Insurrection. 
 
 308. Indian Wars followed the entrance of settlers into 
 Ohio. In 1790, the Indians began to attack the new 
 settlements. General Harmar was sent against them, and 
 was badly defeated near the place where the city of Fort 
 Wayne now stands. In 1791, General St. Clair made 
 another attempt; and he was also surprised and defeated 
 near the headwaters of the Wabash River. The Indians 
 now demanded, as the price of peace, that no settlements 
 should ever be made on their side of the Ohio River. 
 
rgS FEDERALIST CONTROL [1796 
 
 But, in 1794, General Anthony Wayne (§ 237) led an 
 expedition into the Indian country. The Indians could 
 not surprise him, and in a battle, near the present city of 
 Toledo, he inflicted a total defeat upon them. They then 
 made a treaty by which they gave up forever the present 
 State of Ohio. 
 
 309. Jay's Treaty. — The United States had had many 
 reasons to be dissatisfied with Great Britain. Great 
 Britain still heki Detroit and other forts in the Northwest, 
 though it had promised to give them up (§ 263) ; and 
 British officers there were believed to have helped the 
 Indians against the United States. English vessels on 
 the ocean were in the habit of seizing American vessels 
 which attempted to trade with any country with which 
 England w^as at war. To prevent war, Chief-Justice Jay 
 was sent to Great Britain, and, in 1794, concluded a treaty 
 with that country. It provided for the surrender of the 
 northwestern forts, and for the payment of American 
 claims for damages ; but, as it gave some new advantages 
 to Great Britain and did not mention some of the points 
 in dispute, it excited great opposition in the United States. 
 It proved, however, to be sufficient to settle the difficulties 
 between the two countries for about ten years (§ 343). 
 
 310. Washington refused to be a candidiate for a third 
 term of office as President; and, in 1796, he issued a 
 Farewell Address to the American people. It urged 
 them to make religion, education, and public good faith 
 the foundations of their government, to remain united, 
 and to resist foreign influence. It was not meant for the 
 American people of that time alone, and its advice will 
 never cease to be valuable. At the end of his term, 
 Washington retired to his plantation of Mount Vernon, in 
 eastern Virginia, where he passed the remainder of his 
 life as a private citizen (>^ 325). 
 
^<)6\ 
 
 PROSPERITY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 199 
 
 311. The Presidential Election in 1796 was warmly con- 
 tested by tlie two parties. Hie Federalists voted for 
 Adams, and the Republicans for Jefferson. Adams 
 
 Mount Vernon. 
 
 was elected President, most of his electoral votes coming 
 from Northern States, while Jefferson's came from South- 
 ern States. Jefferson stood next to Adams in the vote, 
 and thus became Vice-President. 
 
 312. The Prosperity of the United States had increased 
 during these eight }'ears, with order and better govern- 
 ment. Commerce had grown, because the wars in Kurope 
 left trade mainly to American vessels. The American 
 flag began to be known in distant seas; and in 1790, the 
 Boston ship Columbia, Captain Gray, made the first 
 American voyage around the world. Manufactures had 
 also revived, and patents began to be issued. In 1793- 
 the mint sent out its first coins, about 11,000 copper 
 cents; and in 1795, gold coins were issued. To take the 
 place of the old and poor roads, turnpike-roads began to 
 
FEDERALIST CONTROL 
 
 [1793 
 
 be built from a few of the principal cities; they were 
 carefully laid out, and the cost of maintaining them was 
 paid by tolls collected from travellers. Two small canals 
 were dug" in New England ; and the first attempts were 
 
 Fitch's Steamboat. 
 
 made, by John Fitch and others, to move boats by steam. 
 They were not successful, but they led the way to 
 Fulton's success (§ 337). 
 
 313. The Weakness of the United States. — The country, 
 however, was not yet by any means great or strong. It 
 was not rich; its government was heavily in debt; and as 
 it was very difficult to put aside money enough to equip 
 an army or build war-vessels, foreign nations did not care 
 much for its friendship. Its population, by the first census 
 (in 1790), was ascertained to be 3,929,214. This was 
 not nearly as many as there were in 1 890 in the State of 
 New York alone, or in Pennsylvania (Appendix IV.). 
 The States of Ohio and Illinois, which had hardly any 
 white population in 1790, had each nearly as large a 
 population in 1 890 as the whole United States had in 
 1790. Any one of these four States would now be a 
 more dangerous enemy to a foreign nation of the power 
 of Great Britain in 1 790 than the whole United States was 
 then. 
 
795] 
 
 IVES TERN DEVELOPMENT 
 
 201 
 
 314. The West had fairly begun to grow. The roads 
 to Ohio, whither most emigrants went, were still very 
 poor, and the settlers, before reaching their new homes, 
 were obliged to journey through a wilderness in Pennsyl- 
 vania, and down a river infested with Indians. These 
 difficulties, however, could not check immigration. The 
 towns of Cincinnati, Marietta, Chillicothe, and Cleveland 
 had been founded ; and from this time the Northwest 
 grew rapidly in population and wealth. In 1793, the first 
 
 Cincinnati in 1787 (Fort Washington). 
 
 newspaper in the northwest was issued at Cincinnati, while 
 it was yet a town of about a hundred log-cabins. In 1794, 
 two large passenger-boats ran regularly between Pitts- 
 burgh and Cincinnati. They were moved by oars, had 
 bullet-proof sides, and were armed with cannon to protect 
 them from the Indians. 
 
 315. The Mississippi Treaty. — The people of Tennessee 
 and Kentucky had been very much troubled by the 
 Spaniards, who claimed to own the lower part of the 
 Mississippi River, as well as the country beyond it. In 
 1795, a treaty with Spain was made by the United States: 
 it allowed both nations to use the river. Thus the 
 American settlers on the Ohio River, and in Kentucky 
 and Tennessee, were able to send their crops to market 
 in the Spanish city of New Orleans.^ 
 
 ' Western rivers were onlv lialf useful to settlers until steam was introduced, 
 
202 FEDERALIST CONTROL [i797 
 
 316. The South was even more prosperous than tlie rest 
 of the country. It had produced, up to this time, mainly 
 indigo, rice, tar, and tobacco. Cotton had been tried, 
 but was not profitable, for its seeds stuck to it so closely 
 that a slave could clean but five or six pounds in a day. 
 In 1793, Eli Whitney, a Connecticut teacher living in 
 Georgia, invented the saw-gin, in which revolving teeth 
 dragged the cotton between parallel wires, leaving the 
 seeds behind. With this machine, a slave could clean a 
 thousand pounds of cotton in a day. The cultivation of 
 cotton at once became very profitable, and increased 
 enormously. But, unfortunately, negro slavery also 
 became far more important to the South, and there was 
 now little likelihood of its dying out there, as it was in the 
 North (§ 188). 
 
 (I!) John Adams's Administration: 1797-1801 
 
 John Adams, Mass., President. Thomas Jefferson, Va., Vice-President. 
 
 317.* The New President. — John Adams was undoubt- 
 edly one of the ablest men in the Federalist party. He 
 had had long experience in public life. He had been one 
 of the foremost leaders in the Revolution, and a member 
 of the Continental Congress. He was the first American 
 minister to Great Britain and the Netherlands, returning 
 from diplomatic service to become Vice-President. He 
 was honest and sincere ; but he had come to have a pro- 
 found dislike of a weak national government, and wanted 
 to see the new Federal Government still more strongly 
 administered. Unfortunately, he had little tact in dealing 
 
 for boats could not easily be rowed against the current. When cargoes were 
 sent in flat-boats down the Mississippi to New Orleans, the boats were usually 
 broken up and sold as lumber, and the sailors walked or rode back up the 
 river-bank. 
 
179^1 
 
 DIFhICUl.TIFS WITH FRANCE 
 
 203 
 
 with men of opposing- views, and ditl not i^ct on well with 
 the Federalist leaders, and particularly with Hamilton, 
 
 whose financial success 
 
 had gi\-en him threat in- 
 fluence with the commer- 
 cial and mone)'ed classes. 
 Adams's term bet^an with 
 success, and ended with 
 failure. 
 
 318. Difficulties with 
 France filled much of 
 Adams's administration. 
 The French Government 
 was controlled by a few 
 unusually selfish men, 
 who were at ^\'ar with 
 most of the world, and 
 were determined that the 
 United States should pay 
 them money for the prix'i- 
 lege of remainintj at peace. They turned the American 
 minister out of the countr}-; passed laws which made 
 American commerce difficult and dangerous; and en- 
 couraged their naval officers to capture American vessels 
 and cargoes. When special ministers were sent by Presi- 
 dent Adams to remonstrate, they were told plainly that 
 these proceedings would not be stopped until the men who 
 controlled the French Government were paid a large sum 
 of money as a bribe for peace. The American ministers 
 answered that they would spend "millions for defence, 
 not one cent for tribute ' ' ; and the American people 
 backed them heartily and prepared for war. 
 
 319. "War with France, though not formally declared, 
 really took up the last half of the year 1798. Congress 
 
 John Adams. 
 
:So4 FEDERALIST CONTROL [i799 
 
 met, set aside the treaties with France, formed an army 
 with Washing-ton at its head, increased the navy (§ 296), 
 and ordered the capture of French vessels. Several 
 naval fights followed, in which a number of PVench pri- 
 vateers were taken. The most important battle took 
 place near the island of St. Kitt's, in the West Indies, 
 where the Constellation, Commodore Truxton, fought 
 and captured the French frigate Llnswgcntc.^ 
 
 320. Peace was made in 1799. Napoleon Bonaparte 
 overturned the former French government, and put him- 
 self in its place. He then offered fair terms of peace to 
 the United States, and they were accepted. In a few 
 years he made himself emperor of the French, and 
 extended his empire over most of western P^urope. He 
 could not reach the British Islands, which were guarded 
 by the strongest navy in the world ; but the war between 
 him and Great Britain lasted almost constantly until his 
 downfall in I 81 5 (§ 397). 
 
 321.* Alien and Sedition Laws. — The v^ar excitement led 
 the Federalists in Congress to do some extremely unwise 
 things. The comments of the Republican newspapers on 
 the conduct of the government had been bitter and often 
 scurrilous; and as many of the editors were foreigners, 
 the Federalists determined to punish them. Laws were 
 passed, known as the Alien and Sedition laws, empower- 
 ing the President to arrest and imprison aliens, or foreigners, 
 whom he should deem dangerous to the peace of the 
 country, or even to expel them from the United States, 
 if he thought proper; and also laws for the punishment 
 of persons who, by Avord or writing, spoke evil of the 
 government or any branch of it. Adams did not use the 
 power given him, but there were a number of prosecutions 
 
 * The national song, " Hail Columbia," was published and became popular 
 durinir this war excitement. 
 
i.Soo] KENTUCKY AND VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS 205 
 
 for sedition, aiitl some convictions. The acts were bitterly 
 denounced by the RepubHcans, who deckired them to be 
 an unwarranted interference with free speech, and insisted 
 upon the rit^ht of every man to criticise the government 
 or its acts. 
 
 322. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions. — The Ahen 
 and Sedition laws aroused great alarm as to the lengths 
 to which the Federalists might go. The legislature of 
 Virginia adopted some resolutions, drawn up by Madison, 
 declaring that the States were not bound to obey objec- 
 tionable laws of Congress. Similar resolutions, drafted 
 by Jefferson, were passed in Kentucky. Other States to 
 which the resolutions were sent declined to approve them ; 
 but the majority of the people felt that the action of the 
 Federalists was high-handed and dangerous, and at the 
 following election the Federalist party was so completely 
 defeated that it never again came into control of the 
 government. 
 
 323. The Presidential Election in i <Soo was one of great 
 excitement. The Federalists voted for President Adams 
 and C. C. Pinckney, of South Carolina; the Republicans, 
 for Jefferson and Aaron Burr, of New York. Jefferson 
 and Burr received the highest number of electoral votes 
 (73), but each had the same number. In case of such 
 a tie vote, the Constitution directed that the House of 
 Representatives should choose one of the two for President. 
 After some delay, and a good deal of angry discussion, 
 the House chose Jefferson President and Burr Vice-Presi- 
 dent. In consequence of the difficulties of this election, 
 the Twelfth Amendment to the Constitution was adopted 
 in 1804 (§295). It changed the manner of the election 
 of President and Vice-President, and made it as it still 
 remains. The electors were now to vote separately for 
 President and Vice-President, so that there could be no 
 
2o6 
 
 FEDERALIST CONTROL 
 
 [1800 
 
iSoo] LEADING F.J/ENTS 207 
 
 such tic as the one between Jefferson and l^urr, where 
 both were of the same party. 
 
 324. The Population of the United States was shown by 
 the census of 1800 to be 5,308,483, a considerable g-rowtli 
 since 1790 (>$ 313)- In the West, Mississippi and Indiana 
 were formed into Territories, showing that their popuhi- 
 tion was increasing". The Territory of Ohio was growing 
 rapidly, and was soon to be a State. In the older parts 
 of the country there was little change except the steady 
 growth of population. In 1800, the national capital, and 
 the books and papers of the government, were removed 
 from Philadelphia (S 299) to the new city of Washington, 
 then a straggling half-built village in the woods, with a 
 icw public buildings and ver\^ little else. The Capitol 
 and the other fine buildings now in the city have been 
 built as the country has grown richer. 
 
 325. Washington died suddenly in 1799. His death 
 was followed by mourning throughout the United States. 
 Even in countries beyond the sea, the event was an- 
 nounced as a general loss to mankind. 
 
 326. The Leading Events in the administrations of 
 Washington and Adams were as follows: 
 
 1789-93 : Washington's First Term § 294 
 
 1789: Inauguration of the new government. 294 
 
 Ratification by North Carohna 297 
 
 1790: Ratification by Rhode Island 297 
 
 Indian war in Ohio 308 
 
 1791 : Harmar's defeat by the Indians 308 
 
 St. Clair's defeat by the Indians 308 
 
 National bank established 300 
 
 Vermont admitted 302 
 
 1792 : Kentucky admitted 302 
 
 Parties formed 303 
 
 1793 : The cotton-gin invented 316 
 
 Genet's mission from France 306 
 
 1793-7 : Washington's Second Term 304 
 
2o8 FEDERALIST CONTROL [1800 
 
 1794 : Whiskey Insurrection § 307 
 
 Wayne's defeat of the Ohio Indians. . 308 
 
 Jay's treaty 309 
 
 1795 : Treaty with Spain 315 
 
 1796 : Tennessee admitted 302 
 
 Washington's Farewell Address 310 
 
 I 797-1801 : John Adams's Term 317 
 
 1 798 : War with France 319 
 
 Alien and Sedition laws 321 
 
 1799: Peace with France 320 
 
 Death of Washington 325 
 
 1800: Removal of the capital to Washington 324 
 
 Defeat of the Federalists 323 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. Washington as a party leader. 
 
 2. History of the first ten amendments to the Constitution. 
 
 3. Hamilton's theory of government. 
 
 4. Federalism in a particular State (e.g., Massachusetts). 
 
 5. Grounds of continued ill feeling between Great Britain 
 and the United States, to 1800. 
 
 6. Settlement of the Ohio valley. 
 
 7. Early antislavery agitation. 
 
 8. Emancipation of slaves in the Northern States, 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — INIacDonald's Select Documents gives the texts of 
 Hamilton's principal financial reports (Nos. 6, 8, 9, and 10), 
 the opinions of Jefferson and Hamilton on the constitutionality 
 of a national bank (Nos. 10 and 11), Washington's proclama- 
 tion of neutrality (No. 13) and message on the Whiskey Insur- 
 rection (No. 15), the Jay treaty (No. 14), Adams's message on 
 the X Y Z negotiations (No. 16), the Alien and Sedition acts 
 (Nos. 17-20), and the Kentucky and Virginia resolutions 
 (Nos. 21-23). The presidential messages are in Richardson's 
 Messages and Jhipers 0/ the Presidents, a government publica- 
 tion, vol. I.; Washington's Farewell Address is in ibid., pp. 
 213-224. The great series of so-called Congressional Docu- 
 ments begins with the first Congress, in 1789; for their classifica- 
 tion and contents, see the bibliographical note to MacDonald's 
 
iSoo] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 209 
 
 Select Documents. The most important of these documents, 
 except ih& Journals of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
 are also to be found in the American Slate Papers, For the 
 debates in Congress, we have, for this period, the Annals 0/ 
 Congress; the most important parts arc also in Benton's 
 Abridgment 0/ Debates in Congress. I'hc latter work extends to 
 1850. The acts of Congress are i)ublished in volumes, from 
 time to time, under the title of Statutes at Large, and also in 
 pamphlet form at the close of each session of Congress. Treaties 
 are collected in a volume entitled Treaties and Conventions, 
 issued as a government document. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — Gibbs's Administrations of Washington 
 and Adams is a special work on this period. To the lives and 
 writings of Washington, John Adams, Hamilton, Jefferson, 
 Madison, and others, previously cited, should be added Henry 
 Adams's Gallatin, Upham's Tifuothv Pickering, Garland's yo//^ 
 Randolph, Davis's Burr, and Gilman's Monroe. ]. C. Hamil- 
 ton's History 0/ the Republic of the United States is devoted 
 primarily to Alexander Hamilton's career. On the details of 
 the presidential elections, from this time on, see Stanwood's 
 History of the Presidency. Bolles's Financial History of the 
 United States, Sumner's American Currency, H. C. Adams's 
 Public Debts, and Elliot's Funding System are important for 
 financial topics. The early history of slavery under the Con- 
 stitution is perhaps best treated in Wilson's Rise and Fall of 
 the Slave Power. On the westward expansion see Roosevelt's 
 Winning of the West. The numerous articles on American 
 history, by Alexander Johnston, in Lalor's Cyclopcedia of 
 Political Science, have marked value. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — H. H. Brackenridge's APodern 
 Chivalry; W. G. Simms's Beauchampe ; Cooper's APiles Walling- 
 ford; J. E. Cooke's Leather Stocking atid Silk. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY 
 
 Jefferson's Administrations: i 801-1809 
 
 „ , T7 Ti -J i ( Aaron Bukr, N. Y., Vice-President, iSoi-iSoc. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, Va., President. - ^.^^ Clinton, N. Y., Vice-President, 1805-.809. 
 
 327. The Nation Abroad. — The great characteristic 
 which marks the period of Repubhcan supremacy is the 
 recognition of the new nation by other nations, particularly 
 in Europe. It is true that governments in that part of the 
 world had made treaties with the United .States, thus 
 acknowledging the existence of the new nation ; but they 
 had as yet no great respect for it. It was poor; it had 
 no large armies ; and it was so far away from them that 
 they had little fear that it would resent injuries. They 
 were very prone, then, particularly Great Britain, to act 
 unjustly toward American merchant-vessels and seamen. 
 After years of such injuries, the American Government 
 was forced into war, in which it showed at last that, 
 though it had no large armies, it was a great naval power; 
 that its men and war-vessels could do what those of no 
 other nation could do, namely, fight British vessels on 
 equal terms with success. 
 
 328. The Nation at Home. — Jefferson and his party 
 believed in State sovereignty (§§ 303, 304). If two States 
 that are sovereign to the fullest extent, such as France 
 and Si)ain, join for any purpose, either can withdraw 
 whenever it thinks best. If the States of the Union were 
 
 210 
 
iSciJ JEFFERSON 211 
 
 sovereign to a like extent, any one of them could with- 
 draw, or secede, whenever it thought best. The struggles 
 of these }-ears, and particularl)' the war with Great 
 Hritain, taught the Republican part)- that it must support 
 the nation, whether the States liked it or not. So well 
 was the lesson learned that, but for slavery, there would 
 never again have been any danger of secession ; and most 
 men thought that there was no further danger from slavery 
 when the importation of slaves was forbidden, in 1808. 
 
 329.* The President. — Jefferson had been long in public 
 life, and had many claims to popular confidence and 
 esteem. He was born in 1743, became a lawyer, and 
 served successively as member of the Continental Con- 
 gress, governor of his State, and minister to France, 
 returning from abroad to become Secretary of State under 
 Washington. As Secretary, he soon quarrelled with 
 Hamilton, and at the beginning of 1794 retired from the 
 Cabinet. In the mean time, he had come forward as the 
 leader of the Democratic, or Republican, party, which 
 opposed the strong centralized government of the Federal- 
 ists, and was elected Vice-President in 1796, and Presi- 
 dent in 1800. He was a poor public speaker, but a fluent 
 and effective writer, and exercised an extraordinary con- 
 trol over his party. 
 
 330. Jefferson's Inauguration marks a great change in 
 the people and in their feelings. Before the Revolution, 
 and for some time after it, the people had been rather 
 slow in their ways of thinking, speaking, and acting. 
 Except in New P^ngland, they were accustomed to leave 
 political matters to a few men, to the king, to his 
 governors, or to rich or influential men in their own 
 colonies. Generall)-, those who owned no property were 
 not allowed to vote, and those who owned property 
 and voted were disposed to keep the rest in order by 
 
2 12 REPUBLIC/iN SUPREMACY [iSoi 
 
 strong government. But the change to a republic had 
 changed the feeHngs of the people. They had become 
 more like the Americans of the present time, active, 
 
 Thomas Jiu-kkkson. 
 
 pushing, and impatient of too much dignity in their 
 neighbors. 
 
 331. The Republicans. — The real reason why Jefferson 
 and his party had come into power was that they repre- 
 sented the new men and the new feehng. They even tried 
 
i8oi] DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 213 
 
 to show the chaiii^c by their manners and ch'ess. They 
 ceased to wear the wigs or cues of former times; wore 
 their own hair, cut short; laughed at the formal manners, 
 dignity, and dress of the Federalists ; and insisted that 
 every man should have a vote, property or no property. 
 From this time, their ideas largely controlled the country, 
 outside of New England ; and in Congress they made the 
 laws to suit themselves. But they made very little change 
 in the forms of government which the Federalists had left 
 them ; and our government is still administered very much 
 after the plans introduced by the Federal party. 
 
 332. The Federalists. — To the Federalists, the changes 
 introduced by the Republicans seemed dangerous in the 
 extreme. Some of the leaders showed their disapproval 
 by retiring from political life altogether, while others were 
 forced into retirement by defeat at elections. In New 
 York, where the Vice-President, Aaron Burr, had much 
 political influence, the feeling was very bitter; and the 
 greatest of Federalists, Hamilton, was shot and killed by 
 Burr in a duel. Between the Federalists and the Repub- 
 licans there were never any important points of contact; 
 and from this time the Federalists ceased to have, as a 
 party, much weight in national affairs. 
 
 (i) Domestic Affairs. 
 
 333. Domestic Affairs under Jefferson were at first marked 
 by a wonderful prosperity. American commerce increased 
 enormously; for as nearly all Europe was now at war, it 
 was not safe to send goods in European vessels, which 
 were liable to capture by their enemies, and American 
 vessels obtained far more than their natural share of the 
 trade of the world. Money came in rapidly to the 
 government of the United States, and its debt was soon 
 
514 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY [1^03 
 
 nearly paid. Above all, the territory of the United States 
 was move than doubled by the purchase of Louisiana. 
 
 334. Louisiana Purchase. — The great territory between 
 the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains (§ 155), 
 called Louisiana, no longer belonged to Spain. Napoleon 
 had bought it in 1800, and intended to make it a strong 
 French colony. But in 1803, perhaps having reason to 
 believe that his enemy Great Britain intended to attack it, 
 he sold it to the United States for $15,000,000. Before 
 
 1803, the United States covered 827,844 square miles; 
 the purchase of Louisiana more than doubled this, adding 
 over 1,100,100 square miles of new territory (§773). 
 Steamboats and railroads, by carrying immigration into 
 the new territory, have since made it very valuable. 
 There have been formed from it the States of Louisiana, 
 Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, and Nebraska, North 
 and South Dakota, Montana, and Indian Territory, and 
 a great part of the States of Minnesota, Colorado, ahd 
 Wyoming.^ 
 
 335. The Oregon Country, covering the present States of 
 Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, was then unknown. In 
 
 1804, President Jefferson sent a land expedition under 
 Lewis and Clarke, which explored the upper Missouri 
 River, and the country around the Columbia River to the 
 Pacific Ocean. This gave the United States a claim to 
 this territory also, though its claim was not admitted for 
 nearly forty years (§ 523). 
 
 336.* Ohio, the first State formed from the Northwest 
 Territory under the Ordinance of 1787 (§ 274), was 
 admitted into the Union in 1802. Its constitution was 
 noticeable for the liberality of its provisions, and the 
 
 ^ It was thought at the time that Louisiana included Texas also, but in 
 1819 the United States gave up this claim to Spain in return for Florida 
 §414)- 
 
i8o7] 
 
 THE STEAMBOAT 
 
 ^5 
 
 power given to the people as a whole, rather than to par- 
 ticular classes. 
 
 337. The Steamboat. — Tlie )'ear 1807 is marked by one 
 of the most important events in American history — Robert 
 Fulton's invention of the 
 steamboat. The steam- 
 engine of Watt had been 
 known and used for forty 
 years, and man}' unsuccess- 
 ful attempts had been made 
 to use it in turning the pad- 
 dle-wheels of vessels. Ful- 
 ton succeeded ; and his first 
 clumsy vessel, the Clcnnoiit, 
 made the trip from New 
 York to Albany, 1 50 miles, 
 in 32 hours. The appear- 
 ance of his boat was not 
 materially different from 
 that of a small side-wheel 
 steamer of the present day. 
 This was the best thing 
 
 that had yet happened for the West. The first western 
 steamboat was built at Pittsburgh in 181 1, and within a 
 few years every western river had its steamboats. Noth- 
 ing had yet helped emigration so much, or given the 
 settlers so many new ways of making money. The great 
 rivers of the United States could now be useci against 
 the current, as well as with it, and steamboats carried 
 passengers and freight where rowboats had not been able 
 to carry them.^ 
 
 Roi n 1 !• 1 1 
 
 ^ The first sea-going steam-vessel, the Sn''annah, crossed the Atlantic in 
 18 19, but ocean navigation by steam was not permanently established until 
 nearly twenty years afterwards (§ 447). 
 
 1 
 
2i6 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY [1806 
 
 338. The Wealth of the Country was steadily growing, 
 and the people were busily seeking new means of industry. 
 The system of patents, which gave an inventor the exclu- 
 sive right to his invention all over the United States, was 
 rapidily increasing the number of useful American inven- 
 tions. Attempts were made to produce a mowing and 
 reaping machine, but they were not yet successful (§448). 
 In 1806, the first boat-load of anthracite coal was shipped 
 to Philadelphia, but no one knew how to use it.^ 
 
 339. The Presidential Election in 1804 resulted in the 
 success of the Republicans. Jefferson was re-elected 
 President, and George Clinton was elected Vice-President. 
 Burr, who had been elected Vice-President in 1800, had 
 fallen out of favor with his party and was not re-elected.^ 
 
 340. Burr, who had retired from public life in 1805, did 
 not long remain quiet. In 1806 he collected armed men 
 in Kentucky and Tennessee, and along the Ohio River, 
 and sailed with them in boats down the Mississippi. It 
 was suspected that he intended to set up a separate 
 government of his own in the Mississippi valley, or to 
 attack the Spanish province of Mexico. He was stopped 
 by the United States authorities at Natchez, and sent back 
 to Richmond to be tried for treason. As he had not 
 actually borne arms against the United States, he was 
 acquitted, although Jefferson made every effort to secure 
 his conviction. Burr disappeared from public view. 
 
 1 At first, Americans knew only open stoves, burning wood or soft coal. 
 The anthracite, or " stone-coal," fields of Pennsylvania were discovered in 
 1791, but the coal was not generally used until about 1830 (§ 446). 
 
 ^ The P'ederalist candidates were C. C. Pinckney, of South Carolina, and 
 Rufus King, of New York. They received only 14 electoral votes out of 176 
 (§ 295)- 
 
tSo5] 
 
 FOREIGN AFFAIRS 
 
 217 
 
 (2) Foreign Affairs. 
 
 341. The Barbary States, Morocco, Altjiers, Tunis, and 
 Tripoli, on the Mediterranean coast of Africa, were 
 Mohammedan countries. They considered Christian 
 nations to be heathens, and, unless they were paid to 
 remain at peace, captured Christian vessels and made 
 slaves of the sailors. The greatest nations of Europe, as 
 well as the United States, had always submitted to this 
 demand, and had paid these pirates liberally for peace. 
 
 Barbary States. 
 
 342. The Tripolitan War began in 180T. Tripoli de- 
 manded more money from the United States, and, when 
 it was refused, began to capture American vessels. The 
 little American navy was sent to the Mediterranean. 
 One frigate, the PliiladelpJiia, ran aground in the harbor 
 of Tripoli, in 1803, and was captured; but Lieutenant 
 Decatur, with twenty picked sailors, sailed into the harbor 
 and burned her. A land expedition attacked Tripoli 
 from the eastward, and the navy bombarded the town 
 from the harbor; and in 1805, Tripoli yielded and made 
 peace. Other nations followed the American example, 
 and in a few years the Barbary pirates were forced to 
 remain at peace without being paid for it (§ 404). 
 
21 8 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY [1807 
 
 343.* Orders and Decrees. — The wars in Europe between 
 Great Britain and France had by this time become of 
 world-wide importance. Great Britain had the most 
 powerful navy in the world, and France the strongest 
 army; and each country sought to compel other countries 
 to side with it. It was difficult for the United States to 
 escape the aggressions of one or other of the combatants ; 
 and as events turned out, it became a prey of both. 
 Jay's treaty (§ 309) expired in 1806, and the United 
 States was left without a commercial treaty with Great 
 Britain. In the same year, Great Britain, by an Order 
 in Council, declared a blockade of all those parts of 
 Europe which had sided with France, and forbade vessels 
 to enter their harbors. Napoleon thereupon issued the 
 Berlin Decree, forbidding neutral vessels to enter British 
 harbors. In 1807, Great Britain replied by forbidding 
 neutral vessels to enter any ports in Europe except those 
 of Great Britain and of Sweden, the latter country being 
 friendly to Great Britain. Napoleon then issued the 
 Milan Decree, ordering the capture and sale of any neutral 
 vessel which should enter a British harbor. As the 
 United States, being neutral, had been absorbing more and 
 more of the carrying trade with Europe, these orders and 
 decrees, if enforced, meant the annihilation of its foreign 
 commerce. Great Britain also claimed the right of search 
 and impressment; that is, the right to stop a vessel 
 belonging to another nation, examine its cargo, and take 
 off sailors who seemed to the British officers to have been 
 born in Great Britain or Ireland. Nothing was more 
 exasperating to the United States than the assertion of 
 such a claim, or more humiliating than to be compelled 
 to submit to the exercise of it. 
 
 344. American Policy. — American commerce suffered 
 severely from these measures. Great numbers of vessels 
 
iSoy] THE EMBARGO AND NON-INTERCOURSE ACTS 219 
 
 were seized and sold b}' (ircat Britain and l*'rance, and 
 many Americans were forced to serve on l^ritisli war- 
 vessels. If the y\merican Government had been as stroni^ 
 as it now is, it would have compelled the t\\ o contending 
 nations to respect the riij;hts of its citizens. But the 
 countr}', though growing rapidly, was still poor and weak. 
 The Republicans, whose strength was among the farmers 
 and the people of the smaller towns, were anxious to pay 
 off the national debt, and begrudged the expense of a 
 navy. Few persons believed that, even if the country 
 had a navy, it would be able to withstand Great Britain, 
 whose navy was popularly regarded as invincible. Jeffer- 
 son, whose views on all these points were the views of his 
 party, was determined to have peace ; and even when a 
 British frigate, the Leopard, stopped the United States 
 frigate Chesapeake, which was in no condition for fighting, 
 and compelled her to give up four of her sailors, the 
 President successfully resisted the country's desire to 
 declare war. When all the injuries together had become 
 unbearable, the Republican party decided to stop American 
 commerce for a time, in hope of bringing Great Britain to 
 reason by injuring her trade rather than b}^ open war. 
 
 345. The Embargo and Non-Intercourse Acts. — To follow 
 out this plan. Congress in 1807 passed the lunbargo 
 Act, which forbade the departure of any vessel from the 
 United States for a foreign port. But it turned out to be 
 a complete failure. Great Britain liked it because it left 
 almost all trade to British vessels. In New England, 
 whose people were then largely supported by commerce, 
 all business was broken up, the people became poorer and 
 desperate, and a few of them began to talk of separating 
 from the Union. In other parts of the Union, also, it was 
 found that crops were of little value when they could no 
 longer be carried to foreign countries and sold. Nothing 
 
2 20 REPUBLICAN SUPREMACY [1808 
 
 had been gained by violent interference with the natural 
 order of things. So great and general was the dissatisfac- 
 tion with the Embargo that, in 1809, Congress passed 
 instead of it the Non-Intercourse Act. This still forbade 
 trade with Great Britain or France while their offensive 
 measures were continued, but allowed trade with other 
 countries. 
 
 346.* The Presidential Election. — This state of things 
 was an unhappy ending for Jefferson's administrations. 
 The people were hopeless of fair treatment from Great 
 Britain or France, and were almost ready for war against 
 the principal offender, Great Britain. The election of 
 1808, however, notwithstanding the disastrous effects of 
 the Embargo and Non-Intercourse laws, resulted in Repub- 
 lican success. James Madison, of Virginia, was chosen 
 President, and George Clinton was re-elected Vice-Presi- 
 dent. Madison was as anxious for peace as Jefferson was. 
 But the views of the Republicans were changing. They 
 had wished the States to be strong, and as independent as 
 possible ; but they were beginning to see that, in dealing 
 with other nations, a strong national government was a 
 necessity. Moreover, the membership of Congress, par- 
 ticularly of the House of Representatives, was showing 
 an increasing percentage of young men ; and it was 
 unlikely that the aggressions of either Great Britain or 
 France, if they should continue, would long be borne 
 without forcible resistance. 
 
 347. The Leading Events of Jefferson's administrations 
 were as follows : 
 
 1 801-05 : Jefferson's First Term § 329 
 
 1801 : War with Tripoli 342 
 
 1802 : Admission of Ohio 336 
 
 1803 : Burning of the Philadelphia 342 
 
 Purchase of Louisiana 334 
 
iSo9J SUPPLEMENTARY READING 221 
 
 1804 : Lewis and Clarke's expedition 335 
 
 1805 : Peace with Tripoli 342 
 
 1805-09 : Jefferson's Second Term 339 
 
 1806: European blockade by Great Hritain.. 343 
 
 Berlin Decree by Napoleon 343 
 
 1807: Orders in Council by Great J^ntain. . 343 
 
 ]\Iilan Decree by Napoleon 343 
 
 Affair of ihc Leopard d.n(\ Chesapeake.. 344 
 
 The Embargo 345 
 
 Burr's expedition 340 
 
 Fulton's invention of the steamboat. . 337 
 
 1809: The Non-Intercourse Act 345 
 
 Topics for Eurthf.r Study. 
 
 1. Jefferson as a party leader. 
 
 2. The life of Chief-Justice JNIarsliall. 
 
 3. Burr's western schemes: 
 
 4. Geography of the Louisiana ])urchase. 
 
 5. Early steamboat routes. 
 
 Supplementary 1<.eading. 
 
 Sources. — The Louisiana treaty, Jefferson's message on the 
 Burr conspiracy, and the Embargo Act are in MacDonald's 
 Select Doawients, Nos. 24, 25, and 27. Extracts from the 
 Berlin and Milan decrees and the English Orders in Council 
 are in the University of Pennsylvania D'anslalions and Reprints, 
 vol. II., No. 2. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The best general account of this 
 period is Henry Adams's History of the United States, covering 
 the period 1800-18 17. The biographies mentioned in connec- 
 tion with Chapter XI. .should of course be consulted also. 
 Barbe-Marbois's History 0/ Louisiana, Parts 11. and in,, is im- 
 portant for the cession of 1803. On Burr's conspiracy see, 
 besides Adams's United States, iii.. Barton's LJ/e and Times of 
 Burr, vol. 11., chaps. 21-26, and Randall's [efferson, vol. in., 
 chap. 5. King's Ohio is a good brief history of the State. 
 vSullivan's Familiar Letters is an interesting book of reminis- 
 cence. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — M. E. Seawell's Decatur and 
 Somers; E. L. Bynner's Zachary Phips; J. K. Paulding's John 
 Bull diwd Brother Jo7iatha7i;Y.. E. Hale's J/?;? without a Country, 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Madison's Administrations: 1809-18 17 
 
 , ,, ,r Ti ■ 1 . i CiHo. Clinton, N. Y , Vice-President, i8oq-i8i-?. 
 
 James Madis„n, Va., President, -j t:LBRiDGE Gerry, Mass., Vice-President, 18.3-18.7. 
 
 348. The New President. — James Madison, of Virginia, 
 the new President (>^ 346), was one of the ablest leaders 
 
 of the Republican party. 
 He had been a member 
 of the Congress of the 
 Confederation, of the 
 Convention of 1787, the 
 leader of the Republi- 
 cans in Congress after 
 1789, and Secretary of 
 State under Jefferson. 
 He was a close friend 
 of Jefferson, but more 
 anxious for a strong na- 
 tional government than 
 Jefferson had been. 
 
 349. The English Diffi- 
 culties. — The troubles 
 with Great Britain came 
 to a head in Madison's 
 first term. The Non- 
 Intercourse Act came to 
 Con- 
 22 
 
 James Madison. 
 
 an end (18 10) without having produced any effect 
 
I Si 2] DECLARATION OF IV AR 223 
 
 grcss then declared that, if either Great Britain or France 
 should revoke the offensive decrees, the Non-Intercourse 
 Act would be revived at^ainst the other nation. Napoleon 
 at once announced that he had revoked his decrees. This 
 was a falsehood, for he enforced his decrees as severely 
 as ever; but the falsehood served Napoleon's purpose by- 
 arraying the United States and Great Britain against one 
 another. The United States revived the Non-Intercourse 
 Act against Great Britain, and Great Britain became more 
 overbearing than ever. Her war-vessels watched the 
 whole eastern coast of the United States, and captured 
 American merchantmen, often without giving any reason.^ 
 
 350. Tecumseh. — British officers were believed to be 
 stirring up the Indians of the Northwest to war. The 
 Indians, under a chief named Tecumseh, broke into hos- 
 tilities, and were defeated by Governor W. H. Harrison 
 in a battle at Tippecanoe, near the present town of 
 Lafayette. Tecumseh and his warriors soon afterward 
 entered the British army. 
 
 351. War with Great Britain. — Toward the end of 
 Madison's first term the patience of the people became 
 exhausted. When new Congressmen were to be chosen, 
 the "submission men," who wished to avoid war, were 
 defeated, and " w'ar men " were elected. Madison him- 
 self, who still wished for peace, was forced to yield to the 
 general feeling, and June 18, 18 12, Congress declared 
 war. The presidential election following was without 
 incident, and resulted in the re-election of Madison, with 
 Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, as Vice-President. 
 The vote of Pennsylvania turned the scale in favor of 
 Madison. The Republicans were now so completely in 
 
 1 In 181 1, the United States frigate President hailed the British vessel 
 Little Belt off Cape Charles, and was answered by a cannon-shot. In the 
 fight that followed, the British vessel was badly beaten. 
 
224 THE SECOND IVAR IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1812 
 
 control of the country that the Federalist opposition was 
 powerless.^ 
 
 352. The Preparations for War ajjainst Great Britain 
 cannot be said to have been very valuable. The British 
 navy numbered about 1,000 vessels, many of them the 
 most powerful warships afloat. The American navy num- 
 bered 12, none of them of large size, with a number of 
 cheap, small, and useless craft called "gunboats." 
 Some efforts had been made to increase the American 
 army; but the men were undisciplined, and the officers 
 were generally politicians, who knew nothing about war. 
 The consequence was that the Americans were beaten in 
 almost every land-battle, until the fighting generals got 
 rid of the political officers and disciplined the men 
 properly (§§ 364, 391). In the navy there were no 
 political officers, and few failures; and most of the glory 
 of the war was gained, to the great surprise of the people 
 of both countries, by brilliant and successful sea-fights. 
 
 353. The Population of the United States in 18 10 was 
 7,239,881 ; that of Great Britain and Ireland was nearly 
 19,000,000. The larger population of Great Britain 
 was gathered into a space about as large as New York, 
 Vermont, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey together, so that 
 it could act promptly and effectively; while that of the 
 United States was scattered over a vast territory, extend- 
 ing from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains, 
 nearly six times as long and ten times as wide as Great 
 Britain. In what is now the State of Indiana there were but 
 25,000 persons, in Illinois 12,000, and in Michigan 5,000. 
 
 354. The Principal Theatre of War, on the boundary 
 between Canada and the United States, was then a wilder- 
 
 ' Madison had 128 electoral votes, and De Witt Clinton, of New York, 89. 
 Clinton was a Republican, but received the support of the Federalists. The 
 Federalist candidate for Vice-President was Jared Ingersoll, of Pennsylvania. 
 
I Si 2] FAILURES IN THE NORTH 225 
 
 ness. There was no considerable town in the whole 
 western half of the State of New York, or on the lake 
 shore ; and the maps of the time do not show such places 
 as Buffalo, Rochester, or Syracuse, even as villages. 
 There were hardly any passable roads there or north and 
 west of the Ohio River; and food for the troops was 
 carried to them with great difficulty and at a cost some- 
 times of five or six times its original value. The present 
 States of Alabama and Mississippi were still more destitute 
 of inhabitants ; and the traveller or army passing from the 
 settled country around Nashville to New Orleans or 
 Mobile went nearly all the way through a hostile Indian 
 country. 
 
 355. The Dislike to the War was very general in New 
 England, where the people believed that it was needless 
 and wrong. Money was scarce in the United States, 
 and, scarce as it was, most of it was in New England. 
 The government attempted to carry on the war b}- raising 
 loans. But those who supported the war had very little 
 money, and those who had money to spare refused to lend 
 it to support the war. The consequence was that the 
 government was almost constantly in want of money, and 
 toward the end of the war could hardly get enough money 
 to arm, clothe, and feed its soldiers, or build war-vessels. 
 
 (3) Failures in the NortJi : iSi2-i^. 
 
 356. Hull's Surrender began the list of failures in the 
 North. The most important frontier town of the north- 
 west was Detroit, in which William Hull, governor of 
 Michigan Territory, resided. Immediately after the 
 declaration of war he was ordered to cross the river and 
 invade Canada. He did so, but retreated to Detroit as 
 the British troops under General Brock advanced toward 
 
2 26 THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1812 
 
 him. Brock followed, besieged Detroit, and threatened 
 to give his Indians liberty to kill unless the place was 
 given up. After a siege of less than a week, Hull sur- 
 rendered Detroit, and with it the whole country northwest 
 of Ohio. 1 
 
 357. Invasion of Canada. — In the autumn of 18 12, an 
 attempt was made to invade Canada from Lewiston, New 
 York, by crossing the Niagara River. While the braver 
 part of the men crossed and assaulted the British, who 
 were posted on Oueenstown Heights, the rest could not 
 be persuaded to leave Lewiston. The men who had 
 crossed, 1,000 in number, were killed or captured. 
 Another attempt was talked of, but the men were un- 
 trained and disobedient ; the officers quarrelled with one 
 another ; and this attempt was given up. The com- 
 mander-in-chief. General Dearborn, then collected the 
 army at Plattsburgh, to attack Montreal. The principal 
 event of this campaign was a sharp fight between two 
 parts of the army, which mistook one another for the 
 enemy; otherwise nothing was done. 
 
 358. In the West, Harrison (i^ 350) was made com- 
 mander-in-chief, and he exerted himself to the utmost to 
 drive the British out of Detroit. His troops were Ken- 
 tucky and Ohio volunteers, and they succeeded excellently 
 in scattered fighting against the Indian villages ; but they 
 had not yet learned military obedience, and when they 
 were formed into an army failed to accomplish anything 
 during the }'ear 18 12. 
 
 359. The River Raisin. — As soon as the swamps and 
 lakes of the Northwest were frozen over, in the early 
 winter of 1813, Harrison renewed his efforts to drive the 
 Jkitish out of Detroit. His advanced force, under General 
 
 ' Hull was court-martialled and sentenced to be sliot for cowardice, but 
 was pardoned on account of his services in tlie Revolutionary war. 
 
tSi3] 
 
 FORTS MEIGS AND STEPHENSON 
 
 Winchester, reached the Raisin River, in southern 
 Michicjan, and was there attacked by the British General 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 Proctor. Wincliester surrendered as Hull liad done; and 
 Proctor cruelly allowed his Indians to butcher the wounded 
 prisoners.^ 
 
 360. Forts Meigs and Stephenson — Harrison was now 
 forced back, and took refuge in Fort Meigs, near the 
 present town of Defiance. Here he Avas besieged by 
 Proctor, in the spring of 1813. Twelve hundred Ken- 
 tuckians relie\'ed Harrison, though many of them were 
 killed or captured in the effort; and Proctor retreated. 
 Later in the }X'ar he again attacked Fort Meigs without 
 success, and then turned to Fort Stephenson, near the 
 present town of Sandusky. The fort was defended by a 
 
 ' Most of the men m.Tssacrt'il at the Raisin were Kentiickiaiis, ami from 
 that time the Kentucky troops went into battle calling to one another, " Re- 
 member the river Raisin." 
 
2 28 THE SECOND IV AR IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1813 
 
 young officer named Croghan. He had but one cannon 
 and a few men ; but he used both so vigorously that 
 Proctor was beaten off. 
 
 361. Battle of the Thames. — In September, 18 1 3, Perry's 
 capture of the British squach'on (^^ 381) gave the Ameri- 
 cans command of Lake Erie. Plarrison at once put his 
 forces on Perry's vessels, and crossed directly from Ohio 
 into Canada. He overtook the retreating British army, 
 under Proctor, at the Thames River, and forced them into 
 battle. After a sharp conflict, the British were completely 
 defeated, and most of them were captured. The great 
 Indian leader, Tecumseh, was killed. This battle ended 
 the war in the northwest. Detroit and Michigan again 
 fell into the hands of the Americans, and detachments 
 were sent out which recaptured and held Peoria and other 
 outlying forts. 
 
 362. In New York, early in 18 13, Dearborn crossed the 
 lake from Sackett's Harbor to Toronto (then called 
 York), captured it, and burned the British supplies. He 
 then returned to the American side, near Lewiston, and 
 there crossed again int© Canada. But his operations 
 were badly managed; his troops were beaten in two 
 small battles ; and he returned to New York and re- 
 signed.^ 
 
 363. Chrysler's Farm. — Late in 18 13, General Wilkin- 
 son, Dearborn's successor, took the American forces at 
 Plattsburgh and Sackett's Harbor, and moved down the 
 St. Lawrence River toward Montreal. One battle was 
 fought, at Chrysler's Farm, on the Canada side, nearly 
 opposite Ogdensburgh ; but neither side could claim a 
 victory. The expedition was then given up. The men 
 
 ' Duriiij^ this invasion of Canada, the British attacked Sackett's Harbor, 
 but were beaten off by General Jacob fjrown, one of tlie new generals who 
 were to achieve success the next year. 
 
l8i2] NAy/II. SUCCF.SSES 229 
 
 were not to blame for these failures: the officers wxm'c as 
 inefficient as ever, and quarrelled continually.^ 
 
 364. Reorganization. — At the close of the year 18 13, 
 the American Government had learned something from 
 the disasters on the northern frontier. As fast as possible, 
 the political officers were weeded out, and the officers 
 who had shown fighting qualities were promoted to their 
 places. The chief command was given to General Jacob 
 Brown, an officer who, without military education, had 
 shown remarkable military abilities. Next to him were 
 Scott, a young man of 27 (§ 534), and Ripley. The 
 winter of i8i3-i4was passed in training the men; but, 
 even to do this much, it was necessary that Scott should 
 translate a text-book of tactics from the French, for the 
 American army had not yet had even a system of drill. 
 The effects of the reorganization were evident in the fol- 
 lowing year. The men had confidence in themselves, in 
 their training, and in their leaders, disasters ceased, and 
 successes took their place (§ 391). 
 
 (4) S2tc cesses 0)1 the Ocean. 
 
 365. The American Navy had not been expected to do 
 much in the war, and it had even been proposed to forbid 
 its leaving port, for fear it might be captured at once by 
 the British. But the British officers and men had become 
 so accustomed to victory over all other nations that they 
 were now careless in training and discipline; while the 
 little American navy was in a state of perfect training, 
 and eager to show what it could do. The consequence 
 
 1 During this invasion of Canada, the American forces near Lewiston were 
 attacked. They retreated disgracefully, again by the fault of the com- 
 manding officer, and left the whole of that part of the frontier open to the 
 British, who burned and destroyed everywhere, in revenge for the attacks 
 upon Canada. 
 
2 30 THH SECOND IV A R WITH GREAT BRITAIN [1812 
 
 was a succession of brilliant victories of vVmerican over 
 British vessels, which threw the American people into a 
 fever of rejoicing, and startled the rest of the world. It 
 thoroughly alarmed Great Britain. Hitherto her naval 
 officers had been dismissed from her service if they ran 
 away from a vessel only a little superior in force. Now 
 they received strict orders not to fight an American vessel 
 unless on equal terms. 
 
 366. The First Cruise took place immediately after the 
 declaration of wiw. The larger part of the little navy left 
 New York and sailed through the northern Atlantic Ocean. 
 Nothing was accomplished, except that one of the vessels, 
 the Essex, Captain Porter, captured the British sloop-of- 
 war Alert, after a short fight. Another vessel, the Con^ 
 stitiitio)i. Captain Hull, while sailing to New York to join 
 m the cruise, fell in with a British fleet, and was hotly 
 chased. She escaped into Boston after a chase of three 
 days, in which Hull showed admirable skill and seaman- 
 ship. ^ 
 
 367. Constitution and Guerriere. — In August, the Con- 
 stitution put to sea from Boston. While cruising in the 
 Gulf of St. Lawrence, she fell in with the Giicrricrc, one 
 of the vessels which had lately chased her. The two 
 frigates were supposed to be about equally matched ; but 
 in half an hour the Giicrricrc was a helpless, mastless 
 wreck, with 80 of her crew killed and wounded. The 
 Constitution lost but 14 men, and was in good condition 
 when the Giicrricrc surrendered. The British ship was 
 so badly damaged that she was burned at once. 
 
 368. Remaining Events of 1812. — In October, the sloop- 
 of-war Wasp, Captain Jacob Jones, captured the British 
 
 ' The Constitution {'■^OX'X Ironsides") was considered a lucky sliip by 
 sailors of the time. She was lucky, however, chiefly in having excellent 
 officers, who chose good crews and handled her well. 
 
iSi2] SUCCESSES ON THE OCEAN 23^ 
 
 brig- Frolic, off Cape Ilattcras. The two vessels were 
 about equal in force, and the fi^htini^ on both sides was 
 of the most desperate kind. When the Wasfs crew 
 finally boarded the Frolic, they found on deck only the 
 man at the ^\■heel, and three wounded officers. The two 
 vessels were so badly damaged that they were both cap- 
 tured by a British vessel, the Poicticrs, which overtook 
 them the same day. In the same month, the United 
 States, Captain Decatur (^ 342), met the British frigate 
 MaccdouicDi, off the island of Maderia, on the African 
 coast, and captured her after a battle of an hour and a 
 half The Macedonian was terribly shattered, but Decatur 
 succeeded in bringing his prize into New London. Late 
 in December, the Constitution, now commanded by Cap- 
 tain William Bainbridge, captured the Java, a British 
 frigate of nearly equal force, off the eastern coast of Brazil. 
 Again the British vessel was so badly damaged that it 
 v.'as necessary to destroy her. 
 
 369. The Naval Victories of 18 12 aroused an intense 
 excitement in the United States. For twenty years Great 
 Britain had been at war with almost every nation of 
 Europe, and out of hundreds of battles between single 
 ships of equal force she had lost but five vessels. It had 
 come to be a common saying that, when France launched 
 a vessel, she was only adding one to the British navy. 
 In six months, however, the little American navy had 
 captured five vessels, and had not lost a battle.^ Votes 
 of thanks, swords, gold medals, and silver plate were 
 given to the successful officers ; privateers (§ 240) put to 
 
 • In most of these battles there was a slight superiority on the side of the 
 American vessel. But the difference was not such as British officers had 
 been used to care about ; and the remarkable loss of life on the British 
 vessels showed that the accuracy of the American gunnery was the main 
 reason for the victories. 
 
232 THE SECOND IV A R. WITH GREAT BRITAIN [1813 
 
 sea from every important harbor ; and Congress hurried 
 to vote more money for the navy. There was not much 
 money in the treasury, however, and the ships were not 
 built until after the war. 
 
 370. Victories of 1813. — The year 18 13 opened with 
 another victory. In February, the Hornet, Captain 
 Lawrence, captured the British brig Peacock, off the coast 
 of British Guiana, in South America. The Peacock was so 
 badly cut up that she sank immediately after the surren- 
 der, carrying down some of the men of both vessels. In 
 September, the American brig Enterprise, Lieutenant 
 Burrows, captured the British brig Boxer, off Portland, 
 Maine. Both commanders were killed. 
 
 371. The Blockade Great Britain had become so 
 
 anxious about the naval war that a large part of her fleet 
 
 was transferred to the American 
 coast, WMth strict orders that two 
 or three ships should always sail 
 in company, and that no single 
 battle should be risked unless 
 the force on both sides should be 
 exactly equal. Whenever an 
 American war-vessel entered a 
 harbor, a number of British ships 
 American ounboat ^^ ^j-j^g sailed thither and watched 
 
 the entrance closely. It was not possible for the larger 
 American vessels to get to sea except by accident, and 
 most of the fighting, during the rest of the war, was done 
 by the smaller vessels. All along the coast, there were 
 almost daily battles between the little American "gun- 
 boats " (§ 352) and the boats of the British frigates, in 
 which the most deperate courage was shown on both sides. 
 
 372. Defeats of 1813. — The first American defeat came 
 in June. Captain Lawrence, of the Hornet, had been 
 
if5.3l 
 
 DEFEATS OF iSi 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 James Lawrence. 
 
 promoted to the command of a lar<^cr ship, the Chesa- 
 peake. In this ship he sailed 
 out from Boston harbor and 
 engaged the British frigate 
 Shannon, Captain Broke. 
 The vessels were equally 
 matched. But this time the 
 adv'antage of discipline was 
 on the side of the British ; 
 Broke had carefully trained 
 his men on the American 
 system, while Lawrence had 
 not had time to do so. 
 Other things being equal, 
 discipline decided the battle, 
 and the Chesapeake swvYQnd&r&d. 
 wounded, and died during the 
 were, "Don't give up the ship.' 
 as extravagant rejoicings in England as those of the 
 previous year had done in the United States. In August, 
 rejoicing was increased by the capture of the American 
 brig Aj\q-!is, Captain Allen. The vessel had been cruising 
 around Great Britain, capturing many merchantmen, and 
 severely injuring British trade. The British brig Pelican 
 was sent to search for her, and the two vessels met in the 
 British Channel. The Pelican was slightly superior in 
 force, but still more superior in discipline, and, after a 
 battle of an hour, the Argus surrendered. 
 
 373. Cruise of the Essex — In the spring of i8 1 3, Captain 
 Porter, in the Essex, rounded Cape Horn, and sailed into 
 the Pacific Ocean, where no American frigate had ever 
 been. Here he gave protection to American vessels, 
 captured British whalers, and broke up the British whaling 
 trade in the Pacific. He armed several of his prizes, so 
 
 Lawrence was mortally 
 
 battle ; his last words 
 
 The victory excited 
 
234 THE SECOND IV^IR IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1815 
 
 that he had at one time a considerable fleet, and even paid 
 his men out of the money wliicli he captured. As all the 
 countries around him were friendly to Great Britain, he 
 seized the Marquesas Islands when he wished to refit his 
 fleet, and then continued his cruise. I^arly the next year, 
 the Essex entered the neutral harbor of Valparaiso ; and 
 here she was blockaded by two British vessels, the PJuvbe 
 and the Chcntl\ which had been sent to search for her. 
 In March, while she was in a crippled condition from an 
 accident, the two British vessels attacked her. They 
 pelted her with shot from a distance, while she was 
 unable to close with them ; and, after losing more than 
 half her men, the Essex surrendered. This was the most 
 savage and desperate struggle of the war.^ 
 
 374. Events of 1814. — In addition to the capture of the 
 Essex, there were three hard-fought battles in 18 14, in 
 all of which the American vessels were successful. In 
 April, the Peacock, the name given to a new American 
 war- vessel, took the Eperviej- off the east coast of Florida. 
 During the summer, the ]Vasp, Captain Blakely, took the 
 British brigs Reindeer and Avon in the British Channel. 
 The Wasp was probably lost soon afterward in a storm, 
 for she was never heard of after the following month. 
 For some time after her loss, there was not an American 
 war-vessel on the ocean. 
 
 375. Events of 1815. — In January, 18 15, the United 
 States frigate President, one of the larger American 
 vessels, was captured by a British fleet off Long Island, 
 while trying to get to sea from New York. In February, 
 the Constitution (§ 367), Captain Stewart, after a very 
 skilfully fought battle by moonlight, captured two British 
 vessels, the CyaJie ixwd the Levant, off Lisbon. In March, 
 
 1 In this case, the Phabe alone was a heavier vessel than the Essex. 
 
I Si 5] PRIVATEERS 235 
 
 the Hornet captured the British bric^ Penguin, of equal 
 force, near the Cape of Good Hope; and, soon afterward, 
 the Peaeock (§ 374) captured the weaker British brig 
 Nautilus, near the island of Sumatra, in the Indian Ocean. 
 This was the last capture of the war. Peace had already 
 been made (§ 400), and the Najitihts was restored to the 
 British.^ 
 
 376. Privateers were very active throughout the war. 
 Many of them were as large and powerful as sloops-of- 
 war, and more troublesome to the enemy, for they were 
 built for speed. Sometimes they sailed in fleets of five or 
 more; and, even when alone, they did not hesitate to 
 fight British war-vessels of equal force, and were often 
 successful. One of the most famous was the CJiasseur, 
 Captain Boyle, which for a long time in 18 13 kept the 
 British Channel clear of merchantmen, while she was too 
 fast and too well managed to be caught by heavy war- 
 vessels. She captured 80 vessels, 50 of which were of 
 equal or superior force to her own ; and her captain issued 
 a burlesque proclamation, announcing that he had 
 blockaded the British Islands, and forbidding all other 
 nations to trade with them. In the following year, 18 14, 
 the General Armstrong, Captain Reid, while lying in a 
 neutral harbor of the Azores Islands, was attacked by a 
 fleet of boats from three British frigates, and fought them 
 for a whole night before the ship was abandoned. 
 
 377. Naval Losses. — During the three years of the war, 
 each nation lost about the same number of vessels, 1,700, 
 including merchantment, privateers, and war-vessels ; but 
 in value the British losses were somewhat heavier. No 
 
 'There Iiad l)Len fifteen sliijj-duels during the war, of which the Ameri- 
 cans lost but tliree, those of the Chesapeake (§ 372), tlie Argus (§ 372), and 
 the Essex (§ 373). Such success gave the little American navy a world-wide 
 reputation ; and other nations began, for the first time, to respect the United 
 Stiites as a naval power. 
 
236 THE SECOND IV^R H^ITH GREAT BRITAIN | 1S13 
 
 other nation had succeeded in inflicting equal losses on 
 Great Britain. I*"or example, France, the princii)al enemy 
 of Great Britain, had received about fifty times as much 
 naval loss from the British as she had been able to inflict 
 upon them. 
 
 (5) Successes on the Lakes : iSij-t^. 
 
 378. The Northern Lakes, Champlain, Ontario, and 
 Erie, were of importance in the war. Lake Champlain 
 was a part of the main route to Quebec and Montreal ; 
 and Lakes Ontario and Erie were of great importance to 
 the armies on their shores. The country around the 
 lakes to the northwest of Lake Erie was imsettled and 
 of comparatively little importance. 
 
 379. The Lake Navies were at first very small. The 
 Americans had but one small vessel on Lake Ontario. 
 The British had half a dozen vessels on each of the two 
 larger lakes, but none of them was of any great force. 
 Both sides at once began purchasing and arming merchant- 
 vessels ; but these were soon found to be almost useless 
 for fighting purposes. The real contest was in building 
 new war-vessels, and in this the Americans were success- 
 ful, in spite of their disadvantages. Their side of the 
 lakes was far more thinly settled than the Canadian side ; 
 and they had to bring nails, ropes, guns, men, and pro- 
 visions — everything except timber — from the Atlantic 
 coast, over terribly bad roads. Nevertheless they won 
 complete victories on Lakes Erie and Champlain, and 
 held their own on Lake Ontario. 
 
 380. Lake Ontario. — The operations on Lake Ontario, 
 though very interesting to sailors, are of little interest in 
 a history of the war. Commodore Chauncey commanded 
 the American fleet, and Sir James Yeo the British ; and 
 neither was willing to risk a general battle if the other had 
 
^8'^3] 
 
 LAKE ERIE 
 
 237 
 
 the least superiority. They took turns in controUing the 
 Like. If either was superior in force, the other remained 
 in port until he had built a new and stronger vessel. 
 Then he took possession of the lake, and the other retired 
 to a safe harbor and began building. Most of the credit 
 was gained by the ship-builders on both sides, particularly 
 by Henry Eckford, the American builder. When the 
 war began, i6-gun vessels were the strongest on either 
 side; when it ended, both sides Avere busily building 
 I i2-gun ships, for crews of 1,000 men each.' 
 
 381. Lake Erie.- — In the winter of 18 12-13, while 
 Proctor was superior to the Americans on land (§ 360), 
 Captain Oliver H. Perry 
 was sent to Lake P^rie to 
 form a navy. He worked 
 with the greatest energy, 
 and soon had five new 
 vessels built at Erie- 
 Two of his fleet, the 
 Laivrciicc and the Niag- 
 ara, were fairly large 
 vessels ; all the rest were 
 small. Perry found the 
 British fleet, under Cap- 
 tain Barclay, off San- 
 dusky, and gave battle, 
 September 10, 18 13. 
 His own ship, the Laiv- 
 rcnce, at first bore the whole fire of the British fleet, and 
 was completely disabled. Her sides were beaten in, and 
 only fourteen of her whole crew were fit for duty. Perry 
 
 Oliver H. Perry. 
 
 1 The Ontario navies were used for transporting armies from one part of 
 tlie lake shore to another. There were also many minor boat-fights ; and 
 on one occasion a gt'ncr;il battle ne:ir!\' tf)ok place. 
 
238 THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [181 4 
 
 then leaped into a rovvboat, rowed to the Niagara, and 
 in her attacked the exhausted British fleet. The conflict 
 was short: the Niagara burst through the British hne, 
 firing right and left as she went, and in fifl:een minutes the 
 whole British fleet surrendered. The Americans then 
 controlled the lake ; the fleet carried the army over to 
 Canada; and the battle of the Thames followed, and 
 ended the war in the West.' 
 
 382. Lake Champlain. — During the summer of 18 14, 
 while there was peace for a time in Europe, Great 
 
 Britain sent fresh troops to 
 Canada, for the purpose of 
 invading northern New 
 York, as Burgoyne had done 
 (§ 218). Lake Champlain 
 was a part of their route ; 
 and on the lake there was 
 an American fleet under 
 Commodore Macdonough. 
 The British fleet was com- 
 manded by Commodore 
 Downie. The naval battle, 
 which was to decide the fate 
 of the expedition, took place 
 September 1 1, 18 14, in the harbor of Plattsburgh. The 
 British fleet attacked at daybreak; and, after a desperate 
 battle of over two hours, their four larger vessels surren- 
 dered and the others fled. The British army at once 
 retreated, and the expedition w\as given up.'^ 
 
 ' Perry's fleet, two large uikI seven small vessels, carried 54 guns and 416 
 men, and lost 123 men. Barclay's fleet, two large and four small vessels, 
 carried 63 guns and 440 men, and lost 135 men. Perry's official despatch, 
 announcing the victory, read : "We have met the enemy and they are ours: 
 two ships, t\v(j brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 
 
 2 Macdonough's fleet of four war-vessels and ten gunboats carried 86 guns 
 
 Thomas Macdonough. 
 
[8 1 4] THE ATLANTIC COAST 239 
 
 (6) Jh'sasfcrs on the Atlantic Coast. 
 
 383. The Blockade of the Atlantic coast was enforced 
 by British vessels from the beginning of the year 18 13. 
 At first they were inclined to spare the coast of New 
 England, which they supposed to be friendly to Great 
 Britain; but this policy was soon abandoned, and the 
 whole coast was treated alike. Groups of war-vessels 
 were stationed before each of the principal seaports, and 
 others were continually in motion along the coast, from 
 Halifax on the north to the West Indies, l^arly in 18 13, 
 they took possession of the mouth of Chesapeake Bay as 
 a naval station, and the American Government ordered 
 all the lights to be put out in the neighboring light- 
 houses. 
 
 384. The Atlantic Coast was thus kept in a state of 
 almost constant alarm, for the British vessels were con- 
 tinualh' landing men at exposed points to burn, plunder, 
 and destroy. Private property was seized in great quan- 
 tities everywhere, and the war seemed to the Americans 
 to be mainly one of general robbery by the British navy. 
 In 18 1 3, the defenceless towns of Lewes, Havre de Grace, 
 and Hampton (near Fortress Monroe) were bombarded, 
 and Stonington, Conn., in 1814; and a number of smaller 
 towns were burned or plundered. Attacks on New York 
 and other larger cities were prevented only by fear of tor- 
 pedoes, by means of which the Americans had nearly 
 blown up one or two British ships which ventured too 
 near New York. Fulton (§ 337) had also built at New 
 
 and 882 men, and lost about 200 men. Downie's fleet of four war-vessels 
 and twelve gunboats carried 92 guns and 937 men, and lost about 300 men. 
 Macdonough's despatch, announcing the victory, read : "The Almighty has 
 been pleased to grant us a signal victory on Lake Champlain, in the capture 
 of one frigate, one brig, and two sloops-of-war of the enemy." 
 
240 THE SECOND IVAR IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [1814 
 
 York a steam floating battery, the first of its kind, and the 
 reports in regard to it helped to keep the British at a safe 
 distance. 
 
 385. Maine, as far as the Penobscot River, was seized 
 by the British in 18 14 and held until the end of the war. 
 This seizure excited great alarm in the rest of New Eng- 
 land, for it was believed that the enemy intended to 
 advance along the coast in the following year. 
 
 386. Washington, — In August, 18 14, a new British fleet 
 brought over an army of 5,000 men to the Chesapeake. 
 
 They landed in Maryland, where 
 the Patuxent River empties into 
 the bay, and set out on a march 
 of forty miles northwest to Wash- 
 ington. The American Govern- 
 ment had utterly neglected to 
 prepare for the defence of the 
 capital, and it was now too late 
 to do so. A feeble attempt to 
 resist was made at Bladensburgh, 
 a village near the capital, but it 
 was overpowered at once. The 
 British then entered Washington 
 and burned the Capitol and other 
 public buildings.^ 
 
 387. Baltimore. — After attacking Washington, the Brit- 
 ish made a hasty retreat across the country, and embarked 
 again on their fleet. * They then sailed up the bay to 
 attack Baltimore. But that city made a stout and success- 
 ful resistance. The ships were repulsed in an attack on 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 Attack on Washington— Course 
 OF THE British. 
 
 1 This act of the Britisli lias been excused by tlie Ijurning of a public build- 
 ing in York, Canada, after its capture by the Americans (§ 362). But that 
 act was not perpetrated by government order, as was the destruction of 
 Wasliington. 
 
i8i4] THF. H^RT/'ORD CONI^HNTION 241 
 
 Fovt McHcnr}', and the army withdrew, after an unsuc- 
 cessful battle at North Point, below the city, without 
 accomplishing anything. Its commander, General Ross, 
 was killed.^ 
 
 388. Admiral Cockburn, the British naval commander, 
 then changed his headquarters to Cumberland Island, on 
 the Georgia coast. From this point, until peace was 
 made, he carried on a warfare of robbery, and then he 
 retired from American soil with his plunder. Before this 
 took place, a large part of his land force took part in the 
 expedition to New Orleans and shared in its complete 
 defeat (§ 399). 
 
 (7) Dissatisfaction at Home. 
 
 389. The New England States had never been satisfied 
 with the war (§ 355); and their dissatisfaction was in- 
 creased by its early fiiilures. The American Govern- 
 ment's management had not been very successful. At 
 first, its commanders were not wisely selected. Its 
 treasury was badly managed, so that it had little money 
 and could with difficulty borrow, even at high interest. 
 The national government seemed to be unable to check 
 the British attacks on the coast; and the New England 
 States came to believe that it did not care to afford them 
 any protection. Finally, late in 18 14, they sent delegates 
 to meet at Hartford, in Connecticut, and consider the 
 state of affairs. 
 
 390.* The Hartford Convention. — The Hartford Conven- 
 tion was composed of Federalist delegates from the States 
 of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, with 
 others chosen by local conventions in New Hampshire 
 
 ' During the night attack on l^'ort McHenr}-, the national song, the 
 "Star-Spangled Banner," was written by Francis S. Key, who had visited 
 the British fleet, to obtain the release of some prisoners, and had been 
 detained there. 
 
2 42 THE SECOND WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN [i^i4 
 
 and Vermont. Its meetings were held in secret, and "it 
 was supposed to be plotting to break up the Union and 
 form a separate government in New England. It made 
 a public report, in which it urged that the States be given 
 the right to defend themselves without waiting for the 
 Federal Government, and that certain portions of the 
 Federal taxes collected in the States be assigned to the 
 States for that purpose ; and recommending such amend- 
 ment of the Constitution as would restrict the right of 
 Congress to lay embargoes or declare war. Commissioners 
 from Massachusetts and Connecticut were sent to Wash- 
 ington to urge the adoption of the recommendations by 
 Congress; but before they arrived the war had ended, and 
 their mission came to nothing. The wide-spread impres- 
 sion that the proceedings of the Hartford Convention were 
 of a treasonable nature bred great indignation against it, 
 and helped much to put an end to the Federalist party 
 soon after the war. 
 
 (8) Successes in the N'orth : iSi^. 
 
 391. The Reorganization of the American army in 
 western New York was successfully effected during the 
 winter of 1813-14 (§ 364). The excellent results of the 
 work w^ere seen in July, 18 14, when the country was sur- 
 prised and delighted by several victories won by the same 
 army which had before been so unsuccessful. These 
 victories, to be sure, came too late to have much effect on 
 the war ; but they showed that the former defeats were due 
 to the generals, not to the men. They were as follows: 
 
 392. Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. — Early in July, the 
 army, under command of Brown, Scott, and Ripley, 
 crossed the Niagara River from I^uffalo, and captured 
 YoxX. Erie. Turning to the north, toward Eake Ontario, 
 
i8i3] 
 
 THE IV^m IN THF. SOU T HUT. ST 
 
 ^43 
 
 K r o 
 
 it met the enemy (July 5), stronL,rly intrenched behind a 
 little stream called the Chippewa. 
 The American troops were now 
 well trained and well handled, 
 and drove the British out of their 
 intrenchments and up to the 
 shore of Lake Ontario. The 
 British, however, receiv^ed rein- 
 forcements, and turned back to 
 "meet the pursuing Americans. 
 The two armies met (July 25) at 
 a place called Lundy's Lane, or 
 
 B-J , -\T. IT 1 I SCAUE OF MILES 
 
 rid"'ewater, near JNiasfara rails. ^ — -^ 
 
 fc" ' C> U 5 15 25 
 
 The battle, which began at sun- Niagara frontier. 
 
 set and lasted until midnight, was one of the most stub- 
 bornly contested of the war. The British lost their com- 
 mander, who was wounded and captured, and were finally 
 driven some distance from the field. But the Americans 
 had also lost heavily ; Brown and Scott were wounded ; 
 and Ripley the next morning ordered his army to retreat 
 to F'ort Erie. 
 
 393. Fort Erie was besieged in September by a superior 
 force of the enemy; but Brown, who had recovered, 
 reassumed command of the army, and drove his besiegers 
 back again beyond the Chippewa. Before the winter set 
 in, the Americans retired to their own side of the Niagara 
 River, and the treaty of peace soon put a stop to further 
 hostilities. 
 
 (9) S71CCCSSCS in the Southivcst : iSij-i^. 
 
 394. The Southwest Territory, now the States of Alabama 
 and Mississippi, was at this time almost entirely an Indian 
 country. Its only important white settlements were 
 Natchez and Mobile. Mobile was claimed by Spain as 
 
2 44 THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRTTAIN [1S14 
 
 within her territory of Florida; but the Americans had 
 lately taken possession of it by force. North of this terri- 
 tory was the State of Tennessee, and southwest of it was 
 New Orleans, the principal city of Louisiana. The Creeks 
 were the principal Indian tribe of the southwest, and from 
 the outbreak of the war they took sides against the 
 United States. 
 
 395. Fort Mims. — Early in 18 13, the Tennessee militia 
 were called out to keep the Indians quiet; and, in order 
 to watch the Indian country from the west side, they 
 marched to Natchez under General Andrew Jackson 
 (§ 438). But the government believed that the Indians 
 intended to remain at peace, and the Tennessee troops 
 were dismissed, to the great surprise and anger of Jack- 
 son. In August, 18 1 3, a shocking event showed that the 
 Creeks did not intend to remain at peace. About 500 
 men, women, and children had taken refuge in Fort Mims, 
 near Mobile; and the Creeks surprised the fort, captured 
 it, and massacred nearly all who were in it. 
 
 396. The Creek War. — The Tennessee troops were again 
 called out, under command of Jackson. He marched into 
 the Indian country, drove the Creeks from one stronghold 
 to another, and finally broke their power in a great battle 
 at Tohopeka, or Horseshoe Bend, on the Tallapoosa 
 River, in eastern Alabama. Eight hundred of the Creeks 
 were killed, and the tribe gave up most of its territory. 
 This series of victories made Jackson the leading general 
 of the southwest. 
 
 397. Peace in Europe had been attained by Great Britain 
 in 1814. All the other leading nations of Europe united 
 with her in compelling Napoleon to leave France and re- 
 tire to the island of Elba, in the Mediterranean. Great 
 Britian Avas thus left at liberty to direct all her energies 
 toward the United States. One force went to Canada 
 
I'^'Sl 
 
 THH BATTLE OF NHIV ORUzANS 
 
 245 
 
 
 (^ 382); aiiotlicr was sent to attack Washington (v:;' 3S6) ; 
 but tlic main body was sent on a great expedition against 
 New Orleans, with the design of retaining that city and 
 Louisiana when peace should be made. 
 
 398. The Defence of the Southwest was entrusted to 
 Jackson, who worked with extraordinary energy to make 
 it secure. He raised 
 
 volunteers in Ten- 
 nessee, seizx'd the 
 Spanish town of 
 Pensacola, which 
 had given assist- 
 ance to the British, 
 and then hurried to 
 fortify New Orleans 
 before the arrival 
 of the British. A 
 few miles below the 
 city, where there 
 was onl}' a narrow 
 passage between an 
 impassable swamp 
 and the Mississippi 
 
 10 20 io 60 
 
 Expedition against Nf.w Orleans. 
 
 River, he put up a line of intrenchments, and held his 
 ground while the riflemen of Kentucky and Tennessee 
 luirried down the river to his assistance. 
 
 399. The Battle of New Orleans. — The British expedi- 
 tion, under Sir Edward Pakenham, entered Lake Borgne 
 in December, captured the American gunboats, and 
 landed below Jackson's works. The British numbered 
 12,000, and Jackson's army 6,000; but the British were 
 trained and veteran troops, while the Americans were 
 almost as undisciplined as those at Bunker Hill. For a 
 few weeks there were night-attacks and skirmishes, in 
 
2 4<J THE SHCOND IV /I R WITH GREAT BRITAIN \j^iS 
 
 which neither party had the advantage. January 8, 1815, 
 the whole British Hne moved forward, in a dense fog, to 
 attack Jackson's works. Again, as at Bunker Hill, there 
 was a steady silence in the fortifications until the British 
 were so near that the fire of the riflemen was murderous. 
 Whole platoons of the attacking troops fell in their tracks, 
 as if levelled by one discharge. Within twenty-five min- 
 utes the whole British line was in full retreat, having lost 
 its commander and 2,500 men. The American loss was 
 8 killed and 13 wounded. A few days afterward, the 
 British retired to their ships, and set sail for the West 
 Indies. Peace had already been made, though neither 
 army knew it. 
 
 (10) Peace. 
 
 400. Peace Negotiations had been going on almost from 
 the beginning of the war. In 18 13, Russia had offered to 
 mediate between Great Britain and the United States ; that 
 is, to assist, as a friend of both parties, in arranging terms 
 of peace; but Great Britain declined the offer. Soon after. 
 Great Britain expressed its willingness to deal directly 
 with the United States ; and President Madison appointed 
 five commissioners to arrange a treaty. The}'' met the 
 British commissioners at Ghent, a city of Belgium, and, 
 after long negotiations, agreed upon a treaty of peace late 
 in 1 8 14 (December 24). This was ratified by the United 
 States and put a stop to the w^ar. Peace had thus been 
 agreed upon before the battle of New Orleans was fought, 
 but there w^as then no ocean telegraph to bring the news 
 in time to avoid the battle. 
 
 401. The Treaty of Peace settled nothing as to the 
 Orders in Council or the impressment of seamen, which 
 had caused the war (§ 344). These matters, however. 
 
i8i5] RHSUI.TS OF THB IVAR 247 
 
 were now of very little importance. Napoleon had been 
 conquered; and the general peace in the world, and the 
 ability shown by the American navy during the war, 
 made it very unlikely that any such difficulties would 
 occur again. After the war, the growing power of the 
 United States made these old c^uestions of still less im- 
 portance; and Great Britain never again attempted to 
 enforce her Orders in Council, or her asserted rights of 
 search and impressment.^ 
 
 402. The News travelled slowly in 181 5. Jackson's 
 victory of January 8 was not known at Washington until 
 February 4, when it made the people wild with joy. The 
 news of the treaty of peace reached New York a week 
 later, and was received with equal pleasure. It was wel- 
 come to every one, for the affairs of the country were in 
 very bad condition. There was little commerce, or busi- 
 ness of any kind; and poverty and distress were general. 
 Farmers had not been able to sell their crops ; the price 
 of all things had risen ; and there was little money in the 
 country with which to buy. All classes hoped and 
 believed that prosperity would return with peace. 
 
 403. Results of the War. — The war had been a terrible 
 experience for the American people : it had brought 
 poverty, distress, defeats as well as victories, and much 
 dissension. But it taught the people the importance of a 
 strong national government. They saw that their defeats 
 hadcome from the weakness of the Federal Government, 
 and that it was the success of the Federal Government's 
 navy which had for the first time gained them respect 
 abroad. The Republicans had wished to keep the Federal 
 
 ' In 1861, Great Britain nearly went to war with the United States 
 because an American naval ofificer exercised the old right of search (§ 662). 
 In this case, the United States Government maintained the principle of the 
 War of 18 1 2. and refused to support the action of the naval officer. 
 
248 THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRITAIN [^^16 
 
 Government relatively weak, that the States niig^ht not be 
 forced to do anythinj^ which they should not wish to do; 
 but this looked very differently when the Republicans 
 began to fear that the New England States would attempt 
 to leave the Union. From this time, the Federal Govern- 
 ment was as dear to the Republicans as it had been to the 
 Federalists ; so that we may fairly say that it was the war 
 of 1 8 12 which gave the nation respect at home as well as 
 abroad (§ 328). 
 
 404. The Barbary States (§ 341), during the war, had 
 not only allowed the British to capture American vessels 
 in their harbors, but had even made some captures them- 
 selves. In 1 81 5, Decatur, with a fleet, was sent to 
 demand satisfaction from Algiers. Its frightened ruler 
 came on board Decatur's ship and signed a treaty by 
 which he promised to pay for the American ships illegally 
 captured, to make no more captures, and to ask no more 
 money for keeping the peace. Decatur's fleet then set 
 sail for Tripoli and Tunis, and forced them to agree to 
 the same terms. There has been no further trouble with 
 the Barbary pirates. 
 
 405. Settlements were now increasing throughout the 
 West. The defeat of the Creeks (§ 396) had opened up 
 the southwest to settlement, and the future States of 
 Alabama and Mississippi were already marked out. In 
 the northwest, two States, Ohio and Indiana, had been 
 formed, and the two future States of Illinois and Michigan 
 were marked out in the form of Territories. Louisiana 
 was admitted as a State in 18 12, and Indiana in 18 16. 
 The settlement of the whole West was being greatly 
 hastened by the invention of the steamboat, which had 
 now begun to be common on Western rivers. When the 
 war broke out, steamboats \yere running on the Hudson, 
 Raritan, Delaware, Ohio, and St. Lawrence rivers, and 
 
i8i6] COMMFRCF. AND FINANCF 249 
 
 on Lake Chaniplain ; and a steam ferryboat had begun 
 to take the place of the cUnnsy scows which ran between 
 New York and Brooklyn. In 1 8 16, a steamboat 
 ascended the Mississippi and Ohio to Louisville. The 
 war had also increased the settlement of western New 
 York, and Buffalo and Rochester soon became important 
 places. 
 
 406. Commerce and Business revived as soon as the 
 war ended. Farmers found a market for their crops ; 
 wealth increased apace ; every interest prospered except 
 manufactures. Foreign-manufactured goods had been 
 shut out of the country during the war; and many Ameri- 
 cans had spent much money in building factories. When 
 peace was made, English factories sent their goods to the 
 United States, and sold them cheaper than the American 
 factories could afford to. The American owners were 
 thus compelled either to close their factories, or to sell 
 their goods at a loss. Their difficulties had a great influ- 
 ence on public affairs for many years to come, for the 
 American manufacturers were urgent that the tariff of 
 duties on imports should be made high enough to shut 
 out the foreign goods (§ 425). 
 
 407. The National Debt of the United States was now 
 about $127,000,000, of which about $80,000,000 was 
 the cost of the war. But the government was no longer 
 pressed for money. From 18 14 to 181 5, exports rose 
 from $7,000,000 to $53,000,000; imports, from $13,- 
 000,000 to $113,000,000; and duties paid to the govern- 
 ment, from $4,000,000 to $38,000,000. 
 
 408. The National Bank, which had been chartered in 
 1791 (§ 300)' came to an end in 181 1. In 1816, Con- 
 gress chartered a new National Bank, on about the same 
 plan, for twenty years. The public money was to be 
 deposited in it, or in its branches, unless the Secretary of 
 
250 THE SFCOND IV^R IVITH GREAT RRTTAIN [1S16 
 
 the Treasury sliould at any time order it to be deposited 
 elsewhere (§ 469). 
 
 409. Presidential Election. — It was in this period that 
 the FederaHst party ceased to be a factor of importance 
 in national politics. The party had performed an in- 
 estimable service in the organization of the government 
 under Washington ; but its opposition to the War of 
 1 8 12 had alienated young men, and cost it popular sup- 
 port. There was but one party left, the Republican, or, 
 as it was coming to be called, the Democratic party. 
 The Republicans, accordingly, had little opposition in 
 electing a successor to Madison. James Monroe, of 
 Virginia, was chosen President (18 16). He represented 
 still more than Madison the new feelings which had 
 grown out of the Avar, and the few remaining Federal- 
 ists soon came to like him. Daniel D. Tompkins, of 
 New York, was chosen Vice-President. He had been 
 Governor of his State during the war, and had supported 
 the Federal Government vigorously.^ 
 
 410. The Leading Events of Madison's administrations 
 
 were as follows: 
 
 1809-13 : Madison's First Term § 348 
 
 1 8 10: End of the Non-Intercourse Law. . . . 349 
 
 181 1 : The President and Li/lle Belt 349 
 
 Battle of Tij)pecanoe (November 7) . . 350 
 
 181 2 : Admission of Louisiana 405 
 
 War declared against Great Britain 
 
 (June 18) 351 
 
 The Essex takes the Alert (August 13). 366 
 
 Hull's surrender (August 16) 356 
 
 The Constitution takes the Guerriere 
 
 (Aug. 19) 367 
 
 Battle of Queenstown Heights (Octo- 
 ber 13) 357 
 
 ' The Federalist candidates were Rufus King, of New York, for Presi- 
 dent, and various others for Vice-President. They received 34 out of 221 
 electoral votes. 
 
8 14 J LEADING EVENTS, iSog-,S/6 251 
 
 1812: 'I'hc jr</j/) takes the //W/c (October 18) § ^US 
 
 The Uniied S/a/esXz\^c^i\\it Jllaccdoiiid/i 
 
 (Oct. 25) 3^'S 
 
 The Cofisiitu/ion takes the //r,/ (De- 
 cember 29) Z^^''^ 
 
 1813 : Massacre at the Riii^iu River (Jan- 
 uary 22) 359 
 
 The Hornet takes the Peacock ( l'"eb- 
 
 ruary 24) • 37° 
 
 Cruise of the Essex in the Pacilie. ... 373 
 
 1813 : Capture of York (/Vpril 27) 362 
 
 Siege of Fort Meigs (]May i) 360 
 
 The Chesapeake taken by the Shaiuion 
 
 (June i) 372 
 
 Siege of Fort Stephenson (August 2) . 361 
 
 The Argus taken by the Pelican 
 
 (August 14) 372 
 
 Massacre at Fort Mims (August 30).. 395 
 
 The Enterprise takes the Boxer (Sep- 
 tember 5) 370 
 
 Perry's victory on Lake I^rie (Septem- 
 ber 10) 381 
 
 Battle of the Thames (October 5) . . . . 361 
 
 1814: Battle of Tohopeka, Ala. (?^Iarch 27) 396 
 
 The Essex taken by the Phabe antl 
 
 the Cherub (March 28) 373 
 
 The Peacock takes the Epervier (April 
 
 29) 374 
 
 The Wasp takes the Reindeer (J une 28 ). 374 
 
 Capture of Fort Frie (July 3) 392 
 
 Battle of Chippewa (July 5) 392 
 
 Battle of Lundy's Lane (July 25). . . . 392 
 Burning of Washington (Augu.^t 24). 386 
 The Wasp takes the Avon (September i ) 374 
 Macdonough's victory on Lake Cham- 
 plain (September 11) 382 
 
 Attack on Fort INIcHenrv (September 
 
 13) ■ Z^l 
 
 Battle of Fort Frie (September 17). . . 393 
 
 Jackson takes Pensacola (November 7) 398 
 
 Hartford Convention (December 15).. 390 
 
 Treaty of peace signed (December 24) 400 
 
2 5^ THE SECOND IV A R IVITH GREAT BRITAIN fiSi6 
 
 1815 : Battle of New Orleans ()anuaiy 8). . . i^ 399 
 The Prcsidcnl taken by a JJritish Iket 
 
 (Jan- 15).. 375 
 
 The Consiilution takes the Cvane and 
 
 the Levant (February 20) 375 
 
 The Hornet takes the Penguin (]\lavch 
 
 23) 375 
 
 Decatur brings Algiers to terms (June 
 
 28) 404 
 
 The PeacocJi takes the Xaiililus (|une 
 
 30) 375 
 
 l8i6': National Bank chartered 408 
 
 Admission of Indiana. 405 
 
 Topics for Further Study, 
 
 1. Causes of the war of 18 12. 
 
 2. The Henry documents. 
 
 3. The Hartford Convention. 
 
 4. National receipts and expenditures under Jefferson and 
 Madison. 
 
 5. Early settlement of Indiana. 
 
 6. The Cumberland road. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — MacDonald's Select Documents gives the Non- 
 Intercourse Act (No. 28), Madison's war message (No, 29) and 
 the declaration of war (No. 30), the treaty of Ghent (No. 31), 
 the recommendations of the Hartford Convention (No, 32), and 
 the National Bank Act (No. t,i). Niles' s Weeldy Register, 
 begun in 1811, contains a great amount of valuable material, 
 but ill arranged and difficult to use. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The best general account, to 1817, 
 is still Henry Adams's History of tlie United States. The 
 j\Iemoirs of John Quincy Adams now become of importance, as 
 do also, among biographies, INIorse's John Quiticy Adams, 
 Schurz's Heniy Clay, Sumner's Jackson, Oilman's Monroe, and 
 INIcLaughlin's Lewis Cass. Military events are treated in 
 Lossing's Pictorial Field-Book 0/ ihe War of 18 1 2 and Inger- 
 soll's Historical Sketch of the Second War. For naval events, 
 see especially Maclay's History of the United States Navy, 
 
SUrri.F.MBN T.-IR Y RH/IDING 253 
 
 Roosevelt's N'aihil War of 1S12, and Cui^L^cshaH's Historv 0/ 
 American Privateers. (Ju the opposition to the war in New 
 England, and the Hartford Convention, see Lodge's George 
 Cabot, chaps. 11-13; Barry's Massachusetts, vol. iii., pp. 407- 
 422; i^yixxizy' '^ Josiah Quincv; Lodge's Webster; Curtis's Webster; 
 and Ormsby's History of the Whig Party. Dunn's Indiana 
 treats the history of that State with particular reference to the 
 slavery struggle. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — Irving's Astoria and Captain 
 Bomieville; D. G. Mitchell's Doctor fohns ; Holmes's Old 
 Ironsides, 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT 
 
 (1) Monroe's Administrations: 1817-2S 
 
 James Monroe, Va., President. Daniel D. Tompkins, N. Y., Vice-President. 
 
 411. The New President. — President Monroe was not a 
 very able party leader, but he was probably for that 
 
 reason a better President 
 for his time. He had 
 been a Revolutionary of- 
 ficer, Governor of Vir- 
 ginia, the Minister to 
 P^rance when Louisiana 
 was bought (§ 334), and 
 Secretary of War-; so 
 that he was not an un- 
 known man. But the 
 new feeling of national 
 strength made it good 
 that the people should 
 cease to do this or that 
 simply because they 
 loved and admired Ham- 
 ilton or Jefferson or any 
 other party leader, and 
 
 James Monroe. sllOuld leam tO SUppOrt Or 
 
 oppose measures according to their probable influence on 
 the welfare of the country. Monroe was a safe President, 
 
 254 
 
I St 7] NEIV LEADERS 255 
 
 who was not likely to do rash or foolish thini;-s; but 
 people did not admire him or dislike him enoui;h to have 
 their attention called off from public affairs. 
 
 412. The New Leaders. — At the same time, new men 
 were coming into public life. Monroe's Cabinet had 
 several very able members. John Quincy Adams, the 
 Secretary of State, the son of John Adams, of Massa- 
 chusetts, was one of the ablest. Another was John C. 
 Calhoun, of South Carolina, the Secretary of War, one 
 of the strongest men in argument that the country has 
 yet produced. Another was William H. Crawford, of 
 Georgia, the Secretary of the Treasury, a hard worker, 
 and much liked at the South. There were other strong 
 men outside of the Cabinet. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, 
 the leader of the House of Representatives, was a man 
 of great eloquence, ingenious in contriving ways to help 
 Congress out of difficulties, and a man whom other men 
 were apt to like very strongly; and he was popular, 
 further, because he had done a great deal to rouse the 
 people to resist Great Britain in the War of 1812. Daniel 
 Webster, at first of New Hampshire and afterwards of 
 Massachusetts, had already shown that he was even a 
 more eloquent speaker than Clay. Finally, outside of both 
 Cabinet and Congress, was Andrew Jackson, of Ten- 
 nessee, who had won the battle of New Orleans (§ 399). 
 His case was different from that of all the others. They 
 had risen in public life by education or by showing that 
 they had some form of ability peculiar to themselves. 
 He had risen by showing that he was prompt and vigor- 
 ous in dealing with unexpected difficulties, and by the 
 belief of a great many that he really cared more for the 
 interests of the people than did other leaders of his time. 
 413. Era of Good Feeling. — During Monroe's first term, 
 the Federalist party entirely disappeared from politics. 
 
256 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1.S21 
 
 Its members either ceased voting or called themselves 
 Republicans. This period is therefore often called "the 
 era of good feeling. ' ' At the end of Monroe's first term, 
 the Republicans were successful in the Presidential elec- 
 tion of 1820 without any opposition, and Monroe and 
 Tompkins were re-elected President and Vice-President. 
 But the vote was not quite unanimous. One electoral 
 vote was cast against Monroe, and fourteen against 
 Tompkins, so that they should not have the unanimous 
 vote which had been given to no candidate except Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 414. Florida was added to the territory of the United 
 States d-uring this administration. It had been a Spanish 
 possession, and its governors had given the United States 
 much trouble during the war (§ 398). After the close of 
 the war, the Seminole Indians of Florida, aided by the 
 Spaniards, kept up hostilities against the whites of Georgia 
 and Alabama. Jackson, who still commanded there, 
 soon lost all patience, and marched his army into P'lorida. 
 He seized Pensacola, and hanged two British subjects, 
 Arbuthnot and Ambrister, whom he accused of leading 
 the Seminoles. Spain protested, and Pensacola was given 
 back. But Florida was so evidently at the mercy of the 
 United States that Spain agreed to sell it for about 
 $5,000,000. The treaty was made in 18 19, though it 
 was not ratified until 1821. 
 
 415. Negro Slavery. — The admission of Missouri brought 
 about the first thoroughly angry discussion of slavery. 
 Negro slavery had in 1820 almost entirely disappeared 
 from the old States north of Virginia (§ 188); and it had 
 been forbidden from the beginning in the new States 
 north of the Ohio (§ 274). In the southern States, how- 
 ever, it showed no signs of disappearance, for the cotton- 
 gin had made it profitable (§ 316); and people in general 
 
i82i| THE SLAyERY {QUESTION 257 
 
 had not yet come to see how much it was really injuriiiL;" 
 the industry of the country. The first settlers in Ken- 
 tucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi naturally 
 took their slaves with them; and when these States were 
 admitted, they came in as slave States. Slavery existed 
 in the Territory of Louisiana when it was bought from 
 France ; Congress did nothing to stop it ; and thus Louisi- 
 ana became a slave State. The number of slaves in the 
 rest of the Territory grew steadily; and when Missouri 
 applied for admission, it was as a slave State. 
 
 416. Two Sections had thus been formed in the United 
 States, the North forbidding slavery, the South encourag- 
 ing it. This one difference not only changed the inner 
 life of the two sections, but made them opponents of one 
 another. Many of the laws passed by Congress for the 
 whole country Avould have different effects in the different 
 sections; in consequence, one section or the other was 
 likely to be aggrieved, no matter what shape the law 
 finally took. As each section felt that it had peculiar 
 needs of its own, each naturally sought to control Con- 
 gress. Most new settlers preferred the free States, where 
 work would not be dishonorable ; and so the free States 
 increased in population more rapidly than the slave States. 
 The States are represented in the House of Representa- 
 tives according to their population (i$ 281), so that the 
 growing free States would always control that part of 
 Congress. In the Senate, each State has an equal \'ote ; 
 and a new slave .State, even with a smaller population, 
 would have as large a vote as a free State. The only 
 opportunit}' of the South, then, was in the Senate, and 
 it took care to balance each new free State by bringing 
 in a new slave State at about the same time. 
 
 417. The Case of Missouri. — There was no difficulty as 
 long as the new States were formed from the Territory 
 
258 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMEhIT [1821 
 
 east of the Mississippi, where slavery had already been 
 either forbidden or permitted. When, however, Missouri 
 applied for admission as a slave State, there was difficulty 
 at once, for each section wanted the new State. It was 
 necessary that both Houses of Congress should agree to 
 admit it. The House of Representatives, which the free 
 States controlled, declared that Missouri should not come 
 in as a slave State; that it had never been intended, when 
 the Constitution was framed, that slavery should spread 
 beyond the Mississippi, or new slave States be admitted; 
 and that Congress ought now to refuse to admit Missouri 
 save as a free State. In the Senate, where the South was 
 in control, it was insisted that the Constitution had left 
 the control of slavery to the States ; that Missouri had 
 chosen to be a slave State; and that, in consequence. 
 Congress had no right to interfere in the matter. For 
 a time nothing could be done, the two Houses being 
 unable to agree, and the feeling between the represen- 
 tatives of the two sections becoming constantly more 
 bitter. 
 
 418. The Missouri Compromise. — After two years of 
 heated discussion, the difficulty was settled, in 1820, by 
 the Missouri Compromise. Missouri was to be admitted 
 as a slave State, thus granting the demand of the South; 
 but slavery was to be forever prohibited in the remainder 
 of the Louisiana purchase, north of the southern boundary 
 of Missouri (latitude 36° 30'). On the other hand. 
 Maine, which had applied for admission at about the same 
 time, was admitted as a free State. Nothing was said of 
 the territory south of the parallel 2)^° 30', but it was 
 understood that slavery would continue to exist there, as 
 heretofore. Under this compromise, Missouri was ad- 
 mitted to the Union in 1821. The Missouri Compromise 
 was mainly the A\ork of Cla)-, and afforded a practical 
 
1824] THf- MONROE DOCTRINE 259 
 
 settlement of the territorial side of the slavery question 
 for about thirt}' }-ears. 
 
 419.* Other New States. — Three other new States were 
 admitted duriny; Monroe's administrations. Mississippi 
 (1817) was a part of the territory oris^inally claimed by 
 Georgia, as was also Alabama (18 19). Both of these 
 were slave States. Illinois (18 18), the third State formed 
 from the Northwest Territor\% came into the Union sub- 
 ject to the provisions of the Ordinance of 1787, without 
 slavery. The number of States was now twenty-four. 
 
 420. The Monroe. Doctrine. — The former Spanish colonies 
 in Mexico and South America had rebelled and become 
 independent. Spain was too weak to make them submit, 
 but there were strong suspicions that some of the other 
 governments of Europe meant to help Spain. President 
 Monroe therefore declared in a message to Congress, 
 in 1823, that the United States had no intention of inter- 
 fering with any \\ar in Europe, or \\ith an}' recognized 
 European colonies in America; but that no more Euro- 
 pean colonies should be planted in America; and that 
 the United States would not view with indifference "an 
 attempt by any nation of Europe to reduce an independ- 
 ent nation of North or South America to the condition of 
 a colony. " This very important principle is called the 
 Monroe Doctrine, and has always since been the declared 
 policy of the United States in foreign affairs. 
 
 421. La Fayette (^ 214) was invited to pay a visit to 
 the United States in 1824. He came, an old man of 68, 
 to a country that had changed wonderfully since he had 
 seen it in his youth. He had left it a weak, thinly settled 
 fringe of settlements along the Atlantic coast, too poor 
 to pay its troops. He found it a nation with a population 
 of 9,633,822 in 1820 (^ 353), with States beyond the 
 Mississippi, with a powerful and successful navy, and the 
 
2 6o SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1824 
 
 prospect of a still more wonderful future. In his }-outh 
 he might have visited all the States without leaving salt 
 water; now he had to travel more than a thousand miles 
 away from the Atlantic to reach some of them. In France, 
 he had just been treated disrespectfully and unkindly by 
 his own government; and Congress and the country made 
 it a point to show how grateful the American people were 
 to him. As he passed up New York Bay, Fort La Fayette 
 saluted him; processions, parades, and greetings of every 
 sort met him wherever he went; and the wliole country 
 seemed to stop its work for the moment to give him a 
 welcome such as he had never expected. After a visit of 
 more than a year as the guest of the nation, he was sent 
 back to France in a United States frigate, the Braiidyiviiic, 
 which had just been launched and named in his honor, 
 and with a present from the United States of two hundred 
 thousand dollars in money, and a township of public 
 lands. 
 
 422. The Condition of the Country was not greatly 
 changed, though it was just on the \-erge of great changes. 
 One important invention had been introduced from 
 England: lighting by gas was begun in 1822, and soon 
 became common. The use of steamboats had made 
 river-navigation as easy as at present, but trax'clling by 
 land was as difficult as ever. Little could be done to 
 improve it until steam-railroads were introduced (§ 443) ; 
 but in the mean time Congress and the States voted money 
 freely for the improvement of roads and the construction 
 of canals. New York led the way in this work. 
 
 423. The National Road. — One of the difficulties which 
 had done most to keep the country poor was the exceed- 
 ing badness of the roads. Most of them were made by 
 scraping up a little dirt from the sides of the road into the 
 middle of it; in dry weather they were dusty, and in wet 
 
1 8 2^] r.-IRll-F DISCUSSION 261 
 
 weather they became mutl-holes, throuL,di which wag'ons 
 or stages could scarcely travel. All through this period, 
 Congress was appropriating money for the construction of 
 a National Road, carefully made, with hard surface, easy 
 grades and good bridges, rinining westward from Cumber- 
 land, in northwestern Maryland. It was meant in part 
 for the convenience of emigrants, and in part for the pur- 
 pose of showing the people how a good road ought to be 
 made. It was gradually extended as far as Indiana, when 
 the introduction of the railroad made it needless to build 
 it any farther. Many other roads were built or im2:)roved 
 by the United States during this period. 
 
 424. The Erie Canal. — Freight can be carried more 
 cheaply by canal than by ordinary roads, and there was 
 a strong desire for more canals. The largest, the Erie 
 Canal, w^as finished (1825) by the State of Ne\v' York, 
 after eight years of work, and strong opposition from those 
 who thought it a waste of money. De Witt Clinton had 
 carried it through, and his opi)onents called it " Clinton's 
 Big Ditch." But when it was found that it could carry 
 freight from Buffalo to New York for one-tenth of the 
 amount formerly paid, and that a stream of trade from the 
 Great Lakes was pouring through the new canal to New 
 York City, opposition ceased, and other States began the 
 construction of canals, some of which received national 
 aid. 
 
 425. Protective and Revenue Tariffs. — Much of the ex- 
 pense of the Federal Government is met by taxes, or 
 duties, laid on imports ; and as to the rates of such duties 
 there are two opinions. (i) Those wlio believe in Pro- 
 tection wish the duties on imports, especially on manufac- 
 tured articles, to be made liigh, so that the importer, 
 after paying the duties, shall be compelled to charge a 
 higher price for his goods. Then, the}^ argue, American 
 
262 SOCUL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1824 
 
 manufacturers will be able to sell their goods at a profit; 
 and the workmen employed in their manufactories will 
 get good wages, and will buy the productions of the 
 farmers of the country, so that all will prosper together. 
 A list of duties arranged on this principle is called a 
 Pi'otectivc Tariffs for it is meant to protect, and thereby 
 increase, home manufactures. (2) Opposed to Protection 
 is what is commonly called Free Tj'ade ; but this does not 
 mean that there are to be no taxes on imports. Those 
 who support it insist that the duties should be made only 
 high enough to provide for the expenses of the govern- 
 ment; that, if Protection is profitable, it is only for the 
 few manufacturers who are interested, not for their work- 
 men or the country; that the country will produce natu- 
 rally what it can make the most money out of; and that, 
 if we use taxation to bring about productions which would 
 not come naturally, we are making all the people pay part 
 of their number for engaging in unprofitable employments. 
 A list of duties which pays no attention to Protection is 
 called a Revenue Tariff, since it is meant onl}' to provide 
 revenue for the government. 
 
 426. The Tariff of 1824. — The Protectionist policy began 
 to increase in favor with the people during this period. 
 They remembered their experience in the war, when they 
 had no manufactories, and British ships blockaded their 
 coast, so that they could bring little from abroad ; and 
 they were willing to undertake protection in order to 
 meet the complaints of American manufacturers (§ 406). 
 Congress adopted a Protective Tariff in 1824, and the 
 struggle between the advocates of the two policies 
 began. 
 
 427. The Presidential Election in 1S24 resulted in con- 
 fusion, for all the candidates and all the \'oters claimed 
 to be Republicans. P"or Vice-President, Calhoun was 
 
1825J JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 
 
 o-cncrally supported and was elected. There were 
 candidates for I'resi- 
 dent, John Qiuncy 
 Adams ($412), Jackson 
 (§ 412), Wilham H. 
 Crawford, of Georgia, 
 and CLay. When the 
 votes of the electors 
 were counted, it was 
 found that none of the 
 four had a majority of 
 the whole number. The 
 House of Representa- 
 tives had then to choose 
 a President from the 
 highest three names on 
 the list, Jackson, 
 Adams, and Crawford. 
 When the House of 
 Representatives came 
 to choose, as it was 
 rec[uired to do by the 
 Constitution, the friends of Clay voted for Adams, 
 he was elected President. ^ 
 
 263 
 four 
 
 John C. Calhoun. 
 
 and 
 
 (11) John Quincy Adams's Administration: 1S2S-1 
 
 JiiMN QuiNCV Adams, Mass., President. John C. Calhoun, S. C, Vice-President. 
 
 428.* The President John Quincy Adams, son of John 
 
 Adams, had been in public life from his youth. P'rom 
 1794 to 1 801, he was minister to the Netherlands and 
 
 1 There were 99 electoral votes for Jackson, 84 for Adams, 41 for Craw- 
 ford, and 37 for Clay. This election is often called the "scrub-race for 
 the Presidency." Before the next election, parties had again been formed, 
 and there were but two sets of candidates. 
 
164 
 
 SOCUL ^ND POLITICAL RHylDJUSTMENT [1825 
 
 to Prussia. From 1 803 to I 808, he was a United States 
 senator, changing from a Federahst to a Democrat. He 
 was tlicn minister to Russia, 1 809-18 17, and Secretary 
 
 of State under Monroe. 
 He was a man of upright 
 character, great ability, 
 and high motives ; but 
 he had something of his 
 father's inabiHty to make 
 friends, and was never re- 
 garded with popular favor. 
 The most remarkable part 
 of his career comes after 
 183 1, M'hen, as a mem- 
 ber of the House of Rep- 
 resentatives, he cham- 
 pioned the antislavery 
 cause. 
 
 429. The Railroad.— In 
 John quincy Adams. internal affairs this ad- 
 
 ministration was marked by an uncommon prosperity; 
 incomes, both those of the government and of private 
 persons, rapidly increased, and the public debt began to 
 decrease. The country seemed to be gathering strength 
 for the enormous changes which it was to experience 
 during the next few years. For it was during this ad- 
 ministration that England saw the invention of the railroad 
 locomotive, one of the greatest events of modern times, 
 which war, to show some of its most wonderful effects in 
 the United States. The use of wooden or iron rails for 
 cars drawn by horses had been known in England for 
 nearly 200 years; and many Englishmen and Americans 
 had tried to use steam instead of horses. In England, 
 earl}- in the ccntur}', Trevithick had made a locomotive, 
 
1S28] RAIl.RO/IDS 265 
 
 but it could only move slowly. A short railroad, with 
 clumsy locomotives, was opened in England in 1825. In 
 1829, George Stephenson, an Englishman, exhibited his 
 locomotive, "The Rocket," which moved at the rate of 
 30 miles an hour, and the modern railroad system began. 
 In the United States, where men had for years been trying 
 to improve the useless old roads, the first idea of the rail- 
 road was soon tried. In 1827, two short lines of rails 
 were laid at Quincy, near Boston, and at Albany; and the 
 Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was chartered in Maryland, 
 though it was then intended to use horses upon all these. 
 In 1828, the first trip with an h^nglish locomotive was 
 mad 2 on a Pennsylvania railroad, near Mauch Chunk; 
 and a new railroad, expressly for steam, was chartered in 
 South Carolina, to run westward from Charleston. In 
 the following administration, the new system of Stephen- 
 son was full)' introduced into the United States (§ 443). 
 
 430. Settlement had now seized firml}' upon most of the 
 country east of the Mississippi. Treaties had been made 
 by the government with each Indian tribe, by which the 
 Indians sold their lands to the government for settlement, 
 and removed beyond the Mississippi. To this there were 
 two exceptions. In the northwest, the territory covered 
 by the present State of Wisconsin was not yet needed by 
 settlers ; and in the southwest, some of the Georgia and 
 Alabama Indians refused to sell their lands for settle- 
 ment. 
 
 431. The Cherokees were now the most powerful tribe 
 of Indians in Georgia and Alabama, since the Creeks had 
 been overthrown by Jackson (§ 396). They were intelli- 
 gent and educated ; they had churches, schools, and 
 newspapers of their own ; and they refused to remove across 
 the Mississippi. F'inally, the State of Georgia became 
 impatient, and decided to force the Indians to go. Presi- 
 
2 66 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1S28 
 
 dent Adams, in 1827, interfered to protect the Indians, 
 but Georgia declared its intention to resist the Federal 
 Government, if necessary, by force. The State Avas at 
 last successful in compelling the Cherokees to remove.^ 
 
 432. Jefferson and John Adams died almost together, 
 July 4, 1826, each believing that the other was left alive. 
 The day of their death was a coincidence so remarkable 
 as to attract the attention of the whole country. It was 
 the fiftieth anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration 
 of Independence, oi' which Jefferson was the author and 
 Adams the principal supporter (§ 206). The two had 
 quarrelled in 1 801, when Jefferson succeeded Adams as 
 President, but they became close friends again afterward. 
 
 433. Political Contest was renewed during this adminis- 
 tration. The " era of good feeling " (§ 413) came to an 
 end, and political excitement rose higher than it had done 
 for thirty years before. Most of it came from the policy 
 of high tariffs and internal improvements, which had been 
 begun under Monroe (§ 4--)- 
 
 434. The American System.— Clay had become Adams's 
 Secretary of State, and the two supported warmly the 
 system already begun in Congress. In 1828, anew tariff 
 of still higher duties was adopted ; and the revenue which 
 came from it was spent in improving roads, constructing 
 canals, and deepening rivers and harbors. This union of 
 a protective tariff and internal improvements was known 
 as the "American System"; and it soon afterward 
 became the foundation of the new Whig party, of which 
 Clay was the leader (§ 479)- 
 
 435. The Two Sections, North and South (;J 416), had 
 grown to be very different in many respects, and it was 
 by this time as difficult for one Congress to make laws to 
 
 1 This was not accomplished until 1835, wlu-ii tlie PVdcral (Hivcnimeiit 
 induced tlic Indians to make a treaty and sell their lands (§463). 
 
828] 
 
 THE AMERICAN SYSTEM 
 
 267 
 
 ,'iy^y 
 
 suit them both as it had been for the British ParHament to 
 make hiws to suit both 
 
 Great Britain and the ' "' "'' ' '"'" ' ' ^'^ 
 
 colonies. Tliis was es- 
 peciall}' the case in re- 
 gard to the iVmerican 
 System, \\hich under- 
 took to encourage manu- 
 factures by increasing 
 the duties on foreign 
 goods. \\'hatever profit 
 was derixed from it by 
 factories went to the 
 North, where all the 
 factories were located. 
 Labor in the South was 
 I^erformed by negro 
 slaves ; and men x\ho 
 worked only because 
 tliey were forced to do 
 so were of no use in manufacturing (^^ 618). 
 
 436. The Complaint of the South was, therefore, that its 
 people were made to pa)- higher prices for goods imported 
 from abroad, as well as for those produced at home, in 
 order to give profits to Northern manufacturers. The sup- 
 porters of the American System answered that the South- 
 ern cotton-planters received their share of the profits by 
 having a nearer market and better prices for their cotton. 
 But the South refused to be convinced, and considered its 
 people unfairly treated. When the tariff duties were in- 
 creased in 1828, the legislatures of several Southern States 
 protested against the act as unfair and unconstitutional ; 
 and in the Presidential election of the same year the whole 
 electoral vote of the South was thrown aerainst Adams. 
 
2 68 SOCIAL AND POLITICAL READJUSTMENT [1S28 
 
 437. Two Parties were thus formed out of the old party 
 whose members had called themselves either Republicans 
 or Democrats since about 181 2. Those led by Adams 
 and Clay, who supported the American System, now 
 began to call themselves National Republicans ; ^ and their 
 opponents, who disliked the American System, began to 
 call themselves Democrats. Toward the end of this 
 administration, the division had extended so far that the 
 two parts of the former Republican party were two dis- 
 tinct parties. 
 
 438. The Presidential Election in 1828 was contested by 
 the two new parties, and was one of great excitement. 
 The National Republicans supported Adams and Richard 
 Rush, of Pennsylvania, for President and Vice-President; 
 while the Democrats, or "Jackson men" as they were 
 often called, supported Jackson and Calhoun. There 
 were many circumstances in Jackson's favor, in addition 
 tothe vote of the whole South for him (§ 436). He was 
 very much liked by the people everywhere; his military 
 services, particularly at New Orleans, helped him greatly; 
 and many thought that he ought fairly to have been 
 chosen President in 1824 by the House of Representatives, 
 since he then had a larger electoral vote than Adams 
 (§ 427, note). I"or these and other reasons, the Demo- 
 crats were successful, and Jackson and Calhoun were 
 elected. They received 178 electoral votes, to 83 for 
 their opponents. 
 
 439. John Quincy Adams, like his father, was thus 
 defeated after a single term of office ; and these two, 
 father and son, are the only one-term Presidents in the 
 first half-century after 1789. The tariff was not the chief 
 reason for the son's defeat. In the case of both father 
 
 ' Duriii<^ tlic following admiiustraliun, the National Reimblicans took the 
 name of the Whig party (§479). 
 
LH^DING F.VHNTS, iSiy-iSjS 269 
 
 and son, the defeat came \'er}' lart^el}' from the rise of new 
 ideas. In i iSoo, the old colonial ideas of " stroni^ 
 government" were overthrown. In 1828, the change 
 of government was made mainly because the people had 
 no liking for Adams's administration, even though they 
 had no great reason to dislike it : the government was 
 changed because the people had changed. 
 
 440. The Leading Events of the administrations of 
 Monroe and John Ouinc)' Adams were as follows: 
 
 181 7-2 1 : Monroe's First Term § 4 1 1 
 
 1817: Admission of Mississippi 419 
 
 1818 : Admission of Illinois 419 
 
 Jackson seizes Pensacola 414 
 
 18 19: Admission of Alabama 419 
 
 Treaty for the annexation of I^'lorida.. 414 
 
 1820: Admission of Maine 418 
 
 Missouri Compromise 418 
 
 1821 : Admission of INIissouri 418 
 
 1 82 1-5 : Monroe's Second Term 413 
 
 1822 : Congress begins the construction of 
 
 roads 422 
 
 1823 : The Monroe Doctrine 420 
 
 1824: La Fayette's visit to the United States 421 
 
 A Protective Tariff adopted 426 
 
 Disputed Presidential election 427 
 
 1825-9: John Quincy Adams's Term 428 
 
 1826: Death of Jefferson and John Adams. . 432 
 
 1827: Cherokee troubles in Georgia 431 
 
 Horse-railroads introducetl 429 
 
 1828 : Introduction of an English locomotive 429 
 
 A new protective tariff adopted 434 
 
 Formation of new parties 436 
 
 Topics for Further Stuuv. 
 
 1. Jackson in Florida. 
 
 2. The removal of the Cherokees. 
 
 3. The Cumberland road. 
 
 4. The Holy Alliance. 
 
 5. The revolt of the Sf)anish colonies in America. 
 
270 SOCUL AND POLITICAL RHADJlJSTMnNT 
 
 6. The character and political principles of John Quincv 
 Adams. 
 
 7, The " tariff of abominations." 
 
 Supplementary Readinc. 
 
 Sources. — MacDonald's Select Doctimciits gives important 
 documents relating to the Missouri Compromise (Nos. 35-41), 
 the Tenure of Office Act (No. 42), the passage from Monroe's 
 message enunciating the Monroe Doctrine (No. 43), and the 
 })rotests of South Carolina and Georgia against the tariff of 1828 
 (Nos. 44 and 45). "^\iQ. Aiinals of Congress, which ends with 
 1824, is continued to 1837 by the Register cf Debates, known 
 also as the Congressional Debates. The American State Papers 
 extends to about 1828. To the collected writings of statesmen 
 should now be added those of Calhoun, Webster, and Clay. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — There is as yet no first-rate extended 
 account of the period from 18 17 to 1850, outside of the com- 
 prehensive histories of Schouler, McMaster, and Von Hoist. 
 Hildreth stops with 1821. Burgess's Middle Period \s a useful 
 single volume on the political side. The presidential elections 
 are treated in Stanwood, chaps. 9-1 1. Important biographies, 
 in addition to those already mentioned, are Von Hoist's 
 Calhoun, Roosevelt's Thomas H. Benton, Henry Adams's John 
 Randolph, and Shepard's Van Buren. John Quincy Adams's 
 Memoirs can now be supplemented by Benton's Thirty Years 
 J7e7u. Among books of reminiscence, none is more entertain- 
 ing than Josiah Quincy's Figures 0/ the Past. A number of 
 works dealing primarily with the slavery controversy now 
 become of importance, among them Wilson's Slave Power, 
 Greeley's American Cofijlict, and Alex. H. Stephens's War 
 between the States. On the financial side see Bolles's Financial 
 History and Taussig's Tariff History. For State histories, 
 Williamson's Maine, Carr's Missouri, Lowry and McCardle's 
 Mississippi, and Pickett's Alabama are useful. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — See under Chapter XV., post. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 JACKSON AND VAN BUREN 
 
 1829-1841 
 
 (I) Jackson's Administrations: 1829-37 
 
 Andrew Jackson, Tenn., Pres. ,' ^l^"^' ^ Calhoun, S C . yice-.Pres., .829-33. 
 
 ■' > . • ( Martin VAN BuREN, N. v., Vice-l'res., 1833-37. 
 
 441. The New President. — Andrew Jackson was a very 
 different person from those who had hitherto filled tlie 
 office of President. They had been educated men, long- 
 trained in public life, and quiet and dignified in manner. 
 His life had been spent on the frontier, in farming, or 
 fighting battles with Indians or British, or duels with 
 enemies among his neighbors ; he had little education and 
 a violent temper; and his manners were odd. But he 
 was intensely honest ; no power or influence could make 
 him consent to anything which he believed to be of dis- 
 advantage to the people ; and he resisted any such 
 measure with such persistence that the common name for 
 liim was ' ' Old Hickory. ' ' He was a crabbed old soldier, 
 who was determined to do right, but to do right in his 
 own way; and he had little respect for dignity in a man 
 unless the man had other good qualities than dignity. 
 He did the country some harm, and a great deal of good ; 
 but this change of Presidents, which seemed shocking to 
 many persons at the time, was only part of a general 
 change among the people. 
 
 271 
 
27- 
 
 JJCk'SON AND yAN RUREN 
 
 [1829 
 
 442. A Wonderful Prosperity marked the whole of Jack- 
 son's presidency. Very much of it was chie to the in- 
 troduction of the locomotive, a machine which changed 
 the whole life of the people at a single step (§ 429). 
 
 ? 
 
 Andki'IW JACK^o^. 
 
 Poor roads had hitherto compelled Americans to move 
 slowly, while they were eager to move quickly, and the 
 enormous extent of their country had been more trouble- 
 some than valuable to them ; but they now found the very 
 
i8-.i 
 
 RAlLROylDS 
 
 = 73 
 
 instrument they needed. They began to move, act, 
 think, and speak in an entirely new fashion. These eight 
 years are the first that are altogether like our own times, 
 though on a much smaller scale ; they are the beginning 
 of the modern history of the United States. 
 
 443. The Locomotive Engine of Stephenson was brought 
 from England to the United States in 1831. But the 
 Americans at once set to work to make their own engines, 
 and soon succeeded, though their first attempts were 
 naturally very clumsy and unserviceable. The first 
 successful American locomotive was built in 1833. It 
 
 Early Railroad Train. 
 
 differed from the English locomotives in many respects, 
 and suited our roads and climate better; and since then 
 we have built our own.^ 
 
 444. The Railroad System grew rapidly. Before 1835 
 there were nineteen railroads built or under construction, 
 their united length being twice the length of the island of 
 Great Britain. Before the end of Jackson's second term, 
 there were 1,500 miles of railroad in operation, and a 
 great number of miles were being built. Within the next 
 four years, nearly all the chief cities of the eastern States 
 were connected by railroad, and the system had begun to 
 spread through the western States. From this time, it 
 is useless to attempt to state the advance of the railroad 
 
 1 This first successful American locomotive, the "Arabian," was still 
 running in.1883. It was exhibited at the Chicago railway exposition, and 
 was burned by accident at Pittsburgli in the same year 
 
2 74 JACKSON AND l^AN BUREN [1S31 
 
 system ; the figures are so large that they carry no ideas 
 with them. It will be enough to say that there are now, 
 in the United States, nearly as many miles of railroad as 
 there are in all the other countries of the world taken 
 together. 
 
 445. The Advantages of the Railroad System were 
 beyond calculation. Wherever it went, it changed the 
 life of the people, opened up new country to settlers, and 
 made settlements possible by carrying crops and goods 
 easily. It gave the United States the advantages of a 
 small country with the wealth of one of the largest 
 countries of the world. Before 1830, men thought that 
 it would require two or three hundred years for settle- 
 ments to reach the Rocky Mountains : the railroad has 
 done the work already. 
 
 446. Anthracite Coal (§ 338) was first used successfully 
 on steamboats and railroads in 1836 and 1837. It con- 
 tained so much fuel in so small a space that its use aided 
 both steamboats and railroads very much. They had 
 both generally used wood for fuel up to this time. 
 
 447. The Screw Propeller, to take the place of side 
 wheels in ocean steamers, was introduced by John Erics- 
 son in 1836. This required less fuel in a heavy sea, and 
 thus promoted ocean navigation between the United 
 States and Europe. The screw propeller, which was 
 under water and out of the reach of an enemy's shot, 
 brought steam war-vessels into use, and these began to 
 replace the sailing-vessels which had before composed the 
 navies of the world. Ocean navigation by steam, which 
 had been attempted in 1819 (§ 337), was successfully 
 begun in 1838, when the Siritis and Great ]]\'sti'rn 
 crossed the Atlantic from England to the United States. 
 
 448. Other Inventions marked this period. In 1834, 
 McCormick took out a patent for a reaping-machine. 
 
i83: 
 
 GROIVTH OF THE IVEST 
 
 275 
 
 Such machines had previously been tried in l'Ln_i;iand and 
 the United States without success (^ 338); but in the 
 next dozen years they were perfected. They made farm- 
 \ng far easier than before, and western lands more profit- 
 able. Colt j)atented his revolvini^ pistol in 1835, '^^^<-l 
 with it came a i;reat chany;e in the forms of firearms. 
 About 1836, the manufacture of friction matches began 
 to do away with the former clumsy ways of obtaining 
 fire. Hardly anything has increased the comfort of daily 
 life so much as this one little invention. 
 
 449. The Western States had now fairly begun their 
 wonderful growth. Steamboats were carrying settlers 
 and trade along the Ohio, the Mississippi, the smaller 
 ri\'ers, and the great lakes. Almost all the present 
 western cities, east of the Mississippi, had by this time 
 appeared, though they were still small. During this 
 period the western steamboats increased fourfold, and they 
 built up towns as if by magic. When the first steamboat 
 appeared at Fort Dearborn in 1833, there was no town 
 there; six }'ears afterward, the settlement had become the 
 
 Chicago in 1830. — Fori' Deakhokn. 
 
 flourishing town of Chicago, and a line of eight splendid 
 steamers was running to it from Buffalo and Detroit. 
 
 450. The Eastern States were growing almost as rapidly 
 as the We.st, and their cities no longer looked like over- 
 
276 JACKSON AND VAN BUREN [1S35 
 
 grown villages. A "great fire" in New York City, in 
 1835, destroyed $20,000,000 worth of property, more 
 than the whole yearly receipts of the Federal Government 
 had been before the War of 18 12; but the loss did not 
 permanently injure the city. In the same year, New 
 York City began the construction of the Croton Aqueduct, 
 which was finished seven years afterward, and supplies it 
 with water from a distance of forty miles. Because of the 
 increase of manufactures, new cities, like Lowell and 
 Paterson, were appearing; and the older cities felt the 
 same influence. 
 
 451. The Map of the United States in 1835 was very 
 much the same as at present, east of Pittsburgh, though 
 the cities have since grown far larger, and the railroads 
 more numerous. West of Pittsburgh such cities as 
 Chicago, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, St. Paul, Atlanta, and 
 Montgomery were not }'et on the general maps: they 
 were then either small villages or frontier forts. North 
 and west of Missouri, the country was still a wilderness. 
 Beyond the Rocky Mountains, on the Pacific coast, the 
 country was still almost unknown (§ 528). 
 
 452. The Population of the United States in 1830 was 
 12,866,020, an increase of 3,000,000 in ten years (| 421), 
 and nearly four times as many as in 1790 (§ 313). In 
 1790, there had been only 75 post-offices in the United 
 States: in 1830, there were 8,450, more than a hundred 
 times as many. Immigration from ELurope had begun, 
 and the steamboats and railroads made it easy for the 
 immigrants to reach the fertile West. The receipts of 
 the Federal Government from the sales of its western 
 lands rose rapidly from $1,000,000 to $25,000,000 a 
 year. 
 
 453. The National Debt was practically paid off in 1835 ; 
 and, for the first time in its experience, the Federal Gov- 
 
' THE UNITED STATES '^' 
 
 IX 1830 
 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 y^^^^^ 60 100 gpo 390 ¥f) 
 
 ^ 
 
 pitude'West 15 from Wasliinjrtou 10 
 
i'*^37] INTERNAL AFFAIRS 277 
 
 crnnient foiuul that it was rcccivini^ more monc}' than it 
 coukl use. Tlic amount not needed was cHvided among 
 the States. l^ut the States were as prosperous as the 
 J'Y^deral Government. They borrowed and spent money 
 freel)' for tlie construction of raih'oads and canals; and, 
 though many of their plans were not wise, they aided im- 
 migration and settlement. Private prosperity was also 
 general. The crops were abundant; manufactures were 
 increasing; the banks doubled their number and capital; 
 and every c^ie seemed to expect to become rich in a day. 
 
 454.* New States. — Arkansas, a part of the Louisiana 
 purchase, was admitted as a State in 1836. When 
 Louisiana was admitted, Arkansas had become a part of 
 Missouri Territor}', and was later, in 18 19, given a terri- 
 torial government of its own. It was the only slave 
 State to be formed out of the region south of latitude 36^ 
 30', after the Missouri Compromise. Michigan, the fourth 
 State formed out of the Northwest Territory, came in as 
 a free State in 1837, after a delay due to a boundary dis- 
 pute with Ohio. 
 
 455. Education. — Public schools had now been estab- 
 lished in almost all the States, and the public school 
 system had come to be recognized as a necessary part of 
 American life. It was realized that where every man 
 votes, the State must, in self-defence, see that, so far as 
 possible, every man is taught enough to enable him to 
 vote wisely. Massachusetts now made the system still 
 better by beginning the normal school system, for train- 
 ing public school teachers. There were at this time 64 
 colleges in the United States. During this period most 
 of the States began geological surveys. They have been 
 followed up by the Coast Survey, and other government 
 surveys, until a large part of the surface of the country 
 has been thoroughly mapped out. 
 
Henry Wadsworth Lonoeellow 
 
 Oliver Wendell Holmes. 
 
 (278) 
 
1830] yIMF.RICAN LITF.RATURH 279 
 
 456. Newspapers bci^an to change their form about tliis 
 time. In 1833 appeared the first issue of the New York 
 Sun, the first of tliC newspapers of small price and large 
 circulation. It was followed, two years afterward, by the 
 New York Herald, which introduced the activity and 
 enterprise in collecting news which mark modern news- 
 papers. 
 
 457. American Literature before 1830. — An English 
 writer had asked, with some contempt, "Who reads an 
 American book .-' " The c^uestion was hardly a fair one, 
 for before 1830 there were American books well worth 
 reading. Bryant, Dana, Halleck, and Drake, the advance- 
 guard of the American poets, had made their appearance; 
 Washington Irving had been recognized as a master of 
 prose writing ; J. Fenimore Cooper had published The Last 
 of the MoJiicaiis; and Noah Webster had issued the first 
 edition of his English dictionary. And yet it must be 
 confessed that American literature before 1830 was still 
 weak. 
 
 458. American Literature after 1830. — These eight years 
 of Jackson's administrations were the beginning of a real 
 American branch of English literature. Three poets 
 made their appearance, Whittier (183 1), Longfellow 
 (1833), and Oliver Wendell Holmes (1837). Poe was 
 still a southern magazine editor, but was soon to be 
 recognized as both a poet and prose-writer of genius. 
 Hawthorne published his first important work, Twice-Told 
 Tales (1837). Bancroft published the first volume of his 
 History of the United States (1834). Prescott published 
 his Ferdinand and Isabella (1837). For music, sculp- 
 ture, and the drama the country still depended upon 
 foreigners. 
 
 459. Political Writing had lost something of the force 
 for which Americans had formerly been remarkable 
 
(28o) 
 
1S30J 
 
 POUTICAI. IVRITING 
 
 {% 187). But oratory' liad improved: Webster was prob- 
 abl\- tlic ijrcatest of all the orators that have used the 
 
 Damrl Webster. 
 
 English language; Clay was not much inferior to 
 Webster; and Calhoun, though not a great orator, could 
 hardly be surpassed as a master of pure argument. In 
 law, Marshall, Story, and Kent were the best-known 
 names ; but the number of able law}'ers Avas very great. 
 
 480. The Washingtonian Movement, the parent of the 
 present temperance societies, gained its greatest strength 
 during this period. Drunkenness had been an enormous 
 vice, though no greater in the United States than in other 
 countries. It had been considered quite [)roper for a 
 gentleman to get drunk after dinner, and not very im- 
 proper for a clergyman to own a distillery. New England 
 rum and other strong liquors were expected to be offered 
 
282 JACKSON AND VAN RUREN [1831 
 
 to visitors, callers, or Avorkmcn ; and drunkenness was too 
 common to be good reason for surprise. As a remedy, 
 the Washingtonian societies did not usually demand a 
 pledge of total abstinence, as is now the case. But their 
 pledge had the same idea as those of the present temper- 
 ance societies — the solemn promise of the drunkard to 
 reform, and of others, not drunkards, to set him a good 
 example. 
 
 461. The Prisons, in most of the States, had hitherto 
 been conducted on the brutal system which was then 
 common in other countries. One State had used an old 
 copper-mine as a State prison ; and most of the States 
 used whipping and torture, under which criminals grew 
 worse. About this time, the penitentiary system was 
 introduced: labor took the place of whipping, and some 
 real effort was made to reform the criminals. The foolish 
 and cruel system of imprisonment for debt alsobegan to be 
 abolished. 
 
 462. The Abolitionists. — With changes of such far-reach- 
 ing importance going on, it was impossible for people to 
 continue to feel as they had felt about slavery. Many 
 good people had hoped that, with the spread of population 
 and the growth of industry, slavery would gradually dis- 
 appear. In 183 1, however, William Lloyd Garrison, the 
 editor of a newspaper called the "Liberator," published 
 in Boston, called for the immediate and unconditional 
 abolition of slavery. Those who agreed with him were 
 called Abolitionists, and shortly organized an American 
 Antislavery Society. Similar societies multiplied, greatly 
 to the alarm of the South. The alarm was increased by 
 an unsuccessful negro insurrection, under the lead of one 
 Nat Turner, in Virginia, which the Abolitionists were 
 falsely charged with instigating; and thus new occasions 
 ^rosc to increase the ill feeling between the two sections. 
 
I83I1 
 
 INDIAN niFFICUI. TIF.S 
 
 283 
 
 463. Indian Difficulties were numerous durini;- this 
 period. The Georgia Cherokees were at last moved 
 across the Mississippi (§ 431). The Inchaiis in lUinois, 
 Wisconsin, and Iowa, led by Black Hawk, revolted, and 
 
 >^ 
 
 GEO /r. \ G 1 I A 
 
 A' St. Augustine 
 
 C- Canaveral 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 Si;m[ni)I.f. Wak. 
 
 were put down onl\- after hard flighting. As a result, they 
 gave up most of their lands. The most serious war was 
 with the Seminole Indians, in Florida, who were led by 
 
284 JACKSON AND VAN RUREN [1832 
 
 Osceola. Many negro slaves had fled to them from 
 neighboring States, and the Indians refused to give them 
 up as the price of peace. The war began in 1835, with 
 the massacre of Major Dade and about 100 men, near the 
 Withlacoochee River, and lasted for about seven years. 
 The Indians took refuge in the swamps and everglades, 
 where it was very difficult for the soliders to find them. 
 Nevertheless, they Avere beaten in many small battles, 
 and in one great battle, by Taylor, near Lake Okechobee; 
 and finally they, too, were removed beyond the Missis- 
 sippi.^ 
 
 464. In Foreign Affairs the Federal Government was 
 able to take a firmer tone than it had ever done before. 
 For thirty }X'ars it had been endeavoring to obtain pay- 
 ment from France for injuries done to American commerce 
 (§ 318). France was slow in paying; and President 
 Jackson recommended to Congress, without any appear- 
 ance of anger, that enough French vessels should be 
 captured to make up the amount due. France was 
 exceedingly angry, and threatened war unless the Presi- 
 dent would apologize, which he positively refused to do. 
 Peaceful feeling was restored by the mediation of Great 
 Britain ; and P>ance then paid the amount due. Similar 
 claims were also promptly paid by Portugal and other 
 nations; and it has never since been difficult for the 
 government of the United States to obtain respect and 
 attention to its claims against other nations. The United 
 States has been able to accomplish the settlement of such 
 claims b\' arbitration ; that is, by umpires. 
 
 465. This Period of eiglit years Avas, as will have been 
 seen, one of the most important in the history of the 
 
 ' Osceol;i was taken prisoner treacherously, in the second year of tlie 
 war, while he was carrying a flag of truce. He was then imprisoned in a 
 fort until his ihatli. 
 
1^3-1 POLITICAL AIFAIRS 2S5 
 
 United States. It was like the opening of sprini^, wlicn 
 ever}-thini^ leaps into growth. From that time, the 
 people of the United States have been growing in wealth, 
 but not in wealth alone. They have grown in educa- 
 tion, in morals, and in all those things that make a people 
 more kindly and useful to the world. Their i^ublic school 
 system, their prison arrangements, and many of their 
 other experiments have been imitated by other nations. 
 
 (2) Political Affairs. 
 
 466. President Jackson, as has already been said, was 
 a man of great natural powers of mind. He was unedu- 
 cated and had violent passions; but he was absolutely 
 honest and sincere, and did not know what fear or hesita- 
 tion meant. When he believed that anything was doing 
 harm to the people, he struck at it as if it were an enemy 
 of his own, regardless of the feelings of his opponents, 
 who were, often, just as confident that they were right in 
 their views. He Avas far more anxious to crush opposition 
 than to convince and convert his opponents. It thus 
 came about that the political history of these eight years 
 was one of almost continuous excitement; and Jackson's 
 friends and enemies accused one another of all sorts of 
 misconduct. The four principal enemies attacked by 
 Jackson were the former office-holders, the United States 
 Bank, the "American System," and the nullificationists 
 in the South. 
 
 467. Office-Holders under the United States — postmas- 
 ters, clerks, marshals, and others — had not hitherto been 
 expected to take part in political contests. They did 
 their work for the United States, and were paid for it. 
 Jackson began by removing all the office-holders who 
 were not his supporters, no matter how faithful they had 
 
2 86 JACKSON AND y^N BUREhl [1S32 
 
 been as public servants. After him, every Administration 
 did the same thing, until in 1887 the civil-service law 
 provided for tenure of office during good behavior, and 
 removal only for cause. The system of wholesale removal 
 of political opponents, inaugurated by Jackson, is known 
 as the "spoils system," and its effects upon the public 
 service have been exceedingly bad. 
 
 468. The Bank of the United States (§ 408) was, in 
 Jackson's opinion, a most objectionable institution. He 
 believed that the government revenues, which were 
 deposited in the Bank, were used for the enrichment of its 
 managers, to the injury of the people; and that the Bank 
 tried to punish or reward public men in and out of Con- 
 gress for opposing or helping it. He therefore declared 
 war on the Bank, and stated his opinion of it very plainly 
 in his messages to Congress. His supporters sided with 
 him, and the country was soon divided by the question 
 of " Bank or no Bank." 
 
 469. A New Charter for the Bank was applied for in 
 1832, although the existing charter did not expire until 
 1836. The bill was favorably acted upon by Congress, 
 but Jackson vetoed it, and the friends of the Bank in 
 Congress were not numerous enough to pass the bill over 
 the veto.i The next year, he ordered the Secretary of 
 the Treasury to cease depositing the public revenues in 
 the Bank ; and now the friends of the I^ank in Congress 
 were not numerous enough to forbid this "removal of the 
 deposits." Little by little, Jackson gained a majority 
 in Congress; and when the twenty years of the Bank's 
 
 ^ The veto power of the Prcs'ulent is liis power to objrct to bills before 
 they become laws (§ 281). When the President vetoes a Ijill, a vote of two 
 thirds in its favor in each House is needed to make it a hiw; and this is 
 generally not easy to obtain. F'^Mincr Presidents had not used tlie veto 
 power often : Jackson used it freely, and his use of it seemed to his oppo- 
 nents most unfair and tyrannical. 
 
I §3 2] OPPOSITION TO JACKSON 287 
 
 first charter came to an end (in 1836), it ceased to exist 
 as a government institution. This was the longest and 
 severest struggle of Jackson's presidency, and he came 
 out of it in triumph. The public revenues were now 
 deposited in various State banks, selected by the Secre- 
 tary of the Treasury (^^ 487). 
 
 470. The American System of high tariffs and internal 
 improvements (§ 434) also seemed to Jackson not only 
 objectionable, but contrary to the Constitution as well. 
 He believed that it gave Congress too much money to 
 spend ; that it made Congress extravagant and wasteful 
 in its expenditures ; and that it took money out of the 
 pockets of the people for the benefit of a single class, the 
 manufacturers. But, instead of attacking the tariff, he 
 used the veto power against a number of bills appropriat- 
 ing money for internal improvements, and they generally 
 failed to become laws. In this contest, also, the President 
 was finally successful in obtaining the support of a majority 
 of the people and of CcMigress. 
 
 471. The President's Opponents were mainl}' the National 
 Republicans (§ 438), now led by Clay and Webster. They 
 supported the Bank and the American System, because 
 they believed them to be of the highest advantage to the 
 country. They supported the Bank mainly because it had 
 branches in every State, and its notes were good all over 
 the country. Without the Bank, there was then, except 
 gold and silver, no money which could be used in every 
 part of the United States. They supported the American 
 System as profitable to the country (§ 425). They felt 
 that they were as honest in their beliefs as Jackson was 
 in his, and that he had no right to speak of them and 
 their plans in the terms which he was in the habit of using. 
 It is very probable that Jackson had warmer friends and 
 bitterer enemies th.an almost any other President. 
 
288 JACKSON AND VAN BUREN [1832 
 
 472. An Antimasonic Party had grown up in New York 
 and the neighboringf States. It beHeved that, in 1826, 
 the society of Freemasons had carried away and murdered 
 a citizen of New York, named William Morgan, who had 
 revealed its secrets ; and it opposed the election of any 
 Freemason to office. Both Jackson and Clay were Free- 
 masons, and the new party opposed them both. It dis- 
 appeared after the election of 1832. 
 
 473. The Presidential Election in 1832 took place in the 
 midst of the excitement which followed Jackson's veto of 
 the new charter of the Bank (§ 469). The National 
 Republicans, who supported the Bank, nominated Clay 
 for President, and John Sergeant, of Pennsylvania, for 
 Vice-President. The Democrats, who opposed the Bank, 
 nominated Jackson for President, and Martin Van Buren 
 (§ 483) for Vice-President. They had lost confidence in 
 Calhoun, the late Vice-President, who had become a leader 
 in the Nullification movement (§ 476), and took Van Buren 
 instead of him. After an angry contest, the Democrats 
 were successful, and Jackson and Van Ikiren were elected.^ 
 
 474. The South had not ceased its opposition to a high 
 tariff (§ 436). When a new protective tariff, known as 
 the "tariff of abominations, " from its high duties, was 
 adopted (in 1832), this feeling grew stronger than ever. 
 It was strongest in South Carolina, where Calhoun was an 
 honored and trusted leader. He argued that the Consti- 
 tution gave Congress no power to enact a protective tariff; 
 that such a tariff was contrary to State rights ; and that 
 each State ought to protect its citizens from it. 
 
 475. State Sovereignty. — It has been finally settled that 
 the Union rests on the support of the whole nation, 
 
 1 Out of 288 electoral votes, the Democratic candidates received 219, the 
 National Republicans 49, and the Antimasonic candidates 7. South 
 Carolina's II votes were cast for candidates of her own. 
 
I S3 2] NULLIFICATION 289 
 
 tlivided into States out of necessit}- ; that it is rii^ht, just, 
 and wise to respect the ec[ual rights of the States, as 
 most excellent instruments of good government ; but that 
 the national government in its allotted sphere has the 
 right to compel all persons to obey its laws, in spite of 
 State laws, and to prevent any State from leaving the 
 Union. This was the doctrine laid down by Webster, in 
 1830, in a great debate with Senator Hayne, of South 
 Carolina. But it was the general belief in the South that 
 the Union rested entirely on the support of the States ; 
 that each State was altogether its own master ; and that 
 each State stayed in the Union only because it chose to 
 do so. This was the doctrine of State Sovereignty, or, 
 as it was often called, improperly. State Rights. Of 
 course, it followed from the doctrine of State sovereignty 
 that, if any State believed its people to be unbearably 
 wronged by the Union, it had the right to secede, or 
 withdraw, from the Union. This was the doctrine of 
 Secession. It was upheld by most men in the South, 
 even by those who had not the slightest desire to put it 
 in force. They would argue, work, and vote against 
 secession ; but, if their State should vote to secede, they 
 would have admitted the right to do so, and would have 
 felt bound to " follow their State " (^ 615). 
 
 476. Nullification. — Calhoun, like most other South- 
 erners, belie\'ed in State sovereignty and the right of 
 secession, but loved the Union, and did not wish to have 
 any secession. To prevent it, he proposed that his State, 
 still remaining in the Union, should declare that it had 
 never given the Federal Government the power to pass 
 any protective-tariff law, should declare the law null 
 (without force) in South Carolina, and should forbid her 
 citizens to obey it or pay the duties. This was called 
 Nullification. The proposition was adopted by South 
 
290 JACKSON AND ^AN BUREN \.^^i3 
 
 Carolina, but the other southern States took no part in it. 
 Late in 1832, South Carohna called a convention which 
 declared the tariff law of 1832 null and void, forbade the 
 collection of the duties at Charleston or any other port in 
 the State, and threatened to secede if the law was enforced. 
 It also took steps to prepare an army for resistance. 
 
 477. Jackson's Proclamation. — The President disliked the 
 tariff law almost as much as Calhoun did, and he was then 
 trying to have it repealed. But he had sworn to enforce 
 the laws of the country, and he had no notion of \'ielding 
 to the nuUificationists. He sent a naval force to occupy 
 Charleston harbor and collect the duties from any vessels 
 entering it. He issued a proclamation, warning the 
 people of South Carolina that he intended to enforce the 
 law at all hazards, and that blood would flow if they 
 should resist it. All men knew that Jackson meant 
 exactly what he said, and the warning was heeded. It 
 was agreed in South Carolina to "suspend " nullification 
 until after the adjournment of Congress. 
 
 478. The Compromise Tariff of 1833 — Congress had no 
 desire to push South Carolina to extremes, and man}' of 
 its members who disliked protection made the nullification 
 difficulty an excuse to vote against the tariff. A new 
 tariff act, the "Compromise Tariff," was passed in 
 1833, under which the duties were to be diminished 
 every year until 1842. South Carolina claimed this as a 
 victory, and repealed her ordinance of nullification. 
 This was the last time that nullification was attempted by 
 any State; the next effort was a secession by a number of 
 States in 1861 (§610). 
 
 479. The Whig Party of luigland had been distinguished, 
 among other things, for its opposition to the king. 
 About 1833 the name of Whigs was adopted by Jackson's 
 opponents, because they considered him a tyrant, who 
 
1836] JACKSON'S IVORK 291 
 
 used the favor of the people to make himself in tact a 
 king-, without an}- regard to Congress or the laws. The 
 name was taken by the supporters of the Bank and the 
 American System, and by the southern nullifiers, who 
 felt Jackson's proceedings as an attack on themselves. 
 
 480. The Presidential Election in 1836 resulted in an 
 eas\' \-ictor\- for the Democrats. They nominated Van 
 Buren (§ 483) for President, and Richard M. Johnson, of 
 Kentucky, for \"ice-President. The Whigs were in great 
 confusion, and made no nominations. Clay was their 
 real leader; but man\' of them thought Harrison a better 
 candidate ; others preferred Webster ; and southern Whigs 
 preferred Hugh L. White, of Tennessee, or other candi- 
 dates. ^ 
 
 481. The Successes of the President were thus complete. 
 He had won all his political battles. He had kept his 
 oath that, "by the Eternal," he would put down nullifi- 
 cation and maintain the Union. He had driven Calhoun 
 and his friends out of the Democratic party. He had 
 driven the Bank of the United States almost out of exist- 
 ence. He had succeeded in making Van Buren, who had 
 supported him in all his struggles, President. He had 
 succeeded in making Taney, who had supported him in 
 his struggle with the Bank, Chief Justice. At the end 
 of his second term, having beaten all his enemies, and 
 rewarded all his friends, Jackson retired from public life 
 to his home in Tennessee. 
 
 482. Jackson's Influence. — There can be no doubt that 
 much of what Jackson did had good effects ; that it has 
 helped to make it easier for each of us to say just what 
 he thinks, \\ithout being exposed to influences \\hich 
 
 ^ Out of tlie 294 electoral votes. Van Buren received 170, Harrison 73, 
 White 26, Webster 14, and W. P. Mangum 11. No one received a majority 
 of votes for Vice-President, and Johnson was chosen by the Senate. 
 
292 JACKSON AND FAN BUREN [1S37 
 
 might make such a thing unpleasant or dangerous ; and 
 that he thus helped to spread democracy. On the other 
 hand, he did much that had bad effects, \\hich are still 
 felt. In particular, he introduced the system of removing 
 ofifice-holders who were not active supporters of the Presi- 
 dent. Office-holders were thus compelled not only to do 
 the public work for which the country paid them, but to 
 work for their party besides. They were always at work 
 to have this or that man nominated for office, while the 
 mass of the people were busy with their daily occupations; 
 and thus many things have been done apparently by the 
 voice of the people, when they have really been contrived 
 and put through by a small and active number of office- 
 holders. Nothing could be more opposed to democracy 
 than this ; and few things have done more harm. 
 
 (11) Van Buren's Administration: 1837-41 
 
 Martix Van Buren, N. Y., President. R. M. Johnson, Ky., Vice-President. 
 
 483.* Van Buren. — Martin Van Buren had long been 
 prominent in New York politics, and had held in succes- 
 sion the offices of United States senator, governor of his 
 State, and Secretary of State under Jackson. He was a 
 Democrat, and a shrewd politician. He regarded himself 
 as the legitimate successor of Jackson, and professed his 
 agreement with Jackson in policy and ideas ; but people 
 came to look upon him as lacking in independence, while 
 his administration suffered from having to bear the con- 
 sequences of some of Jackson's acts. 
 
 484. Wildcat Banks. — During Jackson's struggle with 
 the Bank of the United States, many new banks had been 
 formed in various States, generalh' with little or no capital 
 to pay the notes which they issued. They bought large 
 quantities of cheaply printed bills. As these bills had 
 cost them very little, they could afford to offer a higher 
 
1836] 
 
 THE SPHCIH CIRCULAR 
 
 293 
 
 price in paper mone\- for lands in distant States and 
 Territories than others 
 could afford to offer in 
 gold and silver. Having 
 bought the lands for this 
 depreciated mone}', the 
 " wildcat" bankers sold 
 them for good mone\', 
 hoping that their own 
 bills would not so- mi 
 find their wa\' back hn- 
 payment. If the)- were 
 disappointed in this 
 hope, the bank failed, 
 and the managers start- 
 ed a new one. Very 
 many of these wildcat 
 bank-notes were paid 
 to government agents ^^^'^^''^ ^^"^ ^"'''''''• 
 
 in the West for the public lands which the government 
 ^vished to sell at a low price to settlers.' 
 
 485. The Specie Circular was issued b}' the government 
 in 1836. It directed government agents to take onh' 
 gold and silver in payment for lands. Wildcat bank- 
 notes were now of no use in the West, and began to be 
 sent back for payment. The banks had not the money 
 with which to pay them. When the more honest of the 
 bankers began to tr\- to raise money by offering what 
 property they had at lower prices, they threw business 
 
 ' Such banks were a deliberate fraud upon the people, on whoni all the 
 losses fell. They cannot exist at present, because of the national banking 
 law (§ 670). A national bank cannot issue notes until it has deposited bonds 
 at Washington with which to pay them, if necessary ; and all other banks 
 that chose to issue bills would be taxed, by law, to such an extent as to 
 drive them out of existence. 
 
294 JACKSON /tND VAN BUREN [i837 
 
 into confusion. Prices (in paper money) had been high. 
 As prices fell, every one became frightened, and anxious 
 to sell before prices should fall quite to the bottom. Thus 
 every one wanted to sell, and nobody cared to buy. Busi- 
 ness men everywhere became continually more alarmed 
 as they found themselves unable to pay their debts to 
 others, or to get payment of what others owed them. 
 Stich a state of affairs brings on what is called a panic, and 
 is a terrible experience for a country in which it occurs. 
 
 486. The Panic of 1837 began just after Van Buren's 
 inauguration, and lasted for more than a }'ear. The 
 banks suspended specie payments; that is, they declared 
 that they had not the gold or silver to pay their notes. 
 Men who had been rich were made poor in a day ; and a 
 pile of bank-notes became almost as worthless as so much 
 waste paper. There was hardly any work to be had ; 
 and men who had not before been rich suffered distress, 
 and sometimes starvation. During the first two months 
 of the panic, the business failures in New York City alone 
 amounted to more than $100,000,000. 
 
 487. Democratic Policy. — The Federal Government, 
 which had lately had so much money that it was com- 
 pelled to divide a part of it among the States (§ 453)» 
 could now get no money at all. All its revenues had 
 been deposited in the State banks (§ 469) ; and these 
 banks were unable to pay them over. President Van 
 Buren called a special session of Congress. It passed a 
 law allowing the Treasury to issue its own notes to the 
 amount of $10,000,000, and this gave the government 
 some relief. The Whigs urged the establishment of a 
 new United States Bank, as the best means of avoiding 
 any such difficulties for the future ; but Van Buren and 
 his party resisted the demand steadily, and proposed an 
 entirely new plan, called the independent treasury system. 
 
1K40] THE INDEPENDENT TREASURY 295 
 
 488. The Independent Treasury System provided that the 
 public revenues should no loni^^er be deposited in private 
 banks, but in certain branches of the Treasury Department 
 in a few leadin<j cities. The collecting- ofificers were to 
 give bonds ; that is, legal promises b\' responsible men to 
 make good any loss of money by these officials. For 
 about three years, it was not possible to get a majority of 
 both Houses of Congress to make this a law. In 1840. 
 however, it became a law, and the government was cut 
 loose from banks. ^ 
 
 489. Repudiation. — Man)- of the States had borrowed 
 money for internal improvements (§ 453); and the}' now 
 found it difficult to pay their debts. Some of them 
 refused to pay altogether; and, as States cannot be sued 
 by private persons, this "repudiation " of their debts was 
 successful. Some of the repudiating States afterward paid 
 their debts, when they became more prosperous. 
 
 490. The Population of the countrv- in 1840 was 17,069,- 
 453, an increase of more than 4,000,000 in ten }-ears 
 (j< 452). In spite of the panic, there were man}- evi- 
 dences of real growth and prosperity among the people. 
 After the first effects of the panic passed over, business 
 settled down to firmer foundations. Railroad building 
 had gone on steadily, and in 1841 there were nearh- 
 4,000 miles in operation. 
 
 491. Inventions. — Goodyear, in 1839, patented his plan 
 of "vulcanizing" india-rubber, by \\hich it was made 
 hard enough to resist wear and tear, and to be moulded 
 into the innumerable articles for which it is now used. 
 In the same year, W. F. Marnden began carr}ing parcels 
 between Boston and New York. Out of this little enter- 
 
 ' The Inilependent Treasury law was repealecl by the White's in 1S41 
 (§ 501). re-established by the Democrats in 1846 (§521), and is still, in its 
 main features, the financial method l<illowi-d l>v the United States. 
 
296 JACKSON AND yAN BUREN [1840 
 
 prise have since grown the great express companies which 
 now reach all parts of the country. 
 
 492. The Abolitionists (§ 462) were preaching against 
 negro slavery more zealously than ever. They were not 
 allowed to enter the slave States, but their books and 
 newspapers went there and excited the most intense 
 anger. Southern governors and legislatures tried to get 
 possession of leading Abolitionists, in order to punish 
 them ; and southern speakers and newspapers began to 
 declare plainly that their section would not remain long 
 in a Union in which men were allowed to stir up the 
 negroes to rebellion (§ 603). In the North, people as 
 yet cared very little about slavery, considering it a matter 
 for which the southern States alone were responsible. 
 But they felt angry that these few Abolitionists should 
 make strife between North and South, and disliked the 
 Abolitionists as much as the Southerners did. 
 
 493. Riots were common for a time in the North, when- 
 ever an Abolitionist meeting was announced. The 
 Abolitionist speakers were mobbed, pelted with stones 
 and eggs, and chased away. In one of these riots, at 
 Alton, in Illinois, one of the leading Abolitionists, named 
 Lovejoy, was killed. In another, in Philadelphia, a large 
 hall, called Pennsylvania Hall, built by the Abolitionists, 
 was destroyed. But, toward the end of this period, the 
 Abolitionists became more numerous, and the riots 
 became less common. Besides, Congress had done a 
 very foolish thing, which roused sympath}' for the Aboli- 
 tionists in the North. 
 
 494. The Right of Petition is looked upon as a very 
 sacred thing. Congress is not bound to grant any petition 
 that may be offered to it; but every man feels that Con- 
 gress is bound to receive any respectful petition that is 
 presented, from an}- person, or on an}' subject. The 
 
1840] THE MORMONS 297 
 
 Abolitionists had been senclini; to Congress many petitions 
 against slavery. These petitions were ver)' disagreeable 
 to southern members, and Congress at last decided not 
 to receive any more of them. This decision was disliked 
 by the people of the North, even b}' those who did not 
 favor the Abolitionists. Great numbers of petitions to 
 change the decision poured in upon Congress; and, after 
 a struggle of four years, Congress decided to receive the 
 petitions again, and the "gag-rule," as it was called, 
 disappeared. 
 
 495. The Mormons began to be a source of trouble about 
 this time. They were followers of a man named Joseph 
 Smith, who had given them Avhat he called a new Bible. 
 They regarded him as a prophet, and Christians as 
 "Gentiles," or heathen. At first, they gathered into a 
 settlement near Independence, in western Missouri, where 
 they made themselves unpleasant to their neighbors, and 
 Avere driven away by mobs. They then settled at 
 Nauvoo, in Illinois, near Burlington, Iowa. Here they 
 became still more annoying to their neighbors, and 
 began to teach that a man may have an}- number of \\ives 
 at the same time. In 1844, Smith was shot by a mob, 
 and the Mormons moved away from Nauvoo to Utah 
 (§ 586). 
 
 496. Canada was the scene of a rebellion against the 
 British Government in 1837. Many persons in the State 
 of New York were inclined to help the Canadian Patriots, 
 as they were called, and endeavored to cross into Canada, 
 near Niagara Falls, for that purpose. President Van 
 Buren took care that all such attempts should be stopped ; 
 and nothing was done by the United States of which 
 Great Britain could rightfully complain. 
 
 497. The Boundary of Maine, in its eastern and northern 
 portions, had never been exactl}' settled. There was a 
 
298 JACKSON AND y^N BUREN [1840 
 
 strip of land which was claimed by Maine and by New 
 Brunswick ; and about this time the two parties became 
 so angry that affairs looked warlike. Forts were built, 
 and troops sent to the disputed territory. General Scott 
 was sent to the spot by the President; and he managed 
 to keep the peace until the matter was settled by treaty 
 in 1842 (§ 503). 
 
 498. The Election of 1840.^ — Political affairs in 1840 took 
 an unusual turn. The panic of 1837 had passed by, but 
 many of its effects remained ; and a smaller panic took 
 place just before the election of 1840. In such times of 
 business trouble, many persons are likely to vote against 
 the party in power; and the Whigs promised general 
 prosperity if their candidates were elected. The Presi- 
 dential election in 1 840 was a singular contest. The 
 Democrats renominated Van Buren and Johnson. The 
 Whigs nominated Harrison and Tyler (§ 500). Ameri- 
 cans are apt to like a candidate who has been poor and 
 has worked his way to prominence by honesty and trust- 
 worthiness ; and the Whigs managed to excite a great 
 popular enthusiasm for Harrison. They built large log- 
 cabins, such as he had lived in, and gathered in them to 
 make speeches, drink hard cider like Western settlers, 
 and sing songs about Tippecanoe (§ 350). Their public 
 meetings were measured by the acre, and their processions 
 by the mile. The Democrats could excite no such feel- 
 ing about Van Buren, and Harrison and Tyler were 
 elected. The Abolitionists, or Liberty party, also nomi- 
 nated candidates, but only a very few persons voted for 
 them.' 
 
 499. The Leading Events of the administrations of Jack- 
 son and Van Buren were as follows: 
 
 ' Out of 294 electoral votes, Harrison and Tyler received 234, and the 
 Deni(jcratic candidates 60. 
 
LEADING EVENTS, iS^g-iS^o 299 
 
 1S29-33 : Jackson's First Term § 44 i 
 
 1830: General removal of office-holders. . . . 467 
 
 1831 : Al)olition of slavery p)roposecl 462 
 
 1832 : Black Hawk War 463 
 
 Bank charter bill vitoed 4(^9 
 
 New protective tariff act passed 4 74 
 
 Nullification 476 
 
 1S33 : Compromise Tariff 478 
 
 1833-37 : Jackson's Second Term 473 
 
 1S33 : Removal of the deposits 4^9 
 
 First American locomotive 443 
 
 1S34: McCormick's reaping-machine 448 
 
 1S35 : Great fire in New York City 450 
 
 Seminole War begins 4(^3 
 
 1836: Anthracite coal used in steamlxiats.. . 446 
 
 Screw propeller invented 447 
 
 Arkansas admitted 4 54 
 
 1S37: INIichigan admitted 4 54 
 
 1837-41 : Van Buren's 'Ferm 483 
 
 1837: 'Fhe panic begins 4 86 
 
 'Fhe Alton riot .... 493 
 
 'Fhe Patriot rebellion in Canada 496 
 
 1838: Kejuidiation of State debts 489 
 
 'Fhe Philadelphia xuA 493 
 
 Abolition petitions refused by Congress 494 
 
 1839: INIormons settle at Nauvoo 495 
 
 FJoundary dispute in Maine 497 
 
 1S40: Independent Treasury law passed. . . . 488 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. Was Jackson a typical F)emocrat .' 
 
 2. The bank controversy. 
 
 3. The life of William Floyd (jarrison. 
 
 4. 'Fhe northeast boundary dispute. 
 
 5. Appointments and removals under Jackson. 
 
 6. 'Flie Webster-Hayne debate. 
 
 7. Why did South Carolina lead in advocacy i)f nullification .'' 
 
 8. John (^uincy Adams in the House nf Representatives. 
 
 Supplementary Rfadixc. 
 
 Sources. — ]\racF)onald's Seler/ Documents gives extracts from 
 the j)rincipal documents relating to the bank controversy (Nos. 
 
300 JACKSON AND l^AN BUREN 
 
 46, 50-52, 54, 57-62, 64, 65-68), the Wcbster-Hayne debate 
 (Nos. 47-49), and nullification (Nos. 53, 55, 56), and the 
 constitution of the American Antislavery Society (No. 6^,). 
 The platforms of the various political parties are given in Stan- 
 wood's History of the Presuletjcy. The Register 0/ Debates ends 
 with 1837; it is followed by the Cougressiofial Globe, which 
 begins, however, with 1833. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — As has already been said, the jack- 
 sonian period still lacks its historian. An understanding of it 
 must be sought, outside of the general histories, m the 
 biographies and writings of leading public men, in the proceed- 
 ings of Congress, and in newspapers. The principal secondary 
 authorities continue to be the same as those cited in the note 
 to Chapter XIV. Peck's From Jackson to Polk is a useful 
 general account. There are lives of Jackson by Parton and 
 Sumner, and of Van Buren by Shepard. On financial ques- 
 tions see, in addition to the general works, Taussig's Tariff 
 History, Bolles's Financial History of the Uiiited States, Bisfiop's 
 History of American Manufactures, Bourne's Surplus Revenue 
 ofi8jy,^nd Sumner's History of Afnerican Currency. Hous- 
 ton's Critical Study of Nullification in South Carolina is the best 
 work in that field. Of books of reminiscence, Sargent's Public 
 Men and Events, Amos Kendall's Autobiography, and Ben: 
 Perley Poore's Perley's Reminiscences are especially useful. The 
 best account of the abolition movement is in Garrisons' Williain 
 Lloyd Garrison. Cooley's Michigan is the best short history of 
 that State. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — G. C. Eggleston's Red Eagle ; 
 H. B. Stowe'sZ'm// G. P. R. James's Old Dominion ; J. P. 
 Kennedy's Quodlibet ; Edward Eggleston's Hoosier Schoolmaster 
 and Circuit Rider. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR 
 
 1841-1849 
 
 (I) Harrison's and Tyler's Administrations: 1841-=; 
 
 Wm. H. Harrison, O , President John* Tyler, Va., Vice-President and President. 
 
 500. President Harrison called a special session of Con- 
 gress to consider the financial needs of the country. 
 Before it could meet, Harrison died suddenly, April 4, 
 1 841, onl}' a little more than a month after his inauijura- 
 tion. Vice-President T}-ler thus became President. 
 T}'ler had been a Whig- only because of his opposition to 
 Jackson (§471); and he was known to be opposed to 
 most of the measures which the Whigs desired. They 
 had nominated him to get votes in the South, and now 
 found themselves confronted by the troublesome veto 
 power of the new President (§ 469). 
 
 501. The Whigs and the President. — Congress met in 
 May, 1 841. The Whigs had in each House a majority 
 large enough to pass laws, but not large enough to defeat 
 the veto. They began by repealing the Sub-Treasury 
 act (§ 488), and Tyler allowed the repeal to become law. 
 They then passed two acts to establish a National Bank, 
 but Tyler vetoed them both. No more was done at this 
 session in this matter, and no serious attempt has ever 
 since been made to establish a single great National Bank, 
 though a national banking system has been established 
 
 301 
 
302 
 
 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN WAR 
 
 [184, 
 
 (§ 484, note). The Whigs were exceedingly indignant 
 at the conduct of the President, but could do nothing. 
 The members of the Cabinet resigned, except Webster, 
 who was negotiating a treaty with Great Britain (§ 502). 
 
 isn 
 
 William Henry Harrison. 
 
 John T^ ler 
 
 For the first two years of this administration, the Whig 
 majority in Congress did little more than quarrel with 
 Tyler. Then the Democrats obtained a majority in the 
 House of Representatives, and Congress and the President 
 agreed better. A new tariff was adopted in 1842, to take 
 the place of the compromise tariff of 1833, which had now 
 come to an end (§ 478). It was so arranged as to pro- 
 tect American manufactures, and therefore the South was 
 opposed to it; but there was no attempt to resist or 
 nullify it. 
 
1842] THE ORHGON COUNTRY 303 
 
 502. Extradition of criminals between the United States 
 and Great Britain \\as secured by a treaty which was made 
 in 1842. Each country agreed to arrest and send back 
 criminals who should escape to it from the other country. 
 It was thus no longer possible for a criminal to find safety 
 by simply crossing the Atlantic. Similar treaties have 
 since been made w ith most other countries, so that there 
 is now hardh" a corner of the civilized world in which a 
 criminal can find safe refuge. 
 
 503. The Northern Boundary, between the United States 
 and Canada, from Maine to the Rocky Mountains, was 
 settled by the same treaty. This put an end to the Maine 
 difficulty (>j 497). West of the Rocky Mountains, in 
 what was then called the Oregon Country, the boundary 
 could not be agreed upon, and both countries had some 
 years before arranged to occcupy the country together until 
 it should be necessary to decide the matter. The treaty 
 continued this arrangement for a time. 7\merican emigra- 
 tion to Oregon had alread}^ begun ; and Fremont, of the 
 regular army, was beginning explorations to find passes 
 through the Rocky Mountains (>J 529). 
 
 504. The Oregon Country covered what are now the 
 States of Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. It was 
 claimed by the United States, partly on the ground that 
 it was a part of the Louisiana purchase (§ 334), though 
 this was exceedingly doubtful, and partly because it had 
 been first explored by Lewis and Clarke (§ 335). Great 
 Britain denied both of these claims, but could not give any 
 very conclusive reasons for her own claim to the country. 
 The truth seems to have been that the United States had 
 very little claim to Oregon, and Great Britain none at all. 
 After all, the best reason why the United States should 
 have the country was that the American settlements there 
 were increasing rapidly, while there were hardly any 
 
304 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR [i844 
 
 English settlements, and little prospect of any. The 
 question was not settled, however, until 1846 (§ 523). 
 
 505. Texas was not yet a part of the United States. 
 The United States had at first claimed it as a part of the 
 Louisiana purchase (§ 334, note) ; but the claim had been 
 given up, in 1819, in exchange for Florida (§414), and 
 Texas remained a part of Mexico. Soon American 
 settlers began to enter Texas; and, as most of these were 
 from Southern States, they brought their negro slaves 
 with them. The new settlers had little liking for Me.xico, 
 and did not obey when the Mexican Government forbade 
 slavery within its limits. 
 
 506. Mexico had rebelled against Spain, and become 
 independent. But it had a most disorderly government, 
 in which generals of the army were in the habit of seizing 
 supreme power and forcing the people to obey them ; 
 while the American settlers were not in the habit of 
 obeying any one whom they had not helped to elect. In 
 1835, they openly rebelled, and drove the Mexican troops 
 out of Texas. The next year, Santa Anna, the Mexican 
 ruler, invaded Texas in a most cruel manner, murdering 
 prisoners, sick, and wounded ; but the Texans, under 
 General Sam Houston, met him with far fewer men at San 
 Jacinto, near Houston, and defeated him. Mexico made 
 no further attempt to conquer Texas, which remained an 
 independent republic. 
 
 507. The Annexation of Texas was very much desired, 
 especially by the South ; and plans to bring Texas into 
 the Union were being constantly discussed. They were 
 not successful at first, for the annexation was not desired 
 by the Whigs in the South, or by either party in the 
 North, and only Southern Democrats were in favor of it. 
 Tyler made a treaty of annexation with Texas in 1844, 
 but the Senate refused to ratify it (§ 281), and it failed. 
 
1S45] SL/iyE-STATE REPRESENTATION 305 
 
 The annexation was not completed until after the Presi- 
 dential election at the close of Tyler's term of office 
 (§516). 
 
 508. Slave-State Representation was the main reason 
 for the desire of the Southern Democrats to annex Texas, 
 in order to give the South an equal share in the Senate. 
 Laws are made by the Senate and House of Representa- 
 tives together. The South was always the weaker party 
 in the House of Representatives, for its population was 
 smaller than that of the North. But each State is equally 
 represented in the Senate; and, so far, a new slave State 
 had always been admitted to balance a new free State. 
 In 1845, when Florida was admitted, there were 27 States 
 in the Union, 13 free States and 14 slave States. All the 
 southern territory was then used up, and no more slave 
 States could be formed ; while the North had still a vast 
 amount of w^estern territory, from which new free States 
 could be formed. It was thus certain that the South 
 would soon be in a minority in both Houses of Congress, 
 so that laws might be passed which would injure the 
 system of slavery. Texas was so vast a territory that it 
 Avas hoped that it might be cut up into four or five slave 
 States. 
 
 509.* Florida. — The territory of Florida, purchased from 
 Spain in 1819, was in 1845 admitted as a State, with laws 
 permitting negro slavery. 
 
 510. The Electro-Magnetic Telegraph came into practical 
 use in 1844. There had been so-called "telegraphs" 
 for many years before ; but these were only long lines 
 of signal-posts, at some distance from one another, which 
 sent messages altogether by sight, one letter at a time. 
 In 1837, Samuel F. B. Morse took out his first patent 
 for applying electricity as a force for telegraphing through 
 wires. Six years afterward. Congress appropriated money 
 
3o6 
 
 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IVAR 
 
 [1844 
 
 to try the invention. In the following )-ear, 1844, the 
 
 first line was constructed 
 from Baltimore to 
 Washington, and proved 
 to be a success. Tele- 
 graph companies were 
 at once formed, and 
 new lines were con- 
 structed. 
 
 511. The Mineral Re- 
 sources of the United 
 States were not yet 
 much developed. Salt 
 was produced near 
 Syracuse, in New York. 
 Pennsylvania and 
 northern New^ Jersey 
 had long produced iron, 
 and the Pennsylvania 
 beds of anthracite coal were coming into knowledge and 
 use (§ 446). There were lead-mines in northern Illinois 
 and eastern Iowa ; and a few small copper-mines had been 
 worked without much success in Connecticut and New 
 Jersey. Gold was found in Virginia, North Carolina, and 
 Georgia; but the total amount produced by these mines 
 in all the years up to 1846 was not equal to a half-year's 
 product afterward from the California mines. The won- 
 derful mineral resources of Missouri and Tennessee were 
 hardly known. No one knew that there was a wealth of 
 petroleum under the surface of Pennsylvania and other 
 States. California, New Mexico, and Nevada still be- 
 longed to Mexico ; and there was no knowledge of the 
 mineral resources of this region, or of those of the eastern 
 slope of the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 SaMI'KL 1'. U. INIoKaK 
 
t844] the dorr REBELLION 307 
 
 512. Copper became one of the cjreat mineral pro- 
 ductions of the United States in 1 844. In that year 
 the Indians at last gave up the country along Lake 
 Superior, in northern Michigan (i^ 454) ; and exploration 
 soon found it to be rich in copper. Companies were 
 formed at once, and copper-mining became a productive 
 industrv'. 
 
 513. The Dorr Rebellion The power to vote had now 
 
 been gixxMi, in almost all the States, to all men over 21 
 years of age. Rhode Island, however, still confined the 
 right of voting to those who owned a certain amount of 
 property. This, and some other features of the govern- 
 ment, were \'ery unsatisfactory to many of the people; 
 and in 1 842 an attempt was made to change these features 
 of the government by force. The attempt was called the 
 Dorr Rebellion, from the name of its leader. It was put 
 down by the State government, and its leader was im- 
 prisoned for a time ; but most of its objects were accom- 
 plished peaceably within a few years. 
 
 514. The Anti-Renters. — The descendants of some of 
 the old Dutch " patroons " (§ 112) still held their lands 
 along the Hudson River, and refused to sell them. The 
 rents were low ; but the tenants wished to buy and own 
 their lands, the leases of which had come down to them 
 from their fathers. About 1844, many of the tenants 
 refused to pay rent any longer ; and there were so many 
 disturbances that the governor of New York was obliged 
 to call out the militia to restore order. Most of the 
 " patroon lands " were then gradually sold to the tenants, 
 and the great estates disappeared. 
 
 515. The Presidential Election in 1844 turned on the 
 proposed annexation of Texas (§ 507). For President 
 and Vice-President, the Whigs nominated Clay and 
 Theodore Frelinghuysen, then of New York, both of 
 
3o8 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR [i844- 
 
 whom were opposed to annexation. It was expected 
 that the Democrats would again nominate Van Buren 
 (§ 483) ; but he was also opposed to annexation, and the 
 Southern Democrats succeeded in preventing his nomina- 
 tion. The Democrats then nominated James K. Polk, of 
 Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, who- 
 were in favor of annexation. The antislavery men in 
 the North could not endure the thought of the annexation 
 of more slave territory; but Clay's opposition was not 
 decided enough for them, and the Liberty party nominated 
 candidates of their own. Clay did not lose many votes 
 by this, but he lost enough to lose the great State of 
 New York and the election. Polk and Dallas were 
 elected.^ 
 
 516. The Result of the Election was the annexation of 
 Texas. When Congress met in December, it took the 
 success of the Democrats as a verdict by the people in 
 favor of annexation, and in the following spring passed a 
 resolution consenting to it. Tyler at once sent the reso- 
 lution to Texas, whose government agreed to it, and in 
 the following December the State of Texas was admitted 
 to the Union (§ 522). Texas was the last slave State 
 admitted ; but from the time of its admission there was 
 hardly any peace on the subject of slavery until slaver}^ 
 was abolished in 1865. 
 
 ' There were 275 electoral votes, of which Polk and Dallas received 170, 
 and Clay and Frclint^huysen 105. If New York's 36 votes had gone to Clay 
 and Frelinghuysen, they would have been elected by 141 votes to 134. 
 (§ 295)- 
 
i845] 
 
 POLK'S ^DMINISTRylTION. 
 
 309 
 
 (II) Polk's Administration: 184S-9 
 
 James K. Polk, Tenn., President. George M. Dallas, Penn., Vice-President. 
 
 (i) I}itci-)ial Affairs. 
 
 517. Discoveries and Inventions were numerous during this 
 period. One of the most 
 
 important was the sewing- 
 machine, for which a 
 patent was taken out by 
 EHas Howe, of Massa- 
 chusetts (1S46). It has 
 since been greatly im- 
 proved, and has made 
 household life and work 
 far easier than when all 
 sewing was done b}^hand. 
 Another great step was 
 the use of ether to produce 
 unconsciousness during 
 surgical operations, intro- 
 duced by Dr. Morton, of 
 Boston, in i S46. 
 
 518. Newspapers. — R. 
 M. Hoe, of New York, 
 patented his cylinder printing-press (1847), ^vhich, with 
 its improvements, has made it possible to print the enor- 
 mous number of copies issued by the newspapers of the 
 present day. A press association was also formed in New 
 York City (1849): its business was to gather news for 
 all the newspapers belonging to it. There are now a 
 number of such associations in the countr}-. 
 
 519. Education. — A naval school was formed at An- 
 napolis (1845); before that time, the officers of the navy 
 
 J AMES K. Polk. 
 
TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR 
 
 "1846 
 
 had received their training on board ship. The Smith- 
 sonian Institution was founded at Washington (1846), by 
 
 The Hoe Printinu-machine. 
 
 a legacy left to the United States by James Smithson, 
 an Englishman. Its purpose is to aid in increasing 
 
 knowledge ; and it has done 
 
 so by forming valuable 
 museums, and b\' printing 
 and issuing to the people 
 many valuable books and 
 papers on scientific subjects 
 of special importance. 
 
 520. The Department of 
 the Interior was organized 
 as one of the departments 
 of the government (§ 296). 
 The country had increased 
 very much in wealth ; and the government business re- 
 lating to the country itself had become so large that the 
 departments of State and the Treasury were no longer 
 well fitted to attend to it. It was therefore determined 
 to form this new department for that purpose. 
 
 Ancient Hand Printing-press. 
 
1S46] "FIFTY-FOUR FORTY OR FIGHT'' 311 
 
 521. In Political Affairs, the Democrats had obtained 
 entire control of the government b}' the election of 1 844. 
 In 1846, they re-established the Subtreasury s)'stem 
 (>J 501), and it has remained in force ever since. In the 
 same year, the last remnant of the ' ' American S\'stem 
 (§434) was swept awa}-. A new tariff act was j^assed, 
 which disregarded the principle of protection to manufac- 
 tures, and aimed only to raise revenue for the gox'ern- 
 ment. This system remained in force until 1 861, when 
 protection was again begun (§ 691). 
 
 522.* New States. — Three new States were admitted to 
 the Union during Polk's administration: Iowa, the fourth 
 State formed from the Louisiana purchase, in 1846; Wis- 
 consin, the fifth and last State formed from the old 
 Northwest Territor}', in 1848; and Texas. Of the three, 
 Texas alone had slaver}\ 
 
 523. The Oregon Country was secured to the United 
 States in 1846 by a treaty with Great Britain, which 
 fixed the boundar}- between British America and the 
 United States, west of the Rocky Mountains, as at 
 present. The United States had claimed some territory 
 north of this line as far as Alaska, in latitude 54" 40' ; and 
 Great Britain had claimed the territory south of the line 
 to the Columbia River. A large party in the United 
 States preferred war with Great Britain to giving up the 
 American claim: they demanded "Fifty-four Fort}- or 
 Fight." But by this treaty both Great Britain and the 
 United States now surrendered part of their claims, and 
 took a middle line as the boundary.^ 
 
 1 There was some further dispute as to the course of the northern 
 boundary-line after it reached the Pacific inlets ; but this was settled by 
 another treaty in 187 1 (§ 777). 
 
312 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1846 
 
 (2) On'j^in of the Mexican ]Vaj'. 
 
 524. The Texan Boundary. — Texas was still claimed by 
 Mexico as a part of her territory ; and she was naturally 
 displeased when, without her consent, Texas was annexed 
 to the United States. Nevertheless she showed no signs 
 of intention to make war, and seemed disposed to settle 
 the matter by treaty. Before this could be done, steps 
 were taken which made war unavoidable. The western 
 boundary of Texas was unsettled. Mexico asserted that 
 it was the Nueces River; Texas, that it was the Rio 
 Grande. Between the Nueces and the Rio Grande was a 
 strip of territory claimed by both parties ; and in this the 
 Mexican war began. Early in 1846, General Ta}-lor, 
 who commanded in Texas, was ordered by President Polk 
 to take possession of the disjDuted territory. Taylor 
 crossed the Nueces at Corpus Christi, marched his army 
 to the Rio Grande, and took up his position at Brownsville 
 (then called Fort Brown). 
 
 525. The First Bloodshed. — Taylor found that Mexican 
 troops were crossing the Rio Grande ; and he sent a 
 scouting party of dragoons, under Captain Thornton, up 
 the river from Brownsville. Thornton's party was sur- 
 prised and captured by a superior force of Mexicans. 
 Several men were killed and wounded, so that this was 
 the first bloodshed of the war. 
 
 526. Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. — So many 
 Mexicans had now crossed the river that Taylor moved 
 back toward the Nueces River, with about 2,000 men, to 
 secure a part of his supplies. Having accomplished this, 
 he set out on his return to Brownsville. On his road he 
 met the Mexican army, three times his own number, at 
 Palo Alto, near Brownsville, and defeated them after a 
 whole afternoon's battle. The next morning, Ta}'lor 
 
2846J PALO ALTO AND RES AC A DE LA PALM A Z^Z 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 .".0 100 200 
 
 War with Mexico. 
 
314 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1846 
 
 resumed his march towards Brownsville, and found the 
 Mexicans strongly posted behind a ravine called Resaca 
 de la Palma. He attacked them again, routed them, and 
 drove them across the Rio Grande into Mexico. He then 
 followed leisurely across the river, took possession of 
 Matamoras, and there waited for reinforcements (§ 531). 
 
 It is only fair to notice that the Mexicans were under 
 great disadvantages throughout the war, though they 
 were themselves to blame for them. Their men were 
 untrained ; their arms and equipments were bad ; their 
 government was inefficient, and had little money ; and 
 their generals were usually ignorant and worthless. But, 
 even with this admission, the manner in which the armies 
 of the United States constantly defeated superior numbers 
 throughout the war must be considered remarkable. 
 
 527. War Declared. — As soon as the news of the cap- 
 ture of Thornton's scouting party reached Washington, 
 the President sent it to Congress for consideration. May 
 13, 1846, Congress declared that war existed " by the act 
 of the Republic of Mexico." Ten million dollars was 
 appropriated, and the Presicient was authorized to accept 
 fifty thousand volunteers. The war excitement rose high 
 in the country, and over 200,000 volunteers offered their 
 services. The Whigs opposed the declaration of war, for 
 they believed that the war existed by the act of President 
 Polk, and not by act of the Republic of Mexico. But 
 they voted for the appropriations, because they considered 
 that the American troops had been sent into danger by 
 the President, and must be rescued. In New England 
 there were hardly any volunteers, and the war was looked 
 on with great disfavor. 
 
1846J CALIHORNIA AND NEIV MEXICO 315 
 
 (3) Operations on the Pacific. 
 
 528. The Mexican Territory, at the opening of the war, 
 included what are now the States of Cahfornia, Utah, and 
 Nevada, the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico, and 
 parts of Colorado and Wx'oming;. Mexico had done 
 hardl}' anything to settle this region, and it was little 
 more than a wilderness. No one suspected that it con- 
 tained a wealth of gold, silver, and other minerals; but it 
 was known to be fertile, and it contained the finest harbor 
 on the coast, San Francisco Bay. When war became 
 probable, preparations were made to conquer it, b\' send- 
 ing a fleet to the Pacific coast. 
 
 529. California and New Mexico. — California was taken 
 in the summer of 1 846 by the fleet under Commodores 
 Sloat and Stockton, aided by Fremont, who had moved 
 into California from his explorations in Oregon (§ 503). 
 The towns of San Francisco, Monterey, and Los Angeles 
 were captured with little resistance ; and before the end 
 of the \'ear all California was under American control. 
 The Mexicans rose once in revolt, but were finally over- 
 thrown, early in 1847, ''"i ^'''e battle of San Gabriel, near 
 Los Angeles. New Mexico was seized, during the same 
 summer, by an overland expedition from Fort Leaven- 
 worth, under General S. \V. Kearney. Kearney, \\\\\\ a 
 little army of about 1,800 men, crossed the plains, cap- 
 tured Santa Fe, and New Mexico passed into American 
 control. He then set off for California, leaving Colonel 
 Doniphan in command. Doniphan left a force at Santa 
 Fe to hold New Mexico, and moved south with the rest 
 of his force into Mexico. Two sharp and successful 
 battles against superior numbers gave him possession of 
 the city of Chihuahua and the country around it. But the 
 time for which his men were enlisted had expired, and he 
 
3l6 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1846 
 
 could advance no farther. He therefore turned aside into 
 Texas, and thence to New Orleans, where he discharged 
 his troops. 
 
 530. Acquisition of Territory. — The result of these 
 movements was that all the territory named above (§ 528) 
 was in possession of the United States. It was believed 
 in the United States that Americans could make a far 
 better use of all this territory than the Mexicans had ever 
 done, and that it would be an excellent thing for the 
 territory and for the United States if the conquest were 
 retained. It was therefore decided to keep it at the 
 end of the war, if possible, but to pay Mexico for it 
 (§ 543)- ^11 the following battles of the war were fought 
 in Mexico, for the purpose of keeping the Mexicans away 
 from the conquered territory, and forcing them to make 
 a peace. 
 
 (4) Operations in Northern Mexico. 
 
 531. Monterey. — In the autumn of 1846, Taylor, with 
 about 6,000 men, moved forward into Mexico from Mata- 
 moras (§ 526). The main Mexican force, nearly twice as 
 large as Taylor's, took up a position in Monterey, a city 
 difficult to attack and strongly fortified. The Americans 
 were obliged to storm the walls, and then to carry on a 
 desperate struggle within the town. Many of the streets 
 had to be cleared of the enemy by fighting from house to 
 house, or by breaking down the walls between the houses, 
 for the streets were barricaded or commanded by artillery. 
 In four days the work was done, and the Mexican army 
 surrendered. At Monterey, Ta)'lor was joined by 
 General Wool, with 3,000 men. Wool had set otit from 
 San Antonio, in Texas, to attack Chihuahua; but the 
 expedition had been given up. 
 
1847] BUENA VISTA 317 
 
 532. Taylor's Position became very unsafe before the 
 end of the year. He had pressed on beyond Monterey 
 as far as Saltillo, when many of his best men and officers 
 were taken from him to strengthen General Scott in cen- 
 tral Mexico (§ 534). He then had less than 5,000 men, 
 most of them new recruits ancl poorly disciplined, and 
 was forced to give up any farther advance. Santa Anna 
 (§ 506) was now again at the head of the Mexican 
 Government; and he seized this opportunity to march 
 against Taylor with over 20,000 men. In spite of the 
 tremendous odds against him, Taylor marched toward his 
 enemy until he found a battle-ground that suited him at 
 Buena Vista, and there waited. The Mexican army 
 reached him February 22, 1847, '^^'^^ battle was joined 
 next day, 
 
 533. Buena Vista. — Taylor had placed his army at the 
 upper end of a long and narrow pass in the mountains, 
 with high cliffs on one side and deep ravines on the other, 
 so that the Mexicans could not pass him, but must attack 
 him in front. All day long the Mexicans charged up the 
 pass ; but their charges were beaten steadily back, and at 
 nightfall they were forced to retreat. Northeastern 
 Mexico was thus left in the hands of the Americans, and 
 there was no further serious fighting in that quarter. 
 Taylor soon afterward returned to the United States, 
 where he was honored as the hero of the war, and was 
 elected President the next year (§ 548). 
 
 (5) Operations in Central Mexico. 
 
 534. A Change of Plan had been decided upon by the 
 authorities at Washington. General Winfield Scott, the 
 oldest of the American generals, was to be sent with 
 a selected force, in more than 150 vessels, to attack 
 
3^^ 
 
 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN M^AR 
 
 [1847 
 
 Vera Cruz, from \\hich point was the shortest road from 
 the coast to the city of Mexico. If he could capture 
 
 the capital, he was to 
 ^ hold it until the Mexicans 
 
 were willing to make 
 peace. All the other 
 American armies were 
 merely to hold what they 
 had already gained. All 
 the fighting by Scott's 
 army, which ended the 
 war, took place in 1847. 
 535. Vera Cruz was at- 
 tacked early in March. 
 Scott landed before the 
 city with 12,000 men; 
 and, after a bombard- 
 ment of nine days, the 
 city and its great fort of 
 San Juan de Ulloa, the 
 strongest in Mexico, surrendered. The army prepared 
 for an immediate march toward Mexico, for the coast of 
 Vera Cruz was so hot and sickly that it would have been 
 dangerous for an army to remain there during the summer 
 months. The navy took possession of the Mexican ports 
 on the coast, and collected the customs duties for the 
 benefit of the United States. 
 
 536. Cerro Gordo. — Soon after leaving Vera Cruz, the 
 road to Mexico begins to rise, and abounds in mountains 
 and narrow passes, v/hich are natural fortifications. At 
 one of these passes, called Cerro Gordo, near Jalapa, 
 Santa Anna had collected an army of about 12,000 men. 
 Early in April, Scott's army, now numbering but 9,000 
 men, reached Cerro Gordo, and attacked it. The battle 
 
 WiNFiELD Scott. 
 

 I'l M.l. 
 
 C' 
 
 \ 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 .l:.l:i|,:.- 
 
 . ( 
 
 :x 
 
 "r.lo 
 
 1 
 
 PUFBLA 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 
 
 ATAPETi, 
 
 
 
 -..] 
 
 
 
 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Scott's March to Mexico. 
 
 1847] THE MARCH TO MEXICO 319 
 
 was a complete victor}- for the Americans : fi\'c Mexican 
 generals and 3,000 prisoners were captured, and the rest 
 of the Mexicans were pushed into headlong retreat. 
 
 537. The March to Mexico met \\ith little further resistance 
 until August. Scott 
 
 passed on through Jala- 
 pa to Puebla. As this 
 was high, cool, and 
 more healthy ground, he 
 kept his army here dur- 
 ing the summer, waiting 
 for reinforcements. 
 Santa Anna, also, was 
 busily collecting troops 
 for the final struggle. 
 
 538. The Valley of Mexico. — In August, with 11,000 
 men, Scott again set out, and reached the edge of the 
 valley of Mexico without a battle. Before him la}- the 
 valley, like a great bowl sunk into the mountains. In 
 the middle of it was Mexico, a cit}- of 200,000 inhabitants, 
 surrounded by strong walls and extensive lakes ; and 
 before reaching it, the little American army was to capture 
 many strongholds, and disperse a Mexican army of three 
 times its own number. So many forts had been built on 
 the regular roads that the Americans cut a new road 
 around them for themselves, and came into the valley at 
 an undefended point. 
 
 539. A Day of Victories. — Scott's army moved down the 
 mountain-side to a point about ten miles from the city. 
 Here the fighting began, and in a single day (August 20) 
 five victories were won. (i) Before sunrise the main 
 American force stormed the fortified camp of Contreras, 
 taking but 17 minutes to do the work. (2) A little later 
 in the day, another division stormed the fortified village 
 
320 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR [1847 
 
 of San Antonio. (3) About the same time, one division 
 stormed one of the fortified heights of Cherubusco, and 
 (4) another division stormed the other. (5) While these 
 assaults were being made, Santa Anna moved out of the 
 city to assist his garrisons. The American reserve force 
 attacked him, beat him, and chased him up to the walls 
 of the cit}'. Before night, almost the whole Mexicaa 
 force was inside of the city of Mexico. 
 
 540. Negotiations for peace were now proposed by Santa 
 Anna, to which Scott agreed. They went on for three 
 weeks, until Scott found that Santa Anna was only using- 
 the time to strengthen the defences of the city. He then 
 broke off negotiations, and renewed the war. 
 
 541. Chapultepec, a strong castle perched on the top of 
 a very steep hill, was now the principal Mexican strong- 
 hold outside of the city. Below it was a smaller fortifica- 
 tion called Molino del Rey, which was first captured. 
 Nearly a week afterward, the grand assault was made on 
 Chapultepec. The Americans had to climb the cliff, and 
 then use scaling-ladders to get into the windows of the 
 castle. The Mexicans resisted bravely, and even attempted 
 to blow up the castle with every one in it; but the men 
 who were .to light the trains were shot down as the 
 Americans swarmed in, and Chapultepec was captured. 
 Immediately afterward, the whole American army moved 
 around to a side of the city where no attack had been 
 expected ; and before night it had won two of the gates> 
 and was inside the Avails. 
 
 542. Capture of Mexico. — During the night, Santa Anna 
 fled from the city with the remainder of his army; and in 
 the morning of September 14, 1847, Scott's army, now 
 reduced to 6,000 men, marched through the main street, 
 and raised the flag of the United States over the national 
 palace. The end of the war was reached by the fall of 
 
1848] PEACE 321 
 
 Mexico. There was some fighting by irregular Mexican 
 troops, called guerrillas; and the American sick and 
 wounded at Puebla beat off a Mexican force which tried 
 to besiege them. But the real fighting of the war was 
 over, and the only difficulty was to arrange the terms of 
 peace. 
 
 (6) Piace. 
 
 543. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. — Conditions of 
 peace were not easy to arrange. The United States in- 
 sisted that Mexico should give up its northern territory 
 (§ 528), as a punishment for having provoked the war. 
 Mexico was very unwilling to agree, and it was not until 
 February, 1848, that a new Mexican government con- 
 sented to make peace on these terms. The treaty of 
 peace was called the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, from 
 the little town in which it was agreed upon. Mexico was 
 to receive $15,000,000 in return for the ceded territory, 
 and her debts of $3,000,000, due to American citizens, 
 were to be paid for her. The Senate of the United States 
 ratified the treaty ; peace was restored ; and the American 
 armies evacuated Mexico. 
 
 544. Territorial Additions. — The annexation of Texas, 
 the cession by Mexico, and the Gadsden purchase, south 
 of the Gila River, for $10,000,000, in 1853, added 
 967,45 1 square miles to the United States. This was 
 more than the area of the United States in 1783, and 
 almost as much as the Louisiana purchase (§ 334). The 
 additions gave the United States the form and boundaries 
 which are still retained, with the exception of the pur- 
 chase of Alaska in 1867 (§ 773). The territorial growth 
 of the continental United States may be divided into four 
 great divisions: (i) the United States, as left by the 
 Revolution, altogether east of the Mississippi, with Florida 
 
32 2 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1S4S 
 
 added in 18 19; (2) Louisiana, west of the Mississippi, 
 with Oregon added in 1846; (3) Texas and tlie Mexican 
 cessions ; and (4) Alaska. Of these, the second was the 
 largest, the third next, the first next, and the fourth 
 smallest of all. 
 
 545. Slavery. — The Mexican cession brought up again 
 the question of slavery in the Territories, which had been 
 settled with so much difficulty in 1820 (§418). The 
 question was now to be decided over again as to this new 
 territory; and the two sections were now so much 
 stronger, and so much more in earnest, that a settlement 
 w^as much more difficult than in 1,820. The South 
 demanded that slavery should be j^ermitted in the new 
 territory, since Southern immigrants would not be able to 
 settle there unless they were allowed to take their slaves 
 with them. The North demanded that slavery should be 
 forbidden, since the territory was already free by Mexican 
 law (§ 505), and any introduction of slavery would keep 
 free-State immigrants from going thither. There was no 
 middle ground : free labor and slave labor could not use 
 the same territory. It was proposed by some to divide 
 the territory by the Missouri Compromise line, the parallel 
 of 36° 30', which would reach the Pacific at about the 
 middle of California, and to forbid slavery north of the 
 line, and allow slavery south of it; but neither party was 
 willing to agree to this sacrifice. 
 
 546. The Wilmot Proviso. — In 1846, when it was first 
 proposed to make Mexico give up territory, David 
 Wilmot, a member of Congress from Pennsylvania, intro- 
 duced what was called from him the Wilmot Proviso. It 
 appropriated money to buy the territory, provided that 
 slavery should not be allowed in it. The South proved 
 to be opposed to the proviso ; it never became law ; and 
 the new territory was acquired without it. Thus, when 
 
184S] THF. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION t>2:^ 
 
 this administration ended, the United States owned a vast 
 amount of new territory, without having as yet decided 
 whether slavery was to be allowed or forbidden in it. 
 
 547. The Free-Soil Party came into existence in 1848. 
 It was composed of former Democrats and Whigs who 
 supported the Wilmot Proviso, together with the Aboli- 
 tionists, or Liberty party (§ 498). The old parties, the 
 Democrats and the Whigs, had Southern members whom 
 they were afraid of losing, and they both refused the 
 Wilmot Proviso. Thus the ' ' F'ree-soilers ' ' were com- 
 pelled to form a new party of their own. 
 
 548. The Presidential Election in 1 848 was decided by 
 the new part}'. The Democratic candidates were Lewis 
 Cass, of Michigan, for President, and William O. Butler, 
 of Kentucky, for Vice-President. The Whig candidates 
 were General Zachary Taylor and Millard Fillmore 
 (§ 557)- Neither of these parties said anj'thing about 
 slavery in the new territory. The Free-soilers proposed 
 to forbid slavery in the new territory, and nominated 
 ex-President Van Buren (§ 483), and Charles Francis 
 Adams, of Massachusetts. The vote for the Free-soil 
 candidates was not very large, but it decided the Presi- 
 dential election, as in 1844 (§ 515). It took so many 
 votes from the Democrats in New York as to give the 
 vote of that great State to the Whigs ; and Taylor and 
 Fillmore were elected.' 
 
 549. California, lately conquered from Mexico, proved 
 to be a treasure-house. Gold was discovered on the 
 Sacramento River, early in 1848, just before the treaty 
 with Mexico was agreed upon (§ 543). While a saw-mill 
 and mill-dam were being constructed, some shining 
 
 ' The electoral votes were 163 for Taylor and Fillmore and 127 for Cass 
 and Butler (§ 295). If New York's 36 votes had been given to Cass and 
 Butler, they would have been elected by 163 votes to 127. 
 
324 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV AR [1849 
 
 particles were noticed in the sand. They proved to be 
 gold, and it was soon found that the soil was rich in the 
 metal. No such gold-mines had been seen in the world 
 before. Other mines had produced a little gold with a 
 great deal of labor : these gave a great deal of gold with 
 little labor. The few Americans in California crowded 
 to the "diggings "; and lucky finders worked for a few 
 weeks or months, and then went home rich, or spent 
 their fortunes in San Francisco or New York. 
 
 550. The Gold-fever. — The news of the discovery was 
 hardly believed at first in the older settled parts of the 
 country; but early in 1849, when California gold was 
 brought to the mint at Philadelphia, and was pronounced 
 genuine, a great excitement broke out. Men from all 
 parts of the country flocked to California: they went by 
 steamer to the Isthmus of Panama, crossed it, and sailed 
 up the coast to San F'rancisco ; they bought sailing-vessels, 
 and went around Cape Horn ; they travelled overland 
 across the plains. The fever was not confined to the 
 United States, but spread to Europe. Within two years 
 there were 100,000 persons in California, and San Fran- 
 cisco was a rapidly growing city of 20,000 inhabitants. 
 
 551. The Leading Events of the administrations of 
 Harrison, Tyler, and Polk were as follows: 
 
 1841 : Death of Harrison, and succession of Tyler § 500 
 
 Tyler and the Whigs quarrel 501 
 
 1842 : New tariff act passed 501 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain 502 
 
 The Dorr Rebellion .513 
 
 1844 : The first electric telegraph 510 
 
 Copper discovered in Michigan. 512 
 
 Anti-Rent troubles in New York 514 
 
 1845 : Florida admitted to the Union 509 
 
 Texas annexed to the United States 516 
 
 7'cxas admitted to tlie Union 522 
 
 1846 : Iowa admitted to the Union 522 
 
1849 J LEADING EVENTS 325 
 
 1 846 : Sewing-machine invented §517 
 
 Smithsonian Institution foinulL-tl 519 
 
 Subtreasury system re-established 521 
 
 New tariff act passed 521 
 
 Treaty with Great Britain 523 
 
 War declared against Mexico (Alav 13) 527 
 
 Battle of Palo Alto (INIay 8) '. 526 
 
 Battle of Resaca de la Palma (May 9) 526 
 
 Conquest of California (summer) 529 
 
 Conquest of New Mexico (summer) 529 
 
 Battle of Monterey (September 24) 531 
 
 1847 : Battle of Buena Vista (February 23) 533 
 
 Capture of Vera Cruz (March 27) . 535 
 
 Battle of Cerro Gordo (April 18) 536 
 
 Battle of Contreras (August 20) 539 
 
 Battle of Chapultepec (September 13) 541 
 
 Capture of Mexico (September 14) 542 
 
 1848: Gold discovered in California (January 19) 549 
 
 Treaty of peace signed with Mexico (Feb. 2) 543 
 
 Wisconsin admitted to the Union 522 
 
 1849 : The " gold-fever " 550 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. Fremont's explorations. 
 
 2. Early history of Texas. 
 
 3. Causes of the Mexican war. 
 
 4. Geography of the Mexican cession. 
 
 5. Life in a California mining-camp. 
 
 6. Overland routes to California. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — MacDonald's Select Documents gives the treaties 
 of 1842 and 1846 with Great Britain (Nos. 70 and 74), the 
 resolution for the annexation of Texas (No. 71), Polk's war 
 message and the war act (Nos. 72 and 73), the independent 
 treasury act of 1846 (No. 75), and Giddings's slavery resolu- 
 tions (No. 69). The text of the Wilmot proviso is in ibid.^ 
 p. 378. The party ])latforms are in Stanwood's History of the 
 Presidency. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The general authorities remain as in 
 Chap. XV., with the addition of Tyler's Letters and Times of 
 
326 TEXAS AND THE MEXICAN IV A R [1849 
 
 //le Tylers, Curtis's Buchanan, Pierce's Sumner, and Nicolay 
 and Hay's Lincoln. H. H. Bancroft's Oregon, California, 
 Mexico, and North I\lexica7i Slates and Texas are the most 
 elaborate special histories. On the Mexican war see Jay's 
 Mexican War and Ripley's War with Mexico. Much of the 
 period is traversed by works on the later slavery contests 
 (Chapters XVII. and XVIII.). 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — Dickens's Martin Chuzzlewil and 
 American Notes ; Hawthorne's Blithedale Romance ; Lucy G. 
 Morse's Rachel Stanwood ; Amelia E. Barr's Remember the 
 Alamo; Cooper's Redskins ; Lowell's Biglow Papers ; F. Bret 
 Harte's Tales 0/ the Argonauts ; Dana's Two Years before the 
 Mast , Edward Eggleston's The Gray sons. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY 
 
 1849-1857 
 
 (I) Taylor's and Fillmore's Administrations: 1849-53 
 
 Zachary Taylor, La., Pres. Millard Fillmore, N. Y., Vice-Pres. and Pres. 
 
 Zachary Taylor. 
 
 Millard Fillmore. 
 
 552. Sectional Feeling. — The story of the years from 
 1849 to 1857 is one of growing separation of feehng 
 
 327 
 
328 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAWE TERRITORY [1849 
 
 between the sections. The sections were different, from 
 the fact that slavery was dead in the North, while it was 
 in full vigor in the South. The men who owned slaves 
 in the South were not a large part of its population: ^ but 
 they were the richest, ablest, and most influential men of 
 their section, and were very apt to consider any attack 
 upon slavery as an attack upon the South. The great 
 increase of railroads and of other kinds of industry in 
 which more than one State was interested had made the 
 people of the North learn to think of the Union mainly 
 as one country, from which no State had a right to with- 
 draw. In the South, where slavery prevented the 
 development of any such kinds of industry, the notions of 
 State sovereignty and of the right of secession were still 
 sincerely held. All through these twelve years, those 
 who owned slaves were becoming more and more angry 
 at successive attacks upon slavery, and more and more 
 anxious to induce their States to secede. Much as the 
 people of the South loved the idea of State sovereignty, 
 however, they loved the Union more ; and with the 
 greatest difficulty they were finally brought to agree to 
 the attempt to secede. Thus this period runs into war 
 between the sections; for it was found at last that the 
 people of the North were willing to fight rather than 
 permit the country to be broken in pieces. 
 
 553. The Situation. — From the very beginning of 
 Taylor's term of office most of the country's difficulties 
 were mixed up, in one way or other, with the matter of 
 slavery. In the summer of i 849, the people of California, 
 being troubled with a great many lawless immigrants, 
 and unwilling to wait for Congress to give them a Terri- 
 torial government, formed a State constitution of their 
 
 ' Only about 200,000 persons out of nearly 10,000,000: or about one in 
 every fifty. 
 
1850] THE COMPROMISE OF iSjo 329 
 
 own, and applied for admission ; but this constitution for- 
 bade slaver}', and many Southern members were therefore 
 determined to resist the admission of the new State. 
 Texas claimed a part of New Mexico, and was preparing 
 to send troops to enforce the claim. The North com- 
 plained of the selling of slaves in the national capital, and 
 the South complained that the laws for the return of run- 
 away slaves were disobeyed or resisted in the North. 
 Utah and New Mexico needed Territorial governments: 
 but the North controlled one House of Congress and 
 the South the other, and the two could not agree as 
 to whether slavery should be allowed or forbidden in 
 them. 
 
 554. The Omnibus Bill, — Clay had already shown 
 peculiar skill in settling difficulties of this kind. He had 
 contrived the Missouri Compromise in 1820 (§418), and 
 the compromise tariff in 1833 (§ 478). He was now in 
 the Senate, and set himself to arrange a third compro- 
 mise. In May, 1850, all the matters above stated were 
 referred to a committee of which he was chairman. This 
 committee brought forward a general plan of settlement, 
 covering in one proposed measure so many of the points 
 in dispute that the bill was commonly called the Omnibus 
 Bill. One by one the various parts were passed and 
 became laws in September; and they are called, together, 
 the Compromise of 1850. 
 
 555. The Compromise of 1850 included five parts. (i) 
 California was admitted without slavery. (2) Texas was 
 to receive $10,000,000 for giving up her claims to New 
 Mexico. (3) The rest of the Mexican cession, outside 
 of California, was to be divided into two Territories, Utah 
 (including Nevada) and New Mexico (including Arizona) ; 
 and slavery was neither forbidden nor permitted in them. 
 (4) Slavery was still to be permitted in the District of 
 
33° THE STRUGGLE FOR SL/IVE TERRITORY [1S50 
 
 Columbia, but there was to be no buying or selling of 
 negroes. (5) A new fugitive-slave law was passed. 
 
 556. The Fugitive-Slave Law provided for the arrest of 
 runaway slaves in the Northern States by United States 
 officers. If a person was arrested as a runaway, his testi- 
 mony was not to be taken ; and for this reason there were 
 cases of great harshness, and arrests and convictions of 
 persons who probably never had been slaves. As soon 
 as the law ^ began to be enforced, it excited the only 
 strong opposition that met any part of the Compromise of 
 1850. The Abolitionists had always considered slavery 
 " a sin against God and a crime against man." Others, 
 who had thought little about the matter, were brought to 
 the same opinion by the cases of severity in the chase 
 after runaway slaves in the North. Nothing had yet done 
 so much to increase the number of antislavery men in the 
 North as this new fugitive-slave law. 
 
 557. Death of Taylor. — While the Compromise of 1850 
 was still under discussion, President Taylor died, and 
 Vice-President P'illmore became President in his stead. 
 Taylor was a simple and honest soldier, who was com- 
 monly called ' ' Rough and Ready ' ' by his men and by 
 the people; and he was greatly regretted. But there 
 was no such quarrel between Congress and Fillmore as in 
 Tyler's case (§ 501). 
 
 558. A Change of Leaders marks this administration. 
 During its four years. Clay, Webster, Calhoun, Polk, and 
 Taylor died ; and a number of less prominent leaders 
 either died or left public life. There appeared in Congress 
 a number of able antislavery leaders, the most prominent 
 being Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, William H. 
 Seward, of New York, and Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio. 
 There had been antislavery men in Congress before ; but 
 none of them, excepting John Ouincy Adams and John P. 
 
SSo] 
 
 RESULTS OF THF. COMPROMISF. 
 
 3,V 
 
 Salmon P. Chase. 
 
 Ilalc, of New I lampshirc, were as able as tliese new men. 
 There were new Southern leaders also, who were very 
 warm in tlieir support of slav- 
 ery, Jefferson Davis (§ 614) 
 being one of the most promi- 
 nent. 
 
 559. Results of the Com- 
 promise. — Most people were 
 content with the Compromise, 
 except as to the Fugitive- 
 Slave Law. But it was really 
 an unfortunate settlement. It 
 was a public recognition of 
 the fact that there were now 
 two sections in the United 
 States, instead of one nation ; 
 and from this time it w^as more and more difficult to make 
 laws which were satisfactory to both sections. 
 
 560. Change of Parties. — Until this time, there had been 
 Northern and Southern Democrats, and Northern and 
 Southern Whigs. Many of the Northern Whigs were not 
 inclined to support slavery; and therefore many of the 
 Southern Whigs began to leave their former party, and 
 vote and act with the Democrats. The result was that 
 the Southern portion of the Democratic party was steadily 
 growing stronger, while the Whig party went to pieces 
 after the next Presidential election, leaving for about two 
 years only one great party, the Democratic party. All 
 this meant, of course, that even the parties were becom- 
 ing sectional. 
 
 561. The Population of the United States in 1850 was 
 23,191,876, an increase of 6,000,000 since 1840 (§490). 
 Railroads, telegraphs, steamers, banks, and commerce 
 were increasing as rapidly as the population. Prosperity 
 
332 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY [1852 
 
 was universal ; but the only important new direction it 
 had yet taken was the gold production of California. 
 
 562. A Pacific Railroad, to connect California to the 
 Eastern States, was evidently needed; but there were 
 many difficulties in the way of it. Between Missouri and 
 California the whole country was a wilderness, where 
 railroad-building would be extremely expensive. Private 
 persons could not build without help from Congress; 
 and Congress, in 1853, ordered surveys to be made, in 
 order to find passes for the road through the Rocky 
 Mountains. The work was not begun until nearly ten 
 years later (§ 783). 
 
 563. The Presidential Election in 1852 put an end to the 
 Whig party. The Democratic candidates for President 
 and Vice-President were Franklin Pierce, of New Hamp- 
 shire, and William R. King, of Alabama. The Whig 
 candidates were General Winfield Scott (§ 534), and Wil- 
 liam A. Graham, of North Carolina. The Free-soil can- 
 didates were John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and George 
 W. Julian, of Indiana. The vote for the Free-soil can- 
 didates was less than in 1848. Many of the Northern 
 Whigs disliked the Fugitive-Slave Law, and refused to 
 vote because their convention approved it. Many of the 
 Southern Whigs had left their party. The Whigs thus 
 lost votes on both sides, and Pierce and King were 
 elected, carrying all but four States.^ 
 
 ' There were 254 electoral votes for Pierce and King, and 42 for Scott and 
 Graham (§ 295). Some attempts were made to revive the Whig party, but 
 they did not succeed. It was commonly said that the Whig party was killed 
 by attempting to swallow the Fugitive-Slave Law. 
 
853] 
 
 FRANKLIN PIERCE 
 
 ZZ2, 
 
 (11) Pierce's Administration: 1853-7 
 
 Franklin Pierce, N. H., President. 
 
 Wm. R. King, Alabama, Vice-President. 
 
 (i) Internal Affairs. 
 
 564. Exhibitions. — In 1851, there had been held at 
 London a "World's Fair," the first of the great exhibi- 
 tions of arts and manufac- 
 tures which have since 
 become so common. 
 American inventions had 
 taken a high place in it. 
 In 1853, a similar exhibi- 
 tion was opened at the 
 Crystal Palace, a large 
 structure of glass and iron, 
 on Reservoir Square,^ in 
 New York City. 
 
 565. Clearing-houses. — 
 The banking business in 
 New York City had b)- this 
 time grown so large that 
 in 1853 a clearing-house 
 was opened there. Its 
 business is to balance daily 
 the accounts of the different 
 banks with one another, so 
 as to avoid the trouble of paying large sums of money 
 back and forth. In the clearing-house, each bank ex- 
 changes the checks it holds against other banks for their 
 checks against it, pa}'ing or receiving only the difference 
 
 Franklin Pierce. 
 
 Now Brvant Park. 
 
334 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY [1S53 
 
 in money. Institutions of tliis kind have since been opened 
 in other cities ; and the business of the New York City 
 clearing-house has grown to be the largest in the world. 
 566. Roads and Bridges. — The condition of the ordinary 
 roads of the country, though bad enough, was now far 
 better than it had been thirty years before; and it has 
 been improving ever since. The growth of the railroad 
 system had forced the country to attend to the build- 
 ing of bridges, and particularly of suspension-bridges. A 
 bridge of this kind had been thrown over the Niagara 
 River with much difficulty in 1848. Since then they had 
 increased in number; and in 1856 the first of them over 
 the Mississippi River was erected at Minneapolis. The 
 American suspension-bridges are now exceedingly numer- 
 ous and among the most beautiful of their class. ^ 
 
 (2) Foreign Affairs. 
 
 567. Naturalization. — A person born and living in a 
 country owes obedience to its government and is said to 
 be one of its subjects. When he changes his residence 
 to another countr}% and declares that he chooses that for 
 his own in future, he is said to become its subject by 
 naturalization, and then he ceases to owe obedience to 
 the country in which he was born. This right of natural- 
 ization had always been asserted by the United States, 
 and had been one of the causes of the War of 1812, as 
 Great Britain would not admit that her subjects could 
 become naturalized in the United States (§ 344). The 
 growing power of the United States now made it possible 
 to support the right effectively. 
 
 ' One of the most important, though not the largest, is that over the East 
 River, between New York and Brooklyn, finished in 1S83. 
 
1^54] FORb'lGN AFFAIRS 335 
 
 568. Martin Koszta \\as an Austrian subject by birth. 
 He had headed a rebeUion in iVustria, had been defeated, 
 and had then taken steps to become a naturahzed Ameri- 
 can citizen. In 1853, the Austrians caught him in Asia 
 Minor, and pLaced him on board a frigate, claiming that 
 he was still an Austrian subject. Thereupon a United 
 States war-vessel ranged up alongside of the Austrian 
 vessel, threatened to fire on her, and compelled her to 
 give Koszta up. Austria complained, but the American 
 Government supported its officer and gave him a medal. 
 Since then, foreign governments have not denied that 
 their subjects might become American citizens by i>atural- 
 ization, and thus cease to owe obedience to their former 
 governments. 
 
 569. Japan had hitherto refused to have any dealings 
 with foreign nations. In 1854, Commodore M. C. Perry, 
 with an American fleet, pushed his way into Japan, and 
 induced its government to agree to a commercial treaty. 
 Japan has since gone on rapidly in the road to an accept- 
 ance of modern civilization, and is now recognized as one 
 of the most active and progressive of modern States. 
 
 570. Cuba. — Filibustering expeditions against the Span- 
 ish possessions in the West Indies were attempted during 
 this period. Their object was to conquer Cuba, and then 
 obtain its admission to the Union as a slave State. Such 
 expeditions are against the laws of the United States, and 
 they had to be begun secretly. They were all failures, 
 and some of their leaders were executed by the Spanish 
 authorities. The American Government offered to buy 
 Cuba from Spain, but Spain refused to sell it. In 1854, 
 the three leading American ministers in Europe met at 
 Ostend, in Belgium, and issued a circular, or general 
 letter. It claimed that the possession of Cuba was a 
 necessity for the United States. Many persons in Europe 
 
33^ THE STRUGGLE FOR SLA^E TERRITORY [1854 
 
 and America considered it a threat to attack Cuba, and 
 blamed the ministers for issuiner it.^ 
 
 (3) Slavery and Politics. 
 
 571. Slavery had now spht the great rehgious denomi- 
 nations, excepting the Episcopahans and CathoHcs, into 
 Northern and Southern churches. It had spht the Whig 
 party into two parts (§ 560). It had formed two sections 
 which were every year becoming more opposed to each 
 other. Every one could see that there were signs of ter- 
 rible danger to the country, though no one could see 
 exactly in what quarter a rupture might first occur. 
 
 672. The American Party sprang up during this period, 
 to take the place of the Whig party ; but it lived only for 
 a few years. Its members were sworn not to tell any- 
 thing of its proceedings, and they were therefore often 
 called "Know Nothings." The party tried to bring in 
 a new question, instead of the dangerous question of 
 slavery. Troubles in Europe had enormously increased 
 the immigration into the United States, and many of the 
 immigrants were very ignorant men. The American 
 party wished to prevent foreign-born citizens from hold- 
 ing office, and from voting, except after a very long resi- 
 dence. It came to an end soon after the Presidential 
 election of 1856 (§ 582). 
 
 573. New Territories. — The Democratic party had been 
 kept together in 1850 by the agreement that Congress 
 should neither forbid nor permit slavery in the new Terri- 
 tories of Utah and New Mexico, but should leave their 
 people to settle the matter (§555). In 1854, it was pro- 
 
 ' William Walker, a Southerner, bct^an his filibustering expeditions against 
 Central America during this period. They continued until i860, when he 
 was captured and shot by a Central American government. 
 
1854] KANSAS-NEBRASKA ACT 337 
 
 posed to form Territorial governments for Kansas and 
 Nebraska. Congress had " forever " forbidden slavery in 
 the region in 1 820, when Missouri was admitted as a slave 
 State (§ 418). But Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, and 
 other new Democratic leaders, thought that the Compro- 
 mise of 1850 had changed all this, and that Congress was 
 bound to act in the case of Kansas and Nebraska as it had 
 done in the case of Utah and New Mexico. 
 
 574. Kansas-Nebraska Act. — Douglas therefore put into 
 the bill a declaration that Congress had had no right to 
 forbid slavery in this region in 1820; that slavery was 
 now neither forbidden nor allowed in these Territories; 
 and that their people were to settle the matter. In this 
 form the Kansas-Nebraska Act was passed, by the votes 
 of Northern and Southern Democrats and Southern 
 Whigs, and became law in 1854. It proved to be the 
 coming source of danger, and there was thereafter no 
 more peace on the subject of slavery ; for it had reopened 
 a question which had once been settled, but which could 
 not now be settled again peaceably. 
 
 575. In the North there was more excitement and anger 
 than had been caused by any previous action of Congress. 
 People were reminded that slavery had been forbidden in 
 Kansas and Nebraska as part of a bargain between tiie 
 North and the South, and it was said that the South, 
 having received its share in the admission of Missouri, 
 had now broken its agreement as to the rest of the 
 Louisiana purchase. It soon came to be believed that 
 Southerners cared less for the Union, or for anything else, 
 than they did for the extension of slavery; and the North 
 began to unite against them. 
 
 576. The Republican Party. — At the first election of 
 Congressmen after the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska 
 Act, every one in the North who was opposed to the 
 
33^ THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY [1854 
 
 extension of slavery, whether he had been called a 
 Democrat, a Whig, a Free-soiler, or an American, 
 dropped his former party and voted for candidates opposed 
 to the Kansas-Nebraska Act. At first they were called 
 ' ' Anti-Nebraska Men, ' ' and under this name they elected, 
 in the autumn of 1854, a majority of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives for the next Congress. Before the new Con- 
 gress met, they had taken the name of the Republican 
 party, which is still retained. The membership of the 
 new party was mainly of former Northern Whigs, with a 
 smaller number of former Democrats. It was confined 
 to the Northern States, and had no members in Southern 
 States, except in Missouri, among the German settlers, 
 and in western Virginia, which had been largely settled 
 by Ohio people. 
 
 577. In the South the feeling was as much astonishment 
 as anger. People there were so accustomed to slavery 
 that they could see no reason for this excitement in the 
 North ; and they concluded that it had been contrived by 
 new men, who wanted only to get into power. They 
 felt that the South was attacked without reason ; and 
 Southerners of all parties began to unite against the North 
 as against a common enemy. 
 
 578. The Struggle for Kansas began at once. Money 
 was raised in the North to fit out parties of immigrants, 
 who were to settle Kansas and by their votes make it first 
 a free Territory and finally a free State. In the same 
 way. Southern parties were fitted out to take slaves to 
 Kansas, and by their votes to make it first a slave Terri- 
 tory and finally a slave State. In such a struggle the 
 South was at a disadvantage, for no man liked to take to 
 Kansas his slaves, which had cost him money, under the 
 risk of losing both slaves and money if his side should be 
 beaten. So it happened that the Southern parties were 
 
1 85 6] THE CONFLICT IN KANSAS 339 
 
 chiefly young men, who went to Kansas for excitement's 
 sake; while the Northern \:)Zi.vi\c?> wavQ bona fide settlers, 
 who went to stay and to make homes for themselves and 
 their children. As very few of the Southern parties took 
 slaves with them, one miLjht suppose that there was little 
 or no reason for quarrel between the settlers from the two 
 sections. Quarrels arose because the settlers from each 
 section voted together for one object, claimed to have 
 won a victory, and attempted to force the other party to 
 submit. In the end, the Northern immigrants completely 
 outnumbered their opponents, and made Kansas a free 
 State after a five years' struggle. 
 
 579. The Conflict in Kansas. — The road to Kansas from 
 the Northern States went across the slave State of 
 Missouri. The people of western Missouri refused to 
 allow free-State parties to cross their State into Kansas, 
 and forced them to turn back. When the first election- 
 day came, parties of men from Missouri moved into 
 Kansas, voted, and made it a slave Territory. Then the 
 free-State parties took the roundabout road through Iowa, 
 entering Kansas from the north ; and the struggle in the 
 Territory itself began. The Southern settlers formed one 
 government, the Northern settlers formed another; and 
 each considered the opposite party rebels against a lawful 
 government. As each side attempted to put its laws into 
 execution, and was resisted by force, the struggle soon 
 became an open war. Men were shot; parties of immi- 
 grants were robbed and dispersed ; and towns were 
 plundered and burned. Small armies, with cannon, were 
 formed on both sides; and the newspapers all over the 
 country were filled with news from Kansas. The Presi- 
 dent sent out one governor after another; but none of 
 them could do much to keep order until the free-State 
 settlers became so numerous that their opponents gave up 
 
340 
 
 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY 
 
 [1856 
 
 the struggle. This did not take place until after the end 
 of this administration, about 1858. 
 
 580. The Debates in Congress were of the angriest sort. 
 Duels were threatened, and many members regularly 
 carried pistols or knives, expecting to be attacked by 
 some of their opponents. The Republicans usually con- 
 trolled the House of Representatives, while the Democrats 
 controlled the Senate; and many laws failed to be passed, 
 for want of agreement between the two branches of Con- 
 gress. Kansas had formed a State constitution, forbidding 
 slavery, and applied for admission, with the support of the 
 Republicans ; but the Senate refused to admit it. 
 
 581. Assault on Sumner. — Sumner was one of the most 
 effective Republican speakers in Congress ; and many of 
 
 his speeches were very 
 unpleasant to Southern 
 members. In 1856, he 
 made a violent speech in 
 the Senate which reflected 
 severely upon one of the 
 South Carolina Senators. 
 Thereupon the Senator's 
 nephew, Preston S. 
 Brooks, a South Carolina 
 representative, entered 
 the Senate chamber, at- 
 tacked Sumner unex- 
 pectedly, and beat him 
 with a cane so cruelly tliat 
 his life was despaired of. This scandalous affair added 
 fuel to the flame, for it shocked the North, while it was 
 not disapproved at the South. 
 
 582. The Presidential Election in 1856 was remarkable 
 for the sudden increase of the new Republican party. 
 
 Charles Sumner. 
 
185^0 THE ELECTION OF iSs6 341 
 
 The Democratic candidates were James Buchanan and 
 John C. Breckinridge. The Republican candidates were 
 John C. Fremont, of California, and William L. Dayton, 
 of New Jersey. The American, or "Know-Nothing," 
 candidates were ex-President Fillmore and Andrew J. 
 Donelson, of Tennessee. One State (Maryland) voted 
 for the American candidates ; eleven of the free States 
 voted for the Republican candidates ; and Buchanan and 
 Breckinridge received the votes of the remaining nineteen 
 States, and were elected.^ 
 
 583. The Result of the Election was anything but pleas- 
 ant to the South. Up to this time, no open opponent of 
 slavery had ever received the vote of any State in a presi- 
 dential election : now an antislavery party, not yet two 
 years old, had carried nearly all the free States, and had 
 come dangerously near electing its candidates. It is 
 quite certain that secession would not have taken place, 
 even if Fremont and Dayton had been elected, for the 
 South was not ready for it. But there was already a 
 strong party of secessionists in the South (§611); and 
 they spent the next four years in trying to prepare the 
 South for secession in i860, if the Republicans should 
 then carry all the free States and elect tlieir candidates. 
 
 684. The Leading Events of the administrations of Tay- 
 lor, Fillmore, and Pierce are as follows: 
 
 1850: Death of Taylor, and succession of Fillmore § 557 
 
 Compromise of 1850 555 
 
 Admission of California 555 
 
 Fugitive-Slave Law passed 556 
 
 1853 : Pacific Railroad surveys ordered 562 
 
 Crystal Palace Exhibition 564 
 
 The Koszta case 568 
 
 'There were 296 electoral votes: of these, Buchanan and Breckinridge 
 received 174, Fremont and Dayton 114, and Fillmore and Donelson 8. 
 
342 THE STRUGGLE FOR SLAVE TERRITORY [1856 
 
 1854 : The Japan treaty § 569 
 
 The Kansas-Nebraska Act 574 
 
 1855 : Rise of the Republican party 576 
 
 The struggle in Kansas begun 578 
 
 1856: Assault on Sumner 581 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. Slavery in the District of Columbia. 
 
 2. Personal-liberty laws. 
 
 3. Early railroads to the West. 
 
 4. Emigrant-aid societies. 
 
 5. John Brown in Kansas. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — MacDonald's Select Docuiiients gives important 
 extracts relating to the Compromise of 1850 (Nos. 78-83) and 
 the Kansas-Nebraska Act (Nos. 85-88), and the text of the 
 Ostend manifesto (No. 89). 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — To the larger comprehensive works 
 is now to be added Rhodes's History of tlie United States frorn 
 the Compromise of 18^0. General works of importance, besides 
 those previously mentioned, are Julian's foshua R. Giddings, 
 Birney's fames G. Birney and his Times, Coleman's fohi f. 
 Crittenden, Hart's Sa/fnon P. Chase, C. F. Adams's Richard H. 
 Dana, Wise's Seven Decades of the Utiion, Sargent's Public Men 
 and Events, and the writings and speeches of Sumner, Seward, 
 and Chase. Important aspects of the slavery struggle are also 
 set forth in McDougall's Fugitive Slaves, Hurd's Law of Free- 
 dom and Bo7idage, Pike's First Blotvs of the Civil War, Sanborn's 
 fohn Brown, Spring's Kansas, Thayer's Kansas Crusade, Blaine's 
 T'wenty Years of Congress, May's Recollections of the Antislavery 
 Conflict, and J. F. Clarke's Antislavery Days. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — H. B. Stowe's The Minister's 
 Wooing; G. W. Curtis's Potiphar Papers and Prue and I; Lucy 
 Larcom's A New England Girlhood; Tincker's House of Yorke. 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 THE EVE OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 Buchanan's Administration: 1857-61 
 
 James Buchanan, Pa., President. John C. Breckinridge, Ky., Vice-President. 
 
 (i) Internal Affairs. 
 
 585. A Financial Panic occurred in 1857, brought on in 
 part by too rapid building of railroads in places where 
 they did not pay ex- 
 penses. Railroads had 
 been built in parts of the 
 country where there were 
 but few inhabitants, but 
 where it was hoped that 
 the railroads would bring 
 settlers. The settlers 
 did not come rapidly, and 
 the railroads were oper- 
 ated at a loss. Men who 
 needed the money which 
 they had put into the rail- 
 roads began to offer their 
 shares at lower prices. 
 As prices fell, others be- 
 came frightened and tried 
 to sell; and, just as in 
 1837 (§ 485), a panic 
 ensued. It probably 
 caused more loss than in 1837, but the country was now 
 so much richer that the loss was less severely felt. 
 
 343 
 
 JaiMES lilCHANAN. 
 
344 THE EVE OF THE CIVIL IV/IR [1857 
 
 586. The Mormons (^ 495) had by this time settled in 
 Utah, around Salt Lake City. Here they became more 
 troublesome than ever, and disobeyed the laws made for 
 them by Congress. In 1857, when the President sent a 
 new governor to Utah, he sent also a body of troops to 
 enforce obedience. The Mormons made ready for resist- 
 ance, and succeeded in keeping the troops out on the 
 plains through the winter. But in the spring of 1858 
 they submitted, and the troops entered Salt Lake City. 
 The Mormons, however, continued to be troublesome. 
 They had greatly increased in number, and Congress had 
 not succeeded in stopping their illegal marriages. 
 
 587. New States. — Minnesota, formed from the Louisiana 
 purchase, was admitted as a State in 1858. Part of the 
 former Oregon country was admitted as a State under the 
 name of Oregon in 1859. Kansas, after repeated applica- 
 tions and refusals, was admitted as a State, just at the end 
 of this administration (1861), when Southern Senators 
 had begun to withdraw (§ 616). 
 
 588. The Census of i860. — The population of the United 
 States, by the census of i860, was 31,443,321, an increase 
 of over 8,000,000 in ten years. This was the point at 
 which the population of the United States, which had 
 been nothing 260 years before, at last passed that of the 
 mother country; for the population of Great Britain and 
 Ireland was but 29,000,000 in 1861. But the increase of 
 population in the United States had now become startling. 
 Each new census showed an increase of about one third ; 
 and these leaps grew longer as the population grew 
 larger.^ The census also showed a wonderful prosperity. 
 Railroads had increased from nothing in 1830 to a length 
 of 31,000 miles, built at a cost of nearly $1,200,000,000, 
 
 1 From 1790 to 1800 this one-third increase was but 1,400,000; from 1850 
 to i860 it was 8,250,000. 
 
1S58] GROIVTH OF 7 HE COUNTRY 345 
 
 almost a clear increase of wealth. In merchant-vessels, 
 the country now stood next to Great Britain. In agricul- 
 ture, the product was far beyond that of any other country. 
 The largest crop, cotton, made 5,000,000 bales of 400 
 pounds each. All the property of the country was now 
 roughly valued at $16,000,000,000: and yet this was 
 the country on whose shores, 260 years before, Gosnold 
 could find nothing but sassafras and a few half-naked 
 Indians. 
 
 589. The Map of the United States had changed greatly 
 between 1830 and i860, particularly west of Pittsburgh 
 (§ 451). Texas and the great Pacific territory had been 
 added to it, giving the country an entirely new shape in 
 the far West (§ 544). Even in the East there were large 
 manufacturing cities, like Lowell and Paterson, which 
 were not on most of the maps in 1830. In the West, 
 there were many such cases. In 1830, the maps of the 
 United States had no such cities as Chicago, Milwaukee, 
 or San Francisco; and no such States as Arkansas, 
 Michigan, Florida, Texas, Iowa, Wisconsin, California, 
 Minnesota, Oregon, or Kansas: all these were the growth 
 of thirty years, aided by the railroad. 
 
 590. Mineral Resources. — It had now been found that 
 coal was not confined to two or three States; that there 
 were great beds of it in most of the new States ; and that 
 this continent contained probably as much coal as all the 
 rest of the world together. This is highly important, 
 because so much work is done nowadays by machinery, 
 which needs coal to run it. Gold was not confined to 
 California: in 1858, it was found at Pike's Peak, in 
 Colorado ; and it has been found since in many other 
 parts of the Rocky Mountains, from Idaho to New Mexico. 
 In the same year was found a metal new to the United 
 States: the Comstock lode of silver was discovered at 
 
346 THE E^E OF THE CiyiL IVAR [1859 
 
 Virginia City, in Nevada ;i and other mines were soon 
 brought to light. Since then, it has been found that this 
 Rocky Mountain region is rich in almost every kind of 
 mineral. In 1859, wells sunk near Titusville, in north- 
 western Pennsylvania, struck a vast underground bed of 
 petroleum ; and this at once became a new and large 
 source of wealth. It seemed as if nature was generously 
 pouring wealth into the lap of this fortunate people. 
 
 591. Patents. — The industry and acuteness of the people 
 made good use of their opportunities, and were urged on 
 by the patent system. Now that the country had grown 
 so populous, a patent on a useful invention might be a 
 source of great wealth, for it gave the inventor the profits 
 from his invention for a number of years all over the 
 country, and also, by treaties, in foreign countries. Thus 
 the attention of the people was turned strongly to 
 inventions ; the inventions made it easier to produce 
 wealth ; and the new wealth urged on further inven- 
 tion. 
 
 592. American Literature had passed out of its child- 
 hood, and had grown into a vigorous life of its own. The 
 writers who had appeared about 1830 (§ 458) had come 
 to their full powers, and an increasing number of new 
 men were at work with them. Of these new men, it is 
 only possible here to name the historian Motley, the poet 
 Lowell, and the philosopher P^merson. Much of the in- 
 tellectual ability of the country was enlisted in the work 
 of writing for the newspapers, which now numbered over 
 4,000, sending out nearly 1,000,000,000 copies a year. 
 A single American magazine was now issuing 200,000 
 copies a month. 
 
 ' Tlie discoverer of the Comstock lode is said to have sold it for a few 
 drinks of whiskey and a pony : it has since produced hundreds of millions 
 of dollars' worth of silver. 
 
James Rt ssell Lowell 
 
 Ralph Waldo Emerson. 
 
 Francis Parkman. 
 
 John I-othrop Motley. 
 
 {To face p. 346.) 
 
iS6o] DOMESTIC COMFORT 347 
 
 593. Public Schools and Education. — Public schools had 
 become a great feature of the new republic, and for good 
 reasons. Immigrants were entering the country in a great 
 stream, and all of them who were adult males were 
 allowed to vote after a short residence. If they were 
 ignorant, it could not be helped, and voting was itself 
 something of an education for them ; but it was the busi- 
 ness of the State to take care that the children of these 
 immigrants should not grow up ignorant. Thus a great 
 system of public schools had grown up since 1830 in 
 every State. There were now about 1 10,000 of these in 
 the whole country; and in them an army of 5,000,000 
 pupils were studying daily at State expense. In addition 
 to these there were a great number of private schools, 
 and over 200 colleges. 
 
 594. The Condition of the Country was everywhere 
 different from its condition fifty years before. The farms 
 were cultivated far more easily and profitably by improved 
 machinery, worked by horses or by steam. New fer- 
 tilizers, such as guano, w^ere making old farms produce 
 more. Log-cabins and shanties were disappearing, and 
 comfortable houses were taking their place. The houses 
 contained comforts and conveniences wdiich the richest of 
 men could not have bought fifty years before : gas, hot-air 
 furnaces, sewing-machines, and inventions of every sort 
 to save labor or trouble. There were now few villages 
 so small that they were not near a railroad or a telegraph, 
 by which their people could go or send easily and quickly 
 to any part of the United States. 
 
 595. The Cities had increased in comforts as well as in 
 population. The dwellings had grown larger, the stores 
 richer, and the streets finer; and the cities themselves 
 had taken very much the appearance which they still have, 
 although they have since increased greatly in size, and 
 
348 THE EVE OF THE CIVIL IV AR [i860 
 
 the invention of elevators has caused the erection of very 
 much loftier buildings than were possible in 1 860. Great 
 water-works brought pure water from a distance, and dis- 
 tributed it through the cities. Great parks were opened, 
 as breathing-places for the cities : New York City had just 
 opened the finest of these, Central Park, and other cities 
 were at work in the same direction. Public libraries, like 
 the Astor Library in New York City, were appearing. 
 Thirty years before, the "watchmen" had walked the 
 streets at night with canes and lanterns, and there were 
 hardly any arrangements to punish them for going to sleep 
 or neglecting their duties. Now the new police system 
 had been introduced, with officers to manage it and punish 
 neglect or carelessness in the men.^ 
 
 (2) Sla^wrv and Politics. 
 
 596. The South had not shared equally with the North 
 in the prosperity of which the census of i860 was so 
 pleasant a picture. Plenty of money came into the South 
 every year, for its cotton-crop of i860 sold for about $250,- 
 000,000; but the money seemed to do less good. It did 
 not build up manufactures, railroads, colleges, schools, 
 libraries, or the other signs of growth, as in the North. 
 Land was worth much less at the South than at the 
 North. All the commerce was in Northern vessels; and 
 Charleston, which in 1800 was one of the busiest seaports 
 on the Atlantic coast, now did hardly any business of 
 its own. It was not to be expected that the Southern 
 people would be satisfied with such a state of affairs : on 
 the contrary, they were exceedingly dissatisfied, and 
 
 ' This city ]:)olice system is an Englisli idea. It was introduced in 
 London by Sir Robert Peel in 1829; and for this reason the policemen were 
 at first often called "peelers." 
 
i86o] 
 
 THE EFFECTS OF SLAVERY 
 
 349 
 
 J rv-'"^ 
 
 sought long for the cause of their backwardness, aiul the 
 remedy. 
 
 597. The Effects of Slavery. — The chief cause is now 
 seen by ever)' one to have be»en negro slavery, though the 
 South could not see that in 1 860. 
 Slaves worked only because 
 they were made to do so ; they 
 worked slowly, carelessly, and 
 stupidly, and were fit for little 
 better than to hoe cotton. In 
 factories or on railroads they 
 were of slight use. The rich 
 whites did not need to work ; 
 and the poor whites did not wish 
 to work, because they had grown 
 up in the belief that work was a 
 sign of slavery. Here was the 
 real reason for the backward- 
 ness of the South, compared 
 M-ith the North. In the North 
 there was a general race for 
 work, and everything w'as in active motion, 
 there was no great number of persons who really wanted 
 to work, and everything stood still. 
 
 598. The Territories. — The South, in i860, could only 
 see that everything was going wrong. It was growing 
 poorer as the North grew richer, and weaker as the North 
 grew stronger. Five new free States had been admitted 
 since Texas, the last slave State, had entered the Union ; 
 a sixth, Kansas, was demanding admission; and others 
 were evidently coming soon. Every new free State made 
 the South less influential in both branches of Congress ; 
 and, as States are formed from Territories, the South 
 came to believe that any refusal to allow slavery in the 
 
 King Cotton. 
 
 In the South 
 
35° THE EVE OF THE CIVIL IV AR [^857 
 
 Territories was intended to make the South less important 
 still. 
 
 599. The Supreme Court of the United States is the 
 body to which is given the power to decide whether the 
 laws passed by Congress are such as the Constitution 
 allows Congress to pass. If it decides that the law in 
 question was not permitted by the Constitution, the law 
 is said to be unconstitutional, and need not be obeyed, 
 for the other courts will not punish those who disobey it. 
 In 1820, Congress had forbidden slavery in the Louisiana 
 purchase, outside of Missouri (§ 418); but for nearly forty 
 years no case had required the Supreme Court to decide 
 whether this law of 1820 was constitutional or not. 
 Finally, one Dred Scott, a Missouri slave, who had been 
 taken by his owner into the territory in which slavery had 
 been forbidden, brought suit to be declared free. The 
 case came at last before the Supreme Court, and was 
 decided in 1857. 
 
 600. The Dred Scott Decision sustained the Southern 
 view of slavery in the Territories. The Supreme Court 
 decided that negro slaves were not considered by the 
 Constitution as persons, but as property; that the object 
 of the Constitution was to protect property ; that a slave- 
 owner had as much right to take his slaves as to take his 
 cattle from one State to another, or to the Territories; 
 and that Congress had no power to forbid slavery in the 
 Territories. 
 
 601. Effects of the Decision. — The Dred Scott decision 
 was not to end the matter, for the North refused to accept 
 it. It was believed there that negro slaves were consid- 
 ered by the Constitution as "persons held to labor," and 
 not as property; and that they were property only by 
 State law. The only effects of the decision were to make 
 the South more certain that it was right, and to make 
 
1S59] JOHN BROIVN'S RAID 35i 
 
 the North exceedingly angry with the Supreme Court 
 itself. 
 
 602. The Democratic Party, up to this time, had gen- 
 erally controlled the Union, and the South had generally 
 controlled the Democratic party. Now most of the 
 Northern Democrats began to hold back. If they did as 
 Southern Democrats wished them to do, and accepted the 
 Dred Scott decision, they could not expect to carry any 
 more elections in the North. Some of them joined the 
 Republican party. Most of them, with Douglas, tried to 
 show that the Dred Scott decision did not mean all that 
 the Southern Democrats said it meant. And so the 
 slavery question, which had split almost everything else, 
 was now splitting the Democratic party also (§ 570- 
 
 603. The Fear of Negro Insurrection was always dreadful 
 to a Southerner, for it meant the greatest of dangers to 
 his wife, his children, and all that was dear to him. No 
 general insurrection ever took place, but the people of the 
 South were always on guard against it, day and night. 
 Fifty years before, when slavery was but a little thing, 
 John Randolph, of Virginia, said that, when the fire-bell 
 rang at night in a Southern city, every mother trembled 
 for her children. In 1859, t'^ere were 4,000,000 slaves 
 in the South, and the idea of a general uprising was natu- 
 rally far more frightful. 
 
 604. John Brown's Raid. — John Brown had been one of 
 the free-State leaders in the Kansas troubles, and had 
 grown to have a religious hatred of slavery. In 1859, 
 with a few associates, he seized the town of Harper's 
 Ferry, which contained the United States arsenal. He 
 intended to carry the arms off to the mountains near by, 
 and use them to arm the slaves. The telegraph sent the^ 
 news through the South, and for a few days a wild excite- 
 ment followed. Regular troops and Maryland and Vir- 
 
352 THE EVE OF THE CIVIL IVAR [i860 
 
 ginia militia soon captured or shot the party; and Brown 
 himself, with the survivors, was hanged by the State of 
 Virginia. But the South had been too much startled to 
 be easily quieted ; and there was a strong feeling of anger 
 that the ' ' raid ' ' should have been planned in the North. 
 
 (3) Sectional Division. 
 
 605. Sectional Division — Slavery had by this time set 
 the two sections, North and South, completely against 
 one another. It had arrayed them in successive conflicts 
 with one another until there seemed to be no escape from 
 the last and worst of conflicts. Men have tried to find 
 explanations of this opposition in differences of climate, 
 character, and blood ; but there is not one of these cases 
 of opposition which is not more easily explained by the 
 treacherous influences of slavery. If Southern leaders 
 opposed a protective tariff (§ 436), it was rather because 
 slavery prevented manufactures in the South than because 
 they were really fond of free trade. If they supported 
 State sovereignty eagerly (§475), it was because slavery 
 was protected by State laws and power. 
 
 606. The Feeling in the South in i860 was that the 
 North had not behaved in a kindly manner. The com- 
 plaints were that nearly all the free States had voted for 
 candidates of their own at the last election ; that they had 
 resisted the Fugitive-Slave Law; that they had tried to 
 abolish slavery in the Territories ; that they had begun a 
 struggle with the South for the control of Kansas ; that 
 they had refused to accept the Drcd Scott decision ; and 
 that they had sent John Brown on his raid against the 
 South. Much of this was unjust, though part of it was 
 true, for the whole current of events, and the Northern 
 
i86o] THE FEELING IN THE NORTH 353 
 
 current of fccliiifj, were runnini,^ hard against slavery, 
 which the South defended. But it was not yet beHeved 
 in the South that these complaints were enough to justify 
 war. 
 
 607. The Feeling in the North. -People in the North 
 were generally too busy to lay any plans against slavery. 
 The Abolitionists (§462) had long desired that the slave- 
 holding States should secede and rid the country of the 
 guilt of slavery; but the Abolitionists were still few in 
 number. The great mass of the Northern people had 
 gradually come to believe that the South liked slavery 
 altogether too well; but they were perfectly willing to 
 leave the Southern States to regulate the matter for them- 
 selves. Their principal complaint had been that the 
 solemn agreement, called the Missouri Compromise, had 
 been broken (§ 574); but this had failed to carry slavery 
 into the Territories, for Kansas was now practically a free 
 State. The only remaining grievance was the Dred Scott 
 decision ; and if that was to be carried into effect. Con- 
 gress was to protixt slavery in the Territories. This was 
 what most of the Southern leaders now demanded, and 
 what the Northern people would certainly never consent 
 to do. 
 
 608. Parties in i860. — The Democratic party, in i860, 
 split into a Northern and a Southern section ; and the 
 Republican party and the former American party also 
 made nominations. In this election there were thus at 
 work four parties. The Republican party nominated 
 Abraham Lincoln (§ 620), and Hannibal Hamlin, of 
 Maine, for President and Vice-President. Their "plat- 
 form," or declaration of principles, declared that it was 
 the right and the duty of Congress to forbid slavery in 
 the Territories. The Southern Democrats nominated 
 John C. Breckinridge and Joseph Lane, of Oregon. Their 
 
354 THE El^E OF THE CiyiL JVAR [iS6o 
 
 platform declared that it was the ris^^ht and the duty of 
 Congress to protect slavery in the Territories, whenever 
 a slave-owner took his slaves thither. The Northern 
 Democrats nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, 
 and Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia. Their platform 
 declared that they still believed that the people of each 
 Territory ought to control the matter of slavery in that 
 Territory; but that they were willing to submit to the 
 decision of the Supreme Court. The American party 
 nominated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, 
 of Massachusetts. Their platform declared that they 
 wished only for "the Constitution, the Union, and the 
 enforcement of the laws. ' ' This Avas not intended to 
 mean much, except that its Southern supporters did not 
 wish to go to war in defence of slavery in the Terri- 
 tories, and wanted the slavery question dropped out of 
 politics. 
 
 609. The Presidential Election in 1 860 resulted in the 
 success of the Republicans. No candidates had a majority 
 of the popular vote; but Lincoln and Hamlin, who had 
 received the largest popular vote, received a majority of 
 the electoral votes also, and were elected.^ 
 
 (4) Secession. 
 
 610. South Carolina seems to have been the only 
 Southern State which was really anxious to escape from 
 
 1 Lincoln and Hamlin received i8o electoral votes; Breckinridge and 
 Lane, 72; Bell and Everett, 39; and Douglas and Johnson, 12. The popii- 
 larvote for Douglas was next largest to that for Lincoln, but he carried only 
 Missouri and three electoral votes in New Jersey. Lincoln received all the 
 electoral votes of the free States, except those of New Jersey, which were 
 cast for Douglas. Bell carried Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee; and 
 Breckinridge all the other slave States except those three and Missouri. 
 
I' 
 
 [ 
 
 y « 
 
i86o" 
 
 THE SECESSIONISTS 
 
 355 
 
 the Union. As soon as Lincoln's election was made 
 certain, this State called a State convention, which passed 
 an "ordinance of secession," December 20, i860. It 
 
 
 'jf'f ifi'f5'ff 
 
 f|) liSt \^ 
 
 Secession Hall. 
 
 declared that the Union between South Carolina and 
 other States, under the name of the United States of 
 America, was at an end ; and that South Carolina was 
 now independent. The State then made ready for war. 
 
 611. The Secessionists. — Secession was considered a 
 right of the States by most of the Southern States ; but 
 in other States than South Carolina the 
 people do not seem to have wished to leave 
 the Union. They did not wish to secede, 
 though they believed in their right to do 
 so. But there was a class of secessionists 
 in every Southern State who wished to try 
 it at once, for they knew that in a few years 
 the North would be so much stronger that 
 it would be altogether impossible to secede, 
 and the right of secession would be gone forever, 
 were not a majority, but were active and influential. 
 
356 
 
 THE Eyn OF THE CIVIL IV^R 
 
 [i860 
 
 612. Arguments for Secession.— In other States than 
 South Carohna the secessionists usually urged two argu- 
 ments for secession. The first was that it would be dis- 
 
 Jefferson Davis. 
 
 graceful to leave South Carolina to stand alone, and that 
 the other slave States ought to support her. Their second 
 and stronger argument was that they did not intend to 
 leave the Union altogether, but that they could "make 
 
i86i] THE CONFEDERATE STATES 357 
 
 better terms out of the Union than in it. ' ' Thc}^ argued 
 that the North was growing very strong and vcr}- much 
 opposed to slavery and to the South ; that now was the 
 time to secede and compel the North to give security 
 for future good behavior; and that then all the States 
 could come quietly and kindly back to the Union. The 
 radical secessionists never intended to follow out any such 
 plan : they only wished to persuade the voters to call State 
 conventions, whose action would bind the State. 
 
 613. The Other Southern States. — In six other Southern 
 States, the argument above given induced a majority of 
 the voters to elect State conventions, which passed 
 ordinances of secession. In this manner the States of 
 Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and Louisiana 
 seceded in January, i86i; and Texas did the same in 
 February. This was the first ' ' area of Secession " : it 
 nov/ consisted of the seven cotton States, those lying south 
 of North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. 
 
 614.* The Confederate States. — The secessionists had 
 the game in their own hands when they obtained control 
 of the State conventions ; and they at once went on to do 
 what they had intended to do from the beginning. With- 
 out asking any permission from the voters, the State con- 
 ventions sent delegates to Montgomery, in Alabama, and 
 the delegates there formed a new government under the 
 name of the Confederate States of America. They elected 
 Jefferson Davis and Alexander H. Stephens President and 
 Vice-President. Jefferson Davis was a graduate of West 
 Point, but had left the army and become a cotton-planter 
 in Mississippi. lie had commanded a Mississippi rifle- 
 regiment in the Mexican war, and subsequently, as a 
 Democrat, served in the United States Senate from i 847 
 to 1 85 1, and from 1857 to 1861, and as Secretary of War 
 during Pierce's administration, 1853-7. Alexander H. 
 
358 
 
 THE EVB OF THE CIVIL IVAR 
 
 [1861 
 
 Stephens had been a member of the House of Representa- 
 tives from 1843 to 1859, joining- the Democratic party in 
 
 1850. Pie was strongly 
 opposed to secession in 
 I 860 ; but when Georgia 
 seceded, he "went with 
 his State. " The conven- 
 tion also adopted a con- 
 stitution and flag, both 
 much like those of the 
 United States ; and took 
 steps to form an army and 
 navy. 
 
 615. The Doctrine of 
 State Sovereignty thus put 
 every man in the South on 
 the wrong side, and kept 
 him there. Southern voters 
 had given their State con- 
 ventions power to speak for 
 their States; and, even 
 when the whole purpose of the secessionists became 
 plain, the voters felt bound to "follow their State" 
 (§ 475)- Thus the voters of six States, without having 
 a word to say in the matter, were made subjects of an 
 illegal government; and they were thus fraudulently 
 bound to defend it, though it could only exist by warring 
 on the United States. 
 
 616. Affairs in the South were all in favor of the seces- 
 sionists, h^-en before the different States seceded, their 
 authorities seized the forts, arsenals, dock-yards, ships, 
 custom-houses, mints, and other property of the United 
 States. Wherever there were any United States soldiers, 
 they were surrounded and forced to surrender. As soon 
 
 Alexander H. Stephens. 
 
iS6i] FORT SUMTER 359 
 
 as a State seceded, its citizens who were in the service of 
 the United States resigned their commissions and took 
 service, first under the State, and then under the Con- 
 federacy. Officers of the arnn' from seceding States 
 generally resigned : a few, like Scott, held to the Union. 
 Officers in the navy did not so generally go with their 
 States: some of the foremost naval officers of the United 
 States, like I'arragut, were Southerners. Thus, at the 
 bombardment of the forts at Port Royal, in South Carolina 
 (§ 636). two of the gunboat-captains were South Caro- 
 linians; and one of them. Captain Dra\-ton, was firing on 
 his own brother, who commanded the forts. With the 
 exception of Andrew Johnson, Senator from Tennessee, 
 Senators and Representatives from seceding States re- 
 signed and went home. Within sixty days, the authority 
 of the United States was paralyzed in seven States of the 
 Union. Two of the Supreme Court justices were from 
 seceding States; but they held to the Union, and gave no 
 countenance to secession. 
 
 617. Fort Sumter. ^ — In all the South there were saved 
 only the forts near Key West, Fort Pickens at Pensacola, 
 and Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. Earl\- in 1861, 
 the South Carolina authorities began to build forts and 
 batteries to attack Fort Sumter ; and when a steamei , the 
 Star of the IJlst, was sent to carr\' supplies to it, in Jan- 
 uary, they fired on her and dro\e her back. This state 
 of affairs continued until the end of Buchanan's term of 
 office, in March, 1861. Major Anderson, commanding 
 P'ort Sumter, was not allowed by his government to fire 
 on the forts around him, and they did not allow supplies 
 to be brought to him b)' sea. 
 
 618. The Federal Policy. — The Federal Government, 
 meantime, did nothing. Congress was in session during 
 the winter; but it spent its time in talking about new 
 
360 THE El^E OF THE CIVIL PVAR [1861 
 
 proposals for compromise. The President was anxious 
 to avoid doing anything except to keep the peace until 
 the end of his term. The departments at Washington 
 contained many clerks who were secessionists, and who 
 gave early and useful information to the Southern leaders. 
 Seven States had wiped out the authority of the govern- 
 ment w^ithin their limits, and had formed a new gov- 
 ernment of their own. Between them and the Federal 
 Government was a wall of border States, not willing to 
 secede, and yet not willing to see the seceding States 
 brought back into the Union by force. Affairs wxre in 
 this dismal condition when Buchanan's term ended, and 
 Lincoln was inaugurated, March 4, 1861. 
 
 619. The Leading Events of Buchanan's administration 
 w^ere as follows: 
 
 1857: Dred Scott decision § 600 
 
 Panic of 1857 585 
 
 Mormon troubles 586 
 
 1858: ]\Iinnesota admitted 587 
 
 Gold discovered in Colorado 590 
 
 Silver discovered in Nevada 590 
 
 1859: Oregon admitted 587 
 
 Petroleum discovered in Pennsylvania 590 
 
 John Brown's raid 604 
 
 i860: Lincoln elected President 609 
 
 South Carolina secedes (December 20) 610 
 
 1861 : Six other States secede 613 
 
 Steamer Slar 0/ the West fired on (January 9) . . . . 617 
 
 The Confederate States formed (February 4) 614 
 
 Kansas admitted 587 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. The admission of Kansas. 
 
 2. Slave insurrections. 
 
 3. John Brown's raid. 
 
 4. Lincoln's opinions on slavery. 
 
 5. Comparative resources of the North and the South, from 
 the point of view of war between the sections. 
 
l86l] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 361 
 
 6. The grievances of the South. 
 
 7. Was secession voluntan- ? 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — MacDonald's Select Documents gives a summary 
 of the Dred Scott decision (No. 9IJ, extracts from the 
 Lecompton constitution (No. 92), the three important compro- 
 mise propositions (Nos. 93, 95, and 96), the South Carolina 
 ordinance of secession (No. 94), and the constitution of the 
 Confederate States (No. 97). Cooper's American Politics, 
 bk. I., gives many documents relating to slavery and secession. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — The principal authorities are the 
 same as in Chap. XVII., with the addition, for the Southern 
 side, of Helper's Impending Crisis, Stephens's War between the 
 States, Jefferson Davis's Rise and Fall of the Co7ifederate Govern- 
 ment, and Pollard's Lost Cause. The American Atitiual Cyclo- 
 pcedia for 1861 is especially \aluable for reference. 
 
 Illustrative Literature — Longfellow's Poems on Slavery; 
 Whittier's Antislavery Poems; H. B. Stowe's Uncle Tom's 
 Cabin; T. N. Page's Social Life in Old Virginia and The Old 
 South; j\L E. Seawell's Children of Destiny. 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 THE WAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 Lincoln's Administration: 1861-65 
 
 Abraham Lincoln, 111., President. Hannibai, Hamlin, Me., Vice-President 
 
 (i) Ei'ents of 1S61. 
 
 620. Abraham Lincoln i.s the central figure of this period. 
 Born in Kentucky, February 12, 1809, of poor parents, 
 he emigrated \vith them to Indiana, and thence to IIHnois, 
 where he found work as a farm-hand, rail-sphttcr, and 
 Mississippi boatman. By hard work and perseverance, 
 he educated himself, became a lawyer, and served as 
 Representative in Congress (Whig), 1847-49. In 1858, 
 he was nominated by the Republicans for United States 
 Senator against Douglas. A series of joint debates 
 between the candidates, on the issues of the campaign, 
 attracted attention throughout the country; and, though 
 Illinois was then a Democratic State, Douglas, the leader 
 of the Democrats in the North, barely escaped defeat. 
 To the masses of the voters outside of Illinois, however, 
 Lincoln was still little known; and when he was elected 
 President there was a very wide belief in the North that 
 the "rail-splitter" was a reckless and dangerous man. 
 In the South, it was even believed that he was a mulatto 
 (and Hamlin a full-blooded negro), elected as an insult 
 to the South. It was not until his death that people 
 
 363 
 
}64 
 
 THE IV^R FOR THE UNION 
 
 [iS6] 
 
 began to see that he was one of the wisest, greatest, and 
 most kind-hearted men of history, who loved one section 
 as well as he did the other, and his whole country more 
 than either. 
 
 621. The New Administration began under every sort of 
 difficulty. The seven Gulf, or cotton, States were 
 
 -altogether hostile. The slave States north of them were 
 opposed to forcing the seceded States to return. Nobody 
 felt quite certain that even the Northern States would go 
 to war to preserve the Union. President Lincoln and his 
 Cabinet were all new men, without experience in manag- 
 ing the Federal Government; and this general uncertainty 
 added greatly to their difficulties. 
 
 622. Fort Sumter (§617) was almost ready to surrender 
 when Lincoln became President, March 4, 1861, for its 
 garrison had hardly any provisions left. Larly in April, 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 '< '4 1 
 
 Fort Sumter and Charleston Harbor. 
 
 the President ordered a fleet to leave New York for 
 Charleston, carrying provisions for the fort. As soon as 
 this became known, the Confederate batteries were ordered 
 
.86i] 
 
 IVASHINGTON AND BALTIMORE 
 
 365 
 
 to attack the fort. ^Vftcr a heavy hre of thirty hours, the 
 ammunition in the iort \\as ahnost exhausted, and its 
 wooden buikliui^s were on lire; and Major Anderson sur- 
 rendered the fort and garrison with the honors of war 
 (April 13). No one was killed on either side during" the 
 fire; but one Federal soldier was killed, and several 
 
 Fort Slm er 
 
 \\ounded, by the explosion of a gun with which the garri- 
 son was saluting" the flag" before leaving" for New York. 
 The fleet returned to the North, having been unable to 
 gi\'e any assistance. 
 
 623. Washington and Baltimore — In the North and 
 West, the news of the fall of Fort Sumter roused an ex- 
 citement such as had not been known there since the 
 Revolution against Great Britain. Political differences 
 were dropped, and the whole people was united in support 
 of the government. When the President called for 
 75,000 volunteer soldiers (April 15), to put down the 
 rebellion, four times as many responded. Money and 
 help of every kind were offered in great abundance by 
 States and private persons ; and every effort was made to 
 put the city of Washington, the national capital, into a 
 condition of security. Washington was at first a very 
 
366 THE IV A R FOR. THE UNION [iS6i 
 
 unsafe place for the government, for it was so near the 
 Confederate States that it was exposed to immediate 
 attack. Soldiers at once began to gather for its defence. 
 To reach it, they had to pass through Baltimore, where 
 the secessionists were then very strong. Here, in a 
 street-fight between a Massachusetts regiment and the 
 mob which was trying to stop its march, the first blood 
 of the war was shed, on April 19, the anniversary of the 
 fight at Lexington (§ 181). Other regiments passed by 
 water from Havre de Grace on the Susquehanna through 
 Annapolis, and Washington was soon made secure. 
 
 624. In the South the excitement was as great as in the 
 North, and the people were now as much united. Even 
 those who had not wished to secede did not believe that 
 the government had any right to force the seceding States 
 back into the Union. When the Confederate Govern- 
 ment called for 35,000 volunteer soldiers, several times 
 the number offered themselves. 
 
 625. Civil War had fairly begun. President Lincoln 
 proclaimed a blockade of the Southern ports; that is, he 
 forbade all vessels to enter or leave them, or to engage in 
 commerce with them.^ The Confederate Government 
 then issued "letters of marque," that is, permission to 
 private persons to capture merchant-vessels belonging to 
 the United States; and the Confederate Congress declared 
 war against the United States. There was thus a differ- 
 ence between the parties to the war. The Confederate 
 States claimed to be an independent nation, at war with 
 the United States. The United States Government re- 
 fused to recognize the existence of the Confederate 
 
 1 The United States Government had at first but three vessels with which 
 to enforce the blockade; but others were rapidly bought or built, and the 
 navy soon became very large (§ 746). Other calls were made for soldiers, 
 and before July 200,000 men were under arms. 
 
i86i] THE BORDER ST/1TES 367 
 
 Government, or to consider its people as an\'thing else 
 than rebellious citizens. 
 
 626. The Border States, between the Gulf States and 
 the free States, did not desire to secede; but they gen- 
 erally belie\-ed that the Gulf States had a right to secede 
 if they \\ished to do so, and that the government of the 
 United States had no right to force them back into the 
 Union. When they received President Lincoln's call for 
 A'olunteers to force the seceding States back into the Union, 
 the southern row of border States, North Carolina, Tennes- 
 see, and Arkansas, refused to obey it, seceded, and joined 
 the Confederacy. In the Northern row of border States, 
 only Virginia seceded. There were many secessionists 
 in Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri; but the Union 
 men w^ere in the majorit)-, and held their States to the 
 support of the government. In Kentucky the State 
 officers at first tried to be neutral, but the people forced 
 them to support the government. In Missouri the State 
 officers were open secessionists, but the Union majority 
 of the people rose in arms, and, after some hard fighting, 
 drove them out of the State. In Delaware there were 
 hardly any secessionists: but in all the other border States 
 there were many persons who went into the Confederate 
 army. The people of the w^estern part of Virginia refused 
 to recognize the secession of their State, and later formed 
 a separate State, under the name of West Virginia 
 (>^ 694). 
 
 627. Foreign Nations generally considered it impossible 
 for the United States to put down so extensive a rebellion, 
 and believed that there would in future be two nations 
 where the United States had been. They were not }-et 
 inclined to recognize the Confederate States as an inde- 
 pendent nation, for it was known that the United States 
 would declare war against any country which should do so. 
 
368 THE WAR FOR THE UNION [1861 
 
 Instead of doing so, they recognized the Confederate 
 States as a beUigerent power, that is, a power entitled to 
 make war and have war-vessels. ^ This gave Confederate 
 cruisers the right to take refuge in foreign harbors. These 
 vessels at first escaped from Southern ports through the 
 blockade, but were not very successful. Little damage 
 was done to American commerce until Confederate agents 
 began secretly to build swift vessels in Great Britain 
 (§ 672). 
 
 628. The Confederate States, in June, 1861, were eleven 
 in number: Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, 
 Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, 
 Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. As soon as Virginia 
 seceded, their capital was changed from Montgomery to 
 Richmond. Their troops poured into eastern Virginia, 
 which was to be the great battle-ground of the war, and 
 held an irregular curved line from Harper's Ferry to 
 Norfolk. They also had troops in the mountains of 
 western Virginia, to repel attacks from Ohio. They 
 moved troops into southern Kentucky to defend Ten- 
 nessee. They had built many batteries along the Missis- 
 sippi, so as to stop navigation on that river; and they 
 were busily building forts along the coast of the Atlantic 
 and the Gulf of Mexico, for protection against the 
 blockading fleets. The whole Confederacy was thus soon 
 surrounded by a line of defences. 
 
 629. The Federal Troops were at first under the com- 
 mand of General Scott. They held the eastern side of 
 the Potomac, from Harper's Ferry to Fortress Monroe, 
 and that small part of the western side which is directly 
 opposite Washington. Of the other parts of the exposed 
 country, they attempted only to hold Kentucky and 
 
 ^ Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as belligerents in May, 
 1861, and other nations shortly followed the example. 
 
i86i] 
 
 OPERATIONS IN VIRGINIA 
 
 369 
 
 Missouri until the new soldiers should be trained and 
 formed into armies. In this they were successful. The 
 
 •f % i '-VlFWASHINSTON^O 
 
 .Xd.i: Mt. -. .."• V-^, , \j . ^ 
 
 \ HuBlfrxviUt, ^^ '^ , 
 T~>T' . Sr-'-y /•'■»■■ ' . Ch^irlottLsviU. 
 
 Five Forks' :^■■:^,^yv^._^_y^.^ 
 
 ^jTloIt 
 
 Operations in Virginia. 
 
 armies were formed and placed; and, within three months 
 after the surrender of Fort Sumter, the people of eleven 
 States, 9,000,000 in number, were surrounded by a line 
 of hostile fleets and armies which was never broken until 
 the end of the war. ^ 
 
 630. West Virginia. — Serious fighting began early in 
 July, in West Virginia, where General George B. McClel- 
 
 ' During these three months, while the two lines were settling down into 
 their places, there was constant skirmishing from Virginia to Missouri. 
 The most important conflict of this kind was at Big Bethel, near Fortress 
 Monroe (June 10), in which the Union forces were defeated. 
 
37° 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [i86] 
 
 Ian had crossed the Ohio River with a force of Ohio 
 
 troops. McClellan was a 
 graduate of West Point, 
 and had been a captain in 
 the Mexican war, but had 
 retired from the army 
 after the war, and en- 
 gaged in business until 
 i86i, when he took 
 charge of the Ohio volun- 
 teers. He first secured 
 the country along the 
 river, and then moved 
 into the mountains be- 
 tween eastern and west- 
 ern Virginia. Here he 
 beat the enemy in the 
 battle of Rich Mountain 
 and in several other 
 battles; and before the 
 end of the month, the Confederates were driven out of 
 West Virginia. In September, the Confederate General 
 Robert E. Lee attempted to reconquer the lost ground, 
 but he was beaten back by McClellan's successor. General 
 Rosecrans. 
 
 631. Congress. — The regular meeting-time of Congress 
 was not to come until December. But President Lincoln 
 had been compelled, in taking steps to defend the coun- 
 try, to do many things for which no laws had been 
 passed ; and he wished to have Congress in session to 
 provide for such matters in future. He called a special 
 session for July 4. It voted to consider nothing but war 
 business, appropriated $500,000,000 for war expenses, 
 authorized the President to call out 500,000 volunteers, 
 
 George B. McClellan. 
 
i86i] BULL RUN 37 1 
 
 and q;avc liim all powers necessary to carry on the 
 war. 
 
 632. Bull Run. — The successes in West Virginia made 
 the Northern people anxious for an attack on Richmond, 
 and Scott gave an unwilling consent. The road from 
 Washington to Richmond is crossed, about 35 miles from 
 Washington, by a little stream called Bull Run. Here 
 the Confederate army was posted at Manassas Junction, 
 under General P. G. T. Beauregard. The advancing 
 Union army, under General Irvin McDowell, reached 
 Bull Run (July 21), passed the stream successfully, and 
 defeated a great part of Beauregard's army. In the 
 afternoon, before the battle was decided, the Confederate 
 General Joseph E. Johnston brought up a fresh army 
 from the Shenandoah valley. The half-drilled Union 
 army became panic-stricken, and fled in wild disorder 
 to Washington. The enemy was in no condition to 
 pursue.^ 
 
 633. The Army of the Potomac — On the day after the 
 battle of Bull Run, General McClellan was called from 
 West Virginia to command the army of the Potomac. 
 In November, Scott was compelled by old age to give up 
 the command of all the Union armies to McClellan, who 
 set to work to drill and organize the Army of the 
 Potomac, and before the end of the year it numbered 
 150,000 well-trained soldiers. No general advance was 
 attempted, but the Confederate line was gradually pushed 
 back from near Washington to its first position near Bull 
 Run. The Confederate armies in Virginia were also 
 increased and drilled. Both armies were busily fortifying 
 their capitals, so that Richmond and Washington were 
 
 ^ The forces were at first aljout e(iual, 30,000 on each side. Johnston 
 brought in about 10,000 fresli men in his arni}-. The Confederate loss was 
 2,000; the Union loss, 3,000. 
 
372 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1861 
 
 soon surrounded by long lines of forts, equipped with 
 heavy cannon. 
 
 634. Ball's Bluff. — In October a part of the Union 
 forces, 2,000 in number, crossed the Potomac at Ball's 
 
 
 
 f TJn.inn Foi'CCS 
 
 — ^ Confederate Ftin 
 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 20 40 
 
 Bluff, between Washington and Harper's Ferry. They 
 were cut off by a heavier force of the enemy and defeated.^ 
 635. In Missouri, General Nathaniel Lyon was at first 
 in command of the Union forces. He was an energetic 
 and able officer, and soon controlled all the central and 
 northern part of the State. In the southern part, the 
 Confederates were receiving reinforcements from Arkansas 
 and Texas; and, when Lyon moved forward to attack 
 them, he w\as defeated and killed in the hard-fought 
 battle of Wilson's Creek, near Springfield (August 10). 
 
 ' Senator E. D. Baker, of Oregon, who had become a general in tlie 
 army, was among the killed. 
 
iS6i] 
 
 IN MISSOURI 
 
 373 
 
 III October, General John C. Fremont, who liad orc^.anized 
 the arm}" anew, mox'ed forward aij^'ain toward Sprini^field ; 
 but, before a battle took place, lie was removed, and 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 General Henry W. Halleck took command. Witliout 
 any great battle, he gradually during the year drove the 
 enemy out of Missouri. In November, General Ulysses 
 S. Grant, in command of some Illinois troops, moved 
 
374 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [l86i 
 
 down the Mississippi from Cairo, 111., to Belmont, Mo. 
 He destroyed a Confederate camp, but was then again 
 attacked and compelled to retreat to his gunboats. 
 
 636. On the Coast. — In August, 1861, a naval force, 
 with troops on board, under Commodore Stringham and 
 General Benjamin F. Butler, captured Hatteras Inlet and 
 its fort. From this point attacks were made on the 
 neighboring coast of North Carolina. In November, a 
 still larger expedition from Fortress Monroe, under Com- 
 modore Dupont and General W. T. Sherman, captured 
 Port Royal. There were ^6 w^ar-vessels and transports, 
 and 15,000 soldiers. The war-vessels drove the enemy 
 out of the forts, and then the army took possession of 
 them. From this point the neighboring islands between 
 Charleston and Savannah were captured. In September, 
 the Union fleet took possession of Ship Island, near the 
 mouth of the Mississippi, in preparation for an expedition 
 the next year against New Orleans. 
 
 637. Military Summary. — During the year there had 
 been serious land-campaigns in but two States, Virginia 
 and Missouri. The two important battles of the year were 
 Bull Run and Wilson's Creek, in both of which the Union 
 forces had been beaten. In the smaller battles, with the 
 exception of McClellan's successes in West Virginia, the 
 Confederates had also generally been successful. The 
 people of the North and West had been so long at peace 
 that it took them some time to learn how to make war. 
 On the other hand, the Union forces had saved three 
 great States, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri, part of 
 another, West Virginia, and the national capital, Wash- 
 ington. They had formed a vast army and navy out of 
 nothing, and had walled in the whole Confederacy with 
 besieging lines. They had secured, in Hatteras Inlet, 
 Port Royal, and Ship Island, good harbors for their 
 
1862] FOREIGN AFFAIRS 375 
 
 blockadini^ fleets, and points of attack on the nei^hborint^ 
 territory. Above all, the manufactories of the North and 
 West were in active operation, commerce with foreign 
 countries was free, wealth was increasing, and prepara- 
 tions for the next year's campaigns were encouraging. 
 The Confederacy had no commerce, few manufactories, 
 and could only depend on the fighting power of its men 
 and the natural strength of its territory. 
 
 638. Foreign Affairs — In November, a United States 
 war- vessel, the San Jacinto, Captain Wilkes, stopped an 
 English mail-steamer, the Trent, in the West Indies, and 
 took off two of her passengers, Mason and Slidell. They 
 were Confederate commissioners to Europe, who had run 
 the blockade to Havana, and there taken passage to 
 England. This right to stop and search neutral vessels 
 on the ocean had always been claimed by England as a 
 war right, and had led to the War of 18 12 (§ 344). The 
 United States, as in 181 2, denied any such right, 
 repudiated the action of Wilkes, and gave up the com- 
 missioners to Great Britain. But, for the moment, there 
 seemed to be a probability of war with Great Britain ; for 
 the British Government sent troops and war-vessels to 
 Canada, and used harsh language in demanding the com- 
 missioners. Thus, though the American Government 
 maintained its own principles in giving up the commis- 
 sioners, the American people had for some time a sore 
 and angry feeling that Great Britain had not behaved 
 well in the matter. 
 
 (2) Events 0/1862. 
 
 639. In the West. — The year 1862 was notable in the 
 West for the first great success of the general who was to 
 end the war, Ulysses S. Grant. The severe fighting of 
 the year began in Kentuck}' and Tennessee. The Con- 
 
376 
 
 THE IV^R FOR THE UNION 
 
 [iS6: 
 
 federates held a line running through southern Ken- 
 tucky, from Columbus to Mill Spring, through Bowling 
 Green ; and in Tennessee, near the northern boundary-line, 
 they had built two strong forts. Fort Henry, on the 
 
 Tennessee, and Fort Don- 
 elson, 12 miles distant, 
 on the Cumberland. The 
 whole line was com- 
 manded by General Albert 
 Sidney Johnston. Against 
 him were two Union 
 armies. The larger, under 
 General Don Carlos Buell, 
 was in central Kentucky, 
 arranged into a number of 
 divisions and considerably 
 scattered. The smaller, 
 under Grant, was at Cairo. 
 All the forces under Buell, 
 numbered over 100,000; 
 those under Grant, about 
 15,000. 
 
 640. Grant's Advance — 
 Mill Spring was attacked in 
 January by a division of Buell's forces, under General 
 George H. Thomas. The Confederates were beaten and 
 driven into Tennessee, and their commander, General 
 Zollicoffer, was killed. From Cairo Grant moved up the 
 Tennessee River toward Fort Henry. Before he could 
 reach it, it had been captured by the fleet of gunboats, 
 under Commodore Andrew H. Foote, which had accom- 
 panied the army up the river. A large part of the garri- 
 son of Fort Henry had escaped by land to Fort Donelson. 
 Grant's army followed, besieged Fort Donelson, and 
 
 Albert Sidney Johnston. 
 
1862] PITTSBURGH LANDING, OR SHILOH 377 
 
 cai)turcd it (I^'cbruaiy 16) after very hard flighting. The 
 prisoners numbered about 14,000. 
 
 641. The Effect of these victories was to break up the 
 whole Confederate hne and push it far back into Tennes- 
 see. Columbus and other points in Kentucky were 
 evacuated, for fear their garrisons should be cut off by the 
 advancing Union armies. Nashville, the capital of 
 Tennessee, was occupied by Federal troops; and, as all 
 the State authorities had left it, President Lincoln ap- 
 pointed Andrew Johnson (§751) military governor of 
 Tennessee. Grant's army was increased to 40,000 men, 
 and sent on steamboats up the Tennessee River. It 
 encamped at Pittsburgh Landing, on the west side of the 
 Tennessee River, in the southern part of Tennessee; and 
 Buell's army was hurried forward, down the eastern side 
 of the river, to join it. 
 
 642. Pittsburgh Landing, or Shiloh. — Before Buell could 
 reach Grant, Johnston had gathered all his forces to strike 
 the camp at Pittsburgh Landing. His attack was made 
 early in the morning (April 6), and was at first successful. 
 The Union forces had no suspicion that an enemy was 
 near them when the Confederate line burst on them from 
 the woods and drove them down to the river-bank. Here 
 the gunboats drove the enemy back by a heavy fire of 
 shells, and gave the Union forces time to rally. During 
 the afternoon and night, about 20,000 of Buell's fresh 
 troops reached Grant; Johnston had been killed during 
 the battle; and the next morning the Union forces 
 advanced and drove the Confederates off the field. This 
 was the first of the great battles of the war. It is often 
 called the battle of Shiloh, from the name of the little 
 church around which the heaviest fighting took place.' 
 
 1 The Union forces engaged were 57,000, and their loss 13,000. The 
 Confederate forces were 40,000, and their loss 1 1, 000. 
 
378 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1862 
 
 643. Corinth, in Mississippi, was now an important 
 point to be secured by the Union forces, because of the 
 number of railroads which centred there. The Con- 
 federates had fortified it strongly, and it was expected 
 that Beauregard, who had succeeded Johnston, would 
 defend it. General Halleck was now in command of the 
 Union forces, and he slowly pushed his way so near to 
 
 — ^ Vnion Furcis 
 
 -> Con/cdtrate Forces 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 100 200 
 
 Operations in the West. 
 
 Corinth that Beauregard evacuated it (May 30), and 
 retired southward. Here the Union advance stopped for 
 a time. It had opened up the Mississippi from Cairo to 
 Memphis, and the Union line now ran along the southern 
 boundary of Tennessee. 
 
 644. Bragg's Raid. — General Braxton Bragg now took 
 Beauregard's place. In August he quietly moved the 
 larger part of his army eastward until he had passed the 
 Union line, and then struck north for Kentucky. Buell, 
 who was also moving eastward toward Chattanooga, 
 
1862] MURFREESBORO 379 
 
 hastened northward with a weaker army, and readied 
 Louisville ahead of Bragg'. For over a month the Con- 
 federates remained in Kentuck}-, plundering the country. 
 Then they turned back to the southward, finding the 
 Kentucky people loyal to the Union. Both armies had 
 been largely reinforced, and Buell pursued. He overtook 
 Bragg at Perryville, and an indecisive battle was fought. 
 The Confederates succeeded in carrying off their long 
 trains of plunder to Chattanooga, while the Union army 
 took post at Nashville. 
 
 645. Murfreesboro. — After leaving its booty at Chat- 
 tanooga, the Confederate army moved northwest about 
 half the distance to Nashville, and erected fortifications at 
 Murfreesboro. General William S. Rosecrans had taken 
 Buell 's place in command at Nashville. In December 
 he set out, with about 40,000 men, to attack Murfrees- 
 boro. Before he had quite reached it, Bragg sucidenly 
 attacked him, with about an equal number of men, and 
 one of the bloodiest battles of the war followed, lasting 
 three days. It is sometimes called the battle of Stone 
 River, from a shallow stream which flowed between the 
 armies. The Confederates had the advantage in the first 
 day's fighting (December 31), but lost it in the next two 
 days. In the end they slowly left the field and retired 
 for a few miles, while the Union troops were unable to 
 pursue. Both armies then went into winter quarters, each 
 watching the other. ^ 
 
 646. Grant and Sherman. — All this time. Grant was left 
 in command at Corinth, almost in idleness, though he 
 repulsed two attacks of the enemy. Toward the end of 
 the year, he made a first attempt to reach Vicksburgh ; 
 but the Confederate cavalry swept in, in the rear of his 
 army, destroyed the supplies which he had collected, and 
 
 ' The Union loss was about 14,000; the Confederate loss, about 11,000. 
 
380 
 
 THE IVJR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1862 
 
 compelled him to return. All this was a discouraging 
 lack of success for Grant. It was balanced, however, by 
 the close friendship which he had already formed for 
 General William T. Sherman. From this time the names 
 of Grant and Sherman are as closely connected as those 
 of Lee and Jackson on the other side. 
 
 647. Across the Mississippi there was little severe fight- 
 ing this year. In March, a battle was fought at Pea 
 Ridge, near the northwestern boundary of Arkansas, and 
 the Confederates were defeated. For a time there were 
 hardly any Confederate armies in Missouri and Arkansas ; 
 but there was a great deal of guerrilla fighting, that is, 
 attacks upon small parties of Union troops by armed 
 men who were not regular soldiers or under any military 
 control. 
 
 648. The Western Gunboats had done a great deal of the 
 year's fighting, They w^ere of a different appearance from 
 
 WtbTEKN (jUNIiOAlS 
 
 ocean gunboats, many of them having been made by 
 covering the sides of river-steamboats with iron plates or 
 rails. Sometimes a beak or ram was added at the bow. 
 While the Union armies were forcing their way across 
 Kentucky and Tennessee, the gunboat fleet gave them 
 great assistance by controlling the Tennessee and Cum- 
 berland rivers, capturing Confederate batteries, and even 
 
iS62] IRONCLAD VESSELS 3^1 
 
 takini^ an active part in tlic battles. At I'ittsburL^ii Land- 
 ing', the i^unboats threw shells over the Union army into 
 the Confederate ranks, and thus checked the advance. 
 Before Bragg's raid took place, the gunboats had fought 
 two successful battles with the Confederate gunboats on 
 the Mississippi Rivei, and had cleared that river of the 
 
 m^mlilikMkmm 
 
 Confederate Ram. 
 
 enemy as far south as Vicksburgh. The strongest resist- 
 ance made by the Confederates was at Island Number 
 Ten, near New Madrid. They fortified it, and defended 
 it for nearly a month ; but in the end the garrison sur- 
 rendered. 
 
 ON THE COAST. 
 
 649. Ironclad Vessels had as yet hardly been used on 
 the ocean. Great Britain and France had built such 
 vessels as experiments, but they had never been tried 
 in war. At Norfolk the Confederates had been turning 
 the frigate Mcrriinac, which they had captured in the 
 navy yard there in 1861, into an ironclad ram. They 
 called her the Virginia, but she was better known by her 
 original name, the JMcrriuiac. At New York, Captain 
 John Ericsson (§ 447) had also been building an ironclad 
 vessel, which he called the Monitor. 
 
382 
 
 THH IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [i86: 
 
 650. The Merrimac was finished early in the year. She 
 sailed out (March 8) from 
 Norfolk into Hampton 
 Roads, where there was a 
 fleet of five of the finest 
 vessels then in the United 
 States navy, besides a num- 
 ber of smaller vessels. The 
 battle was soon over, for 
 the Federal fleet could do 
 nothing with the Meri'imac. 
 They poured on her a storm 
 of heavy shot, but these 
 bounded harmlessly from 
 her iron roof She rammed 
 and sunk the Cuinbcrla)id, 
 chased the others into shal- 
 low water, and there fired John Ericsson. 
 
 at them at her pleasure. Before she could finish the work, 
 
 it became dark. When 
 
 she went back to Nor- 
 folk for the night, there 
 was apparently nothing 
 to stop her from sailing 
 to Washington the next 
 morning or along the 
 Atlantic coast. The 
 blockade and the great 
 Eastern cities were at the 
 mercy of the monster, 
 and the telegraph car- 
 ried the alarminer news 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 everywhere. 
 
 651. The Monitor 
 
 unexpectedly arrived in Hampton 
 
1862] THF. MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC 383 
 
 Roads two hours after the Mcrriniac went back to Norfolk, 
 and while the alarm was at its highest. No one expected 
 much from her, for she looked far smaller and weaker than 
 the Ma-rimac. When the Mem'iinac sailed out into 
 Hampton Roads the next morning, to finish her work, the 
 little Monitor moved out between her and the wooden 
 frigates, and a desperate combat followed. After four 
 hours of firing and ramming, neither vessel was seriously 
 injured ; but the Mcrriniac could do nothing with her 
 
 1.11. :.l,.;, ,:..:, a..i- .111. M 1. „„,,.. .v,_. 
 
 antagonist. Finally, she gave up the fight and steamed 
 back to Norfolk, from which she never again came out 
 (§ 659)- The telegraph carried the joyful news every- 
 where that ' ' the Monitor had whipped the Mcrriniac , ' ' 
 and the danger was over. The events of these two days 
 proved that the day of wooden war-vessels was past. 
 The Federal Government soon had a number of moni- 
 tors afloat, sufficient to defend the whole coast. The 
 Confederates also began to build ironclads, in order to 
 break the blockade. Other nations at once began to give 
 up wooden ships and form ironclad navies, so that this 
 fight in Hampton Roads had the effect of changing the 
 navies of the world. 
 
384 
 
 THE IVAR FOR. THE UNION 
 
 [1862 
 
 652. On the Coast there were further Union successes. 
 In February, a great naval expedition, under Commodore 
 Goldsborough and General Ambrose E. Burnside, cap- 
 tured Roanoke Island, the scene of Raleigh's colonies 
 (§ 23). Soon afterward, St. Augustine and several other 
 places in Florida were captured by troops from Port 
 Royal; and Fort Pulaski, at the mouth of the Savannah 
 River, was besieged and captured. These captures made 
 the work of the blockading vessels much easier, for most 
 of the good harbors on the Atlantic coast were now in 
 the hands of the Union forces. Charleston and Wilming- 
 ton were almost the only good harbors left for blockade- 
 runners. 
 
 653. New Orleans was a place of great importance to 
 the Confederates, for while they held it they controlled 
 
 the lower Mississippi. Thirty 
 miles above the mouth of the 
 river were two strong forts. 
 Forts Jackson and St. Philip, 
 on opposite sides of the river, 
 each mounted with heavy 
 guns. Across the river be- 
 tween them six heavy chains 
 were stretched, supported by 
 a great raft of cypress logs, 
 so that the river was com- 
 20 40 60 pletely closed. Behind the 
 
 raft there were thirteen gunboats, an ironclad floating 
 battery, a ram, and fire-rafts to burn an enemy's vessels. 
 Between the forts and New Orleans there were many 
 batteries along the river-banks, and in the city there was 
 an army of about 10,000 men. 
 
 654. A Naval Expedition against New Orleans, under 
 Commodore David G. P\irragut and General Benjamin F. 
 
 SCALE OF MtLES 
 
1862] 
 
 FARRAGUT AT NEIV ORLEANS 
 
 385 
 
 Butler, sailed from Hampton Roads in February for Ship 
 Island (§ 636). Here the troops, 15,000 in number, 
 
 David G. Farragut. 
 
 landed, until the navy could open the passage up the 
 river. Farragut bombarded the forts for a week, and then 
 determined to force his way up the river. Some of his 
 gunboats ran up to the forts on a dark night, cut the raft 
 and chains, and opened a way for the vessels. The 
 frigates, which were wooden, were carefully protected 
 
386 THE JVAR FOR THE UNION [1862 
 
 with sand-bags inside, and chains outside; and at two 
 o'clock in the morning of April 23 the fleet, numbering 
 thirteen vessels, moved up the river. After one of the 
 most desperate battles of the war, the vessels passed the 
 forts. Great bonfires were blazing on the banks, but the 
 smoke was so thick that little could be seen. Each vessel 
 fought for itself, firing at the forts, the gunboats, and the 
 ironclads as they came near her; and none of them knew 
 very much about the result until the smoke cleared away, 
 and they found themselves above the forts. The Con- 
 federate fleet had been destroyed in the battle. 
 
 655. The Mississippi River — New Orleans surrendered 
 to the fleet April 25, and the forts surrendered soon after. 
 General Butler then took command at New Orleans, and 
 the fleet sailed on up the Mississippi until it met the 
 western gunboat fleet from Memphis (§648). During the 
 summer the western gunboats attacked and destroyed, 
 near Baton Rouge, a powerful Confederate ironclad ram, 
 the Arkansas. It had been built in the Yazoo River, and 
 had passed out into the Mississippi to offer battle to the 
 fleet. The Mississippi River was now open through nearly 
 all its course. The Confederates still had strong forts at 
 Vicksburgh and Port Hudson ; but they were placed on 
 bluffs high above the river, so that the gunboats could not 
 capture them, though they could run past them by night. 
 There was no army at hand to give assistance ; and the 
 capture of these two places was left until the next year 
 (§ 680). In the mean time, Farragut left the Mississippi, 
 to take command in the Gulf of Mexico. 
 
 656. In Virginia this was a battle-year. The fighting 
 was incessant, and there were four distinct campaigns: (i) 
 McClellan's Peninsular campaign; (2) Pope's campaign 
 in front of Washington; (3) The Confederate invasion of 
 the North; and (4) Burnside's Fredericksburgh campaign. 
 
i862] 
 
 THE y4RMY OF THE POTOMAC 
 
 387 
 
 657. The Army of the Potomac had been increased to 
 nearly 200,000 men, well drilled and armed, and in ex- 
 cellent condition. 
 The authorities at 
 \\'ashini4ton were 
 very anxious that 
 McClellan should 
 move the army 
 directly southwest 
 toward Richmond, 
 so as to keep it 
 always between 
 the enemy and 
 Washington.^ But 
 the country on this 
 route was va-y 
 rough, was crossed 
 by many rivers, 
 and had been 
 strongly fortified 
 by the Confed- 
 erates, so that Mc- 
 Clellan preferred 
 to carry his army 
 by water to Fort- 
 ress Monroe, and 
 then move it up 
 the peninsula between the York and James rivers to Rich- 
 mond. The objection to this was tliat it opened the way 
 to the Confederates for a sudden rush on Washington, a 
 
 ' This need of protecting Washington interfered with tlie phms of all the 
 Union generals during the war. In the same way, the Confederate gen- 
 erals had to think first of ])rotecting Richmond. Lee once said that he had 
 •'got a crick in liis neck, from always having to look back over his shoulder 
 at Richmond," 
 
 PENINSULAli 
 CAMPAIGN 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 Operations in the East. 
 
388 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1862 
 
 more valuable prize than Richmond. It was finally 
 decided to follow McClellan's plan, but to keep a part of 
 his army, under McDowell, in front of Washington, at 
 Fredericksburgh, and another army, under General N. P. 
 Banks, in the Shenandoah valley. 
 
 658. The Confederate Army was at Manassas Junction 
 (§ 632). It was commanded by General Joseph E. 
 Johnston. As fast as McClellan's army was moved 
 
 to Fortress Monroe, John- 
 ston's army was moved to 
 the Peninsula, so as to hold 
 position between McClel- 
 lan and Richmond.^ 
 
 659. Yorktown, on the 
 Peninsula, the scene of 
 Washington's capture of 
 Cornwallis (§261), was the 
 first fortified place on the 
 road from Fortress Monroe 
 to Richmond. Early in 
 April, it was attacked by 
 McClellan's army, and 
 after a siege of a month 
 the Confederates evacuated 
 j<,si;iH K. j.ii .-T..N-. it and retired toward Rich- 
 
 mond. At Williamsburgh they were overtaken by the 
 Union forces, and an indecisive battle took place. The 
 Confederates were now inside of the lines of intrenchments 
 close around Richmond. The Union forces were divided 
 into two parts by a little stream called the Chickahominy, 
 which passes Richmond on the north and empties into the 
 
 1 Johiistcjii was wounded in one of the early battles, and Lee took his 
 place. Jackson, commonly called " Stonewall " Jacks(jn, was Lee's ablest 
 assistant (§ 661). 
 
iS62] 
 
 AT THE CHICKAHOMINY 
 
 389 
 
 James. It is a dang'erous thing thus to divide an army. 
 McClellan risked it because he wished to push his hne far 
 enough north to join McDowell at Fredericksburgh, and 
 
 Robert E. Lee. 
 
 get the assistance of his army without uncovering Wash- 
 ington (§ 657). The Union gunboats controlled the James 
 River to within eight miles of Richm(~)nd ; and the Con- 
 federates had destroyed t\\cJ\fcrrijnac\ because she drew too 
 much water to make her escape from Norfolk to Richmond. 
 
390 
 
 THE iVAR. FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1862 
 
 660. Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. — Late in May there 
 were heavy rains. The Chickahominy rose rapidly and 
 carried away the bridges ; the whole country on its banks 
 became a great swamp; and McClellan's army was badly 
 divided. Johnston's army at once attacked the weaker 
 division, on the Richmond side of the Chickahominy, at 
 Seven Pines and Fair Oaks (see map, § 663). After two 
 days' heavy fighting, Johnston was badly wounded, and 
 his army retired again toward Richmond. General Robert 
 E. Lee took his place. McClellan spent several weeks in 
 rebuilding the bridges ; but, while he was doing so, Lee 
 and Jackson were operating elsewhere with great success. 
 
 661. Lee and Jackson. — Lee, who had been considered 
 the best officer of the United States regular army, had 
 
 \^-'-^T'"mm\\'^^v^ followed his State when 
 Virginia seceded. From 
 this time, he was recog- 
 nized as the ablest Con- 
 federate general. His 
 chief lieutenant was Gen- 
 eral Thomas J. Jackson, 
 also a Virginian, com- 
 monly called "Stonewall" 
 Jackson, from the obstinate 
 way in which he had held 
 his ground at Bull Run. 
 He was a man of simple 
 character, so intensely re- 
 ligious as to be considered 
 a fanatic, and a general 
 of remarkable ability. 
 MAS J. jALK. 662. The Raids of Jack- 
 
 son and Stuart. — Johnston had already sent Jackson north 
 to the Shenandoah, where Banks was in command of 
 
i862] 
 
 SEVEN D^YS' BATTLES 
 
 391 
 
 Cold Harbor 
 
 the Union forces (§ 657). Jackson put Banks to rout, 
 and chased him to the l^otomac. Indeed, it seemed as 
 if the road to Washington was open to him ; and the 
 authorities there were so much alarmed that they called 
 McDowell back from Fredericksburgh to defend the city. 
 This was just what the Confederates wanted. They had 
 balked McClellan's plan (§659). In the middle of June, 
 General J. E. B. Stuart, an active cavalry officer, was 
 sent on another raid. Stuart's force rode completely 
 around McClellan's army, burning provisions and cars, 
 and tearing up railroads, so as to interfere very much with 
 McClellan's operations. 
 
 663. Seven Days' Battles. — Lee now had to deal only 
 with McClellan, for he had got his other enemies out of 
 the way. He hurried 
 Jackson back to Rich- 
 mond, and crossed the 
 Chickahominy to meet 
 him. He thus had about 
 90,000 men, nearly as 
 many as McClellan ; but 
 his troops were united, 
 while McClellan's were 
 still divided by the river. 
 The terrible series of 
 engagements known as 
 the Seven Days' Battles 
 began (June 26) at Me- 
 chanicsville, a little place 
 just north of Richmond, 
 
 where Lee attacked the seven Days' Battles. 
 
 part of McClellan's army north of the Chickahominy, and 
 was repulsed. The next day he won a victory at Gaines's 
 Mill, and cut off McClellan from his supplies on the York 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
392 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1862 
 
 River. Then McClellan began a retreat to the James 
 River on the south, in order to reunite his forces. Lee 
 followed, and for the rest of the week there was desperate 
 fighting- every day, the principal battles being those of 
 Savage's Station (June 29), Glendale, or Frazier's Farm 
 (June 30), and Malvern Hill (July i). The last-named 
 battle ended the series, for Lee was repulsed, and 
 McClellan had reached the James River. This ended 
 McClellan's Peninsular campaign, and his army was soon 
 needed for the defence of Washington.^ 
 
 664. Pope's Campaign. — The Union forces between 
 Fredericksburgh and Washington, 40,000 in number, 
 were now put under command of General John Pope. 
 Lee kept enough men to hold Richmond, and sent the 
 rest, under Jackson, north to attack Pope. Jackson com- 
 pletely defeated Pope in the second battle of Bull Run 
 (August 29), on the old Bull Run battle-field (§632), and 
 drove his army in confusion through Chantilly and Fairfax 
 Court-house back to Washington. The authorities there 
 hastily ordered McClellan to bring his army back by 
 water; and, as fast as this was done, the rest of Lee's 
 army was moved north to join Jackson. Thus, early in 
 September, the two armies were again about where they 
 had been at the beginning of the year. 
 
 665. Lee's Invasion of the North — While McClellan's 
 army was still at Washington, Lee crossed the Potomac, 
 took possession of Frederick City, and apparently in- 
 tended to move right on to Philadelphia or Baltimore. 
 McClellan, who now commanded all the forces around 
 Washington, marched through Maryland and covered 
 Baltimore, so that Lee was compelled to turn to the north- 
 west, through the mountains. While he held the moun- 
 
 1 The losses were about the same for both armies, 15,000 men each. 
 
iS62] 
 
 'ANTIETAM 
 
 393 
 
 tain-passes, Jackson had stopped long enough to capture 
 Harper's Ferry, with a garrison of 12,000 men and a 
 large amount of sup- 
 plies. 
 
 666. Antietam. — Mc- 
 Clellan overtook the 
 Confederates, and 
 fought the indecisive 
 battle of South Moun- 
 tain (September 14). 
 Lee was compelled to 
 give up his invasion of 
 the north, and turn and 
 fight. He took position 
 along Antietam Creek, 
 near Sharpsburgh, and 
 here was fought the 
 great battle of Antie- 
 tam, or Sharpsburgh 
 (September 17). It was 
 a drawn battle, but the 
 result was against the 
 Confederates, for they 
 had to abandon the 
 invasion of the North 
 and recross the Poto- 
 mac into Virginia. McClellan followed them slowly, 
 and by November the armies were back again not far 
 from the positions they had held at the beginning of the 
 war. McClellan was blamed for his slowness, and the 
 command of the army was taken from him and given to 
 General Ambrose E. Ikn-nside. McClellan held no further 
 command durine: the war.^ 
 
 Confederate - - *• - -^ 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 First Invasion of the North. 
 
 1 The Confederate forces at Antietam numbered 40,000; the Union forces 
 
394 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [i86: 
 
 667, Fredericksburgh. — Burnsidc marched his army, 
 which now numbered 125,000 men, to Fredericksburgh, 
 
 intending to cross the Rap- 
 pahannock there, and move 
 straight for Richmond. Lee 
 and Jackson reached their 
 side of the Rappahannock 
 first, and fortified the hills 
 behind Fredericksburgh. 
 Nevertheless, B u r n s i d e 
 crossed the river and at- 
 tempted to storm the hills 
 (December 13). He was 
 defeated, with heavy loss, 
 and was driven back to the 
 north side of the Rappahan- 
 nock. The command of 
 the army was then taken 
 from him, and given to 
 General Joseph E. Hooker. ^ 
 
 668. Military Summary. — In the spring of 1862, the 
 advantages were all with the Union forces. Mill Spring, 
 Forts Henry and Donelson, Pea Ridge, Pittsburgh Land- 
 ing, and Corinth, in the West, the naval battle at Hamp- 
 ton Roads, Roanoke Island, Fort Pulaski, and New 
 Orleans, on the coast, were all important Union victories. 
 The disasters in Virginia during the summer, and Bragg's 
 raid into Kentucky, were not so favorable. But, on the 
 whole, the year was marked by long steps forward. No 
 territory had been lost in Virginia; the Union lines had 
 been advanced across the whole State of Tennessee ; the 
 
 55, OCX), llKjugli there were about 25,000 others who took no part in tlio 
 battle. Eacli side lost about the same number, 12,500. 
 
 * The Union loss was about 12,000; tlie Confederate loss, 5,500, 
 
 Ambrose E. Burnsidk. 
 
1863] EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 395 
 
 Mississippi had been almost opened ; and great pieces 
 had been taken out of the Confederacy in every direction. 
 The blockade was constantly growing stricter, so that the 
 Southern people were in want of such common medicines 
 as quinine ; and the two great attempts, by Bragg and 
 Lee, to burst through the besieging line of armies had 
 been beaten back. But there was no feeling now that 
 the war was to be an easy matter. By the end of the 
 year, 1,300,000 volunteers had been called for, and the 
 number of vessels in the navy was nearly 600. The ex- 
 penses of the government were nearly $3,000,000 a 
 day, 
 
 669. Emancipation. — Slavery was not interfered with by 
 the government at the beginning of the war. But there 
 was a strong feeling at the North that slavery was the 
 real cause of the war; and, as the struggle grew fiercer, 
 many who had never been Abolitionists began to wish 
 that Congress and the President would, as a war-measure, 
 attack slavery. Just after the battle of Antietam, Presi- 
 dent Lincoln issued his first P^mancipation Proclamation. 
 It warned the seceding States that he would declare their 
 slaves free unless they returned to the Union before the 
 first day of the next year. No seceding State returned, 
 and the final P^mancipation Proclamation was issued, 
 January i, 1863. From that time, the army and navy 
 of the United States considered all negroes free men, and 
 refused to allow their former masters to treat them as 
 slaves ; and as fast as the army and navy gained control 
 of the South, the masters were obliged to surrender con- 
 trol of the negroes. Negroes were also enlisted as soldiers 
 and sailors. Not until 1865, however, was the Constitu- 
 tion so amended as forever to forbid slavery. 
 
 670. Financial Affairs. — The support of such enormous 
 armies and navies required the expenditure of money on 
 
39^ THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1862 
 
 an equally large scale, and the ordinary revenue of the 
 government was not at all equal to it. In 1862, the 
 government decided to issue paper money in bills, which 
 were often called " greenbacks " from the color of the ink 
 with which their backs were printed. This money was 
 made a legal tender; that is, any one who owed a debt 
 had the right to pay it in this paper money, no matter how 
 much the paper might have decreased in value. From 
 this time until 1879 (§ 813), the government paid out its 
 own paper money for its expenses. It would not have 
 been safe to issue too much of this kind of money, for it 
 decreases in value rapidly when too much is issued 
 (§ 233); and a large part of the expense of the war was 
 paid by loans, by selling bonds, or promises to pay, with 
 interest, in the future. In order to encourage the sale of 
 the bonds, the National Banking system was established 
 in 1863. Banks were not allowed to issue currency, 
 without depositing a slightly larger amount of bonds at 
 Washington. All the banks which issued currency were 
 thus compelled to buy bonds, that is, to take part in the 
 loaning of money to the government (§ 484). 
 
 671. Foreign Affairs. — The Confederates bad expected 
 that Great Britain and France would intervene in the 
 war; that is, that they would agree to consider the Con- 
 federate States an independent nation, and attempt to 
 force the United States to follow their example. They 
 expected this because the cotton-factories in those two 
 countries were in great straits for want of the Southern 
 cotton, which was cut off by the blockade (§ 625). The 
 Emancipation Proclamation put an end to any such ex- 
 pectation ; the people of Great Britain would not have 
 allowed their government to attempt to force the United 
 States to stop abolishing slavery, and the French Govern- 
 ment would not have ventured to intervene alone. 
 
[862] 
 
 CONFEDERATE PRIVATEERS 
 
 597 
 
 672. Confederate Privateers New reasons arose f(^r ill 
 
 feeling in the North against the J^ritish Government. Con- 
 federate agents 
 in England built 
 and armed two 
 fast-sailing steam- 
 ers, the Alabama 
 and the Florida. 
 The British Gov- 
 ernment was not 
 sufficiently care- 
 ful to seize them ; 
 
 they escaped to Ihe Alabama. 
 
 sea, and soon almost entirely drove American commerce 
 from the ocean. Whenever they were closely chased by 
 American frigates, they found a friendly refuge in British 
 harbors, until they could again get out to sea and re- 
 new their work of destruction. As they were British 
 built, British armed, and manned mostly by British 
 sailors, it looked to the people of the United States as if 
 the building of these vessels were a British trick to destroy 
 the commerce of a friendly nation. 
 
 673. The Sioux War. — During the summer of 1862, the 
 Sioux Indians, in western Minnesota, revolted. They 
 had made many complaints of their treatment by the 
 government, and in August they burst suddenly upon the 
 outlying settlements, killing men, women, and children 
 without mercy. Troops were hurried back from the 
 western armies, and the Indians were driven out of the 
 State. Thirty-eight of them were tried, convicted of 
 murder, and hanged. 
 
39^ THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1863 
 
 (3) Events of i86j. 
 
 IN THE EAST. 
 
 674. Chancellor sville. — For some months the Army of 
 the Potomac, under General Hooker, lay quiet on the 
 north side of the Rappahannock (§ 667). Then Hooker 
 again led the army across the Rappahannock, keeping to 
 the north of the strong defences behind Fredcricksburgh, 
 and thus forced his way about ten miles toward Richmond. 
 He was then met by Lee's army at a little place called 
 Chancellorsville, and one of the great battles of the war 
 followed (May 2-3). By skilful generalship, Lee and 
 Jackson inflicted heavy loss on the Union army, and 
 drove it back across the Rappahannock. But the Con- 
 federates suffered a heavier loss in the death of ' ' Stone- 
 wall " Jackson. He was shot, through mistake, by some 
 of his own men, during the night after the first day's 
 battle. Lee said, very truly, that he had lost his right 
 arm in losing Jackson.' 
 
 675. Second Invasion of the North. — During the month 
 of June, Lee made preparations for a second invasion of 
 the North. His army, now numbering 70,000 men, was 
 moved around the west of Hooker's army, until it reached 
 the Shenandoah valley. At the same time. Hooker was 
 drawing back his army of about 100,000 men toward 
 Washington, to protect that city. Soon the movement 
 changed into a race between the two armies for the North. 
 Lee's army moved through the Shenandoah valley, crossed 
 the Potomac at Harper's Ferry, marched across Maryland, 
 and entered Pennsylvania. The main body was at 
 Chambersburgh, but parts of it held York and came 
 
 - Tlie Union forces engaged numbered 90,000, and their loss was 17,000; 
 the Confederate forces numbered 45,000, and their loss was 12,000. 
 
i863] 
 
 BATTLE Oh GETTYSBURGH 
 
 399 
 
 HARRISBURQ 
 
 V"nA N I a 
 
 within a few miles of IIarrisburi;"h. The invasion caused 
 great alarm in the North. All business was stopped in 
 Philadelphia, and 
 
 militia regiments 
 were hin'ried for- 
 ward from all 
 the States to aid 
 the Army of the 
 Potomac. 
 
 676. The Army 
 of the Potomac 
 had crossed the 
 Potomac be- 
 tween Lee and 
 Washington, and 
 moved north 
 through Mary- 
 land so as to 
 protect Balti- 
 more and Phila- 
 delphia. General 
 George E. Meade 
 had now taken 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 Second Invasion of the North. 
 
 Hooker's place as commander. Just as Lee turned his 
 course east from Chambersburgh to attack Philadelphia, 
 the army of the Potomac moved up between him and the 
 city, and the two armies met at Gettysburgh. 
 
 677. The Battle of Gettysburgh was fought July i, 2, 
 and 3. The Union army was on the crest of a line of 
 hills called Cemetery Ridge ; the Confederate army was 
 on the crest of a line of hills opposite, called Seminary 
 Ridge; between them, in the valley, was the town of 
 Gettysburgh. The first day's fighting was rather in favor 
 of the Confederates. On the second day they even gained 
 
400 
 
 THE IV/IR. FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1863 
 
 one of the Union positions. The final struggle came on 
 the third day. After a tremendous fire of two hours from 
 
 150 cannon, the Con- 
 
 federates made their last 
 charge in a line more than 
 a mile long. It was gal- 
 lantly made, and gal- 
 lantly repulsed after a 
 three hours' struggle. 
 When the sun set, the 
 battle of Gettysburgh was 
 over, and Lee was de- 
 feated. > 
 
 678. Lee's Retreat was 
 begun during the night, 
 and his army moved south- 
 ward through Maryland 
 and Virginia to the Rapi- 
 dan, a branch of the Rap- 
 pahannock. The Army 
 of the Potomac followed 
 slowly until it reached the opposite bank of the Rapidan. 
 Here the two armies remained in position until Grant 
 came to take command in Virginia the following year 
 (§ 698). But Lee's army never fully recovered from the 
 terrible losses of Gettysburgh, and it made no further 
 effort to break through the Union line, or invade the 
 North. 
 
 IN THE WEST. 
 
 679. Union Positions. — In the beginning of the year 
 1863 there were four Union armies in the West. One 
 
 ^ The Union loss was about 23,000; the Confederate loss, about 30,000. 
 While the last charge was being repulsed, the arrangements were being 
 made for the surrender of Vicksburgh (§ 682). 
 
 George G. Meade. 
 
;86,5] 
 
 CONFEDFJiATB POSITIONS 
 
 401 
 
 was near Murfrecsboro, under Rosecrans (§ 645); another 
 was in northern Mississippi, near Holly Spring's, under 
 Grant (§ 646) ; a third was in Louisiana, under Banks, 
 who had succeeded Butler (^ 655); and a fourth was in 
 Arkansas (§ 647). The leading object of these armies 
 was to open up the Mississippi, and thus split the Con- 
 federacy; and as Grant was operating close to the line of 
 the river, the burden of the work fell first on him. His 
 ablest assistant was Sherman. 
 
 680. Confederate Positions. — The river was still blocked 
 by strong Confederate fortifications at Vicksburgh and 
 Port Hudson (§ 655). 
 Between Vicksburgh and 
 Grant was a Confederate 
 army under Pemberton ; 
 and all the Confederate 
 forces in the West were 
 under J. h>. Johnston 
 (§ 658), who had suc- 
 ceeded Bragg. But 
 Pemberton and Johnston 
 did not work well to- 
 gether. When Grant 
 had begun his march to- 
 ward Vicksburgh the 
 year before, Pemberton 
 had sent cavalry around 
 to the rear of Grant's 
 army, captured Holly 
 
 Springs and its supplies. The Vicksburgh Campagn. 
 
 and thus compelled Grant to return unsuccessful. He 
 was so elated by this success that he overrated his own 
 skill, and gave but a half-hearted obedience to Johnston's 
 directions. Johnston wished to have no siege of Vciks- 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
4° 2 THE JV/iR FOR THE UNION V^^'^Z 
 
 burgh, but to fight Grant in the open field: Pemberton 
 proceeded to strengthen the fortifications in every way, 
 and to get ready for a siege. 
 
 681. Grant's First Plan was to lead his army across the 
 Mississippi, near Memphis, and move down the west bank 
 of the river until he should be opposite Vicksburgh. 
 Here he endeavored to cut a canal across a great bend in 
 the Mississippi, and thus leave Vicksburgh at a distance 
 from the river. But the river refused to run through the 
 canal, and the plan failed. After two months' hard work, 
 he found that Vicksburgh was too strong to be taken from 
 this side. Grant then, in April, moved his army still 
 farther south, past Vicksburgh, through a low, flat, and 
 swampy country. At the same time, the gunboat fleet 
 ran past the batteries without much injury, and ferried 
 Grant's army across the Mississippi, at Grand Gulf, 
 near Port Gibson, so that it was now again on the Vicks- 
 burgh side of the river, but below the city. Sherman, 
 with a part of the army, kept up a noisy attack on the 
 northern side of the city, on the Yazoo River, to distract 
 Pemberton 's attention. Johnston was gathering a force 
 at Jackson, to aid Pemberton. 
 
 682. Vicksburgh and Port Hudson After crossing the 
 
 Mississippi, Grant moved northeast, fighting five success- 
 ful battles as he went, until he reached Jackson. He 
 thus drove Pemberton into his fortifications at Vicksburgh 
 on one side, while he drove away Johnston on the other. 
 Then, turning back from Jackson, he rejoined Sherman, 
 and the whole army formed a close siege of Vicksburgh. 
 From that time, his grip on the place could not be 
 loosened. He threatened Johnston in the rear, while he 
 besieged Pemberton in front; and. after a siege of six 
 weeks, the place surrendered, with 32,000 prisoners 
 (July 4). Port Hudson surrendered July 9 to the Louis- 
 
1S63] CHICKAMAUGA 403 
 
 iana army under ]5anks. By the captures of Vicksburi^h 
 and Port Hudson, the whole Mississippi River passed 
 under the control of the Union armies and fleets. The 
 Confederates could no longer bring grain and cattle across 
 the Mississippi from Texas and Arkansas, to feed their 
 armies east of the Mississippi. 
 
 683. In Arkansas the Confederates attacked the post at 
 Helena, July 4, and were badly defeated. After the fall 
 of Vicksburgh, Grant sent a force into the State and took 
 possession of nearly all of it, though there was still some 
 fighting b}- Confederate guerrillas (§ 647). 
 
 684. Cavalry Raids had now become, common on both 
 sides. A cavalry force, if it could get into the rear of an 
 opposing army, could inflict more damage, by tearing up 
 railroads and burning supplies, than could be made up by 
 the capture of the raiders. One of the boldest of these 
 raiders was the Confederate John Morgan. In July he 
 passed through Tennessee and Kentucky with 4,000 
 horsemen, crossed the Ohio Ri\'er into Indiana, and moved 
 eastward into Ohio, fighting the militia as he went. The 
 whole State was alarmed, but he was captured before he 
 could return into Kentucky.' 
 
 685. Chickamauga was a most important point for both 
 sides. The army which held it could control all of 
 eastern Tennessee, and at the same time could attack the 
 mountainous region to the south of it, in northern Georgia. 
 In June, Rosecrans moved his army south from IMurfrees- 
 boro, and Bragg retired slowly before him to Chattanooga. 
 During the summer, Rosecrans moved part of his army 
 so far around Bragg 's army that the Confederates evac- 
 uated Chattanooga, and retired about twelve miles south 
 into Georgia. Here the}' took a position behind a little 
 
 ^ Morgan escaped from prison, and soon afterward was killed in a skir- 
 mish in Kentucky. 
 
404 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION [18^3 
 
 creek called the Chickamauga. Rosecrans thought that 
 Bragg was retreating, and hurried to pursue him. But 
 Bragg had received reinforcements from Lee's army, and 
 defeated the Union army in the battle of Chickamauga 
 (September 19-20).^ Most of Rosecrans 's men fled in 
 confusion to Chattanooga, but a part, under General 
 George II. Thomas, held their ground obstinately, and 
 covered the retreat. Bragg followed and shut up tlic 
 Union army in Chattanooga so closely that it was almost 
 starved. 
 
 686. The Siege of Chattanooga \\as kept up for about 
 two months. But one road, and that a bad one, was open 
 to the Union troops. The others were controlled by the 
 Confederates, who held Lookout Mountain and Missionary 
 Ridge, each of them nearly half a mile high, and so 
 strongly fortified as to seem to defy attack. The Union 
 army could neither advance nor retreat, and there seemed 
 to be a likelihood, at one time, that it would have to sur- 
 render. Bragg was so sure of an easy success that he 
 sent a part of his army, under Longstreet, up the Tennes- 
 see River to besiege Knoxville, which was held by Burn- 
 side (§ 667). 
 
 687. Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — All 
 eyes were turned to Grant, who since the battle of Vicks- 
 burg had become one of the foremost Union generals, 
 and who was now given command of the western armies 
 east of the Mississippi. He went to Chattanooga, 
 taking Sherman and other generals in whom he had 
 confidence, and drawing men from other armies, includ- 
 ing a division under Hooker from the Army of the Poto- 
 mac. Having made all preparations. Grant gave the 
 order to advance, and the lofty positions of Bragg's army 
 
 ' The Union forces numbered alxmt 55,000; llie Confederate forces^ about 
 60,000. The loss of each was ai)out e(|ual, 17,000, 
 
'V.3] 
 
 CH.-IRI.FSTON 
 
 405 
 
 were cari'ictl b}' sudden assaults. The result surprised the 
 Union troops al- 
 most as much as 
 it did the Con- 
 federates. Part of 
 the fighting was 
 done so high up 
 the mountain-side 
 that the troops 
 were hidden by 
 the clouds, so 
 that the battle of 
 Lookout Mountain is often called 
 "the battle above the clouds." 
 Bragg 's army retreated to Dalton, 
 where Johnston was put in com- 
 mand of it. Operations in the 
 West then ceased for the rest of the year. 
 
 ON THE COAST. 
 
 688. Charleston. — Fort Sumter was attacked in April by 
 a fleet of ironclads from Port Royal ; but, after half an 
 hour's firing, one of the vessels was lost, and the rest 
 retired. Charleston was besieged for the last half of the 
 year by a land-force from Port Royal, under General 
 O. A. Gillmore, aided by gunboats and ironclads. Gill- 
 more, after hard fighting, captured an earthwork called 
 Fort Wagner. He battered Fort Sumter into ruins, and 
 destroyed about half of Charleston by firing shells into it 
 from a distance of about five miles. But he failed to cap- 
 ture Fort Sumter, or to get any nearer to Charleston than 
 the island at the mouth of the harbor. The ironclad 
 Atlanta had been built by the Confederates in the Savan- 
 
406 THE IV AR FOR THE UNION [i-'^^S 
 
 nah River. She was much Hke the Mi'rrimac, but larger 
 anu stronger. In June she steamed down the river to 
 drive away the blockading fleet. The WccJiaivkcn, a 
 monitor, met her and captured her after a fight of fifteen 
 minutes, in which the ]Vcchazvkcn fired but five shots. 
 
 689. Military Summary. — The year 1863 was one of 
 great advantage to the forces of the United States in the 
 West. Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, and Arkansas 
 had been finally secured, and the seat of war had been 
 changed to their southern border. The Mississippi had 
 been opened, and the Confederacy divided into two parts, 
 each of which in future had to fight for itself, while the 
 Federal Government could send troops from the North to 
 either side of the river. A new set of generals had 
 appeared. Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and others, who 
 were very hard and fast fighters, and cared little for poli- 
 tics, or anything else except the war. In the East less had 
 been done, and Lee was still more than a match for his 
 opponents. But even here advantages had been gained. 
 Lee's army had been so badly shattered by the terrible 
 slaughter at Gettysburg!! that it was never again quite 
 equal to what it had been before ; and his last and strong- 
 est attempt to burst through the attacking line and carry 
 the war into the North had been a failure. It is clear 
 now that July, 1863, was the turning-point of the war, 
 after which the Confederac)^ grew steadily weaker. Dur- 
 ing that month occurred the battle of Gettysburgh, the 
 surrender of Vicksburgh and Port Hudson, the conquest 
 of Arkansas, and the movement on Chattanooga. The 
 results were so evident that in August a day of thanks- 
 giving was proclaimed by President Lincoln, and a day 
 of fasting and prayer by the Confederate authorities. 
 
1^63] PRICES AND PAPER MONEY 407 
 
 INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 
 
 690. In the Confederacy there was now great and general 
 distress. The government forced all men between the 
 ages of 18 and 45 into the army, so that women and 
 children had to do men's work. The soldiers were badly 
 fed, clothed, and armed. Food was scarce and dear, for 
 the people could now get no cattle from beyond the 
 Mississippi, no grain from Virginia and Tennessee, no 
 sugar from Louisiana, and no salt or fish from the coast. 
 Cotton could not be sold, for the blockade was too strict. 
 The railroads were fast wearing out, and there were no 
 great iron-works to replace them. It was almost im- 
 possible to get such common articles as paper, and print- 
 ing was sometimes done on one side of wall-paper. The 
 government had issued so much paper money that it was 
 almost worthless. One dollar in gold was worth twenty 
 dollars in Confederate money. Butter sold for $5 a 
 pound; beef, $1.50 a pound; coffee, $10 a pound; corn 
 and potatoes, $14 a bushel. 
 
 691. In the North and West there was no such distress. 
 Food, manufactures, and wealth were abundant. Taxes 
 were high, but the people paid them willingly and easily. 
 The tariff had been made very high in 1861, so as to 
 offset the high internal taxes, and restrict foreign com- 
 petition. Paper money had been issued (§670), and had 
 decreased in value so that one dollar in gold was worth 
 one and a half dollars in paper; but wages had increased 
 somewhat, though not enough to make good this differ- 
 ence. 
 
 692. The Union Army was well fed, armed, and clothed; 
 and the people formed Sanitary Commissions and other 
 associations to care for the comfort of the soldiers in the 
 field. These associations built hospitals, distributed food, 
 
40'^ THE JV/iR FOR THE UNION [1863 
 
 medicines, and assistance of every kind, and aided the sick 
 and wounded. To help pay their expenses, great fairs 
 were held all over the country, on a scale never equalled 
 before or since. The New York City fair brought in 
 $1,200,000; the Philadelphia fair, $1,080,000; and the 
 Brooklyn fair, $400,000. 
 
 693. Drafts were used this year to fill up the armies, for 
 volunteering had become slow. Names were drawn by 
 lot from lists of able-bodied men all over the country, and 
 those whose names were drawn were forced to enter the 
 army or pay for a substitute. The first draft in New York 
 City, in July, was stopped by a great mob, which held 
 control of the city for several days, and burned houses 
 and murdered negroes at its will. Finally it was dis- 
 persed by soldiers hurried back from Gettysburgh (§ 6yy), 
 and drafting went on unopposed. Drafting did not, 
 indeed, bring many soldiers, but it served to stimulate 
 volunteering. 
 
 694.* West Virginia. — The western part of Virginia, 
 which had refused to take part in secession, was admitted 
 to the Union in 1863 as the State of West Virginia. 
 
 FOREIGN AFFAIRS. 
 
 695. Mexico. — France, aided at first by Great Britain 
 and Spain, had overturned the republican government of 
 Mexico as soon as the troubles in the United States 
 began. The United States considered this an unfriendly 
 act (§ 420), but at the time could do nothing to resist it. 
 France now made Mexico an empire, with Maximilian, 
 an Austrian archduke, as emperor. Maximilian accepted 
 the throne in the following jx-ar (§ 770). 
 
 696. The Confederate Privateers Alabama and Florida 
 (§ 672) continued their destruction of American com- 
 
1864] MILITARY SITUATION IN 1S64 409 
 
 mercc ; ;uul a new xcsscl, the (icorgia, was sent out on 
 the same \\'ork. This \essel, like the otiiers, \\'as built in 
 Great l^ritain. Confederate agents also built two power- 
 ful ironclad rams in Great Britain, declaring that they 
 were intended for the emperor of China; but the United 
 States threatened to declare war against Great Britain if 
 they were allowed to go to sea, and the British Govern- 
 ment at the last moment seized them. Confederate 
 agents also tried to build ironclads in France, but the 
 French Government refused to permit them to do so. 
 
 (4) Events of iS6^. 
 
 697. Confederate Positions — There were now but two 
 great Confederate armies in the field, Lee's in Virginia, 
 and Johnston's at Dalton. Johnston's position was in a 
 mountainous country, which extended beyond Atlanta, 
 giving him a great many defensive points, and making it 
 difficult to drive him back into the flat country between 
 Atlanta and the sea. 
 
 698. Union Positions. — Grant was now given command 
 of all the Union armies, with the rank of lieutenant- 
 general, and went to Virginia to meet Lee, taking his 
 best cavalry officer, Sheridan, with him. He left Sher- 
 man to command the w^estern armies which had been 
 gathered in front of Dalton. Grant and Sherman agreed 
 that the forward movement should begin on the same 
 da}-, and that each should keep his opponent so busy that 
 the two Confederate armies should not be able to help one 
 another, as they had been in the habit of doing. 
 
 IN THE EAST. 
 
 699. Grant and Lee — Grant had won his western vic- 
 tories by "constant hammering," and he set out to do 
 
410 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1864 
 
 the same thing in Virginia. Ikit he had now t6 meet an 
 enemy very different from Pemberton or Bragg Lee 
 had already won the reputation of being one of the most 
 skilful generals of modern times ; and " constant hammer- 
 ing ' ' at him was a very perilous undertaking. It was 
 
 I Omfederate . 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 2U 40 80 
 
 Operations in the East. 
 
 like a battle between a man with a sword and a man with 
 a club; and it was not until Grant laid down the club, 
 and used his own military skill, that his superiority in 
 
 strength gave him the advantage. 
 
 700. Grant's Plan. — Grant had decided to take the over- 
 land route from the Rappahannock River to Richmond 
 (§ 657)- An army of 30,000 men, under Butler, was 
 sent up the James River, to a point near Petersburgh, to 
 
1864] THE IVILDRRNESS AND COLD HARBOR 411 
 
 attack Richmond from that side. Another army, under 
 Sig'cl and Hunter, was sent up the Shenandoah valley to 
 attack L\'nchbur^h and threaten Richmond from the west. 
 
 701. The Wilderness, as it was called, between Fred- 
 cricksburgh and Richmond, was crossed from west to east 
 by many rivers, and Lee had filled it with fortifications. 
 From behind these he fought Grant successfully for two 
 weeks, repulsing his stubborn attempts to storm the 
 works. The fighting was the bloodiest of the war. In 
 the first three days of the Wilderness battles the Union 
 loss in killed and wounded was 14,000; and in the next 
 eleven days, at Spottsylvania Court-house, it was 14,000 
 more: a total hxss in two weeks of 28,000 men. 
 
 702. Flank Movements. — Grant now resorted to his 
 military skill, and with more success. At each of Lee's 
 defences he attacked lightly in front, at the same time 
 pushing part of his force to the left, attacking the rear of 
 Lee's army, and so forcing him to retreat to a new posi- 
 tion. In this manner Grant worked his way southward 
 to the Chickahominy (§659). Lee's army was now inside 
 of the main defences of Richmond, the centre of which 
 was at Cold Harbor. Once more Grant tried the 
 "hammering" process. The whole Union army was 
 ordered to assault the Confederate works at once ; but 
 the assault was hopelessly repulsed in twenty minutes. 
 These two weeks' fighting had cost the Union army 
 more than 10,000 men, and the Confederates less than 
 2,000. 
 
 703. The Auxiliary Movements had not been successful. 
 Butler had been forced by the Confederates into a penin- 
 sula on the James River; and then they had built fortifi- 
 cations in front of him and ' ' bottled him up. ' ' Sigel and 
 Hunter had been defeated ; and their army was driven off 
 into West Virginia, so as to leave the Shenandoah valley 
 
412 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1864 
 
 unprotected. Lee was quick to take advantage of this. 
 In July he sent part of his army, under Early, through the 
 Shenandoah valley, to pass down through Maryland and 
 attack Washington. l^ut he found the forts around 
 Washington too strong for him, and returned to Virginia, 
 having succeeded only in frightening the authorities at the 
 capital. 
 
 704. Petersburgh. — The defences of Richmond on the 
 north and east had now been found too strong to be taken 
 by assault; and Grant determined to move his army 
 around, cross the James River, and attack the city from 
 the south. In carrying out this movement, the army fol- 
 lowed nearly the line of the Seven Days' Battles of 1862 
 (§ 663), but with very little fighting. The movement 
 was accomplished successfully in June ; but the army had 
 no sooner crossed the James River than it came up against 
 the fortifications of Petersburgh, which were too strong 
 to be taken by assault. Within them was Lee's army, 
 which had moved across from Richmond as Grant had 
 moved. Petersburgh is about 20 miles south of Rich- 
 mond. The Confederate fortifications ran in an irregular 
 curve from below Petersburgh around to the north of 
 Richmond, a distance of about 30 miles. To defend this 
 line, Lee had about 60,000 men. Before him was Grant, 
 with about twice as many men, attacking him at different 
 places, and keeping him so busy that he could not inter- 
 fere with the operations in the West. This was the situa- 
 tion of affairs during the rest of this year and until the end 
 of the war in the following spring.. Both armies were 
 strongly placed. But Grant's constant effort was to push 
 his lines farther around to the southwest, so as to attack 
 Lee's railroad communications. Whenever he succeeded 
 in doing so, Lee had to face him with new fortifications. 
 Thus Lee's line was always growing weaker as it grew 
 
1864] SHHKM.m'S ADyANCB 413 
 
 Ioniser, for lie coukl luircll)' i^ct any fresh troops, while 
 Grant had as man}' as he needed.' 
 
 705. The Shenandoah Valley, into which Early had 
 retired (§ 703), was wow guarded b}- a Union army under 
 Sheridan. In September, Sheridan defeated Early in the 
 battle of Winchester. In the following- month, Early 
 surprised the Union arm\' at Cedar Creek, about twenty 
 miles southwest of Winchester, and defeated it while 
 Sheridan was absent at Winchester. In the afternoon, 
 Sheridan rejoined his defeated army, rallied the men, and 
 defeated Early, driving him far up the valley. ^ 
 
 I\ THE WEST. 
 
 706. Sherman's Advance from Chattanooga against 
 Dalton and Atlanta was through a country of lofty moun- 
 tains, with strong defensive positions ; but there was no 
 "hammering." Both Sherman and Johnston were mas- 
 ters of their art; and the contest between them was as 
 scientific as a skilful game of chess or a fencing-match. 
 Johnston held each position until Sherman's forces began 
 to lap around toward his rear; then he retired cautiously 
 to another position, and the same process was gone 
 through again. Neither general was careless enough to 
 give the other the slightest advantage. In this manner 
 Johnston was slowly driven back from one position to 
 another, until he was forced to cross the Chattahoochee 
 River, and take his strongest position, at Atlanta. Be- 
 yond Atlanta he could not go much farther south (§ 697). 
 
 1 The Union loss during tlic rest of tlic year was al)out 40,000; tlie Con- 
 federate loss, about 20,000. 
 
 ^ During this campaign, Sheridan laid waste the whole Shenandoah valley, 
 burning barns and destroying crops and farming implements. Over 2,000 
 barns were burned. The object of tJie destruction was to make the valley 
 $0 desolate that no Confederate troops could tjperate in it. 
 
414 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1864 
 
 The principal battles were Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw 
 Mountain. But there was no such slaughter as in Vir- 
 ginia. Sherman's loss during his whole two months' 
 
 W. T. Sherman. 
 
 march to the Chattahoochee was about the same as the 
 Union loss in the two weeks' battles around Cold Harbor 
 (§ 702). 
 
 707. Johnston's Plan had been to bring Sherman just 
 far enoufdi from Chattanooga to be able to meet him on 
 
1S64] OCCUPATION OF ATLANTA 415 
 
 equal terms. All Sherman's supplies were broui^ht by 
 the single railroad behind him. As he advanced, it was 
 necessary for him to leave guards to protect the railroad : 
 otherwise the Confederate cavalry would work around to 
 his rear, tear up the railroad, and starve his army (§ 684). 
 But every guard thus left weakened his force, and made 
 it more nearly equal to Johnston's. Johnston had played 
 his game of \\:\v so successfully that he was now ready to 
 fight the long-delayed battle, and had begun arrange- 
 ments to do so. 
 
 708. Johnston's Removal. — Johnston's long retreat had 
 been skilfully conducted, but the people of the Confed- 
 eracy did not understand the skill of it. They were 
 startled as Sherman's storm of war came rolling up toward 
 the edge of the Georgia mountains above them ; and 
 Jefferson Davis, who always disliked Johnston, made this 
 feeling an excuse for removing him. General J. B. Hood 
 was appointed in his place. The results were that he 
 threw away all the advantages still retained by Johnston ; 
 one of the two great Confederate armies was lost before 
 the end of the )'ear; and the Confederacy itself fell in the 
 following spring. 
 
 709. Capture of Atlanta. — Hood had a great reputation 
 as a hard fighter, and was anxious to support it. He 
 made three furious attacks on Sherman's army in July, 
 which were the severest battles yet fought in Georgia. 
 He was beaten in all three. Early in September, Sher- 
 man fought his way around toward the rear of Atlanta, 
 and Hood was compelled to leave the city, which was 
 then occupied b\' the Union forces (September 2). 
 
 710. Hood's Change of Plan. — Early in October, Hood 
 moved his whole army past Atlanta, and marched north- 
 west toward the country from which Sherman had set out. 
 He hoped to compel Sherman to follcnv him, and thus to 
 
4i6 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1864 
 
 chang'c the seat of war again to Tennessee or the North. 
 Sherman made a show of pursuing him until he saw him 
 fairly started for Tennessee, and then returned to Atlanta, 
 tearing up the railroad behind him as he went (§ 712). 
 He had already sent ncarl}' half of his arm)' to Tennes- 
 see, under Thomas, hoping that Hood would take the 
 course he did. 
 
 711. Hood's Tennessee Campaign. — Thomas gathered 
 all the Union troops in Tennessee at Nashville, so that 
 
 he was rather the superior 
 in numbers as Hood drew 
 near the city. At Frank- 
 lin, a few miles south of 
 Nashville, a battle was 
 fought (November 30), and 
 the Confederate army suf- 
 fered severely. But it 
 pressed on and besieged 
 Nashville. After long pre- 
 paration, Thomas attacked 
 the besiegers and com- 
 pletely defeated them (De- 
 cember 15 and 16). The 
 pursuit was so vigorous that 
 Hood's troops were scat- 
 tered in every direction. 
 One of the Confederacy's 
 two great armies had thus 
 faded into nothing (§ 697). 
 
 712. Sherman's New Plan. — Sherman, on his return to 
 Atlanta, had before him a country in which there was not 
 an organized Confederate army between him and Virginia, 
 nor the material to make one. Hood's mistake had put 
 the whole Confederacy at Sherman's mercy. He had an 
 
 GuoRGE H. Thomas. 
 
IS64] 
 
 THE MARCH THROUGH GEORGIA 
 
 417 
 
 army of 60,000 picked veteran troops, with abundant sup- 
 plies, and with States before him which had not greatly 
 felt the war, and were the richest part of the Confederacy. 
 In the middle of November, he burned Atlanta, cut the 
 telegraph-wires to the North, and set out on his march 
 southeast to the sea. But the sea was not his final 
 destination: his real aim was the back of Lee's army, 
 far away in Virginia. 
 
 713. The March through Georgia was finished in a little 
 less than a month, and during all this time it was not cer- 
 tainly known at the North what had become of Sherman's 
 
 SHERMAN'S MARCH 
 
 SCALE OF 
 
 army. Its route was through Milledgeville and Millen, 
 down the peninsula between the Savannah and Ogeechee 
 rivers, to Savannah. It marched in four columns, cover- 
 ing a strip of country about 60 miles wide, all of which 
 w^as made desolate. The railroads were destroyed, the 
 depots and bridges were burned, and the army lived on 
 the country. There was hard!}' any resistance to the 
 march: indeed, it is doubtful whether, on open ground, 
 any army of the war could have successfully resisted this 
 army of Sherman's. 
 
41 8 THE U^AR FOR THE UNION [1864 
 
 714. Savannah. — The army reached Ossabaw Sound, 
 at the mouth of the Ogeechee River, December 13. Fort 
 McAUister, which guarded Savannah, was carried by 
 storm in fifteen minutes by General Hazen, and communi- 
 cation was opened with the blockading fleet. After a 
 siege of eight days, Savannah was captured. Its garrison 
 blew up two ironclads which had been built at that city, 
 and escaped to Charleston. Sherman's army remained at 
 Savannah until February, 1865. 
 
 ON THE COAST. 
 
 715. Operations on the Coast, during this year, consisted 
 of a number of attacks intended either to keep the Con- 
 federates busy and prevent them from sending assistance 
 to Hood and Lee, or to capture Mobile and Wilmington, 
 the last ports of the Confederacy for blockade-running. 
 In Florida, an expedition from Port Royal landed at 
 Jacksonville in February, and marched west into the 
 interior. The army was defeated by the Confederates in 
 the battle of Olustee, and the expedition was given up. 
 In Louisiana, an expedition under Banks was sent up the 
 Red River from New Orleans early in the year. Its 
 object was to capture Shreveport and conquer the western 
 part of the State, which was still held by the Confederates. 
 It was defeated in April at Sabine Cross-roads and Pleas- 
 ant Hill, near Shreveport, and returned without accom- 
 plishing anything. 
 
 716. In North Carolina, the Union troops were driven 
 from some of their positions, early in the year, by the 
 Confederates, aided by a powerful ironclad, \^q Albemarle. 
 In October, Lieutenant Cushing, of the blockading fleet, 
 blew up the Albemarle at Plymouth with a torpedo, one 
 dark niglit, and the Union forces recovered their posi- 
 
864] 
 
 FORREST'S RAID 
 
 419 
 
 tions.' In December, a huul and naval expedition, under 
 General Butler and iVdmiral Torter, was sent from P^ort- 
 ress Monroe to capture Fort Fisher, which guarded the 
 entrance to Wilmington. The 
 navy bombarded the fort, but the 
 army failed to capture it, and the 
 expedition returned. Grant sent 
 it back again under another com- 
 mander, Terr}', who assaulted and 
 captured the fort in January, 1865. 
 Wilmington was captured soon 
 after. The Confederates 
 had now but one harbor 
 on the Atlantic coast, 
 Charleston, and 
 that was closely 
 blockaded. 
 
 717. For- 
 rest's Raid. 
 — Before taking 
 command of the 
 army opposed to John- 
 ston, Sherman led an ex- 
 pedition east from Vicks- 
 burgh. It was intended 
 finally to attack Mobile 
 from the land side. It reached Meridian, but its cavalry 
 column, which was coming from Tennessee, was defeated 
 by the Confederate General N. B. Forrest, and Sherman 
 returned to Vicksburgh, after destroying an immense 
 amount of property. Forrest passed on into Tennessee 
 
 ' Cusliing's exploit was one of the most heroic of the war. Out of liis 
 crew of thirteen volunteers, only himself and one other escaped. 
 
420 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1864 
 
 on a raid, and captured Fort Pillow, near Memphis. 
 Its garrison was mostly negro troops, and Forrest's men 
 killed nearly all of them. 
 
 718. Mobile Bay was defended by two strong forts. Fort 
 Gaines and Fort Morgan, on opposite sides of the 
 entrance. Inside of the entrance there were a great num- 
 ber of torpedoes, three gunboats, and a powerful ironclad 
 ram, the Tennessee, commanded by Admiral Buchanan, 
 formerly captain of the IlTerriniae (§ 650). Outside was 
 the blockading fleet, consisting of fourteen wooden vessels 
 and four monitors, under Farragut (§ 654). Farragut 
 fought his way through the obstructions and past the forts 
 into the harbor (August 5). He then attacked and cap- 
 tured the Tennessee, much of the fighting being done by 
 the wooden frigates.^ The forts then surrendered, and 
 there was no more blockade-running at Mobile. The 
 city itself was not captured until the following year 
 
 (§ 727). 
 
 719 Military Summary. — The year's operations had 
 crushed in the shell of the Confederacy. The battle of 
 Nashville had destroyed one of the two Confederate 
 armies. There was but one important Confederate army 
 left, that of Lee, in Virginia. Lee could do nothing to 
 help the States farther south, for any weakening of his line 
 would be followed by an instant attack from Grant, \\\\o 
 
 1 The passage of the forts, during which Farragut stationed himself in 
 the rigging of his vessel, in order to see over the smoke, is the most cele- 
 brated part of the day's work. When cautioned to avoid the torpedoes 
 which lined the entrance, the admiral expressed his contempt for the tor- 
 pedoes in strong language and gave the order " Go ahead ! " One vessel 
 was sunk by a torpedo, but it was not Farragut's. The fight in the bay 
 was fully as noteworthy. The Tetinessce was the strongest of the Con- 
 federate ironclads, and yet Farragut attacked her with wooden vessels. 
 These rammed her until their bows weic broken off, and helped materially 
 in capturing her. 
 
1864] CONFEDERATE PRiyATEERS 421 
 
 w^as watching him vigilantly. Sherman, at Savannah, 
 could go where he pleased, for there was nothing to resist 
 him ; and it was evident that he meant to go to Virginia, 
 and crush Lee between two armies. Everywhere the 
 people of the Confederacy seemed to be worn out and dis- 
 couraged by the terrible distresses which they had endured 
 for four years ; and so many of the able-bodied men had 
 been killed or crippled that it was not easy to find men 
 to form new Confederate armies. 
 
 . ON THE OCEAN. 
 
 720. Confederate Privateers continued to destroy Ameri- 
 can commerce during the year. Three of them, the 
 Alabajua, the Florida, and the Georgia, were captured 
 or destroyed, but others took their places. The Alabama, 
 Captain Semmes, had put into the harbor of Cherbourg, 
 France, to refit, and was there watched by the Kcarsargc, 
 Captain Winslow. The two vessels were of equal strength, 
 and Semmes sent Winslow a challenge to a sea-fight, 
 which was just what Winslow desired. It took place 
 (June 19) seven miles off the coast, and was watched by 
 many spectators on the shore. The fire of the Alabama 
 was fast and wild ; that of the Kcarsargc was slower and 
 sure. In an hour the Alabama raised the white flag, and 
 twenty minutes afterward she sank. Her captain was 
 picked up by an English yacht, and carried to England. ^ 
 The Florida was surprised and captured in the neutral 
 port of l^ahia by the Wachitscti, Captain Collins. Her 
 capture was not legal ; but before anything could be done, 
 she was accidentally sunk near Fortress Monroe. The 
 
 ^ The superiority of the Kearsar^e s fire caused particular satisfaction in 
 the United States, for the Alabama's gunners were from British war-vessels 
 (§ 369, note). 
 
42 2 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1864 
 
 Gco7-gia had been sold, and had become an English 
 merchant-vessel. The sale was illegal, and the Georgia 
 was captured on her first voyage, off Lisbon, by the 
 Niagara. 
 
 INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 
 
 721. In the Confederacy, the distress of the preceding 
 year had only grown worse (§ 690). Confederate money 
 had become almost worthless: one dollar in gold would 
 buy fifty dollars of it, so that a one-dollar bill was really 
 worth but two cents. Hardly any business was done; 
 and every one was waiting for the inevitable end of the 
 war. Women and children of course suffered most by the 
 destruction of property and the scarcity of food ; but they 
 exhibited a wonderful patience under suffering. 
 
 722. In the North and West, comfort and prosperity had 
 hardly been checked (§ 691). But, in spite of prosperity, 
 the long severity of the war had begun to tell on the 
 people. At different times in the year, the President had 
 called out a total of about 1,200,000 new men, and many 
 persons began to be alarmed by the apparent necessity 
 for such numbers of fresh soldiers. It began to be 
 believed that there must have been enormous losses in 
 the war which had not been made public. In fact, the 
 government never received half the number of men it 
 called for. Desertions and evasions made up for the rest, 
 and this was the fact which was not made public. 
 
 723. Presidential Election The Democrats nominated 
 
 (1864) General McClellan for President, and George H. 
 Pendleton, of Ohio, for Vice-President; while the Repub- 
 licans nominated President Lincoln, with Andrew John- 
 son, of Tennessee, for Vice-President. The Democrats 
 declared that the war had been a failure, and ought to 
 cease ; but this declaration had hardly been made when 
 
1865] THE BEGINNING OF THE END 423 
 
 Sherman's advance and the capture of Atkmta, the fight 
 in Mobile Bay, and Sheridan's victories in the Shenandoah 
 Valley revived the flagging spirit of the people, and 
 Lincoln and Johnson were elected. 1 
 
 724. Canada had become a refuge for a number of Con- 
 federate agents, who contrived various means of annoying 
 the Northern States. They endeavored to release the 
 Confederate prisoners who were shut up in camps in the 
 North and West, and even to set fire to New York City; 
 but they failed.' 
 
 725. Exchange of Prisoners had ceased, for the Confed- 
 erate authorities refused to exchange negro soldiers. The 
 Union prisoners, shut up amid the misery of the Confed- 
 eracy, suffered horribly, particularly at Andersonville, a 
 prison near Macon, Georgia. 
 
 726. Nevada, a part of the Mexican session of 1848, 
 was admitted to the Union in-<i864. 
 
 (5) Events of 186^. 
 
 CONCLUSION OF THE WAR. 
 
 727. In Mississippi and Alabama several Union columns 
 were already moving from place to place, seizing Con- 
 federate supplies and arms, and scattering any body of 
 Confederate troops that attempted to make head against 
 them. The only serious resistance was at Mobile ; and 
 that city surrendered in April, after a siege. That really 
 ended the war in this section ; but early in May, when 
 the war had ended in Virginia and North Carolina, a gen- 
 eral surrender of the Confederate troops in Mississippi and 
 Alabama was made by General Richard Taylor (§ 734). 
 
 1 Of the 233 electoral votes, Lincoln and Johnson received 212, and 
 McClellan and Pendleton 21. 
 
 - In October a number of them rode into the little town of St. Albans, in 
 Vermont, and robbed the bank there. 
 
424 
 
 THE IVAR FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1865 
 
 728. Sherman's Northward March beg-an from Savannah 
 (February i). He moved directly north to Columbia, 
 which was burned while he held possession of it. Each 
 side accused the other of having- burned the city. I'rom 
 Columbia, Sherman moved northeast to Fayetteville, fol- 
 lowing nearly the same route as that taken by Cornwallis 
 in 1781 (§ 251). The Confederate garrisons in Charleston 
 and other coast-towns were forced to leave their posts 
 and hurry northward ahead of him. Thus the whole 
 
 I Confederate . 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 20 40 80 120 
 
 Operations in Virginia. 
 
 Atlantic coast was seized by the Union forces. So far, 
 Sherman had met little armed resistance, and his princi- 
 pal difficulty had been the winter rains and the swollen 
 rivers and swamps. Now he had to move more cautiously, 
 
i<S65] SHERIDAN'S RAID 425 
 
 for he had his old enemy ay;;un before him. Jefferson Davis 
 had been forced to call Johnston back to service, and he had 
 gathered 40,000 men to dispute Sherman's farther advance. 
 
 729. Johnston's Army was composed of some fragments 
 of the scattered Western armies, and of the garrisons of 
 Charleston and other coast cities which had been evac- 
 uated as Sherman's army passed them. The whole had 
 been gathered up by Johnston, and formed into an army. 
 He attacked Sherman furiously near Goldsboro (March 
 19), and for a time the battle was doubtful. But Sherman 
 finally drove Johnston back, and reached Goldsboro. 
 Here he was joined by fresh troops from Wilmington, and 
 both armies waited for the result of operations in Virginia. 
 
 730. Grant's Opening Movement. — It has already been 
 seen that Grant's general plan was to push his line farther 
 to the southwest around Petersburgh, and thus, while he 
 had men enough to keep his own line strong, force Lee to 
 lengthen and weaken his line (§ 704). He made another 
 movement in this direction the day before Sherman started 
 from Savannah, reaching a little stream called Hatcher's 
 Run, and holding his ground. He then waited for 
 Sheridan to join him from the Shenandoah valley. 
 
 731. Sheridan, with 10,000 picked cavalry, moved up 
 the Shenandoah valley to Staunton, near Lynchburgh. 
 There he turned eastward to Charlottesville, scattering 
 Early's army on the way. He again moved eastward, 
 passing to the north of the defences of Richmond, and 
 joined Grant. He had destroyed the canal, the railroad, 
 and bridges all the way from Lynchburgh to Richmond, 
 and thus cut off much of Lee's supplies. 
 
 732. The Final Advance began March 29, while Sherman 
 was resting at Goldsboro. Sheridan made another move- 
 ment to the southwest, across Hatcher's Run, to Five 
 Forks, and held his ground. Lee again lengthened his 
 
426 
 
 THE IV^R FOR THE UNION 
 
 [1865 
 
 liiirai ■iiiir|iiiii I ■■I If IB ■ I ( im /;«« 1 fi (■»? 111 iiiii 
 
 line to meet this new danger ; but the hne was now so 
 
 long- that his 50,000 
 men could not guard it. 
 Grant at once advanced 
 his whole line, 100,000 
 strong, and burst his 
 way through Lee's line 
 of intrcnchments (April 
 2). Lee retreated west- 
 ward during the night, 
 a n d Richmond and 
 Petersburgh were en- 
 tered by the Union 
 troops. Jefferson Davis 
 and the Confederate 
 government escaped by 
 railroad to North Caro- 
 lina.^ 
 
 733. Lee's Surrender. 
 — Lee's line of retreat 
 was westward, between 
 the James and Appo- 
 mattox rivers, toward Lynchburgh. From this place he 
 hoped to make his way 
 south into North Caro- 
 lina, and join Johnston. 
 But Grant's army was in 
 hot pursuit; and, before 
 Lee could reach Lynch- 
 burgh, Sheridan had 
 passed him and inter- signatures of gkant and lee. 
 
 posed between him and that place. Lee's retreat was 
 
 * Davis was captured in Georgia the next month, and was imprisoned in 
 Fortress Monroe for two years. He was then released without trial. 
 United States did not put any one to death for treason. 
 
 I'niLU' H. Shkkidan. 
 
 The 
 
1865] GENERAL SURRENDER 42? 
 
 cut off; his men were few, hungry, and worn out; and he 
 surrendered the Confederate forces in Virginia, at a Httle 
 place called Appomattox Court-house (April 9). Grant 
 asked no terms of surrender that were not generous. 
 Lee's troops were only to promise to bear arms no longer 
 against the United States. They were to give up public 
 property, except that they were to keep their horses for 
 use in the spring ploughing. 
 
 734. General Surrender. — Sherman at once pushed for- 
 ward from Goldsboro, and occupied Raleigh. Here 
 Johnston surrendered his army (April 26). His men, like 
 Lee's, were dismissed on giving their word to do no 
 further act of war. The other Confederate forces east of 
 the Mississippi surrendered early in May, followed toward 
 the end of the same month by those west of the Missis- 
 sippi. They received the same terms as those given to 
 the armies of Lee and Johnston. The war was over, and 
 the soldiers of the Confederacy went quietly back to their 
 desolated homes, there to begin a new struggle, not 
 against the Union, but against poverty. 
 
 735. The Grand Review. — The victorious armies of 
 Grant and Sherman, numbering about 150,000 men, were 
 reviewed in Washington, near the end of May, by their 
 commanders and the officers of the government. For 
 two days the long line of sunburnt veterans marched 
 through the principal street, accompanied by the music 
 of military bands, flowers, and the cheers of spectators 
 from all parts of the country. The disbanding of the 
 army then began (§ 752). The regiments were given 
 similar triumphal receptions on their arrival in their own 
 States, and the companies on their arrival at their homes. ^ 
 
 ' In 1866 the veterans formed an association, under the name of " The 
 Grand Army of the Republic." 
 
42 8 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [1865 
 
 DEATH OF PRESIDENT LIN'COLN. 
 
 736. Public Rejoicings were continued in the North and 
 West for nearly a week after Lee's surrender. The firing 
 of cannon, public meetings, processions, and the illumina- 
 tion of houses showed the joy of the people that the war 
 was not only over, but successfully over. In it all there 
 was a general feeling of gratitude to President Lincoln 
 for his share in the work. He had entered Washington, 
 four years before, almost unknown : now he was recog- 
 nized as a wise, prudent, and great-hearted leader of men. 
 In all the ups and downs of the war, he had not lost his 
 temper, his courage, or his self-control, and he had 
 always done the sensible thing at the fit time. The more 
 the people had come to know him, the more they had 
 loved and trusted him. 
 
 737. The Assassination of the President A conspiracy 
 
 had been formed by a number of persons in and near 
 Washington to kill the leading officers of the government, 
 in order to throw national affairs into confusion and give 
 the Confederacy a last chance. Its leader, John Wilkes 
 Booth, seems to have been crazed by a desire to be talked 
 about, and some of his associates w^ere at least weak- 
 minded. The President had avoided military guards and 
 protection throughout the war, and his fearlessness made 
 him an easy victim. One of his few pleasures, when 
 tired out, was to attend the theatre. On the appointed 
 night, Booth stole into the private box where the Presi- 
 dent was sitting, and shot him through the head from 
 behind, so that he died the next day (April 15, 1865). 
 Another conspirator had attacked Secretary Seward, who 
 was ill and in bed, but only wounded him. Booth was 
 chased into lower Maryland, and killed in a barn in which 
 
i865] 
 
 MILITARY SUMMARY 
 
 429 
 
 he had hidden himself. The other conspirators were 
 arrested, four of them hanged and four imprisoned. 
 
 738. The Funeral of the President lasted for about three 
 weeks. The body was taken ^^ 
 slowly to New York City, 
 and thence westward to his 
 home in Springfield, Illinois. 
 All business was stopped in 
 the cities on the route, and 
 the whole people joined in 
 the ceremonies. His late 
 enemies in the seceding 
 States lamented his death, 
 for the}' had come to see 
 that he had never cherished 
 hatred of them because of 
 
 their conduct, and that his wiluam h. sewakd. 
 
 murder was the worst calamity that could have befallen 
 them. 
 
 739. Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, became Presi- 
 dent at Lincoln's death. As Lincoln had served but 
 little more than a month of his second four years, his 
 second term will be considered as Johnson's administra- 
 tion. 
 
 MILITARY SUMMARY OF THE WAR, 
 
 740. The Course of the War seems to fall naturally into 
 two parts. hV)r the first two years the Federal Govern- 
 ment was busied in fixing its encircling lines and in 
 winning territory piecemeal from the Confederacy. For 
 the last two years its energies were bent on seeking and 
 defeating the principal Confederate armies. The turning- 
 point of the war was in July, I 863 (§ 689) ; and the lead- 
 
43° THE IV A R FOR. THE UNION [1865 
 
 ing Union generals at the end were not those who had 
 led at the beginning. 
 
 741. Events of 1861 (§ 632). — The principal battles of 
 1 861 were those of 13ull Run (July 21) and Wilson's Creek 
 (August 10), in both of which the Union forces were 
 defeated. But the Union armies had seized and held a 
 v'ast extent of doubtful territory, so that the Confederacy 
 was much smaller than had been expected ; and opera- 
 tions on the Atlantic coast had been fairly commenced at 
 Port Royal. 
 
 742. Events of 1862 (§ 639). — Two attempts were made 
 this year by the Confederate armies to break through the 
 encircling line, by Bragg in August and by Lee in Sep- 
 tember. Both were defeated. The great battles in the 
 East were tne Seven Days' Battles in June and July, 
 Antietam (September 17), and Fredericksburgh (Decem- 
 ber 13). Of these, Antietam was the only decisive Union 
 victory. The great battles in the West were Fort Donel- 
 son (February 16), Pittsburgh Landing (April 6-^), and 
 Murfreesboro (December 31), all Union victories. The 
 capture of New Orleans (April 28) was also a most im- 
 portant Union success. The result of the year's operations 
 was the winning of a great amount of territory in the 
 West, but the Confederate armies were still as strong and 
 as confident as ever. 
 
 743. Events of 1863 (§ 674). — In the East the principal 
 battles were Chancellorsville (May 2-3), a Confederate 
 victory; and Gettysburgh (July 1-3), a Union victory, 
 which defeated the last great attempt, by Lee, to break 
 through the encircling line. In the West, a Confederate 
 army was captured at Vicksburgh (July 4), the Mississippi 
 was opened, and the Confederacy was divided. The 
 Confederate victory of Chickamauga (September 19-20) 
 was followed by the Union victories of Lookout Mountain 
 
1S65] MILITARY SUMMARY 431 
 
 and Missionary Ridge (November 23-25). The advan- 
 tages of the year's operations in the West were altogether 
 with the Union forces, and the Confederate armies in that 
 section for the first time began to show a falHng off in 
 strength and confidence. 
 
 744. Events of 1864 (§ 697). — The great battles in the 
 East were the Wilderness battles and Cold Harbor in May 
 and June, ending in the siege of Petersburgh, which lasted 
 until the end of the war. While it was going on, the 
 western army of the Confederacy was blotted out at Nash- 
 ville (December 15); and Sherman, with hardly an enemy 
 before him, had reached Savannah on his way northward 
 to crush Lee. 
 
 745. Events of 1865 (§ 727). — Sherman's march north- 
 ward from Savannah in February swept up before it all 
 the available forces of the Confederacy into a great trap, 
 from which there was no escape. But Sherman took care 
 not to push fast or far enough to drive Johnston and Lee 
 close together. The operations of the two Union generals 
 were so timed as to prevent the scattered Confederate 
 forces from uniting into one army. One by one they 
 were forced to surrender (Lee April 9, and Johnston 
 April 26) ; and the war was over. 
 
 746. The Armies on both sides were large. The num- 
 ber of men called into the Union armies during the war 
 was 2,942,748; and 2,690,401 of these entered the army, 
 some for three months, some for six months, and some 
 for one year, two years, or three years. The largest 
 number in service at one time was in May, 1865 : it was 
 then 1,000,516, of whom 650,000 were fit for active 
 service. The Union navy grew steadily larger until the 
 end of the war, when it numbered 700 vessels, 60 of them 
 ironclads, and 50,000 sailors. The Confederacy did not 
 need so many men as the h^ederal Government, for it had 
 
432 THE IV AR FOR THE UNION [1865 
 
 no conquered territory to ijarrison, and could move its 
 men quickly from one army to another. The total Con- 
 federate force was probably about 1,300,000, and the 
 largest number at one time was in January, 1863. The 
 following table is given from a careful writer, as the 
 number at the dates named. The Southern figures are 
 estimates. 
 
 United States. Confederacy. 
 
 January i, 1861 . 16,367 
 
 July I, 1 86 1 186,751 150,000 
 
 January i, 1862 575.917 350,000 
 
 January i, 1863 918,191 690,000 
 
 January i, 1864 860,737 400,000 
 
 January i, 1865 959,460 250,000 
 
 March 31, 1865 980,086 175,000 
 
 May I, 1865 1,000,516 
 
 747. The Dead numbered about 300,000 on each side. 
 The Union losses are known, and are given below: the 
 Southern losses are still uncertain. National cemeteries 
 have been laid out on various battle-fields, in which the 
 bodies of the dead have been collected; and many cities 
 and towns have their soldiers' monuments. Liberal 
 pensions are paid to wounded Union soldiers, and to the 
 families of the dead.i 
 
 748. The Cost of the War cannot be figured up. The 
 tax receipts of the United States, 1 861-65, were about 
 $780,000,000, most of which was spent on the war; 
 and, in addition to this, there was at the end of the war 
 a national debt of $2,850,000,000. If we try to add to 
 
 1 In the Union armies there were killed in battle, 44,238; died of wounds, 
 49,205; died of disease, 186,216; suicide, homicide, and executions, 526; 
 unknown causes, 24,184: total, 304,369. Of these there were only 7 execu- 
 tions. In Confederate prisons, 26,168 are known to have died, but thou 
 sands of others have since died of disease contracted during imprisonment. 
 There are buried in the national cemeteries 318,870 bodies; but some ol 
 these were Confederate soldiers. 
 
1S65] LEADING E VENTS 433 
 
 this (i) the expenses and tlcbts of States, cities, and 
 towns; (2) the payments for pensions; (3) the expenses 
 of the Confederacy, which are not fully known ; (4) the 
 destruction of private property in the South by Union 
 armies, and on the ocean by Confederate privateers ; and 
 the destruction of productive energy in the loss of men ; 
 the total cost of the war passes beyond possibility of 
 estimate. 
 
 749. The Object of this enormous expenditure of blood 
 and money by the nation was not to show which section 
 was the stronger, for nearly every one knew before- 
 hand that the North was the stronger. It was not to 
 show which had the braver men, for the soldiers on both 
 sides came out of the war with an equal respect for each 
 others' bravery. It was not to satisfy any hatred of 
 the North against the South, for there was no such 
 thing. It was not to abolish slavery, though slavery was 
 abolished as a part of the war. The object of the war 
 was to keep the nation one, to prevent any future attempt 
 to secede, and to see to it that there should not be two 
 nations in place of one, w^aging w^ars with one another, 
 and taxing men, women, and children to carry them on. 
 This was the object for which the Union men fought 
 and, when necessary, died: to secure perpetual peace and 
 a united nation to their children and their children's 
 children forever. 
 
 750. The Leading Events of Lincoln's administration, 
 including the war for the Union, are as follows: 
 
 (U., Union victory; C, Confederate victory; Ind., indecisive.) 
 
 1861-5 : Linc(^ln'rf Term of Office § 620 
 
 1 861: Fort Sumter, S. C. , evacuated, April 
 
 13 (C.) 622 
 
 Volunteers called for by the President, 
 
 April 15 623 
 
434 THE IV A R FOR THE UNION [i 86 1-2 
 
 1861 : First bloodshed at Baltimore, April 19 § 623 
 Capture of Norfolk navy yard, April 
 
 20 (C.) 649 
 
 Secession of four border States, Way 
 
 and June 626 
 
 Meeting of Congress, July 4 631 
 
 Battle of Rich Mountain, W. Va., 
 
 July II (U. ) 630 
 
 Battle of Bull Run, Va., July 21 (C). 632 
 Battle ot Wilson's Creek, Mo., August 
 
 io(C.) 635 
 
 Capture of Fort Hatteras, N. C. , Aug. 
 
 29 (U.) 636 
 
 Battle of Ball's Bluff, Va., Oct. 21 (C.) 634 
 Capture of Port Royal, S. C. , Nov. 
 
 7 (U.) 636 
 
 Trent affair, November 8 638 
 
 1862: Battle of Mill Spring, Ky., January 19 
 
 (U.) 640 
 
 Capture of Fort Henry, Tenn., Feb. 
 
 6 (U.) 640 
 
 Capture of Roanoke Island, N. C. , 
 
 Feb. 8 (U.) 652 
 
 Capture of Fort Donel.son, Tenn., Feb. 
 
 16 (U.) 640 
 
 Battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., March 
 
 5-8 (U.) 647 
 
 Battle of Monitor and JMernmac, March 
 
 9(U.) 651 
 
 Battle of Pittsburgh Landing or Shiloh, 
 
 Tenn., April 6-7 (U. ) 642 
 
 Capture of Island Number Ten, April 
 
 7(U.) .^ 648 
 
 Capture of Fort Pulaski, Ga. , April 
 
 II (U.) 652 
 
 Capture of New Orleans, La., April 
 
 25 (U.) 655 
 
 Capture of Yorktown, Va,, INIay 4 (U. ) 659 
 Battle of Williamsburgh, Va. , l\Iav 5 
 
 (Ind.) '... 659 
 
 Capture of Corinth, Miss., May 30 (U. ) 643 
 Battle of Fair Oaks, Va., May 31 (U.) 660 
 
1S62-3] LEADING l-yENTS 435 
 
 1862: lackson'sraid on I^anks, Va., June(C'. ) § '162 
 Seven Days' Battles, Va., June 25-luly 
 
 I (Ind.) ^>63 
 
 Pope's campaic^n, \^i. , August (C. ). . . 664 
 Second battle of Bull Run, Va. , Aug. 
 
 30 (C.) ^'^'4 
 
 Capture of Harpers l^erry, W. \a., 
 
 Sept. 15 (C.) 665 
 
 Battle of Antietam, Md., September 
 
 17 (U.) 666 
 
 Bragg's invasion of Kentucky, Sep- 
 tember 644 
 
 Battle of Perryville, Ky., Oct. 8 
 
 (Ind.) ' 644 
 
 Battle of Fredericksburgh, Va. , Dec. 
 
 13 (C-) ^^67 
 
 First attempt on \ icksburgh. Miss., 
 
 Dec. 29 (C.) 680 
 
 Battle of Murfreesboro, Tenn., Dec. 
 
 31 to Jan. 2 (U.) 645 
 
 1863: Emancipation Proclamation, January i 669 
 
 Draft Act passed, INIarch 3 693 
 
 Fort Sumter, S. C. , attacked by iron- 
 clads, April 7 (C.) 688 
 
 Grant's campaign before Vicksburgh, 
 
 Miss., May i to 17 (U.) 682 
 
 Battle of Chancel I orsville, Va., May 
 
 2-3 (C.) 674 
 
 Battle of Wechawkeji and Atlanta, June 
 
 17 (U.) 688 
 
 Admission of West Virginia, June 20.. 694 
 Lee's second invasion of tlie North, 
 
 June 675 
 
 Battle of Gettvsburgh, Pa., fulv 1-3 
 
 (U.) ' 677 
 
 Capture of Vicksburgh, Miss., July 4 
 
 (U.) ' 682 
 
 Battle of Helena, Ark., July 4 (U.). . . 683 
 Capture of Port Hudson, La., July 9 
 
 (U.) 682 
 
 Draft Riots, New Vork City, July 
 
 13-16 693 
 
43^ THE 1VAR FOR THE UNION [1863-4 
 
 1S63: Morgan's Ohio raid, July § 684 
 
 Battle of Chickamauga, Ga. ,Sept. 19- 
 
 20 (C.) 685 
 
 Siege of Chattanooga, Tenn., Oct. and 
 
 Nov ." 686 
 
 Siege of Knoxville, Tenn., Nov. 18-29 686 
 Battle of Lookout Mountain, Tenn., 
 
 Nov. 24-25 (U.) 687 
 
 1864: Forrest's raid, Miss, and Tenn., Feb- 
 ruary 717 
 
 Grant made lieutenant-general, March 3 698 
 Red River expedition. La., April (C). 715 
 Capture of Fort Pillow, Tenn., April 
 
 12 (C.) 717 
 
 Battles of the Wilderness, Va., INIay 
 
 5-7 (Ind.) \ 701 
 
 Battles at Spottsylvania Court-house, 
 
 Va., May 8-18 (Ind.) 701 
 
 Battle of Resaca, Ga., May 14-15 (U.) 706 
 Battle of Dalla.s, Ga., May 25-28 (U.) 706 
 Battle of Cold Harbor, Va. , June 3 (C. ) 702 
 Siege of Peter.sburgh, Va. , begun, June 704 
 Battle of Kearsai-ge and Alabama, June 
 
 19 (U.) 720 
 
 Battle of Kenesaw IMountain, Ga. , 
 
 June 27 (U.) 706 
 
 Battles before Atlanta, Ga., July 20 • 
 
 28 (U.) ' 709 
 
 Early's raid on Washington, July 703 
 
 Battle of Mobile Bay, Ala., August 5 
 
 (U.) 718 
 
 Capture of Atlanta, Cia. , September 2 
 
 (u.).... 709 
 
 Battle of \\ inchester, Va. , September 
 
 19 (U.) 705 
 
 Battle of Cedar Creek, Va. , October 
 
 19 (U.) 705 
 
 Admi.ssion of Nevada, October 31 ... . 726 
 Sherman's march to the sea, Nov. and 
 
 Dec 713 
 
 Battle of Franklin, Tenn., November 
 
 30 (U.) 711 
 
1864-5] LEADING Hl^ENTS 437 
 
 1864 : Capture of Fort McAllister, (ia. , Dec. 
 
 13 C-'.)-- •• § 714 
 
 Battle of Nashville, Tenn., Dec. 15- 
 
 16 (U. 
 
 I I 
 
 Capture of Savannah, Ga,, December 
 
 21 (U.) 714 
 
 1865: Capture of Fort Fisher, N. C. , [an. 15 
 
 (U.).; ." 716 
 
 Sherman's march northward, Feb. and 
 
 March 728 
 
 Columbia, S. C, captured, February 
 
 17 (U.) 728 
 
 Charleston, S. C. , captured, Feb. 18 
 
 (U.) 72^ 
 
 Wilmington, N. C. , captured, Feb. 21 
 
 (U.) 716 
 
 Battle of Goldsboro, N. C, March ly 
 
 (U.).. 729 
 
 Sheridan's raid on Lvnchburgh, Va. , 
 
 March 731 
 
 Battle of Five Forks, Va., April i (U.) 732 
 Petersburgh, Va. , captured, April 2 
 
 (U.) 732 
 
 Richmond, Va., captured, April 3 (U.) 732 
 
 Surrender of Lee, April 9 j^t, 
 
 Assassination of Lincoln, April 14. . . . 737 
 
 Surrender of Johnston, April 26 734 
 
 Jefferson Davis captured. May 11 (note) 732 
 
 General surrender, April and May. . . . 734 
 
 Topics for Further vStudy. 
 
 1. Detailed study of a battle. 
 
 2. Detailed study of a campaign. 
 
 3. The military career of a leading general. 
 
 4. The strategic importance of the Mississippi. 
 
 5. West Point graduates in the war. 
 
 6. Drafts. 
 
 7. The government of the Confederate States. 
 
 8. Lincoln as a representative American. 
 
43^ THE IV A R. FOR THE UNION [i 86 1-5 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources. — The great series known as War of the Rebellion, 
 Official Records, still in course of publication, and the Congres- 
 sional documents, are the primary authorities for the history of 
 the Civil War; but they are difificult to use for other than 
 detailed study. Moore's Rebellion Record \s a smaller and very 
 useful collection. McPherson's History of the Rebellion is the 
 most important single volume. ]\Iany important documents 
 are given in X\\it American Annual CyclopLedia, 1861—65. "^^e 
 writings and memoirs of the principal actors are indispensable: 
 among the most important are the collected works of Lincoln, 
 Seward, and Sumner, and the memoirs of Grant, Sherman, and 
 Sheridan. The contemporary pictures in Harper s Weekly and 
 Frank Leslie' s Weekly are instructive. 
 
 Narrative Accounts.— The literature of the Civil War is 
 enormous. The best military history, as far as it goes, is 
 Ropes's Story of the Civil War : unfortunately the narrative 
 stops with 1862. Of the larger comprehensive histories, that 
 of Rhodes is the best. Dodge's Bird' s-Eye View of Our Civil 
 War is the best single-volume account. The History of the 
 Civil War by the Comte de Paris, Battles and Leaders of the 
 Civil War (Century Co. ), and Campaigns of the Civil War 
 (Scribner's Sons), are important. The most elaborate bio- 
 graphical treatment of the period is Nicolay and Hay's Lincohi. 
 There are numerous biographies of leaders on both sides, among 
 the most important being Badeau's Grant, Mahan's Far r a gut, 
 and Cooke's Robert E. I^ee and Stonewall facksoft. The 
 volumes in the Great Commanders series are useful, but differ 
 much in merit. 
 
 The political phases of Lincoln's administration are treated 
 at length in the histories of Von Hoist, Schouler, and Rhodes, 
 and Nicolay and Hay's LJncoln. To these should be added 
 Callender's Thaddeus Stevens, Barnes' s Thurlow Weed, Gorham's 
 Stanton, Bigelow's Samuel f. Lilden, C. F. Adams's Charles 
 Francis Adams, Greeley' s Afuerican Conflict, and Blaine's Twenty 
 Years of Cotigress. On the slavery issue see also Wilson's Slave 
 Power and Garrisons' William Lloyd Garrison. The American 
 Annual Cyclopaedia has marked value for reference. 
 
 Illustrative Literature. — Moore's 7^he Civil War in Song 
 and Story; G. C. Eggleston's American War Ballads and Lyrics; 
 W. G. Simms's War Poetry of the South; Alcott's Hospital 
 
1 86 1 -5] SUPPLEMENTARY READING 439 
 
 Ske/ches; J. E. Cooke's Hill to Hilt and Wearing of the Gray; 
 Cable's War Diary of a Union Woinan in the South; C. C. 
 Coffin's Winning his Way; Stephen Crane's Red Badge of 
 Courage; jM. E. M. Davis's In War Time at La Rose Blanche; 
 W. L. Goss's/^^/; J. C. Harris's On the Plantation; S. Weir 
 Mitchell's In War Time and Rolafid Blake; T. N. Page's Jwo 
 Little Confederates and Among the Ca?nps; E. C. Stedman's 
 Alice of Monmouth; Townsend's Katy of Catoctin; Bryant's Our 
 Countrf s Call, The Death of Slavery, and Abraham Lincoln; 
 Holmes's In War Time; Longfellow's The Cumberland ; Lowell's 
 Harvard Co?nmemoration Ode and JSIemoricB Positum; T. E. 
 Read's Sheridan's Ride; Whittier's In War Time; Whitman's 
 3Iy Captain. 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 (I) Johnson's Administration: 1865-9 
 
 Andrew Johnson, Tennessee, Vice-President and President. 
 
 751. The New President. — Andrew Johnson, elected 
 Vice-President with Lincohi, became President at Lin- 
 
 cohi's death. He was 
 '^ from Tennessee, a "poor 
 white," who had worked 
 his way upward until he 
 had been sent to Con- 
 gress, had become Gov- 
 ernor of his State, and 
 was then sent to the 
 United States Senate. 
 He was an outspoken 
 Union man, who held to 
 the Union even after his 
 State seceded; and, al- 
 though he had always 
 been a Democrat, the 
 Republicans nominated 
 him in 1864 in order to 
 get the votes of those 
 Democrats who sup- 
 ported the war. In this 
 they were only repeating the mistake of Tyler's case 
 
 440 
 
 Anukew Johnson. 
 
1865] DISBANDING THE ARMY 44^ 
 
 (vj 500). Johnson wished to punish the rich and inilucn- 
 tial Southern leaders ; but he cared little about the ne^n'oes 
 who had been set free by the war. The Republicans 
 were determined to protect the freedmen, even if they had 
 to punish the secedinj^'- States in order to do it; while 
 Johnson was determined that the States should not be 
 punished. Johnson was a passionate man, and hasty of 
 speech; and he soon managed to bring about a quarrel 
 with Congress, which lasted throughout his term of office. 
 His term had scarcely begun before every one saw what 
 a terrible misfortune it had been to lose the wise, kindly, 
 large-hearted and large-minded Lincoln when the country 
 needed him so much. 
 
 ( I ) Rccoiistnictioii. 
 
 752. Disbanding the Army. — Many persons had thought 
 that it would be very dangerous to break up the armies 
 at the end of the war; that the million of soldiers would 
 neither seek nor find work, but would join in lawless com- 
 panies for robbery. Nothing of the kind followed. The 
 men, except about 50,000, who were retained as a stand- 
 ing army, were paid off and sent home at the rate of 
 300,000 a month. The old soldiers turned out to be 
 better lawyers, editors, managers, and workmen than they 
 had been before the war, through the habits of prompt 
 obedience learned in the army. 
 
 753. The Problem of Reconstruction. — Some of the most 
 difficult questions of American history presented them- 
 selves in the six years from 1865 to 1 871, in which the 
 American people tried to straighten out a state of affairs 
 which had been completely tangled by the Civil War and 
 its results. The first question was, What should be done 
 with the voters of the seceding States } The Northern 
 
442 RECONSTRUCTION [^^65 
 
 States were each divided politically among two nearly 
 equal parties, one party controlling some States and the 
 other party controlling the others. But Southern voters 
 had for years thought of hardly anything in politics except 
 the defence of slavery. All the Southern States were thus 
 in the habit of acting together: they formed what is now 
 often called a "solid South." They had so nearly a 
 majority of both Houses of Congress that a very little held 
 from parts of the North would at once give them control 
 of the government, and the power to make laws as to the 
 national debt, pensions, and other expenses of the war. 
 And yet there was no express law to prevent them from 
 taking part at once in the government. It was, in fact, 
 equally hard to let them in or to keep them out. 
 
 754. The President's Feeling. — President Johnson was 
 always a hearty Union man. He had expressed great 
 anxiety to hang some of the Confederate leaders, and his 
 first act as President was to offer large rewards for the 
 capture of Davis and other leaders, on the charge of 
 planning Lincoln's murder. But Johnson had been a 
 Southern ' ' poor white ' ' : his feeling was altogether one 
 of hostility to the richer Southerners who had brought about 
 the war; and he had no great anxiety for the protection 
 of the "freedmen." ^ He was what was called a War 
 Democrat: that is, he was anxious to maintain the Union, 
 but equally anxious that the States should each be free 
 from interference by the Union. It was certain from the 
 
 ^ "Freedmen" was the usual name for the former slaves, set free by the 
 war. During the war they were often called "contrabands," a name said 
 to have been invented by General Butler. Runaway slaves had come into 
 his camp, and the law directed him to return them to their owners, a thing 
 which he was determined not to do. He got over the difficulty by declar- 
 ing the slaves "contraband of war," like gunpowder, or any other valuable 
 war material, which must not be allowed to pass into the enemy's posses- 
 sion. 
 
1865] JOHNSON'S POLICY 443 
 
 bc[;"inninL^ that he would never consent "to keep the 
 seceding; States out." 
 
 755. The Southern State Governments, when Johnson 
 became President, were in complete confusion. The 
 Union cavalry forces were ranging through the South, 
 capturing governors and other leading men, and sending 
 them to forts for safe-keeping. They were eventually 
 released after a short imprisonment ; but at the time no 
 one was quite sure that the Confederate leaders would not 
 all be hanged or shot for treason. Every Southern man 
 who could have been of service in government was only 
 anxious to keep out of the way, and almost all semblance 
 of government disappeared. The first business was to 
 get some form of government that would maintain 
 order. 
 
 756. The President's Plan of reconstruction was, first, 
 to appoint provisional, or temporary, governors for each 
 State. These governors called conventions of delegates, 
 elected by the white people, the former voters. These 
 conventions, when they met, did three things: they 
 repealed or declared void the ordinances of secession, 
 promised never to pay any debt incurred in supporting the 
 Confederacy, and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, 
 abolishing slavery, which Congress had proposed early in 
 1865. Before the end of the year 1865, all the govern- 
 ments of the seceding States had been reorganized accord- 
 ing to the President's plan, or " my policy," as he often 
 called it. Virginia, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Arkansas 
 had already been reorganized, in much the same manner, 
 under President Lincoln, and were not interfered with. 
 
 757. The Thirteenth Amendment, forever abolishing 
 slavery, having been ratified b}' three-fourths of the States, 
 was declared a part of the Constitution in December, 
 1865. It was necessary because the Emancipation 
 
444 RECONSTRUCTION [1866 
 
 rroclamation (^^ 669) had only freed the slaves, but did 
 not prevent a new establishment of slaver)'. 
 
 758. The Treatment of the Freedmen was a difficult 
 matter to manage. The Southern people did not believe 
 that the freedmen would willingly work now that they no 
 longer had the slave-driv^er to force them to it. The laws 
 passed by the new governments of the seceding States 
 were, therefore, usually designed to force the freedmen to 
 work under penalt)' of being declared vagrants and sent 
 to jail and hard labor. To most of the Northern people 
 this looked very much like setting up slavery again under 
 a new name ; and their representatives in Congress, when 
 Congress met in December, 1865, refused for the time to 
 admit any members from the seceding States. 
 
 759. A New Issue Avas thus brought into politics. The 
 President thought that the Republican majority in Con- 
 gress had no more right to keep out members from the 
 seceding States than those States had to attempt to leave 
 the Union. He was supported by the Northern Demo- 
 crats, and also by the Southern people, who did not count 
 for much, however, so long as their representatives were 
 not admitted. The Republicans had a two-thirds majority 
 in both Houses of Congress, sufficient to pass laws over 
 the President's veto. They had not yet formed any plan: 
 they were only determined not to admit the Southern 
 members until the safety of the freedmen should be made 
 certain. In this they were supported by the Republican 
 party of the North ; and the whole struggle turned upon 
 the elections in i 866 for the Congress which was to meet 
 in 1867. 
 
 760. The Congressional Elections of 1866 resulted in the 
 complete success of the Republicans. They were to have 
 the same two-thirds majority in the next Congress, and 
 for the next two years could pass such laws as they 
 
i868] RHCONSTRUCriON ACTS 445 
 
 tliought best, without any obstruction from the President's 
 veto. They had now more fully formed their plan of 
 reconstruction, and were able to carry it into effect. 
 Tennessee was readmitted to the Union in 1866, and its 
 members were received by Congress. The State had 
 been reorganized in such a manner that the rights of the 
 freedmen seemed quite secure. The plan of Congress 
 had two leading purposes: the freedmen were to vote; 
 and the Confederate leaders were not to vote. These 
 purposes were to be reached by putting all the seceding 
 States under military governors, who should call new 
 conventions to form State governments. The power to 
 vote for delegates to these conventions was given to the 
 freedmen, but not to the leading Confederates. If the 
 new forms of government should allow freedmen to vote, 
 and if the new governments should ratify the Fourteenth 
 Amendment (§ 763), which denied to the leading Con- 
 federates the pov/er to hold office. Congress would admit 
 the Southern Senators and Representatives. 
 
 761. The Reconstruction Acts were passed by Congress 
 in March, 1867, over the veto of the President. They 
 embodied the plan of Congress, as just explained ; and 
 the President executed them by appointing the military 
 governors. These governors, supported by portions of 
 the army, took care that in forming the new governments 
 freedmen should be allowed to vote, and leading Confed- 
 erates should be forbidden to vote. 
 
 762. The Work of Reconstruction went on through the 
 years 1867 and 1868; and in June, 1868, six States were 
 readmitted to representation in Congress: Alabama, 
 Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South 
 Carolina. It is not difficult to understand why the Recon- 
 struction Acts were bitterly disliked by the Southern 
 whites, for they made the negroes, who had been slaves 
 
446 RECONSTRUCTION [1868 
 
 but two years before, equal or superior to their former 
 masters. It was hoped in the North that the freedmen 
 would be made secure by having the right to vote for 
 representatives in the State governments. We shall see 
 hereafter how this resulted (§ 789). But for the first few 
 years the whites were powerless, and the freedmen had 
 their full share in the government. Four States, Georgia, 
 Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia, refused to yield, and 
 were not readmitted until 1870 (§788). Tennessee had 
 been admitted in 1866 (§ 760). 
 
 763. The Fourteenth Amendment, proposed by Congress 
 in I S66, was ratified and became a part of the Constitu- 
 tion in July, 1868. It provided that no State should take 
 away the privileges of citizens of the United States ; that 
 the higher class of Confederate office-holders should hold 
 no office until pardoned by Congress ; that the debt of the 
 United States should be paid in full; and that the Con- 
 federate debt should never be paid. By "privileges of 
 citizens ' ' was meant the right of the freedmen to be 
 treated exactly like whites in making and enforcing laws. 
 
 764. The Reconstructed Governments at once took con- 
 trol of their States. Their State constitutions, as has been 
 stated, allowed the freedmen to vote, while they forbade 
 the leading Confederates to vote or hold office until par- 
 doned by Congress. The negroes, with a few white 
 leaders, voted together; the majority of the whites also 
 voted together; and thus the voting population of the 
 seceding States was divided on "the color line." The 
 unhappy results were very soon visible (§ 789). 
 
 (2) IiiipcacJniioit. 
 
 765. The President and Congress — While Congress was 
 thus successfully carr)'ing out its plan of reconstruction, 
 
I.S67 
 
 TENURE OF OfTICF ACT 
 
 447 
 
 its quarrel with the President was steadily growing more 
 bitter. Bill after bill was passed by Congress, vetoed by 
 the President, and at once passed over the veto. The 
 President was a passionate man and hasty of speech. He 
 believed that the Republican majority in Congress was 
 keeping the Southern members out only in order to be 
 able to pass bills over his veto; and he did not hesitate to 
 express his dislike of Congress in public speeches. Of 
 course this made Congress still more ready to pass bills 
 which were disagreeable to him. 
 
 766. The Tenure of Office Act was passed b}^ Congress 
 in March, 1867, o\er the President's veto. It forbade 
 the President to remove 
 
 the higher grades of 
 office-holders without 
 asking and receiving the 
 consent of the Senate. 
 Johnson, believing that 
 the Constitution gave 
 Congress no power to 
 pass such an act, deter- 
 mined to disobey it. He 
 removed Stanton, the 
 Secretary of War, and 
 when the Senate refused 
 
 to consent to the re- Euwin M. Stanton. 
 
 moval, the President paid no attention to the refusal, and 
 ordered Stanton's successor to take possession of the 
 office. 
 
 767. The Impeachment of the President followed at once. 
 The House of Representatives voted to impeach him ; that 
 is, to accuse liim of having disobeyed the laws, and of 
 being unfit to be President. An imi)eachment must be 
 tried by the Senate, and it is necessar)- that two-thirds of 
 
 ^- 
 
448 RECONSTRUCTION [1868 
 
 the Senators should vote to sustain the charges in order 
 to convict the accused. In this case there was a long 
 trial before the Senate, and the vote was 35 for to 19 
 against conviction. This was not a two-thirds vote, and 
 the President was acquitted. 
 
 768. The Presidential Election of 1 863 turned on Recon- 
 struction, as it had been managed by Congress. The 
 Republicans supported it, and nominated Grant, and 
 Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana. The Democrats opposed 
 it, and nominated Horatio Seymour, of New York, and 
 Frank P. Blair, of Missouri. The Republicans were suc- 
 cessful, and Grant and Colfax were elected.^ 
 
 (3) Internal Affairs. 
 
 769. The National Debt, at the end of the war, was 
 about $2,850,000,000 (§ 748). Other governments have 
 debts as large, or larger; but they do not always feel it 
 necessary to pay them promptly. The American people, 
 on the contrary, now attacked their debt as vigorously as 
 if it had been a hostile army in the field. Taxes on im- 
 ported goods were not decreased for fear of foreign com- 
 petition in manufactures ; and whatever money could be 
 spared out of the large receipts of the government was 
 applied to paying off the debt. Before the armies were 
 quite disbanded, $30,000,000 had been paid; and this 
 policy continued to be perseveringly followed up. 
 
 770. Mexico, at the end of the war, was still occupied 
 by French troops, against the will of the Mexicans 
 (§ 695). The United States now began to urge their 
 withdrawal in more decided language, and France con- 
 
 ' Of the 294 electoral votes, Grant and Colfax received 214, and Sey- 
 mour and Blair 80. Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia were not allowed 
 to vote, as they had not yet been " reconstructed " and n-udniitted. 
 
1S67] INTERNAL AFFAIRS 449 
 
 scnted to take them away. The United States liad no 
 objection to Maximilian's remaining" as emperor, if the 
 Mexicans wished it. I le refused to leave with the French 
 troops, and, in 1867, was captured and shot by the 
 Mexicans. The United States asked that his life should 
 be spared, but the request was refused. 
 
 771. The Fenians were a body of men of Irish birth who 
 felt that they had grievances against Great Britain. Most 
 of them had served in the army, had grown fond of 
 soldiering, and now wanted "a brush with the British." 
 Canada was a part of the British Empire, and about 
 1,500 of the Fenians invaded it in 1866 from Buffalo. 
 As there was no war between the United States and Great 
 Britain, Americans could not be allowed to make war on 
 their own account; and the President promptly interfered, 
 and stopped the movement. 
 
 772. The Atlantic Telegraph. — The telegraph had not 
 been in operation long before it was found that lines could 
 be worked under water. This suggested the idea of a 
 line from America to Europe, over the flat bed of the 
 Atlantic Ocean between Ireland and Newfoundland. 
 Such a line had been laid (1857), but failed to work long. 
 It was now tried again, and proved a success (1866). 
 Other cables of the kind have since been laid, so that it 
 is now hardly possible that any accident should entirely 
 break off telegraphic communication between the United 
 States and Europe. 
 
 773. Alaska was bought from Russia in 1867 for 
 $7,200,000. As it is the last addition on the mainland 
 of North America, a table is given here, showing the 
 original territory of the United States, and the successive 
 additions. 
 
45° RECONSTRUCTION [1869 
 
 Square Miles. 
 
 United States in 1783 (§ 263) 827,844 
 
 Louisiana, 1803 (§ 334) i, 171,931 
 
 Florida, 1819 (§414) 59,268 
 
 Texas, 1845 (§ 516) 376,133 
 
 Mexican Cession, 1848 (§ 543) 545,783 
 
 Gadsden Purchase, 1853 (§ 544) 45,535 
 
 Alaska, 1867 (§ 773) 577,39° 
 
 Total in 1 894 3, 603, 884 
 
 774. Nebraska. — Nebraska, a part of the Louisiana pur- 
 chase (§§ 334, 573), was admitted as a State (1867), with 
 the provision that it should allow negroes to vote. 
 
 (II) Grant's Administrations: 1869-77 
 
 TTiv-cc-ccQ r-o.x,.,- 111 T>-„„;j„„v ( ScHUYLHR Colfax, Ind., Vice-President, 1860-73. 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant, 111., President. -^ ^^^^^^ Wilson, Mass., Vice-President, .873-77: 
 
 (1) Foreign Affairs. 
 
 775. The New President. — General Ulysses S. Grant, 
 who left his place as head of the army to become Presi- 
 dent in 1869, was then nearly fifty years old, and in the 
 prime and vigor of life. As a general, his strong point 
 had been his determination, and it was on this that the 
 country relied in making him President. It wanted as 
 President a man who would hold everything that could 
 be held of what had been secured by the war, in the 
 supremacy of the national authority and in the rights of 
 the freedmen ; and it is not easy to name any one who 
 would have done this work better than Grant. 
 
 776. The Alabama Claims were an outgrowth of the 
 Civil War. That every nation was bound to prevent 
 persons living in its territory from waging war against a 
 friendly nation was the claim of the United States. Great 
 Britain had not been properly careful to prevent the 
 
iSyi] THE TREATY OF JVASHINGTON 45 ^ 
 
 Alabama and other Confederate privateers from escaping 
 to sea (§ 672). Hence our government maintained that 
 Great Britain ought now to pay for at least part of the 
 damage done by tliem. The answer of Great Britain was 
 that there had been no haws, at that time, under which 
 the government could seize the privateers ; but that 
 matters would be better arranged in future. To this the 
 United States answ^ered that Great Britain was still bound 
 to pay damages for her neglect to pass the needful laws 
 in due season. 
 
 777. The Treaty of Washington, in 187 i, ended the long 
 dispute between the two countries. It referred all matters 
 in dispute between Great Britain and the United States 
 to arbitrators, or umpires. The Alabama claims were to 
 be decided by five arbitrators, to be appointed by Great 
 Britain, the United States, Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil. 
 The arbitrators met at Geneva, in Switzerland, in 1872, 
 heard the evidence and arguments on both sides, and 
 decided that Great Britain should pay $15,500,000 to the 
 United States for the damage done. The Northwestern 
 boundary, between Vancouver's Island and the United 
 States, was still doubtful and disputed (§ 523); and the 
 treaty of Washington left the decision to the Emperor of 
 Germany. He decided in favor of the boundary as the 
 United States had claimed it. The Canadian fisheries 
 had also caused disputes. Great Britain claimed that 
 American fishermen made use of the shores near the 
 fisheries, and that the United States ought to pay for this 
 privilege. The treaty of Washington referred this ques- 
 tion to another board of arbitrators, whose decision was 
 that the United States should pay $5. 500,000 to Great 
 Britain. 
 
 778. San Domingo, the eastern half of the island of 
 Hayti, is a republic, inhabited chiefly by negroes. Its 
 
452 RECONSTRUCTION [1869 
 
 rulers were anxious, and its people were willing, to be 
 annexed to the United States. A treaty of annexation 
 was agreed upon in 1869, but it provoked great opposi- 
 tion in the United States, for it would have brought in a 
 great number of ignorant voters, of whom the country 
 had already enough to take care of. The United States 
 Senate refused to confirm the treaty, and it fell through. 
 
 779. The Virginius was an American vessel which, in 
 1873, was carrying supplies to Cuba, to help insurgents 
 against Spain. The business was unlawful, and the vessel 
 was captured on the ocean by a Spanish war-vessel and 
 taken to Cuba. The Spanish authorities at once put the 
 crew and passengers on trial, and shot a number of them 
 who were adjudged guilty. This harsh punishment ex- 
 cited great indignation in the United States, and there 
 was some danger of war ; but the government of Spain 
 succeeded in stopping the bloody work of its agents in 
 Cuba. Those of the prisoners who were still alive were 
 sent to Spain, and were released after an imprisonment. 
 
 (2) Internal Affairs. 
 
 780. Grant's First Administration (1869-73) was marked 
 by general prosperit}'. The production of gold and silver 
 in the Pacific States and Territories increased rapidly. 
 Agriculture was flourishing, for wars and bad harvests in 
 Europe made temporarily a great market for American 
 grain and cattle. New agricultural regions in the far 
 West began to be settled. Railroads were being built in 
 every direction. More miles of railroad were built in the 
 United States during these four years than had been built 
 in any other country of the world during all the years 
 past. Indeed, more were built than were yet necessary, 
 for every man who had money to use was eager to share 
 in the profits of railroad-building. 
 
iSyo] THE PAClhlC RAILROADS 453 
 
 781. Grant's Second Administration (1873-77) ^^'^^'^ the 
 opposite of the first. ICxtriuai^ant railroad-building 
 brought on a financial panic, which began in 1873 and 
 did not come to an end until about 1879. Many railroads 
 had been built in parts of the country where they did not 
 pay interest on the expense of building them. As soon 
 as those who had built them began to wish to sell, nobody 
 wished to buy. Money became scarce ; many great tor- 
 tunes were lost; and there was general distress. In 
 addition to financial troubles, there were many political 
 scandals (§ 794), ending in a dangerous disputed election 
 (§ 798)' so that there have been few periods in our history 
 when the general feeling about the future has been more 
 gloom}' than during this administration. 
 
 782. The Census of 1870 showed a population of 38,- 
 558,371, an increase of 7,000,000 since i860 (§ 588). 
 At previous rates, in time of peace, the increase should 
 have been about 10,000,000; but the war, with its loss 
 of life, decrease of immigration, and general confusion, 
 had made the difference. Most of the Southern States 
 had hardly any increase. 
 
 783. The Pacific Railroads. — The Central Pacific rail- 
 road, from Omaha to San Francisco, was completed in 
 1869. It had been begun in 1862, during the heat of the 
 war, and Congress had assisted it by giving the company 
 public lands, and by promising to pay the interest on its 
 bonds if it should be unable to do so. The completion 
 of this railroad made it possible for the traveller to cross 
 the continent in a week ; and an easy passage was pro- 
 vided for mails and merchandise between Europe and 
 Asia. Americans had made a substitute for the ' ' north- 
 west passage," sought for by early discoverers (§21). 
 The Northern Pacific railroad was completed in 1883. 
 It runs from Duluth and St. Paul throucfh North Dakota 
 
454 RECONSTRUCTION [187 1 
 
 to Puget Sound, where it meets the lines running down 
 the coast. A number of other Hues running to the Pacific 
 have since then been constructed, so that the railway in- 
 tercommunication between east and west has been greatly 
 facilitated. 
 
 784. Great Fires were numerous during the years 187 1 
 and 1872. Chicago was burned in October, 187 i. This 
 was the greatest fire in modern times. It began in the 
 poorer part of the city, and was hurried by a high wind 
 into the richest portion, among banks, business houses, 
 and the handsomest of the private residences. When it 
 ceased burning, on the third day, 100,000 people were 
 homeless, $200,000,000 in property had been destroyed, 
 and for miles along the lake front there were only ruins. 
 In the same month great forest-fires swept over Wiscon- 
 sin, and more than 1,500 persons were burned to death. 
 In November, 1872, a large part of Boston was burned, 
 with a loss of $70,000,000. The news of each of these 
 disasters had hardly been telegraphed when train-loads of 
 provisions and supplies were started from all parts of the 
 country to the place where they were needed. Rebuild- 
 ing began at once; and Chicago and Boston soon rose 
 from their ruins, finer cities than before their misfortune. 
 
 785. Indian Troubles were quite numerous during Grant's 
 second administration. The Modoc Indians, living near 
 Klamath Lake, in southern Oregon, were ordered by the 
 government to go to another reservation ; but they refused 
 to go, and killed the peace commissioners sent to them. 
 Their country, the "lava-beds," was a region of old 
 volcanoes, with underground passages miles in length ; 
 and it was not until 1873, after nearly a year's fighting, 
 that the troops could drive them out of their hiding-places. 
 The Sioux Indians, under Sitting Bull, were also trouble- 
 some. In 1876, they were gradually driven toward the 
 
iSyi] THE END OE RECONSTRUCTION 455 
 
 Bii^ Horn River, in southern Montana. Here General 
 Custer, with a sini^le cavahy regiment, rashly charged 
 the whole tribe, and he and all his men were killed. 
 Fresh troops afterward arrived, and drove the Indians into 
 British America. 
 
 786. Colorado The thirty-eighth State admitted to the 
 
 Union was Colorado (1876). It was formed partly from 
 the Louisiana purchase and partly from the Mexican 
 cession (§ 543). 
 
 787. The Centennial, or hundredth, anniversary of the 
 Declaration of Independence was celebrated in 1876. 
 As a part of the celebration, an International Exposition 
 was held at Philadelphia from May until November. In 
 its great buildings were collected specimens of the pro- 
 ductions, manufactures, and arts of every country. It 
 was visited by nearly ten million people, and served ex- 
 cellently as a general educator. 
 
 (3) T/ic End of Reconstruction. 
 
 788. Reconstruction was completed in 1870, by the 
 readmission of Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, and Virginia 
 (§ 762), which hitherto had not been willing to change 
 their forms of government so as to meet the wishes of 
 Congress. Early in 1871 all the States were represented 
 in Congress, for the first time since 1861. 
 
 789. The Fifteenth Amendment was ratified by three- 
 fourths of the States, and became a part of the Constitu- 
 tion in 1870. It had been proposed by Congress the year 
 before. It forbade the United States, or any State, to 
 prevent any person from voting because of his "race, 
 color, or previous condition of servitude." Negro suf- 
 frage was thus, apparently, ensured. It was hoped that 
 the Southern negroes would now be able to take care 
 of themselves by electing representatives in their State 
 
456 RECONSTRUCTION [1871 
 
 governments. Unfortunately, the freedmen were the 
 most ignorant part of the population. It had been part 
 of the law of slavery to keep them ignorant and to make 
 them afraid of their masters. They were still so ignorant 
 and timid that they knew but one way of voting, and that 
 was to vote together and against the whites. State legis- 
 latures have the power to lay taxes, and all the Southern 
 property on which taxes were laid belonged to the whites. 
 The whites therefore used every means to keep the 
 negroes from voting, for fear negro legislatures would 
 make the taxes unbearably heavy. Sometimes they paid 
 their negro workmen to stay at home on election-day; 
 sometimes they threatened to discharge them if they 
 voted ; and thus, in several of the States, the whites soon 
 got control of the State governments again. ^ 
 
 790. Disorder in the South soon became very common 
 in those States in which the bribes or threats above-men- 
 tioned were not enough to keep the legislatures out of the 
 control of the freedmen. The whites asserted that the 
 reconstructed governments made bad laws and stole the 
 public moneys. The reconstructed governments asserted 
 that the whites resisted the laws by violence, and whipped 
 or killed negroes in order to prevent them from voting. 
 Both assertions seem to have been correct. The disorders 
 were worst in South Carolina, Mississippi, Arkansas, and 
 Louisiana, but they extended more or less to all the 
 seceding States. 
 
 791. The Reconstructed Governments appealed to the 
 President for help. The Constitution and laws provide 
 
 ' "Carpet-bagger" was a name given by Southern whites to Northern men 
 who settled in tlie South and voted with the negroes. The name was given 
 to them because they were said to have brought nothing but their carpet- 
 bags with them from the North. Many of them were former Union soldiers. 
 A " scalawag " was a native Southern white who voted with the negroes, 
 and was considered a traitor bv the whites. 
 
'1S76] FAILURE OF RECONSTRUCTION 457 
 
 that a State government which cannot put clown disorder 
 within its Hmits ma}' obtain support from the President. 
 PresideiU Grant sent troops to the assistance of the States 
 which asked for it, and thus kept their governments in 
 existence. Nevertheless, in one State after another, the 
 whites succeeded in carrying the elections and getting 
 quiet control of the State government ; and the Federal 
 troops were then no longer asked for. In this manner, 
 before the end of Grant's second term, the Avhites had 
 obtained control of all the Southern State governments 
 excepting those of South Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. 
 Even in these three States, they claimed to have carried 
 the elections, but the Federal troops still prevented them 
 from turning out the reconstructed governments. 
 
 792. The Ku-Klux-Klan was a secret society of whites, 
 extending all through the Southern States. It operated 
 originally as a sort of police to keep the freedmen in sub- 
 jection. It then attacked the white Republicans, the 
 "carpet-baggers" or "scalawags." h^inally, it seems 
 to have gone into the work of committing murders and 
 outrages for pay or spite, so that the better class of whites 
 were compelled to aid in putting it down. Before this 
 took place, Congress passed a number of severe laws, in- 
 tended to put an end to the society and its practices of 
 riding by night in masks and disguises to terrify, whip, 
 or murder freedmen and white Republicans. 
 
 793. Reconstruction, so far as it aimed to make freed- 
 men voters, was thus a failure in all but three States before 
 1876; and even in these three States, South Carolina, 
 Florida, and Louisiana, it became a failure in 1877 
 (§ 802). Educationally, however, its effect upon the 
 negro has been good. As a slave, the negro had been 
 only a thing, a piece of property, without any rights. 
 Reconstruction has given him every right but that of 
 
45^ RECONSTRUCTION [1875 
 
 voting; and even this right, though still often denied him, 
 is slowly being admitted, as the negro shows himself 
 worthy of it. 
 
 (4) Political Affairs. 
 
 794. Political Scandals were unhappily numerous during 
 Grant's administrations. A Whiskey Ring was dis- 
 covered in the West in 1875, composed of distillers and 
 revenue officers, and formed for the purpose of swindling 
 the government out of the taxes on the manufacture of 
 whiskey. Many of the Indian troubles came from the 
 frauds of government agents who cheated the Indians out 
 of their allowances. It was charged that the scheme for 
 annexing San Domingo (§ 778) was contrived by govern- 
 ment agents who owned land in San Domingo, and wished 
 to increase its value by anne.xation. One of the Presi- 
 dent's Cabinet was impeached for taking bribes, but 
 escaped by resigning ; and several members of Congress 
 were charged with accepting shares of Credit Mobilier 
 ctock,^ given them as inducements to buy their votes. 
 Very many of these scandals were the result of the system 
 of appointing men to office for political services, which 
 had been begun under Jackson (§ 467). 
 
 795. Liberal Republicans. — A few of these political 
 scandals had come to public view during Grant's first 
 administration. As those who were engaged in them 
 were mainly Republicans, the Democrats used them as 
 arguments that the whole Republican party was equally 
 bad, and some of the Republicans began to feel very 
 much inclined to leave their party. Moreover, many of 
 
 ^ The Credit Mobilier was organized to take contracts for work on the 
 Pacific Railroad. It wished to have certain bills passed by Congress; and 
 it secured votes in Congress by giving stock to members. 
 
1876] {election of 1S76 459 
 
 the Republicans were not satisfied that Federal troops 
 should be used so constantly to support the reconstructed 
 governments: they thought that if these governments 
 were not able to sustain themselves," they were not fit to 
 exist. These two reasons caused the formation of the 
 "Liberal Republican " party in 1871— 2. 
 
 796. The Presidential Election of 1872 was influenced 
 largely by the state cf affairs in the South. The Liberal 
 Republicans nominated Horace Greeley, of New York, 
 and B. Gratz Brown, of Missouri, and the Democrats 
 accepted these nominations as their own. The Repub- 
 licans nominated President Grant and Henry Wilson, of 
 Massachusetts, and approved the President's use of 
 Federal troops at the South. The Republicans were 
 successful, and Grant and Wilson were elected President 
 and Vice-President.^ 
 
 797. Grant's Second Term was marked by a great in- 
 crease in the scandals which became public. Few per- 
 sons believed that the President was implicated in them, 
 but they were used as political arguments against the party 
 which had elected him. \\\ 1876, the Democrats nomi- 
 nated Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, and Thomas A. 
 Hendricks, of Indiana, declaring their purpose to " reform 
 the government." The Republicans nominated Ruther- 
 ford B. Hayes, of Ohio, and William A. Wheeler, of 
 New York, declaring that the government would be safe 
 if left under their control. The Independent, Greenback, 
 or National party also nominated candidates, but they 
 obtained no electoral votes. The main object of the party 
 was to have all paper money issued by the government, 
 and none by banks. At this election there seemed to be 
 
 ^ Grant and Wilson received 286 of the 366 elect')ral votes. Greeley died 
 soon after the election. His mind had been overthrown by the excitement 
 of the struggle. 
 
460 RECONSTRUCTION [1876 
 
 no great disputed principles between the two parties : one 
 party wished to c^ct in, and the other to stay in. 
 
 798. The Presidential Election of 1876 was thrown into 
 complete confusion b\' the state of affairs at the South. 
 It must be remembered that when the people at large 
 vote, they do not vote directly for President and Vice- 
 President: they vote for electors, and these electors after- 
 ward vote for the President and Vice-President (§ 295). 
 When the election by the people was over, it was found 
 that, outside of Florida and Louisiana, each party had 
 obtained nearly the same number of electors, and that 
 both parties claimed to have carried the two deciding 
 States, Florida and Louisiana.^ The reconstructed gov- 
 ernments, on account of violence in their States, had 
 usually appointed "returning boards," commonly of five 
 men, whose duty was to examine the vote of the State, and 
 throw out the votes of any counties or parts of counties 
 in which voters had been kept away from the polls by 
 intimidation or violence. In Plorida and Louisiana, the 
 Democrats had a majority of the votes cast ; but the 
 Republicans had a majority after the returning boards had 
 thrown out the votes of those counties which they decided 
 against. The Democrats protested that this was illegal, 
 as it made the returning boards masters of the election ; 
 the Republicans defended it, on the ground that any other 
 arrangement would make force and fraud masters of the 
 election. 
 
 799. Congress had for about fifty years claimed and 
 exercised the power to decide disputes about electoral 
 votes (vj 831). But now the Democrats had a majority 
 in the House of Representatives ; the Republicans had a 
 majority in the Senate; and it was certain that the two 
 
 ' There wen.- other points in (lis]")ute, but these two States formed the most 
 important element in the controversy. 
 
i<S77j THE ELECTORAL COMMISSION 46/ 
 
 bodies would not agree in any decision about Florida and 
 Louisiana. When Congress met in December, 1876, it 
 was plain to all men that Congress might argue the 
 matter without any result until March, that then two 
 Presidents would claim the office, and that civil war 
 between their supporters might follow. 
 
 800. The Electoral Commission — Congress discussed the 
 situation until it was found that no agreement could be 
 reached by the two Houses, and then the moderate men 
 of both parties united in j^assing a special law to create an 
 Electoral Commission. This commission was to be com- 
 posed of fifteen members, five of them judges of the 
 Supreme Court, five Senators, and five Representatives. 
 The Commissioners were to consider the disputed points, 
 and to decide what seemed to them the true votes. Their 
 decision was to hold good, unless the two Houses should 
 agree to overrule it, and every one knew that the two 
 Houses could not agree in anything. The decision was 
 therefore really with the commission. 
 
 801. The Decision. — It had been intended that seven of 
 the commissioners should be Republicans, seven Demo- 
 crats, and the fifteenth a person who was not an adherent 
 of either party. This fifteenth member was unable to 
 serve, and a Republican took his place. It was then 
 found that on disputed questions the seven Democrats 
 and the eight Republicans voted unitedly, so that all the 
 important points were decided in favor of the Republicans 
 by votes of eight to seven. The Houses did not agree 
 in changing any of the commission's decisions; and 
 R. B. Hayes became President, and W. A. Wheeler 
 Vice-President.' 
 
 802. The Result was not pleasant to many of the Demo- 
 
 1 Tliert- were 185 electoral vott-s lluis declared for Hayes and Wkfreler, 
 and 184 for Tilden and Hendricks. 
 
462 RECONSTRUCTION [1865-69 
 
 crats, but the country was glad to find any means of 
 escape from a pressing danger. One result was that the 
 remaining reconstructed governments in the South were 
 left to their fate. Unable to stand alone, and supported 
 only by Federal troops, it was seen that their control of 
 important electoral votes had thrown the whole country 
 into a position of extreme peril. Even before the new 
 administration came into office. President Grant had 
 withdrawn the Federal troops from the support of the 
 reconstructed governments, and his action met general 
 approval. Within two months, the last of the recon- 
 structed governments disappeared, and a "solid South" 
 took their place (§ 753). All the Southern States were 
 controlled b}' the white voters, and all were Democratic. 
 803. The Leading Events of the administrations of John- 
 son and Grant were as follows : 
 
 1865-69: Johnson's Term of Office. 
 
 1865: Disbanding of the armies § 752 
 
 Southern State governments reorgan- 
 ized 756 
 
 Thirteenth Amendment ratified 757 
 
 1866: Tennessee readmitted 760 
 
 Atlantic telegraph laid 772 
 
 Fenian invasion of Canada 771 
 
 1867: Reconstruction Acts passed by Con- 
 gress 761 
 
 Tenure of Office Act passed by Con- 
 gress 766 
 
 Nebraska admitted 774 
 
 Maxnnilian shot 770 
 
 Alaska purchased 773 
 
 1868 : Removal of Stanton 766 
 
 Impeachment of the President 767 
 
 Six States readmitted 762 
 
 Fourteenth Amendment ratified 763 
 
 1869-73: Grant's First Term 780 
 
 1869: Pacific Railroad completed 783 
 
 San Domingo treaty 778 
 
1S70-77] LEADING EVENTS 463 
 
 1870: Reconstruction completed § 788 
 
 Fifteenth Amendment ratiliL'd 789 
 
 1871 : Ku-Klux disorders 792 
 
 Burning of Chicago 784 
 
 Treaty of Washington 777 
 
 1872: Burning of Boston 784 
 
 Modoc war 785 
 
 1873-77: Grant's Second Term 781 
 
 1873: Beginning of the panic 781 
 
 The Jlrgmius case 779 
 
 1876: Centennial celebration 787 
 
 Admission of Colorado 786 
 
 Sioux war 785 
 
 1877: Electoral Commission 800 
 
 Topics for FuRTHf:R Study. 
 
 1. Maximilian in Mexico. 
 
 2. The impeachment of President Johnson. 
 
 3. The Ku-Klux-Klan. 
 
 4. "Carpet-bag" government in a Southern State {e.g., 
 Mississippi). 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 Sources, — Besides the Congressional documents, many im- 
 portant papers will be found in Cooper's Americafi Politics, 
 McPherson's History of Reconstruction, and the American Annual 
 Cvclopcedia. The Congressional Globe was succeeded in 1873 t>y 
 the Congressiotial Record. Magazines and newspapers, though 
 difficult to use, are of indispensable importance for the years 
 subsecjuent to the Civil War, The newspaper almanacs, es- 
 pecially those of the New York Tribune and New York World, 
 are very useful for reference, particularly on statistical matters. 
 
 Narrative Accounts. — Von Hoist, Schouler, and Bryant 
 and Gay are the only historians who deal at any length with the 
 period since 1865. Andrews's History of the Last Quarter 
 Century is a useful medley of information, with interesting pic- 
 tures. The constitutional aspects of reconstruction are ably 
 treated in Dunning' s Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruc- 
 tion. 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 
 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 
 
 (I) Hayes's Administration: 1877-81 
 
 R. B. Hayes, Oliio, President. Wm. A. Wheeler, N. Y., Vice-President. 
 
 (i) Internal Affairs. ' 
 
 804. Hayes's Administration proved to be a period of 
 calm and contentment, such as the country had not known 
 
 for many years. The war 
 was over, and its passions 
 were ch'ing" away. Recon- 
 struction had done all that 
 it could do, and had shown 
 what it could not do. The 
 panic of 1873 was passing 
 off gradually, as the growth 
 of the country brought into 
 use and profit the railroads 
 which had been useless and 
 unprofitable. The coun- 
 try's history during these 
 four }'ears is mainly the 
 story of the daily labor of 
 fifty millions of people who 
 were working busily, filling 
 new regions like Dakota, 
 and selling the produce of 
 their labor in enormous quantities to other nations.^ 
 
 ' Tlic census of 1880 showed a population of 50,155,783, an increase of 
 
 464 
 
 R. B. Hayes. 
 
1877] INTllRNyU. AFl\-1lRS 4^5 
 
 805. Electricity was broui^ht into use, durini;' tliis 
 period, in many new and wonderful ways. It had already 
 been put to use in the tele<^raph (§ 510). Now the tele- 
 phone was perfected, and the electric light was brought 
 into use for lighting houses and streets. The first promis- 
 ing attempts were made to use electricity as a means of 
 transmitting power, in driving ordinary machinery and 
 locomotive engines. 
 
 806. Railroad Strikes were numerous during the summer 
 of 1877. The railroads attempted to lower the wages of 
 the men ; most of the men refused to work for the new 
 wages, and som.e of them refused to allow the trains to 
 run. In some cases they even resisted the troops which 
 were protecting the railroads; and there were riots at 
 Pittsburgh, Chicago, St. Louis, and other places. The 
 worst riot took place at Pittsburgh, where the rioters held 
 control of the city for several days. Nearly 100 lives 
 were lost, and $3,000,000 worth of property w^as 
 destroyed, before order was restored. After nearly two 
 weeks of general confusion, the disorders were suppressed, 
 and the trains began running regularly again. 
 
 807. The Nez Perce' Indians were ordered to remove, in 
 
 1877, from one reservation to another. They refused, 
 and began war. They were pursued for 1,500 miles, 
 from Idaho through Montana, and were finally compelled 
 to surrender. But their skilful retreat was much admired 
 by the officers opposed to them : they marched and fought 
 like white troops, did no scalping, and killed no women 
 or children. 
 
 808. Yellow Fever attacked the Southern States in 
 
 1878, and nearly 15,000 persons died of it. The attack 
 was worst at Memphis and New Orleans, and those cities 
 
 11,000.000 since 1870. The hii^lust nites of increase were in the Southern 
 States. 
 
466 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT [1878 
 
 were at one time abandoned by every one who could leave 
 them. Assistance of every kind, medicines, money, and 
 nurses, was sent to the afflicted region from all parts of 
 the country. 
 
 809. The Mississippi River had for a long- time been 
 hard to control. It brings with it vast quantities of mud, 
 which gradually drops to the bottom of the river. Great 
 shallows are thus formed at the mouth of the river, so as 
 to hinder navigation; and the level of the river is raised, 
 so that any freshet pours over the banks, and floods the 
 neighboring country. The first difficulty was removed, 
 during this period, by narrowing the mouth of the river. 
 The current was thus made swift enough to scour out the 
 mud and carry it into the Gulf of Mexico ; and ocean 
 steamers can now pass up the Mississippi to New Orleans. 
 The second difficulty has not }^ct been entirely overcome 
 (§821). 
 
 (2) Finauccs. 
 
 810. Silver had for some years been decreasing in value 
 all over the world, partly because of the enormous pro- 
 duction of the silver-mines of Nevada and other Pacific 
 States and Territories. The value of gold or silver, like 
 that of anything else, depends not only on the use that 
 people have for it, but also on the cost of getting it. 
 About this time silver began to be used less as a money 
 metal, Germany in particular largely discarding it. At the 
 same time in Nevada the miners had found new and 
 cheaper ways of getting the silver out of the ore; and the 
 mines there were yearly sending out larger quantities of 
 silver. For both reasons its price, as compared with gold, 
 was steadily falling. 
 
 811. Demonetization of Silver. — The laws of the United 
 States allowed both gold and silver to be coined into 
 
iSyS] FINANCES A^l 
 
 dollars. As the amount required to make a silver dollar 
 was then worth more than the amount required to make 
 a gold dollar, few silver dollars were coined, for the 
 owner of silver could exchange it for gold, and have the 
 gold coined into more dollars than the amount of silver 
 would have made when coined. Hence, in 1873, Con- 
 gress "demonetized" silver, i.e., no longer allowed 
 silver to be coined into dollars. 
 
 812. Remonetization of Silver. — After 1873 the silver 
 previousl\- required to make a silver dollar became worth 
 less than a gold dollar. Had silver not been " demonet- 
 ized," no one would nou^ have had gold coined into 
 dollars, for reasons just the opposite of those given above 
 (§811). Thus debts contracted in gold dollars could 
 have been paid in silver dollars of less value. Owing to 
 the demands of the debtor class. Congress in 1878 par- 
 tially " remonetized " silver, i.e., spent monthly a certain 
 amount for silver, and coined the purchased silver into 
 dollars.^ 
 
 813. Resumption. — Ever since 1862 (§670), paper 
 money, issued b)' the government or by national banks, 
 had been the onl}- mone)' in general use. It had been 
 the only money used by the gox'crnment, except that the 
 government demanded gold for the duties on imports, and 
 paid gold for the interest on the public debt. It had been 
 worth less, and sometimes much less, than gold, partly 
 because such large amounts of it had been issued, and 
 partly because it had sometimes seemed doubtful whether 
 the government would be able finally to pay gold for it. 
 It had been decided to resume specie payments ; and the 
 
 ' Tliis law is culled the liland-Allisou Act. From 1789 until 1873 only 
 8,000,000 silver dollars were coined. From 1878 until 1890 about 400, 
 000,000 silver dollars were coined. Most of them are still in the Treasury, 
 for the people do not find them as convenient as paper currency. 
 
468 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ['S79 
 
 gov'ernment was prepared, January i, 1879, to pay in 
 gold or silver any of its notes that were brought to it for 
 payment. But the notes were by this time equal in value 
 to gold, and more valuable than silver, so that most people 
 preferred to keep the paper money, on account of its 
 convenience. 
 
 814. Refunding w^as also accomplished during this 
 period. For a long time, a high rate of interest had been 
 paid on the public debt, so that the United States paid 
 between one hundred and one hundred and fifty million 
 dollars a year for interest. It was now so certain that 
 the debt would be paid, that men who had money to lend 
 were willing to lend it to the government at a lower rate 
 of interest. As fast as possible, new bonds were sold at 
 low interest, and the money was used to pay the old 
 bonds. The annual saving in interest w^as about $30,- 
 000,000. The total amount of the debt was now about 
 $2,000,000,000 (§ 825). 
 
 ( 3 ) Foreig>i Affairs . 
 
 815. Chinese Immigrants to the Pacific States had be- 
 come ver)^ numerous. They had been accustomed to live 
 far more meanly than white laborers had been used to do, 
 and could therefore work for less wages. White laborers 
 alleged that they had to bid for work at lower wages than 
 were needed to support themselves and their families. 
 The consequence was that there were riots, attacks on 
 the Chinese, and a general hatred of them in California. 
 In I 880, a treaty was made v.'ith China which allowed the 
 United States to stop Chinese immigration for a time 
 (§ 829). 
 
 (4) Political Affairs. 
 
 816. Congress and the President were often in conflict 
 during Hayes's administration. The Democrats generally 
 
iSSi] GARFIF.I.D /tND ARTHUR 4^9 
 
 controlled Congress, and the)' wished to repeal certain 
 laws Avhich had been passed by former Republican Con- 
 gresses. 'I'he repealing acts were vetoed by the Presi- 
 dent, and the majority in Congress was not large enough 
 to pass them over the veto (j< 469). The result was that 
 there was a great deal of excitement, and very little was 
 done. 
 
 817. In the Presidential Election of 1880 the Democrats 
 nominated Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, and 
 William H. English, of Indiana; and the Republicans 
 nominated James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. 
 Arthur, of New York. The result was the election of the 
 Republican candidates: they received 214 electoral votes 
 to I 55 for their opponents. The popular vote was nearly 
 equally divided. The National, or Greenback, party also 
 nominated candidates, but they received no electoral 
 votes. 
 
 (II) Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations: 188 i-s 
 
 James A. Gakfield, O., Pres. Chester A. Arthur, N. V., Vice-President and Pres. 
 
 818. Death of Garfield. — Garfield was inaugurated March 
 4, 1 881. Four months afterward (July 2), he was shot 
 and mortally wounded by a disappointed man whom he 
 had refused to appoint to office. After an illness of eighty 
 da)s, the President died (Sept. 19) at Elberon (near 
 Long Branch), New Jersey, to which place he had been 
 removed from Washington. Vice-President Arthur be- 
 came President at Garfield's death. Congress has since 
 (^ 831) provided that, in case of the death or disability of 
 both President and Vice-President, the members of the 
 Cabinet (§^ 296, 831) shall succeed to the Presidency, 
 in the order of the establishment of their offices. 
 
47° 
 
 ECONOMIC DE VEL OP MEN T 
 
 [1883 
 
 819. Civil - service Reform. — Since Jackson's time 
 (§ 467), every President had been expected to appoint 
 men to office because they had worked for his party, 
 rather than because they were good pubhc servants. 
 Garfield's death, whicli was a tragical result of this system 
 of appointment, brought a larger number of people to 
 think of the evils involved in it, and to call for a better 
 
 James A. Garfield. 
 
 CuEsiEK A. Arthur. 
 
 system. Congress (1883) accordingly passed the Civil- 
 service Act, allowing the President to select examiners, 
 and to make appointments on their examination and 
 recommendation of candidates. This method of appoint- 
 ment has been very successful in other countries ; and in 
 ours it has been applied to a steadily larger part of the 
 civil service by the Presidents who have succeeded Hayes. 
 It has also been adopted by some of our States and cities. 
 
i88i] GENERAL PROSPERITY 471 
 
 820. The Yorktown Celebration — The hundredth anni- 
 versary of Cornwalhs's surrender (J^ 261) was celebrated 
 at Yorktown in 1881. In order to show the country's 
 friendship for Great Britain, President Arthur ordered that 
 the celebration should end with a general salute to the 
 British flag-. 
 
 821. Natural Disasters. — Just after the Civil War, the 
 government had established a Weather Bureau, to give 
 warning by telegraph of the movements of storms. It 
 had been of great service ; but it could do nothing to 
 guard against such misfortunes as the overflow of the 
 Mississippi (§ 809), which drove 100,000 persons from 
 their homes in 1882, and the cyclones, or revolving wind- 
 storms, which do great damage every year in the South 
 and West. 
 
 822. The Mormons. — Congress passed a stringent law 
 in 1882, intended to put an end to polygamy among the 
 Mormons in Utah (§ 586). The practice of polygamy 
 thereafter decreased (^ 862). 
 
 823. The Cincinnati Riots. — The country was startled 
 in 1884 by a mob-outbreak in Cincinnati, which burned 
 the court-house and other public buildings, and kept con- 
 trol of the city for several days until dispersed by the 
 militia. It was then found that the reason for the mob's 
 existence was that justice had been badly executed and 
 criminals had escaped punishment. 
 
 824. General Prosperity. — The country had now fully 
 recovered from the panic of 1873 (§ 781). Work was 
 plenty for everybody, and agriculture, trade, and manu- 
 factures were flourishing. This was especially noticeable, 
 and for the first time, at the South. That section had 
 found free labor far more profitable than slave labor 
 (§ 597)- It'^ crops were very large; railroads were being 
 built in every direction; rich iron-mines were opened; 
 
472 ECONOMIC DEyELOPMENT ['^^^Z 
 
 and manufactures were appearing as they had never done 
 while the workmen were slaves. Successful expositions 
 at Atlanta (1881) and New Orleans (1884-5) showed the 
 great resources of the "New South," and its wonderful 
 advance since 1865. 
 
 825. The Tariff of 1883.— The payment of the debt had 
 gone on so rapidly that the debt was now only about half 
 as large as at the end of the Civil War. It was no longer 
 possible to use so much of the government revenues in 
 paying the debt, for bondholders who had consented to 
 take lower rates of interest (§ 814) had done so on the 
 government's promise not to pay off their bonds for a 
 number of years to come. It was then proposed to 
 decrease the duties on imports, in order to make the 
 government revenues smaller. For that purpose, a new 
 tariff was adopted by Congress, in 1883, on the report of 
 a Tariff Commission, composed of men familiar with the 
 subject. As it turned out, this new tariff made very little 
 reduction in the duties; and the Democrats in Congress 
 made another attempt to reduce them the next year. 
 This brought up the old question of Free Trade or Protec- 
 tion. Duties had been made high in 1861, partly to 
 obtain needed revenue, partly to encourage American 
 manufactures, which would pay new taxes ; and they had 
 not been decreased since. To decrease them now would 
 be to have less protection, and the Republicans and pro- 
 tectionist Democrats defeated the proposal to lower the 
 duties. The question of reducing the ' ' surplus revenue 
 then passed into the Presidential election. 
 
 826. Presidential Election of 1884. — The Republicans, 
 declaring in favor of protection, nominated for President 
 James G. Blaine, of Maine, and for Vice-President John 
 A. Logan, of Illinois. The Democrats, declaring in 
 favor of a reduction of the government's surplus revenue, 
 
i8$4] LEADING El/ENTS 473 
 
 but saying as little as possible about the general question 
 of free trade or protection, nominated Grover Cleveland, 
 of New York, and Thomas A. Hendricks, of Indiana. 
 The election was decided by the 36 electoral votes (§ 295) 
 of New York, which were cast for Cleveland and Hen- 
 dricks, and they were elected.^ 
 
 827. The Leading Events of the administrations of 
 Hayes, Garfield, and Arthur were as follows: 
 
 1S77-81 : Hayes's Term of Office. 
 
 1877 : Nez Perce war § 807 
 
 Raih-oad strikes 806 
 
 1878: Yellow-fever epidemic 808 
 
 Remonetization of silver 812 
 
 1879: Resumption of specie payments. ... 813 
 
 1880: Treaty with China 815 
 
 1881-5: Garfield's and Arthur's Terms of Office. 
 
 1881 : Death of President Garfield 818 
 
 Yice-President Arthur succeeds him. 818 
 
 Atlanta Exposition 824 
 
 Yorktown celebration 820 
 
 r882 : INIississippi floods 821 
 
 Anti-polygamy Act 822 
 
 Tariff Commission 825 
 
 1883 : New Tariff Act pas.sed 825 
 
 Civil-service Act passed 819 
 
 1884: Cincinnati riot 823 
 
 New Orleans Exposition 824 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. Restriction of Chinese immigration. 
 
 2. Practical benefits of civil-service reform. 
 
 3. River and harbor improvement by the national govern - 
 ment. 
 
 ^ The electoral votes were 219 for Cleveland and Hendricks and 182 for 
 Blaine and Logan. The Prohibition Party, aiming to prohibit the sale of 
 intoxicating liquors, nominated John P. St. John, of Kansas, and William 
 Daniel, of Maryland, and the former Greenback party (§ 797) nominated 
 Benj. F. Butler, of Massachusetts, and A. M. West, of Mississippi; but none 
 of these received any electoral votes. 
 
474 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT [1884 
 
 4. The pension system. 
 
 5. The education of the negro. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 The authorities remain as in Chapter XX. The works of 
 Garfield have been edited by Hinsdale; there is a biography by 
 W. O. Stoddard. 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 
 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON 
 
 (I) Cleveland's First Administration: 1885-9 
 
 Gkover Cleveland, N. Y., President T. A. HENDificKs, Ind., Vice-President. 
 
 828. The New President. — The country had not hitherto 
 seen so sudden a rise to prominence as the election of 
 Grover Cleveland as mayor 
 
 of Buffalo (188 I ), governor 
 of New York (1882), and 
 President of the United 
 States (1884). Muchofthis 
 rapid elevation had been 
 due to his fearlessness and 
 admitted integrity ; and the 
 circumstances of his admin- 
 istration were such as to 
 test both these qualities. 
 
 829. Labor Troubles. — 
 The wealth of the country 
 was increasing enormously, 
 and the number of rich men 
 was increasing with it. If 
 all their wealth should be 
 divided among their fellow 
 citizens, it would gi\'c ver\' 
 
 little tf) each; but tiie sight of their apparently easy and 
 pleasant lives was enough to persuade many workingmen 
 
 475 
 
 Ci.i-\i:i. \NJ '. 
 
476 CLEl^F.LAND AND HARRISON [1885 
 
 that they themselves • were working harder than was 
 necessary. Great numbers of them formed associations 
 which refused to work except for higher wages and shorter 
 hours, as they had a perfect right to do. But some of 
 them tried to keep other men from taking their places, 
 threatening, injuring, and in some cases killing them ; and 
 there was bad feeling when police protection was given to 
 the injured parties. Some employers made " blacklists " 
 of men whom they did not like ; and these men could 
 find employment nowhere. The early years of President 
 Cleveland's term were full of these " labor troubles," and 
 of efforts to make laws to settle them. Some rich em- 
 ployers brought large numbers of workmen from Europe 
 at very low wages ; and Congress passed a Contract 
 Labor Act, hoping to stop this practice, and a still 
 stronger act against Chinese immigration (§ 815). Some 
 violent men, called Anarchists, mostly from Europe, who 
 wished to destroy all government, made loud threats of 
 disorder, and rose in riot in Chicago. When they had 
 been put down, there were many proposals to check 
 immigration in some way, but they came to nothing. 
 
 830. The President's Policy. — President Cleveland had 
 a decided belief that there was a disposition to pass too 
 many acts of Congress, and to pass them too hastily; 
 and he had no fear of putting his belief in practice. He 
 vetoed a number of bills, particularly for special grants 
 of pensions, and thus made the opposition to him more 
 intense. He enforced the Civil-service Act (^^ 819), but 
 the old system of appointment continued as to many of 
 the offices to which that act did not apply; and for this 
 he was warmh' attacked. 
 
 831. The Presidential Succession. — Several important 
 changes, however, were made in regard to the office of 
 President. The Presidential Succession Act provided for 
 
1889] FOREIGN .-IND NAl^AL /Ih'h'AlRS 477 
 
 successors in case of the death of both President and 
 Vice-President (§ 818). The Presidential Election Act 
 provided for the settlement by the States of disputes as to 
 choice of electors, such as occurred in 1S76 (§ 799). 
 The Tenure of Office Act (§ 766) was repealed. 
 
 832. Interstate Commerce Act. — One of the most im- 
 portant laws passed was the Interstate Commerce Act 
 (1887), intended to prevent railroads which operated in 
 more than one State from charging unfair rates for their 
 services. Such practices were forbidden, and a commis- 
 sion of five persons was appointed to hear and try com- 
 plaints against any railroad disobeying the law. Each 
 State, however, continued to control the railroads operated 
 only within its own territory. 
 
 833. Ballot Reform. — During 1887 and 1888 promising 
 efforts began to be made in the different States to change 
 the method of voting to that which had been remarkably 
 successful in Australia, Great Britain, and other countries 
 in stopping bribery and interference with voters, and 
 securing an absolutely secret ballot. 
 
 834. Foreign and Naval Affairs. — A French company 
 had been digging a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, 
 while an American company proposed to dig another 
 across Nicaragua. It was felt by many Americans that 
 the United States ought to have control of the successful 
 canal, as an important route for commerce between cur 
 Atlantic and Pacific coasts ; and yet other nations would 
 not take this kindly. The French company, however, 
 proved a failure, and it broke down in the midst of its 
 work (1889). There were also disputes with Great Britain 
 about the right of American fishermen to buy ice and bait in 
 Canadian ports, and with Germany about a group of islands 
 in the Pacific called Samoa (§ 894). All these misunder- 
 standings were settled peacefully, but they led to the 
 
478 CLEl/ELAND ^ND HARRISON [1887 
 
 appropriation of large sums for the construction of im- 
 proved and more powerful and swift ironclads for the navy. 
 
 835.* New States. —Four new States were admitted to 
 the Union in 1889: North Dakota, South Dakota, Mon- 
 tana, and Washington. The addition of Wyoming and 
 Idaho in 1890 made the number of States forty-four. 
 None of these States had considerable populations, and 
 political and party influences had much to do with deter- 
 mining their admission. 
 
 836. The Tariff and the Surplus.— By this time the in- 
 ternal-revenue taxes (§ 691 ) had been gradually abolished, 
 with the exception of the taxes on tobacco and intoxicat- 
 ing liquors. The "surplus" was growing larger, for 
 the national revenue was increasing, while the need for 
 money was decreasing. The tariff of 1883 had made 
 but a slight reduction in the duties, and the growing 
 " surplus " brought the question up again. It may seem 
 a good thing for a government to have so large an amount 
 of money to its credit as was then lying unused in the 
 Treasury,^ but it was really a bad thing, for many reasons. 
 This surplus, though a very small part of the country's 
 wealth, was a very large part of its money; and the 
 country needs all its money to carry on its business. To 
 lock up part of the country's money in idleness is to 
 hinder just so much of the country's business, and give 
 every one just so much less work and wealth. And, 
 further, so much idle money in the Treasury is a constant 
 temptation to Congress to spend it wastefully and extrava- 
 gantly, and keep up the taxation. The two parties were 
 therefore compelled to consider ways of reducing taxation. 
 The Democrats wished to reduce the tariff duties : the 
 protected manufacturers declared that this would ruin 
 
 • In December, 1887, the Secretary of the Treasury estimated the surplus 
 for the year at $113,000,000. 
 
1 888] THE MILLS BILL 479 
 
 thcni, and the Republicans upheld the view of the manu- 
 facturers. 
 
 837. Cleveland's Message. — When Congress met in 
 December, 1887, the Secretary of the Treasury reported 
 to the President that, if the withdrawal of money from 
 business into the Treasury should continue, the result 
 would be a panic (^ 485)- The President therefore con- 
 fined his annual message to an appeal to Congress to 
 reduce the duties on imported goods, as the only advisable 
 method of decreasing the revenue and the surplus. This 
 brought up again the old issue of free trade (or a revenue 
 tariff) against protection (§ 425). 
 
 838. The Trusts. —The interest in the matter was in- 
 creased by a new feature in business management about 
 this time. Corporations are bodies of men united under 
 control of law so that they can sue and be sued in the 
 courts. Some of these corporations began to unite into 
 "trusts," for which there was no law. It was asserted 
 that they kept prices high, and were aided in so doing by 
 the tariff, which kept out foreign goods. 
 
 839. The Mills Bill. — The Democrats, who had a small 
 majority in the House of Representatives, brought in a 
 bill to reduce the duties on imports: it was called the 
 Mills bill, from the name of its author. A few of the 
 Democratic Congressmen were protectionists, and it was 
 only after nearly six months of argument that they con- 
 sented to support the Mills bill, which was then passed 
 by the House, but was lost in the Senate, where the 
 Republicans had a majority. 
 
 840. The Presidential Election (1888). — In the midst of 
 the discussion, nominations for the Presidential election 
 of 1888 were made by both parties. President Cleveland 
 was renominated by the Democrats, with Allan G. Thur- 
 man, of Ohio, for Vice-President. The Republicans, 
 
48o 
 
 CLBl/ELAND AND HARRISON 
 
 [1SS9 
 
 supporting protection more warmly than ever, nominated 
 Benjamin Harrison, of Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of 
 New York. The 36 electoral votes of New York again 
 decided the election (§ 826), and elected Harrison and 
 Morton. This completed the first century of the republic 
 under the Constitution (§ 294).^ 
 
 (II) Harrisons Administration: 1889-93 
 
 Benjamin Haruison, Ind., President. Levi F. Mokton, N. Y., Vice-President. 
 
 841. The Struggle over the Rules. — When Congress met 
 in December, 1889, it was proposed in the House of 
 
 Representatives, where 
 the Republican majority 
 w^as small, to change the 
 rules governing the 
 House, so as to prevent 
 dilatory motions and ex- 
 pedite business. Pre- 
 viously it had been possi- 
 ble for members to defer 
 action on a measure by a 
 policy of dela}^ known as 
 fililnistcri)ig, which con- 
 sisted essentially either in 
 making irrelevant motions 
 which took precedence of 
 the pending business, or 
 in simply refraining from 
 answering to their names 
 when the roll was called, 
 of the members answered to their 
 
 Benjamin Harrison. 
 
 Unless a majority 
 
 1 The electoral votes were 233 for Harrison ami Morton to 168 for Cleve- 
 land and Thurinan. The Pr<;hibition candidates, Clinton B. Fisk, of New 
 Jersey, and John A. Brooks, of Missouri, received no electoral votes, 
 
1890] THE McKINLRY TARIFF 481 
 
 names, the progress of business was temporarily suspended 
 until a majority of the whole House answered to the roll- 
 call. Both parties in the past had resorted to this plan 
 of delaying action, and had claimed that such delay was 
 a right to which the minority was entitled in order to 
 prevent hast}' and ill-considered legislation on the part of 
 the majority. The proposed change in the rules allowed 
 the Speaker to count as helping to make a quorum mem- 
 bers who were present but who did not answer to the roll, 
 and also authorized him to disregard dilatory motions. 
 After an angry debate, the new rules were adopted. 
 
 842. The McKinley Tariff Act.— The Presidential elec- 
 tion had turned upon the principle of protection. The 
 Republicans had been completely victorious, and had 
 elected the President and a majority in both branches of 
 Congress. In his first message to Congress, President 
 Harrison recommended the maintenance of the protective 
 policy. Accordingly, in April, 1890, Mr. McKinley of 
 Ohio introduced in the House a tariff bill which sought 
 at the same time to maintain the protective system and to 
 reduce the revenues of the Federal Government, which 
 were then in excess of its expenditures. The bill laid 
 high duties on foreign goods which came into competition 
 with home products, and put on the free list many goods 
 which were produced exclusively abroad. In the Senate 
 the bill was so amended as to embrace the principle 
 of reciprocity. This form of reciprocity consisted in 
 authorizing the President to impose duties on certain 
 goods imported free from other countries, in case those 
 countries imposed duties "reciprocally unequal and un- 
 reasonable " upon certain of our exports to them. In 
 this amended form the bill became law. 
 
 843. Silver Legislation. — There were many in Congress 
 who were dissatisfied with the law of 1878 (^^ 8ii, 812), 
 
482 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1891 
 
 which authorized a monthly purchase of silver by the 
 government. They claimed that any owner of silver 
 bullion ought to be allowed to take the metal to the mint 
 and have it coined into dollars, each dollar to contain 
 37 ^i grains of pure silver and to be a legal tender in 
 payment of debts. Such a law, they claimed, would 
 make the silver dollar exchange in the bullion market for 
 the gold dollar. As the outcome of this feeling the 
 Bland- Allison law (§ 812) was repealed; and as a com- 
 promise, and in the line of further concession to the 
 advocates of the more extended use of silver, a law was 
 passed which required the government to buy each month, 
 at the market price, 4,500,000 ounces of silver. The law 
 further provided that for every gold dollar's worth of silver 
 so purchased an equivalent amount in treasury notes of 
 the United States should be issued and that these notes 
 should be a legal tender in payment of debt. The effect 
 of the law was to increase the money in circulation by 
 about $50,000,000 annually. It failed, however, to raise 
 the price of silver, or even to maintain the price at its 
 former level. ^ 
 
 844. Increased Expenditures by Congress. — There was at 
 this time a very noticeable increase in the appropriations 
 of money made by Congress. Many people were alarmed 
 at what seemed to them the sudden and undue extrava- 
 gance on the part of their representatives at Washington. 
 President Harrison in his first message to Congress had 
 advocated a more liberal expenditure upon pensions to 
 the former soldiers of the Union. In accordance with 
 this suggestion the Dependent Pension Bill was passed 
 by Congress. This increased very materially the number 
 
 ' This law was popularly called the Sherman law, because Senator 
 Sherman, although an opponent of the free coinage of silver, was the chair- 
 man of the committee which reported the bill in its final form to the Senate. 
 
1893] THE COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 483 
 
 of those entitled to pensions, and made it much easier to 
 secure pensions than it had been hitherto. The effect 
 of this hiw has been rapidlx' to increase the expenditure 
 upon pensions luitil now the annual pension bill is b}- far 
 the largest single charge upon the national treasury. 
 Besitles this, heavy appropriations were made to increase 
 the navy and to refund a tax which had been levied on 
 the loyal States during the Civil War. The Fifty-first 
 Congress spent more than its predecessor by $170,000,- 
 000, and the heavier rate of expenditure has been since 
 maintained. 
 
 845. The World's Fair at Chicago. — In the early part of 
 1890 Chicago was designated by Congress as the site of 
 the Columbian Exposition, which was to be held in cele- 
 bration of the four-hundredth anniversary of the discovery 
 of America by Columbus (§ 6); moreover, a commission 
 was appointed to supervise the enterprise. In December, 
 1890, the President issued a proclamation inviting all 
 nations to take part in the exposition. The great foir was 
 formally opened May i, 1893, and closed October 30, 
 1893. 
 
 846." Oklahoma. —In 1890, the same year in which 
 Idaho and Wyoming were admitted as States, a part of 
 the Indian Territory was organized as the Territory of 
 Oklahoma. The country was opened to settlement by 
 IM'oclamation of the President, and on Sept. 22, 1891, 
 some sixty thousand immigrants swarmed in and took 
 possession of the fertile farming land. 
 
 847. The Eleventh Census. — The final count as given by 
 the Eleventh Census made the population of the United 
 States on June i, 1890 (exclusive of Alaska, the whites 
 in the Indian Territory, and Indians on reservations), 
 62,622,250. The actual total was not far from 63,000,- 
 000. Several facts of importance were made known by 
 
484 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1891 
 
 the census. First, while the population was increasing, 
 it was not increasing as rapidly as formerly. Between 
 1870 and 1880 the increase was thirty per cent; from 
 1880 to 1890 it was less than twenty-five per cent. 
 Second, it is a noteworthy fact that the rate of increase 
 among the colored population in the South was shown to 
 be markedly less than among the white population in the 
 same States. While the negroes increased in the last 
 decade less than fourteen per cent, the whites in the same 
 States increased twenty-five per cent. Third, the 
 geographical centre of population was in southern Indiana, 
 though it is moving slowly but surely toward the 
 Mississippi River. 
 
 848. Foreign Affairs. — The administration of President 
 Harrison was marked by a number of complications with 
 foreign powers, some of which seemed at times to render 
 war not impossible. A long-standing wrong to foreigners 
 was redressed when Congress passed the International 
 Copyright Act, which secured their property in their 
 literary productions, provided certain conditions were first 
 complied with. The continued agitation of the question 
 of silver led to the calling of an International Monetary 
 Conference at Brussels, in December, 1892, to secure 
 some international co-operation in regard to the use of 
 silver as a money metal ; but the effort proved unavailing. 
 With England we had a dispute as to our respective 
 rights in the waters of Bering Sea, off the coast of Alaska, 
 where our vessels and those of Canada were engaged in 
 taking seals. In June, 1891, both nations agreed to 
 declare a close season, to have English and American 
 ships jointly patrol these waters, and to submit the dis- 
 puted points to an international commission for arbitration. 
 
 849. New Orleans Riot. — On March 14, 1891, there was 
 a riot in New Orleans in which eleven i^ersons of Italian 
 
1^9 2] FOREIGN RELATIONS 485 
 
 birth were taken from jail and lianged. It was alleg-cd 
 that tlie}' belont^'^ed to a secret, oath-bound association 
 which had perpetrated certain crimes, and which had 
 attempted to shield certain of their number from the pun- 
 ishment which the law denounced against the crimes so 
 committed. The Federal Government expressed to Italy- 
 its deep regret at the occurrence, but disclaimed all 
 responsibility for the affair. It was proved that most of 
 the unfortunates were naturalized American citizens. On 
 behalf of the others Italy demanded reparation in money, 
 and a pledge that those engaged in the mob's undertak- 
 ing should be tried for their crime. This promise the 
 Federal Government was unable to give, whereupon the 
 Italian minister left Washington. The matter was finally 
 settled by the payment to Italy of $25,000 as an in- 
 demnity to the families of the dead Italian citizens, and 
 as a token of our good will to the Italian people. 
 
 850. Chili. — October 16, 1891, a number of American 
 sailors from the United States ship Baltimore, while 
 wearing the uniform of the American navy, were assaulted 
 by a mob in Valparaiso, Chili, and were badly maltreated, 
 one being killed outright. The demands of our govern- 
 ment for an apology and reparation were practically 
 ignored until the President in January, 1892, made a 
 peremptory demand upon Chili, to which that country 
 promptly acceded, offering a money indemnity, which 
 was accepted. 
 
 851. Chinese Exclusion. — The efforts which had been 
 made to exclude the Chinese from the United States 
 (§§ 815, 829) culminated in a law passed in the spring of 
 1892 which prohibited Chinese immigration for a further 
 period of ten years, and required Chinese residents already 
 in this country to provide themselves, under heavy 
 penalties, with certificates of residence. 
 
4S6 CLEyBMND AND HARRISON [1S93 
 
 852. Hawaii. — The Hawaiian Islands were formerly a 
 constitutional monarchy with a queen at their head. The 
 queen, Liliuokalani, had threatened to abolish the con- 
 stitution and to take more power into her own hands. 
 This threat was followed in January, 1893, by a revolu- 
 tion which set up a provisional government and declared 
 the monarchy at an end. The minister of the United 
 States landed a number of marines from an American 
 war-ship in the harbor of Honolulu. His avowed object 
 was the protection of the property of American residents. 
 The queen declared that the forces of the United States 
 were employed really to aid the revolutionists. She pro- 
 tested against the acts of the provisional government, and 
 declared that she yielded only to the superior force of the 
 United States. On February i, 1893, Minister Stevens 
 raised the flag of the United States over the islands, and 
 established a protectorate by which the islands were tem- 
 porarily in the status of a colony. A treaty of annexation 
 was submitted to the Senate, but was speedily withdrawn 
 by President Harrison's successor, and the protectorate 
 came to an end in April, 1893. 
 
 853. Labor Difficulties. — The strife between employer 
 and employee broke out with violence in the summer of 
 1892. The Carnegie Company at Homestead, Pa., in 
 order to protect their property against violence on the 
 part of striking workmen, employed a number of Pinker- 
 ton detectives and moved them up the Monongahela 
 River in barges, intending to land them at the works. 
 A battle ensued between the detectives on the barges and 
 the workmen on the river-banks, in which 7 detectives 
 and II of their opponents were killed. The militia were 
 ordered to the scene, and for a wliile the district was 
 placed under martial law. This conflict, with other riots, 
 especially in western New York, drew general attention 
 
1892] RE-ELHCTION OF CLEVELAND 4^7 
 
 to the g^ravity of the question. While lawlessness and 
 disorder must be repressed by armed force if necessary, 
 it was becoming increasingly clear that some different 
 and more peaceful method of settling these disputes must 
 eventually be found. 
 
 854. Presidential Election of 1892. — The election of 
 1892 again centred about the question of protection. 
 The political problems which were the legacy of the Civil 
 War had almost entirely given place to problems of an 
 economic nature. In the earlier part of this administra- 
 tion, the Republicans attempted to pass an election law 
 providing for federal supervisors at the polls. It was 
 aimed especially at some of the Southern States, where, 
 it was alleged, voters were intimidated. Certain Repub- 
 lican Senators from the Western States, deeming the 
 co-operation of Southern Senators in the struggle for 
 silver of more importance than this election law (the 
 so-called Force Bill), were apathetic in their support of 
 the measure, and the bill failed to become law. Business 
 interests had become more important than former political 
 issues. In the Presidential campaign of 1892 the Repub- 
 licans forcibly reaffirmed the doctrine of protection, and 
 renominated President Harrison for President, and White- 
 law Reid, of New York, for Vice-President. The 
 Democrats as emphatically denounced the protective 
 policy, and again nominated Grover Cleveland for Presi- 
 dent, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois, for Vice- 
 President. The People's party, the successor of the 
 Greenback or National party (§ 817), declared in favor of 
 the free coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, state 
 control of railroads, and state loans to the farming class. 
 The nominees of the People's party were General James 
 B. Weaver, of Iowa, for President, and James G. Field, 
 of Virginia, for Vice-President. The Prohibition party 
 
488 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1893 
 
 (§ 840) again put candidates in the field — John Bidwell, 
 of CaHfornia, for President, and James B. CranfiU, of 
 Texas, for Vice-President. The election resulted in a 
 sweeping victory for the Democrats. The Democrats at 
 the same time gained control of both branches of Con- 
 gress.^ 
 
 (Ill) Cleveland's Second Adminlstration: 1893-7 
 
 Grover Cleveland, N. Y., President. Adlai E. Stevenson, IlL, Vice-President. 
 
 855. The Industrial Depression. — The Democrats had 
 won a decided victory in the Presidential election of 1892 ; 
 and as they had a majority in Congress, they were pre- 
 pared speedily to revise the tariff and lower the duties on 
 imports. A severe business crisis beginning in May, 
 1893, compelled them, however, first of all to attend to 
 financial measures. The panic among business men came 
 very suddenly. During the summer of 1 893 banks and 
 many business houses failed daily, money was hoarded and 
 became abnormally scarce, factories were shut down, and 
 thousands of workmen were thrown out of employment. 
 P^vcn the brilliant success of the World's Fair at Chicago 
 (§ 845) was not sufficient to remove the gloomy appre- 
 hensions prevalent among the people generally. The 
 President called Congress to meet in special session on 
 August 7, and urged upon that body the necessity of 
 speedily passing laws to remove the fear and distrust felt 
 in business circles. He pointed out in particular the 
 necessity for the immediate repeal of portions of the 
 Sherman law (§ 843). 
 
 1 Cleveland and Stevenson obtained 277 of the 444 electoral votes. Of the 
 popular vote no ticket received a clear majority, over a million votes being 
 cast for the candidates of the People's party, which controlled 22 votes in 
 the electoral college, the remaining 145 going to the Republican candidates. 
 
1893] REPEAL OF THE SHERMAN LAW 489 
 
 856. The Repeal of the Sherman Law. — There were con- 
 flicting opinions as to the cause of the troubles in business, 
 but there was a tolerably general agreement upon the 
 necessity for the repeal of the law requiring the purchase 
 of silver (§ 843). The government gave its notes for the 
 silver which it got under this law. These notes circulated 
 as money, and their holders could exchange them for coin 
 at the United States Treasury. The Treasury officials 
 felt obliged to give gold coin in exchange for these notes 
 when asked to do so. Thus the monthly purchases of 
 silver resulted in putting out a number of notes, many of 
 which were ultimately presented for payment in gold coin. 
 In this and in other ways the stock of gold coin at the 
 disposal of the Treasury was being depleted, and there 
 were fears that if the process continued the government 
 could not continue to redeem its notes in gold. More- 
 over, the silver which had been obtained was not available 
 for redeeming these notes, so long as the note-holders 
 preferred gold, and so long as the Treasury continued to 
 redeem the notes in gold. It also happened that the 
 value of the silver in the government's vaults suddenly 
 fell, upon the announcement, on June 26, that thereafter 
 the owners of silver in British India could not have that 
 metal coined into money. Under the pressure of public 
 opinion, the House of Representatives speedily repealed 
 the silver-purchase clause of the Sherman law on August 
 28. The debate in the Senate was long and wearisome, 
 but on November i the Senate voted for repeal. The 
 intensity of the business crisis had by this time consider- 
 ably abated, but industry showed few signs of reviving, 
 and an era of hard times set in. 
 
 857. Bond Issues. — The government's promises, or 
 notes, are used very generally as a substitute for coin in 
 buying and selling. A dollar bill is thus in reality noth- 
 
490 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1894 
 
 mg but the g-overnment's pledge to give to the holder of 
 the bill a dollar coin. Only such coins are " dollars " in 
 fact. In order to make these promises good, the govern- 
 ment has to keep on hand a stock of coin. The stock of 
 gold coin (§ 856) was getting very low when the Secretary 
 of the Treasury decided, in January, 1894, to replenish it 
 by selling the bonds of the government for gold. When 
 governments need more money than they can get im- 
 mediately by taxing the people, they frequently borrow 
 money and give the lender a bond. Such a bond, when 
 issued by our government, is the government's promise 
 to pay a certain amount of money every year to the lender 
 or bond-owner as interest upon the loan, until finally the 
 principal of the loan also is repaid. The amounts thus 
 promised the bondholders are obtained from the taxes to 
 be raised in the future. Thus the issue of bonds makes 
 taxes heavier in the future, and is a wise policy only when 
 the immediate need for more revenue is very urgent. 
 While the sale of bonds was due in the first place to the 
 necessity of getting an ample stock of coin to redeem the 
 government's notes, the money obtained from the sale 
 of bonds was used in part to pay some of the ordinary 
 expenses of running the government, inasmuch as the 
 revenue from taxes had fallen off. There were subse- 
 quent sales of bonds on three occasions (November, 1 894, 
 February, 1895, January, 1896), and thus the nation's 
 debt was increased by over $262,000,000. The gold 
 obtained in exchange for the bonds enabled the Treasury 
 to continue to redeem its notes in gold, but the increase 
 thus caused in the national debt made the bond sales very 
 unpopular in many sections, while most of those who 
 believed in the policy of redeeming government notes in 
 gold regarded the bond sales as necessary under the cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
1S94I THE GREAT RAILROAD STRIKE 491 
 
 858. The Great Railroad Strike. — The strife between 
 employer and employee (§g 829, 853) in the early part of 
 1894 gave rise to several memorable contests, which in 
 the summer culminated in tlie railroad strike centring in 
 Chicago. In May the workmen in the shops at Pullman, 
 near Chicago, demanded higher wages, which were re- 
 fused, whereupon they stopped work. In order to aid 
 the I'ullman workmen, the American Railway Union, an 
 organization of railroad employees, threatened to with- 
 draw their members from the service of the companies 
 running Pullman cars unless the employers at Pullman 
 consented to arbitrate with their workmen. This threat 
 was not heeded; and the American Railway Union, 
 aided by other labor organizations, began a contest with 
 the railroad companies to whose trains Pullman cars were 
 attached. The contest thus resolved itself into a struggle 
 between the General Managers' Association at Chicago 
 on the one side, who controlled the railroad interests, and 
 the various labor organizations engaging in the strike on 
 the other side. By the end of June the railway traffic 
 which centred in Chicago, and especially traffic on the 
 lines west of Chicago, was paralyzed. Trains were 
 forcibly stopped, Pullman coaches were detached by 
 mobs, and much railroad property was destroyed. This 
 forcible interference with trains delayed the mails, which 
 are under control of the Federal Government. As the 
 United States marshals could not afford the needed pro- 
 tection to the mail trains, a part of the regular army was 
 despatched to the scene of disorder. Only after the 
 appearance of these forces was rioting checked and peace 
 restored. 
 
 859. The Wilson Bill. — In accordance with the pro- 
 gramme outlined by the Democrats in the Presidential 
 election (§ 854), there was introduced into Congress in 
 
492 CLEVELAhlD AND HARRISON [1894 
 
 the closing days of 1893 a tariff measure, called from its 
 author the Wilson bill, which reduced the rates of duty 
 upon many imports and largely abolished duties on raw 
 material brought in from abroad. There was afterward 
 added to the measure a proposal to tax incomes, and in 
 this form the bill was adopted by the House of Repre- 
 sentatives, and was sent to the Senate. The Senate 
 proceeded to modify many sections of the House measure, 
 and made smaller reductions in existing duties than had 
 been contemplated in the original bill. In this modified 
 form the bill passed the Senate on July 3, 1894. The 
 House refused to accede to the changes proposed by the 
 Senate, and for a time it looked as though no new tariff 
 measure might be passed. In the struggle between the 
 two bodies the President expressed his sympathy with the 
 House as against the Senate. Finally, on August 13, 
 the House reluctantly acceded to the bill in the form in 
 which it had passed the Senate, and ten days thereafter 
 it became law without the signature of the President, who 
 chose thus, by withholding his signature, to express his 
 disapproval of the action of certain Democratic Senators, 
 The bill as passed removed all duty from the imports of 
 raw wool, but still imposed duties on many other raw 
 materials. The House, after accepting the changes made 
 in the measure by the Senate, immediately passed acts 
 which put many of these raw materials on the list free of 
 duty, but these bills failed to pass the Senate. 
 
 860. The Income-tax Decision. — The struggle over the 
 tariff measure had already stirred up much ill feeling 
 among the Democrats. The various financial measures 
 continually debated in Congress, as well as the policy of 
 the Treasury (§ 857), tended also rapidly to create two 
 distinct factions within the party, when in the spring of 
 1 895 the Supreme Court rendered a decision which 
 
1S95] THH yENEZUELA DISPUTE 493 
 
 abolished the income tax (g 859), the f^ivorite device of 
 one win<j of the party, and the hist financial reliance of 
 the other winq-. The income tax had been grafted upon 
 the original Wilson bill (§ 859) at the demand of many 
 of the Southern and Western Democrats in Congress, who 
 thought that such a tax would apportion the burden of 
 Federal taxation more justly than heretofore. In a law- 
 suit which had been appealed to the Supreme Court 
 (§ 283), that tribunal decided that the income tax pro- 
 vision of the Wilson bill was not constitutional. The 
 Constitution gives certain powers to Congress, and in 
 some cases prescribes how such powers are to be exer- 
 cised. In case the Supreme Court decides that a law 
 passed by Congress violates a provision of the Constitu- 
 tion, the law ceases to exist. This was the case with the 
 income tax. The Treasury was thus cut off from 
 obtaining very considerable amounts of money which it 
 had counted upon receiving, and was forced to sell bonds 
 
 (b^ 857)- 
 
 861. The Venezuela Dispute. — The country was startled 
 on Dec. 17, 1895, by a special message sent by the 
 President to Congress upon Great Britain's refusal to 
 arbitrate certain disputed points with Venezuela. The 
 territory of British Guiana in South America is contiguous 
 to Venezuela, and the boundary line between the two 
 countries had long been in dispute. British subjects occu- 
 pied certain lands claimed by Venezuela, and Great 
 Britain refused to submit to arbitration the question of the 
 rightful ownership of the territory in c^uestion. The 
 United States insisted that Great Britain should submit 
 these territorial claims to arbitration, and based its demand 
 upon the Monroe Doctrine (§§ 420, 695, 770). As this 
 demand by the United States had been refused, the Presi- 
 dent suggested the creation of a commission to determine 
 
494 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1896 
 
 the true divisional line, and asserted the necessity of resist- 
 ing by every means in our power the future occupation or 
 control by Great Britain of an)' territor)' \\hich the com- 
 mission might determine belonged of right to Venezuela. 
 The implied possibility of war with England caused deep 
 excitement, and great commotion in commercial circles. 
 Congress authorized the President to name the commis- 
 sion, which when duly appointed began its investigation. 
 Meanwhile diplomatic negotiations between the govern- 
 ments of the United States and Great Britain continued, 
 and resulted finally, in November, 1896, in the draft of a 
 treaty between Venezuela and Great Britain for the settle- 
 ment of the question. An impartial tribunal was to be 
 named, and was to decide upon the true boundary, but it 
 was agreed that fifty years' continuous holding of disputed 
 territory by settlers sliould constitute a valid title to terri- 
 tory so occupied. Upon the conclusion of this treaty, the 
 Venezuelan Commission of the United States determined 
 not to render a decision upon the location of the true 
 boundary line, and ceased their investigation. The 
 tribunal rendered its decision in 1899, and sustained the 
 main contentions of Great Britain. 
 
 862. Utah was admitted into the Union in 1896. It 
 had been organized as a Territory in 1850 (§ 555), and 
 became the final seat of the Mormons (§ 822). In 1893 
 a bill to admit Utah as a State passed the House of 
 Representatives. The committee reporting the bill 
 declared that polygamy was virtually suppressed and that 
 there need be no fear of its revival. The bill passed the 
 Senate July 10, 1894, and the State became a member of 
 the Union in January, 1896. 
 
 863. Cuba. — In February, 1894, there began in the 
 Island of Cuba a rebellion against Spain, which owned the 
 island and governed it liarshly. Much sympathy was felt 
 
1897] aVIL-SERyiCE REFORM 495 
 
 in the United States for the insuri^ents, and fihbustering 
 expeditions were fitted out in the United States or off its 
 coasts to aid the rebelHon. These efforts were unlawful, 
 and were suppressed where possible by the Federal 
 officials. War between the United States and Spain 
 seemed not unlikely. Both Houses of Congress, early in 
 1896, declared in favor of recognizing the struggle to be 
 a revolutionar}^ war rather than a mere insurrection. On 
 July 30 the President issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
 warning all persons against unlawfully making war on the 
 Spanish forces in Cuba. In December, 1896, it looked 
 for a time as though Congress might pass resolutions pur- 
 porting to recognize the independence of Cuba. At this 
 juncture the Secretary of State, Richard Olney, declared 
 publicly that the power to recognize an independent state 
 rested exclusively with the President, and announced, 
 with thinly veiled contempt, that the resolution pending 
 in the Senate, if passed, w^ould be only "an expression 
 of opinion by the eminent gentlemen who might vote for 
 it. ' ' The resolution never came to a vote, and the danger 
 of war with Spain for a time diminished. 
 
 864. Extension of the Merit System.- — There are two 
 theories held about appointment to ordinary positions 
 under the government. One theory is that public offices 
 are rewards for political work, and should be given to 
 useful party men. This is the "spoils system." The 
 other theory is that public offices are positions which 
 should be filled by the most capable men, irrespective of 
 their political leanings, and that where there are numerous 
 applicants for office, fitness should be determined by busi- 
 ness tests. This is the "merit system," which was 
 largely extended by President Cleveland by an order of 
 May 6, 1896, whereby 30,000 additional positions were 
 put under the merit system. 
 
496 CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1896 
 
 865. The Presidential Campaign. — The Presidential elec- 
 tion of 1896 was one of the most memorable political 
 contests in our history. The hard times had given rise 
 to great discontent, and many people advocated the free 
 coinage of silver as the remedy for the business depres- 
 sion. The "silver question" thus became the issue of 
 the hour, and the tariff was little discussed. Advocates 
 of the free coinage of silver were at first to be found in 
 both of the great parties. In the Republican nominating 
 convention at St. Louis a small party of silver men 
 "bolted," that is, left the organization, inasmuch as the 
 convention declared against the free coinage of silver 
 unless by arrangement with other nations. William 
 McKinley, of Ohio (§ 842), was nominated for President, 
 and Garret A. Hobart, of New Jersey, for Vice-President. 
 The advocates of the free coinage of silver were relatively 
 more numerous in the Democratic party than in the 
 Republican ranks. The Democratic convention at Chicago 
 therefore declared for the free coinage of silver at the 
 ratio of 16 to i, without "waiting for the aid or consent 
 of any other nation," and nominated William J. Bryan, 
 of Nebraska, for President, and Arthur Sewall, of Maine, 
 for Vice-President. The People's party (§ 854), or Popu- 
 lists, approved of free silver coinage, and nominated Mr. 
 Bryan for President, and Thomas E. Watson, of Georgia, 
 for Vice-President. Many Democrats, especially in the 
 East and central West, who were opposed to the Chicago 
 platform, held an independent convention at Indianapolis 
 in September. Here they declared against the free 
 coinage of silver, indorsed the administration of President 
 Cleveland (whose financial policy had been repudiated 
 by the Chicago convention), and named General John 
 M. Palmer, of Illinois, and General Simon B. Buckner, of 
 
1S96] THll ARBITRATION TREATY 497 
 
 Kcntuck}', for I'rcsidcnt and Vice-President, respectively. 
 The Prohibitionists and the SociaHst Labor party also put 
 tickets in the field. 
 
 866. The Election of 1896. — The struggle centred around 
 the silver issue, and after certain combination tickets had 
 been arranged between the Populists and the Democrats, 
 it became plain that either McKinley or Bryan must be 
 elected. At the end of an exciting campaign, one of 
 whose features was the breaking up of the exclusive 
 Democratic sway in the Southern States (§ 802), McKinley 
 and Hobart were elected. The Republican candidates 
 obtained a large popular majority, and 271 out of the 447 
 electoral votes. 
 
 867. The Arbitration Treaty. — Toward the close of his 
 term of office President Cleveland sent to the Senate, 
 with his approval, a general treaty of arbitration with 
 Great Britain. In 1890 Congress by unanimous vote had 
 requested the President to open negotiations for this pur- 
 pose with all nations. The purpose of this proposed 
 treaty with Great Britain was to provide courts or tribunals 
 to settle differences which might arise between the two 
 nations, in case a settlement of such differences could not 
 be reached by ordinary diplomatic processes. The exist- 
 ence of such an arrangement, it was felt, would be an 
 additional guarantee of peace between the two great 
 English-speaking nations, and would tend to substitute 
 for the barbarous expedient of war and carnage a peace- 
 ful, reasonable, and Christian method of deciding inter- 
 national quarrels. The treaty was rejected by the Senate 
 shortly after at the expiration of President Cleveland's 
 term of office. 
 
 868. The Leading Events of the administrations of 
 Cleveland and Harrison were as follows : 
 
49^ CLEVELAND AND HARRISON [1S85-96 
 
 1885-9: Cleveland's First Term of Office. 
 
 1885 : " Labor troubles " began § 829 
 
 Contract Labor Act 829 
 
 1886: Presidential Succession Act 831 
 
 1887: Canadian fisheries dispute 834 
 
 Interstate Commerce Act 832 
 
 Presidential Election Act 831 
 
 Tenure of Office Act repealed 831 
 
 Anarchist riot at Chicago 829 
 
 1888 : Four new States admitted 835 
 
 Chinese Immigration Act 829 
 
 1889: Panama Canal Company fails 834 
 
 Samoan dispute 834 
 
 Election of Harrison 840 
 
 End of the first century under the 
 
 Constitution 840 
 
 1889-93 : Harrison's Term of Office. 
 
 1889: Struggle over the rules 841 
 
 1890: Chicago designated as tlie site of the 
 
 World's Fair 845 
 
 Dependent Pension Bill passed 844 
 
 Idaho admitted 846 
 
 * Wyoming admitted . „ 846 
 
 The Silver Law passed 843 
 
 The JMcKinley Tariff 842 
 
 1891 : Close season declared in leering Sea.. 848 
 
 Riot in New Orleans 849 
 
 Riot in Valparaiso, Chili 850 
 
 1892: Chinese Exclusion Act passed 851 
 
 Homestead riots 853 
 
 Presidential election 854 
 
 1893 : Revolution in Hawaii 852 
 
 1893-7: Cleveland's Second Term of Office. 
 
 1893: Industrial depression 855 
 
 World's Fair at Chicag(^ 855 
 
 Repeal of the Sherman Law 856 
 
 1894 : First bond issue 857 
 
 Railroad strike 858 
 
 Wilson Bill passed 859 
 
 1895 : Income Tax decision 860 
 
 Venezuelan Message 861 
 
 1896: Utah admitted 862 
 
1S96-7J SUrPU:M[:NTARY READING 499 
 
 1896 : Cuban question § 863 
 
 The merit system extended 111 the 
 
 civil service 864 
 
 Presidential election 865 
 
 1897: Arbitration treaty negotiated 867 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. Early plans for an isthmian canal. 
 
 2. The secret ballot laws of a particular State {e.g., Massa- 
 chusetts). 
 
 3. The powers and duties of the Speaker. 
 
 4. The Venezuelan question and the Monroe doctrine. 
 
 5. Early suggestions of American intervention in Cuba. 
 
 Supplementary Reading. 
 
 The main authorities continue a? in Chapter XX. On the 
 movement for civil-service reform see, besides the annual 
 reports of the Civil Service Commissioners, the annual reports 
 of the National Civil Service League, George William Curtis's 
 Oratio7is and Addresses, vol, 11., and Cary's Cur/is. The impor- 
 tance of periodicals, as fields for political discussion, becomes 
 noticeable in this period. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 EXPANSION 
 1897-1900 
 
 Wm. McKinley, O., President. Gakret A. Hdbart, N. J., Vice-President* 
 
 869. President McKinley. — The President owed his 
 election, not to RepubHcans alone, but also to Democrats 
 
 and Independents who, 
 while unable to indorse 
 Republican policy in gen- 
 eral, were alarmed lest 
 financial disaster should fol- 
 low the election of Mr. 
 Bryan, and felt that a sound 
 and stable currency was the 
 paramount issue of the cam- 
 paign. Mr. McKinley had 
 had administrative experi- 
 ence as governor of Ohio, 
 and was well known 
 throughout the country as 
 the foremost champion of 
 protection, and the official 
 sponsor for the tariff act of 
 1890. His inaugural ad- 
 dress, while containing a 
 promise to do what he could for international bimetallism, 
 announced his purpose to use every effort to keep gold 
 
 * Vice-President Hobart .lied November 21, 1899. 
 
 500 
 
 William McKinley. 
 
ituJe 02 West from 87 GiccMiwii-h 
 
 THE UNITED STATES «> 
 
 £;CLUSIVE OF INSULAR POSSESSIONS 
 Scale of Miles 
 
 60 300 2U0 300 400 -,,■,-_ 
 
 i^'— 1 1 i 1 1 Key n^p 
 
 )"West 1.5 from ■Waslnn^'ton 1 
 
1897] THF. DINCI.HY TARIFF 501 
 
 and silver at a parit}'. lie insisted that adecjuate pro- 
 vision, on the protective principle, should be made for the 
 revenue, in order to })ut an end to the deficit, which had 
 increased during' the last months of Mr. Cleveland's 
 administration. An extra session of Congress was called 
 to deal with the tariff. In the construction of the cabinet, 
 John Sherman, of Ohio, was made Secretary of State, 
 Lyman J. Gage, of Illinois, Secretary of the Treasury, 
 John D. Long, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy, 
 and Russell A. Alger, of Michigan, Secretary of War. 
 
 870. The Dingley Tariff. — Congress met in extra session 
 March 15, 1897. As the opposition of the silver Repub- 
 licans in the Senate bade fair to make tariff legislation in 
 that body difficult, the Ways and Means Committee of the 
 House, of which Nelson Dingley, of Maine, was chair- 
 man, had already taken the matter in hand, and prepared 
 a revision of the tariff designed to secure increased 
 revenue. The bill was introduced on the day Congress 
 met, and consideration of it was facilitated by an agree- 
 ment of the Republican leaders, under which Speaker 
 Reed, who had been re-elected, appointed only such 
 committees as would enable the House to organize, and 
 consider the tariff and appropriation bills. The estimated 
 increase of revenue, as stated by Mr. Dingley, was from 
 seventy to one hundred million dollars. The rates were, 
 in general, a compromise between those of 1890 and 
 those of 1894; but the increase of rates in some schedules, 
 the transfer of a number of articles from the free to the 
 dutiable list, and the substitution of specific for ad valo7'evt 
 duties, operated to make the actual increase, in many 
 cases, very considerable. The bill was passed March 
 31, by a large majority, and the House then kept in 
 nominal session, without transacting other business, by 
 adjournment for successive periods of three days, while 
 
5 o 2 EXPANSION [1897 
 
 the bill was under consideration in the Senate. The 
 organization of the Senate was delayed by the opposition 
 of' the Populists and silver Republicans, who held the 
 balance of power; and it was July 24 before the bill, with 
 some modifications, passed the Senate and received the 
 approval of the President. 
 
 871. The Revenue. — The knowledge that the Dingley 
 tariff would raise the duties led for several months to a 
 great increase of importation, the effect of which was to 
 decrease the monthly deficit. This movement ceased 
 with the passage of the act, and expenditures again 
 showed a large excess over receipts. The gold reserve, 
 however, remained at about $150,000,000; while im- 
 proved business conditions, a large demand for breadstuffs 
 on account of crop failures abroad, and a sharp decline 
 in the market price of silver, tended to raise confidence 
 in the financial stability of the country, and to weaken 
 the influence of the free-silver advocates. 
 
 872. The Monetary Commission. — In fulfilment of the 
 promise in his inaugural address, and under the authority 
 of an act of Congress passed just before the close of 
 Mr. Cleveland's administration, President MeKinley in 
 April appointed three commissioners to further the cause 
 of international bimetallism. The commissioners visited 
 Europe, and had interviews with various financial and 
 governmental authorities ; but the refusal of the govern- 
 ment of India to open its mints to the free coinage of 
 silver practically extinguished hope of favorable inter- 
 national action in the direction of bimetallism. 
 
 873. Relations with Cuba. — The relations between the 
 United States and Cuba (§ 863), instead of improving, 
 had continued to grow more acute. During the last 
 months of the Cleveland administration, there were fre- 
 quent calls upon the government for the protection of 
 
1^97] .■il-l'.llKS IN CUBA 503 
 
 American citizens in Cuba, nian\' of tlie persons, however, 
 being' naturalized Cubans who had aided the insurgents. 
 Numerous fihbustering expeditions were also set on foot; 
 but the United States did its best to preserve neutrality, 
 and one of the most notorious filibustering vessels, the 
 Tlircc Friends, was seized and forfeited. In May, 1897, 
 President McKinley sent a special commissioner to Cuba, 
 and his report was followed by claims upon Spain for 
 indemnity on account of the alleged ill-treatment of cer- 
 tain American citizens. In the mean time, the Senate 
 had passed a resolution declaring that a state of war 
 existed between Spain and the Cubans, and giving the 
 latter belligerent rights; but President McKinley was 
 strongly averse to such a step, and the resolution was 
 not acted upon b}' the House. An appropriation of 
 $50,000 was made, however, for the relief of distressed 
 Americans in the island. The appointment of Gen. 
 Stewart L. Woodford, of New York, as minister to Spain 
 was followed by rumors that an ultimatum was to be pre- 
 sented to the Spanish government. The activity of the 
 Spanish forces in Cuba, under the command of General 
 Weyler, meanwhile increased, but without substantial 
 results in the way of the subjugation of the country. 
 
 874. Spanish Policy. — The accession of the Sagasta 
 ministr)- to power, in October, 1897, was followed by the 
 recall of Weyler, who was replaced by Ramon Blanco as 
 governor-general. Under the more liberal policy of 
 Sagasta, conditions in Cuba promised for a time material 
 improvement. The rcconccntrados — people from the 
 country districts who had been compelled to give up their 
 homes and live in the towns, where their crowded condi- 
 tion and lack of subsistence had bred great suffering — 
 were given greater opportunities to work, and even 
 allowed to return, in some cases, to their plantations. 
 
504 EXPANSION [1898 
 
 Imprisoned American citizens were released, and the 
 exportation of tobacco, which had been prohibited, was 
 again allowed to a limited extent. A plan for autono- 
 mous government in Cuba and Porto Rico, promulgated by 
 royal decree in November, promised the Cubans a legis- 
 lative assembly, and local assemblies for the provinces 
 and municipalities; but the control to be retained by 
 Spain was still so great that the autonomy was more 
 nominal than real. A cabinet, all but one of whose 
 members were Cubans, was appointed in January, 1898; 
 but the whole plan was summarily rejected by the insur- 
 gents, who. declared their purpose to accept nothing short 
 of independence. The efforts of Blanco to negotiate with 
 the insurgent generals, Gomez and Garcia, were unsuc- 
 cessful, and the guerrilla warfere continued. 
 
 875. The Policy of the Administration. — In his annual 
 message in December, 1897, President McKinley reviewed 
 the Cuban situation at length, and announced that, while 
 the United States expected Spain to restore order in Cuba 
 without unnecessary delay, ' ' a reasonable chance 
 should be given ' ' to prove the asserted efficacy of the 
 new order of things ' ' ; but that "if it shall hereafter 
 appear to be a duty imposed by our obligations to our- 
 selves, to civilization and humanity, to intervene with 
 force, it shall be without fault on our part, and only 
 because the necessity for such action w ill be so clear as 
 to command the support and approval of the civilized 
 world." The reports of American consuls regarding the 
 pitiable condition of the rccoiicciitrados led to renewed 
 efforts for their relief. A public appeal was issued for 
 funds, and a national Cuban Relief Committee was 
 appointed. l^y these means a large sum of money was 
 raised, and considerable quantities of supplies were sent 
 to Cuba. 
 
1898] LOSS OF THE MA INF. 5^5 
 
 876. The De Lome Affair. — 'l"hc final decision to put an 
 end b}' force to a situation wliich was rapidly becominc^ 
 intolerable was materially hastened by two unfortunate 
 events. February 8, 1898, the "Cuban Junta," as it 
 was called, at New York, representini,'' the Cuban insur- 
 gents, published a private letter which had been stolen 
 from the mails, written by Senor Uupuy de Lome, the 
 Spanish minister at Washington, to the editor of a Spanish 
 newspaper. The letter referred in terms of extreme dis- 
 paragement to the President, and charged him with 
 "catering to the rabble." The minister admitted the 
 authenticity of the letter, and at once resigned. The 
 Spanish government disclaimed responsibility for the 
 letter, or sympathy with its objectionable sentiments ; but 
 the affair left a painful impression. 
 
 877. The Loss of the Maine. — Ostensibly on a friendly 
 visit, but in reality to afford protection to American in- 
 terests in Havana, the battleship Maine had been sent to 
 Havana in the latter part of January, 1898. On the 
 15th of February, the day after the receipt of a note 
 from the Spanish government repudiating the De Lome 
 letter, the Maine was destroyed by an explosion, and 266 
 of the crew killed or drowned. Captain Sigsbee, in tele- 
 graphing a brief report of the disaster, urged that judg- 
 ment be suspended until the cause of the explosion could 
 be determined, and the responsibility fixed. A proposal 
 from Spain for a joint inquiry was declined by the United 
 States, and each country conducted an independent in- 
 vestigation. The American board of inquiry reported 
 that the explosion was due to a submarine mine, but that 
 there was no evidence to show who was responsible. 
 The Spanish board reported that the explosion had taken 
 place inside the vessel, and had not been caused from 
 outside. 
 
5o6 F.XP/iNStON \ 1 S98 
 
 878. The Impending Crisis — March 27, 1898, President 
 McKinley proposed that Spain grant an armistice in Cuba 
 until October i , and revoke the decrees against the rccoii- 
 centrados; and offered to use his influence to bring about 
 peace. In reply, Spain offered to suspend hostilities if 
 the insurgents would ask for it, and to entrust the arrange- 
 ment of peace to the Cuban Parliament, which was to 
 meet May 4. The reply was pronounced unsatisfactory. 
 The Americans still in Cuba, including the consuls, began 
 to leave. A protest from the autonomous government 
 against intervention by the United States, and a declara- 
 tion by the Cuban Junta that intervention without recog- 
 nition of the Cuban Republic would be resisted by the 
 insurgents, were followed by a joint note from the repre- 
 sentatives of the leading Eiuropean Powers, expressing 
 their hope for a peaceful solution of the difficulty. On 
 the loth of April an unconditional armistice was pro- 
 claimed by Spain, but the proclamation came too late. 
 The next day President McKinley sent a special message 
 to Congress, urging the impropriety of recognizing "the 
 so-called Cuban Republic " or the belligerent status of the 
 insurgents, declaring that "the war must stop," and 
 asking authority to intervene by force and end hostilities. 
 
 879. Declaration of War. — In March, Congress, at the 
 request of the President, had appropriated $50,000,000 
 for the national defence. On the receipt of the message 
 of April II, Congress passed resolutions declaring that 
 the people of Cuba " are and of right ought to be free and 
 independent," but disclaiming any intention on the part 
 of the United States of "exercising sovereignty, jurisdic- 
 tion, or control " over the island " except for the pacifica- 
 tion thereof" ; demanding that Spain " at once relinquish 
 its authority and government " in Cuba; and "directing 
 and empowering ' ' the President to use force to give effect 
 
189S] MANILA 507 
 
 to the resolutions. As Spain refused to accept the ulti- 
 matum forthwith submitted by the United States, diplo- 
 matic relations between the two countries ceased ; and 
 on April 25 Congress passed a formal declaration of war. 
 
 880. Preparations for War. — For some weeks before 
 hostilities actually broke out, both Spain and the United 
 States had been making active preparations for war. 
 Ships of war were bought abroad, and many vessels suit- 
 able for naval purposes were purchased at home and 
 refitted. Coast fortifications were strengthened, and the 
 principal harbors mined. On April 23 — -two days after 
 the date on which, by the declaration of Congress, the 
 war had begun — the President called for 125,000 volun- 
 teers ; and these, with the troops of the regular army, 
 were assembled at Chickamauga, Tampa, and other con- 
 venient points. 
 
 881. Manila. — The first battle of the war took place in 
 the bay of Manila. Commodore Dewey, in command of 
 the American squadron in Asiatic waters, attacked the 
 Spanish fleet at Manila on the morning of May i, and 
 totally destroyed it. The ciefences at Cavite were also 
 forced to surrender, and the city of Manila, though not at 
 once occupied, was under American control. The two 
 fleets were unequally matched, and the Spanish admiral 
 was taken by surprise ; but the unexpected and decisive 
 victory aroused great enthusiasm in the United States. 
 The Philippine insurgents, under the lead of Aguinaldo, 
 were given arms from the arsenal at Cavite, and in the 
 course of the next two months compelled the Spanish 
 troops to concentrate in Manila. American troops from 
 San Francisco, under the command of Major-General 
 Merritt, arrived the last of June ; and on the 1 3th of 
 August the city was taken by a joint attack of the land 
 and naval forces. 
 
5o8 EXPANSIOhl [1898 
 
 882. The Santiago Campaign. — Three days before the 
 formal declaration of war, President McKinley had pro- 
 claimed a blockade of the north coast of Cuba; and a 
 squadron from Key West, under Rear- Admiral Sampson, 
 was at once dispatched to make the blockade effective. 
 A Spanish fleet under Admiral Cervera, collected at the 
 Cape Verde Islands on the outbreak of hostilities, arrived 
 at Santiago de Cuba, on the south coast. May 19, and 
 was there blockaded by an American squadron under 
 Commodore Schley. June 22 an American force of 14,000 
 regulars and 2500 volunteers, under command of Major- 
 General Shaftcr, landed at Daiquiri, seventeen miles from 
 Santiago. In the face of great natural disadvantages and 
 stubborn resistance, they took the Spanish outposts at La 
 Quasima on the 24th, and on July i stormed the defences 
 on the heights of San Juan and Caney. Two days later 
 the Spanish fleet attempted to escape from the harbor, 
 only to be destroyed by Sampson's squadron. The 
 Spanish lost four cruisers and two torpedo-boat destroyers, 
 about 600 men killed or drowned, and upwards of 1700 
 prisoners. Santiago still holding out, it was bombarded ; 
 on the 17th it surrendered, together with most of the 
 province of the same name. The Spanish troops were 
 sent back to Spain. In the mean time, the American 
 army had become so weakened b\' privation and disease 
 as to make necessary its removal from the countr}^; and 
 the entire body of troops was accordingly transported to 
 a camp at Montauk, on Long Island. Their place was 
 taken by troops, most of them colored, selected because 
 thought to be "immune," that is, not likely to be 
 attacked by yellow fever or other tropical diseases. 
 
 883. The Occupation of Porto Rico. — In May, Sampson's 
 fleet had bombarded the defences of San Juan, Porto Rico, 
 but without particular results. The invasion of Porto Rico 
 
1S98] PEACE 509 
 
 followed upon the surrender of Santiai^o. The iVnierican 
 expedition, made up chiefly of volunteers, was under the 
 command of Major-General Miles, the commanding gen- 
 eral of the United States army. Landing on the southern 
 coast the last of Jul}% the Americans gained control, by 
 the middle of August, of the larger part of the island, 
 nowhere encountering serious opposition, and even being 
 welcomed by the inhabitants. Although the campaign 
 was attended with none of the hardships of that against 
 Santiago, the troops nevertheless suffered severely from 
 fever and other diseases. 
 
 884. Friction with the Cubans. — At the beginning of 
 the war, the Cuban insurgents had received supplies from 
 the American troops, and in June a body of them, under 
 General Garcia, had cooperated with an American force 
 in taking Guantanamo, about thirty miles east of Santiago. 
 As the campaign went on, however, joint action became 
 more and more difficult; and when, in the negotiations 
 for the surrender of Santiago, General Garcia was not 
 consulted, and afterward the Cuban soldiers were not 
 allowed to enter the city, he and his followers withdrew, 
 and for a time operated independently. 
 
 885. Peace. — It was evident from the first that Spain 
 could not hope for final success in a war with the United 
 States ; and the loss of the Spanish colonies, together 
 with the overwhelming superiority of the American navy, 
 left Spain no other alternative than to sue for peace. 
 Preliminaries of peace were signed at Washington, August 
 12. the French ambassador acting on behalf of Spain. 
 Special commissioners were appointed to arrange for the 
 evacuation of Cuba and Porto Rico. The peace commis- 
 sioners of the two countries met at Paris, October i, and 
 on December 10 the treaty of peace was signed. By the 
 treaty, Spain renounced sovereignty over Cuba, and ceded 
 
5 1 o EXPANSION [ 1 8 9 S 
 
 to the United States Porto Rico and other Spanish West 
 Indian islands, the island of Guam, in the Ladrones, 
 already occupied by an American force, and the Philip- 
 pines. The United States agreed to pay Spain $20,000,- 
 000, and to admit Spanish ships and goods to Philippine 
 ports for ten years on the same terms as were accorded to 
 American ships and merchandise. There was strong 
 opposition to the treaty in the Senate, principally on 
 account of the proposed retention of the Philippines by 
 the United States; but it was finally ratified, February 6, 
 1899, and the exchange of ratifications in April completed 
 the formal restoration of peace. 
 
 886. Finances of the War. — A war revenue act, brought 
 forward by Mr. Dingley in April, 1898, increased the 
 internal-revenue taxes on beer and tobacco, imposed 
 stamp taxes on most legal and business documents, bank 
 checks, proprietary articles, etc., and authorized the issue 
 of bonds to the amount of $400,000,000. The war loan 
 was popular, and was largely oversubscribed ; while the 
 growing volume of trade enabled the country to bear 
 without difficulty the unlooked-for expenses of the war. 
 
 887. Foreign Relations. — A report gained currency early 
 in the war, to the effect that the formation of some sort 
 of a European coalition to aid Spain had been prevented 
 by the refusal of Great Britain to take part in it. This, 
 together with other friendly acts on the part of Great 
 Britain during the progress of the war, caused the popular 
 feeling toward that country to become, for a time, 
 extraordinarily cordial. There was much talk about an 
 Anglo-American alliance, and an Anglo-American League 
 was formed in London. In May, 1898, a joint commis- 
 sion was created to arrange a settlement of pending 
 differences between the two countries. On the other 
 hand, reports that Germany had planned to interfere in 
 
1897] 
 
 HA IV A II 
 
 511 
 
 the Philippines led to some manifestations of ill-feelini; 
 and resentment, which fortunately, however, did not 
 pass far beyond the field of newspaper and partisan dis- 
 cussion. 
 
 888. Hawaii. — In June, 1897, President McKinley 
 transmitted to the Senate a treaty providing for the 
 annexation of Hawaii. In the Senate the treaty encoun- 
 
 
 Jh-?^v#^^ 
 
 To iloni/n. J3602_mV''J - ^. 
 
 '/ y'vKaunaka.kai P^X'^i^ 
 
 To -4«p»r'o. 3.110 .«.7r. 
 
 MOLOKAI i-"^-"-'!**' »!,/ 
 
 ***-^~4-~^ 
 
 Hawaiian Islands. 
 
 tered strong opposition, the effect of annexation upon the 
 sugar industry in the United States being one of the chief 
 points considered. As it appeared that the two-thirds 
 majorit}' necessary, under the Constitution, to ratify the 
 treaty could probably not be obtained, resort was had to 
 a joint resolution. In this form the proposition received 
 the approval of both Houses of Congress, and August I 2 
 Hawaii passed formally into the possession of the United 
 States. Commissioners were at once appointed to draw 
 up a plan of government. The commissioners made their 
 report in December, but no action under it was taken by 
 Congress. Hawaii continued under military govxn'nment 
 until April, 1900, when a bill establishing a Territorial 
 
512 EXPANSION [1897 
 
 government, making the Hawaiians citizens of the United 
 States, and giving the Territory a delegate in Congress, 
 passed both Houses and received the approval of the 
 President. 
 
 889. Currency Reform. — The failure of the monetary 
 commissioners (^ 872) to secure the opening of the Indian 
 mints to the free coinage of silver did not, apparently, 
 discourage that body, and the commissioners in Europe 
 continued to be for some time active on behalf of bimetal- 
 lism. In the mean time, hopeful steps in the direction of 
 currency reform were being taken at home. A conference 
 of prominent financiers and business men met at Indian- 
 apolis in January, 1897, and the discussions attracted 
 general attention. In October, Secretary Gage submitted 
 a plan of reform, including, among other features, the 
 issue of refunding gold bonds, and changes in the national 
 banking law so as to increase the issue and circulation of 
 bank-notes. The outbreak of war with Spain, however, 
 joined to the active opposition of the sih-er men in Con- 
 gress, for a time prevented further action. In the framing 
 of the war revenue act, the silver contention was compro- 
 mised by providing for the coinage of the silver in the 
 treasury, at the rate of $1,500,000 a month, and the sus- 
 pension of further issues of silver certificates. The demand 
 for reform culminated in the passage of a bill, in March, 
 1900, declaring the gold dollar the unit of value, all other 
 money to be kept at a parity with it; and establishing a 
 gold reserve of $150,000,000, pledged for the redemption 
 of greenbacks and treasury notes, and to be maintained, 
 if necessary, by the issue of bonds. Provision was also 
 made for refunding the national debt, the gradual replace- 
 ment of treasury notes by silver certificates, and the ex- 
 tension of the privileges of national banks in regard to 
 issuing notes. 
 
1899] ANTI-TRUST AGIT.-1TION 513 
 
 890. The Pacific Railroads. — During I'resident McKin- 
 lc}''.s administration the United States largely ended its 
 connection with the various Pacific railroads, which had 
 been originally constructed with financial aid fi-om the 
 national government. In November, 1H97, a sale of the 
 Union Pacific Railway, under proceedings begun by the 
 government towards the close of Mr. Cleveland's admin- 
 istration, was effected, the United States receiving an 
 amount equal to the principal and interest of its claim. 
 In February, 1898, the sale of the Kansas Pacific Railway 
 was also effected, under terms somewhat less favorable to 
 the government. Similar arrangements were later made 
 with the Central I'acific and Western Pacific roads. 
 
 891. Anti-Trust Agitation. — The period of President 
 McKinley's administration was distinguished by a wide- 
 spread popular discussion of trusts, and by many attempts 
 to regulate or suppress trusts by law. Many of the State 
 legislatures devoted a large share of their attention to the 
 question, and in some of the States severe laws were 
 enacted. A decision of the Supreme Court, in March, 
 1897, that the Anti-Trust Act of 1890 applied to railroads 
 as well as to manufacturing and trading corporations, and 
 that the act made illegal any combination in restraint of 
 trade or commerce, whether the restraint were reasonable 
 or not, made a deep impression. During 1899, however, 
 trusts and industrial combinations were formed on an 
 extraordinary scale, many of them under the laws of 
 Delaware and New Jersey, which are particularly fiivor- 
 able to such incorporation. The result was a revival of 
 popular opposition to great aggregations of capital, and a 
 renewed demand for State and national action. Confer- 
 ences on the subject were held at Chicago and St. Louis, 
 and it was thought by some that the question of trusts 
 would be a leading issue in the coming presidential cam- 
 
514 EXPANSION [ I S 9 7 
 
 paign. Just before the adjournment of Congress, in June, 
 1900, a proposed anti-trust amendment to the Constitution 
 was debated in the Senate, and disposed of by reference 
 to a committee; but a bill to amend the act of 1890, so 
 as to give the United States increased powers of control 
 over trusts, was passed by the House of Representatives. 
 
 892. The Civil Service. — In his inaugural address, Presi- 
 dent McKinley announced his adherence to the letter and 
 spirit of civil-service reform ; and this, together with his 
 previous record in Congress, inspired much confidence 
 among those who had most at heart the complete over- 
 throw of the spoils system in national administration. It 
 was further given out that fourth-class, or "presidential," 
 postmasters, not shown to be unfit, would be allowed to 
 serve out their four-year terms. In July, 1897, an 
 executive order directed that removals from places filled 
 by competitive examination should be made only for 
 cause, and that the removed ofificial should be given a 
 hearing in his own defence. Violations of the rule, how- 
 ever, soon began to multiply. Attempts to enforce 
 observance by judicial process failed, the courts holding 
 that the enforcement of the rules was a matter within the 
 jurisdiction of the President. The policy of the President 
 in following the advice of senators from the State con- 
 cerned, in making appointments to office, resulted in the 
 selection of many unfit and highly objectionable persons 
 for important positions; but protests were generally dis- 
 regarded. In the departments at Washington, particularly 
 the Treasury Department, the observance of the civil-ser- 
 vice rules was lax ; while an executive order of July 29, 
 1899, withdrawing several thousand places from the classi- 
 fied service, was regarded by reformers as a serious 
 " backward step. " In Congress there was some display 
 of hostility to reform, and the competitive principle was 
 
1897] THE KLONDIKE GOLD-FIELDS 515 
 
 disregarded in the act making provision for the twelfth 
 census. A considerable number of commendable ap- 
 pointments did something to excuse, in the public mind, 
 the conduct of the Administration in reference to other 
 positions; but the net effect of President McKinley's 
 course in the matter of the cix'il service was discouraging. 
 
 893. The Klondike Gold-fields.— In the summer of 
 1897, the report of the discovery of gold in the Klondike 
 region, on the border between Alaska and the British 
 possessions, reached the United States. The news was 
 followed by a rusli of emigration to the region, which 
 continued through the following year. The suffering and 
 loss of life, caused by the severity of the climate and the 
 hard.ships of the overland route, served but little to dis- 
 courage the gold-seekers. The deposit proved to be 
 exceedingly rich, and the experiences of miners in Cali- 
 fornia, in 1 848-9, were repeated ; while the discovery of 
 the new suppHes of gold was of political importance, as 
 tending to offset some of the arguments of free-silver 
 advocates. The attempt of the Canadian government, 
 within whose territory the principal deposits lay, to exact 
 royalties on gold exported, and otherwise to secure the 
 interests of its own people in the gold-fields, occasioned 
 some ill-feeling among the Americans. The presence of 
 American troops and Canadian police has been sufficient 
 to maintain order; but the anomalous condition of Alaska, 
 with a rapidly growing population and important com- 
 mercial interests, but without an effective governmental 
 organization, has not yet been remedied by appropriate 
 legislation. 
 
 894. Samoa. — The relations of the United States with 
 Samoa underwent a radical change during President 
 McKinley's administration. By the Berlin treaty of 1889, 
 the affairs of Samoa were placed under the joint super- 
 
5 1 6 EXPANSION [1897 
 
 vision of the United States, Great Britain, and Germany. 
 On the death of King Mahetoa, in August, 1898, a dis- 
 pute arose over the choice of his successor. The Germans 
 supported Mataaf^i, while the KngHsh and Americans 
 favored Mahetoa Tanu, a son of the late king. The 
 election of Mataafa by the native chiefs was set aside by 
 a decision of the chief-justice, an American; but the 
 German consul refused to recognize Malietoa as king. 
 In January, 1 899, the Malietoan government was over- 
 thrown, and a provisional government set up. Disputes 
 and complications led rapidly to war, and in March Brit- 
 ish and American vessels bombarded a number of Samoan 
 villages. At the suggestion of Germany, which dis- 
 approved of the course taken by the other Powers, a joint 
 commission was created to deal with the matter. The 
 commissioners succeeded in having the office of king 
 abolished, and a provisional government, composed of the 
 consuls of the three Powers, set up. In November, a 
 partition of the islands was agreed upon. In return for 
 the cession by Germany of some islands in the south 
 Pacific, Great Britain relinquished to the United States 
 and Germany its claims in the Samoan group, and the 
 two Powers then divided the islands between them. The 
 United States received the island of Tutuila, with the 
 important harbor of Pago-Pago, and the other islands east 
 of longitude 171° west. 
 
 895. The Proposed Isthmian Canal. — The agitation in 
 favor of national aid in the construction of an interoceanic 
 canal across Central America (§ 834), which had not 
 been allowed to decline, received new impetus as a result 
 of the war with Spain, and the sudden rise of important 
 American interests in the Pacific. In July, 1897, a 
 Nicaragua Canal Commission was appointed, to report on 
 the feasibilitv and cost of a canal across Nicaragua, that 
 
1900J THE CLAYTON-BULIVER. TREATY 517 
 
 country at tlic same time apjiarcnth' withdtaw iny certain 
 opposition it liatl lately shown. In his annual message 
 in December, 1898, President McKinley recommended 
 the construction of a canal to be controlled by the United 
 States; but a bill to give effect to the recommendation 
 failed to pass both Houses of Congress. An appropriation 
 of $1,000,000 was made, however, for the further inves- 
 tigation of practicable loutes. The report of the Com- 
 mission, submitted in May, 1899, recommended the 
 adoption of the route by way of Lake Nicaragua, and 
 estimated the cost of the canal at $1 18,000,000. In June 
 another commission was appointed, which is still at work. 
 896. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. —In connection with 
 the movement for a canal exclusively under American 
 control, the desirability of abrogating the Clayton-Bulwer 
 treaty of 1854, between Great Britain and the United 
 States, by which the two Powers had agreed that neither 
 should attempt to exercise exclusive control over any 
 canal across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, was much dis- 
 cussed. In February, 1900, a treaty was signed by 
 representatives of the two countries, by which Great 
 Britain "renounced all right to joint construction, owner- 
 ship, or maintenance " of an isthmian canal, while agree- 
 ing to join with the United States in guaranteeing the 
 neutrality of the canal. In the guarantee of neutrality 
 other nations were to be asked to unite. Opposition to 
 neutralization resulted in a proposed amendment to the 
 treaty in the Senate, providing that the treaty should not 
 operate to prevent ' ' measures which the United States 
 may find it necessary to take for securmg by its own force 
 the defence of the United States and the maintenance of 
 public order. ' ' The necessary majority in favor of the 
 treaty, in either the original or the amended form, appear- 
 ing doubtful, the representatives of the two governments 
 
5 1 8 EXPANSION [ 1 S 9 9 
 
 signed an agreement extending to March i, 1901, the 
 time within which ratifications might be exchanged. 
 
 897. The Hague Conference. — In August, 1898, Count 
 Muravieff, the Russian foreign minister, proposed to the 
 representatives of other governments at St. Petersburgh 
 the holding of an international congress, to consider 
 means of stopping the increase of armaments among 
 nations, and of bringing about permanent peace. The 
 proposal, renewed in more definite form in January, 1899, 
 awakened world-wide interest. The conference, compris- 
 ing delegates from 27 countries, including the United 
 States, met at The Hague, May 18, and remained in 
 session until July 29. The conclusions reached were 
 embodied in a number of declarations and resolutions, the 
 most important of which pledged the Powers agreeing to 
 it to resort to mediation or arbitration, wherever possible, 
 for the settlement of international disputes, and provided 
 for a permanent international tribunal to deal with arbitra- 
 tion cases. The arbitration proposals were ratified by the 
 Senate of the United States February 5, 1900. 
 
 898. War Department Investigation. — The reports of 
 privation and disease among the American troops, both 
 at home and in Cuba, during the war with Spain, led to 
 general public criticism of the management of the war, and 
 to charges of incompetency, favoritism, and corruption in 
 the War Department. Indignation was especially aroused 
 by the alarming prevalence of typhoid fever in the home 
 camps. The reply of friends of the Administration that 
 the charges were grossly exaggerated, and that such un- 
 favorable conditions as existed w^ere largely the result of 
 ignorance and neglect on the part of the troops them- 
 selves, failed to satisfy the public ; and in September, 
 1898, the Secretary of War asked for an investigation of 
 his department. The commission of inquiry, after taking 
 
1^99] THE IV AR IN THE PHILIPPINES 519 
 
 considerable testimony and x'isitinj;" the camps in the 
 United States, made their report in February, 1899. The 
 report dismissed the chart^es of cHshonesty as not proven, 
 and i)ronounced the general conduct of the war " liighly 
 creditable to the department and to the country"; but 
 the War Department was criticised for lack of judgment 
 in specific instances, as well as for its imperfect organiza- 
 tion and "red tape." In July, Secretary Alger resigned, 
 his place being taken by Elihu Root, of New York. 
 
 899. The Beef Episode. — The assertion of General Miles, 
 in the course of the investigation, that the canned beef 
 furnished the troops was unfit for food, coupled with the 
 description of the refrigerated beef as "embalmed," or 
 chemically preserved, made a great sensation, and led to 
 a scandalous denunciation of General Miles by Commis- 
 sary-General Eagan. Eagan was court-martialled and 
 sentenced to dismissal from the army ; but the President 
 commuted the sentence to six years' suspension from rank 
 and duty, without loss of pay. • A military court of inquiry 
 sustained General Miles 's criticism of the canned beef, 
 and pronounced the purchase of 7,000,000 pounds of it 
 " a colossal error," but reported that the charge concern- 
 ing the refrigerated beef was not borne out by the 
 evidence. 
 
 900. The War in the Philippines. — The transfer of the 
 Philippines to the United States, at the close of the war 
 with Spain, was deeply resented by Aguinaldo and his 
 followers, who desired independence. The instructions 
 issued to General Otis, in command of the American 
 forces at Manila, asserted the sovereignty of the United 
 States over the islands, and declared the policy of the 
 United States to be one of "benevolent assimilation "; 
 but they further stated that those who resisted were to be 
 dealt with by " the strong arm of authority." In Jan- 
 
520 
 
 EXPANSION 
 
 [1899 
 
 uary, 1899, three civil commissioners were appointed to 
 act with General Otis and Admiral Dewey in the admin- 
 
 r Hongkong 
 
 
 South C. 
 Bashee Channel. 
 
 MAP OF THE 
 
 .PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 
 
 SCALE OF STATUE MILES 
 
 <® BABUYAN 
 
 V 
 
 LaoafT' 
 Vigauf 
 
 ; Tupioaboa 
 - Cojnai-ang 
 
 
 7^ \ N 
 
 \ O Bl)iife'at 
 
 bW^t^7- 
 
 I Vi ''MAN 
 
 I LA 
 
 Balaj.uj 
 Bat 1 
 
 X .S.1. j "'" - ^ A~ / 
 
 >CATANDUANES 
 
 ISLANDS yi % Q tvL 'Y^L^a ^ A, 
 
 
 ^ - s u L u 
 
 ~"2I^IND0R 
 
 /BRITISH. ' 
 BORNEO 
 
 R 
 
 Sta.Miuiii 
 
 SEA . 
 Zainboaiiga' 
 
 BASILAN IS. \J^ 
 
 Hpuv U Q 
 
 '"^ \. ^o r\o > 
 
 ' -^ -.iV Sungao i^ 
 ^ ^ i;uto,an 
 
 \- ^ ''■-' 
 
 MINDANAO 
 
 ISL. Tj ^^^^-'^^ 
 
 i3^ ^ CELEBES \Craaii \c..v.j„,„(, 
 
 \ 120 O 12^ .-SARANGANI II 
 
 Miiula 
 
 istration of affairs. Before their arrival, however, hostili- 
 ties began between the Tagalos, on the island of Luzon, 
 
1900] THE GOFERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINES 521 
 
 and the Americans, the Latter being reinforced by about 
 10,000 troops from the United States. In such regular 
 engagements as took place, the Americans were generally 
 successful, and gradually pushed their way into remote 
 parts of the island ; but the area actually in undisputed 
 American control did not extend more than a few miles 
 beyond Manila. American authority was also extended, 
 to somewhat greater degree, over the neighboring islands 
 of Panay, Cebu, and Negros. The war in Luzon has 
 continued, the contest on the part of the natives assuming 
 more and more of a guerrilla character, but without sub- 
 stantial results so far as the immediate pacification of the 
 island is concerned. Various negotiations with the 
 American commissioners failed because of the insistence 
 of the Filipinos upon independence. Elsewhere than in 
 Luzon, American rule has been accepted with much less 
 opposition, and " assimilation " appears more promising. 
 
 90L The Government of the Philippines. — The failure of 
 Congress to make provision for the government of the 
 Philippines has left the control of the islands in the hands 
 of the President. In February, 1900. the Philippine 
 Commission made a report, and outlined a scheme of 
 government. In the same month a new commission was 
 appointed, charged with the administration of affairs in 
 the archipelago. In the mean time, a provisional organ- 
 ization, under a military governor, was effected in Negros, 
 and municipal governments were nominally established 
 at several places in the provinces of Manila and Cavite. 
 The city of Manila, however, remained under martial law, 
 though the public schools were opened, and a native 
 police system was inaugurated. The Sultan of the Sulu 
 Archipelago made an agreement recognizing the sover- 
 eignty of the United States, but retaining practical inde- 
 pendence in internal affairs. So far, however, the 
 
522 EXPANSION L1S99 
 
 administrative settlement of the country has been more 
 nominal than real, and the guerrilla war in Luzon, and 
 occasional outbreaks in other islands, have subjected all 
 civil administration to the military necessities. 
 
 902. Cuba.— The control of Cuba passed formally into 
 the hands of the United States January i, 1899, and the 
 last of the Spanish soldiers shortly afterward embarked 
 for Spain. The administration of the island was placed 
 in charge of a military governor-general, with army 
 officers as governors of the several provinces and the city 
 of Havana. In the course of the next few months, a 
 form of civil government was gradually put in operation, 
 under the supervision of the military authorities. Admin- 
 istrative reforms followed rapidly; the system of taxation 
 was remodelled, a new customs tariff put in operation, 
 and the Cuban coasting trade opened to American vessels. 
 The disbandment of the Cuban army was also effected, 
 after some delay and opposition, $3,000,000 having been 
 appropriated by the United States for the payment of the 
 troops. Save for occasional outbreaks of disorder in 
 different parts of the island, peace and quiet in general 
 prevailed. The cleaning of the cities, especially Havana 
 and Santiago, operated greatly to reduce the amount of 
 yellow fever. The appointment, in December, of Major- 
 General Leonard Wood to succeed General Brooke as 
 governor-general, was followed by further legal and 
 administrative reforms, and the introduction of a public- 
 school system on the American model. 
 
 903. Porto Rico. — Porto Rico passed formally under the 
 control of the United States October 18, 1898, and 
 General Brooke was appointed governor-general. A 
 customs tariff, in which no preference was given to Ameri- 
 can goods, had already been drawn up, at the direction 
 of the War Department. Under General Guy V. Henry, 
 
1900] 
 
 PORTO RICO 
 
 523 
 
 who succcctled General l^rooke in December, the jiohcy 
 of giving the Porto Ricans as large representation as 
 possible in official appointments was followed, and 
 numercnis administrative and legal reforms were inaugu- 
 rated. An Insular Commission, appointed by the Presi- 
 dent to investigate affairs in the island, reported in 
 
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 SCALE OF MILES 
 
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 [bORMAY & CO., N.Y. 
 
 
 Porto Rico. 
 
 August, 1899, recommending various reforms, and sub- 
 mitting a draft of a code of laws. A reorganization of the 
 civil government, in the interest of simplicity and economy, 
 was effected b\' General George W. Davis, who had 
 succeeded General Henry in April. A hurricane which 
 swept over the island in August caused great destruction 
 of propert)', including the fruit and coffee plantations, 
 killed more than 2600 people, and left 250,000 persons 
 destitute. A call for aid met with cjuick response in the 
 United States. In April, 1900, Congress established a 
 form of government for Porto Rico. The act provided 
 for a governor and council — one half of the latter to be 
 Porto Ricans — appointed b\^ the President, and an elected 
 House of Delegates. Most of the laws of the United 
 
524 EXPANSION [1900 
 
 States, so far as applicable, were extended to the island, 
 and the United States was to be represented b}' a resident 
 commissioner. Mr. Charles H. Allen, of Massachusetts, 
 Assistant Secretary of the Navy, was appointed the first 
 governor. 
 
 904. The Porto Rican Tariff. — To meet the expenses of 
 the civil government, the Porto Rican act of April 12 
 further provided for the imposition of tariff duties, on 
 commerce between Porto Rico and the United States, of 
 fifteen per cent, of existing rates. This provision was to 
 be in force for two years. The discussion of this portion 
 of the act attracted the attention of the whole country. 
 In his message of December, 1899, President McKinley 
 had declared it to be "our plain duty" to "abolish all 
 customs tariffs between the United States and Porto 
 Rico ' ' ; and the bill as first drawn provided for free trade 
 between the two regions. Strong opposition was im- 
 mediately manifested by friends of protected industries, 
 on the ground not only of danger to American interests, 
 but of the dangerous precedent which such action would 
 establish for later treatment of the Philippines. A 
 proposition which the President, notwithstanding his 
 previous declaration, was now known to favor, fixing the 
 tariff rates at twenty-five per cent, of existing rates, on the 
 ground that the revenue was needed in the island, was 
 vigorously opposed by the Democrats and by a small but 
 influential group of Republicans, popularly known as 
 "insurgents." Aside from the constitutional argument, 
 which was elaborated at great length, the opponents of the 
 measure insisted that it would violate good faith with 
 Porto Rico, and would be interpreted as a surrender to 
 the demands of protected interests in the United States. 
 To conciliate the "insurgents," the proportionate rates 
 were reduced to fifteen per cent., and the operation of the 
 
iQOo] EXPANSION AND IMPERIALISM 525 
 
 provision limited to two years. The final vote in each 
 House was close, being 40 to 31 in the Senate, and 161 
 to 153 in the House of Representatives. As a further 
 concession. Congress, on the recommendation of the 
 President, had already passed an act appropriating to the 
 immediate needs of the island "all money collected or to 
 be collected as duties on products of Porto Rico in the 
 ports of the United States." 
 
 905. Expansion and Imperialism. — The decision of the 
 President to retain the Philippines at the close of the war 
 with Spain, together with the failure to give any assurance 
 of ultimate independence to the conquered territories, 
 precipitated a general and absorbing discussion of the 
 policy which the course of the Administration seemed to 
 favor. On the side of " expansion " were arrayed not 
 only many radical politicians, \\'ho wished the United 
 States to adopt "an aggressive foreign polic}', " and take 
 an active part in " world politics, " but many conservative 
 leaders as well, who argued that circumstances had com- 
 pelled us to take charge of the territory won from Spain, 
 and that the new responsibilities, however unwelcome, 
 could not be evaded. On the other hand, the opponents 
 of expansion, or the anti-imperialists, as they were gen- 
 erally called, denied the necessity or propriet}' of exercising 
 anything more than a temporary protectorate over the 
 Philippines, and insisted that the United States ought 
 plainly to declare its purpose to give the people of the 
 islands their independence. They further urged that 
 nothing but danger could attend a departure from the 
 historic policy of the United States in its international 
 relations, pointed out the unfitness of our form of govern- 
 ment for the administration of colonies and dependencies, 
 and cited the increased military and naval expenses as the 
 logical accompaniments of an im[)erialistic programme. 
 
526 EXPANSION [1900 
 
 The discussion, everywhere earnest, and in reaHty involv- 
 ing' the whole question of the future of the United States, 
 was embittered by extreme acts and expressions on both 
 sides; while the failure of President McKinley to take a 
 definite stand exposed him to the charge of weakness and 
 vacillation, and of followinij rather than leading public 
 opinion. 
 
 906. The Election of 1900. — The presidential cam- 
 paign of 1900 seemed certain to turn mainly on the 
 question of expansion, to which policy the Republican 
 party was regarded as committed. The selection of the 
 principal candidates for President was long foreseen. The 
 announcement of the candidacy of Admiral Dewey failed 
 to meet with popular approval, and the candidate shortly 
 withdrew. The Republican national convention met at 
 Philadelphia in June, and renominated President McKin- 
 ley, with Theodore Roosevelt, governor of New York, as 
 the candidate for Vice-President. The platform indorsed 
 the McKinley administration, declared allegiance to pro- 
 tection and the gold standard, approved the annexation 
 of Hawaii, and called for the construction and control of 
 an isthmian canal by the United States. The policy of 
 the Administration " in maintaining the efficiency of the 
 civil service" was commended. In regard to the new 
 possessions, the platform accepted the responsibilities fol- 
 lowing from the war with Spain, promised to the people 
 of the acquired territory "the largest measure of self- 
 government consistent with their welfare and our duties," 
 and pledged indejiendence and self-government to Cuba. 
 The Democratic convention at Kansas City, in July, 
 nominated William J. Bryan, of Nebraska (^ 865), for 
 President, and Adlai E. Stevenson, of Illinois (§ 854), 
 for Vice-President. The platform declared against im- 
 perialism, but not against territorial expansion "when it 
 
1897-8] LEADING Hl/ENTS 527 
 
 takes in desirable territor}- which can be erected into 
 States in the Union, and whose people are willing and fit 
 to become American citizens "; denounced the policy of 
 the Republican Administration in the Philippines; and 
 reaffirmed the principles of the Chicago platform of 1896, 
 including the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to i. 
 The Democratic candidates were indorsed by the silver 
 Republicans and the Populists. The Republican candi- 
 dates received 292 electoral votes out of a total of 
 
 447- 
 
 907. The Leading Events of President McKinley's ad- 
 ministration were as follows: 
 
 1897-1901 : President IMcKinley's Term of Oflice § 869 
 
 1897 : Anti-Trust decision 891 
 
 Monetary commission a{)})ointetl.. . 872 
 
 Arbitration treaty rejected 867 
 
 Senate recognition of Cuban bel- 
 ligerency 873 
 
 Nicaragua canal commission aj)- 
 
 pointed 895 
 
 Dingley tariff 870 
 
 Order extending the classified ser- 
 vice 892 
 
 Klondike gold excitement 893 
 
 Spain decrees autonomy for Cuba 
 
 and Porto Rico 874 
 
 Sale of Union Pacific Railway 890 
 
 1898: IVIonetary conference at Indian- 
 apolis 889 
 
 Sale of Kansas Pacific Railway. . . . 890 
 
 De Lome letter 876 
 
 Loss of the Mdtfie 877 
 
 President INIcKinley offers media- 
 tion between Spain and the 
 
 Cubans 878 
 
 $50,000,000 appro})riated for the 
 
 national defence 879 
 
 Armistice in Cuba proclaimed by 
 
 Spain 878 
 
52 8 EXPANSION [1898-9 
 
 1898: McKinley's war message § 878 
 
 Blockade of Cuba 882 
 
 Call for 125,000 volunteers 880 
 
 Declaration of war against Spain.. . 879 
 
 Battle of Manila Bay 881 
 
 Cervera blockaded at Santiago. . . . 882 
 
 Anglo-American commission 887 
 
 Landing of American force at Dai- 
 quiri 882 
 
 La Quasima taken by Americans. . 882 
 Guantanamo taken by Americans 
 
 and Cubans 884 
 
 War revenue act 886 
 
 San Juan and Caney taken by 
 
 Americans 882 
 
 Cervera's fleet destroyed 882 
 
 Surrender of Santiago 882 
 
 Occupation of Porto Rico by 
 
 Americans 883 
 
 Russian peace proposals 897 
 
 Peace preliminaries signed 885 
 
 Hawaii annexed 888 
 
 Manila taken by Americans 881 
 
 Porto Rico transferred to the 
 
 United States 903 
 
 Treaty of peace 885 
 
 Secretary Gage's report on cur- 
 rency reform 889 
 
 1899: Cuba transferred to control of the 
 
 United States 902 
 
 First Philippine commission ap- 
 pointed 900 
 
 Treaty of peace ratified by the 
 
 Senate 885 
 
 Gen. Geo. W. Davis appointed 
 
 governor of Porto Rico 903 
 
 Report of the Nicaragua canal com- 
 mission 895 
 
 Peace conference at The Hague. . . 897 
 New Nicaragua canal commission 
 
 appointed 895 
 
 Order removing places from the 
 
 classified service 892 
 
1899, 1900] SUPPLHMHNT^RY READING 5^9 
 
 1899: Rejnirt of the Porto Rico insular 
 
 commission § 903 
 
 War Department investigation. . . . 898 
 
 Samoan settlement 894 
 
 Gen. Leonard Wood appointed 
 
 governor of Cuba 902 
 
 President McKinley recommends 
 
 free trade with Porto Rico 904 
 
 1900: Proposed abrogation of Clayton- 
 
 Bulwer treaty 896 
 
 Hague arbitration proposals ratified 
 
 by the Senate . 897 
 
 Report on the War Department in- 
 vestigation 898 
 
 Report of the Philippine commis- 
 sion 901 
 
 Second Philippine commission ap- 
 pointed 901 
 
 Act establishing the gold standard . 889 
 Act appropriating customs revenues 
 
 to Porto Rico 904 
 
 Porto Rico government act 903 
 
 Hawaiian government act 888 
 
 The election of 1900 906 
 
 Topics for Further Study. 
 
 1. The Philippines under Spanish rule. 
 
 2. Military and naval reorganization, 1 897-1 900. 
 
 3. The Clayton-Bulwer treaty. 
 
 4. English colonial administration. 
 
 5. Trusts. 
 
 Supplementary Reading, 
 
 Aside from the official publications of the government, and 
 the daily proceedings of Congress, light on our newest history 
 must be sought chiefly in newspapers and periodicals. The 
 leading magazines, during 1898-99, discussed almost every 
 phase of the war with Spain, and published numerous articles 
 by prominent participants. 
 
APPENDIX I 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 In Congress, July 4, 1776. 
 
 A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESS AS- 
 SEMBLED. 
 
 When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 
 one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected 
 them with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, 
 the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of 
 nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of man- 
 kind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them 
 to the separation. 
 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident : — That all men are created 
 equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalien- 
 able rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
 happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
 among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- 
 erned ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive 
 of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, 
 and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such 
 principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
 seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, in- 
 deed, will dictate, that governments long established should not be 
 changed for light and transient causes ; and accordingly all experi- 
 ence hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer while 
 evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms 
 to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses 
 and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a de- 
 sign to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is 
 their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards 
 for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of 
 these colonies ; and such is now the necessity which constrains 
 them to alter their former systems of government. The history of 
 the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries 
 and usur])ations, all having in direct object the establishment of an 
 
 531 
 
532 APPENDIX I 
 
 absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts he sub- 
 mitted to a candid world. 
 
 He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces- 
 sary for the public good. 
 
 He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
 pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
 assent should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly 
 neglected to attend to them. 
 
 He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
 districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
 representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and 
 formidable to tyrants only. 
 
 He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, un- 
 comfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, 
 for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his 
 measures. 
 
 He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
 wiXh. manly tirmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 
 
 He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
 others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
 annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise ; 
 the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers ot 
 invasions from without, and convulsions within. 
 
 He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for 
 that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreign- 
 ers ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, 
 and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 
 
 He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
 assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 
 
 He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure 
 of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 
 
 He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms 
 of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 
 
 He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, with- 
 out the consent -of our Legislatures. 
 
 He has affected to render the military independent of, and supe- 
 rior to, the civil power. 
 
 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction for- 
 eign to our constitutions, and unacknowledged by our laws ; giving 
 his assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 
 
 For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; 
 
 For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
 murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
 States ; 
 
 For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; 
 
 For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; 
 
 P^or depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury ; 
 
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 533 
 
 For transportino- us beyond seas, to he tried tnr jiretended of- 
 fences ; 
 
 For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
 province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- 
 ing its boundaries, 'so as to render it at once an example and fit in- 
 strument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; 
 
 For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
 and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; 
 
 For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves 
 invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his 
 protection, and waging war against us. 
 
 He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, 
 and destroyed the lives of our people. 
 
 He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
 to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already 
 begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled 
 in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civi- 
 lized nation. 
 
 He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
 seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
 of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 
 
 He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeav- 
 ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless In- 
 dian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished 
 destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 
 
 In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress 
 in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been an- 
 swered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus 
 marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the 
 ruler of a free people. 
 
 Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British breth- 
 ren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their, 
 legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We 
 have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and set- 
 tlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and mag- 
 nanimity ; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common 
 kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would mevitably inter- 
 rupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been 
 deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, there- 
 fore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, 
 and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in 
 peace friends. 
 
 We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of Amer- 
 ica, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge 
 of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and 
 by the authority of the good people of these colonies solemnly pub- 
 
534 
 
 APPENDIX I 
 
 lish and declare, That tliese united colonies, are, and of right ought 
 to be, free and independent states ; that they are absolved from all 
 allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection be- 
 tween them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, 
 totally dissolved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have 
 full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish 
 commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent 
 states may of right do. And, for the support of this declaration, 
 with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, we 
 mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our 
 sacred honor. 
 
 The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, 
 and signed by the following members : — 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 Josiah Bartlett, 
 William Whipple, 
 Matthew Thornton. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS BAY, 
 
 Samuel Adams, 
 John Adams, 
 Robert Treat Paine, 
 Elbridge Gerry. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 Stephen Hopkins, 
 William Ellery. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 Roger Sherman, 
 Samuel Huntington, 
 William Williams, 
 Oliver Wolcott. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 William Floyd, 
 Philip Livingston, 
 Francis Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. 
 
 JOHN HANCOCK. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Richard Stockton, 
 John Witherspoon, 
 Francis Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, 
 Abraham Clark. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 Robert Morris, 
 Benjamin Rush, 
 Benjamin Franklin, 
 John Morton, 
 George Clymer, 
 James Smith, 
 George Taylor, 
 James Wilson, 
 George Rk)ss. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 Ccesar Rodney, 
 George Read, 
 Thomas M'Kean. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 Samuel Chase, 
 William Paca, 
 Thomas Stone, 
 
 Resolved, That copies of the Declaration 
 assemblies, conventions, and committees, or 
 to the several commanding officers of the con 
 be proclaimed in each of the United States, 
 army. 
 
 Charles Carroll, of Car- 
 rollton. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 George Wythe, 
 Richard Henry Lee, 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 Benjamin Harrison, 
 Thomas Nelson, Jr., 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
 Carter Braxton. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 William Hooper, 
 Joseph Hewes, 
 John Penn. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Edward Rutledge, 
 Thomas Heyward, Jr., 
 Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 Button Gwinnett, 
 Lyman Hall, 
 George Walton. 
 
 be sent to the several 
 councils of safety, and 
 tinental troops ; that it 
 and at the head of the 
 
APPENDIX II 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 
 
 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION AND PERPETUAL UNION 
 BETWEEN THE STATES OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, MAS- 
 SACHUSETTS BAY, RHODE ISLAND AND PROVI- 
 DENCE PLANTATIONS, CONNECTICUT, NEW YORK, 
 NEW JERSEY, PENNSYLVANIA, DELAWARE, MARY- 
 LAND, VIRGINIA, NORTH CAROLINA, SOUTH CARO- 
 LINA, AND GEORGIA. 
 
 Article I. — The style of this Confederacy shall be, "The United 
 States of America." 
 
 Article II. — Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and 
 independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not 
 l)y this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States in 
 Congress assembled. 
 
 Article III. — The said States hereby severally enter into a firm 
 league of friendship with each other, for their common defence, the 
 security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, 
 binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to 
 or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, 
 sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. 
 
 Article IV. — The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friend- 
 ship and intercourse among the people of the different States in this 
 Union, the free inhabitants of each of these States, paupers, vaga- 
 bonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, shall be entitled to all 
 privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several States ; and 
 the people of each State shall have free ingress and regress to and 
 from any other State, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of 
 trade and commerce subject to the same duties, impositions, and re- 
 strictions as the inhabitants thereof respectively ; provided that such 
 restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal ot 
 property imported into any State to any other State of which the 
 owner is an inhabitant ; provided also, that no imposition, duties, 
 or restriction shall be laid by any State on the property of the 
 United States or either of them. If any person guilty of, or charged 
 with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State shall 
 
 535 
 
53^ APPENDIX II 
 
 flee from justice and be found in any of tlie United States, he shall, 
 upon demand of the governor or executive power of the State from 
 which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having 
 jurisdiction of his offence. Full faith and credit shall be given in 
 each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings 
 of the courts and magistrates of every other State. 
 
 Article V. — For the more convenient management of the gen- 
 eral interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually ap- 
 pointed in such manner as the Legislature of each State shall direct, 
 to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every 
 year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or 
 any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their 
 stead for the remainder of the year. No State shall be represented 
 in Congress by less than two, nor by more than seven members ; 
 and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than 
 three years in any term of six years ; nor shall any person, being a 
 delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States 
 for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees, or 
 emolument of any kind. Each State shall maintain its own dele- 
 gates in any meeting of the States and while they act as members 
 of the Committee of the States. In determining questions in the 
 United States in Congress assembled, each State shall have one 
 vote. Freedom of speech and debat-e in Congress shall not be im- 
 peached or ciuestioned in any court or place out of Congress ; and 
 the members of Congress shall be protected in their persons from 
 arrest and imprisonment during the time of their going to and from, 
 and attendance on. Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach 
 of the peace. 
 
 Article VI. — No State, without the consent of the United States, 
 in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any 
 embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance, or 
 treaty with any king, prince, or state ; nor shall any person holding 
 any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, 
 accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind what- 
 ever from any king, prince, or foreign state ; nor shall the United 
 States, in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of 
 nobility. 
 
 No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederation, 
 or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the 
 United States, in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the 
 purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it 
 shall continue. 
 
 No State shall lay any imposts or duties which may interfere with 
 any stipulations in treaties entered into by the United States, in 
 Congress assembled, with any king, prince, or state, in pursuance 
 of any treaties already proposed by Congress to the courts of France 
 and Spain. 
 
ylRTlCI.FS OF CONFEDERATION 537 
 
 No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any State, 
 except such number only as shall be deemed necessary by the 
 United States, in Congress assembled, for the defence of such State 
 or its trade, nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in 
 time of peace, except such number only as, in the judgment of tlie 
 United States, in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to 
 garrison the forts necessary for the defence of such State ; but every 
 State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, 
 sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall provide and constantly 
 have ready for use in public stores a due number of field-pieces and 
 tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition, and camp equipage. 
 
 No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the 
 United States, in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually 
 invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a 
 resolution being formed by some nation of Indians to invade such 
 State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay till 
 the United States, in Congress assembled, can be consulted ; nor 
 shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor 
 letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war 
 by the United States, in Congress assembled, and then only against 
 the kingdom or state, and the subjects thereof, against which war 
 has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be estab- 
 lished by the United States, in Congress assembled, unless such 
 State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be 
 fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall 
 continue, or until the United States, in Congress assembled, shall 
 determine otherwise. 
 
 Article VII. — When land forces are raised by any State for the 
 common defence, all officers of or under the rank of Colonel shall 
 be appointed by the Legislature of each State respectively by whom 
 such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall 
 direct, and all vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first 
 made the appointment. 
 
 Article VIII. — All charges of war, and all other expenses that 
 shall be incurred for the common defence or general welfare, and 
 allowed by the United States, in Congress assembled, shall be de- 
 frayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the 
 several States in proportion to the value of land within each State, 
 granted to or surveyed for, any person, as such land and the build- 
 ings and improvements thereon shall be estimated, according to 
 such mode as the United States, in Congress assembled, shall, from 
 time to time, direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that propor- 
 tion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the 
 Legislatures of the several States within the time agreed upon by 
 the United States, in Congress assembled. 
 
 Article IX. — The United States, in Congress asseml)kd, shall 
 have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace 
 
538 APPENDIX II 
 
 and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth Article ; of send- 
 ing and receiving ambassadors ; entering into treaties and alliances, 
 provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made, whereby the 
 legislative power of the respective States shall be restrained from 
 imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners as their own people 
 are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation 
 of any species of goods or commodities whatever ; of establishing 
 rules for deciding, in all cases, what captures on land and water 
 shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval 
 forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appro- 
 priated ; of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of 
 peace ; appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies com- 
 mitted on the high seas ; and establishing courts for receiving and 
 determining finally appeals in all cases of captures ; provided that 
 no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the 
 said courts. 
 
 The United States, in Congress assembled, shall also be the last 
 resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting, or 
 that hereafter may arise between two or more States concerning 
 boundary, jurisdiction, or any other cause whatever ; which au- 
 thority shall always be exercised in the manner following : When- 
 ever the legislative or executive authority, or lawful agent of any 
 State in controversy with another, shall present a petition to Con- 
 gress, stating the matter in cjuestion, and praying for a hearing, 
 notice thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislative 
 or executive authority of the other State in controversy, and a day 
 assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, 
 who shall then be directed to appoint, by joint consent, commis- 
 sioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining 
 the matter in question ; but if they cannot agree. Congress shall 
 name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the 
 list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the 
 petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen ; 
 and from that number not less than seven nor more than nine 
 names, as Congress shall direct, shall, in the presence of Congress, 
 be drawn out by lot ; and the persons whose names shall be so 
 drawn, or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to 
 hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major 
 part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the deter- 
 mination ; and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day ap- 
 pointed, without showing reasons which Congress shall judge suffi- 
 cient, or being present, shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall 
 proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secre- 
 tary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or 
 refusing ; and the judgment and sentence of the court, to be ap- 
 pointed in the manner before prescrilied, shall be final and con- 
 clusive ; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the 
 
ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 539 
 
 authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, 
 the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence or judg- 
 ment, which shall in like manner be linal and decisive ; the judg-- 
 ment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case trans- 
 mitted to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the 
 security of the parties concerned ; provided, that every commissioner, 
 before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath, to be administered 
 by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State 
 where the cause shall be tried, " well and truly to hear and deter- 
 mine the matter in question, according to the best of his judgment, 
 without favor, affection, or hope of reward." Provided, also, that 
 no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United 
 States. 
 
 All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed 
 under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdictions, 
 as they may respect such lands and the State which passed such 
 grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the 
 same time claimed ta have originated antecedent to such settlement 
 of jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either party to the Congress 
 of the United States, be finally determined, as near as may be, in 
 the same manner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes re- 
 specting territorial jurisdiction between different States. 
 
 The United States, in Congress assembled, shall also have the 
 sole and conclusive right and power of regulating the alloy and 
 value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the re- 
 spective States ; fixing the standard of weights and measures 
 throughout the United States ; regulating the trade and managing 
 all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States ; pro- 
 vided that the legislative right of any State, within its own limits, 
 be not infringed or violated ; establishing and regulating post offices 
 from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and 
 exacting such postage on the papers passing through the same as 
 may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office ; appoint- 
 ing all officers of the land forces in the service of the United 
 States, excepting regimental officers ; appointing all the officers of 
 the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the 
 service of the United States ; making rules for the government and 
 regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their 
 operations. 
 
 The United States, in Congress assembled, shall have authority 
 tc^ appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be de- 
 nominated, " A Committee of the States," and to consist of one 
 delegate from each State, and to appoint such other committees and 
 civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of 
 the United States under their direction ; to appoint one of their 
 number to preside ; provided that no person be allowed to serve in 
 the office of president more than one year in any term of three years ; 
 
S4<5 APPENDIX li 
 
 to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service 
 of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for de- 
 fraying the public expenses ; to borrow money or emit bills on the 
 credit of the United States, transmitting every half year to the 
 respective States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or 
 emitted ; to build and equip a navy ; to agree upon the number ot 
 land forces, and to make requisitions from each State for its quota, 
 in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such State, 
 which reqiiisition shall be binding ; and thereupon the Legislature 
 of each State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men, 
 and clothe, arm, and equip them in a soldier-like manner, at the 
 expense oi the United States ; and the ofificers and men so clothed, 
 armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and 
 within the time agreed on by the United States, in Congress assem- 
 bled ; but if the United States, in Congress assembled, shall, on 
 consideration of circumstances, judge proper that any State should 
 not raise men, or should raise a smaller number than 'ts quota, and 
 that any other State should raise a greater number of men than the 
 quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed, 
 armed, and equipped in the same manner as the quota of such 
 State, unless the Legislature of such State shall judge that such 
 extra number can not be safely spared out of the same, in which 
 case they shall raise, officer, clothe, arm, and equip as many of such 
 extra number as they judge can be safely spared, and the officers 
 and men so clothed, armed, and equipped shall march to the place 
 appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States, in 
 Congress assembled. 
 
 The United States, in Congress assembled, shall never engage in 
 war, nor grant letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor 
 enter into any treaties or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the 
 value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the 
 defefise and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit 
 bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor ap- 
 propriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war to 
 be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be 
 raised, nor appoint a commander-in-chief of the army or navy, 
 unless nine States assent to the same, nor shall a question on any 
 other point, except for adjourning from day to day, be determined, 
 unless by the votes of a majority of the United States, in Congress 
 assembled. 
 
 The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn 
 to any time within the year, and to any place within the United 
 States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration 
 than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their 
 proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relating to treaties, 
 alliances, or military operations as in their judgment require 
 secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State, on 
 
ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 54" 
 
 any question, shall be entered on the journal when it is desired by 
 any delegate ; and the delegates of a State, or any of them, at his 
 or their request, shall be furnished with a transcript of the said 
 journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay tjefore the 
 Legislatures of the several States. 
 
 Article X. — The Committee of the States, or any nine of them, 
 shall be authorized to execute, in the recess of Congress, such of 
 the powers of Congress as the United States, in Congress assem- 
 bled, by the consent of nine States, shall, from time to time, think 
 expedient to vest them with ; provided that no power be delegated 
 to the said Committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of 
 Confederation, the voice of nine States in the Congress of the 
 United States as assembled is requisite. 
 
 Article XI. — Canada, acceding to this Confederation, and join- 
 ing in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, 
 and entitled to, all the advantages of this Union ; but no other 
 colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be 
 agreed to by nine States. 
 
 Article XII. — All bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and 
 debts contracted by or under the authority of Congress, before the 
 assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present Con- 
 federation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against 
 the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof the 
 said United States and the public faith are hereby solemnly 
 pledged. 
 
 Article XIII. — Every State shall abide by the determination of 
 the United States, in Congress assembled, on all questions which by 
 this Confederation are submitted to them. And the Articles of 
 this Confederation shall be inviolably observed by every State, and 
 the Union shall be perpetual ; nor shall any alteration at any time 
 hereafter be made in any of them, unless such alteration be agreed 
 to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed 
 by the Legislatures of every State. 
 
 And whereas it hath pleased the great Governor of the world 
 to incline the hearts of the Legislatures we respectively represent 
 in Congress to approve of, and to authorize us to ratify, the said 
 Articles of Confederation and perpetual Union, know ye, that we, 
 the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to 
 us given for that purpose, do, by these presents, in the name and 
 in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and 
 confirm each and every of the said Articles of Confederation and 
 perpetual Union, and all and singular the matters and things con- 
 tained. And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith 
 of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determi- 
 nations of the United States, in Congress assembled, on all ques- 
 tions which by the said Confederation are submitted to them ; and 
 that the Articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States 
 
542 /fPPENDIX II 
 
 we respectively represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual. 
 In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. 
 Done at Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, the ninth day ot 
 July, in the year of our Lord 1778, and in the third year of the 
 Independence of America. 
 
APPENDIX III 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 
 PREAMBLE 
 
 WE, the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
 perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide 
 for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure 
 the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and 
 establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I. 
 
 Section I. i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be 
 vested in a Congress ' of the United States, which shall Legislative 
 consist of a senate and house of representatives. powers. 
 
 Sec. II. I. The house of representatives shall be composed of 
 members chosen every second year, by the people of „ , 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 • 1 1 11 House of 
 
 the several states ; and the electors m each state shall representa- 
 have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most ''^^^• 
 numerous branch of the state legislature. 
 
 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have at- 
 tained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven ^ ..^ .• 
 
 °ri TT-ir- 1 1 111 Oualincations 
 
 years a citizen oi the United States, and who shall not, of representa- 
 when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which "^'^^• 
 he shall be chosen. 
 
 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
 the several states which may be included within this Union, accord- 
 ing to their respective numbers," which shall be deter- , 
 
 • 1 1 11- 1 11 1 ,- ,- Apportionment 
 
 mined by adding to the whole number of free persons, of representa- 
 including those bound to service for a term of years, "^'^^• 
 and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons.' 
 The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after 
 the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
 every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall 
 
 • The body of senators and representatives for each term of two years for which repre- 
 sentatives are chosen is called one Congress. Each Congress expires at noon of the 4th of 
 March next succeeding the beginning of its second regular session, when a new Congress 
 begins. 
 
 ^ The apportionment under the census of 1890 is one representative to every 173,901 
 persons. 
 
 3 This refers to slaves, and is iio longer in force (see Amendment XIII.). 
 
 / 
 
 543 
 
544 APPENDIX in 
 
 by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed 
 one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one 
 representative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State 
 of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three ; Massachusetts, 
 eight ; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one ; Connecticut, 
 live ; New York, six ; New Jersey, four ; Pennsylvania, eight ; Del- 
 aware, one ; Maryland, six ; Virginia, ten ; North Carolina, five ; 
 South Carolina, five ; and Georgia, three. 
 
 4. When vacancies happen in the representation 
 from any state, the executive authority thereof shall 
 issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 
 
 Officers, how 5- The house of representatives shall choose their 
 
 appointed. Speaker and other officers,* and shall have the sole 
 
 power of impeachment. 
 
 Sec. III. I. The senate of the United States shall be composed of 
 two senators from each state, chosen by the legis- 
 lature thereof, for six years ; and each senator shall 
 have one vote. 
 
 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of 
 
 the first election, they shall be divided, as equally as 
 o/senators°" "^'^y ^^' '"^^ three classes. The seats of the senators 
 
 of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of 
 the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth 
 year ; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so 
 that one third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies 
 happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legis- 
 lature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary ap- 
 pointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall 
 then fill such vacancies. 
 
 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to 
 Qualifications the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of 
 of senators. the United States ; and who shall not, when elected, be 
 an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 President of 4- The vicc-president of the United States shall be 
 
 the senate. president of the senate ; but shall have no vote, unless 
 
 they be equally divided. 
 
 5. The senate shall choose their other officers,^ and also a presi- 
 dent pro tempore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he 
 shall exercise the office of president of the United States. 
 
 6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 
 
 When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or 
 Senate a court affirmation. When the president of the United States 
 
 for trial of im- • * • 1 ^u i • r • •■ u 11 • 1 1 
 
 peachments. 's tried, the chiei justice shall preside ; and no person 
 shall be convicted without the concurrence of two thirds 
 of the members present. 
 
 ' Clerk, sergeant-at-arms, door-keeper, postmaster and others. The Speaker is thq 
 presiding officer. 
 ' Secretary, sergeant-at-arms, door-keeper, postmaster and others. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 545 
 
 7. Judgment, in case of impeachment, shall not extend further 
 than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold judgment in 
 and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, under caseofcon- 
 the United States ; but the party convicted shall, ^'"="°"- 
 nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
 and punishment, according to law. 
 
 Sec. IV. I. The times, places, and manner of holding elections 
 for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in ^ 
 
 each state by the legislature thereof; but the Congress senTtorrand 
 may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regula- of represen- 
 tions, except as to the places of choosing senators. 
 
 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year ; and 
 such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, jMeeting of 
 unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Congress. 
 
 Sec. V. I. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, re- 
 turns, and qualifications of its own members ; and a organization 
 majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do busi- of Congress, 
 ness ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and 
 may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in 
 such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 
 
 2. Each house may determine the rules of its pro- Rule of pro- 
 ceedings, punish its members for disorderly behavior, ceeding. 
 and, with the concurrence of two thirds, expel a member. 
 
 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
 time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as journal of 
 may, in their judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas Congress. 
 and nays of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at 
 the desire of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, 
 
 shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more Adjournment 
 
 11 1 1 1 1 1 • °' Congress. 
 
 than three days, nor to any other place than that in 
 which the two houses shall be sitting. 
 
 Sec. VI. I. The senators and representatives shall receive a 
 compensation' for their services, to be ascertained by „ , . . 
 
 1 1 -1 ri /-iTT-io "3y sno privi- 
 
 law, and paid out of the treasury 01 the United States, leges of mem- 
 They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and ^^''^• 
 breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attend- 
 ance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
 returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either 
 house they shall not be questioned in any other place. 
 
 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which 
 he was elected, be appointed to any civil office, under „, 
 
 ^ Plurality of 
 
 the authority of the United States, which shall have offices pro- 
 been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have hibited. 
 been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office 
 
 ' The present compensation is $5,000 a year, with twenty cents for every mile of travel by 
 the most usually travelled post route to and from the national capital. 
 
546 APPENDIX III 
 
 under the United States shall be a member of either house during- 
 his continuance in ofifice. 
 
 Sec. VII. I. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the 
 house of representatives ; but the senate may propose 
 evenue i s. ^^ concur with amendments, as on other bills. 
 
 2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives 
 and the senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the 
 How bills be- president of the United States. If he approve, he shall 
 come laws. sign it ; but if not, he shall return it, with his objec- 
 tions, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter 
 the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. 
 If, after such reconsideration, two thirds of that house shall agree to 
 pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other 
 house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved 
 by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But, in all such 
 cases, the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
 and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall 
 be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill 
 shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays ex- 
 cepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be 
 a law in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by 
 their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a 
 law. 
 
 3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of 
 
 the senate and house of representatives may be neces- 
 ve^o'power" sary (except on a question of adjournment), shall be pre- 
 ofthepresi- sentecl to the president of the United States ; and be- 
 ^"^' fore the same shall take effect, shall be approved by 
 
 him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds 
 of the senate and house of representatives, according to the rules 
 and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
 Sec. VIII. The Congress shall have power — 
 
 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay 
 
 the debts and provide for the common defence and gen- 
 Powers vested eral welfare of the United States; but all duties, im- 
 
 m Congress. , . 11,, -r 1 11 
 
 posts, and excises shall be uniiorm throughout the 
 United States : 
 
 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States : 
 
 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
 several states, and with the Indian tribes : 
 
 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
 laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States : 
 
 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
 and fix the standard of weights and measures : 
 
 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
 and current coin of the United States : 
 
 7. To establish post offices and post roads : 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 547 
 
 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by secur- 
 ing-, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right 
 to their respective writings and discoveries : 
 
 g. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court : 
 
 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
 high seas, and offences against the law of nations : 
 
 11. To declare war, grant letters of marcjue and rejjrisal, and 
 make rules concerning captures on land and water : 
 
 12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money 
 to that use shall be for a longer term than two years : 
 
 13. To provide and maintain a navy : 
 
 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
 and naval forces : 
 
 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of 
 the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions : 
 
 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mili- 
 tia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in 
 the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively 
 the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
 militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress : 
 
 17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, 
 over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by ces- 
 sion of particular states, and the acceptance of Congress, become 
 the seat of government of the United States ; ' and to exercise like 
 authority over all places purchased, by the consent of the legislature 
 of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, 
 magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other needful buildings : and 
 
 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
 carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
 vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, 
 or in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 Sec. IX. I. The migration or importation of such persons as any 
 of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, 
 shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the how^admiued 
 year one thousand eight hundred and eight ; but a tax 
 or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dol- 
 lars for each person. - 
 
 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall Habeas cor- 
 not be suspended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or pus. 
 invasion, the public safety may require it. 
 
 3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be 
 passed. ^""'"'^'='-- 
 
 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, 
 unless in proportion to the census or enumeration here- 
 inbefore directed to be taken. 
 
 ' The District of C'jlur.ibia. 
 
 " This has refeience to tlie foreign slave tmde. 
 
548 APPENDIX III 
 
 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported 
 Regulations from any state. 
 
 dtutes.'"*^ 6. No preference shall be given, by any regulation of 
 
 commerce or revenue, to the ports of one state over 
 those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be 
 obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 
 
 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence 
 
 of appropriations made by law ; and a regular state- 
 Moneys, liow nient and account of the receipts and expenditures of 
 all public money shall be published irom time to time. 
 
 8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and 
 Titles of "•-* person holding any office of profit or trust under 
 nobility them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept 
 prohibited. ^f ^^^ present, emolument, office, or title of any kind 
 whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 
 
 Sec. X. I. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or con- 
 „ r federation ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin 
 
 X owsrs 01 ' o 1 * ' 
 
 states money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold 
 
 defined. ^^-^^ silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any 
 
 bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of 
 contracts ; or grant any title of nobility. 
 
 2. No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any 
 imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 
 lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net pro- 
 duce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, 
 shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States, and all such 
 laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
 No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- 
 nage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
 agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, 
 or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent dan- 
 ger as will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II. 
 
 Section I. i. The executive power shall be vested in a Presi- 
 dent of the United States of America. He shall hold 
 po^wer, in his office during the term of four years, and, together 
 
 whom vested, ^yjji^ ^j^g Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be 
 elected as follows : 
 
 2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 
 thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the 
 Electors. vvhole number of senators and representatives to which 
 
 the state may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator, or repre- 
 sentative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the 
 United States shall be appointed an elector. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 549 
 
 [3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by 
 ballot for two persons, of whom one, at least, shall not 
 be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. g^ig°"rs'"^^ °^ 
 And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, 
 and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and 
 certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the 
 United States, directed to the president of the senate. The presi- 
 dent of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of 
 representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
 counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be 
 the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
 electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who ^^^ ^^ j^^^^^^ 
 have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, of represen- 
 then the house of representatives shall immediately t^'^ves. 
 choose, by ballot, one of them for president ; and if no person have 
 a majority, then, from the five highest on the list, the said house 
 shall, in like manner, choose the president. But, in choosing the 
 president, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from 
 each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
 of a member or members from two thirds of the states and a major- 
 ity of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, 
 after the choice of the president, the person having the greatest 
 number of votes of the electors shall be the vice-president. But, if 
 there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the senate 
 shall choose from them, by ballot, the vice-president.] ' 
 
 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing t.. , 
 
 ~ *^ -^ . '^ 1 line 01 
 
 the electors, and the day on which they shall give their choosing 
 votes ; which day shall be the same throughout the '^''^^tors. 
 United States.'^ 
 
 5. No person, except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the 
 United States at the time of the adoption of this consti- „ ..r 
 tution, shall be eligible to the office of president ; neither tions of the 
 shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not P'^'^'^'^ent. 
 have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years 
 a resident within the United States. 
 
 6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his 
 death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers „ 
 
 and duties of the said oifice, the same shall devolve on case of his 
 the vice-president ; and the Congress may, by law, pro- ^isabihty. 
 vide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of 
 the president and vice-president, declaring what officer shall then 
 act as president ; and such officer shall act accordingly, until the 
 disability be removed, or a president shall be elected. 
 
 ' This clause, within brackets, has been superseded by the i2tli Amendment. 
 
 2 The electors are chosen on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in November pre- 
 ceding the expiration of a presidential term and vote for president and vice-president on the 
 second Monday of the January following. The votes are counted and declared in Congress 
 tile second Wednesday of the following February. 
 
55^ APPENDIX III 
 
 7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
 
 compensation, which shall neither be increased nor 
 president "^^ diminished during the period for which he shall have 
 
 been elected ; and he shall not receive within that 
 period any other emolument from the United States, or any of 
 them.^ 
 
 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the 
 following oath or affirmation : — 
 
 "1 do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
 office of President of the United States, and will, to the 
 best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the 
 Constitution of the United States." 
 
 Sfx. II. I. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the 
 army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the sev- 
 eral states, when called into the actual service of the 
 Duties of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writinjr, 
 
 president. . . ' „. -^ • ^ , r 1 ■ , ^ 
 
 01 the principal orncer, \n each of the executive depart- 
 ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offi- 
 cers ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
 offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 
 
 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice ancl consent of 
 the senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators 
 
 present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and 
 May make w'ith the advice and consent of the senate shall appoint, 
 
 treaties, ap- ..... , 1 • i 
 
 point am- ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges 
 
 bassadors, ^f |]-,g supreme court, and all other officers of the 
 
 1UCl^6S, etc. *■ 
 
 United States whose appointments are not herein 
 otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But 
 the Congress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior 
 officers as they think proper in the president alone, in the courts of 
 law, or in the heads of departments. 
 
 3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
 May fill "I'^y happen during the recess of the senate, by grant- 
 vacancies, ing commissions which shall expire at the end of their 
 next session. 
 
 Sec. III. I. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress 
 information of the state of the Union, and recommend t*^ cheir con- 
 sideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedi- 
 May convene ent ; ' he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene 
 Congress. both houses, or either of them, and, in case of disagree- 
 
 ment between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he 
 may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall 
 
 ' The salary of the president was ^^25,000 a year until 1872, when it was increased to 
 $50,000. That of the vice-president is $8,000 a year. 
 
 ' The president does this in messages at the opening of each session. Washington and 
 John Adams read their messages in person to both houses of Congress. Jefferson intro- 
 duced the present practice of sending to the two houses a written message by his private 
 secretary. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 55 i 
 
 receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care 
 that the laws be faithfully executed ; and shall commission all the 
 officers of the United States. 
 
 Sec. IV. I. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers ol 
 the United States, shall be removed from office on im- y^^^^ officers 
 peachment for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or may be re. 
 other high crimes and misdemeanors. moved. 
 
 ARTICLE III. 
 
 Section I. i. The judicial power of the United States shall be 
 vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior jy^jij-igi 
 courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain power, how 
 and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and nested, 
 inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior ; and 
 shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
 shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 Sec. II. I. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law 
 and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United 
 States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, ^^ ^^^^^ 
 under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassa- cases it 
 dors, other public ministers, and consuls ; to all cases ^^'^nds. 
 of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which 
 the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or 
 more states ; between a state and citizens of another state ; ^ between 
 citizens of different states ; between citizens of the same state claim- 
 ing lands under grants of different states ; and between a state, or 
 the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 
 
 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
 consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the . . ,. .. 
 
 , ,, , ..,..,..' T ,1 Jurisdiction 
 
 supreme court shall have origmal jurisdiction. In all ofthesu- 
 the other cases before mentioned, the supreme court P''e"ie court, 
 shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such 
 exceptions, and under such regulations, as the Congress shall make. 
 
 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall 
 be by jurj^ and such trial shall be held in the state j^^i^g 
 where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but respecting 
 when not committed within any state, the trial shall be *"*'^- 
 
 at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 
 
 Sec. III. I. Treason against the United States shall consist only 
 in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
 enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person jI^^j" 
 shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony 
 of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open 
 court. 
 
 1 See Amendments, Art. XI. 
 
55^ APPENDIX 111 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
 Ho^ treason ; but no attainder of treason shall work cor- 
 
 punished. ruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of 
 
 the person attainted. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. 
 
 Section I. i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state 
 to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of 
 
 Rights of every other state. And the Congress may, by general 
 
 laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, 
 
 antl proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 
 
 Privileges S¥.c. II. I. The citizens of each state shall be en- 
 
 ot citizens. titled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the 
 
 several states. 
 
 2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other 
 Executive crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in 
 requisitions. another State, shall, on demand of the executive author- 
 ity of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed 
 to the state having jurisdiction of the crime.' 
 
 3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws 
 ^ , , thereof, escaping- into another, shall, in consequence of 
 
 1j3,w rcfifultitinEr . . 
 
 service or any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such 
 
 ^*^°''- service or labor ; but shall be delivered up on claim of 
 
 the party to whom such service or labor may be due.- 
 
 Sec. III. I. New states may be admitted by the Congress into 
 New states ^^'^ Union; but no new states shall be formed or 
 how formed erected witliin the jurisdiction of any other state, nor 
 and admitted. ^^-^^ State be formed by the junction of two or more 
 states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislature of 
 the states concerned, as well as of the Congress. 
 
 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of, and make all 
 
 needful rules and regulations respecting, the territory 
 
 Power of or Other property belonging to the United States ; and 
 
 publfriands.^'^ nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to 
 
 prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any 
 
 particular state. 
 
 Sec. IV. I. The United States shall guarantee to every state in 
 T, . r this Union a republican form of government, and shall 
 
 Kepubhcan 1 r 1 1 
 
 government protect each of them agamst mvasion ; and on applica- 
 guaranteed. ^j^j.^ qJ- ^|^g legislature, or of the executive (when the 
 legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE V. 
 
 I. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem 
 it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution ; or, on 
 
 ' See § 502. '^ See §§ 2S4, 556. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 553 
 
 the api)lication of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, 
 shall call a convention for proposing amendments, constitution 
 which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and how to be 
 purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified by ai^ended. 
 the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conven- 
 tions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratifi- 
 cation may be proposed by the Congress ; provided, that no amend 
 ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight 
 hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth 
 clauses in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, 
 without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the 
 senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. 
 
 1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into vaiidit of 
 before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid debts recog- 
 against the United States under this constitution as "'^'^d. 
 under the Confederation. 
 
 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
 shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties „ , 
 
 1 1 • 1 I !i 1 1 11 1 • r Supreme law 
 
 made, or which shall be made, under the authority oi of the land 
 the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; defined. 
 and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in 
 the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the 
 members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judi- 
 cial officers, both of the United States and of the several 
 
 states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support whomie- 
 
 this constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be re- quired, and 
 
 quired as a qualification to any office or public trust ""'^^*'- 
 under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII. 
 
 I. The ratification of the conventions of nine slates 
 shall be sufficient for the establishment of this constitu- 
 tion between the states so ratifying the same.' 
 
 Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, 
 the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one 
 thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independ- 
 ence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
 whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. -' 
 
 GEO. WASHINGTON, 
 Prcsidt. and deputy from Virginia. 
 
 > See § 286. 
 
 ' The number of delegates chosen to the convention was sixty-live ; ten did not attend ; 
 sixteen declined to sign the Constitution, or left the convention before it was ready to be 
 signed. Thirty-nine signed. 
 
 Ratification. 
 
554 
 
 APPENDIX III 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 John Langdon, 
 Nicholas Gilman. 
 
 . MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Nathaniel Gorham, 
 Rufus Kine. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 
 Wm. Saml. Johnson, 
 Rogfer Sherman. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 
 Alexander Hamilton. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 
 Wil. Livingston, 
 David Brearley, 
 Wm. Paterson, 
 Jona. Dayton. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 
 B. Franklin, 
 Thomas Mifflin, 
 Robt. Morris, 
 Geo: Clymer, 
 Tho: Fitzsimons, 
 Jared Ingersoll, 
 James Wilson, 
 Gouv: Morris. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 
 Geo: Read, 
 Gunning Bedford, 
 
 Jun'r, 
 John Dickinson, 
 Richard Bassett, 
 Jaco: Broom. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 James M'Henry, 
 Dan: of St. Thos. Jeni 
 
 fer, 
 Danl. Carroll. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 
 John Blair, 
 
 James Madison, Jr. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 Wm. Blount, 
 
 Rich'd Dobbs Spaight, 
 
 Hu. Williamson. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 
 J. Rutledge, 
 Charles Cotesworth 
 
 Pinckney, 
 Charles Pinckney, 
 Pierce Butler. 
 
 Attest : 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 
 William Few, 
 Abr. Baldwin. 
 WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 
 
 AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. 
 
 ' Art. I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- 
 Freedomin nient of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise there- 
 religion, of; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; 
 speech, press. ^^ ^j^g righx of the people peaceably to assemble and to 
 petition the government for a redress of grievances. 
 
 Art. II. A well regulated militia being necessary to the security 
 Militia. of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear 
 
 arms shall not be infringed. 
 
 Art. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in 
 Soldiers any house, without the consent of the owner ; nor in 
 
 time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 Art. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their per- 
 Search sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable 
 
 warrants. searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no 
 
 warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or 
 affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, 
 and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 Art. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or 
 otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment 
 
 * The first ten amendments were proposed in 1789, and declared adopted in 1791. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THF. UNITED STATES 555 
 
 of a grand jury, except in cases arising- in the land or naval forces, 
 or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war capital 
 or public danger ; nor shall any person lie subject for the crimes, 
 same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall 
 be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness against himself; 
 nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of 
 law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without 
 just compensation. 
 
 Art. VI. In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the 
 right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state 
 and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
 district shall have been previously ascertained by law, xrial by 
 and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accu- jury- 
 sation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have 
 compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor ; and to 
 have the assistance of counsel for his defence. 
 
 Art. VII. In suits at common law, where the value in contro- 
 versy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by §uitsatcom- 
 jury shall be preserved ; and no fact tried by a jury mo" law. 
 shall be otherwise re-examined, in any court of the United States, 
 than according to the rules of the common law. 
 
 Art. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor 
 excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punish- ^' ' "^*' ^'*^" 
 ments inflicted. 
 
 Art. IX. The enumeration in the constitution, of Reserved 
 certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or dis- rights, 
 parage others retained by the people. 
 
 Art. X. The powers not delegated to the United Powers re- 
 States by the constitution, nor prohibited by it to the served, 
 states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. 
 
 ' Art. XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be 
 construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- 
 menced or prosecuted against one of the United States, Judical power 
 by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of '"' ^ 
 any foreign state. 
 
 '^ Art. XII. The electors shall meet in their respective states, 
 and vote by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom, 
 at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state 
 with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the Amendment 
 person voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the Sec. 4, respect- 
 person voted for as vice-president ; and they shall make ing election of 
 distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and vice-president, 
 of all persons voted for as vice-president, and of the 
 number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, 
 
 ' The eleventh amendment was proposed in 1794, and declared adopted in 1798. 
 * The twelfth amendment was proposed in 1S03, and declared adopted in 1804. 
 
556 APPENDIX III 
 
 and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United 
 States, directed to the president of the senate ; the president of 
 the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of 
 representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
 be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for 
 president shall be the president, if such number be a majority 
 of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person 
 have such majority, then from the persons having the highest num- 
 bers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as president, 
 the house of representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, 
 the president. But, in choosing the president, the votes shall be 
 taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; 
 a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
 from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be 
 necessary to a choice. And if the house of representatives shall not 
 choose a president, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon 
 them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the vice- 
 president shall act as president, as in the case of the death or other 
 constitutional disability of the president. The person having the 
 greatest number of votes as vice-president, shall be the vice-presi- 
 dent, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
 appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then from the two 
 highest numbers on the list the senate shall choose the vice-presi- 
 dent ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the 
 whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
 be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible 
 to the office of president, shall be eligible to that of vice-president 
 of the United States. 
 
 ' Art. XIII. Sec. I. Neither slavery nor involuntary 
 osavery. servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof 
 the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the Uni- 
 ted States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
 propriate legislation. 
 
 '^ Art. XIV. Sec. I. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
 States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
 United States and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall 
 make or enforce any law which shall abridge '',e privileges or im- 
 munities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any state deprive 
 any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, 
 nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection 
 of the laws. 
 
 Sec. II. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
 states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
 number of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But 
 
 ' The thirteenth amendment was proposed and adopted in 1865 (§ 757). 
 
 - The fourteenth amendment was proposed in 1S66, and adopted in 1868 (§ 763). 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 557 
 
 when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for 
 president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in 
 Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a state, or the mem- 
 bers of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhab- 
 itants of such state, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of 
 the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation 
 in rebellion or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall 
 be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citi- 
 zens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
 years of age in such state. 
 
 Sec. III. No person shall be a senator or representative in Con- 
 gress, or elector of president or vice-president, or hold any office, 
 civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, 
 having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an 
 officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, 
 or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the con- 
 stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 
 rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
 thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, 
 remove such disability. 
 
 Sec. IV. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
 authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pen- 
 sions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebel- 
 lion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor 
 any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid 
 of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim 
 for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; but all such debts, obli- 
 gations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 
 
 Sec. V. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
 legislation, the provisions of this article. 
 
 ' Art. XV. Sec. I. The rights of citizens of the United States to 
 vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any 
 state, on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 
 
 Sec. II. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 ' The fifteenth ameudiiient was proposed in 1S69, and adopted in 1870 (§ 789). 
 
APPENDIX IV 
 
 FORMATION OF STATES 
 
 I- Delaware ratifie 
 
 2. Pennsylvania 
 
 3. New Jersey 
 
 4- Georgia 
 
 5- Connecticut 
 6. Massachusetts 
 7- Maryland 
 8. South Carolina 
 
 New Hampshire 
 Virginia 
 New York 
 North Carolina 
 
 13- Rhode Island 
 
 14- Vermont admitt 
 
 15- Kentucky 
 16. Tennessee 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Louisiana 
 Indiana 
 Mississippi 
 Illinois 
 Alabama 
 Maine 
 Missouri 
 Arkansas 
 26. Michigan 
 ~1- Florida 
 Texas 
 Iowa 
 
 Wisconsin 
 California 
 Minnesota 
 Oregon 
 Kansas 
 35- West Virginia 
 36. Nevada 
 
 37- Nebraska 
 
 38- Colorado 
 
 39- North Dakota 
 40. South Dakota 
 41- Montana 
 42. Washington 
 
 43- Idaho 
 
 44- Wyoming 
 
 45- Utah 
 
 d the Constitution. 
 
 9- 
 ro. 
 II. 
 12. 
 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 
 23- 
 24. 
 
 25- 
 
 28. 
 29. 
 30. 
 
 31- 
 
 32. 
 33- 
 34- 
 
 ed to the Union. 
 
 pec. 7, 1787 
 
 Dec. 12, 1787 
 
 Dec. 18, 1787 
 
 Jan. 2, 1788 
 
 Jan. 9, iy83 
 
 Feb. 6, 1788 
 
 Apr. 28, 1788 
 
 May 23, 1788 
 
 June 21. 178S 
 
 June 25, 1788 
 
 July 26, 1788 
 
 Nov. 21, 1789 
 
 • -May 29, 1790 
 
 Mar. 4, i7gj 
 
 June I, 1792 
 
 June I, 1796 
 
 •■ -Nov. 29, 1802 
 •-•Apr. 30, 1812 
 •••Dec. II, 1816 
 •••Dec. 10, 1817 
 ••.Dec. 3, 1818 
 •••Dec. 14, 1819 
 •••Mar. 15, 1820 
 ••Aug. 10, 1821 
 ■•June 15, 1836 
 ••Jan. 26. 1837 
 ..Mar. 3, 1845 
 
 •Dec. 29. 1845 
 ••Dec. 28, 1846 
 ••May 29, 1848 
 ■•Sept. 9, 1850 
 •■May II, 1858 
 
 ■ ■F'eb. 14, 1859 
 
 ■ -Jan. 2g, 1861 
 •June 19, 1863 
 •Oct. 31, 1864 
 •Mar. I, 1867 
 ■Aug, I, 1876 
 
 •Nov. 3, 1889 
 
 •Nov. 3, 1889 
 
 •Nov. 8, 1889 
 
 •Nov.ii, 1889 
 
 •July 3, 1890 
 
 •July 10, 1890 
 
 •Jan. 4, 1896 
 
 559 
 
56o 
 
 APPENDIX V 
 
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APPENDIX VI 
 
 563 
 
 tnoo »no«t*-^NO'n'-'0 f-'O "o t-. •- 00 coo m n -^-o « ^ o» ? Si J^ ^^°° ^ « 
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 APPENDIX yil 
 
 APPENDIX VII 
 POPULATION OF THE SECTIONS, 1790-1860 
 
 Year. 
 
 Free States. 
 
 Slave States. 
 
 1790 
 
 1,968,453 
 
 1.961,374 
 
 1800 
 
 2,684,616 
 
 2,621,316 
 
 1810 
 
 3,758,910 
 
 3,480,902 
 
 1820 
 
 5,152,372 
 
 4,485,819 
 
 1830 
 
 7, 006, 399 
 
 5,848,312 
 
 1840 
 
 9.733,922 
 
 7,334,433 
 
 1S50 
 
 13,599,488 
 
 9,663,997 
 
 i860 
 
 19,128,418 
 
 12,315,372 
 
 APPENDIX VIII 
 
 CONGRESSIONAL REPRESENTATION OF THE 
 SECTIONS, 1790-1860 
 
 Year. 
 
 Senate. 
 
 House. 
 
 Free Stales. 
 
 Slave States. 
 
 Free States. 
 
 Slave States. 
 
 1790 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 35 
 
 30 
 
 1792 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 57 
 
 48 
 
 1796 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 57 
 
 49 
 
 1800 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 57 
 
 49 
 
 1804 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 77 
 
 65 
 
 1808 
 
 18 
 
 16 
 
 77 
 
 65 
 
 1812 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 103 
 
 79 
 
 1816 
 
 20 
 
 18 
 
 104 
 
 79 
 
 1820 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 105 
 
 82 
 
 1824 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 123 
 
 90 
 
 1828 
 
 24 
 
 24 
 
 123 
 
 90 
 
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 24 
 
 24 
 
 141 
 
 99 
 
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 26 
 
 26 
 
 142 
 
 100 
 
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 26 
 
 26 
 
 142 
 
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 26 
 
 26 
 
 135 
 
 98 
 
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 30 
 
 30 
 
 139 
 
 91 
 
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 32 
 
 30 
 
 144 
 
 90 
 
 1856 
 
 32 
 
 30 
 
 144 
 
 90 
 
 i860 
 
 36 
 
 30 
 
 147 
 
 90 
 
 IW To find the Electoral Voles, add together lUe number of Senators and 
 Representatives, 
 
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APPENDIX X 
 CABINET OFFICERS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS 
 
 George Washington (I. and II.), 1789-1797. 
 
 Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, Virginia, September 26th, 
 1789; Edmund Randolph, Virginia, January 2d, 1794; Timothy 
 Pickering, Pennsylvania, December loth, 1795. Secretary of 
 Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, New York, September nth, 1789 ; 
 Oliver Wolcott, Connecticut, February 2d, 1795. Secretary of War, 
 Henry Knox, Massachusetts, September 12th, 1789; Timothy Pick- 
 ering, Pennsylvania, January 2d, 1795 ; James McHenry, Maryland, 
 January 27th, 1796. Attorney-General, Edmund Randolph, Virginia, 
 September 26th, 1789 ; William Bradford, Pennsylvania, January 
 27th, 1794; Charles Lee, Virginia, December loth, 1795. Post- 
 viaster-General,^ E. Hazard, January 28th, 1782-September 29th, 
 1789 ; Samuel Osgood, Massachusetts, September 29th, 1789 ; Tim- 
 othy Pickering, Pennsylvania, August 12th, 1791 ; Joseph Haber- 
 sham, Georgia, February 25th, 1795. 
 
 John Adams (HI.), 1797-1801. 
 
 Secretary of State, Timothy Pickering, continued ; John Mar- 
 shall, Virginia, May 13th, 1800. Secretary oj Treasury, Oliver 
 Wolcott, continued ; Samuel Dexter, Massachusetts, January ist, 
 1801. Secretary of War, James McHenry, continued; Samuel 
 Dexter, Massachusetts, May 13th, 1800; Roger Griswold, Con- 
 necticut, February 3d, 1801. Secretary of A^«7/y,^ George Cabot, 
 Massachusetts, May 3d, 1798; Benjamin Stoddert, Maryland, May 
 2ist, 1798. Attorney-Goieral, Charles Lee, continued ; Theophilus 
 Parsons, Massachusetts, February 20th, 1801. Postjuaster-Gen- 
 eral, Joseph Habersham, continued. 
 
 ' Not a Cabinet officer, but a subordinate of the Treasury Department until 1829. 
 
 ^ Naval affairs were under the control of the Secretary of War until a separate Navy De- 
 partment was organized by Act of April scth, lyuS. The Acts organizing the other Depart- 
 ments were of the following dates : Staie, September 15th. 1789; Treasury, September 2d, 
 1789 ; War, August 7th, 1789. The Attorney-General's duties were regulated by the Judi- 
 ciary Act of September 24th, 1789. Interior, March 3d, 1849. For the establishment of 
 the Department of Agriculture, see § 296. 
 
 567 
 
56S ylPPENDlX X 
 
 Thomas Jefferson (IV. and V.), 1 801-1809. 
 
 Secretary of State, James Madison, Virginia, Marcli 5th, 1801. 
 Secretary of Treasury, Samuel Dexter, continued ; Albert GaUatin, 
 Pennsylvania, May 14th, 1 801. Secretary of War, Henry Dearborn, 
 Massachusetts, March 5th, 1801. Secretary of Navy, Benjamin 
 Stoddert, continued ; Robert Smith, Maryland, July 15th, 1801 ; 
 Jacob Crowninshield, Massachusetts, May 3d, 1805. Attorney-Gen- 
 eral, Levi Lincoln, Massachusetts, March 5th, 1801 ; Robert Smith, 
 Maryland, March 3d, 1805 ; John Breckinridge, Kentucky, August 
 7th, 1805 ; Ctesar A. Rodney, Pennsylvania, January 20th, 1807. 
 Postmaster-General, Joseph Habersham, continued ; Gideon Gran- 
 ger, Connecticut, November 28th, 1801. 
 
 James Madison (VL and VIL), 1809-1817. 
 
 Secretary of State, Robert Smith, Maryland, March 6th, 1809; 
 James Monroe, Virginia, April 2d, 181 1. Secretary of Treasury, 
 Albert Gallatin, continued ; George W. Campbell, Tennessee, Feb- 
 ruary 9th, 1814; A. J. Dallas, Pennsylvania, October 6th, 1814; 
 William H. Crawford, Georgia, October 22d, 181 6. Secretary of 
 War, William Eustis, Massachusetts, March 7th, 1809; John Arm- 
 strong, New York, January 13th, 1813 ; James Monroe, Virginia, 
 September 27th, 1814; William H. Crawford, Georgia, August ist, 
 1 81 5. Secretary of Navy, Paul Hamilton, South Carolina, March 
 7th, 1809 ; William Jones, Pennsylvania, January 12th, 1813; B. 
 W. Crowninshield, Massachusetts, December 19th, 181 4. Attorney- 
 General, C. A. Rodney, continued ; William Pinckney, Maryland, 
 December nth, 181 1 ; Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, February loth, 
 1 814. Pos master-General, Gideon Granger, continued ; Return J. 
 Meigs, Ohio, March 17th, 1814. 
 
 James Monroe (VIIL and IX.), 1817-1825. 
 
 Secretary of State, John Ouincy Adams, Massachusetts, March 
 5th, 1 81 7. Secretary of Treasury, William H. Crawford, con- 
 tinued. Secretary of War, George Graham, Virginia, April 7th, 
 1817 ; John C. Calhoun, South Carolina, October 8th, 1817. Secre- 
 tary of Navy, B. W. Crowninshield, continued; Smith Thompson, 
 New York, November 9th, 1818 ; John Rogers, Massachusetts, 
 September ist, 1823; Samuel L. Southard, New Jersey, Sep- 
 tember 1 6th, 1823. Attorney-General, Richard Rush, continued; 
 William Wirt, Virginia, November 13th, 1817. Postmaster-Gen- 
 eral, R. J. Meigs, continued ; John McLean, Ohio, June 26th, 1823. 
 
 John Quincy Adams (X.). 1 825-1829. 
 
 Secretary of State, Henry Clay, Kentucky, March 7th, 1825. Sec- 
 retary of Treasury, Richard Rush, Pennsylvania, March 7th, 1825. 
 
CABINET OFFICERS OF THE /ADMINISTRATIONS 5^9 
 
 Secretary of War, James Barbour, Virginia, March 7th, 1825 ; 
 Peter B. Porter, New Yori<, May 26th, 1828. Secretary of Navy, 
 S. L. Southard, continued. Attorney-General, William Wirt, con- 
 tinued. Post/naster-General, John McLean, continued. 
 
 Andrew Jackson (XI. and XII.), 1 829-1 837. 
 
 Secretary of State, Martin Van Buren, New York, March 6th, 
 1829; Edward Livingston, Louisiana, May 24th, 1831 ; Louis 
 McLane, Delaware, May 29th, 1833; John F'orsyth, Georgia, June 
 27th, 1834. Secretary of Treasury, Samuel D. Ingham, Pennsyl- 
 vania, March 6th, 1829; Louis McLane, Delaware, August 8th, 
 1831 ; William J. Duane, Pennsylvania, May 29th, 1833 ; Roger B. 
 Taney, Maryland, September 23d, 1833; Levi Woodbury, New 
 Hampshire, June 27th, 1834. Secretary of War, John H. Eaton, 
 Tennessee, March 9th, 1829; Lewis Cass, Michigan, August ist, 
 1831 ; Benjamin F. Butler, New York, March 3d, 1837. Secretary 
 of Navy, ]o\\r\ Branch, North Carolina, March 9th, 1829; Levi 
 Woodbury, New Hampshire, May 23d, 1831 ; Mahlon Dickerson, 
 New Jersey, June 30th, 1834. Attorney-General, John M. Berrien, 
 Georgia, March 9th, 1839 ; Roger B. Taney, Maryland, July 20th, 
 1831 ; Benjamin F. Butler, New York, November 15th, 1833. Post- 
 master-General, \N\\\\s.m T. Barry, Kentucky, March 9th, 1829; 
 Amos Kendall, Kentucky, May ist, 1835. 
 
 Martin Van Buren (XIII.), 1 837-1 841. 
 
 Secretary of State, John Forsyth, continued. Secretary of Treas- 
 ury, Levi Woodbury, continued. Secretary of War, Joel R. Poin- 
 sett, South Carolina, March 7th, 1837. Secretary of Nat/y, MaMon 
 Dickerson, continued ; James K. Paulding, New York, June 25th, 
 1838. Attorney-General, Benjamin F. Butler, continued ; Felix 
 Grundy, Tennessee, July 5th, 1838; Henry D.Gilpin, Pennsylvania, 
 January nth, 1840. Postmaster-General, Amos Kendall, con- 
 tinued ; John M. Niles, Connecticut, May 19th, 1840. 
 
 Wm. H. Harrison, (XIV.), 1841-1845. 
 
 Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, March 5th, 
 1 841 ; Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina, May 9th, 1843 ; A. P. 
 Upshur, Virginia, July 24th, 1843 ; John C. Calhoun, South Caro- 
 lina, March 6th, 1844. Secretary of Treasury, Thomas Ewing, 
 Ohio, March 5th, 1841 ; Walter Forward, Pennsylvania, September 
 13th, 1 841 ; John C. Spencer, New York, March 3d, 1843 ; George 
 M. Bibb, Kentucky, June 15th, 1844. Secretary of War, John Bell, 
 Tennessee, March 5th, 1841 ; John McLean, Ohio, September 13th, 
 1 841 ; John C. Spencer, New York, October 12th, 1841 ; James M. 
 
570 APPENDIX X 
 
 Porter, Pennsylvania, March 8th, 1843 ; WiUiam Wilkins, Pennsyl- 
 vania, February 15th, 1844. Secretary of Navy, G. E. Badger, 
 North Carolina, March 5th, 1841 ; A. P. Upshur, Virginia, Septem- 
 ber 13th, 1 841 ; David Henshaw, Massachusetts, July 24th, 1843; 
 T. W. Gilmer, Virginia, February 15th, 1844; John Y. Mason, Vir- 
 ginia, March 14th, 1844. Attorney-General, John J. Crittenden, 
 Kentucky, March 5th, 1841 ; Hugh S. Legare, South Carolina, Sep- 
 tember 13th, 1 841 ; John Nelson, Maryland, July ist, 1843. Post- 
 master-General, Francis Granger, New York, March 6th, 1841 ; 
 Charles A. Wickliffe, Kentucky, September 13th, 1841. 
 
 James K. Polk (XV.), 1 845-1 849. 
 
 Secretary of State, James Buchanan, Pennsylvania, March 6th, 
 1845. Secretary of Treasury, Robert J. Walker, Mississippi, 
 March 6th, 1845. Secretary of War, William L. Marcy, New 
 York, March 6th, 1845. Secretary of Navy , George Bancroft, Mas- 
 sachusetts, March loth, 1845 ; John Y. Mason, Virginia, September 
 9th, 1846. Attorney-General, John Y. Mason, Virginia, March 5th, 
 1845; Nathan Clifford, Maine, October 17th, 1846. Postmaster- 
 General, Cave Johnson, Tennessee, March 6th, 1845. 
 
 Zachary Taylor (XVI.), 1849-1853. 
 
 Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, Delaware, March 7th, 1849; 
 Daniel Webster, Massachusetts, July 22d, 1850; Edward Everett, 
 Massachusetts, December 6th, 1852. Secretary of Treasury, W. 
 M. Meredith, Pennsylvania, March 8th, 1849; Thomas Corwin, 
 Ohio, July 23d, 1850. Secretary of State, George W. Crawford, 
 Georgia, March 8th, 1849; Winfield Scott {ad interim), July 23d, 
 1850; Charles M. Conrad, Louisiana, August 15th, 1850. Secre- 
 tary of Navy,W\\\\Sim B. Preston, Virginia, March 8th, 1849; 
 William A. Graham, North Carolina, July 22d, 1850 ; J. P. Ken- 
 nedy, Maryland, July 22d, 1852. Secretary of Literior,^ ThomSiS H. 
 Ewing, Ohio, March 8th, 1849; -^- ^- H- Stuart, Virginia, Septem- 
 ber 1 2th, 1850. Attorney-General, Reverdy Johnson, Maryland, 
 March 8th, 1849; John J. Crittenden, Kentucky, July 22d, 1850. 
 Postmaster-General, Jacob Collamer, Vermont, March 8th, 1849; 
 Nathan K. Hall, New York, July 23d, 1850 ; S. D. Hubbard, Con- 
 necticut, August 31st, 1852. 
 
 Franklin Pierce (XVII.), 1853-1857. 
 
 Secretary of State, William L. Marcy, New York, March 7th, 
 1853 ; Secretary of Treasury, James Guthrie, Kentucky, March 7th, 
 1853; Secretary <y" ^F^^r, Jefferson Davis, Mississippi, March 7th, 
 
 ' Organized by Act of March 3d, 1849. 
 
CABINET OFFICERS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS ST^ 
 
 1853. Secretary of Navy, James C. Dobbin, North Carolina, 
 March 7th, 1853. Secretary of Interior, Robert McClelland, Mich- 
 igan, March 7th, 1853. ^It tor )iey -General, Caleb Cushing, Massa- 
 chusetts, March 7th, 1853. Postmaster-General, James Campbell, 
 Pennsylvania, March 7th, 1853. 
 
 James Buchanan (XVIII.), 1 857-1 861. 
 
 Secretary of State, Lewis Cass, Michigan, March 6th, 1857 ; J. S. 
 Black, Pennsylvania, December 17th, i860. Secretary of Treasury, 
 Howell Cobb, Georgia, March 6th, 1857 ; Philip F. Thomas, Mary- 
 land, December 12th, i860; John A. Dix, New York, January nth, 
 1 861. Secretary of War, John B. Floyd, Virginia, March 6th, 
 1857 ; Joseph Holt, Kentucky, January i8th, 1861. Secretary of 
 Navy, Isaac Toucey, Connecticut, March 6th, 1857. Secretary of 
 hiterior, Jacob Thompson, Mississippi, March 6th, 1857. Attor- 
 ney-General, J. S. Black, Pennsylvania, March 6th, 1857 ; E. M. 
 Stanton, Pennsylvania, December 20th, i860. Postmaster-General, 
 Aaron V. Brown, Tennessee, March 6th, 1857 ; Joseph Holt, Ken- 
 tucky, March 14th, 1859; Horatio King, Maine, February 12th, 
 1 861. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln ) .^tv ..^^ w n o^ q^ 
 . T mXIX. and XX.), i86i-i86q. 
 
 Andrew Jackson ) ^ ''' ^ 
 
 Secretary of State, William H. Seward, New York, March 5th, 
 1861. Secretary of Treasury, S. P. Chase, Ohio, March 5th, 1861; 
 W. P. Fessenden, Maine, July ist, 1864; Hugh McCuUoch, Indiana, 
 March 7th, 1865. Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, Pennsyl- 
 vania, March 5th, 1 861 ; Edwin M. Stanton, Pennsylvania, January 
 15th, 1862; U.S.Grant {ad interim),^ August 12th, 1867; Edwin 
 M. Stanton (reinstated), January 14th, 1868; J. M. Scofield, Illinois, 
 May 28th, 1868. Secretary of Navy, Gideon Welles, Connecticut, 
 March 5th, 1861. Secretary of Interior, Caleb P. Smith, March 
 5th, 1861 ; John P. Usher, Indiana, January 8th, 1863 ; James Har- 
 lan, Iowa, May 15th, 1865; O. H. Browning, Illinois, July 27th, 
 1866. Attorney-General , Edward Bates, Missouri, March 5th, 1861 ; 
 Titian J. Coffey [ad interim"), June 22d, 1863; James Speed, Ken- 
 tucky, December 2d, 1864; Henry Stanbery, Ohio, July 23d, 1866; 
 William M. Evarts, New York, July 15th, 1868. Postmaster- 
 General, Montgomery Blair, Maryland, March 5th, 1861 ; William 
 Dennison, Ohio, September 24th, 1864; Alexander W. Randall, 
 Wisconsin, July 25th, 1866. 
 
 Ulysses S. Grant (XXI. and XXII.), 1 869-1 877. 
 
 Secretary of State, E. B. Washburne, Illinois, March 5th, 1869; 
 Hamilton Fish, New York, March nth, 1869. Secretary of Treas- 
 
 * See p. 216. 
 
57 2 APPENDIX X 
 
 7^;-/, George S. Boutwell, Massachusetts, March nth, 1869; Wil- 
 liam A. Richardson, Massachusetts, March 17th, 1873; Benjamin 
 H. Bristow, Kentucky, June 2d, 1874; Lot M. Morrill, Maine, June 
 2 1 St, 1876. Secretary of War, John A. Rawlins, Illinois, March 
 nth, 1869; William T. Sherman, Ohio, September 9th, 1869 ; Wil- 
 liam W. Belknap, Iowa, October 25th, 1869; Alphonso Taft, Ohio, 
 March 8th, 1876; J. D. Cameron, Pennsylvania, May 22d, 1876. 
 Secretary of Navy, Adolph E. Borie, Pennsylvania, March 5th, 
 1869; George M. Robeson, New Jersey, June 25th, 1869. Secre- 
 tary of Interior, ^oXwi D. Cox, Ohio, March 5th, 1869; Columbus 
 Delano, Ohio, November ist, 1870; Zachariah Chandler, Michigan, 
 October 19th, 1875. Attorney-General, E. R. Hoar, Massachusetts, 
 March 5th, 1869; Amos T. Akerman, Georgia, June 23d, 1870; 
 George H. Williams, Oregon, December 14th, 1871 ; Edwards 
 Pierrepont, New York, April 26th, 1875 ; Alphonso Taft, Ohio, 
 May 22d, 1876. Postmaster-Genera/, J. A. J. Creswell, Maryland, 
 March 5th, 1869 ; Marshall Jewell, Connecticut, August 24th, 1874; 
 James M. Tyner, Indiana, July 12th, 1876. 
 
 Rutherford B. Hayes (XXIII.), 1877-1881. 
 
 Secretary of State, William M. Evarts, New York, March 12th, 
 1877. Secretary of Treasury, John Sherman, Ohio, March 8th, 
 1877. Secretary of War, George W. McCrary, Iowa, March 12th, 
 1877; Alexander Ramsey, Minnesota, December 12th, 1879, ^'^'^' 
 retary of Navy, Richard W. Thompson, Indiana, March 12th. 
 1877 ; Nathan Goff, Jr., West Virginia, January 6th, 1881. 
 Secretary of Interior, Carl Schurz, Missouri, March 12th, 1877. 
 Attorney-General, Charles Devens, Massachusetts, March 12th, 
 1877, Postmaster-General, David M. Key, Tennessee, March 12th, 
 1877 ; Horace Maynard, Tennessee, August 25th, 1880. 
 
 t}^ll_\ ^^^!.'.^.^^ I (XXIV.). 1881-1885. 
 
 Chester A. Arthur 
 Secretary of State, ]?imG:s G. Blaine, Maine, March 5th, 1881 ; 
 Frederick T. Frelinghuysen, New Jersey, December 12th, 1881. 
 Secretary of Treasury, William H. Windom, Minnesota, March 
 5th, 1881 ; Charles J. Folger, New York, October 27th, 1881. Sec- 
 retary of War, Robert T. Lincoln, Illinois, March 5th, 1881. Sec- 
 retary of Navy, W. H. Hunt, Louisiana, March 5th, 1881 ; Wm. 
 E. Chandler, New Hampshire, April 12th, 1882. Secretary of In- 
 terior, S. J. Kirkwood, Iowa, March 5th, 1881 ; Henry M. Teller, 
 Colorado, April 6th, 1882. Attorney-General, Wayne MacVeagh, 
 Pennsylvania, March 5th, 1881 ; Benjamin H. Brewster, Pennsyl- 
 vania, December i6th, 1881. Postmaster-General, Thomas L. 
 James, New York, March 5th, 1881 ; Timothy O. Howe, Wisconsin, 
 December 20th, 1881 ; W. O. Gresham, Indiana, April 3d, 1883; 
 Frank Hatton, Iowa, October 14th, 1884. 
 
CABINET OFFICHRS OF THE ADMINISTRATIONS 573 
 
 Grover Cleveland (XXV.), 1885-1889. 
 
 Secretary of State, Thomas F. Bayard, Delaware, March 6th, 
 1885. Secretary of Treasury, Daniel Manning, New York, March 
 6th, 1885; Charles S. Fairchild, New York, April ist, 1887. Secre- 
 tary of War, William C. Endicott, Massachusetts, March 6th, 1885. 
 Secretary of Xavy, William C. Whitney, New York, March 6th, 
 1885. Secretary of Interior, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, Mississippi, 
 March 6th, 1885 ; William F. Vilas, Wisconsin, January i6th, 1888. 
 Attorney-General, Augustus H. Garland, Arkansas, March 6th, 
 1885. Postmaster-General, William F. Vilas, Wisconsin, March 
 6th, 1885 ; Don Vi. Dickinson, Michigan, January i6th, 1888. 
 
 Benjamin Harrison (XXVL), 1889-1893. 
 
 Secretary of State, ^ ]^x\\^s G. Blaine, Maine, March 7th, 1889; 
 John W. Foster, Indiana, June 29th, 1892. Secretary of Treasury, 
 William Windom, Minnesota, March 7th, 1889; Charles Foster, 
 Ohio, February 25th, 1891. Secretary of War, Redfield Proctor, 
 Vermont, March 7th, 1889; Stephen 13. Elkins, West Virginia, De- 
 cember 24th, 1 89 1. Attorney-General, W. H. H. Miller, Indiana, 
 March 7th, i88g. Postmaster-General, John W^anamaker, Penn- 
 sylvania, March 7th, 1889. Secretary of Navy, Benj. F. Tracy, 
 New York, March 7th, 1889. Secretary of Interior, John W. 
 Noble, Missouri, March 7th, 1889. Secretary of Agriculture, Jere. 
 M. Rusk, Wisconsin, March 7th, 1889. 
 
 Grover Cleveland (XXVII. ), 1893-1897. 
 
 Secretary of State, Walter O. Gresham, Illinois, March 7th, 
 1893 ; Richard Olney, Massachusetts, June loth, 1895. Secretary 
 of Treasury, ]ohn G. Cz.i-\\s\t, Kentucky, March 7th, 1893. Secre- 
 tary of War, Daniel S. Lamont, New York, March 7th, 1893. 
 Attorney-General, Richard Olney, Massachusetts, March 7th, 1893 ; 
 Judson Harmon, Ohio, June i ith, 1895. Postmaster-Ge?ieral, Wil- 
 son S. Bissell, New York, March 7th, 1893 ; William L. Wilson, 
 West Virginia, April 3d, 1895. Secretary of Navy, Hilary A. 
 Herbert, Alabama, March 7th, 1893. Secretary of Interior, Hoke 
 Smith, Georgia, March 7th, 1893 ; David R. Francis, Missouri, Sep- 
 tember 3d, 1896. Secretary of Agriculture, JuVius Sterling Morton, 
 Nebraska, March 7th, 1893. 
 
 William McKinley (XXVIII.), 1897-1900. 
 
 Secretary of State, John Sherman, Ohio, March 6th, 1897 ; Wil- 
 liam R. Day, Ohio, April 26th, 1898 ; John Hay, Ohio, September 
 
 ' The Cabinet is here arranged in tlie order of succession for the Presidency according to 
 Act of XLIXth Congress, whicli does not, however, inchide the Secretary of Agricuhure. 
 
574 APPENDIX X 
 
 30th, 1898. Secretary of Treasury, Lyman J. Gage, Illinois, 
 March 6th, 1897. Secretary of War, Russell A.Alger, Michigan, 
 March 6th, 1897 ; Elihu Root, New York, July 22(1, 1899. Attorney- 
 General, Joseph McKenna, California, March 6th, 1897 ; John W. 
 Griggs, New Jersey, January 31st, 1898. Postmaster-General, 
 James A. Gary, Maryland, March 6th, 1897 ; Charles Emory Smith, 
 Pennsylvania, April 21st, 1898. Secretary of Navy , John D. Long, 
 Massachusetts, March 6th, 1897. Secretary of Interior, Cornelius 
 N. Bliss, New York, Marcji 6th, 1897. Secretary of Agriculture, 
 James Wilson, Iowa, March 6th, 1897. 
 
APPENDIX XI 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL ADDRESS 
 TO THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 Sept. 17, 1796. 
 
 Friends and Fellow Citizens : The period for a new election 
 of a citizen to administer the executive government of the United 
 States being not far distant, it appears to me proper that I should 
 now apprise you of the resolution which I have formed, to decline 
 being considered among the number of those out of whom a choice 
 is to be made. In looking forward to the moment which is intended 
 to terminate my public life, my feelings do not permit me to sus- 
 pend the deep acknowledgment of that debt of gratitude which I 
 owe to my beloved country for the many honors it has conferred 
 upon me ; still more for the steadfast confidence with which it has 
 supported me, and for the opportunities I have thence enjoyed of 
 manifesting my attachment by services faithful and persevering, 
 though in usefulness unequal to my zeal. If benefits have resulted 
 to our country from these services, let it always be remembered to 
 your praise, and as an instructive example in our annals, that the con- 
 stancy of your support was the essential prop of the efforts, and of 
 the plans by which they were effected. Here, perhaps, I ought to 
 stop ; but solicitude for your welfare urges me to offer to your 
 solemn contemplation, and to recommend to your frequent review, 
 some sentiments which appear to me all-important to your felicity 
 as a people. 
 
 Interwoven as is the love of liberty with every ligament of your 
 hearts, no recommendation of mine is necessary to confirm the at- 
 tachment. The unity of government, which constitutes you one 
 people, is also now dear to you. It is justly so ; for it is a main 
 pillar in the edifice of your real independence — the support of your 
 tranquillity at home, your peace abroad, of your safety, of your pros- 
 perity, of that very liberty which you so highly prize. While, then, 
 every part of our country feels an interest in the Union, all the 
 parts combined cannot fail to find greater strength, greater re- 
 source, greater security from external danger, a less frequent inter- 
 ruption of their peace by foreign nations, and an exemption from 
 wars between themselves. Hence, likewise, they will avoid the 
 necessity of those overgrown military establishments, which are par- 
 
 575 
 
5 7^ IVASHlNGTOhl'S FAREIVELL ADDRESS 
 
 ticularly hostile to republican liberty. In this sense it is that your 
 union ought to be considered as the main prop of your liberty. 
 
 Of all the dispositions and habits which lead to political pros- 
 perity, religion, and morality are indispensable supports. In vain 
 would that man claim the tribute of patriotism, who should labor 
 to subvert these great pillars of human happiness. The mere poli- 
 tician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and to cherish 
 them. 
 
 Promote, as an object of primary importance, institutions for the 
 general diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a 
 government gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public 
 opinion should be enlightened. 
 
 As a very important source of strength and security, cherish pub- 
 lic credit. One method of preserving it is to use it as sparingly as 
 possible, avoiding the accumulation of debt, not only by shunning 
 occasions of expense, but by vigorous exertions in time of peace to 
 discharge the debts which unavoidable wars may have occasioned. 
 
 The great rule of conduct for us, in regard to foreign nations, is 
 in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little 
 political connection as possible. So far as we have already formed 
 engagements, let them be fulfilled wnth perfect good faith. Here 
 let us stop. It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alli- 
 ances with any portion of the foreign world. 
 
 Though, in reviewing the incidents of my administration, I am 
 unconscious of intentional errors, I am nevertheless too sensible of 
 my defects not to think it probable that I may have committed many 
 errors. Whatever they may be, I fervently beseech the Almighty 
 to avert or mitigate the evils to which they may tend. I shall also 
 carry with me the hope that my country will never cease to view 
 them with indulgence ; and that, after forty-five years of my life 
 dedicated to its service with an upright zeal, the faults of incompe- 
 tent abilities will be consigned to oblivion, as myself must soon be 
 to the mansions of rest. Relying on its kindness, and actuated by 
 that fervent love towards it which is so natural to a man who views 
 in it the native soil of himself and his progenitors for several gener- 
 ations, I anticipate with pleasing expectation that retreat in which 
 I promise myself to realize the sweet enjoyment of partaking, in the 
 midst of my fellow citizens, the benign influence of good laws under 
 a free government — the ever favorite object of my heart, and the 
 happy reward, as I trust, of our mutual cares, labors, and dangers. 
 
 G. Washington. 
 
 United States, 17th September, 1796. 
 
 [The above is but a small portion of this celebrated address, and 
 has been abbreviated with the purpose of enabling the pupil to un- 
 derstand something of Washington's advice to him.] 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 Note. — The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 St. and /^ori are considered parts of the reference name; lA' and r'^« are not. Thus, 
 look for St. Louis under the letter S; for Fort Sumter under F; for de Grasse under G; for 
 von Steuben under S. 
 
 The pronunciation is indicated in all fairly doubtful cases, and the characters which indi- 
 cate it have been made as few and simple as possible. Pronounce a as in tnate, e as in 
 mete, I as in mite, o as in »toie, u as in mute ; :1 as in bag, e as in beg, I as in big, o as in 
 bog, \\ as in bug: a with the obscure sound of a in idea; ah as a vn/ather: aw as in saw: 
 ow as in coiu: oo as in foot: ch as in chamber: g always hard, as \n get, j being used for 
 the soft sound of g. Italic f is silent, but shows that the vowel preceding it in the same 
 syllable is long. In French names, the capital letters H and R are to be pronounced more 
 forcibly than we are accustomed to pronounce them in English. An(g) is the French nasal 
 sound; it is uttered very much as spelled, except tliat it stops before the sound of ng is quite 
 completed Letters not mentioned here, or unmarked, are to be pronounced as they would 
 be in an English word. 
 
 Abolitionists, their first appearance, 
 462; charged with instigating negro 
 insurrection, 462; their use of the 
 mails, 492; attacks on them, 493; 
 their political action, 494, 515, 547; 
 their increase in numbers, 556; their 
 final success, 66g, 757. 
 
 Acadia (a-ka'di-a), its settlement by 
 de Monts, 19; conquest by the Eng- 
 lish, 71, 146. 
 
 Acquisitions of territory, 544; in 
 square miles, yj^. 
 
 Adams, C. F., nominated for Vice- 
 President, 548. 
 
 Adams, John, a Massachusetts leader 
 169; in the second Continental Con 
 gress, 192; connection with the Dec 
 laration of Independence, 206, 432 
 elected Vice-President, 287, 304 
 President, 311; his defeat in 1800 
 323; his death, 432; his career, 439 
 
 Adams, John Quincy, Secretary oi 
 State, 412; elected President, 427 
 connection with the American sys 
 tem, 434; defeated in 1828, 438 
 his career, 439; connection with the 
 Abolitionists, 558. 
 
 Adams, Samuel, a Massachusetts 
 leader, 169; in the second Con- 
 tinental Congress, 192. 
 
 Administration of Justice Act, 175. 
 
 Africa, early exploration in, 4, 12. 
 
 Agricultural machinery, its poor con- 
 dition in 1790, 289; invention of the 
 mowing and reaping machine, 338, 
 448; modern condition, 594. 
 
 Aguinaldo (ah-gwin-ahl'do), leader of 
 the Philippine insurgents, 881; de- 
 mands independence for Filipinos, 
 900. 
 
 Alabama (al-n-bah'mn) unsettled in 
 1812, 394; admission, 419; seces- 
 sion, 613; re-conquest. 727; read- 
 mission, ydz. 
 Alabama Claims, the, their origin, 
 
 627, 672; their settlement, 776-7. 
 Alabama, the, escape of, 672; work of, 
 696; destroyed by the Kcarsarge, 
 720; after-consequences, 776-7. 
 .\Iargon (ah-laR'sont-) discovers the 
 
 Colorado, 16. 
 Alaska bought from Russia, 523, 773; 
 
 Klondike gold-fields, 893. 
 Albany (awrba-ni), N. Y., early 
 Dutch settlement, no; called Fort 
 Orange, 117; threatened by Bur- 
 goyne, 219; connected with Buffalo 
 by the Erie Canal, 424. 
 Albany Plan of Lfnion, the, rejected 
 
 by both crown and colonies, 145. 
 Albemarle (al-be-marl') Colony, the, 
 a Virginian settleinent in North 
 Carolina, 93. 
 Albemarle Sound, N. C, limit of the 
 
 Cabot voyage, 10. 
 Albemarle, the, svtnk by a torpedo, 716. 
 Alert, the, captured by the Essex, 366. 
 Alger, Russell A., Secretary of War, 
 
 869; resigns, 898. 
 Algiers (al-jeerz'), one of the Barbary 
 States, 341; compelled to seize pi- 
 racy, 404. 
 Algonquins (al-gon'kwinz), an Indian 
 
 race, 3. 
 Alien Laws, the, their passage, 321. 
 Alleghany (al'le-ga-ni) Mountains, 
 the, their location, 116; serve as a 
 western boundary to the English 
 colonies, 13s, 2y2; passed by emi- 
 gration after 1790, 291. 
 
 577 
 
578 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 t^" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Allen, Chas. H., governor of Porto 
 Rico, 903. 
 
 Allen, Ethan, captures Ticonderoga, 
 199. 
 
 Allen, Capt. VV. H., captured in the 
 Argus, 372. 
 
 Altamaha (al-ta-ma-haw') River, the, 
 Oglethorpe's battle near, 106. 
 
 Alton, 111., riot at, 493. 
 
 Ambrister (am'bris-ter), Robert C, 
 executed by Jackson, 414. 
 
 Amendments to the Constitution, how 
 made, 284; object of the first 
 ten Amendments, 286; adoption 
 of the first ten Amendments, 
 297; adoption of the 12th Amend- 
 ment, 295, 222; of the 13th Amend- 
 ment, 757; of the 14th Amend- 
 ment, 763; of the 15th Amendment, 
 789. 
 
 America, origin of the name, 8. 
 
 America, the, presented to France, 
 243- 
 
 American Party, the, its origin, 572; 
 its defeat and disappearance, 582. 
 
 American System, the: Clay and 
 Adams unite protective tariff and 
 internal improvements under this 
 title, 434; opposed by the South, 
 435; by Jackson, 470; adopted by the 
 Whigs, 471 ; overthrown until 1861 
 (see Protection), 521. 
 
 Anaesthetics, their use in surgery, 517. 
 
 Anarchists, 829. 
 
 Anderson, Major Robert, in com- 
 mand at Fort Sumter, 617. 
 
 Andersonville, Ga., prison, 725. 
 
 Andre (an'dril), Major John, captured 
 and executed as a spy, 238. 
 
 Andros (an'dros). Sir Edmund, his 
 proceedings at Hartford, 61 ; object 
 of his appointment as governor of 
 New England, 70; his removal, 70; 
 appointed governor of Virginia, 70. 
 
 Anglo-American alliance, 887. 
 
 Anglo-American commission, 887. 
 
 Anglo-American league, 887. 
 
 Annapolis (an-nap'o-lis), Md., found- 
 ed, 86; Washington surrenders his 
 commission at, 264; first attempt to 
 hold a Federal Convention at, 278; 
 establishment of the Naval School 
 at, 519- 
 
 Annapolis, N. S., capture of, 72. 
 
 Anne, Queen, 71. 
 
 Anthracite coal discovered in Penn- 
 sylvania in 1791, 338, note; shipped 
 to Philadelphia in 1806, 338; little 
 used until 1830, 338, note; used on 
 railroads and steamboats about 1835, 
 446; general use, 511. 
 
 Antietam (an-te'tnm), battle of, 666. 
 
 Anti-Federal Party, the, its origin, 
 285; defeat and disappearance, 303. 
 
 Anti-imperialists, 905. 
 
 Anti-Masons, their origin. 472. 
 
 Anti-Nebraska Men, the first name of 
 the Republican Party of 1856, 576. 
 
 Anti-renters, their purposes, 514. 
 
 Antislavery Society, the, its origin, 
 462 (see Abolitionists). 
 
 Anti-trust agitation, 891. 
 
 Appomattox (ap-po-mat'tocks) River, 
 the, Lee's line of retreat, 733; Court- 
 house, Lee's surrender at, y:}:^. 
 
 Arabian, the, the first American loco- 
 motive, 443, note. 
 
 Arbitration, the treaty, 867; proposals 
 of the Hague conference ratified, 
 897. 
 
 Arbuthnot (ar'buth-not), Alexander, 
 executed by Jackson, 414. 
 
 Argus, the, her successful cruise, 372; 
 captured by the Pelican, 372. 
 
 Arkansas (ar'kan-saw) admission, 454; 
 secession, 626; re-conquest, 683; 
 readmission, 762; disorders in, 790. 
 
 Arkansas, the, captured by the Union 
 fleet, 655. 
 
 Army, th^: formation of an American 
 army, 191; difficulties in the way, 
 197; flag and uniform, 197; dis 
 banded without just treatment, 264 
 government of the army, 281; com 
 mand-in-chief, 282; a new army be 
 gun in 1798, 319; inefficiency of the 
 army in 1812, 352; reorganization in 
 
 1813, 364; success of the army in 
 
 1814, 391; the army of the South- 
 west, 395; capture of the regular 
 army in the South, 616; formation 
 of a volunteer army, 629; support 
 by Congress, 631 ; care of the army, 
 692; reinforcement of the, 693, 722; 
 numbers of the army, 746; losses, 
 747; disbandment of the army, 752; 
 formation of the volunteer army of 
 1898, 880. 
 
 Arnold, Benedict, his march through 
 Maine and retreat from Quebec, 200; 
 beats the British back from Fort 
 Schuyler, 220; his daring at Sara- 
 toga, 223; his treason, 238; ravages 
 Virginia, 252; butchers the garrison 
 at New London, 259. 
 
 Arthur, Chester A., elected Vice- 
 President, 817; succeeds to the 
 presidency at Garfield's death, 818. 
 
 Articles of Association put forth by 
 the Continental Congress, 177. 
 
 Articles of Confederation ratified by 
 the States, 270; found to be worth- 
 less, 275; the impossibility of 
 amending them, 277; succeeded by 
 the Constitution, 287. 
 
 Assemblies the real governing power 
 of the colonies, 36, 130, 162; that 
 of Virginia the first, 76; take sides 
 against the Parliament, 162, 172; the 
 people side with the assemblies, 172. 
 
 Astor Library, 595. 
 
 Atlanta. Ga., not on the map in 1830, 
 451; held by Johnston, 697, 706; 
 captured by Sherman, 709; burned 
 by Sherman, 712; holds a Cottoii 
 Exposition, S24. 
 
 Atlanta, the. destroyed by the Wee- 
 hawkcn, 688. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 579 
 
 f"-*y' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Atlantic telegraph, the, successfully 
 laid, 772. 
 
 Attorney-General, the office of, estab- 
 lished, 298. 
 
 Augusta (aw-gus't(7), Ga., founded, 
 104; captured by the British. J44. 
 
 Austria, the Koszta dispute with, 568. 
 
 Avon, the, taken by the Wasp, 374. 
 
 Ayllon (ilr-yon^'). 9- 
 
 Azores (a-zorz') Islands, the, Gos- 
 nold's route by, 24; Reid's battle 
 in, 376. 
 
 / 
 
 P.ACON, Nathaniel, his rebellion and 
 death, 8j. 
 
 Bahama (ba-ha'ma) Islands, the, dis- 
 covered by Columbus, 6. 
 
 Bainbridge (bani^'brij), Capt. William, 
 in command of the Constitution, x6%. 
 
 Baker, E. D., killed at Ball's Bluff, 
 634, note. 
 
 Ballot reform, 833. 
 
 Ball's Bluff, battle of, 634. 
 
 Baltimore (bawrti-mon'). Lord, found- 
 er of Maryland, 85. 
 
 Baltimore, Md., founded, 86; seat of 
 Congress in 1776, 211; beats off the 
 British, 387; riot in, 623. 
 
 Bancroft, George, the historian, 458. 
 
 Bank of the United States, first one 
 chartered, 300; charter expires, 408; 
 second chartered, 408; Jackson at- 
 tacks it, 468; vetoes the renewal of 
 the charter, 469; charter expires, 
 469; the Whigs support the bank, 
 471 ; attempt to charter a third, 
 501. 
 
 Banks, wildcat, 484. 
 
 Banks, Gen. Nathaniel P., beaten by 
 Jackson, 662; in command in Lou- 
 isiana, 679; fails in his Red River 
 expedition, 715. 
 
 Barbadoes (bar-ba'doz), colonists from 
 Barbadoes in Carolina, 93. 
 
 Barbary States, the, professional pi- 
 rates, 341; beaten into peace by the 
 American navy, 342; brought to 
 terms, 404. 
 
 Barclay, Capt. R. II., commands the 
 I'ritish fleet on Lake Erie. 381. 
 
 Baton Rouge (bat'n roozh). La., 655. 
 
 Baum (bowm), Lieut. -Col., com- 
 mands the British at Bennington, 
 220. 
 
 Beauregard (bo-re-gard'), Gen. P. G. 
 T., commands at Manassas Junc- 
 tion, 632; at Corinth, 643. 
 
 Beef scandal, the, 899. 
 
 Behaim's globe, 4, note. 
 
 Bell, John, nominated for the presi- 
 dency, 608. 
 
 Bemis Heights, battle of, 222. 
 
 Bennington, battle of, 220. 
 
 Bering Sea seal fisheries, 848. 
 
 Berkeley (berk'li), Gov. William, sup- 
 presses Bacon's rebellion, 82. 
 
 Berkeley, Lord John, one of the pro- 
 prietors of New Jersey, 118. 
 
 Berlin Decree of Napoleon, 343. 
 
 Berlin treaty, the, regarding Samoa, 
 894. 
 
 Bidwell, Jolm, nominated for Presi- 
 dent, 854. 
 
 Big Bethel, skirmish of, 629, note. 
 
 Big Horn River, Indian battle at, 785. 
 
 Biloxi (be-loks'i). Miss., settled, 138. 
 
 Bimetallism, the paramount issue in 
 the election of 1896, 865; failure of 
 international commission, 872; in 
 1900, 906. 
 
 Black Hawk, Us • -ar against the 
 whites, 463. 
 
 Bladensburgh (bla'dnz-burg), battle 
 of, 386. 
 
 Blaine, James Gillespie, nominated 
 for President, 826; defeated, 826. 
 
 B'air, l^rancis P., nominated for Vice- 
 President, but defeated, 768. 
 
 Blakely (blake'li), Capt. J., in com- 
 mand of the H'asp, 374. 
 
 Blanco (blah'n-co), Ramon (rah'- 
 mon), in Cuba, 874. 
 
 Bland-Allison Act, the, 812. 
 
 Blockade (of 1813), 371, 383; (of 1S61), 
 625, 650; of Cuba, 882. 
 
 Bonaparte, Napoleon, makes peace 
 with the United States, 320; sells 
 Louisiana to the United States, 334; 
 forbids American commerce with 
 Europe, 343; fraudulently arrays 
 the United States against CJreat 
 Britain, 349; is sent to Elba, 397. 
 
 Bonds, 161, 814, 825, 857, 886. 
 
 Bonhommc Richard (bo-nom're-shaR'), 
 the, captures the Scrapis, 242. 
 
 Boone, Daniel, settles in Kentucky, 
 157, note. 
 
 Booth, John Wilkes, the murderer of 
 President Lincoln, 737. 
 
 Border States, the, their course of ac- 
 tion, 626. 
 
 Boston, Mass., founded, 49; rebel- 
 lious proceedings in, 171, 174; the 
 attempt to punish tliem, 175; siege 
 of, 183; evacuation of, 19S; popu- 
 lation in 1790, 288; great fire in, 
 784; 
 
 Boston Massacre, the, 171. 
 
 Boston Port Act, the, 175. 
 
 P>oston Tea-party, the, 174. 
 
 Boundaries, colonial and State, west- 
 ern boundary at first supposed to be 
 the Pacific Ocean, 135; after 1763 
 the Mississippi, 271; really the Al- 
 leghanies, 272; western boundaries 
 fixed, 273. 
 
 Boundaries, LTnited States, in 1783, 
 263; the northeast boundary, 497; 
 the northern boundary, 503; the 
 northwest boundary, 504, 523, 777; 
 the southwest boundary, 524; 
 changes produced by the Mexican 
 war, 528, 544 (see Acquisitions of 
 Territory). 
 
 Bowling (bolc'ing) Green, Ky., occu- 
 pied by the Confederates, 639. 
 
 Boxer, the, captured by the Enter- 
 prise, 370. 
 
580 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 jajg" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Braddock, General William, defeated 
 and killed near Fort Duquesne, 146. 
 Bradford, William, a Massachusetts 
 leader. 47. 
 
 Bragg, Gen. Braxton, his raid into 
 Kentucky, 644; fights a battle at 
 Murfreesboro, 645; evacuates Chat- 
 tanooga, 685; fights at Chicka- 
 mauga, 685; besieges Chattanooga, 
 686; beaten back to Dalton by 
 Grant, and removed, 687. 
 
 Brandywine Creek, battle on, 216. 
 
 Brant, Joseph, an Indian chief in the 
 British service, 232. 
 
 Brazil (bra-zeel'), 720. 
 
 Breckinridge, John C, elected Vice- 
 President, 582; defeated for the 
 presidency, 608. 
 
 Breed's Hill, battle on, 194. 
 
 Breton (bret'n). Cape, discovered by 
 Cabot, 10; occupied by the French, 
 72; by the English, 148, 154. 
 
 Breyman (bra'man). Col., in com- 
 mand of the British in the second 
 fight at Bennington, 220. 
 
 Briar Creek, Ga., skirmish at, 245. 
 
 Bridges, early lack of, 133, 290; mod- 
 ern suspension, 566. 
 
 Bridgewater, battle of, 392. 
 
 Bristol, R. I., destroyed by the Brit- 
 ish, 203. 
 
 Brock, Gen. Isaac, captures Detroit 
 and the American garrison, 356. 
 
 Broke, Capt. P. V., in command of 
 the SIuiiDwn, 372. 
 
 Brooke, Gen. John R., Governor-Gen- 
 eral of Cuba, 902; of Porto Rico, 
 903; succeeded by Gen. Henry, 903. 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y., a ferry station, 117; 
 captured by the British, 209. 
 
 Brooks, John A., nominated for Vice- 
 President, 840, note. 
 
 Brooks, P. S., assaults Sumner, 581 
 
 Broviin, B. Gratz, 796. 
 
 Brown, Gen. Jacob, at Sackett's Har- 
 bor, 362, note; reorganizes the army, 
 364; at Chippewa, 392; wounded, 
 392; returns to command, 393. 
 
 Brown, John, his raid on Harper's 
 Ferry and execution, 604. 
 
 Brownsville, Tex., captured by Tay- 
 lor, 524. 
 
 Brown University, foundation of, 187. 
 
 Bryan, Wm. J., nominated for Presi- 
 dent and defeated, 865; renomi- 
 nated, 906. 
 
 Bryant Park, N. Y., 564. 
 
 Bryant, William Cullen, 457. 
 
 Buccaneers in New York, 114. 
 
 Buchanan (bfik-an'an), James, elected 
 President, 582. 
 
 Buchanan, Franklin, in command of 
 the Merrimac and Tennessee, 718. 
 
 Buckner, Gen. S. B., nominated for 
 Vice-President, 865. 
 
 Buel (bu'el). Gen. Don Carlos, in 
 command in Kentucky, 639; rein- 
 forces Grant, 642; fights a battle at 
 Perryville, 644. 
 
 Buena Vista (bwa'nah vees'tah), bat- 
 tle of, 532-3. 
 
 Buffalo, N. Y., not on the map in 
 1812, 354; benefited by the War of 
 1812, 405; by the Erie Canal, 424. 
 
 Bull Run, battle of, 632. 
 
 Piull Run, second battle of, 664. 
 
 Bunker Hill, battle of, 194-6. 
 
 Burgoyne (bur-goin'). Gen. John, ar- 
 rives at Boston, 194; organizes an 
 army in Canada for the invasion of 
 New York, 218; surrenders to 
 Gates at Saratoga, 222. 
 
 Burke, Edmund, champions the cause' 
 of the colonies, 202. 
 
 Burlington, N. J., settlement of, 119. 
 
 Burnside, Gen. Ambrose E., in com- 
 mand of the Army of the Potomac, 
 666; defeated at Fredericksburgh, 
 667; in command at Knoxville, 686. 
 
 Burr, Aaron, elected Vice-President, 
 323; shoots Hamilton, 332; not re- 
 elected Vice-President, 339; his 
 Mississippi expedition, 340. 
 
 Burrows, Lieut. W., in command of 
 the Enterprise, 370. 
 
 Butler, Gen. Benj. F., in command at 
 Hatteras Inlet, 636; at New Orleans, 
 654; removed, 679; sent to attack 
 Petersbi:rgh, 700; " bottled up," 
 703; his Fort Fisher expedition, 
 716; his treatment of runaway 
 slaves, 754, note; nominated for 
 President, bvit defeated, 826, note. 
 
 Butler, John, a Tory leader, 232. 
 
 Butler, Wm. Orlando, nominated for 
 Vice-President, 548. 
 
 Cabal, the Conway, 223. 
 
 Cabinet, the, meaning of the term, 
 296. 
 
 Cabots (kab'ots), the, their discover- 
 ies, 10. 
 
 Cabrillo (kah-breel'yo), a Spanish ex- 
 plorer, 15. 
 
 Cairo (kl'ro), 111., occupied by Grant, 
 639- 
 
 Calhoun (kal-hoon'), John C, Sec- 
 retary of War, 412; elected Vice- 
 President, 427; re-elected, 438; not 
 re-elected Vice-President, 473; his 
 doctrine of nullification, 476; his 
 death, 558. 
 
 California, early explorations in, 13; 
 belongs to Mexico, 528; seized by 
 the American forces, 529; trans- 
 ferred to the United States, 543; 
 discovery of gold in, 549; disor- 
 ders in, 553; difficulties of admis- 
 sion, 553; admission as a State, 555. 
 
 Calvert, Cecil (sis'il kol'vcrt). re- 
 ceives a patent for the colony of 
 Maryland, 85. 
 
 Calvert. Sir George, plans a colony 
 in America, 85. 
 
 Calvert, Leonard, leads the settle- 
 ment of Maryland, 86. 
 
 Cambridge, Mass., settlement of, 49; 
 Harvard College founded at, 75; 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 581 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Cambridge — Continued. 
 headquarters of the American army, 
 197- 
 
 Camden, battle of, 249. 
 Canada, settled by the French, 19, 
 30; early explorations by the 
 French, 136; conquered by the 
 British, 15 j; transferred to Great 
 Britain, 154; attacked by the Ameri- 
 can forces, 199; the Americans are 
 driven out of it, 200; receives the 
 Tories at the close of the Revolu- 
 tion, j66; unsuccessful invasions of 
 Canada by the American forces, 
 357. 36-^-3; battles in, 39-;-3 ; Patriot 
 War, 496; Confederate agents in, 
 724; Fenian attack on, 771; fisher- 
 ies dispute with, 777. 834. 
 
 Canals, in New England, 312; na- 
 tional provision for, 422, 434; the 
 Erie canal, 424; further canal con- 
 struction by the States, 453, 489; 
 the Panama canal, 834; the Nicara- 
 gua canal, 895-6, 906. 
 
 Canary Islands, the, 6. 
 
 Caney (ka-nay'), 882. 
 
 Canonicus (ka-non'i-kus), an Indian 
 chief, 62. 
 
 Cape X'erde Islands, the, 882. 
 
 Capital of the United States, at Phila- 
 delphia, 299; at Washington, 324. 
 
 Carolina becomes a royal colony, 35; 
 named for Charles IX. of France 
 and Charles II. of England, 90. 
 
 " Carpet-bagger," meaning of the 
 term, 789, note. 
 
 Carteret (kar-ter-et'). Sir George, one 
 of the proprietors of New Jersey, 118. 
 
 Cartier, Jacques (zhak kaR't-ya), dis- 
 covers the St. Lawrence, 11; makes 
 an unsuccessful settlement at 
 Quebec, 18. 
 
 Cass, Lewis, nominated for President, 
 but defeated, 548. 
 
 Castine (kas-teen'), Me., capture of 
 an American fleet at, 243. 
 
 Catholics, Roman, formation of a col- 
 ony for, 85; ill-treatment of the 
 Roman Catholics in Maryland, 88. 
 
 Cavaliers, a name applied to the 
 king's friends, 41. 
 
 Cavite (ka-ve-ta'), 88i. 
 
 Cayugas (ka-yoo'g(7z), an Indian tribe 
 of New York, 3. 
 
 Cebu (sa-boo'), 900. 
 
 Cedar Creek, battle of, 705. 
 
 Cemeteries, National, 747. 
 
 Census, (first, 1790,) 313; (second, 
 1800,) 324; (third. 1810,) 353; 
 (fourth, 1820,) 421; (fifth, 1830,) 452; 
 (sixth, 1840,) 490; (seventh, 1850,) 
 561; (eighth, :86o,) 588; (ninth, 
 1870,) 782; (tenth, 1880,) 804, note; 
 (eleventh, 1890,) 847. 
 
 Centennial anniversary of American 
 independence, 787. 
 
 Central Pacific Railway, 890. 
 
 Central Park, opening of, 595. 
 
 Cerro Gordo (seR'Ro goR'do), battle 
 of, 536- 
 
 Cervera (thar-va'ra). Admiral, 882. 
 
 Chad's Ford, battle of, 216. 
 
 Champlain, Lake, discovery of, 136; 
 importance of, 378; battle of, 382. 
 
 Champlain (sham-plane), Samuel de, 
 a French explorer, 19; discovers 
 Lake Champlain, 136. 
 
 Chancellorsville, battle of, 674. 
 
 Chapultepec (chah-pool'ta-pek), bat- 
 tle of, 541. 
 
 Charles I., King, 40, 41. 
 
 Charles II., King, 42. 
 
 Charleston, Mass., settlement of, 48; 
 destruction of the town by the 
 British, 196. 
 
 Charleston, S. C, settlement of, 97; 
 attacked by the Spaniards, loi ; by 
 the British, 203; captured by the 
 British, 247; retained bv the British 
 uritil the close of the Revolutionary 
 V\'ar, 254, 263; evacuated by the 
 British, 264; importance in 1790, 
 288; nullification as applied to 
 Charleston harbor, 476-7; decay of 
 its commerce, 596; United States 
 forces in Charleston harbor, 617; 
 importance of Charleston to the 
 Confederates, 652; evacuated by 
 the Confederates, 728-9. 
 
 Charlottesville, Va., occupied by 
 Sheridan, 731. 
 
 Charters given by the king to the 
 colonies, 35. 
 
 Charter Oak, 61. 
 
 Chase, Salmon P., a Republican Sena- 
 tor, 558. 
 
 Chasseur (shas-sur'), the, an Ameri- 
 can privateer, 376. 
 
 Chattahoochee (chat - Ui - hoo'chee) 
 River, the, crossed by Johnston and 
 Sherman, 706. 
 
 Chattanooga (chat-ta-noo'ga), Tenn., 
 importance of, 685; evacuated by 
 the Confederates, 685; besieged by 
 the Confederates, 686-7. 
 
 Chauncey (chan'si). Commodore 
 Isaac, in command on Lake On- 
 tario, 380. 
 
 Cherbourg (sharc-booR'g), sea-battle 
 off, 720. 
 
 Cherokees (cher'o-keez), an Indian 
 tribe, 3; difficulties with the State 
 of Georgia, 431; removal, 463. 
 
 Cherry Valley, N. Y., destroyed by 
 
 Tories and Indians, 232. 
 Cherub, the, aids in capturing the 
 Essex, 373. 
 
 Chesapeake (ches'n-peek) Bay, en- 
 tered by Captain Newport, 31 ; im- 
 portance to commerce, 89; used by 
 Howe as a road to Philadelphia, 
 215; by Washington as a road to 
 Yorktown, 257; arrival of the 
 French fleet in, 258; used by the 
 British as a naval station, 383. 
 Chesapeake, the, insulted by a British 
 war- vessel, 344; captured by the 
 Shannon, 372. 
 Chester, Pa., settlement of, 123. 
 
 Chicago (shi-kaw'go), 111., sudden rise 
 
582 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 t^W" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Chicago — Continued. 
 of the place, 449; not on the maps 
 in 1830, 451, 589; great fire in, 784 
 railroad riots in, 806; anarchist 
 riots, 829; World's Fair, 845; rail 
 road strike, 858; trust conference 
 891. 
 
 Chickahominy (chik-a-hom'in-i) Riv 
 er, the, its interference with Mc 
 Clellan's plan of campaign, 659-60. 
 
 Chickamauga (chik-a-maw'ga), battle 
 of, 685; rendezvous in war with 
 Spain, 880. 
 
 Chickasaws (chik'a-sawz), Indian 
 tribe, 3. 
 
 Chihuahua (che-wah'wah), Mex., oc- 
 cupied by Doniphan, 529, 531. 
 
 Chillicothe (chil-ll-koth'e), O., 314. 
 
 Chinese immigration, 815, 829, 851. 
 
 Chippewa (chip'pe-waw), battle of, 392. 
 
 Choctaws (chok'tawz), an Indian 
 tribe, 3. 
 
 Chouteau, Pierre (pe-arc' shoo-to'), 
 his long life in St. Louis, 155, note. 
 
 Christina (kris-tee'na), Swedish set- 
 tlement at, 29. 
 
 Chrysler's (kris'ler's) Farm, battle 
 of, 363. 
 
 Church, Benjamin, a Plymouth sol- 
 dier, 69. 
 
 Churubusco (choo-roo-boos'ko), bat- 
 tle of, 539. 
 
 Cincinnati (sin-sin-nah'tl), O., settle- 
 ment of, 292; first newspaper in, 
 314; riots in, 823. 
 
 Cities in 1790, 288; in 1830, 450; in 
 i860, 595. 
 
 Civil Service, the, Jackson s degrada- 
 tion of it, 467; Civil Service law 
 passed, 467; condition under Gar- 
 field, 819; under Cleveland, 864; 
 under McKinley, 892, 906. 
 
 Clarendon Colony, the, comes from 
 Barbadoes to North Carolina, 93; 
 rem.oves to South Carolina, 97. 
 
 Clarke, Gen. George Rogers, conquers 
 Illinois for Virginia, 235. 
 
 Clay, Henry, leader of the House, 
 412; aids the Missouri Cornpro- 
 mise, 418; nominated for President 
 in 1824, but defeated, 427; a lead- 
 ing supporter of the " American 
 System," 434; his rank as an ora- 
 tor, 459; in politics, 471; nominated 
 for President in 1832, but defeated, 
 473; nominated for President in 
 1844, but defeated, 515; aids the 
 Compromise of 1850, 554; death, 
 558- 
 
 Clayton-Bulwer treaty, the, 896. 
 
 Clearing-house, the, 56s. 
 
 Clermont, the, 337. 
 
 Cleveland, Graver, nominated and 
 elected President, 826, 828; his first 
 annual message, 837; renominated 
 and defeated, 840; re-elected, 854; 
 Venezuelan message, 861; extends 
 the merit system, 864; negotiates 
 the arbitration treaty, 867. 
 
 Cleveland, O., settlement, 314. 
 
 Clinton, Gen. Sir Henry, lands at 
 Boston, 194; fails to relieve Bur- 
 goyne, 222; succeeds Howe at Phil- 
 adelphia, 228; retreats to New 
 York City, fighting at Monmouth 
 Court-house, 228; captures Charles- 
 ton, 247; returns to New York 
 City, 248; orders Cornvvallis to 
 Yorktown, 255; is outgeneralled by 
 Washington, 257; orders the attack 
 on New London, 259. 
 
 Clinton, DeWitt, nominated for Presi- 
 dent, but defeated, 351; pushes 
 through the construction of the Erie 
 Canal, 424. 
 
 Clinton, George, elected Vice-Presi- 
 dent, 339; re-elected, 346. 
 
 Coal. See Anthracite. 
 
 Coast Survey, 455. 
 
 Cockburn (ko'burn). Admiral, plun- . 
 ders the Atlantic coast, 388. 
 
 Cold Harbor, battle of, 702, 706. 
 
 Colfax, Schuyler, elected Vice-Presi- 
 dent, 768. 
 
 Colleges, the first six, 158, note; the 
 next three, 187; in 1830, 455; in 
 i860, 593. 
 
 Collins, Capt. N. B., in command of 
 the H'acliusett, 720. 
 
 Colonization, 26. 
 
 Colorado, discovery of gold in, 590; 
 admission, 786. 
 
 " Color line," 764. 
 
 Columbia College, 158. 
 
 Columbia River, discovered by an 
 American vessel, 335; claimed as a 
 southwest boundary for British 
 America, 523. 
 
 Columbia, S. C, occupied by the 
 L^nion forces and burned, 728. 
 
 Columbia, the, makes the first Ameri- 
 can voyage around the world, 312. 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, his efforts to 
 accomplish his great design, 5; his 
 discovery of land across the At- 
 lantic, 6; subsequent voyages and 
 death, 8. 
 
 Commerce, early commerce, 131; the 
 attempt of Parliament to regulate 
 by the Navigation Acts, 67; fail- 
 ure of the Navigation Acts, 163; 
 commercial taxation by Parliament, 
 168; commercial resistance, 177 (see 
 Revolution, American); commerce 
 under the Confederation, 275; under 
 the Constitution, 281; English in- 
 terferences with American com- 
 merce, 309, 343; increase of Ameri- 
 can commerce, 312, m; French 
 interferences with American com- 
 merce, 318; the Barbary States' 
 interferences with American com- 
 merce, 341; the embargo policy 
 of prohibiting commerce, 345;^ its 
 failure, 349; war against Great 
 Britain, 351; decay of conimerce in 
 1815, and immediate revival, 406; 
 French injuries paid for, 464; com- 
 merce in i860, 588; injury to com- 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 583 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Commerce — Continued. 
 merce by Confederate privateering, 
 672, 696, 720; revival of commerce, 
 780; interstate, 83-'. 
 
 Commission, Electoral, 800-2. 
 
 Commission, Interstate Commerce, 
 832. 
 
 Commission, Tariff, 825. 
 
 Committees of Correspondence, 179. 
 
 Common schools. See Public schools. 
 
 " Common Sense," title of Paine's 
 pamphlet in favor of independence, 
 204. 
 
 Commons, House of, claims taxing 
 power in England, 40; in the col- 
 onies, 160 (see Parliament). 
 
 Commonwealth, the English, 41. 
 
 Compromises, the Missouri Compro- 
 mise passed, 418; unsuccessful at- 
 tempt to apply its principle to the 
 Mexican acquisition, 545; results 
 of the Compromise, 559; the Mis- 
 souri Compromise repealed, 575-6; 
 the repeal sustained by the Supreme 
 Court, 599-600; the tariff compro- 
 mise of 1833, 478; the Compromise 
 of 1850, 555. 
 
 Concessions, the, the charter of New 
 Jersey, 120. 
 
 Concord (kong'kurd), Mass., 180-1. 
 
 Confederate States, the, organized in 
 1861, 614; declares war against the 
 United States, 625; enlarged by new 
 secessions, 628; its difficulties, 637; 
 progress of the war, 740-5; distress 
 within the Confederacy, 668, 690, 
 719, 721; downfall of the Confeder- 
 acy. 733' its armed forces, 746; 
 loss in men, 747; in money, 748. 
 
 Confederation, The. See Articles of 
 Confederation. 
 
 Confirmation by the Senate, 282^ 
 
 Congress of the United States, 
 powers, 281-3; first meets and counts 
 the electoral votes, 294; organizes 
 the government by legislation, 297 
 proposes twelve Amendments, 297 
 character of the laws passed, 298 
 charters the first Bank of the United 
 States, 300; begins taxation by ex- 
 cise, 299, 307; attitude towards sla- 
 very, 301 ; authorizes hostilities 
 against France, 319; passes the 
 Alien and Sedition laws, 321 ; comes 
 under the control of the Republi- 
 cans, 331; passes the Embargo Act 
 (see Commerce), 345; passes the 
 Non-Intercourse Act, 346; revives 
 the Non-Intercourse Act against 
 Great Britain, 349; declares war 
 against Great Britain, 351; be- 
 comes more disposed to favor the 
 navy, 369; charters the second 
 Bank of the United States, 408; 
 the two sections in Congress, 416, 
 435. 508; passes the Missouri Com- 
 promise, 418; receives Lafayette, 
 421; appropriates money for in- 
 ternal improvements, 422; begins 
 
 Congress — Continued. 
 the National Road, 423; adopts a 
 policy of Protection, 426; carries it 
 further, 434; divides surplus reve- 
 nue among the States, 453; as- 
 serted influence of the Bank on 
 Congress, 468; renews charter of 
 the Bank, but is defeated by the 
 veto, 469; Congress and Protection, 
 470, 474; passes Compromise Tariff 
 of 1833, 490; special session of 1837, 
 478; passes Sub-Treasury law, 488; 
 attempt to suppress antislavery 
 petitions to Congress, 494; special 
 session of 1841, 500; passes a third 
 Bank charter, but is defeated by the 
 veto, 501 ; quarrels with the Presi- 
 dent, 501; passes the Tariff of 1842, 
 501; passes the resolution annexing 
 Texas, 516; abandons Protection 
 and passes a revenue tariff, 521 ; de- 
 clares war against Mexico, 527; dis- 
 cusses the Wilmot Proviso, 546; 
 and the admission of California, 
 553; passes the Compromise of 1850, 
 554-5; new leaders appear in Con- 
 gress, 558; Congress orders surveys 
 for a Pacific Railroad, 562; repeals 
 the Missouri Compromise by pass- 
 ing the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 574; 
 the Republican party appears in 
 Congress, 576; Congress discusses 
 Kansas affairs, 580; its relations to 
 the Supreme Court, 599; remains 
 inactive through the secession win- 
 ter, 618; special session of i86i 
 votes men and money for the war, 
 631; orders the issue of bonds and 
 legal-tender paper money in 1862, 
 670; establishes a national banking 
 system in 1863, 670; returns to the 
 protective system, 691 ; orders a 
 draft, 693; passes the 13th Amend- 
 ment, 756; refuses to admit mem- 
 bers from the seceding States, 758; 
 is controlled by a two-thirds Re- 
 publican majority, 759; adopts a 
 plan of reconstruction, 760-1; read- 
 mits the reconstructed States, 762; 
 passes the 14th Amendment, 763; 
 quarrels with the President, 765; 
 passes the Tenure of Office Act, 
 766; assists the Pacific Railroad, 
 783; passes the 15th Amendment, 
 789; investigates the Credit Mobi- 
 lier scandals, 794; asserts a right to 
 decide disputes about electoral 
 votes, 799; passes the Electoral 
 Commission Act, 800; demonetizes 
 silver, 811; remonetizes silver, 812; 
 orders specie payments to be re- 
 sumed, 813; engages in conflicts 
 with the President, 816; passes the 
 Civil Service Reform Act, 819; fails 
 to suppress polygamy, 822; orders 
 appointment of a Tariff Commis- 
 sion, 825; demonetizes silver, 856; 
 passes the Wilson bill, 859; passes 
 the Dingley bill, 870; declares war 
 
584 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Congress — Continued. 
 against Spain, 8-g; passes the War 
 Revenue Act, 886; passes a joint 
 resolution annexing Hawaii, 888; 
 authorizes an appropriation for in- 
 vestigation of Nicaragua canal 
 routes, 895; establishes a form of 
 government for Porto Rico, 903; 
 passes the Porto Rican Tariff Act, 
 904. 
 
 Connecticut (kon-net'i-kut), part of 
 the Plymouth grant, 33; history, 57; 
 its western claims, 271; they are 
 transferred to the United States, 
 273. 
 
 Constellation, the, captures L'lnstir- 
 genie, 319. 
 
 Constitution, the, chased by the Brit- 
 ish, 366; captures the Guerriere, 
 367; the Java, 368; the Cyane and 
 Levant, 375. 
 
 Constitution of the United States, its 
 formation, 279; its terms, 280-4; its 
 ratification, 286; its inauguration, 
 294 (see Amendments). 
 
 " Continental," meaning of the term, 
 176, note I, 233. 
 
 Continental Congress, first meeting, 
 176-7; second meeting, 191-3; resists 
 Parliament by force, 191 ; recom- 
 mends the colonies to become 
 States, 204; adopts the Declaration 
 of Independence, 205; retires to 
 Baltimore, 211; to Lancaster and 
 York, 217; issues paper money, 
 233; begins to lose public respect, 
 234; has difficulties with the army, 
 239; fails to form a navy, 241; its 
 work in the war, 269; gives way to 
 the Confederation, 270 (see Articles 
 of Confederation). 
 
 Contract Labor Act, 829. 
 
 Contreras (kon-tra'rahs), battle of, 539. 
 
 Convention, Federal, 279. 
 
 Cooper, J. Fenimore, his literary 
 work, 457. 
 
 Copley, John Singleton, a painter, 
 particularly excellent in portraits, 
 
 Copper, in Connecticvit and New 
 Jersey, 511; discovery of the Lake 
 Superior copper region, 512. 
 
 Corinth (kor'inth). Miss., captured by 
 Halleck, 643; defended by CJrant, 646. 
 
 Cornwallis (korn-wol'lis). Lord, in 
 command of the British in New 
 Jersey, 210; beaten at Trenton and 
 Princeton, 212; in command in 
 South Carolina, 248; defeats Gates 
 at Camden, 249; chases Greene 
 across North Carolina, 251; fights 
 a drawn battle at (iuilford Court- 
 house, 253; retires to Wilmington, 
 253; moves north into Virginia, 255; 
 caught at Yorktown by the French 
 and Americans, 258; surrenders, 
 261; results of the surrender, 262; 
 centennial anniversary of the sur- 
 render, 820. 
 
 Coronado (ko-ro-nah'do), an early 
 Spanish explorer, 16. 
 
 Corpus Christi (kor'pus kris'ti), Tex., 
 524- 
 
 Cortereal (kor-ta-ra-ahl'), a Portu- 
 guese sailor, 12. 
 
 Cotton, John, a Massachusetts min- 
 ister, 50. 
 
 Cotton, little profit in its cultivation 
 before 1793, 316; invention of the 
 saw-gin by Whitney, 316; cotton 
 in South Carolina, 99; cotton crop 
 of i860, 588; " King Cotton," 597; 
 importance of the cotton supply 
 during the Civil War, 671; effect of 
 the blockade, 690; cotton under free 
 labor, 824. 
 
 Courts, Federal, 283, 298. 
 
 Cowpens (kow'penz), battle of the, 
 251- 
 
 Crawford, William H., Secretary of 
 the Treasury, 412; nominated foi 
 President, but defeated, 427. 
 
 Credit Mobilier (kra'de mo-be'le-a), 
 the construction company of the 
 Pacific Railroad, 794. 
 
 Creeks, an Indian tribe, 3; hostile to 
 the United States, 394; make war, 
 395; overthrown by Jackson, 396; 
 effects on settlement, 405. 
 
 Criminals, their extradition, 502. 
 
 Croghan (kro'hon), Lieut. George, 
 his defence of Fort Stephenson, 
 360. 
 
 Cromwell (krum'well), Oliver, Pro- 
 tector of England, 41. 
 
 Croton Aqueduct, 450. 
 
 Crown Point, N. Y., held by the 
 French, 146; taken by the British, 
 ISO. 
 
 Crystal Palace, the, 564. 
 
 Cuba, attempts to obtain it from 
 Spain, 570; the Ostend manifesto, 
 570; the Virginius affair, 779; the 
 revolt, 863; relations with the L^nited 
 States grow acute, 873; refuses 
 Spain's offer of autonomy, 874; pro- 
 posed armistice, 878; military op- 
 erations in, 882, 884; freed from 
 Spanish sovereignty, 885; passes 
 formally under the control of the 
 LTnited States, 902; internal changes 
 and improvements, 902; the Cuban 
 army disbanded, 902; promised in- 
 dependence by the Republican plat- 
 form of 1900, 906. 
 
 Cuban Junta, the, 876, 878. 
 
 Cuban Relief Committee, the, 875. 
 
 Cumberland Island, Ga., Cockburn's 
 headquarters, 388. 
 
 Cumberland, Md., 423. 
 
 Cumberland, the, sunk by the Merri- 
 mac, 650. 
 
 Currency, Paper. See Paper Money 
 
 Currency reform, 889. 
 
 Cushing (koosh'ing), Lieut. Wm. B., 
 blows up the Albemarle, 716. 
 
 Custer, Gen. George A., killed by In- 
 dians, 785. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 C^^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 585 
 
 Cyane (sl'an^), the, captured by the 
 
 Constitution, 375. 
 Cyclones, 821. 
 
 Dade's Massacre, 463. 
 
 Daiquiri (diiy-ke-re'), 882. 
 
 Dallas, battle of, 706. 
 
 Dallas, George M., elected Vice- 
 President, 515. 
 
 Dalton (davvl'tun), Ga., held by John- 
 ston, 697; taken by Sherman, 706. 
 
 Dana, Richard H., an early American 
 poet, 457. 
 
 Danbury (dan'ber-ri). Conn., de- 
 stroyed by the British, 214. 
 
 Daniel, W'm., nominated for Vice- 
 President, 826, note. 
 
 Dare, Virginia, first child born of 
 English parents in America, 23. 
 
 Darien (da-ri-en'), Ga., 104. 
 
 Dartmouth College founded, 187. 
 
 Davenport (dftv'en-port), John, a 
 founder of New Haven, 60. 
 
 Davis, Gen. Geo. W., Governor-Gen- 
 eral of Porto Rico, 903. 
 
 Davis, Jefiferson, a Southern leader, 
 558; President of the Confederate 
 States, 614; removes Johnston, 708; 
 is compelled to recall him, 728; 
 captured by the United States, 732, 
 note. 
 
 Dayton, \Vm. L., nominated for 
 Vice-President, 582. 
 
 Deane (deen), Silas, envoy to France, 
 224, note. 
 
 Dearborn (deer'burn). Gen. Henry, in 
 command in northeastern New 
 York, 357; fails in an invasion of 
 Canada, 362. 
 
 Debt, imprisonment for, cruelty of 
 the system, 288; its general aban- 
 donment, 461. 
 
 Debt of Great Britain, 265. 
 
 Debt of the United States, hopeless- 
 ness of paying it under the Con- 
 federation, 275; provided for in 
 1790, 299; nearly paid off in 1809, 333; 
 anxiety of the Republicans to pay 
 it off, 344; increase on account of 
 the War of 1812, 407; paid off 
 in 1835, 453; Civil War debt put 
 into bonds and paper money, 670; 
 amount at the end of the war, 748; 
 promptness in beginning to pay it 
 off, 769; interest rate reduced by 
 refunding, 814; the general reduc- 
 tion of the debt, 825, 857. 
 
 Decatur (de-ka'tur). Commodore Ste- 
 phen, burns the Philadelphia, 342; 
 in command of the United States, 
 368; forces the Barbary States to 
 conclude peace without payment of 
 tribute, 404. 
 
 Declaration of Independence, its 
 adoption, 205; its terms, 206; itb 
 effect on France, 226; its author- 
 ship, 432; its hundredth anniver- 
 sary, 787. 
 
 Delaware (del'a-warc), settled by the 
 
 Delaware — Continued. 
 Swedes, 29; taken by the Dutch, 29; 
 taken by the English from the 
 Dutch, 34; bought by Penn, 121; 
 history, 128; its western boundary, 
 271; a "small" State, 279; freedom 
 from secessionists, 626; trusts in, 891. 
 
 Delaware River, the, crossed by 
 Washington, 210; obstructed by the 
 Americans to defend Philadelphia, 
 215- 
 
 Democratic Party, the, known at tirst 
 as the Republican Party (see Re- 
 publican Party of 1792), 304, note; 
 upholds state sovereignty, 328; 
 often known as the Democratic 
 Party after the War of 1812, 409; 
 regularly called so after 1828, 437; 
 supports Jackson, 438; defeated in 
 1840, 498; successful in 1844, 515; 
 gets control of the government and 
 puts an end to Protection, 521 ; de- 
 feated in 1848, 548; the only great 
 party left entire by slavery, 560; 
 successful in 1852, 563; how it was 
 held together, 573; supports the 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill. 574; part of 
 its Northern members go into the 
 Republican Party (see Republican 
 Party of 1846), 576; successful in 
 1856, 582; Northern meinbers re- 
 fuse to support the Dred Scott de- 
 cision, 602; splits into two parts, 
 608; defeated in i860, 609; opposes 
 the management of the war, and ie 
 defeated in 1864, 723; supports 
 Johnson, 759; is defeated in 1868, 
 768; adopts the Liberal Repviblican 
 ticket in 1872, and is defeated, 796; 
 its nominations in 1876, 797; in con- 
 trol of Congress, 816; defeated in 
 1880, 817; successful in 1884, 826; 
 defeated in 1888, 840; successful in 
 1892, 854; defeated in 1896, 865; in 
 1900, 906. 
 
 Demonetization of silver, 811. 
 
 Denys (dii-nese'), an early French 
 explorer, 11. 
 
 Deposits, removal of, 469. 
 
 Detroit, Mich., an early French set- 
 tlement, 139; transferred to the 
 English, 152; transferred to the 
 United States, 309; captured by the 
 British, 356; recaptured by the 
 Americans, 361. 
 
 Dewey, Admiral Geo., at the battle 
 of Manila Bay, 881; shares control 
 of Philippine atTairs with Gen. 
 Otis, 900; candidate for the presi- 
 dency, 906. 
 
 Dieskau (di-es-ko'), Baron, in com- 
 mand of a French force, 146. 
 
 Dingley, Nelson, 870, 886. 
 
 Dinwiddle (din-wid'di). Gov., of Vir- 
 ginia, 142. 
 
 District of Columbia (see Capital), 
 slavery in the, 553, 555- 
 
 Donelson, Andrew J., nominated for 
 Vice-President, 582. 
 
586 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Doniphan (don'i-fan), Col., his march 
 into Mexico, 529. 
 
 Dorchester (dor'ches-ter) Heights, 
 198. 
 
 Dorr RebelHon, 513. 
 
 Douglas (dug'las), Stephen A., a 
 Northern Democratic leader, 573; 
 introduces the Kansas-Nebraska 
 Bill, 574; separates from the South- 
 ern Democrats, 602; nominated for 
 President, 608; is defeated, 609; 
 his senatorial campaign against 
 Lincoln, 620. 
 
 Dover, N. H., 55. 
 
 Downie (dow'nl). Commodore G., in 
 command of the British fleet on 
 Lake Champlain, 382. 
 
 Draft, the, 693. 
 
 Drake, Joseph Rodman, an American 
 poet, 457. . 
 
 Drake, Sir Francis, an early English 
 explorer, 15; fights the Spaniards, 20. 
 
 Dred Scott case, the, 600-2. 
 
 Drunkenness, its former prevalence 
 in America, 460. 
 
 Duluth (doo-looth'), Minn., 783. 
 
 Eagan, C. p., Commissary-General, 
 
 899. 
 
 Early, Gen. Jubal A., sent by Lee to 
 raid Washington, 703; defeats Sheri- 
 dan's army at Cedar Creek, but is 
 defeated by Sheridan, 705. 
 
 East Florida, 154. 
 
 Bast Indies, 12. 
 
 Eaton, Theophilus, one of the found- 
 ers of New Haven, 60. 
 
 Eckford, Henry, an American ship- 
 builder, 380. 
 
 Education. See Public Schools; 
 Normal Schools; Colleges. 
 
 Elba, the island to which Napoleon 
 was banished, 397. 
 
 Elberon (el'be-ron), a New Jersey 
 watering-place, 818. 
 
 Electors, their duty to choose the 
 President and Vice-President, 282; 
 their first meeting, 287; the first 
 count of their votes, 294; the elec- 
 toral system in general, 295; how 
 it was changed in 1804, 323; failure 
 of the electors to choose a Presi- 
 dent in 1824, 427; dispute over their 
 votes in 1876, 798; how the dispute 
 was settled, 799-801, 831. 
 
 Electricity, application to telegraph- 
 ing, 510; to the telephone, light, 
 heat, and machinery, 805. 
 
 Elizabeth, N. J., settlement, 119. 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen, favors Raleigh, 23. 
 
 Elkton, MdT, Howe disembarks there, 
 215; Washington embarks there for 
 Yorktown, 258. 
 
 Ellsworth, Oliver, member of the 
 Continental Congress, 192. 
 
 Emancipation Proclamation, the, its 
 issue and terms, 669; its influence 
 on foreign affairs, 671 ; completed 
 by the 13th Amendment, 757. 
 
 Embargo, the, its passage and failure, 
 345 (see Commerce). 
 
 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, his literary 
 work, 592. 
 
 Endicott (en'di-kut), John, a Massa- 
 chusetts leader, 50. 
 
 England, refuses to help Columbus 
 5; sends Cabot, who claims part of 
 North America for her, 10; pre- 
 liminary failures, 20, 23-4; organizes 
 two colonization companies, 25; 
 how her colonies came to lie to- 
 gether, 27; struggle between the 
 king and the Parliament, 40; the 
 Commonwealth. 41; the Restora- 
 tion, 42; the first successful Eng- 
 lish settlement, 31 ; her relations 
 with her colonies, 36-8; her en- 
 couragement of the slave-trade, 39; 
 her passage of restrictions on co- 
 lonial commerce, 67; her wars with 
 France after the Restoration, 71; 
 how England seized the middle At- 
 lantic coast, 109 (see Great Britain). 
 
 English, Wm. H., nominated for 
 Vice-President, 817. 
 
 Enterprise, the, captures the Boxer, 
 370. . 
 
 Epervier (a-per've-a), the, captured 
 by the Peacock, 374. 
 
 Era of Good Feeling, 413, 433. 
 
 Ericsson (er'ik-sen), John, invents 
 the screw propeller, 447; builds the 
 Monitor, 649. 
 
 Erie Canal, 424. 
 
 Erie, Lake, battle of, 381. 
 
 Erie, Pa., a French fort, 142; Perry's 
 ship yard, 381. 
 
 Essex, the, captures the Alert, 366; 
 captured by the Phoebe and Cherub, 
 373. 
 
 Estaing, Count d' (des-tan(g)'). sent 
 to the United States in command 
 of a French fleet, 226; aids in the 
 attack on Savannah, 244. 
 
 Ether, its application to surgery, 
 
 517- 
 
 Europe, why its people turned to dis- 
 covery, 4; what nations of Europe 
 took part in the discoveries, 12; 
 affairs in Europe, 40-4 (see Great 
 Britain, France, Spain, Austria, 
 Portugal); immigration from 
 Europe after 1848, 572, 829. 
 
 Eutaw (u'taw) Springs, battle of, 
 254. 
 
 Everett (ev'er-et), Edward, nominated 
 for Vice-President, 608. 
 
 Exchange of prisoners during the 
 Civil War, 725. 
 
 Executive Department, its duties, 282; 
 the succession in case of death or 
 disability, 818, 831. 
 
 Exhibitions, World's, Crystal Palace, 
 564; Centennial, 787; Southern, 
 824; World's Fair, 845. 
 
 Expansion, 905-6. 
 
 Expense of wars, of Revolutionary 
 War, 265; of the War of 1812, 407; 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 587 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Expense — Continued. 
 
 of the Civil War, 670, 748, 782; of 
 
 the Spanish War, 879, 886. 
 Express companies, their origin, 491. 
 Extradition of criminals, 50J. 
 
 Fairfield, Conn., scene of the 
 I'equot defeat, 59. 
 
 Fair Oaks, battle of, 660. 
 
 Falmouth, Me., destroyed by the 
 British, 203. 
 
 Farewell Address, 310. 
 
 Farragut (far'a-gut). Admiral David 
 G., fights his way up the Mississippi 
 and takes New Orleans, 654-5; re- 
 turns to the Gulf of Mexico, 655; 
 destroys the Confederate fleet in 
 Mobile Bay, 718. 
 
 Fayetteville (fa-et'vil), N. C, settle- 
 ment, 93; taken by Sherman, 728. 
 
 Federal Convention, 279. 
 
 Federal Government, established by 
 the Constitution, 280; its three de- 
 partments, 281-3; its inauguration, 
 294; its success, 303; its relations 
 to the States, 475. 
 
 Federal Hall, 294, note. 
 
 Federal Party, the, its origin, 285; its 
 success, 303; its purposes, 304; suc- 
 cessful in 1796, 311; its great mis- 
 take, 321; defeated in 1800, 32^; 
 the excellence of its work, 331; loses 
 power, 332; defeated in 1804, 339; de- 
 feated in 1808, 346; defeated in 1812, 
 351; supports the Hartford Con- 
 vention, 390; becomes extinct, 409. 
 
 Federalist, the, 285. 
 
 Fenians, the, 791. 
 
 Ferdinand, king of Spain, 8. 
 
 Ferelo (fa-ra'lo), Spanish explorer, 15. 
 
 Ferguson, Col. Patrick, in command 
 of the British at King's Mountain, 
 250. 
 
 Filibusters, their attacks on Cuba and 
 Central America, 570, 873. 
 
 Filibustering, 841. 
 
 Filipinos (fil-i-pe'nOs), the, co-operate 
 with the Americans. 881: begin hos- 
 tilities against the Americans, 900. 
 
 Fillmore, Millard, elected Vice-Presi- 
 dent, 548; succeeds to the Presi- 
 dency, 557; nominated for Presi- 
 dent, 582. 
 
 Fires, in New York, 450; in Chicago 
 and Boston, 784. 
 
 Fisheries, the Newfoundland, dis- 
 putes as to them, 777. 
 
 Fishing Creek, skirmish at, 250. 
 
 Fisk, C. B., nominated for President, 
 840, note. 
 
 Fitch, John, attempts to propel ves- 
 sels by steam, 312. 
 
 Five Forks, battle of, 732. 
 
 Flag, the, as it appeared at Cam- 
 bridge, and its changes, 197. 
 
 Flamboro' Head, 242. 
 
 Florida, its discovery and exploration, 
 9; De Soto lands in it, 14; the 
 southern boundary of the English 
 
 Florida — Continued. 
 colonies, 30; not an English colony 
 until 1763, 32; then transferred by 
 Spain to Great Britain, 154; British 
 troops from Florida attack Savan- 
 nah, 244; transferred by Great Brit- 
 ain to Spain in 1783, 263; the Span- 
 ish governors aid the British in 
 1814, 398; Jackson seizes Pensacola, 
 414; Florida transferred to the 
 United States by Spain, 414; ad- 
 mission, 509; secedes, 613; attacked 
 by an expedition from Port Royal, 
 715; reconstructed and readmitted, 
 762; its electoral votes disputed in 
 1876, 798; its returning board, 79S. 
 
 Florida, the, a Confederate privateer, 
 672, 696; captured by the Wachusett, 
 720. 
 
 Foote, Commodore Andrew H., in 
 command of the western fleet, 640. 
 
 Forrest, Gen. N. B., a Confederate 
 cavalry officer, 717. 
 
 Fort Brown, 524. 
 
 Fort Dearborn, now Chicago, 449. 
 
 Fort Donelson, captured by Grant, 
 640. 
 
 Fort Duquesne (du-kanc'), seized by 
 the French, 143; repels the British, 
 146; captured by the British, 148. 
 
 Fort Erie, captured by the Ameri- 
 cans, 392; repels the British, 393. 
 
 Fort Fisher, its capture by Gen. 
 Terry, 716. 
 
 Fort Frontenac, now Kingston, Can., 
 148. 
 
 Fort Griswold (griz'wuld), massacre 
 by Arnold, 259. 
 
 Fort Henry, captured by gunboats, 
 639; its garrison escapes to Fort 
 Donelson, 640. 
 
 Fort Jackson, passed by Farragut, 
 653; surrenders, 655. 
 
 Fort Leavenworth (lev'n-wurth), 529. 
 
 Fort McAllister, taken by Gen. 
 Hazen, 714. 
 
 Fort McHenry, repels the British, 387. 
 
 Fort Meigs (megz), repels the Brit- 
 ish, 360. 
 
 Fort Minis, scene of a massacre by 
 the Creeks, 395. 
 
 Fort Necessity, surrendered by 
 Washington, 144. 
 
 Fort Niagara, captured by the Brit- 
 ish, 150. 
 
 Fort Orange, now Albany, 117. 
 
 Fort Pickens, saved from capture by 
 the Confederates, 617. 
 
 Fort Pillow, taken by the Confeder- 
 ates, 717. 
 
 Fort Pulaski, taken by Gen. Gillmore, 
 652. 
 
 Fort St. Philip, passed by Farragut, 
 653; surrenders, 655. 
 
 Fort Schuyler, now Rome, N. Y., 220. 
 
 Fort Stephenson, repulses the British, 
 360. 
 
 Fort Sumter, held by the Union 
 forces, 617; captured by the Con- 
 
588 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 tS" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Fort Sumter — Continued. 
 federates, 622; attacked by iron- 
 clads, 688; battered into ruins, 688. 
 
 Fort Wagner, captured by Gen. Gill- 
 more, 688. 
 
 Fort Washington, captured by the 
 British, 209. 
 
 Fortress Monroe, the southern end of 
 the Union line in Virginia, 629. 
 
 Forts Mercer and Mifflin, captured by 
 the British, 217. 
 
 Fort Wayne, Ind., 308. 
 
 France, early discoveries in Canada, 
 11; early failures in attempts to col- 
 onize, 18; successful settlement, 19; 
 events in France affecting emigra- 
 tion, 43; early French wars, 71; 
 the French strongholds in Can- 
 ada, 72; influence of the French 
 over the Indians, 73; their claims 
 in New York, no; their explora- 
 tions beyond Canada, 136; settle- 
 ment within the United Stat<!s, 
 137-8; their possessions in North 
 America in 1750, 139; the weakness 
 of their empire, 140; their efforts to 
 keep the English back beyond the 
 Alleghanies, 142; they capture Fort 
 Duquesne, 143; and Fort Neces- 
 sity, 144; France sends troops to 
 America, 146; declares war against 
 Great Britain, 147; loses Canada, 
 152; gives up all her American 
 possessions in 1763, 154; secretly 
 aids the colonies, 224; makes a 
 treaty of alliance with the United 
 States, 226; sends a fleet and army 
 to America, 230, 257; sends a fleet 
 to Chesapeake Bay, 257, note, 258; 
 the French forces aid in capturing 
 Cornwallis, 260-1; France becomes 
 a republic, 305; demands aid from 
 the United States, 306; acts in an 
 unfriendly manner, 318; is answered 
 with war, 319; Napoleon concludes 
 a peace, 320; sells Louisiana to the 
 United States, 334; oppresses 
 American commerce, 343; succeeds 
 in bringing the United States into 
 war with Great Britain, 349; in- 
 feriority of France to Great Britain 
 in naval warfare, 369; France is 
 conquered and Napoleon banished, 
 397; pays for damages to American 
 commerce, 464; refuses to intervene 
 in the Civil War, 671 ; establishes 
 an empire in Mexico, 695; refuses 
 to permit the building of Con- 
 federate iron-clads. 696; withdraws 
 her troops from Mexico, 770. 
 
 Franchise, the, during colonial times, 
 
 130- 
 
 Franklin, battle of, 711. 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, proposes a plan 
 of union, 145; agent of Massachu- 
 setts at London, 169; member of 
 the Continental Congress, 192; and 
 of the committee to draw up a 
 Declaration of Independence, 206; 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin — Continued. 
 envoy to France, 224, note, 225; fits 
 out war-vessels from France, 241; 
 obtains a fleet for Paul Jones, 242. 
 
 Frazier's Farm, battle of, 663. 
 
 Fredericksburgh, battle of, 667. 
 
 Fredericksburgh, Va., 667. 
 
 Freedmen, meaning of the term, 754, 
 note; their treatment in the South, 
 758; they are empowered to vote, 
 789; how they were peaceably pre- 
 vented from voting, 789; how they 
 were prevented by violence, 790-2; 
 their other rights secured to them, 
 793- 
 
 Freehold, N. J., scene of the battle of 
 Monmouth Court-house, 228. 
 
 Free-soil Party, its origin, 547; its 
 vote falls off in 1852, 563; it be- 
 comes a part of the Republican 
 Party in 1856, 576. 
 
 Free Trade, meaning of the term, 425; 
 Congress abandons Free Trade and 
 supports Protection, 426, 434; desire 
 of the South for Free Trade, 446, 
 474, 605; Jackson is unable to re- 
 vive Free Trade, 470; the Demo- 
 crats in 1846 re-establish Free Trade, 
 which remains in force until 1861, 
 521 ; the Republicans in 1861 aban- 
 don Free Trade and re-establish 
 Protection, which still remains in 
 force, 691, 825, 836; the issue re- 
 vived, 837; application to Porto 
 Rico, 904 (see Tariff, Protection, 
 American System). 
 
 Frelinghuysen, Theodore, nominated 
 for Vice-President, 515. 
 
 Fremont, John C, his explorations 
 in the Rocky Mountains, 503; aids 
 in the conquest of California, 529; 
 nominated for President, but de- 
 feated, 582; a general in the LTnion 
 army, 635. 
 
 French and Indian War, its origin, 
 141-2; first fighting of the war, 143- 
 4; effects a union of the colonies, 
 145; England and France take part 
 in it, 146-7; Pitt's successful man- 
 agement, 148; his use of the Col- 
 onies, 149; capture of Quebec, 150-1; 
 conquest of all Canada. 152; peace, 
 154; one of its consequences, 159. 
 
 Friction-matches, not in existence in 
 1790, 288; invention of, 448. 
 
 Frobisher (fro'bish-er), Martin, his 
 failure in Labrador, 10, 20. 
 
 Frolic, the, captured by the ll'asl^, 
 368. 
 
 Fuca, Juan de (Hoo-ahn' da foo'ka), 
 
 a Spanish pilot, 15. 
 Fugitive slaves, the constitutional 
 provisions in regard to them, 284; 
 the complaint of the slave States, 
 553! passage of a Fugitive Slave 
 law, 555; its nature and effects, 556, 
 
 563- ^ 
 
 Fulton, Robert, his application of 
 steam to vessels, 337. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 589 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Fundamental Constitutions of Caro- 
 lina, the, 91, note. 
 
 Gadsden Purchase, the, of territory 
 from Mexico, 544. 
 
 Gage, layman J., Secretary of the 
 '1 reasury, 869; plan of currency re- 
 form, 889. 
 
 Gage, Gen. Thomas, in command of 
 the British in Massachusetts, 179. 
 
 Gag-rule, 494. 
 
 Gaines's Mill,_ battle of, 663. 
 
 Garcia (gar-se'a). Gen. Calixto, 874, 
 884. 
 
 Garfield, James A., elected President, 
 817; inauguration, assassination, and 
 death, 818. 
 
 Garrison, William Lloyd, demands 
 the abolition of slavery, 462. 
 
 Gas for lighting, not known in 1790, 
 288; introduced in America, 422. 
 
 Gaspec (gas-pii'), the, taken by the 
 people ot Providence, 171. 
 
 Gates, Gen. Horatio, appointed in 
 place of Schuyler, 221 ; forces Bur- 
 goyne to surrender, 222; takes all 
 the credit, 223; is defeated at Cam- 
 den and succeeded by Greene, 249. 
 
 General Armstrong, the, an American 
 privateer, 376. 
 
 Genet (je-na'), a French envoy to 
 the United States, 306. 
 
 Geneva (je-ne'va), a city of Switzer- 
 land, 777. 
 
 Genoa (jen'o-a), the birthplace of 
 Columbus, 5. 
 
 Geological surveys begun, 455. 
 
 George II., king of Great Britain, 103. 
 
 Georgia, an English colony in Amer- 
 ica, 32; under royal government, 35; 
 its inception, 103; settlement, 104; 
 slavery, 105; early wars, 116; south- 
 ern boundary extended, 154; unable 
 to take part in the first Continental 
 Congress, 176; conquered by llie 
 British, 244; cruelly treated, 246; 
 evacuated, 264; western claims, 271; 
 cedes them to the United States. 
 273; difficulties with the Indians, 
 431. 463; secedes, 613; crossed by 
 Sherman, 713-4; refuses to accept 
 the first terms of reconstruction, 
 762; is reconstructed and read- 
 mitted, 788. 
 
 Georgia, the, a Confederate privateer, 
 696; captured by the Niagara, 720. 
 
 Germantown, battle of, 216. 
 
 Germany, and the Philippines, 887; in 
 Samoa. 894. 
 
 Gerry (ger'ri), Elbridge, elected Vice- 
 President, 351. 
 
 Gettysburgli, battle of, 677. 
 
 Ghent (gent), treaty of, 400. 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, an early Eng- 
 lish explorer, 20. 
 
 Gillmore, Gen. Quincy A., in com- 
 mand of the Union forces in South 
 Carolina, 688. 
 
 Glendale, battle of, 663. 
 
 Gloucester (glos'ter), Mass., attacked 
 
 by the British, 203. 
 
 Gold, found in Virginia, North C'aro- 
 lina, and Georgia, 511; in California, 
 549; excites an exodus to Califor- 
 nia, 550; found in Colorado and 
 other parts of the Rocky Moun- 
 tains, 590; increase of production, 
 780; its comparative value, Sio; is 
 made the only coin, 811; gold mono- 
 metallism, 857; Gold Standard Act, 
 889; in Klondike, 893; gold stand- 
 ard in the Republican platform of 
 1900, 906. 
 
 Goldsboro, battle of, 729. 
 
 Gomez (go'mass), Gen. Maximo, 874. 
 
 (iood Feeling, Era of, 413, 433. 
 
 Good Hope, Cape of, discovered, 4. 
 
 Goodyear, Charles, his process of 
 vulcanizing rubber, 491. 
 
 Gorges (gor'jez), Sir Ferdinando, a 
 leader in English colonization, 55. 
 
 Gosnold (goz'nuld), Bartholomew, at 
 Buzzard's Bay, 24. 
 
 Graham, W'm. A., nominated for 
 Vice-President, 563. 
 
 Grand Army, the, an association of 
 veterans, 735, note. 
 
 Grand Gulf, Miss., 681. 
 
 Grant, Gen. Ulysses S., at Belmont, 
 63s; in command at Cairo, 639; 
 moves up the Tennessee, 640; takes 
 Fort Donelson, 640; encamps at 
 
 ' Pittsburgh Landing, 641 ; fights the 
 battle of .Shiloh, 642; in command 
 at Corinth, 646; at Holly Springs, 
 679; fails in his first advance on 
 Vicksburgh, 646, 680; his friend- 
 ship with Sherman, 646; crosses the 
 Mississippi, 681; recrosses the Mis- 
 sissippi and drives Pemberton into 
 Vicksburgh, 681-2; captures Vicks- 
 burgh, 682; takes possession of 
 Arkansas, 683; called to Chatta- 
 nooga, 687; relieves it from siege, 
 687; called to Virginia and put .in 
 command of all the Union armies, 
 69?; acts in conjunction with .Sher- 
 man, 698; changes his method of 
 fighting, 699; his battles in the 
 Wilderness, 701-2; crosses the James 
 River, 704; besieges Petersburgh, 
 704, 730; takes Petersburgh and 
 Richmond, 732; captures Lee's 
 army, 733; reviews his army in 
 Washington, 735; elected President, 
 768; his fitness for the presidency, 
 775; his two Administrations, 780-1; 
 confidence in his integrity, 797; 
 withdraws support from the recon- 
 structed governments, 802. 
 
 Grasse (gras). Count de, in command 
 of the French fleet, 243; aids in the 
 capture of Cornwallis, 261, 289. 
 
 Great Britain (see England, until after 
 1707), her relations with her Ameri- 
 can colonies, 129-32; her colonies be- 
 gin to cross the Alleghanies, 141; 
 sends troops to America, 146; de- 
 
590 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 ^^ The references are to Sections, not to pagej. 
 
 Great Britain — Continued. 
 Clares war against France, 147; 
 conquers Canada, 152; forces a 
 peace from France, 154; unfortunate 
 peculiarities of her government, i6o; 
 attempts to regulate the colonies, 
 163; passes the Stamp Act, 164; 
 taxes American coinmerce, 169; re- 
 tains only the tea tax, 173; attempts 
 to punish disobedience, 175; the dif- 
 ficulties of the attempt, 185; pro- 
 poses conciliation, 202; drives the 
 colonies into declaring their inde- 
 pendence, 20$; declares war against 
 France, 227; her warfare not a suc- 
 cess, ^31; determines to attack the 
 Southern States, 236; her com- 
 merce injured by American priva- 
 teers, 240; agrees to a treaty of 
 peace, 262-3; evacuates the United 
 States, 264; and the Northwestern 
 forts, 309; her wars with Napoleon, 
 3-0, 333; her injuries to American 
 commerce, 343-4; loses her trade 
 with the United States, 345, 349; 
 is involved in war with the United 
 States, 351; her navy, 352, 365, 369; 
 blockades the American coast, 371, 
 383; plunders exposed points, 384-8; 
 conquers Napoleon and sends an ex- 
 pedition against Louisiana, 397; 
 agrees to a treaty of peace, 400-1; 
 mediates between France and the 
 United States, 464; makes an ex- 
 tradition treaty with the United 
 States, 502; and settles a great part 
 of the northern boundary, 503; 
 claims the Oregon country, 504; 
 compromises it, 523, 777; popula- 
 tion, 588; recognizes the Confeder- 
 ate States as a belligerent power, 
 627, note; demands the surrender 
 of the Confederate commissioners, 
 638; refuses to recognize the inde- 
 pendence of the Confederate States, 
 671 ; allows Confederate agents to 
 build privateers, 672; but not iron- 
 clads, 696; connected with the 
 United States by telegraph, 772; 
 agrees to submit the Alabama claims 
 to arbitration, 776-7; pays the dama- 
 ges awarded. 777; receives damages 
 for the fisheries, 777; renewal of the 
 fisheries dispute, 834; her interest 
 in the Panama Canal, 834; dispute 
 about seals in Bering Sea, 848; 
 friendship in war with Spain, 887; 
 interests in Samoa, 894; Clayton- 
 Bulwer treaty, 895. 
 Greeley, Horace, nominated for Presi- 
 dent, 796. 
 Greenback Party, the, its objects, 797; 
 
 defeated, 817, 826, 854. 
 Greene, Gen. Nathaniel, attacks New- 
 port, 230; succeeds Gates, 249; his 
 brilliant success, 254. 
 Grenada (gren-ah'da'), 1S4. 
 Grenville. George, his connection with 
 the Stamp Act, 164. 
 
 Groton (grot'n), Conn., scene of the 
 
 Pequot war, 59. 
 Guadalupe Hidalgo (gwa'da-loop he- 
 
 dal'go), treaty ot, 543. 
 (iuam (gwahm), the islandof, 885. 
 Guanahani (gwah-na-hah'ne), discov- 
 ered by Coiumbus, 6. 
 Guantanamo (.gwahn-ta-nah'mo), 884. 
 Guerrillas, irregular forces, 647, 683. 
 Gucrricre (ger-re-arc), sunk by the 
 
 Constitution, 367. 
 Guiana, British, 861. 
 Guilford Court-house, battle of, 253. 
 Gunboats, the form used in 1812, 352; 
 
 battles with blockading vessels, 371; 
 
 western, 648; iron-clad gunboats on 
 
 the Atlantic coast, 651. 
 
 Hague Conference, the, 897. 
 
 Hail Columbia, a national song, 319, 
 
 note. 
 Hale, John Parker, an antislavery 
 leader in Congress, 558; nominated 
 for President, 563. 
 Hale, Nathan, hung as spy by the 
 
 British, 209, iiote. 
 Halifax, N. S., British army goes to 
 Halifax, 198; returns to attack New 
 York, 207. 
 Halleck, Fitz-Greene, an American 
 
 poet, 457. 
 Halleck, Gen. Henry W., in command 
 of the Union forces in Missouri, 635; 
 takes Corinth, 643. 
 Hamilton, Alexander, advocate of the 
 Constitution, 285; author of the 
 Federalist, 285; Secretary of the 
 Treasury, 296; proposes a national 
 bank, 300; financial measures, 299; 
 leader of the Federal Party, 303; 
 shot by Burr, 332. 
 Hamlin, Hannibal, nominated for 
 
 Vice-President, 608; elected, 609. 
 Hampton Roads, battle of, 651. 
 Hampton, Va., destroyed, 384. 
 Hancock, John, a Massachusetts lead- 
 er, 169; his sloop seized, 171; a 
 member of the Continental Con- 
 gress, 192. 
 Harlem, N. Y., skirmish at, 209. 
 Harmar's defeat, 308. 
 Harnden, \V. F., and the express 
 
 companies, 491. 
 Harper's Ferry, W. Va., seized by 
 John Brown, 604; limit of the Con- 
 federate line, 628; taken by Jack- 
 son, 665. 
 Harrison^ Benjamin, nominated and 
 elected President, 840, 842, 844; de- 
 feated for President, 854. 
 Harrison, W'm. H., fights the battle 
 of Tippecanoe, 350; made com- 
 mander-in-chief of the West, 358; 
 defends Fort Meigs, 360; defeats 
 the British in the battle of the 
 Thames and recovers the northwest, 
 361 ; nominated for President, but 
 defeated, 480; nominated for Presi- 
 dent and elected, 498; death, 500. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 ff^«g~ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 591 
 
 Hartford, Conn., settlement, 58. 
 
 Jlartford Convention, 390. 
 
 Harvard College founded, 75. 
 
 Hatcher's Kun, part of Grant's line, 
 730. 
 
 Hatteras Inlet, capture of the forts at, 
 636. 
 
 Havana, captured by the British and 
 provincials, 153; scene of the Maine 
 explosion, 877; administrative meas- 
 ures in, 902. 
 
 Havre de Grace (havr do grahs), Md., 
 attacked by the British, 384; on 
 the route to Washington, 623. 
 
 Hawaii, 852; becomes a territory of 
 the United States, 888. 
 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 458. 
 
 Hayes, R. B., nominated for Presi- 
 dent, 797; his election disputed, 
 798; decided by the Electoral Com- 
 mission, 801 ; prosperity under his 
 Administration, 804; disagreements 
 with Congress, 816. 
 
 Hazen, Gen. W'm. B., captures Fort 
 McAllister, 714. 
 
 Helena (hel-e'na). Ark., attacked by 
 the Confederates, 683. 
 
 Hendricks, Thos. A., nominated for 
 Vice-President, 797; his election dis- 
 puted, 798; the Electoral Commis- 
 sion decides against him, 801 ; nomi- 
 nated again and elected, 826. 
 
 Henry, Gen. Guy V., Governor-Gen- 
 eral of Porto Rico, 903; is suc- 
 ceeded by Gen. Davis, 903. 
 
 Henry, Patrick, a Virginia orator, 165; 
 member of the Continental Con- 
 gress, 192. 
 
 Hessians, the, dislike of the Ameri- 
 cans for them, 202; a Hessian gar- 
 rison captured at Trenton, 212. 
 
 Hobart, Garret A., elected Vice-Presi- 
 dent, 865; died, 869, note. 
 
 Hobkirk's Hill, battle of.. 254. 
 
 Hoe, R. M., and the printing-press, 
 518. 
 
 Holland, agreement with Spain, 12; 
 explores and colonizes the country 
 around the Hudson River, 28; con- 
 quers the Swedes in Delaware, 29; 
 the refuge of the English Puritans, 
 45; the Dutch government of New 
 Netherland, 109; overthrown by 
 the English, 109; Holland recon- 
 quers the country, but finally aban- 
 dons it to the English, iii. 
 
 Holly Springs, Miss., Grant's head- 
 quarters, 679; captvired by Con- 
 federate cavalry, 680. 
 
 Holmes (homz), Oliver Wendell, 458. 
 
 Homestead riots, 853. 
 
 Hood, Gen. J. B., succeeds Johnston, 
 708; attacks Sherman, 709; en- 
 deavors to transfer the war to Ten- 
 nessee, 710; is beaten and loses his 
 army, 711; consequences of his mis- 
 take, 712.^ 
 
 Hooker. Gen. Joseph E., succeeds 
 Burnside in command of the Army 
 
 Hooker, Gen. Joseph E. — Continued. 
 of the Potomac, 667; is defeated at 
 Chancellorsville, 674; turns over the 
 command to Meade, 676. 
 Hooker, Thomas, a Massachusetts 
 minister, 50; heads the emigration 
 to Connecticut, 58. 
 
 Hornet, the, captures the Peacock, 370; 
 and the Penguin, 375. 
 
 Horseshoe Bend, battle of, 396. 
 
 Houses, in 1790, 288; in i860 and since 
 that year, 595. 
 
 Houston (hews'tun), Gen. Sam., a 
 Texas leader, 506. 
 
 Howe, Gen. Sir William, lands at 
 Boston, 194; commands in the as- 
 sault at Bunker Hill, 195; succeeds 
 Gage and evacuates Boston, 198; 
 lands on Staten Island, 207; fights 
 the battle of Long Island and 
 drives Washington north to Peeks- 
 kill, 209; attacks Philadelphia by 
 sea, 215; fights the battle of Chad's 
 Ford and takes Philadelphia, 216; 
 is succeeded by Clinton, 228. 
 
 Howe, Elias, and the sewing-machine, 
 517- 
 
 Hudson, Henry, seeks the Northwest 
 Passage, 21 ; explores the coast 
 from Hudson River to Chesapeake 
 Bay, 28. 
 
 Hudson River, the, why its name was 
 given, 28; its relation to New 
 Netherland, no; its importance to 
 New York City, 116; the British 
 hope to control it through their 
 navy, 207; crossed by Washington 
 and Cornwallis, 210; forms part of 
 the route to Canada, 218; crossed 
 by lUirgoyne, 221 ; steamboats on 
 the Hudson, 405; the " anti-rent " 
 disturbances along the river, 514. 
 
 Huguenots (hu'ge-nots), driven from 
 France, 43. 
 
 Hulks, or prison-ships, 232. 
 
 Hull, Capt. Isaac, in command of the 
 Constitution, 366. 
 
 Hull, Gov. William, surrenders De- 
 troit and Michigan, 356. 
 
 Hunter, Gen. David, in command of 
 the Union forces in the Shenandoah 
 Valley, 700; defeated and driven 
 into West Virginia, 703. 
 
 Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, banished 
 from Massachusetts, 51. 
 
 Hutchinson, Thomas, a Massachu- 
 setts loyalist, 169. 
 
 Iberville, d' (de-barc-veeP), an early 
 French explorer, 138. 
 
 Idaho, admitted to the Union, 846. 
 
 Illinois, why its name was given, 3; 
 conquered by Clarke, 235; why 
 Virginia claimed it, 271; made a 
 Territory, 405; admission, 419 (see 
 Ordinance of 1787). 
 
 " Immunes," 882. 
 
 Impeachment of the President, 282; 
 of President Johnson, 767. 
 
592 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 fW° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Imperialism, 905-6. 
 
 Impressment, right of, 343, 401. 
 
 Imprisonment for debt, hardship of 
 the system, 288, note; its gradual 
 abolition, 461. 
 
 Income tax decision, 860. 
 
 Independence, Declaration of. See 
 Declaration of Independence. 
 
 Independence, Mo., Mormon settle- 
 ment near, 495. 
 
 Independents, the, 869. 
 
 Indiana conquered by Clarke and 
 made a part of Virginia, 235; why 
 Virginia claimed it, j/i; made a 
 Territory, 324; admission, 405 (see 
 Ordinance of 1787). 
 
 Indianapolis monetary conference, 
 889. 
 
 Indians, the, why the name was 
 given, 2; their tribes and names, 
 3; troubles with the Indians in 
 Massachusetts, 47; in Connecticut, 
 59; throughout New England, 68-9; 
 in New York and Canada, 73; in 
 Virginia, 77, 81 ; in North Carolina, 
 95; in South Carolina, 102; peace 
 v-'ith them in Pennsylvania, 123; the 
 northwestern Indians join the 
 French, 144; submit unwillingly to 
 the English, 144; form a part of 
 Burgoyne's army, 218; sack ex- 
 posed American villages and are 
 heavily punished by Sullivan, 232; 
 in Ohio, 308, 314; take sides with 
 the British in 1812, 350, 361; their 
 cruelty, 359; troubles with the 
 Creeks, 394-6; with the Florida In- 
 dians, 414, 463; with the Georgia In- 
 dians, 431, 463; with the Illinois 
 Indians, 463; with the Minnesota 
 Indians, 673; with the Modocs and 
 Sioux, 755; with the Nez Perces, 
 807. 
 
 Indian Territory, the, 3, 846. 
 
 Indies, East, assigned mainly to 
 Portugal by Spain, 12. 
 
 Indies, West, explored by Columbus, 
 6; French possessions in, 230, 266; 
 a refuge for many of the Tories, 
 261. 
 
 Indigo, cultivated in South Carolina, 
 98, 316. 
 
 IngersoU, Jared, nominated for Vice- 
 President, 351, note. 
 
 Insular Commission, Porto Rico, 903. 
 
 hisurgcntc, V (lahn(g) - sur - zhahnt'), 
 captured by the Constellation, 319. 
 
 " Insurgents," and Porto Rican tariff, 
 904. 
 
 Insurrection, in Massachusetts, 276; 
 power of Congress to suppress, 281; 
 the Whiskey Insurrection, 307. 
 
 Insurrection, negro, in South Caro- 
 lina, 99; in New York, 115; in 
 Virginia, 462; the general Southern 
 feeling, 492, 603; John Brown's, 604. 
 
 Interest, reduction of, 814. 
 
 Interior, Department of the, estab- 
 lishment of, 296, 520. 
 
 Internal Improvements. See Ameri- 
 can System. 
 
 International Copyright, 848. 
 
 Interstate Commerce Act, 832. 
 
 Iowa, part of the Louisiana pur- 
 chase, 334; admission, 522. 
 
 Ireland, 771, 772. 
 
 Iron, iron-mines of Pennsylvania lit- 
 tle known in 1790, 291; in New 
 Jersey, 511. 
 
 Iron-clad vessels, used during the 
 Civil War on the western rivers, 
 648; previously built as experi 
 ments by Great Britain and France 
 649; the first battle of iron-clads 
 650-1; introduced into all navies 
 651; at New Orleans, 654-5; used 
 in attacking Fort Sumter, 688 
 capture of the Atlanta, 688; destruc 
 tion of the Albemarle, 716; capture 
 of the Tennessee, 718. 
 
 Iroquois (ir-o-kwoi'), an Indian race, 3. 
 
 Irving, Washington, his literary 
 work, 457. 
 
 Isabella, queen of Spain, 5. 
 
 Island Number Ten, capture of, 648. 
 
 Italy, dispute with, 849. 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, put in command 
 of the Tennessee troops, 395; over- 
 throws the Creeks, 396; seizes Pen- 
 sacola, 398; completely defeats the 
 British expedition against Louisi- 
 ana, 399; seizes Florida, 414; 
 nominated for President, but de- 
 feated, 427; nominated again by 
 the Democrats and elected, 438; 
 sketch, 441 ; change of manners 
 during his Administrations, 442; his 
 foreign policy, 464; his political con- 
 tests, 466; changes the civil service. 
 467; overthrows the Bank of the 
 United States, 468-9; attacks the 
 American System, 470; re-elected 
 President, 473; resists Nullification, 
 477; his general success, 481-2. 
 
 Jackson, Gen. Thomas Jonathan 
 (Stonewall), Lee's ablest lieutenant, 
 661; his raid on Banks, 662; re- 
 turns to the Peninsula, 663; over- 
 whelms Pope, 664; captures 
 Harper's Ferry, 665; aids in de- 
 feating Burnside at Fredericks- 
 burgh, 667; killed at Chancellois- 
 villc. 674. 
 
 Jackson, Miss., held by Johnston, 
 681-2. 
 
 Jacksonville, Fla., taken by the L^nion 
 forces, 715. 
 
 Jalapa (Hah-lah'pa), Me.x., occupied 
 by Scott, 536-7. 
 
 James I., king, charters two coloni- 
 zation companies, 25; difficulties 
 with his Parliament, 40. 
 
 James II., king, his reign in England, 
 42; annoys the colonies, 44; takes 
 away the charter of Massachusetts, 
 54 ; attempts to do so in the other 
 New England colonies, 70. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 ^ptff" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 593 
 
 James River, the, why the name was 
 given, 31; McClellan's campaign on 
 the James, 657-63; Grant's cam- 
 paign on the James, 704, 731. 
 Jamestown, V^a., settled, 26, 31, 76; 
 destroyed, 82. 
 
 Japan, opened to American com- 
 merce, 569. 
 
 Jasper, Sergeant William, 203, note. 
 
 Java, the, taken by the Constitution, 
 368. 
 
 Jay, John, member of the Continental 
 Congress, 192; first chief justice of 
 the Supreme Court, 298; concludes 
 a treaty with Great Britain, 309. 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, member of the 
 Continental Congress, 192-3; author 
 of the Declaration of Independence, 
 206; Secretary of State, 296; a leader 
 of the Republican Party. 303; 
 nominated for President, but de- 
 feated, 311; nominated again and 
 elected, 323; upholds state sov- 
 ereignty, 328; change of manners 
 during his Administrations, 330-1; 
 acquires Louisiana, 334; orders the 
 Oregon country to be explored, 335; 
 re-elected President, 339; his peace 
 policy, 344; death, 432. 
 
 Jersey, the, a notorious prison-ship, 
 232. 
 
 Johnson, Andrew, Senator from Ten- 
 nessee, 616; military governor of 
 Tennessee, 641; elected Vice-Presi- 
 dent, 723; succeeds to the Presi- 
 dency, 739; his feeling in regard to 
 the States, 754; his plan of recon- 
 struction, 756; vetoes the plan of 
 Congress, but is defeated, 761 ; 
 quarrels with Congress, 765; re- 
 moves Stanton, 766; is impeached, 
 but not convicted, 767. 
 
 Johnson, Ilerschel V., nominated for 
 Vice-President, 608. 
 
 Johnson, Richard JSL, nominated for 
 V^ice- President and elected, 480; re- 
 nominated and defeated, 498. 
 
 Johnson, Sir William, defeats the 
 French and Indians near Lake 
 George, 146. 
 
 Johnston, Gen. Albert Sidney, in 
 command of the Confederate armies 
 in the West, 639; killed at Shiloh, 
 642. 
 
 Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., decides the 
 battle of I'uU Run, 632; in com- 
 mand of the Confederate army on 
 the Peninsula, 658; wounded and re- 
 tires, 660; succeeds Bragg in the 
 West, 680; tries to aid Pemberton, 
 681; is driven out of Jackson, 682; 
 takes command at Dalton, 687; his 
 position, 697; his retreat from Dal- 
 ton to Atlanta, 706; the reasons for 
 it, 707; his removal, 708; recalled 
 to service, 728; attacks Sherman, 
 729; surrenders, 734. 
 
 Joliet (zho-le-a'), Louis, finds the 
 Mississippi, 136. 
 
 Jones, Capt. Jacob, in command of 
 
 the Wasp, 368. 
 Jones, Capt. John Paul, in command 
 
 of the Ranger, 240; of the Richard, 
 
 242. 
 Judiciary Department, its duties, 283. 
 Julian, George W., nominated for 
 
 Vice-President, 563. 
 
 Kalb (kalb), Baron de, arrives from 
 Europe, 214; killed at Camden, 249. 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska Act, its passage and 
 consequences, 574. 
 
 Kansas, becomes a Territory, 574; the 
 two sections struggle for it, 578; 
 the free-State settlers win, 579; ad- 
 mission, 587. 
 
 Kansas City, 906. 
 
 Kansas Pacific Railway, 890. 
 
 Kaskaskia (kas-kas'ke-a), 111., a form- 
 er French town, 139. 
 
 Kearney (kar'ni). Gen. S. W., con- 
 quers New Mexico, 529. 
 
 Kcarsargc (ke'ar-sarj), the, sinks the 
 Alabama, 720. 
 
 Kenesaw (ken-e-saw') Mountain, bat- 
 tle of, 706. 
 
 Kennebec (ken-e-bek') River, the, 
 early settlement, 33; route to Can- 
 ada, 200. 
 
 Kent, James, a great American law- 
 yer, 459. 
 
 Kentucky, Boone's settlement, 157, 
 note; followed by others, 235; the 
 territory belongs to Virginia, 271; 
 admission, 302; massacre of her 
 troops, 359; sends men to defend 
 New Orleans, 398; supports the 
 Union, 626; Confederates in Ken- 
 tucky, 639; they are driven out, 
 641; raided by Bragg, 644; by 
 John Morgan, 684. 
 
 Kentucky and Virginia resolutions, 
 the, 322. 
 
 Key, Francis S., writes the song 
 " Star-Spangled Banner," 387, note. 
 
 Key West, Fla., saved from the Con- 
 federates, 617; naval rendezvous, 
 882. 
 
 Kidd, Capt. Robert, a New York pi- 
 rate, 114. 
 
 Kieft (keeft), Sir William, governor 
 of New York, 109. 
 
 King, Rufus, nominated for Vice- 
 President, 339, note; for President, 
 409, note. 
 
 King, W. R., nominated for Vice- 
 President, 563. 
 
 King's Mountain, battle of, 250. 
 
 Kingston, Can., taken from the 
 French by the British, 148. 
 
 Kingston, N. Y., 117. 
 
 Kingston, R. I., scene of the swamp 
 fight, 69. 
 
 Klondike gold-fields, the, 893. 
 
 Knox, Gen. Henry, Secretary of War, 
 296. 
 
 Knoxville, Tenn., besieged by the 
 Confederates, 686. 
 
594 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 ^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 K=\ko^^0!^^l^H„r^he case of. 
 
 568. 
 Ku Klux Klan, 792- 
 
 Labrador (lab-ra-dorr'), failures to 
 
 settle it, 10, ^o. _ 
 Ladrones (lad-ro'nes) the, 885. 
 Lafavette (lah-fa-ef), Ind., 350- 
 La Fayette, Marquis de arrives from 
 Etirope, ii4; attacks Newport. 230; 
 fights^ Arnold and Philhpsm Vir- 
 ginia 252; prevents Corn walhs from 
 ILcapini 258; revisits the United 
 States in old age, 421. 
 Lancaster (langk'ns-ter), fa-, -i7- 
 Land companies, 141.. 292. 
 Lane, Joseph, nominated for Vice 
 
 President. 608. . -, gx oq, 
 
 T a Ouasima (a kwa-se ma), 882. 
 l1 sine (lah sahl), Robert de, names 
 Louisiana, 136. nr<>o-nn Tn- 
 
 Lava Beds, scene of an Oregon In 
 
 dian war, 785. command 
 
 ^^o7"thr'H'or^J;,^3;?; 'oi the C/,«a- 
 
 LaCrf-af the, Terry's flag-sh>P- „3^„y , 
 Lawrence, the river St 'ts discovery, 
 II- its acquisition by the i<rencn, 
 i8- becomes part of the northern 
 boundary of the United States. 263. 
 T aws of the United States, under the 
 ^Constitution. 280; by whom they are 
 made 281 ; by whom they are exe 
 ?uted 282 by whom they are inter- 
 preted, 283; laws passed by Con- 
 sress, 207-8 (see Congress); how at 
 fected bv the veto, 469; by the ques 
 tion of slavery, 508. 
 Leavenworth deVn-wurth) Kan., 529- 
 Lee, Arthur, agent in France, 2-4, 
 
 L^^'^Gen. Charles, in command at 
 Peekskill. 210; dismissed from the 
 QfTvice. 228, note. 
 lII Gen. Robert E.. attempts to 
 recover West Virginia 630; takes 
 command of the Confederate Army 
 6>;8 note; recognized as the ablest 
 Confederate general 661; fights he 
 Seven Days' Battles, 663; oins 
 Jackson after the second, battle of 
 Bull Run. 664; first invasion of tl^e 
 North 665; at the battle of An- 
 tietam 666; defeats Burnside at 
 FredTr'icksburgh, 667; defeats the 
 Tln^on Army at ChancellorsviUe, 
 67^ second invasion of the North. 
 677-6; defeated at Gettysburg!, 677; 
 K- fitrhts the Wilderness battles 
 against Grant. 70.; forced back on 
 
 Ichmond, 702-4; '"^'^^^''J'Z 
 Richmond, 732; surrenders at Ap- 
 pomattox, 733- . r ,. „ iprm 
 Legal Tender, meaning of the term, 
 
 670. 
 
 Legislative department, its duties and 
 
 membership. 281. 
 Leisler (lisc'ler), Jacob, hung for trea- 
 
 lIoh.' Ponce de (ponc'tha da la'onc), 
 
 discovers Florida, 9- , 
 
 Lcol^ard, the, insults the Chcsafcakc, 
 
 Lc'^nt (le-vanf). the, captured by 
 
 the CoHstitutwii. 375. 
 Lewes (lu'ess), Del., destroyed, 384- 
 Lexington, Mass., fight at, 181. 
 Liberal Republicans why they left 
 
 the Republican Party, 795. are 
 
 joined by the Democrats and de- 
 
 feated, 7q6. 
 Liberator, the, a Boston newspaper, 
 
 462. 
 Liliuokalani, 852. . , 
 
 Lincoln, Abraham, nominated tor 
 "^ President, 608; elected, 609; his d^- 
 advantages, 621;. 9rders Fort Sum^ 
 ter to be provisioned. 622. cans 
 for volunteers, 623; proclaims a 
 blockade of Southern P^^ts /f' 
 calls a special session of Congress, 
 631 ; begins the appointment of 
 miltary governors. 641; Issues the 
 Emancipation Proclamation, .669, 
 proclaims a day of thanksgiving 
 for Union victories. 689; re-elected 
 President. 723; the public estima- 
 t'ion of him'. V36;, .h.s assassination 
 and death. 737! his funera , 738^ 
 Tinroln Gen. Benjamin, in coin 
 ^mand'of the American forces in 
 Sluth Carolina. :m; .^""^"ders at 
 rinarleston 247; receives the sur- 
 render orthe'British at Yorktown. 
 
 Lu'erature, in 1775, ^87;frorn 1790 un- 
 til 1830, 457;- after 1830, 4S8, m it-- 
 
 L^r.'^Bwl' the. beaten by the Prcs. 
 
 L:^;ng^."^bert. member of the 
 
 Lo"crTol!n^^°fnir^h^pbi.osopher, 
 
 Locomotive engine. Trevithick's and 
 Stephenson's locomotives. ^29, the 
 new machine introduced 1"*° the 
 United States, 442; A"l"'"'" 7^'^^ 
 their own ocomotives. 443 (see 
 Railway!); possible use of elec- 
 
 Logan.' Joh'n A., nominated for Vice- 
 /resident, but defeated, 826. 
 
 ?^i^ld^^n.^HrVl^nto?y: 32 -'loses 
 Li'ng?'Yoh^n ^S.,'°-Secretary of the 
 
 Lo'iigf^ilow!- Henry Wadsworth. an 
 
 American poet, 458- 
 Mislrn3;rY.;irm^edbyCon- 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 595 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Long Island — Coiiiznued 
 
 necticut, but taken by New York, 
 no; held by the British, J31. 
 
 Longstreet, Gen. James, in command 
 of the Confederate forces at Knox- 
 ville, 686. 
 
 Lookout Mountain, battle of, 6S7. 
 
 Lords, House of, 40. 
 
 Los Angeles (los ahng'Hii-lez), Cal., 
 the last battle wun tne Mexicans in 
 Califortiia, 5J9; terminus of the 
 Southern Pacific Railroad, 783. 
 
 Louisburgh (loo'is-burg), a French 
 stronghold on Cape iJreton Island, 
 72; taken by the British, 148. 
 
 Louisiana Purchase, the, 334. 
 
 Louisiana, State of, admission, 405; 
 secedes, 613; operations in the 
 State, 653-5, 679, 682, 715; recon- 
 structed and readmitted, 762; dis- 
 orders in the State, 790; electoral 
 votes disputed, 798; the Returning 
 Board, 798; the decision, 801. 
 
 Louisiana territory, its original^ ex- 
 tent, 135 ;' so named by La Salle, 
 136; granted, to a French company, 
 138; France surrenders that portion 
 east of the Mississippi to Great 
 Britain, 154; France transfers _ the 
 
 §ortion west of the Mississippi to 
 pain, artd it keeps tjje name Lou- 
 isiana, r55; Spain's territory of 
 Louisiana becomes the \yestern 
 boundary of the United States, 263; 
 transferred by Spain to France in 
 1800, 334; by France to the L^nited 
 States in 1803, 334; attacked with- 
 out success by Great Britain", 397; 
 slavery in Louisiana, 415; the ter- 
 ritory divided by the Missouri Com- 
 promise line, 418^ (see Compromise, 
 Missouri); did not cover the Ore- 
 gon country, 504; or Texas, 505. 
 
 Lovejoy, E. P., l«rlled by a mob at 
 Alton, 493. 
 
 Lowell (lo'el), Mass., growth, 450. 
 
 Lowell, James Russell, his literary 
 work, 592. 
 
 Lticifer match, not known in 1790, 
 288; its invention, 448. 
 
 Lundy's Lane, battle of, 392. 
 
 Luzon (loo-son'), war in, 900-1. 
 
 Lynchburgh (linch'burg), \'a., at- 
 tacked unsuccessfully from the 
 Shenandoah valley, 700; cut off 
 from Richmond by Sheridan, 731; 
 Lee tries to reach it, 733. 
 
 Lynn (lin), Mass., settlement, 49. 
 
 Lyon, Gen. Nathaniel, in command 
 of the I'nion forces in Missouri, 
 635- 
 
 Macdonough, Commodore Tiiom.\s. 
 
 in command of the American Hcet 
 
 on Lake Champlain, 382. 
 Macedonian, the, taken bv the United 
 
 States, 368. 
 Mackinaw (mak'in-aw), Mich., an 
 
 early French fort, 139. 
 
 Macon (ma'kon), Ga., 725. 
 
 Madeira (ma-dee'ra), 368. 
 
 Madison, James, one of the leaders 
 in forming the Constitution, 278; 
 elected President, 346; sketch, 348; 
 re-elected, 351. 
 
 Magellan (mii-jel'lan), Fernando, dis- 
 covers the way around South Amer- 
 ica, from Europe to the East In- 
 dies, 21. 
 
 jNIaine, its Indian names, 3; sighted 
 by Cortereal, 12; attempt to settle 
 it, 33; forms part of the Plymouth 
 Company's grant, 33; becomes a 
 part of Massachusetts, 54; a large 
 part of it conquered by the British 
 in 1814-15, 3S5; admission, 418; 
 boundary dispute with New Bruns- 
 wick, 497; settled by treaty, 503. 
 
 Maine, the, blown up in Havana har- 
 bor, S77. 
 
 Malietoa (mal-e-a-to'a), king of 
 Samoa, 894. 
 
 Malietoa Tanu (mal-Oa tua ta-noo'), 
 894- 
 
 Malvern (mawl'vern) Hill, battle of, 
 663. 
 
 Manassas (ma-nas'sas) Junction, Va., 
 632, 658. 
 
 Manhattan (man-hat'tan) Island, 
 bought by the Dutch, 28. 
 
 Manila, occupied by the Americans, 
 88r; still under martial law, 901. 
 
 Manila Bay, battle of, 881. 
 
 Manufactures, begun in New England, 
 75; efforts of Parliament to pro- 
 hibit them, 67, 163; encouragement 
 of manufactures by the colonies, 
 186; influence of the patent system, 
 312 (see Patents); decline of manu- 
 factures after 1815, 406; in order to 
 revive them. Congress turns to 
 Protection, 426 (see Protection); 
 rise of manufacturing cities, 450, 
 589. 
 
 Marietta (ma-re-et'ta), O., settlement, 
 292. 
 
 Marion (ma'ri-un). Gen. Francis, 248. 
 
 Marque (mark), letters of, 625. 
 
 Marquesas (mar-ka-sas') Islands, 373. 
 
 Marquette, Jacques (zhahk mar-ket'), 
 finds the Mississippi, 136. 
 
 Marshall, John, a great lawyer and 
 judge, 459. 
 
 Maryland, part of the London Com- 
 pany's grant, 2-\ a proprietary col- 
 ony. 35; its first proprietor and 
 name, 85; settlement, 86; forces 
 the transfer of the western terri- 
 tory to the United States, 272; one 
 of the " small " States in 1787. 279; 
 holds to tlie Union, 626; operations 
 in Maryland, 665, 675. 
 
 Mason and Dixon's Line, 87. 
 Mason, John, proprietor of New 
 
 Hampshire, 55. 
 Massachusetts, its Indian name, 3; 
 the remnant of the Plymouth Com- 
 pany's grant, 27; originally two 
 
59^ PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 yjg" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Massachusetts — Continued. 
 colonies, 33; a charter colony, 35; set- 
 tlement of the Plymouth colony, 45; 
 its leaders, 47; settlement of the 
 Massachusetts Bay colony, 48; sup- 
 posed meaning of the name, 48, 
 note; its leaders, 50; religious per- 
 secution, 51-2; witchcraft, 53; union 
 of the two colonies, 54; takes part 
 in the war against Philip, 69; 
 loses the charter, 54, 70; captures 
 Port Royal, 72; proposes the Stamp 
 Act Congress, 166; resists commer- 
 cial taxation, 169; resistance ceases 
 to be peaceable, 171; Parliament 
 declares the Massachusetts people 
 rebels, 172; and attempts to alter 
 the charter, 175; Congress promises 
 to support Massachusetts, 177; state 
 of the colony in 1775, 180; the Mas- 
 sachusetts people fight the British, 
 181-2; and besiege Boston, 183; stands 
 second in population in 1775 and 
 seventh in 1880, 184; operations in 
 Massachusetts, 194-8; Massachusetts 
 claims western territory, 271; cedes 
 it to the United States, 273; rebel- 
 lion in, 276; introduces the normal- 
 school system, for training public- 
 school teachers, 455. 
 
 Massachusetts Government Act, the, 
 175. 
 
 Mataafa (ma-ta-a'fa), king of Samoa, 
 894. 
 
 Matamoras (mat-a-mo'ros), Mex., 526, 
 
 Mather (math'er). Cotton, a Massa- 
 chusetts minister, 53. 
 
 Mauch Chunk (mawk chunk), Pa., 
 429. 
 
 Maximilian, made emperor of Mexico, 
 695; taken and shot by the Mexi- 
 cans, 770. 
 
 Mayflower, the, 45. 
 
 McClellan, Gen. George B., enters 
 West Virginia, 630; called to com- 
 mand the Army of the Potomac, 
 633; transfers the Army of the 
 Potomac to the Peninsula, 657; 
 takes Yorktown and tries to make 
 a junction with McDowell, 659; 
 the army is divided by the Chicka- 
 hominy, 660; McClellan loses con- 
 nection with McDowell, 662; fights 
 the Seven Days' Battles and reaches 
 the James River, 663; recalled to 
 aid Pope, 664; leads his army 
 across Maryland to cover P>altimore, 
 665; fights the battle of Antietam, 
 and is succeeded by Burnside, 666; 
 nominated for President, but de- 
 feated, 723. 
 
 McClure, Capt. R. J. M., finds a 
 " northwest passage," 21. 
 
 McDowell, Gen. Irvin, in command of 
 the Union forces at Bull Run, 632; 
 of the force covering Washington, 
 659; cut off from McClellan, 662. 
 
 McKinley Tariff Act, 842. 
 
 McKinley, Wm., elected President, 
 865; causes of his election, 869; in- 
 augural address, 869; calls e-xtra 
 session of Congress, 869; appoints 
 monetary commission, 872; an- 
 nounces his Cuban policy, 875; his 
 proposition to Spain, 878; requests 
 authority from Congress to inter- 
 vene by force, 878; proclaims a 
 blockade of Cuba, 882; attitude 
 towards the civil service, 892; 
 recommends control of Nicaraguan 
 canal by the United States, 895; 
 Philippine policy, 900; appoints 
 civil commissioners for the Philip- 
 pines, 900; appoints an Insular 
 Commission for Porto Rico, 903; 
 on the Porto Rican tariff question, 
 904; renominated, go6. 
 
 Meade, Gen. George G., in command 
 at Gettysburgh, 676-7. 
 
 Mechanicsville, battle of, 663. 
 
 Mediation of Russia to make peace 
 between Great Britain and the 
 United States, 400; of Great Britain 
 to make peace between France and 
 the United States, 464. 
 
 Memphis, Tenn., visited by yellow 
 fever, 808. 
 
 Meridian (me-rid'i-an), Miss., occu- 
 pied by Sherman, 717. 
 
 Mcrrimac, the, turned into a Con- 
 federate iron-clad, 649; destroys the 
 Union fleet in Hampton Roads, 650; 
 fights the Monitor, 651; results of 
 the battle, 651 ; destruction of the 
 Mcrrimac, 659. 
 
 Merritt, Gen. Wesley, at Manila, 881. 
 
 jNIexico, its Indian empire, 2; Spanish 
 adventure in it, 7; conquered by 
 the Spaniards in 1521, 14; perhaps 
 aimed at by Burr, 340; rebels 
 against Spain and becomes an in- 
 dependent republic, 506; claims 
 Texas, 524; claims the Nueces 
 River as the western boundary of 
 Texas, 524; her disadvantages in 
 war, 526; war declared, 527; loses 
 California, 529; and New I\Iexico, 
 529; Taylor's operations, 531-3; 
 Scott's operations, 534-42; peace 
 concluded, 543; Maximilian be- 
 comes emperor, 695; and is taken 
 and shot by the Mexicans, 770. 
 
 Michigan, claimed by Virginia, 271; 
 covered by the Ordinance of 1787, 
 274; surrendered by PIull, 356; re- 
 conquered by Harrison, 361; made 
 a Territory, 405; admission, 454; 
 copper in, 512. 
 
 Milan (mi-lan'). Decree, the, 343. 
 
 Miles, Major-(ien. Nelson A., occu- 
 pies Porto Rico, 883; the " beef " 
 scandal, 899. 
 
 Militia, in the Revolutionary armies, 
 265; power of Congress over, 281; 
 employed in the Whiskey Insurrec- 
 tion, 307; against the "Anti- 
 renters," 514. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 597 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Milledgeville, Ga., 713. 
 
 Millen. Ga.. 713. 
 
 Mill Spring, battle of, 640. 
 
 Mills IJill, the, «39. 
 
 Minerals, mineral wealth of the Unit- 
 ed States, 511; of the South, 824. 
 
 Minnesota, part of the Louisiana pur- 
 chase, 334; admission, 587; Sioux 
 war in, 673. 
 
 Mint, the, first coins issued, 312. 
 
 Minuit (niin'u-it), Peter, governor of 
 New Nctherland, 29; of Delaware, 
 109. 
 
 Minute-men, in Massachusetts, 180; in 
 the Revolutionary armies, 265. 
 
 Missionary Ridge, battle of, 687. 
 
 Mississippi, claimed by Georgia, 271; 
 ceded to the United States, 273; 
 made a Territory, 324; part, of the 
 Southwest Territory, 394; admission, 
 419; secedes, 613; operations in, 
 643, 646, 679-82, 717, 727; refuses the 
 first terms of reconstruction, 762; 
 electoral votes not received in 1868, 
 768, note; reconstructed and read- 
 mitted, 788; disorders in, 790. 
 
 Mississippi River, the, crossed by De 
 Soto, 14; upper part found by Mar- 
 quette and Joliet, 136; its mouth 
 found by d'lberville, 138; becomes 
 the boundary between Spanish 
 Louisiana and the British colonies, 
 154; some of the States claim to 
 extend west to the Mississippi, 271; 
 treaty with Spain as to its use, 315; 
 steamboat used on it, 405, 449; In- 
 dians removed beyond it, 430; forti- 
 fied by the Confederates, 628; opened 
 up as far south as Memphis, 643; 
 gunboat operations on it, 648; 
 opened up throughout, except at 
 Vicksburgh and Port Hudson, 655; 
 the completion of the work falls to 
 Grant, 679; he operates at first on 
 the west side of the river, 681; after- 
 ward on the east side, 681 ; Vicks- 
 burgh and Port Hudson surrender 
 and the river is opened, 682; re- 
 sults, 689-90; surrender of the Con- 
 federate forces west of the river, 
 734; difficulties in its navigation, 
 809, 821. 
 Missouri, part of the Louisiana pur- 
 chase, 334; admission, 418; State 
 officers secessionists, 626; opera- 
 tions in Missouri, 635, 637, 647. 
 Missouri Compromise. See Compro- 
 mise, Missouri. 
 Mobile (mo-beel'), Ala., originally an 
 Indian town, 14; settled by the 
 French, 138; one of the last Con- 
 federate ports, 715; how Farragut 
 forced his way into the bay, 718; 
 surrender of the city, y2y. 
 Modoc War, the, 785. 
 Mohawk River, the, 219. 
 Mohawks, an Indian tribe, 3. 
 Molino del Rey (mO-Ie'no del rfi), bat- 
 tle of, 541. 
 
 Monetary commission, the, 872, 889. 
 
 Monetary conference at Indianapolis, 
 889. 
 
 Money or currency, tobacco, 78; rice, 
 98; paper, 2^, 670; coin, 281; State 
 paper, 286; lack of money in 1812, 
 355- 
 
 Monitor, the, built by Ericsson, 649; 
 battle with the Merrimac, 651; its 
 etTects on naval construction, 651. 
 
 Monk's Corner, battle of, 247. 
 
 Monmouth (.mon'muth), battle of, 
 228. 
 
 Monongahela (mo-non-ga-he'hi) Riv- 
 er, the, 142, 853. 
 
 Monroe Doctrine, the, its announce- 
 ment, 420; violation by France, 695; 
 the United States again enforces it, 
 770, 861. 
 
 Monroe (mun-ro'), James, elected 
 President, 409; re-elected, 413. 
 
 Montana, 835. 
 
 Montauk, camp at, 882. 
 
 Montcalm (mont-kahm'). Marquis de, 
 in command of the French forces 
 in Canada, 147; deiends Ticon- 
 deroga, 148; draws all his forces 
 to defend Quebec, 150; defeat and 
 death, 151. 
 
 Monterey (mon-te-ra'). Cal., 529. 
 
 Monterey, Mex., occupied by Taylor, 
 
 531- 
 
 Montgomery, Ala., capital of the 
 Confederate States, 614; capital 
 changed to Richmond, 628. 
 
 Montgomery, Gen. Richard, killed at 
 Ouebec, 200. 
 
 ]\Iontreal (mont-re-awP), a French 
 town, 72, 139; taken by the English, 
 152; taken and lost by the Ameri- 
 cans, 200; an object of American 
 attack, 357. 
 
 Monts (mawn(g)), de, a successful 
 French colonizer, 19. 
 
 Morgan, Gen. Daniel, in command 
 of the Americans at the Cowpens, 
 
 251- 
 
 Morgan, John, a Confederate cavalry 
 officer, 6S4. 
 
 Morgan, William, his abduction and 
 its consequences, 472. 
 
 Mormons, the, their origin and settle- 
 ment in Illinois, 495; remove to 
 Utah, 586; still resist the laws 
 against polygamy, 822; renounce 
 polygamy, 862. 
 
 Morris, Robert, a member of the Con- 
 tinental Congress, i^. 
 
 Morristown, N. J., the American 
 headquarters during the latter part 
 of the Revolution, 212, 229, 239. 
 
 Morse, S. F. B., and the electric tele- 
 graph, 510. 
 
 Morton, Levi P., elected Vice-Presi- 
 dent, 840. 
 
 Morton, Dr. W. T. G., and anaes- 
 thetics, 517. 
 
 Motley, John Lothrop, his literary 
 work, 592. 
 
59^ PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 fj&" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Moultrie (molf'tri), William, defends 
 Charleston against the liritish, 203. 
 
 Mount Hope, R. 1., King i'hilip's 
 headquarters, 69. 
 
 Mount Vernon, Va., Washington's 
 home, 310, 325. 
 
 MuraviefF (moo-ra've-6f), Count, 
 peace proposals, 897. 
 
 Murfreesboro (mur-freez-bur'ro), bat- 
 tle of, 645. 
 
 Napoleon Bonaparte. See France. 
 
 Narragansett (nar-ra-gan'set), an In- 
 dian name, 3. 
 
 Narvaez (nar-vah'eth), a Spanish ex- 
 plorer, 9. 
 
 Nashville, battle of, 711. 
 
 Nashville, Term., taken by the Union 
 forces, 641. 
 
 Natchez (nach'ez). Miss., a former 
 French post, 139; Burr arrested 
 there, 340; in the Southwest Terri- 
 tory, 394; Tennessee volunteers 
 marched thither, 395. 
 
 National Banks, their superiority to 
 the old State banks, 484; institu- 
 tion of the system, 670. 
 
 National Party. See Greenback 
 
 Party. 
 
 National Republicans, 437, 471 (see 
 Whig Party). 
 
 National Road, appropriations for it, 
 
 4-3- 
 
 Naturalization, position of the United 
 States, 567. 
 
 Nautilus, the, taken by the Peacock 
 after the treaty of peace, and re- 
 stored to the British, 375. 
 
 Nauvoo, 111., the Mormon settlement, 
 495- 
 
 Naval School, the, established at An- 
 napolis, 519. 
 
 Navigation Acts, the, their passage 
 and purpose, 67; aimed particu- 
 larly at "\^irginia, 80; the Board of 
 Trade tries to enforce them, 132; 
 they are evaded or disobeyed. 158, 
 163; why the colonies submitted to 
 them, 168; violent attempts to en- 
 force them, 186. 
 
 Navy, the, the privateer navy of the 
 colonies in 1763, 153; Congress at- 
 tempts to form one, 191 ; successes 
 of the vessels built, 240; the pov- 
 erty of Congress defeats the at- 
 tempt, 241 ; purchase of vessels in 
 France, 242; under the Constitu- 
 tion, Congress regulates the navy, 
 281; and the President is its com- 
 mander-in-chief, 282; the poverty 
 of the United States still interferes 
 with its navy, 313; France forces 
 Congress to increase the navy, 319; 
 its success, 319; the navy chastises 
 the Barbary States, 341-2; why the 
 Republicans did not favor a navy, 
 344; the navy in 1812, 352; very lit- 
 tle expected from it, 365; its bril- 
 liant successes, 366-7; their effects, 
 
 Navy — Coiitiiiued. 
 369; the lake navies and their suc- 
 cess, 378-382; first attempts to use 
 torpedoes and steam-vessels, 384; 
 subsequent effects of the nava' suc- 
 cesses, 401 ; the navy brings the 
 Barbary States to a lasting peace, 
 404; change of the navy by the 
 introduction of steam war-vessels, 
 447; a naval force occupies Charles- 
 ton harbor, 477; the navy occupies 
 the Pacific coast of Mexico, 529; 
 and the coast of the Gulf of Mexi- 
 co, 535; rescues Koszta, 568; opens 
 up Japan, 569; its officers generally 
 hold to the Union in 1S61. 616; 
 attempts to provision Fort Sumter, 
 622; blockades the Southern ports, 
 625; captures the forts at Hatteras 
 Inlet, Port Royal, and Ship Island, 
 636; takes Mason and Slidell, 638; 
 a Western river navy formed, 648; 
 the wooden vessels give way to 
 iron-clads, 651; the navy captures 
 Roanoke Island, 652; forces its way 
 up the Mississippi, 654; takes New 
 Orleans, 655; controls the James 
 River, 659; pursues Confederate 
 privateers, 672; runs the Vicks- 
 burgh batteries and ferries Grant's 
 army over the Mississippi, 681; at- 
 tacks Fort Sumter without success, 
 688; captures the Atlanta, 688; blows 
 up the Albemarle, 716; joins in the 
 attacks on Fort Fisher, 716; de- 
 stroys the Confederate fleet at Mo- 
 bile, 718; takes the Alabama, 720; 
 the Florida, 720; and the Georgia, 
 720; size of the navy during the 
 Civil War, 746; in 1889, 834, 844; 
 destroys the Spanish fleet at Ma- 
 ila, 881; at Santiago, 882. 
 
 Nebraska, part of the Louisiana pur- 
 chase, 334; admission, 774. 
 
 Negros (na'gros), 900, 901. 
 
 Nevada (ne-vah'da), part of the Mexi- 
 can cession, 544; silver discovered 
 in it, 590; admission, 726; influ- 
 ence of its silver production on the 
 business of the world, 810. 
 
 New Albion, Drake's name for west- 
 ern North America, 15. 
 
 New Amsterdam, the Dutch name for 
 New York City, 28. 
 
 Newark, N. J., settlement, 119. 
 
 New l^ierne, N. C settlement, 93. 
 
 New Brunswick, N. J., Washington 
 retreats through it, 210; becomes 
 the British headquarters, 213. 
 
 New Brunswick, province of, bound- 
 ary dispute with Maine, 497. 
 
 New England, when the name was 
 given, 33, note; its colonies, 33 (see 
 Massachusetts, New Hampshire, 
 Connecticut, Rhode Island, Ver- 
 mont, Maine); the religious feeling 
 of its people, 51; their dealings 
 with the Quakers, 52; the New Eng- 
 land Confederation, 66; their com- 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 fW° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 599 
 
 New England — Continut'ii. 
 
 mercial difficulties (sec Navigation 
 Acts); with the Indians, 68-g; with 
 Andres, 70; with llie French, 71-3; 
 growth and character, 74-5; their 
 first colleges, 158; its colonies join 
 in the siege of Boston, 1S3; slavery 
 decays in it, 188; military opera- 
 tions in it during the Revolution, 
 194-8, 203, 207, 214, 220, 230, 243, 245, 
 259; holds to the Federal Party, 
 331 ; dissatisfaction with the Em- 
 bargo, 345 ; and with the War of 
 1812, 355; its coast blockaded, 383; 
 part of it taken by the British, 
 385; the Hartford Convention, 389- 
 390; dislike to the Mexican War, 
 
 Newfoundland (nu'fund-lc7nd), its 
 fisheries, 10, 11; Gilbert visits it, 
 20; Calvert tries to colonize it, 85; 
 the riglit to the fisheries secured 
 to Americans, 263; disputes arbi- 
 trated, 834. 
 
 New Hampshire (hamp'shur), part of 
 the Plymouth Company's grant, 33; 
 a royal colony, 35; assigned to John 
 Mason, 55; history, 56; one of the 
 " small " States in 1787, 279; the 
 ninth State to ratify the Constitu- 
 tion, 286. 
 
 New Haven (havn), Conn., at first a 
 separate colony, 33; settlement, 60; 
 joined to Connecticut, 61 ; plundered 
 by the British, 245. 
 
 New Jersey, part of the Dutch terri- 
 tory, 28; taken from the Dutch by 
 the English, 109; becomes a royal 
 colony, 118; settlement and history, 
 1 19-120; Washington retreats through 
 it, 210; the British occupy a part 
 of it, 213; the British retreat across 
 it, 228; send plundering expedi- 
 tions into it, 231; one of the 
 " small " States in 1787, 279; trusts 
 in, 891. 
 
 New Jersey, College of, 120. 
 
 New London, Conn., attacked by Ar- 
 nold, 259. 
 
 New IMadrid (mad'rid), Mo., 648. 
 
 New Mexico, explored by the .Span- 
 iards, 13; taken from Mexico, 529; 
 part of it claimed by Texas, 553; 
 organized as a Territory, 555. 
 
 New Netherland, settled by the 
 Dutch, 28; taken by the English, 
 109. 
 
 New Orleans (or'le-anz), La., settled 
 by the French, 138 (see Louisiana); 
 a Spanish city in 1795, 315; the Brit- 
 ish expedition against it, 394; the 
 city fortified, 398; the expedition 
 defeated, 399; importance of the 
 city to the Confederates, 653; sur- 
 render to Farragut, 655; the yellow 
 fever epidemic, 808; exposition, 
 824; mob, 849. 
 
 Newport, Capt. Christopher, an agent 
 of the London Company, 31. 
 
 Newport, R. I., settlement, 62; taken 
 by the British, 214; attacked by 
 the Americans and French, 230; 
 held by the British, 231; evacuated 
 by the British, 247; arrival of a 
 French army, 257. 
 
 Newspapers, in 1760, 158; in 1775, 
 187; in 1790, 289; the first in the 
 northwest, 314; changes about 1835, 
 456; improvements in printing and 
 news-collecting, 518; in i860, 592. 
 
 New York City, settled by the Dutch, 
 28; the negro plot, 115; growth of 
 the city, 116; meeting of the Stamp 
 Act Congress, 166; Washington ar- 
 rives at, 208; taken by the British, 
 209; part of the British leave it for 
 Philadelphia, 215; return to it, 
 228; held by the British for the rest 
 of the war, 229; evacuated by them, 
 264; the city in 1787, 288; inaugu- 
 ration of the new government, 294; 
 ceases to be the capital, 299; fear 
 of an attack on the city, 384; the 
 " great fire," and the Croton Aque- 
 duct, 450; World's Fair, 564; the 
 Clearing-house, 565; the Brooklyn 
 Bridge, 566, note; Centra! Park and 
 Astor Library, 595 ; the draft riots, 693. 
 
 New York State, settled by the Dutch 
 as New Netherland, 28; conquered 
 by the English, 34, 109; a royal 
 colony, 35; its name changed to 
 New York, 109; size of the colony, 
 no; reconquered by Holland, but 
 given back, in; the patroon sys- 
 tem, 112; history under the Eng- 
 lish, 113-117; the French driven out 
 of northwestern New York, 148; 
 refuses to obey Parliament, 167; 
 Parliament attempts to punish it, 169; 
 the road into Canada, 199; the 
 Tories in New York, 207; Bur- 
 goyne's expedition, 218-222; the 
 whole State, except New York 
 City and part of Long Island, held 
 by the Americans for the rest of 
 the war, 229; the western boundary, 
 271; cession of the western claims, 
 273; a "small State'' in 1787, 279; 
 ratifies the Constitution, 286; the 
 State in 1790, 291; in 1812, 354; 
 military operations in the State, 
 362-4, 380, 382, 391 ; western New 
 York after the war, 405; the Erie 
 Canal, 424; attempt to aid the re- 
 bellion in Canada, 496; the " anti- 
 rent " disturbances, 514; the elec- 
 toral vote of the State in 1844, 515; 
 in 1848, 548; its electoral vote in 
 1884 and i888,_826, 840. 
 
 Nez Perces (na parc'saz), an Indian 
 tribe, 807. 
 
 Niagara, the, captures the Georgia, 
 720. 
 
 Niagara, the. Perry's new flag-ship, 
 
 381- 
 Nicaragua, 834; Nicaragua Canal 
 Commission, 895; England re- 
 
6oo 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Nicaragua — Continued. 
 nounces all claims to a share in the 
 control of the canal, 896; construc- 
 tion of the canal called for by the 
 Republican platform of 1900, 906. 
 
 Nichols (.nik'uls), Col. Richard, first 
 English governor of New York, 109. 
 
 Non-Intercourse Act, the, takes the 
 place of the Embargo, 345; revived 
 against Great Britain, 349. 
 
 Norfolk (nor'fuk), Va., attacked by 
 the British, 203, 245; the southern 
 end of the Confederate line, 628; a 
 Confederate navy yard, 649, 659. 
 
 Normal schools, their institution, 455. 
 
 Norristown, I'a., 217. 
 
 North Carolina, possibly sighted by 
 Cabot, 10; Raleigh's attempts to 
 colonize, 23; part of the London 
 Company's grant, 32; a royal col- 
 ony. 35. 9- (see Carolina) ; settle- 
 ment of North Carolina, 93; its 
 government, 94; manner of life of 
 its people, 96; military operations 
 in it during the Revolution, 250, 
 251, 253; western claims, 271; ceded 
 to the United States, 273; refuses at 
 first to ratify the Constitution, 286; 
 ratifies it in 1790, 302; secedes, 
 626; one of the Confederate States, 
 628; military operations in, 636, 652, 
 716, 728-9, 734; reconstructed and 
 readmitted, 762. 
 
 North Dakota, 835. 
 
 North Point, battle of, 387. 
 
 Northwest Passage, the, anxiety of 
 our forefathers to find it, 21 ; what 
 has taken its place, 783. 
 
 Northwest Territory, the, claimed by 
 Virginia for herself, 271 ; by the 
 other States for the United States, 
 272; ceded to the United States, 
 273; unsettled in 1786, 291; settle- 
 ment begun by land companies, 292; 
 Congress arranges a government for 
 it, 274; the Indian title got rid of, 
 308; the British possession aban- 
 doned, 309; the Indians defeated, 
 350; its population in 1812, 353; 
 roads, 354; the whole Territory sur- 
 rendered by Hull, 356; regained by 
 the Americans, 361. 
 
 Norwalk (nor'wak), Conn., attacked 
 by the British, 214, 245. 
 
 Nova Scotia, settled by the French, 
 19 (see Acadia); taken and held 
 by the English, 71-2, 146; a refuge 
 for the Tories, 266. 
 
 Nueces (noo-a'sez) River, the, 524. 
 
 Nullification, 475-7. 
 
 Ocean Steamers, one crosses the At- 
 lantic in 1819, 337, note; no more 
 until 1838, 447. 
 
 Ocean telegraph, final success, 772. 
 
 Office-holders, Federal, discharged 
 under Jackson for not belonginer to 
 the successful party, 467; the Ten- 
 ure of Ofifice Act, 766; the natural 
 
 Office-holders— Co nit nued. 
 results of the system, 794; reforms 
 in it, 819. 
 
 Ogdensburgh, N. Y., 139, 363. 
 
 Ogeechee (o-ge'che) River, the, 713. 
 
 Oglethorpe (o'gl-thorp). Gen. James, 
 the founder of Georgia, 103; death, 
 106, note. 
 
 Ohio, claimed by Virginia, 271; set- 
 tlement, 291, 314; under the Ordi- 
 nance of 1787, 274; the Indian title 
 got rid of, 308; growth of the State, 
 313; difficulties of early settlement 
 in it, 314; admission, 336. 
 
 Ohio Company, of 1750, 141; of 1787, 
 292. 
 
 Oil. See Petroleum. 
 
 Okechobee (o-ke-cho'be), battle of, 
 463. 
 
 "Old Dominion," the, a name for 
 Virginia, 80, note. 
 
 (Oklahoma, 846. 
 
 " Old Hickory," a name for Jackson, 
 441. 
 
 " Old Ironsides," a name for the 
 Constitution, 366, note. 
 
 Oliver, Andrew, 169. 
 
 Olney, Richard, 863. 
 
 Olustee (o-lus'te), battle of, 715. 
 
 Omaha (o'ma-haw), Neb., 783. 
 
 Omnibus Bill, the, 554. 
 
 Oneidas (o-ni'dnz), an Indian tribe, 3. 
 
 Onondagas (o-non-daw'gaz), an In- 
 dian tribe, 3. 
 
 Orders in Council, adopted, 343; not 
 openly surrendered by the treaty 
 of Ghent, 401. 
 
 Ordinance of 1787, the, 274. 
 
 Oregon (or'e-gon) (see Oregon Coun- 
 try), admission, 587; Indian war 
 in it, 785. 
 
 Oregon Country, the, explored by 
 Lewis and Clarke, 335; Americans 
 begin to settle in it, 503; Great 
 Britain claims it, 504; the claim 
 compromised, 523. 
 
 Orinoco (o-ri-no'ko) River, the, 8. 
 
 Oriskany (o-ris'k(7-nI), battle of, 220. 
 
 Osceola (os-e-o'la), a Florida Indian 
 chief, 463. 
 
 Ossabaw Sound, 714. 
 
 Ostend (6s-tend'), Circular, the, 570 
 
 Otis, Gen. E. S., in the Philippines, 
 900. 
 
 Otis (o'tis), James, a Massachusetts 
 orator, 165; becomes insane, 169. 
 
 Pacific Railroads, Congress orders 
 surveys in 1853, 562; the work on 
 the Central begun in 1862 and fin- 
 ished in 1869, 783; the Northern 
 and Southern Pacific, 783; scandals 
 connected with them, 794, note; 
 connection with the government 
 ended, 890. 
 
 Packenham (pak'n-nm). Sir Edward, 
 in command of the British expedi- 
 tion against New Orleans, 399; de- 
 feated and killed, 399. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 6ol 
 
 Z^^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Pago-Pago (pa'go-pa'go), a Samoan 
 harbor, 894. 
 
 Paine (panr), Thomas, 204. 
 
 Palmer, Gen. John M., nominated for 
 President, 865. 
 
 Palo Alto (pah'lo ahl'to), battle of, 526. 
 
 Palos (pah'los), Columbus's point of 
 departure, 6. 
 
 Panama (pan-(7-mah') Canal, 834. 
 
 Panay (pa-nay'), 900. 
 
 Panic, meaning of the term, 485; the 
 panic of 1837, 496; of 1857, 585; of 
 1873. 781, 794, 804; of 1893, 855. 
 
 Paper Money or Currency, danger of 
 excessive issues, J33; excessive is- 
 sues by the Continental Congress, 
 233-4; State paper, 286; State banks, 
 484; results of their issues, 485; 
 paper in the Civil War, 670; in the 
 Confederacy, 6go, 721 ; demands of the 
 Greenback Party, 797; abandon- 
 ment of an exclusively paper cur- 
 rency, 813. 
 
 Parliament, the governing body of 
 England, 40; abolishes the mon- 
 archy for a time, 41 ; defects of its 
 membership, 160; claims the right 
 to tax the colonies, 161 ; gives no 
 representation to the colonies, 162; 
 its regulation of the colonies, 163; 
 passes the Stamp Act, 164; repeals 
 it, 167; still refuses representation 
 to the colonies, 168; lays a commer- 
 cial tax on the colonies, 169; pro- 
 voked with the resistance to it, 172; 
 reduces the tax to a tea tax, 173; 
 tries to punish resistance, 175; war 
 between Parliament and Congress, 
 190; proposes conciliation, 202; not 
 mentioned in the Declaration of In- 
 dependence, 206; offers representa- 
 tion to the colonies, zzy; compels 
 the king to make peace with the 
 United States, 262. 
 
 Parties, formation of, in 1787, 285; 
 only one party left in 1789, 303; 
 first great change in party con- 
 trol of the government, 330; only 
 one party left in i8i6, 409, 427; 
 it begins to split, 433; divides into 
 two parties, 437; party excitement 
 under Jackson, 466; party changes 
 about 1850, 560; re-formation of 
 parties, 576; the parties in i860, 
 608; on the war, 723; on reconstruc- 
 tion, 768; on support of recon- 
 structed governments, 796; de- 
 cadence of party differences, 797; 
 on Free Trade and Protection, 826, 
 838, 854; on Silver (see party names: 
 Democratic, Republican, Federalist, 
 Whig, National Republican, Liber- 
 ty, Free-Soil, American, Liberal 
 Republican, Greenback, People's). 
 
 Patents, issue of, 312; their effect on 
 invention, 338; on the wealth of 
 the country, 591. 
 
 Paterson, N. J., growth from manu- 
 factures, 450. 
 
 Patriot War, the, in Canada, 496. 
 
 Patroons, the system introduced by 
 the Dutch, 112; its effects in the 
 Revolution, 207; end of the sys- 
 tem, 514. 
 
 Peacock, the, an English war-vessel, 
 svink by the Hornet, 370; an Ameri- 
 can war-vessel, takes the Epcrvier, 
 374; and the Nautilns, 375. 
 
 Pea Ridge, battle of, 647. 
 
 Peekskill, N. Y., the end of Wash- 
 ington's retreat from New York, 
 209; Lee left in charge of it, 210; 
 too strong for the British, 218; 
 Washington holds it throughout the 
 war, 229. 
 
 Peel, Sir Robert, and the police, 595, 
 note. 
 
 Pclicnu, the, takes the Argus, 372. 
 
 Pemberton, Gen. J. C, in command 
 at Vicksburgh, 680; surrenders to 
 Grant, 682. 
 
 Pendleton, George H., nominated for 
 \'^ice-President, 723. 
 
 Poiguin, the, taken by the Hornet, 
 375- 
 
 Peninsular Campaign, the, 659-63. 
 
 Penitentiaries, a reform in the pun- 
 ishment of criminals, 461. 
 
 Penn, William, obtains a grant of 
 land for a colony, 121 ; comes to 
 America and settles Philadelphia, 
 123; settles the government, 124; 
 connection of his family with the 
 colony and State, 125. 
 
 Pennsylvania, soil conquered from 
 the Dutch, 34; a proprietary colony, 
 35; granted to Penn, 121; settle- 
 ment of the colony, 123; the govern- 
 ment settled, 124; growth of the 
 colony, 127; Braddock's march 
 through the colony, 146; military 
 operations during the Revolution, 
 210, 216-17, -3-! insurrection in the 
 western part of the State, 307; 
 coal, 291, 338; railroads, 429; iron, 
 291, 511; military operations during 
 the Civil War, 675-7; railroad riots, 
 806, 853. 
 
 Pennsylvania Hall, destroyed by a 
 mob,' 493. 
 
 Pennsylvania, University of, founded, 
 126. 
 
 Pensacola (pen-so-ko'ln), Fla., seized 
 by Jackson, 398, 414; fort saved, 
 617. 
 
 Pensions, to Revolutionary soldiers, 
 234, note; to Union soldiers, 747; 
 amoimt of, 748; vetoes, 830; De 
 pendent Pension Bill, 844. 
 
 " People's Party," 826, note, 865, 870, 
 go6. 
 
 Peoria (pe-o'ri-o). 111., a French post, 
 139; taken by the Americans, 361. 
 
 Peorias, an Indian tribe, 3. 
 
 Pequots (pe'kwotz), a Connecticut 
 tribe of Indians, 59. 
 
 Perry, Commodore M. C, opens up 
 Japan, 569. 
 
6o2 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 {fW° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Perry, Commodore O. H., captures a 
 British fleet off Sandusky, on Lake 
 Erie, 381. 
 
 Perryville, battle of, 644. 
 
 Perth Amboy, N. J., settlement of, 
 119. 
 
 Peru (pe-roo'), an Indian empire, 2; 
 conquered by Spain, 7. 
 
 Petersburgh, Va., threatened by But- 
 ler, 700; reached by Grant, 704; its 
 fortifications, 704; beseiged by 
 Grant, 730; captured, 732. 
 
 Petition, right of, impeded by Con- 
 gress, 494. 
 
 Petroleum, not known in 1790, 288; 
 in Pennsylvania, 511, 590. 
 
 Philadelphia, settlement, 123; growth, 
 126; the taxed tea, 174; First Con- 
 tinental Congress, 177; Second Con- 
 tinental Congress, 191 ; abandoned 
 by Congress, 211; Howe moves tow- 
 ard it by sea, 215; takes it, 216; 
 makes it his winter quarters,^ 216; 
 Clinton, his successor, leaves it for 
 New York, 228; the revolted troops 
 set out for it, 239; Washington and 
 Rochambeau pass through it, 258; 
 the Convention of 1787, 279; the 
 city in 1787, 288; time of travel to 
 New York, 290; made the national 
 capital for ten years, 299; capital 
 removed to Washington, 324; 
 slavery riot, 493; threatened by 
 Lee, 66s; relieved by the battle of 
 Antietam, 666; again threatened by 
 Lee, 675; relieved by the battle of 
 Gettysburgh, 677; the Centennial 
 celebration, 787. 
 
 P/ij7(irfi-//'/n(7, the, captured and burned, 
 34-2- 
 
 Philip, King, his struggle against the 
 whites, 68. 
 
 Philippines, the, transferred to the 
 United States by Spain, 885, 900; 
 military operations in, 900; control 
 left in the President's hands by 
 Congress, 901; establishment of 
 municipal governments, 901; pres- 
 ent conditions in, 901; influence on 
 Porto Rican tariff question, 904; 
 their retention gives rise to the 
 question of " expansion," 905. 
 
 Phillips, Gen., in command of the 
 British forces in Virginia, 252. 
 
 Phccbe (fe'be), the, aids in capturhig 
 the Essex, 373. 
 
 Pickens, Col. Andrew, an American 
 officer in South Carolina, 245. 
 
 Pierce (peersf or pursi?), Franklin, 
 elected President, 563. 
 
 Pike's Peak, discovery of gold, 590. 
 
 Pilgrims, the, the first settlers of 
 I'lymouth, 46. 
 
 Pinckney, Charles Cotesworth, nomi- 
 nated for President, 323, 339, note. 
 
 Pirates in New York, 114. 
 
 I'itcairn (pit'karn), Major John, at 
 Lexington, 181. 
 
 Pitt, William, his management of the 
 
 Pitt, William — Continued. 
 French and Indian War, 148; favors 
 colonial representation in Parlia- 
 ment, 167. 
 
 Pittsburgh Landing, battle of, 642. 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa., unsettled in 1745, 
 127; originally a fort of the Ohio 
 Company, taken by the French, 
 143; retaken by the English and 
 named Pittsburgh, 148; the Whis- 
 key Insurrection, 307; the first 
 steamboat on the Ohio River, 337; 
 the railroad riots, 806. 
 
 Plattsburgh, battle of, 382. 
 
 Pleasant Hill, battle of, 715. 
 
 Ploughs, in 1787, 289 (see Agricultural 
 Machinery). 
 
 Plymouth (plim'uth), part of the 
 Plymouth Company's grant, 33; lo- 
 cation and settlement, 45; history, 
 46; leaders, 47; union with Massa- 
 chusetts Bay, 54. 
 
 Plymouth Company, the, chartered, 
 25; loses its charter, 33. 
 
 Plymouth, N. C, the Albemarle blown 
 up, 716. 
 
 Poe, Edgar A., his literary work, 458. 
 
 Foicticrs (poi-teerz'), the, captures the 
 Wasp and Frolic, 368. 
 
 Police, a new system introduced, 595. 
 
 Polk (poke), James K., elected Presi- 
 dent, 515; orders Taylor to the Rio 
 Grande, 524; blamed by the Whigs 
 for the Mexican War, 527; death, 558. 
 
 Polygamy, having more than one wife 
 at the same time, practised by the 
 Mormons, 495; contrary to law in 
 the Territories, 586; decreases, 822; 
 virtually suppressed, 862. 
 
 Pontiac (pon'ti-ak), an Indian chief, 
 
 Pope's campaign, 664. 
 
 Population. See Census. 
 
 Populists. See People's Party. 
 
 Porter, Admiral D. D., at New Or- 
 leans, 716. 
 
 Porter, Capt. David, in command of 
 the Essex, 366, 373. 
 
 Port Hudson, La., its fortifications, 
 655; its surrender, 682. 
 
 Porto Rico, occupied by the Ameri- 
 can army, 883; ceded to the United 
 States by Spain, 885; transferred to 
 the United States, 903; administra- 
 tive and legal reforms, 903; tariff 
 for, 904. 
 
 Port Royal, N. S., a French strong- 
 hold, taken and kept by the Eng- 
 lish, y2. 
 
 Port Royal, S. C, the French colony, 
 18; reached by an English colony, 
 97; captured by the Union fleet, 
 636; a harbor for the blockaders, 
 637; an expedition sent from it to 
 Florida, 715. 
 
 Portsmouth, N. H., settlement, 55. 
 
 Portsmouth, R. I., settlement, 62. 
 
 I'ortsmouth, Va., plundered by the 
 British, 245. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 603 
 
 85S^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Portugal, explores the west coast of 
 Africa, 4; refuses aid to Columbus, 
 5; agreement with Spain, u; pays for 
 injuries to American commerce, 464. 
 
 Post-office, in the colonies, 163; un- 
 der direction of Congress, 281; the 
 Post-ofifice Department, 296; in- 
 crease of, 452. 
 
 Potomac (po-to'mak) River, the, the 
 first Maryland settlement, 86; its 
 upper country unsettled in 1750, 142; 
 the Union line in i86i, 629; Banks 
 driven up to it, 662; Lee and Mc- 
 Clellan cross it into Maryland, 665; 
 recross it into Virginia, 666; Lee 
 again crosses it, 675; recrosses it 
 into X'irginia, 678. 
 
 Potomac, Army of the, organized, 
 633; transferred to the Peninsula, 
 657; divided by the Chickahominy, 
 659; fights the Seven Days' Bat- 
 tles, 663; transferred back to the 
 front of Washington, 664; fights the 
 battle of Antietam, 666; Fredericks- 
 burgh, 667; Chancellorsville, 674; 
 Gettysburg!!, 677; Grant takes com- 
 mand, 698; fights the battles of the 
 Wilderness, 701; beseiges Peters- 
 burgh, 704, 730; takes it, 732; pur- 
 sues and captures Lee's army, 733; 
 is reviewed at Washington, 735. 
 
 Pottawattomies (pot-a-wot'a-miz), an 
 Indian tribe, 3. 
 
 Prescott, Col. William, in command 
 of Bunker Hill, 194. 
 
 Prescott, William H., his literary 
 work, 458. 
 
 President, the, his legislative power, 
 281; executive powers, 282; appoint- 
 ing power, 283 (see Tenure of Office 
 Act, Civil Service) ; mode of elec- 
 tion, 295; veto power, 469, note; 
 succession, 818, 831 (see Impeach- 
 ment). (For list of Presidents, see 
 Table of Contents.) 
 
 President, the, and the Little Belt, 
 349, note; captured by a British 
 fleet, 375. 
 
 Presque Isle (presk eel), Pa., a 
 French post, 142. 
 
 Press Associations introduced, 518. 
 
 Prima Vista (pre'ma vees'to), 10. 
 
 Princeton College, founded, 120. 
 
 Princeton, N. J., Washington passes 
 through it in retreat, 210; returns 
 and takes it, 212. 
 
 Printing, in Virginia, 84; in Philadel- 
 phia, 126; first press in America, 
 158; improvements in, 518. 
 
 Prisoners of war, their sufferings in 
 the Revolution, 232; in Confederate 
 prisons, 725; deaths, 747. 
 
 Prisons, the former brutal system, 
 461 ; reformation, 465. 
 
 Prison-ships, 232. 
 
 Privateers, in 1760, 153; in the Revo- 
 lution, 197, 240, 243; definition, 240; 
 refusal to allow France to fit out, 
 306; in the War of 1812, 376. 
 
 Privateers, Confederate, why they 
 were allowed to make captures, 625, 
 627; their destruction of American 
 commerce, 672, 696, 720; capture 
 of three of them, 720 (see Alabama 
 Claims). 
 
 Proctor, Gen. Henry, in command of 
 the British forces in the West, 
 359-60; defeated, 361. 
 
 Prohibition Party, 826, note, 854. 
 
 Proprietors, 35. 
 
 Protection, why it was first demand- 
 ed, 406 (see Free Trade, Tariff); 
 definition, and argument for, 425; 
 Congress adopts it in 1824, 426; sup- 
 ported by Clay and Adams (see 
 American System) ; opposed by 
 Jackson, 470, 476; supported by the 
 Whig Party, 471 ; opposed by the 
 South, 436, 474, 605; gradually 
 abandoned by Congress after 1833, 
 478; again adopted in 1842, 501; 
 again abandoned in 1846, 521 ; re- 
 sumed in 1861, 691; still main- 
 tained, 825; attitude of the parties 
 in 1888, 836; in 1892, 854; reduced by 
 the Wilson Bill, 859; increased by 
 the Dingley Bill, 870; enforced 
 against Porto Rico, 904; upheld by 
 the Republican platform in 1900, 906. 
 
 Protectorate. See Commonwealth. 
 
 Providence, R. I., part of the Plym- 
 outh Company's grant, Z2\ settle- 
 ment, 62; the Gaspce affair, 171. 
 
 Public schools, provision for them in 
 Ordinance of 1787, 274; established 
 in the States, 455, 465; in i860, 593. 
 
 Puebla (poo-a'blah), Mex., taken by 
 Scott, 542. 
 
 Puget's (pu'jet's) Sound, 783. 
 
 Pulaski (pu-las'ki), Casimir, joins the 
 American army, 214; death, 244. 
 
 Pullman, 111., 858. 
 
 Puritans, the, support the Common- 
 wealth, 41; not separated from the 
 Church of England, 48; found the 
 colony of Massachusetts Bay, 48. 
 
 Quakers, the, why they were perse- 
 cuted in Massachusetts, 52; Penn 
 obtains a colony for them, \2\; why 
 they had been persecuted i:i Eng- 
 land, 122. 
 
 Quebec (kwe-bek'), attempt to settle 
 it, 18; successful, 19; a French 
 stronghold, 72; taken by Wolfe, 
 151; one of the four governmental 
 divisions of the territory ceded to 
 England by the Peace of Paris, 154; 
 repulses the Americans, 200. 
 
 Quebec Act, the, 175. 
 
 (jueenstown Heights, battle of, 357. 
 
 Raids, of Jackson and Stuart, 662; of 
 Morgan, 684; against Sherman, 707. 
 
 Railroads, how they have given value 
 to the Louisiana purchase, 334; put 
 an end to the National Road, 423; 
 Trevithick's and Stephenson's en- 
 
6o4 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Railroads — Continued. 
 gines, 429; their effect on the 
 American people, 442; American en- 
 gines, 443; increase of railroads, 
 444; their advantages, 445; use of 
 anthracite coal, 446; assist immi- 
 gration, 452 (see Pacific Railroads); 
 effects in improving roads and 
 bridges, 566; the panic of 1857, 585; 
 increase in thirty years, 588; effects 
 on the West, 589; defects in the 
 South, 596; damage in the Civil 
 War, 690, 731 (see Raids); rail- 
 road-building in Grant's first ad- 
 ministration, 780; panic of 1873, 781; 
 the Pacific Railroad system, 783; 
 end of the panic, 804; railroad 
 strikes and riots, 806. 
 
 Raisin, battle of the river, 359. 
 
 Raleigh (raw'li). Sir Walter, his per- 
 sonality and services, 22; attempts 
 to colonize North Carolina, 23. 
 
 Randolph, Edmund, Attorney-Gen- 
 eral, 296. 
 
 Randolph, John, on the terrors of 
 slave insurrection, 603. 
 
 Ranger, the, an American war-vessel, 
 240. 
 
 Ravifdon, Lord, in command of the 
 British in South Carolina, 254. 
 
 Reaping-machine, 338, 448. 
 
 Reciprocity, 842. 
 
 Reconcentrados (ray-con-sen-trah'- 
 
 dos), the, 874, 875. 
 
 Reconstruction, its difficulties, 753; 
 the President's plan, 754-6; the 
 treatment of the freedmen, 758; 
 Southern members not admitted to 
 Congress, 759; Tennessee recon- 
 structed and readmitted, 760; the 
 Republicans retain control of Con- 
 gress, 760; form their plan of re- 
 construction, 760; and pass it, 761; 
 six additional States reconstructed 
 and readmitted, 762; the four re- 
 maining States reconstructed and 
 readmitted, 788; disorder in the 
 reconstructed States, 789-90; use of 
 Federal troops to suppress it, 791; 
 what reconstruction had done for 
 the freedmen, 793; the parties on re- 
 construction, 795-6; the use of 
 Federal troops abandoned, 802; how 
 far the plan of reconstruction has 
 failed, 804. 
 
 Red River, the, visited by De Soto, 
 14; by Banks, 715. 
 
 Reed, Thomas B., Speaker of the 
 House of Representatives, 870. 
 
 Regulators, the, fight Governor 
 Tryon, 94. 
 
 Reid, Capt. S. C, in command of the 
 General Armstrong, 376. 
 
 Reid, Whitelaw, 854. 
 
 Reindeer, the, taken by the Wasp, 374. 
 
 Remonetization of silver, 812. 
 
 Removal of the deposits, 469. 
 
 Representation of the States in Con- 
 gress, 281. 
 
 Representation, slave, adopted into 
 the Constitution, 284; effects, 508. 
 
 Representatives, House of, legislative 
 powers, 281; powers of impeach- 
 ment, 282; elects a President, 323, 
 427; impeaches Johnson, 767; re- 
 fuses to give the Cubans belligerent 
 rights, 873. 
 
 Reprisal, the, an American war-vessel, 
 240. 
 
 Republican Party (of 1792), the, its 
 formation, 303; its purposes, 304; 
 change in views, 346; opposes the 
 Alien and Sedition laws, 321; elects 
 Jefferson and Burr, 323; obtains 
 control of the government in 1801, 
 331; re-elects Jefferson, 339; opposes 
 a navy, 344; successful in 1808, 346; 
 in 1812, 351; in 1816, 409; the only 
 party left in 1820, 413 (see Demo- 
 cratic Party). 
 
 Republican Party (of 1856), the, its 
 formation, 576; obtains control of 
 the House of Representatives, 580; 
 defeated in 1856, 582; its attitude in 
 i860, 608; successful in i860, 609; 
 in 1864, 723; its attitude on recon- 
 struction, 759; successful in 1868, 
 768; in 1872, 796; in 1876-7, 801; 
 in 1888, 840; defeated in 1884, 826; 
 in 1892, 854; successful in 1896, 865; 
 in 1900, 906. 
 
 Repudiation, meaning of the term, 
 489. 
 
 Resaca de la Palma (ra-sah'kah da 
 lah pahl'mah), battle of, 526. 
 
 Resaca, battle of, 706. 
 
 Restoration, the English, 42. 
 
 Resumption of specie payments, 813. 
 
 Returning Boards, 798. 
 
 Revenge, the, war-vessel, 240. 
 
 Revenue, the Federal, its trifling 
 amount under the Articles of Con- 
 federation, 275; provided for in the 
 Constitution, 281; raised by duties 
 on imported goods and on some 
 domestic products. 299; by a whis- 
 key tax, 307; increase of, 333; de- 
 crease during the War of 1812, 354- 
 5; increase after the peace, 407; 
 deposited in the Bank of the United 
 States, 408; increase, 1831-5, 452; 
 more than the needs of government 
 required, 453; removal from the 
 Bank, 469; the panic of 1837 de- 
 stroys the revenue, 487; during the 
 Civil War, 748; influence on the 
 tariff question, 825; tobacco and in- 
 toxicating liquors alone subject to 
 taxation, 836. 
 
 Revolt of the American troops, 239. 
 
 Revolution, the American, its first 
 blood, 181; the results, 183; the war 
 at first against Parliament, 190-1; 
 in New England, 194; independ- 
 ence, 204-6; in the North, 207- 
 23, 228-32, 237-3g; aid from France, 
 224-7; the war on the ocean, 240-2; 
 in the South, 244-61; peace, 262-6. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 605 
 
 Revolution, the English, 42. 
 
 Revolution, the French, 43, 305. 
 
 Rhode Island, part of the I'lymouth 
 Company's grant, 33; a charter col- 
 ony, 35; the banishment of Wil- 
 liams, 51; settlement, 6_'; refused 
 admission to the New England 
 Union, 66; the " swamp fight," 
 69; the Gaspcc affair, 171; the Col- 
 lege of, 187; military operations in, 
 214, 230-2, 247, 259; no western claims, 
 271; not represented in the Federal 
 Convention, 278; refuses to ratify 
 the Constitution, 286; ratifies, 297; 
 the Dorr Rebellion, 513. 
 
 Rice, in South Carolina, 98; a South- 
 ern product, 316. 
 
 Richard, the, 242. 
 
 Richmond, Va., Burr's trial, 340; 
 capital of the Confederate States, 
 628; threatened by McDowell, 632; 
 its fortifications, 633, 704; threat- 
 ened by way of the Peninsula, 657; 
 relieved by the Seven Days' Battles, 
 663; again threatened by way of 
 Fredericksburgh, 667; by way of 
 Chancellorsville, 674; by Butler, 
 700; cut oflf from Lynchburgh by 
 Sheridan, 731; captured by Grant, 
 732- 
 
 Rich Mountain, battle of, 630. 
 
 Rio Grande (re'o grahn'da), the, 524. 
 
 Riots, draft, 693; railroad, 806; Chi- 
 nese, 815; Cincinnati, 823. 
 
 Ripley, Gen. James W., an officer in 
 the American Army, 364; at Lun- 
 dy's Lane, 392. 
 
 Rivers and harbors, 434. 
 
 Roads, in 1750, 133; in 1787, 290; 
 turnpike roads, 312; roads in Ohio 
 in 1790, 314; roads in 1812, 354; on 
 the great lakes, 379; in 1824, 422; 
 the National Road, 423; the Ameri- 
 can System, 434; how railroads have 
 influenced them, 442, 566. 
 
 Roanoke (ro-a-noke') Island, N. C, 
 the scene of Raleigh's colonies, 
 23; Newport sent thither, 31; Con- 
 federate forts captured, 652. 
 
 Robertson, James, a Tennessee pio- 
 neer, 157, note. 
 
 Robinson, John, pastor of the Pil- 
 grims in Holland, 47. 
 
 Rochambeau (ro-shahn(g)-bo'). Count 
 de, lands with an army at Newport, 
 257; takes part in the capture of 
 Cornwallis, 260. 
 
 Rochester, N. Y., not on the maps in 
 1812, 354; its growth, 405. 
 
 Rome, N. Y., 220. 
 
 Roosevelt, Theodore, nominated for 
 Vice-President, 906. 
 
 Root, Elihu, Secretary of War, 
 898. 
 
 Rosecrans (rozc'krans). Gen. W. S., 
 in command of the Union forces in 
 West Virginia, 630; at Murfrees- 
 boro, 645, 679; pursues Bragg, 685; 
 at Chickamauga, 685. 
 
 Ross, Gen. Robert, killed at Balti- 
 more, 387. 
 
 Rules, struggle over the, 841. 
 
 Rush, Richard, nominated for Vice- 
 President, 438. 
 
 Russia, mediates between Great Brit- 
 ain and the United States, 400; 
 sells Alaska to the United States, 
 773; peace proposals, 897. 
 
 Rutgers College, 187. 
 
 Sabine (sa-been') Cross Roads, bat- 
 tle of, 715. 
 
 Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., attacked by 
 the British, 362. 
 
 Sacramento (sak-rn-men'to) River, 
 discovery of gold on, 549. 
 
 Sacs and Foxes, 3. 
 
 Sagasta ministry, the, policy in Cuba, 
 874. 
 
 St. Alban's, Vt., plundered by a 
 party from Canada, 724, note. 
 
 St. Augustine (aw-gus-teen'), Fla., 
 founded, 17; captured by a force 
 from South Carolina, loi ; besieged 
 by Oglethorpe, 106; captured by 
 the Union forces, 652. 
 
 St. Clair's defeat, 308. 
 
 St. Genevieve (jen-e-veev'). Mo., 155. 
 
 St. John, J. P., nominated for Presi- 
 dent, 826, note. 
 
 St. Kitt's, W. I., 319. 
 
 St. Lawrence, the river, discovered, 
 11; held by the French, 18-19. 
 
 St. Louis (loo'Is), Mo., founded, 155; 
 riots, 806; trust conference, 8gi. 
 
 St. Paul, Minn., 451. 
 
 Salem (sfl'lem), Slass., settled,- 48; 
 witchcraft, 53. 
 
 Salt, found at Syracuse, N. Y., 511. 
 
 Saltillo (sahl-teel'yo), Mex., 532. 
 
 Salt Lake City, founded by the Mor- 
 mons, 5S6, 862. 
 
 Samoa, 834, 894. 
 
 Sampson, Rear-Admiral Wm. T., in 
 command at Santiago, 882; bom- 
 bards San Juan, Porto Rico, 883. 
 
 San Antonio, Mex., 539; Tex., 531. 
 
 San Domingo, attempt to annex it, 
 778, 794- 
 
 Sandusky (san-dus'ki), O., Fort .Ste- 
 phenson, 360; Perry's victory, 381. 
 
 Sandwich Islands, proposed annexa- 
 tion of, 852. 
 
 Sandy Hook, N. J., 213, 228. 
 
 San Francisco, Cal., its fine harbor, 
 528; taken by the American fleet, 
 529; sudden growth of the city, 
 S89; the Pacific Railroad system, 
 783.^ 
 
 San Gabriel, battle of, 529. 
 
 Sanitary Commission, the, 692. 
 
 San Jacinto (ja-sin'to), battle of, 506. 
 
 San Jacinto, the, arrests the Trent, 
 638. 
 
 San Juan (sahn Hoo-ahn'), Cuba, the 
 battle of, 882. 
 
 San Juan, Porto Rico, bombarded, 
 
6o6 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 fW° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 San Juan de Ulloa (sahn Hoo-ahn' da 
 
 ool-yo'ah), 535. 
 San Salvador (sahn sahl-vah-dore'), 6. 
 Santa Anna, commands the Mexican 
 
 troops in Texas, 506; at Buena 
 
 Vista, 532; at Cerro Gordo, 536; 
 
 flees from the city of Mexico, 542. 
 Santa Fe (san'ta fa), N. M., founded, 
 
 17; taken by the American forces, 
 
 5-29- 
 
 Santiago (sahnt-e-ah'go) campaign, 
 the, 88j. 
 
 Saratoga, Burgoyne's surrender at, 
 222. 
 
 Sault Ste. Marie (soo san(g) mah-re), 
 French settlement, 137. 
 
 Savage's Station, battle of, 663. 
 
 Savannah, Ga., settled, 104; taken by 
 the British, 244; held by them 
 through the Revolution, 254; evacu- 
 ated, 264; taken by Sherman, 714; 
 he leaves it on his march north- 
 ward, 728. 
 
 Savannah, the, steams across the At- 
 lantic, 337, note. 
 
 Saybrook, Conn., settlement, 57. 
 
 Scarboro, The Countess of, taken by 
 Paul Jones's fleet, 242. 
 
 Schenectady (sken-ek'tn-dT), N. Y., a 
 frontier settlement, no; founded, 
 117; still on the frontier in 1787, 
 291. 
 
 Schley (shll), Rear-Adminal W. S., 
 at Santiago, 882. 
 
 Schools. See Public Schools. 
 
 Schuyler (ski'Ier), Gen. Philip, in 
 command of the American forces in 
 Canada, 200; against Burgoyne, 218; 
 succeeded by Gates, 221 ; the credit 
 due to him goes to Gates, 223. 
 
 Scott, W'infield, his services in 1814, 
 364; at the battle of Chippewa, 392; 
 wounded at Lundy's Lane, 392; 
 services in Maine, 497; sent to 
 Mexico, 534; takes Vera Cruz, 535; 
 marches to the city of Mexico, 
 537; takes Mexico, 542; nominated 
 for President, 563; in command of 
 the Union armies, 629; retired, 633. 
 
 Screw propeller, invented, 447. 
 
 Seals, taking of, in Bering Sea, 848. 
 
 Search, the right of, asserted by 
 Great Britain, 343; not expressly 
 given up in 1815, 401; resisted by 
 Great Britain in 1861, 638. 
 
 Secession, the argument for it, 475; 
 threatened in 1850, 552; not probable 
 in 1856, 583; South Carolina secedes 
 in i860, 610; the secessionists in 
 other States, 611; their arguments 
 for secession, 612; the first seces- 
 sion of 1861, 613; the second, or 
 border State, secession of 1861, 626. 
 
 Sections, the, produced by slavery, 
 416; their positions on the Ameri- 
 can System, 435; as to Abolition, 
 492; as to Texas, 507; as to slave 
 representation, 508; as to the Mexi- 
 can acquisition, 545; as to state 
 
 Sections — Continued. 
 
 sovereignty and secession, 552; as 
 to California, 553; increasing influ- 
 ence of slavery, 571; their positions 
 as to the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 575; 
 as to Kansas, 578; their final posi- 
 tions, 605-7; as to the Civil War, 
 749; as to reconstruction, 753. 
 
 Sedition Law, the, 321. 
 
 Seminoles (sem'i-nolz), the, a Florida 
 tribe, 414. 
 
 Semmes (semz), Capt. Raphael, 720. 
 
 Senate, the, its formation, 281 ; its 
 legislative powers, 281 ; its execu- 
 tive powers, 282; increased by the 
 Tenure of Office Act, 766; impeach- 
 ment of Johnson, 767; passes reso- 
 lution giving the Cubans belligerent 
 rights, 873. 
 
 Senecas (sen'e-kaz), 3. 
 
 Separatists, a name for the Pilgrims, 
 
 45- 
 
 Scrapis (se-ra'pis), the, taken by the 
 Richard, 242. 
 
 Sergeant (sahr'jent), John, 473. 
 
 Sewall, Arthur, nominated for Vice- 
 President, and defeated, 865. 
 
 Seward (soo'erd), William H., an an- 
 tislavery leader, 558; wounded, 737. 
 
 Sewing-machine, 517. 
 
 Seven Days' Battles, 663. 
 
 Seven Pines, battle of, 660. 
 
 Seymour (sf''mur), Horatio, nomi- 
 nated for President, 768. 
 
 Shatter, Gen. Wm. R., in command 
 of land forces at Santiago, 882. 
 
 Sliannon, the, takes the Chesapeake, 
 372- 
 
 Sharpsburgh, battle of, 666. 
 
 Shawnees (shaw-neez'), 3- 
 
 Shays's Rebellion, 276. 
 
 Shenandoah (shen-nn-do'ah) valley, 
 the, held by Johnston, 632; Jackson 
 drives Banks out of it, 662; Lee 
 passes through it, 675; Early passes 
 through it, 703; is beaten by Sheri- 
 dan, 705; Sheridan passes through 
 it on his w&y to Grant, 731. 
 
 Sheridan, Gen. Philip H., beats 
 Early, 705; cuts ofif Richmond from 
 its western supports and joins 
 Grant, 731. 
 
 Sherman, John, Secretary of State, 
 869. 
 
 Sherman, Roger, a member of the 
 Continental Congress, 192; on the 
 committee to draft the Declaration, 
 206. 
 
 Sherman, Gen. Wm. T., one of 
 Grant's trusted officers, 679; at the 
 Yazoo River, 681 ; moves toward 
 Atlanta, 706; leaves Hood to 
 Thomas, 710; burns .Atlanta, 712; 
 marches through Georgia, 713: takes 
 Savannah, 714; marches northward 
 to Goldsboro, 728-9; seizes Raleigi'., 
 and receives Johnston's surrender, 
 734; results of his march, 745. 
 
 Shiloh, battle of, 642. 
 
PRONOUNDING INDEX 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 607 
 
 Ship Island. Miss., 636, 654. 
 
 Shreveport, La., 715. 
 
 Sigel (so'gf'l). Gen. Franz, in the 
 Shenandoah valley, 700; defeated, 
 703- 
 
 Sigsbee, Capt. Chas. D., in command 
 of the Maine, 877. 
 
 Silver, discovered in Nevada, 590; 
 large yield, 780; decline in its value 
 compared with gold, 810; demone- 
 tized, 811; remonetized, 812; Act 
 of July 14, 1890, 843; again demone- 
 tized, 856; '■ free silver " in 1896, 
 865 ; in 1900, 906. 
 
 Sioux (soo) wars, 673, 785. 
 
 Sioux Falls, S. D., 906. 
 
 Siriiis, the, 447. 
 
 Sitting Bull, 785. 
 
 Si.x Nations, 3, 73. 
 
 Skenesboro, N. Y., 219. 
 
 Slavery, introduced in Virginia and 
 maintained by the English kings, 
 39; forbidden in Vermont, 188; 
 slavery in New England, 75; in 
 Georgia, 105; in New York, 115; in 
 1775. 188; an element of weakness 
 in the South in the Revolution, 236; 
 slavery provisions in the Constitu- 
 tion, 284; forbidden in the North- 
 west Territory, 274; position of 
 Congress definitely stated, 301; ef- 
 fects of the cotton-gin, 316; in the 
 two sections in 1820, 415-6; in Louisi- 
 ana, 415; in Missouri, 417; in the 
 Territories, 418; effects of slavery on 
 manufactures, 435, 597; in Arkansas, 
 454; proposal to abolish slavery (see 
 Abolitionists); riots, 493; petition, 
 494; slavery in Texas, 505; State rep- 
 
 . resentation in Congress, 508; the 
 slavery question becomes more 
 pressing, 516; in the Mexican ac- 
 quisition, 545; positions of the sec- 
 tions, 545; attempt to prohibit, 546; 
 rise of the Free-Soil Party. 547; 
 slavery in California, 553; political 
 questions of 1850, 553; compro- 
 mised, 555 ; the Fugitive Slave Law, 
 556; anti-slavery leaders, 558; in- 
 fluence of slavery on public affairs, 
 571; how the Democratic Party es- 
 caped it for the time, 573; the Kan- 
 sas-Nebraska Act, 574; the Repub- 
 lican Party, 576; slavery in Kansas, 
 578-80; election of 1856, 583; effects 
 of slavery on the South, 597, 605; in 
 the Territories, 598; the Dred Scott 
 decision, 600; the effect on the Dem- 
 ocratic Party, 602, 608; the John 
 Brown raid, 604; the sections in 
 i860, 606-7, 612; parties, 60S; eman- 
 cipation, 66g; results abroad, 671; 
 the object of the war, 749; aboli- 
 tion by Amendment, 757; after- 
 effects, 758; free labor in the 
 South, 824. 
 
 Slave-trade, the foreign, in 1775, 188; 
 in 1787, 279. 
 
 Sloughter (slaw'ter), Gov. Henry, 113. 
 
 Smith, John, 77. 
 
 Smith, Jospeh, 495. 
 
 Smithsonian Institution, the, 519. 
 
 " Sons of Liberty," 165. 
 
 Soto, Hernando de, 14. 
 
 South Carolina, discovered, 9; part of 
 the London Company's grant, 32; 
 settled, 97; products, 98; districts, 
 99; early wars, 101-2; has troops 
 at Fort Necessity, 145; in 1775 and 
 1880, 184; military operations in the 
 State during the Revolution, 203, 
 245-51, 254, 264; Western claims, 271; 
 ceded to the United States, 273; 
 niillification, 476-7; secedes, 610; 
 military operations in, 622, 636, 688, 
 728; reconstructed and readmitted, 
 762; disorders in, 790. 
 
 Spain, aids Columbus, 5; secures his 
 discoyeries, 7; further Spanish dis- 
 coveries, 9; agreement with Portu- 
 gal, 12; explorations in the interior 
 of North x\merica, 13, 14; con- 
 quers Mexico, 14; explores the 
 Pacific coast, 15; drives the French 
 from St. Augustine, 18; colonies 
 south of the United States, 30; 
 early wars with, loi, 106; enters 
 the war in 1762, 153; gives up Flor- 
 ida and receives Louisiana, 154-5; 
 enters the Revolutionary War 
 against Great Britain, 227, note; re- 
 gains Florida, 263; agrees by treaty 
 to the free navigation of the Missis- 
 sippi, 315; transfers Louisiana to 
 France, 334; the Spanish in Florida 
 aid the British, 398; Spain trans- 
 fers Florida, 414; refuses to sell 
 Cuba, 570; joins France against 
 Mexico, 695; the Virginius case, 779; 
 war with Cuba, 863; policy toward 
 Cuba, 874, 878; war with the United 
 States, 879; her Asiatic fieet de- 
 stroyed at Manila, 881 ; signs treaty 
 of peace at Paris, S85; transfers the 
 Philippines to the United States, 
 900; transfers the control of Cuba 
 to the United States, 902; withdraws 
 her troops from Cuba, 902; trans- 
 fers Porto Rico to the United 
 States, 903. 
 
 Spanish War, the, declaration of war, 
 879; preparations for war, 880; bat- 
 tle of Manila Bay, 881 ; the Santiago 
 campaign, 882; occupation of Porto 
 Rico, 883; friction with the Cubans, 
 884; peace, 885; finances of the 
 war, 886. 
 
 Specie Circular, the, 485. 
 
 .Specie payments resumed, 1879, 813. 
 
 Spoils system, the, defined, 467. 
 
 Spottsylvania Court-house, battle of, 
 701. 
 
 Springfield, 111., 738. 
 
 Springfield, Mass., 276. 
 
 Stamp Act, the, passed by Parlia- 
 ment, 164; resisted, 166; repealed, 
 167. 
 
 Stamp Act Congress, the, i66- 
 
6o8 
 
 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Stamp duties before the Revolution, 
 
 164; in 1898. 886. 
 Standish, Miles, the soldier of the 
 
 Plymouth colony, 47. 
 Stanton, E. M., removed by Johnson, 
 
 766. 
 Stark, John, at Bennington, 220. 
 Star of the West, the, driven back 
 
 from Fort Sumter, 617. 
 Star-Spangled Banner, the, 387, note. 
 State Department, the, 298. 
 Staten (stat'n) Island, N. Y., occu- 
 pied by the British, 207; held by 
 them during the war, 229, 231; 
 threatened by Washington, 258. 
 States, the, the formation of State 
 governments, 204; whence they de- 
 rived their authority, 269; their ac- 
 tion restricted by the Articles of 
 Confederation, 270; boundary dis- 
 putes, 271-2; send delegates to a 
 Federal Convention, 279; restric- 
 tions on their action under the 
 Constitution, 281; new States and 
 Amendments, 284; their ratification 
 of the Constitution, 286; the great 
 States of the Northwest, 274; the 
 electoral system, 295; the Republic- 
 ans incline to favor the States, 
 304; slave States, 415; the Western 
 States in 1835, 449; the Eastern 
 States, 450; the States go into in- 
 ternal improvements, 453; distinc- 
 tion between State Rights and State 
 Sovereignty, 475! the right of the 
 States to secede, 475; to nullify the 
 laws of the United States, 280, 476; 
 how State representation in Con- 
 gress was related to slavery, 508; 
 the right of voting in the States, 
 513; proposed annexation of slave 
 States, 570; the Kansas struggle 
 between free and slave States, 578- 
 80; secession of a part of the States, 
 610 (see Secession) ; the work of 
 the State conventions, 614; of the 
 doctrine of State Sovereignty, 615; 
 action of the border States, 626; 
 the Southern State governments 
 overthrown, 755; reconstructed, 762 
 (see Reconstruction). 
 Steamboat, the. Fitch's attempt to 
 produce one, 312; need of a steam- 
 boat on Western rivers, 315, note; 
 in the Louisiana purchase, 334; Ful- 
 ton's success, 337; put to use on 
 American rivers, 405, 422; builds 
 up Western towns, 449; put to use 
 on the ocean, 337, note, 447; facili- 
 tates migration, 452. 
 Steam war-vessels, Fulton's attempt, 
 
 384; the screw propeller, 447. 
 Stephens, Alexander H., elected Vice- 
 President of the Confederate States, 
 614. 
 Stevenson, Adlai E., Vice-President, 
 854; renominated for Vice-Presi- 
 dent, 906. 
 Steuben (stoi'ben), Baron von, 214. 
 
 Stewart, Capt. Charles, in command 
 of the Constitiitwn, 375. 
 
 Stillwater, the battle of, 22J. 
 
 Stone River, battle of, 645. 
 
 Stone, Samuel, a Connecticut pio- 
 neer, 50. 
 
 Stonington, Conn., attacked by the 
 British, 384. 
 
 Stony Point, capture of, 237. 
 
 Story, William, a distinguished Amer- 
 ican lawyer, 459. 
 
 Strikes, the Railroad, 806, 853, 858. 
 
 Stuart, Gen. J. E. B., a Confederate 
 cavalry officer, 662. 
 
 Stuyvesant (sti've-sant), Peter, the 
 last Dutch governor of New Nether- 
 land, 109. 
 
 Suffrage (or vote), the right of, 789. 
 
 Sullivan, Gen. John, in command of 
 the attack on Newport, 230; chas- 
 tises the hostile Indians, 232. 
 
 Sulu (zoo'-loo). Archipelago, the, 901. 
 
 Sumner, Charles, an antislavery lead- 
 er, 558; assault upon him, 581. 
 
 Sumter, Gen. Thomas, a Revolution- 
 ary leader in South Carolina, 248, 
 250. 
 
 Supreme Court, the, its duties, 283, 
 599; established, 298; decides the 
 question of slavery in the Territo- 
 ries, 600; its decision rejected, 601; 
 the income tax decision, 860; Anti- 
 Trust Act decision, 891. 
 
 Surplus, the, 836. 
 
 Susquehannah (sus-kwe-han'na) Riv- 
 er, the, 89. 
 
 Swamp Fight, the, 69. 
 
 Swanzey (swon'zl), Mass., attacked 
 by the Indians, 68. 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y., 354. 
 
 Tagalos (ta-ga'los), the, a Philip- 
 pine tribe, 900. 
 
 Tampa Bay, Fla., 14, 880. 
 
 Taney (taw'ne), Roger B., Chief Jus- 
 tice, 481. 
 
 Tariff (see Revenue, Free Trade, Pro- 
 tection), the province of the States 
 under the Confederation, 275; trans- 
 ferred to Congress by the Consti- 
 tution, 281; the first Tariff, 299; 
 the Protective Tariff of 1824, 426; 
 increased in 1828, 434; the Com- 
 promise Tariff of 1833, 478; the 
 semi-protective Tariff of 1842, 501; 
 the Revenue Tariff of 1846, 521; the 
 Protective Tariff of 1861, 691; re- 
 ceipts from it, 748; still maintained, 
 825; reduced, 859; the Dingley 
 tariff, 870; the Porto Rican tariff, 
 
 Tariff Commission, the, 825. 
 
 Tarleton, Major, a British cavalry 
 officer, 247; beaten at the Cowpens, 
 251; plunders Virginia, 255. 
 
 Tarrytown, N. Y., 238. 
 
 Taxes, in Great Britain, 161; in the 
 colonies, 162; commercial taxation, 
 169 (see Parliament); under the 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 ^:W° The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 609 
 
 Taxes — Contimted. 
 Confederation, 275; under the .Con- 
 stitution, 281 ; during the Civil 
 War, 691; in the reconstructed 
 States, 789. 
 Taylor, Gen. Richard, surrenders, 
 
 727. 
 Taylor, Zachary, beats the Seminoles 
 at Lake Okechobee, 463; ordered 
 to the Rio (jrande, 524; beats the 
 Mexicans and drives them across 
 the Rio Grande, 526; follows to 
 Monterey, 531; deprived of part 
 of his army, 532; wins the battle of 
 Buena Vista, 533; returns to the 
 United States, 533; elected Presi- 
 dent, 548; death, 557. 
 Tea Tax, the, 173. 
 
 Tecumseh (te-kum'se), defeated at 
 Tippecanoe, 350; killed at the 
 Thames, 361. 
 Tehuantepec (te-hoo-ahn'te-pek), 896. 
 Telegraph, the, its invention, 510. 
 Telephone, its invention, 805. 
 Tennessee, the first settlers from 
 North Carolina, 94, 157, note, 235; 
 North Carolina's claim ceded to the 
 United States, 273; admitted as a 
 State, 302; secedes, 626; occupied 
 by the Union forces, 641 ; military 
 operations in, 640-3, 645, 648, 685-7, 
 711; reconstructed, 760. 
 Tennessee River, the, reached by De 
 Soto, 14; military operations on, 
 641, 648. 
 Tennessee, the, taken by Farragut, 
 
 718. 
 Tenure of Ofifice Act, the, its passage 
 
 and purpose, 766; repealed, 831. 
 Territories, the, first cessions by the 
 States to the United States, 273; 
 their government under the Consti- 
 tution, 284; the Ordinance of 1787, 
 274; acquisition of Louisiana, 334; 
 of Florida, 414; slavery in the Ter- 
 ritories, 415-19 (see Compromises); 
 the Mexican acquisition, 528, 530, 
 543; polygamy in the Territories, 
 586, 913; acquisition of Alaska, and 
 summary, 773; acquisition of 
 Hawaii, 888. 
 Texas, supposed at first to be a part 
 of the Louisiana purchase, 334, note; 
 the claim of the United States ex- 
 changed for Florida, 414; becomes 
 a part of Mexico, but is settled by 
 American citizens, 505; secedes froin 
 Mexico, 506; its annexation desired 
 by the South, 507; reasons for the 
 desire, 508; annexation, 516; ad- 
 mission, 522; boundary, 524; com- 
 promised, 555; secedes, 613; refuses 
 the first terms of reconstruction, 
 762; reconstructed and readmitted, 
 788. 
 Thames (temz), battle of the river, 
 
 361. 
 Third term, refused by Washington, 
 310. 
 
 Thomas, Gen. George H., at Mil! 
 Spring, 640; at Chickamauga, 685; 
 sent back to Tennessee, 710; de- 
 feats Hood, 711. 
 
 Thornton, Capt., capture of, 525. 
 
 TInrc Friends, the, seized and for- 
 feited, 873. 
 
 Thurman, A. G., nominated for Vice- 
 President, 840. 
 
 Ticonderoga (ti-kon-de-ro'ga), held by 
 Montcalm, 148; taken by the Eng- 
 lish, 150; by Ethan Allen, 199; by 
 Burgoyne, 218. 
 
 Tilden, Samuel J., nominated for 
 President, 797; his election dis- 
 puted, 798; the_ decision, 801. 
 
 Tippecanoe (tip-pe-ka-noo'), battle of, 
 350. 
 
 Titusville, Pa., 590. 
 
 Tobacco, 22, 78. 
 
 Tohopeka (to-ho-pe'ka), battle of, 396. 
 
 Toledo, O., a French post, 139; 
 Wayne's victory, 308. 
 
 Tompkins, Daniel D., elected Vice- 
 President, 409; re-elected, 413. 
 
 Tories, meaning of the term, 170, 479; 
 in the Middle States, 207; in the 
 South, 246; after the war, 266. 
 
 Toronto (to-ron'tO), Can., 362. 
 
 Torpedoes, their first use, 384; against 
 the Albemarle, 716; in Mobile Bay, 
 718. 
 
 Travel, difScuIties of. See Roads. 
 
 Treasury Department, the, 298. 
 
 Treaties, the treaty power, 281; Jay's 
 treaty, 309; treaty of Ghent, 400; ex- 
 tradition treaties, 502; treaty of 
 Washington, 777; the San Domingo 
 treaty, 778; the Chinese treaty, 815; 
 treaty of Paris, 885. 
 
 Trent, the, arrested by the San 
 Jacinto, 638. 
 
 Trenton, N. J., Washington's retreat 
 through, 210; breaks camp at, 212. 
 
 Trevithick (trev'ith-ik), Richard, his 
 locomotive, 429. 
 
 Tripolitan War, the, 342, 404. 
 
 Trusts, 838, 891. 
 
 Truxton, Capt. Thomas, in command 
 of the Constellation, 319. 
 
 Tryon, Gov. William, 94. 
 
 Tunis (tu'nis), 342, 404. 
 
 Turner, Nat, leader of unsuccessful 
 negro insurrection, 462. 
 
 Tuscaroras (tus-ka-ro'raz), an Indian 
 tribe, 3; driven north to New York, 
 95- 
 
 Tutuila (too-too-e'la), an island of 
 the Samoan group, 894. 
 
 Tyler, John, elected Vice-President, 
 49S; becomes President, 500; vetoes 
 the Bank Acts, 501 ; quarrels with the 
 \\'higs, 501 ; makes an unsuccessful 
 treaty of annexation with Texas, 
 507; hurries the annexation, 516. 
 
 United States, location, i; first vis- 
 ited by whites, 10; English coloni- 
 zation, 23, 25-31, foil.; the New 
 
6lo PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 tM^ The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 United S\.a.\e^—Conlzn!)ed. 
 
 England Confederation, 66; general 
 union of the colonies against the 
 French, 145, 159; against taxation 
 by Parliament, 166, 171, 177; against 
 the use of force by Parliament, 191 ; 
 against the king, and for entire in- 
 dependence, 204-5 (see Revolution, 
 the American) ; independence ac- 
 knowledged, 263; boundaries in 
 1783, 263; becomes a nation, 268; 
 the Articles of Confederation, 270; 
 their failure, 275; the Constitution 
 formed, 279; ratified, 286; the 
 United States in 1787, 288-92; the 
 Constitution inaugurated, 294; first 
 legislation, 297-8; parties, 303-4 (see 
 Republican Party of 1792, Federal 
 Party) ; the United States in 1795, 
 312-16; hostilities against France, 
 319; the United States in 1800, 324; 
 the first great change of party gov- 
 ernment, 331-2; acquisition of 
 Louisiana, 334; the steamboat, ZZ7'> 
 the Tripolitan War, 342; difficulties 
 with Great Britain, 343-50; war, 351; 
 the United States in 1810, 353-5; 
 failures in the North, 356-64; suc- 
 cesses on the ocean, 365-77; on the 
 lakes, 378-82; disasters on the At- 
 lantic coast, 383-8; dissatisfaction at 
 home, 389-go; successes in the 
 North, 391-3; in the Southwest, 
 394-9; peace, 400-1; results of the 
 War of 1812, 403; the United 
 States in 1815, 405-8; acquisition of 
 Florida, 414; the Missouri dispute, 
 415-18; the Monroe Doctrine, 420; 
 the United States in 1824, 421-4; 
 Free Trade and Protection, 425; in- 
 vention of the railroad, 429 (see 
 Railroads) ; the American System, 
 434; the United States in 1835,449- 
 6s; political struggles under Jack- 
 son, 466-81 ; financial difficulties lui- 
 der Van Ijuren, 484-9; antislavery 
 agitation, 492-4; the Mormons, 495; 
 the log-cabin campaign of 1840, 498; 
 the Oregon question, 504; rise of 
 the Texas question, 505-6; the tele- 
 graph, 510; annexation of Texas, 
 515-16; the United States in 1845, 
 517-20; the Mexican War, 524-7; 
 seizure of the Pacific Coast, 528-30; 
 operations in Northern Mexico, 
 531-3; in Central Mexico, 534^42; 
 peace, 543; summary of territorial 
 acquisitions, 544; sectional strife 
 over the Mexican acquisition, 545- 
 56; gold discovered in California, 
 549-50; party changes, 558, 560; the 
 United States in 1853, 564-6; natu- 
 ralization questions, 567-8; Japan, 
 569; the Filibusters, 570; slavery 
 and politics, 571-3; the Kansas- 
 Nebraska Act, 574-83; rise of the 
 Republican Party, 576; the Kansas 
 struggle, 578-80; the United States 
 in i860, 588-95; how slavery had 
 
 United S\.Si\.es—Co7itinued 
 
 pushed the sections apart, 596-607; 
 the Dred Scott case, 599-602; parties 
 in i860, 608-9; secession, 610-3; the 
 Confederate States, 614; the second 
 great change in party government, 
 621; surrender of Fort Sumter, 6^2; 
 Civil War, 623-7; the opposing lines 
 in i86j, 628-9; military events of 
 1861, 630-7; the Trent affair, 638; mili- 
 tary events of 1862 in the West, 639- 
 48; on the coast, 649-55; in the East, 
 656-68; Emancipation, 669; financial 
 affairs, 670; privateering, 672; mili- 
 tary events of 1863 in the East, 674-8; 
 in the West, 679-87; on the coast, 688; 
 the West, 679-87; on the coast, 688; 
 the United States in 1863, 690-3; in- 
 tervention of France in Mexico, 
 695; military events of 1864 in the 
 East, 699-705; in the West, 706-14; 
 on the coast, 715-18; on the ocean, 
 720; the United States in 1864, 
 721-6; conclusion of the war, 727-35; 
 assassination of the President, 736- 
 9; military summary of the war, 
 740-9; acquisition of Alaska, 773; 
 Reconstruction, 753-64 (see Recon- 
 struction) ; impeachment of Presi- 
 dent Johnson, 765-8; the treaty of 
 Washington, 776-7; the United 
 States in 1876, 780-7; the disputed 
 election of 1876, 797-802; the United 
 States in 1878, 804-9; the silver ques- 
 tion, 810-2, 865; resumption, 813; 
 refunding, 814; assassination of 
 President Garfield, 818; the United 
 States in 1884, 820-6; in i888, 840; 
 the Panama Canal, 834; the United 
 States in 1885, 841-8; relations with 
 Cuba grow acute, 873; war declared 
 against Spain, 879; preparations for 
 war, 880; naval victory at Manila, 
 881; military operations in Cuba, 
 882, 884; occupation of Porto Rico, 
 883; peace with Spain, 885; annexa- 
 tion of Hawaii, 888; government 
 support of I'acific railroads ended, 
 890; partition of Samoan Islands, 
 894; the Hague peace conference, 
 897; war in the Philippines, 900; 
 government of the Philippines, 901; 
 administrative measures in Cuba, 
 902; free trade denied to Porto 
 Rico, 904 
 United States, the, captures the Mace- 
 donian, 368. 
 Universal Suffrage, 789. 
 L'plandt (oop'lahnt), Pa., 123. 
 Utah (yoo'tah), a Territory, 555 (see 
 Mormons) ; admitted as a State, 862. 
 
 Valley Forge, 217. 
 
 N'alparaiso (vahl-pah-ri'so), 373, 850. 
 
 \'ane. Sir Henry, 50. 
 
 Van Huren, Alartin, elected Vice- 
 President, 473; President, 480; de- 
 feated in 1840, 498; in 1848, 548; not 
 nominated in 1844, 515. 
 
PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 6ii 
 
 ' The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Van Twiller, Woutcr, governor, 109. 
 
 Venezuela, 861. 
 
 Vera Cruz (va'rah kroos), Mex., taken 
 by Scott, 534-5. 
 
 Vermont, part of the Plymouth Com- 
 pany's grant, 33; early history. 65; 
 slavery forbidden, 188; Vermonters 
 seize Ticonderoga, 199; repulse a 
 British expedition at I'ennington, 
 220; not yet recognized by Con- 
 gress, 220; admitted, 302. 
 
 Verrazzani (veR-Rat-sah'ne), 11. 
 
 Vespucci (ves-poot'che), Amerigo, 
 gives a name to America, 8. 
 
 Veto Power, the, belongs to the 
 President, 281, 469, note; hovi' Presi- 
 dent Johnson lost the advantage of 
 it, 759,765; Cleveland's use of it, 
 830. 
 
 Vicksburgh, Miss., Grant's first move- 
 ment toward it, 646; its fortifica- 
 tions, 655; besieged by Grant, 680- 
 2; surrenders, 682. 
 
 Vice-President, the, his duties, 282; 
 mode of election, 295. 
 
 Vincennes (vin-senz'), Ind., a French 
 post, 139; taken by Clarke, 235. 
 
 Virginia, probably visited by Cabot, 
 10; named by Raleigh, 23; diiTerence 
 between Raleigh's " Virginia " and 
 the modern State, 27; part of the 
 London Company's grant, $2; be- 
 comes a royal colony, 35; slavery, 
 39; first settlement, 76; John Smith, 
 77; western claims, 79, 271; the 
 " Old Dominion," 80, note; Bacon's 
 Rebellion, 82; life in Virginia, 83-4, 
 108; organizes the first Ohio Com- 
 pany, 141; endeavors to drive away 
 the French, 142-4; calls for the 
 Stamp Act Congress, 166; Virginia 
 in 177s and 1880, 184; calls for in- 
 dependence, 20s; conquers the 
 Northwest Territory, 235; military 
 operations in the State, 252, 255, 
 258-61; cedes the western claims to 
 the United States, 273; calls for 
 the Federal Convention, 278; rati- 
 fies the Constitution, 286; negro 
 insurrection of 1831, 462; John 
 Brown's raid, 604; secedes, 626; 
 one of the Confederate States, 628 
 (see West Virginia); military opera- 
 tions in the State begin, 628 (see 
 United States) ; rejects the first 
 terms of reconstruction, 762 (elec- 
 toral votes not counted in 1868), 768, 
 note; reconstructed and readmitted, 
 788. 
 
 Virginia City, Nev., discovery of sil- 
 ver, 590. 
 
 Virginia, the. See Merrimac. 
 
 Virgiuius, the, seized by a Spanish 
 war vessel, 779. 
 
 \'ote, the right to, 789. 
 
 Vulcanized rubber, invented, 491. 
 
 Pi'^achiisett (wa-choo'set), the, captures 
 the Florida, 720. 
 
 Walker, William, 570, note. 
 
 Wampanoags (wom-pa-no'agz), an In- 
 dian tribe, 68. 
 
 War Department, the, 298; investiga- 
 tion of the charges against it, 
 89b. 
 
 Warner, Seth, at Bennington, 220. 
 
 War Power, the, the power to declare 
 and make war, 281 ; exercised 
 against Great Britain, 351; against 
 Mexico, 527; the Civil War, 625; 
 the Spanish War, 879; war in the 
 Philippines, 900. 
 
 Warren, Gen. Joseph, killed at 
 Bunker Hill, 196, note. 
 
 War revenue act of 1898, 886. 
 
 Warwick (wor'rik), R. I., settlement, 
 62. 
 
 Washington, D. C, named as the na- 
 tional capital, 299; capital removed 
 thither, 324; burned by the British, 
 386; its safety secured in 1861, 623; 
 in the line of war, 629; its fortifi- 
 cations, 633; threatened by the 
 Merrimac, 650; necessity of protec- 
 ing it, 657. 659; threatened by Jack- 
 son, 662; by Jackson and Lee, 664; 
 by Early, 703; general review at 
 the capital, 735. 
 
 Washington, George, sent to Presque 
 Isle, 142; against Fort Duquesne, 
 143; surrenders Fort Necessity, 
 144; one of Braddock's aids, 146; 
 member of the Continental Con- 
 gress, 192-3; appointed to command 
 the American armies, 191; takes 
 command at Cambridge, 197; drives 
 the British from Boston, 198; moves 
 his army to New York, 208; is de- 
 feated on Long Island, 209; retreats 
 beyond White Plains, 209; through 
 New Jersey, 210; Congress makes 
 him dictator and retires, 211; wins 
 the battles of Trenton and Prince- 
 ton, 212; holds northern New Jer- 
 sey, 213; moves his army to Phila- 
 delphia, 215; defeated at Chad's Ford 
 and Germantown, 216; his winter 
 quarters at Valley Forge, 217; 
 scheme to take the command away 
 from him, 223; fights the drawn 
 battle of Monmouth, 228; holds the 
 British in New York City, 229; 
 his difficulties, 234, 256; marches to 
 Yorktown, 257-8; besieges and cap- 
 tures it, 260-1 ; favors the Federal 
 Convention, 278; is made its Presi- 
 dent, 279; is elected President, 287; 
 inaugurated, 294; re-elected, 304; re- 
 quests recall of Genet, 306; sup- 
 presses Whiskey Insurrection, 307; 
 Farewell Address, 310; recalled to 
 the head of the army, 319; death, 
 
 325- 
 Washingtonian Societies, 460. 
 Washington (State), 835. 
 Washington, treaty of, 777. 
 H'n.?/', the, takes the Frolic, 368; the 
 Reindeer and Avon, 374. 
 
6i2 PRONOUNCING INDEX 
 
 IS" The references are to Sections, not to pages. 
 
 Watling's Island, 6. 
 
 Watson, Thomas E., defeated for 
 Vice-President, 865. 
 
 Waxhaws, battle of the, 247. 
 
 Wayne (wan?), Gen. Anthony, at 
 Stony Point, 237; defeats the In- 
 dians, 308. 
 
 Weather Bureau, the, 821. 
 
 Weaver, Gen. J. B., nominated for 
 President, 854. 
 
 Webster, Daniel, 459; a leader of the 
 Whig Party, 471 ; desired for Presi- 
 dent, 480; his share in the extradi- 
 tion treaty, 501; death, 558. 
 
 Webster, Noah^ 457. 
 
 Wcchawken (we-haw'ken), the, takes 
 the Atlanta, 688. 
 
 West, A. M., nominated for Presi- 
 dent, 826, note. 
 
 West, Benjamin, a painter, 187. 
 
 Western Pacific Railway, 890. 
 
 Western Reserve, the, 273. 
 
 West Florida, 154. 
 
 West Indies, the, discovered by Co- 
 lumbus, 6; French possessions in, 
 230, 266. 
 
 West Virginia, rejects secession, 626; 
 the Confederates driven out of it, 
 630; admission, 694. 
 
 Wethersfield, Conn., settlement, 58. 
 
 Weyler (vay-larr'). Gen. Valeriano, 
 Governor-General of Cuba, 873; re- 
 called, 874. 
 
 Wheeler, \Vm. A., nominated for 
 Vice-President, 797; his election dis- 
 puted, 798; decision, 801. 
 
 Whig Party, the supporters of the 
 American System, 434; at first take 
 the name of National Republicans, 
 437; defeated in 1828, 438; support 
 the Bank, 471; defeated in 1832, 
 473; take the name of Whigs, 479; 
 defeated in 1836, 480; successful in 
 1840, 498; demand another Bank, 
 501 ; quarrel with the President, 501 ; 
 defeated in 1844, 515; oppose the 
 Mexican War, 527; successful in 
 1848, 548; the party goes to pieces, 
 560; completely defeated in 1852, 
 563; disappears, 572; succeeded by 
 the Republican Party, 576. 
 
 Whigs, in the Revolution, 170; in the 
 South, 246; in England, 479. 
 
 Whipping, punishment by, 461. 
 
 Whiskey Insurrection, the, 307. 
 
 Whiskey Ring, the, 794. 
 
 Whitefield (whit'feeld), George, a re- 
 vivalist, 133. 
 
 White, Hugh L., nominated for Presi- 
 dent, 480. 
 
 White, John, leader of one of Ra- 
 leigh's colonics, 23. 
 
 White Plains, battle of, 209. 
 
 Whitney, Eli, his cotton-gin, 316. 
 
 Whittier, John G., his literary work, 
 457- 
 
 Wildcat banks, 484-5. 
 
 Wilderness Campaign, the, 701-2. 
 
 Wilkinson, Gen. James, 363. 
 
 William and Mary College, 84. 
 
 William (of Orange), King, 42. 
 
 Williamsburgh, battle of, 659. 
 
 Williamsburgh, Va., 82. 
 
 Williams, Roger, banished, 51; settles 
 in Rhode Island, 62. 
 
 Wilmington, Del., 29. 
 
 Wilmington, N. C, held by Corn- 
 wallis, 253, 255; recovered by the 
 Americans, 261; a port for blockade- 
 runners, 652, 715; taken by the 
 Union forces, 716. 
 
 Wilmot Proviso, the, 546. 
 
 Wilson tariff bill, 859. 
 
 Wilson, Henry, Vice-President, 796. 
 
 Wilson's Creek, battle of, 635. 
 
 Winchester, battle of, 705. 
 
 Winchester, Gen. James, 359. 
 
 Windsor (win'zur), Conn., settlement, 
 58. 
 
 Winslow, Capt. John A., in command 
 of the Kcarsargc, 720. 
 
 Winthrop, John, of Massachusetts, 49. 
 
 Winthrop, Jr., John, of Connecticut, 
 61. 
 
 Wisconsin, claimed by Virginia, 271; 
 a wilderness in 1828, 430; admission, 
 522; forest fires, 784. 
 
 Witchcraft, the Salem, 53. 
 
 Withlacoochee (with-la-coo'chee), Riv- 
 er, the, 463. 
 
 Wolfe, Gen. James, at Quebec, 150-1. 
 
 Wood, (ien. Leonard, Tjovernor-Gen- 
 eral of Cuba, 902. 
 
 Woodford, Gen. Stewart L., minister 
 to Spain, 873. 
 
 Wool, Gen. John E., 531. 
 
 Worcester (woo'ster), Mass., 276. 
 
 World's Fair at Chicago, 845. 
 
 Wyoming (wi-o'ming), Pa., plundered 
 by Tories and Indians, 232; claimed 
 by Connecticut, 273. 
 
 Wyoming, admitted to the Union, 
 
 Yale College, founded, 75. 
 
 Yazoo River, the, 681. 
 
 Yellow-fever, the, 808, 902. 
 
 Yeo, Sir James L., in command of 
 the British fleet on Lake Ontario, 
 380. 
 
 York, Can., 362, 386, note. 
 
 York, Pa., 217. 
 
 York River, the, 255, 657. 
 
 Yorktown, Va., seized and fortified 
 by Cornwallis, 255; besieged by 
 Washington and Rochambeau, 260; 
 surrendered, 261; taken by the 
 Union forces, 659; anniversary of 
 Cornwallis's surrender, 820. 
 
 ZoLLicoFFER (zol'li-kof-fer). Gen. 
 Felix, killed at Mill Spring, 640. 
 
 
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 and lawyer, but to every thoughtful citizen." 
 
 Review of Reviews : " Mr. Ford has the habit of thoroughness in a 
 very remarkable degree; . . . not only great ability, but rare opportunities 
 and invaluable experience. ... A soundly edited text; ... an introductory 
 essay which really puts the touch of i.nality upon questions that have 
 been in dispute for nearly a century. . . . For the purposes of critical study 
 and precise reference Mr. Ford's edition, it seems to us, must of necessity 
 exclude all otliers. Quite apart from the extremely valuable editorial 
 work included in the introductory part of the volume, Mr. Ford's index 
 {^The Federalist has never before been indexed) would entitle him to a 
 vote of thanks by Congress." 
 
 Prof. Edward G. Bourne, of Yale : "The most useful edition for the 
 working student." 
 
 The Dial : " Mr. Paul Leicester Ford has many titles to the gratitude 
 of students interested in American history, and none more clear than, 
 that which is due him for his edition of 'The Federalist. . . . The work 
 is admirably done in all important respects, and should be upon the desk 
 of every teacher of American constitutional history." 
 
 Prof. Carl Evans Boyd, of University of Chicago : " His edition leaves 
 nothing to be desired, and will undoubtedly become the standard." 
 
 The Outlook: "A singulaily illuminative introduction; . . . one of 
 the best planned and most valuable contributions ever made towards the 
 clearer understanding of our history." 
 
 HENRY HOLT & CO., ^^ ^^I^^^Sr^^^*^ 
 
4oth Impression of a New York Novel- 
 
 THE HON. PETER STIRLING 
 
 AND IV HAT PEOPLE THOUGHT OF HIM 
 
 By Paul Leicester Ford. i2mo, cloth, fi.50. 
 
 The Nation: " Floods of light on the ruison (feire, origin, and methods 
 of the dark figure that directs the destinies of our cities. ... So strongly 
 imagined and logically drawn that it satisfies the demand for the appear- 
 ance of truth in an. . . . Telling scenes and incidents and descriptions of 
 political organization, all of which are literal transcripts of life and fact — 
 not dry irrelevancies thrown in by way of imparting information, but lively 
 detail, needful for a clear understanding of Stirling's progress from the 
 humble chairmanship of a primary to the dictator's throne. . . . In the use 
 of dramatic possibilities Mr. Ford is discreet and natural, and without 
 giving Stirling a heroic pose, manages to win for him very hearty sym- 
 pathy and belief. Stirling's private and domestic story is well knit with 
 that of his public adventures. ... A very good novel." 
 
 The Atlantic Monthly : " Commands our very sincere respect ; . . . 
 there is no glaring improbability about his story; . . . the highly dramatic 
 crisis of the story. . . . The tone and manner of the book are noble. . . . 
 A timely, manly, thorouglibred, and eminently suggestive book." 
 
 The Review 0/ Rei'iews : '"His relations with women were of uncon- 
 ventional sincerity and depth. . . . Worth reading on several accounts." 
 
 The Dial : " One of the strongest and most vital characters that have 
 appeared in our fiction. ... A very charming love story. To discern the 
 soul of yood in so evil a thing as municipal politics calls for sympathies 
 that are not often united with a sane ethical outlook; but Peter Stirling is 
 possessed of the one without losing his sense of the other, and it is this 
 combination of qualities that make him so impressive and admirable a 
 figure. . . . Both a readable and an ethically helpful book." 
 
 The Neif York Tribune: "A portrait which is both alive and easily 
 recognizable." 
 
 The New York Times : "Mr. Ford's able political novel." 
 
 The Literary IVorld : "A fine, tender love story. ... A very unusual, 
 but, let us believe, a possible character. . . . Peter Stirling is a man's 
 hero. . . . Very readable and enjoyable." 
 
 The Independent : "Full of life. The interest never flags. ... It is 
 long since we have read a better novel or one more thoroughly and natu- 
 rally American." 
 
 The Boston Advertiser: " Sure to excite attention and win popularity." 
 
 The Brooklyn Eagle : " A love and labor story; . . . terribly pictur- 
 esque. . . . Abundance of humor." 
 
 The Baltimore Sun: "The team of politics and love drive very well 
 together. . . . Mr. Ford has created a very effective character under very 
 difficult circumstances." 
 
 HENRY HOLT & CO., ^^ "^^^X^^^^^^"^^^