^ /^Vav *^,.^/ /^fe'., u^^^ y^f£^^ V.^ a9* .jjfiLr* '"^ lO-; 0-0-* .^'^ ^^ .^'•. <^-< HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS UNITED STATES. PREPARED BY THE AMERICAN SOCIAL SCIENCE ASSOCIATION. WITH MAPS. ''^ ^NEW YORK: PUBLISHED FOR THE ASSOCIATION, By HURD and HOUGHTON, 13 Astor Place ; 1871. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by The American Socul Science Association, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. riverside, Cambridge: stereotyped and printed bt h. 0. boughton and compant. PEEFAOE. This work is meant to contain, in a concise form, such in- formation as one proposing emigration requires in order to decide, first, whether he had better leave his old home, and if so, second, how to settle himself in a new one. It aims not only at guiding immigrants across the ocean and into the inte- rior of the United States, but also at fitting them to become contented and useful citizens in the land of their adoption. It is intended for distribution by Emigration Agencies in Europe, steamship lines. Boards of Immigration and State charities, and railroad and land corporations in the United States. Its preparation has been aided by valuable contributions from Messrs. Edward Atkinson, D. C. Gilman, Hamilton A. Hill, N. S. Shaler and William F. Wharton, General F. A. Walker, Superintendent of the National Census, and the Statistical Bureau of the Treasury Department. This first edition is experimental. It is designed to reach, in the first place, those who can help the compilers in improving the scope and accuracy of the work. A compilation involving the acquisition and use of varied and confused material, especially when brought within the compass of little more than one hundred pages, cannot be perfected without the assistance of readers as well as writers. We ask the members of the Association in particular — but we by no means confine the re- quest to them, we ask all readers — to make any corrections, and to suggest any omissions or inadequate statements, which may strike them in examining this volume. If we succeed in exciting that amount of interest in the publication which will induce others to take part in perfecting it, the second edition will be much better than the first. This edition is also put forth that its eflfect may be tried upon the immigrants into whose hands it may come. Until it has iv PREFACE. been actually tested by them, neither its strong nor its weak points can be determined. We invite them to relate their ex- periences in using the book, so that its use may be rendered more thoroughly serviceable to those coming after them. Tiie book is further and especially commended to those in the management of public boards, steamship, railway, and land companies, by whom the publication and .distribution of future editions may be greatly aided. If printed to the extent that is proposed, and in different languages, the Handbook will require much larger resources and facilities than can be furnished by the Association publishing it. Immigration is of such national and international concern ; so many interests, public and private, are involved in its judicious direction ; so much suffering and loss may be spared to the immigrant, and therefore to the nation which he joins, by informing and guarding him, that we can- not but hope for generous cooperation in making this Handbook an instrument of wide-spread good. Boston, April, 1871. COI^TE]S[TS. PART I. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. PAGE PAOB Caution .... . 1 Settlement .... 14 Who should emigrate . 2 Immigrant Aid Societies 15 First Steps . 4 How TO travel 15 When to go . . 4 Building 18 How to go ... . 5 Statistics for 1870 19 Laws for the Protection OF Wages 22 Emigrants .... . 8 Money 22 National, OR State Protection 9 Weights and Measures . 23 Landing .... . 10 Postage .... 23 PART n. THE UNITED STATES. Climate .... 25 Exemption of Property from Soil . . . . 27 Seizure for Debt 39 Mineral Resources 27 Laws of Inheritance 39 Animals .... . 28 Rights of Property belonging Plants .... 30 to Married Women . 40 Population . 31 Education .... 41 History .... 33 Religion 44 Government. Character of the People 44 National . 35 Industry. State 36 Agriculture 46 Municipal . 37 Manufactures 48 Territorial 37 Commerce 50 Army and Navy . 37 Railways and Telegraphs . 51 Naturalization 37 Taxation and Revenue 53 Laws of Propickty affecting Immigrants . 38 PART m. THE STATES. I. New England States . 56 II. Middle States 62 Maine 56 New York 62 New Hampshire . 57 New Jersey 65 Vermont . 58 Pennsylvania 66 Massachusetts . 58 Delaware .... 68 Rhode Island 60 lU. Southern States 69 Connecticut . 61 Maryland .... 69 VI CONTENTS. IV. District of Columbia Virginia . West Virginia . North Carolina South Carolina . Georgia . Florida Alabama Mississippi . Louisiana Texas Western States Ohio . Indiana . PAGE . 70 70 . 71 72 . 73 74 . 75 76 . 77 77 . 78 79 . 79 80 Illinois Kentucky Tennessee Arkansas Missouri Michigan Wisconsin Iowa Minnesota Kiuisa-> . Nebraska Nevada California Oregon . PAGE 81 82 83 84 84 86 87 88 92 9;-) 9(; 99 100 101 PART IV. TERRITORIES. Dakota Montana Idaho Washington . Wyoming . Colokado 103 104 104 104 105 105 Utah . . . ... .105 New Mexico .... 106 Arizona 106 Indian Territory . . 107 Alaska 107 PART V. THE PUBLIC LANDS A New Country . Area Classes of Lands How to obtain Lands 108 How TO pay for Lands . Ill 108 Land Offices . . . .111 109 Other Unsettled Lands • 112 110 Conclusion . . . .112 APPENDIX. Tickets to the Interior 115 New York Protection 115 Ward's Island • 115 Immigrant Aid Societies 116 Northern Pacific Railroad . . . . ' 116 HANDBOOK FOE IMMIGEAISTTS. PART I. GENERAL DIRECTIONS. CAUTIOK. There can hardly be a more serious act than a change of country. To emigrate is .to take a step, of which neither the most hopeful nor the most thoughtful can correctly foresee the full consequences, for good or for evil. It means nothing less than to part for years, if not forever, with home, relations, and friends ; to break up old and dear habits ; to live among strangers in a strange land ; to recommence, often from the very beginning, the struggle of life. The first question, then, for any one proposing to remove from his country to another is this : " Am I, or are those whom I propose to take with me, in a condition to emigrate ? " In order to arrive at a proper answer, he will do well, — 1. To inform himself as fully as possible in regard to the United States, and the chances of improving his circumstances by renaoving thither. This book has been compiled with the purpose of furnishing the information which he needs. If he has friends in the United States in whom he has confidence, and who are in condition to give him trustworthy advice, let him by all means apply directly to them, and be guided by their experience. 2. Not to take counsel of his hopes only, or, in other words, not merely to think of the higher wages, cheaper lands, better food, and other advantages which he expects to find on the other side of the Atlantic, but also of what he will give up in the old country, of the expense and trouble of the journey, of the uncertainty of finding a bet- ter home, of the much greater cost of living, and of the possible effect which a change of habits and climate may produce upon his health. 3. To consider that, although labor is sure to find a more generous reward, and capital, if judiciously employed, to yield larger returns in the United States than in the old country, cases of disappointment always have been and always will be numerous. 4. To remember that contentment is essential to true happiness, 1 2 HANDBOOK FOR 'IMMIGRANTS and to consider carefully whether the material gain to be found will compensate for the inevitable loss of much that is dear. 5. Not to weigh the effect of emigration selfishly upon himself alone, but also upon those whom he leaves, and upon those whom he takes with him. WHO SHOULD EMIGRATE. The general conditions of success in life are the same in the United States as in the old country, namely, a sound body, a sound mind, and a good character. No one should emigrate who does not possess good health. In- valids will not be benefited generally by the change, and they run the risk of being turned back, as the American laws forbid their land- ing unless they show themselves possessed of means sufficient for their support. Persons beyond the prime of life should also abstain from emigration, unless they can depend upon the support of others when no longer able to work. A strong mind is hardly less necessary than a sound body. Few emigrants escape disappointments and trials, to bear up under which requires buoyancy of spirits, patience, and power of self-denial. A certain degree of intelligence is also desii'able in those who come to % live among a people naturally so quick-witted as the Americans. Persons unwilling to work, or accustomed to live by their wits alone, are not wanted in the United States. Idlers will only go from bad to worse, and adventurers will not prosper any more here than at home. Criminals, to whom the United States has always been a favorite refuge, are sent back as soon as discovered. No one should emigrate without money enough to maintain himself after his arrival in the foreign country till he can earn a living, unless he has friends ready to help him. This applies especially to heads of families, who would be guilty of reckless imprudence in ex- posing themselves and their companions to the risk of arriving in des- titute circumstances, and to the inevitable suffering ensuing. Let no one start depending upon charity alone, for charitable provisions at various points of landing serve only to meet tlie most urgent wants. To begin life in a new country as a pauper is at best an undignified start, which every person with any self-respect should wish to avoid. Moreover, under the laws of the United States, paupers are not per- mitted to enter the country. Next to these general conditions, the success of an emigrant will depend upon his previous training and occupation. As a rule, those whose occupations are wholly or in part mental, are far less likely to profit by emigration than those who live by the labor of their hands. Every one of the so-called learned professions is overstocked. There are more doctors, apothecaries, lawyers, literary men, archi- tects, teachers, clergymen, and other men of liberal education in the United States than can make a decent living. In the cities and coun- try districts of the older States especially, there is a superabundance of professional men, and even in the Western States, where their ser- vices are less required, the supply, though not of a high order, exceeds the demand. It would be folly for most persons of this class to emigrate unless TO THE UNITED STATES. 3 they emigrate for other than material reasons, and come provided with sufficient means for their support during the long years when they will have to wait before they can expect to make a living from their profession. Professional young men, settling in some new com- munity in the West, may gradually build up a practice. But this growing up with a place is a slow process, calling for not a little patience, and involving years of self-denial. Persons following business pursuits will hardly do better than pro- fessional men. Their want of acquaintance Avith the country, and the different methods of doing business in it, will place them at a decided disadvantage. Owing to the intense competition in most branches of business, the percentage of failures among merchants is greater than in any other country. If merchants with capital emigrate at all, they should be content to wait until a protracted residence has ren- dered them familiar with the peculiarities of American business before investing their means. In the growing cities and towns in the West many opportunities for starting in business offer themselves, but even there the safest course will be to study the ground carefully before risking anything. Clerks ought not to think of coming to the United States unless they have thoroughly made up their minds to lay down the pen and to take to the spa.de or the plough. No kind of labor is so much of a drug as clerical labor. Nearly everybody writes a good hand, and can keep books. The rush into this kind of work since the late civil war has been very gi'eat. Cases of grievous disappointment are very frequent among clerks, book-keepers, and shopmen from Europe who have come out under the impression that they will do better in a new country. For their pm-poses it is not' a new country, but an old one. Women who expect to earn their subsistence by teaching, tending shop, or sewing, are also very liable to disapi^ointment. Persons accustomed to earn a living by manual labor run the least risk in emigrating. A pair of stout arms, if united with habits of sobriety and economy, are sure to give the emigrant a good start in the States. With a knowledge of some mechanical trade he can still more confidently rely on doing well. Of the different classes of laboring people none will find a better opening than agricultural laborers. Men with a small capital can easily become independent freeholders in the prosperous Western States. To this class of emigrants large families will prove a positive advantage, if the younger members can assist in tilling the soil. The demand for farm hands working for hire is great and constant in all parts of the country. Gardeners are almost everywhere in good demand. Ordinary laborers, able and willing to do any kind of work that will yield them a good living, will also not be long in finding something to do. Good mechanics will likewise have little difficulty in obtaining em- ployment. Among the most promising trades are those of boot and shoe making, tailors, carpenters, furniture makers, masons, stone-cut- ters, brick-makers, ordinary and decorative painters, plumbers, work- ers in ii'on, tin, and copper, machinists, printers, millers, brewers, and butchers. Highly skilled artisans, however, such as engravers, 4 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS workers in the precious metals, and the producers of articles of lux- ury generally, often do not improve their condition. Not a few per- sons of this class return to Europe after trying the country for a while. It is not because their skill is undervalued, but because the demand for such labor is unequal to the supply. Operatives will do better than at home if they obtain emj)loyment, but their chances of finding it will depend very m.uch on the state of the manufacturing business at the time "of their arrival. Of late years, owing to the depression of many branches of industry in the States, the "demand for operatives has diminished. More informa- tion for this class is given in Part 11., under Manufactures. Miners earn much higher wages in the United States than in Great Britain ; but the largest branch of American mining industry, coal- mining, has for some time been very much disturbed by a succession of strikes, so that new-comers cannot be sure of finding work on landing. But they will be safe enough in coming out if they are will- ino- to^'do other labor, until an opportunity ofiers to follow their regu- lar occupation. No class of persons will trust less to chance in emigrating than domestic servants. Male servants, such as butlers, coachmen, and grooms, it is true, are not much Avanted outside of the larger cities ; but females, such as cooks, maids, laundresses, and nurses, can find good situations everywhere for the mere asking. The demand for them is really unlimited. FIRST STEPS. Supposing emigration to be prudent, the first step is to decide whither it shall be directed. Two motives should guide the emi- grant in his decision : first, the location of his friends, if he has any, as they can help him better than all the world besides ; second, his own working capacity, which ought to carry him to some part of the country where it can be advantageously employed. AVlien these two motives combine, and an emigrant looks forward to settling where he can have friends about him, and work before him, then he can form his plans unhesitatingly. Heads of families,, unless they know precisely where to go, will do well to make a trial visit before moving those depending on them. Goino- alone, they will be able to move about much more freely, with a better chance of finding a home or occupation. By bringing out their families only after seeing the country and selecting a suitable locality, they will save themselves much anxiety. They may also save expense, as the cost of the advance journey will hardly be as great as that of maintaining their families in the States while they are looking about for a place of settlement. WHEN TO GO. After deciding where to go, one must decide when to go. This is very simple, if circumstances allow a free choice. Spring is by all means the best season, summer the next, autumn the next, and winter the worst. In the summer the ocean is even quieter than in the spring, but by going early one has a better chance of immediate TO THE UNITED STATES. 5 employment on landing. In the winter, rougli weather generally pre- vails on the ocean, but the ships are usually much less *owdcd than during the rest of the year. HOW TO GO. Steamships are far preferable to sailing vessels for the voyage. The former make the passage in from ten to fourteen days, while the latter require from four to eight weeks. The rates of passage are generally lower on sailing than on steam vessels, but the difference is not great enough to compensate for the loss of time and the hard- ships of a long voyage. The accommodations, especially the food, are generally much better on steamships. Nine tenths of the emi- grants to the United States already come by steamers, and it is be- lieved that sailing ships will soon entirely cease to be employed in carrying them. In 18G9 steamers lost only one in a thousand passengers, while sailing vessels lost one in two hundred. This shows how much safer the former are. To reach the port of embarkation, if the emigrant is not already there, requires information which can be fully given only on the spot, and we do not here attempt it. At most of the steamship agencies which are scattered over Great Britain and Northern Europe, tickets may be purchased to cover the expense of the journey to the port. The purchase of tickets requires caution. The emigrant must take care that he goes to the proper office, and gets the proper ticket at the proper price. We nov/ give a table in Avhich the various steamship lines are enumerated, with details concerning their management as far as steerage paseengers, that is, emigrants, are concerned. HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS fe fl ?, . <« p.fl.;S .2 S SS p " « S r^ii^ a S -U a "^ g o '^ « S c s ^ _" ^1 £g^£§laSg i S J-2 :^2 "5 3 o3 r; = 2lo5 •?= £ a ^ g^ g s > ? s « 3 D ■•« P Z i !- tS fe 9 ? a'-gi 2g2-- .J2g o S =* J "m a" ="S^' ■« " o a - S « a^ o §■" S *-! 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I s £ o !"- « ^ £ a i ? •i 3 "-^ ^ g ^2 i; £ 3 a 5- '•*-' S a) =^ -S 3 j3 "I" S aT -e cS 3 ; £.s' S5 o ? "^ "3 "^ O O. r^S •- '" to ?P'2 2».Q = 5S'^a"S nT- cr.t«t;?''-a>^o -2-.li»aortg:i^O ^ u.fi- P< 'O -w 8 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS. In buying his ticket by any of the, above lines, it will be well for the emigrant, if his destination on the other side of the ocean is fixed, to inquire concerning his transportation thither from the port at which he is to land. Some of the steamship companies make it an object to buy a ticket from the starting-point in Europe to or near the point at which one is to settle in the United States. This course must not be taken by the emigrant without minute inquiry. The outfit is another important matter. An emigrant ought to have one or more stout boxes, well roped, and plainly marked. He should fill it or them with substantial clothing, including boots and shoes, part for winter, part for summer wear ; all costing much more in the United States than in Europe. Clothes of every kind, if in use, or ready for use, pass free at the custom-houses. Some articles may be required for the voyage. Concerning these, the rules of the steamship companies must be consulted. If the passenger has money or valuables, he would do well to deposit them with the purser of the ship during the voyage. IVhile on shipboard, one must be careful about his food, an abrupt change of diet being bad everywhere, and particularly at sea. The choice of acquaintances among the passengers should be very cau- tious, especially on the part of women. Discretion as to intercourse with others is of hourly importance during a voyage. LAWS FOR THE PROTECTION OF EMIGRANTS. A convention between the European powers and the United States for the protection of emigrants at sea has been proposed, and will probably be executed. Meantime reliance must be placed on the separate legislation of the governments most nearly concerned. That of Great Britain is as follows : — On payment of passage money, emigrants are entitled to contract tickets specifying the name of vessel, date of sailing, and allowance of provisions. No runner or agent is entitled to a commission for procm-ing this ticket. If a passenger shall report at the proper time on the day of sailing, and because of some action of the owner or officers, and by no de- fault of his own, fail to obtain passage or guarantee of passage on another ship within ten days, Avith subsistence money in the interval, he may recover, before a justice of the peace, the money paid, and damages not exceeding £lO. No ship shall carry on her lower passenger deck a greater number of passengers than in the proportion of one person over twelve years of age, or two between one and twelve, to eighteen clear superficial feet of deck allotted to their use. All male persons, fourteen years old and upwards, not occupying berths with their wives, must be berthed in a separate compartment from other passengers, and not more than one person (except hus- band and wife, or females and children under twelve) can occupy the same berth. Berths must not be removed till passengers are landed. Passengers must be divided into messes of not more than ten each, estimating two persons between one and tAvelve as equal to one over TO THE UNITED STATES. 9 twelve, and the members of a family, one of whonr is more than twelve years old, may form a separate mess. Provisions according to the contract list must be issued to each mess daily, before two o'clock in the afternoon, such articles as re- quire cooking having been cooked. No spirits shall be sold on board. Medicines and medical comforts (and in case the number of per- sons on board exceeds three hundred, a medical practitioner) must be provided by the owner or charterer of the vessel. The medical officer and master may exact obedience to rules. Passengers may be relanded in case of sickness, but must be pro- vided with subsistence until they are forwarded, or the passage money is returned, or they decline or neglect to proceed. In case they are forwarded by the governor of a colony, or a consul, passage money cannot be reclaimed. Passengers are entitled to eat and sleep on board for forty-eight hours after arrival in port, unless the vessel shall leave within that time to proceed on her voyage. In case a breach of contract shall occur, the passenger may re- cover, by summary process before any two justices of the peace, the damages and costs, not to exceed in any case the amount of passage money, and £20. And a passenger shall be considered a competent witness in his own case. Persons secretly stowing themselves on board a vessel for the pur- pose of procuring passage, are liable to a penalty of £20. The legislation of the United States is as follows : — No vessel shall carry more than one person in proportion to every two tons of such vessel, not including children under one yeai', and counting two children between one and eight years as one passenger. No person shall be carried on a deck where the height is not at least six feet in the clear. Where the height is seven and a half feet or more, fourteen superficial feet must be allowed for each passenger ; when less than seven and a half, sixteen. The loAver decks must be thoroughly ventilated. Each vessel shall have on board, at the time of starting, a stock of provisions of good quality amply sufficient for the voyage, and proper facilities for cooking the same. The captain of every such vessel is authorized to maintain good discipline and habits of cleanliness on board, and is required to make the necessary regulations, and to keep a copy of the same posted up in an accessible place during the voyage. The State of New York has recently passed an act for the better protection of emigrants arriving at the port of New York, providing for an inquiry into any complaints of treatment, food, or other matters connected with the voyage. NATIONAL OR STATE PKOTECTION. The protection of immigrants, as appears from the foregoing state- ments, has long been an object of national concern. But while the United States government has protected them in American vessels, it has left them on arriving, to the care of the States where they arrived. 10 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS This will appear from the following section. Within the last year or two, a movement has been begun with the purpose of establishing a Bureau or Board of Immigration by the national government, to take the place of the various boards or agencies hitherto appointed by the States. Bills are now before Congress which are intended to transfer the immigrant from State to national protection, immediately upon arrival. LANDING. At length the immigrant is in port. It is well if he has friends to receive him, or, in their absence, officials to direct him. Without one or the other, he must be on his guard at every turn. Runners, or agents, of one class or another, will beset him behind and before ; some about his baggage, some about his boarding-house, some about the railroads by which he may be thinking of travelling to the in- terior. If he cannot help himself, he must ask help from the immi- grant officers, or his fellow-passengers, and he will get it, if he de- serves it. The State of New York has established a Landing Depot for Immigrants at Gastle Garden in the port of New York. The work centering there is done in departments, of which the following de- scription is abridged from a pamphlet on Immigration, by IVir. Friedrich Kapp, late of the Commissioners of Immigration of the State. I. The Boarding Department. — On arrival at the quarantine station (six miles below the city), every vessel bringing immigrant passengers is boarded by an officer of this department, stationed there for the purpose, who ascertains the number of passengers, the deaths, if any, during the voyage, and the amount and character of sickness, examines the condition of the vessel in respect to cleanli- ness, and receives complaints, of which he makes report to the Gen- eral. Agent and Superintendent at Castle Garden ; he remains on board the ship during her passage up the bay, to see that the law prohibiting communication between ship and shore before immio-rant passengers are landed is enforced. On casting anchor in the stream, convenient to the Landing Depot, he is relieved by an officer of the Metropolitan Police force, detailed at Castle Garden, and the pas- sengers are transferred to the care of II. The Landing Department, from which the Landing Agent pro- ceeds with barges and tugs, accompanied by Inspector of Customs, to the vessel. After an examination of the luggage, it is checked, and the passengers with their luggage are transferred to the barges and tugs, and landed at the Castle Garden pier. On landing, the passengers are examined by a medical officer, to discover if any sick have passed the health authorities at quarantine (who are there- upon transferred by steamer to the hospitals on Ward's or Black- well's Island), and likewise to select all subject to special bonds under the law, as blind persons, cripples, lunatics, or any others who are likely to become a future charge. This examination being ended, the immigrants are directed into the Rotunda, a circular space with separate compartments for English-speaking and other nationalities, to TO THE UNITED STATES. 11 III. The Registering Department, where the names, nationality, former place of residence, and intended destination of the immi- grants, with other particulars are taken down. The passengers are then directed to IV. The Agents of the Railroad Companies, from whom they can procm-e tickets to all parts of the United States and Canada, with- out the risk of fraud or extortion to which they are subjected out- side of the Depot. In the mean while, the baggage and luggage arc stored in the baggage room. A brass ticket, with any letter of the alphabet from A to F inclusive, and a number from 1 to 600, is de- livered to the immigrant on landing, and a duplicate fastened on his piece of baggage. "The trunk or box is then placed in the baggage- room. This room has six bins, designated by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and each bin has six hundred numbers. Accordingly, when the immigrant produces his ticket, a baggageman at once goes to the bin indicated by the letter and number on the ticket, and delivers the baggage required. The immigrants destined inland, on delivery of their check, take their baggage to the weigher's scales. After having been weighed and paid for, it is sent free of charge to the depot of the railroad or dock of the steamboat by which they leave. Such immigrants as design remaining in this city and vicinity are directed to V. The City Baggage Delivery, which ascertains the address to which the immigrants may desire to have their luggage sent, and takes their orders, exchanging the brass check received from the Landing Agent on shipboard, for a printed paper one. The luggage is thenpromptly delivered in any part of this city and vicinity at a moderate rate of charges, approved by the Commission. At the same time, those having gold or silver which they may wish to have exchanged for United States currency are directed to one of three VI. Exchange Brokers, admitted into the Depot, who change specie for a small advance on the market rate, set forth in a conspicuous place for the observation of the immigrant, the daily fluctuations in rates being duly noted. These last three departments are conducted by responsible par- ties, who, while not officers, are nevertheless under the close and constant supervision of the Commission, and are required to keep a record of all transactions, subject to the inspection of any mem- ber of the Board. VII. The Information Department. — AVlien the foregoing opera- tions are completed, the immigrants are assembled in the Kotunda, and an officer of the Commission calls out the name* of those whose friends attend them in the waiting-room at the entrance of the De- pot, and to whom they are directed. At the same time are called out the names of those lor whom letters or funds are waiting, which are then delivered to the proper owners through the Forwarding Department. Immie, between the Alleghanies and the ocean ; 2d, the Mississippi Basin, between the Alleghanies and the Rocky Mountains ; and 3d, between the latter and the Pacific, the Pacific Slope, — not a single region, but broken by two ranges, the Sierra Nevada, and the Coast or Cascade, which intervene be- tween the great chain of the Rocky Mountains and the western shore. The principal divisions according to river systems are : 1st, the St. Lawrence, in the north; 2d, the Atlantic, including the Connect- icut, Hudson, Delaware, and Potomac, in the east ; 3d, the Missis- sippi, running with the Missouri (in fact the main stream) from the northern border to the Gulf of Mexico, and taking in the Ohio on the east, and the Arkansas and Red River on the west, with many lesser tributaries ; 4th, the Texas Slope, with the Colorado and Rio Grande ; 5th, the Pacific Slope, with the Columbia and another Colorado, together with the basins of the Red River in the north, and Utah in the interior. The Great Lakes on the northern border are a distinctive geo- graphical feature. It is computed that they contain more than half of all the fresh water in the globe. CLIMATE. Compared with that of Northern Europe, the climate of the east- ern and central regions of the United States is more backward in spring, hotter in summer, brighter in autumn, and colder in winter. The autumn is generally considered the most beautiful season, equa- 26 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS ble in temperature, brilliant in foliage, and during one or two weeks, called Indian summer, wrapped in a soft and glowing haze. Just as in Europe, so here, there are striking differences between the north and the south, the coast and the interior, highlands and low- lands, dry and damp soils. If the immigrant likes a warm climate, he will turn southward ; but he must be on his guard against unhealthy situations, and against unhealthy seasons in almost all situations. In the farther Northwest and West he will find mild winters, windy summers, and a distinc- tion between dry and v/et months not known elsewhere. Perhaps the first characteristic of the American climate is that it is not all one, but rather manifold. An average temperature of 40° to 47° Fahr., or 4^° to 8^ Cent., prevails in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Northern New York, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, Idaho, and Washington ; of 47° to 52° Fahr., or 8§° to 11° Cent., in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Southern New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, loAva, Nebraska, Oregon, and Wyoming ; of .52° to 60° Fahr., or 11° to 15^° Cent., in Delaware, Maryland, Dis- trict of Columbia, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, Kan- sas, Nevada, Northern. California, Colorado, Utah, Northern New Mexico, and Arizona; of 60° to 77° Fahr., or 15i° to 25° Cent., in North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, Southern California, and Southern New Mexico. But no table can give an accurate idea of the changes in tempera- ture from one season to another, or; as pften occurs, from one day to another. An immigrant arriving in summer will be surprised at the coldness of the following winter, or, arriving in winter, at the heat of the following summer. Were he to decide upon a location accord- ing to the atmospheric conditions of any one month or day, he would probably often be disappointed during the course of the year. On this point, as on many others, local inquiries must be made. Another, and a very striking characteristic of the climate is its dryness. Fine Aveather is apt to be moist in Europe, but not in America. Towards the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific there is more moisture than elsewhere ; biit the atmosphere throughout the country is dry. The efl'ect of this on various industries is given in a recent essay, showing how clothes dry sooner after being washed, paint and plaster after being put on walls, skins after being tanned. Mouldiness is less troublesome, and provisions can be more safely stored than in Europe. On the other hand, it is mentioned that those who have been accustomed in their native country to make a supply of bread for several weeks, find their bread in the United States harden and become unpalatable in a few days. An immigrant Avill soon find that the climate afTects his appetite and his diet. He needs more meat than he did at home, and wher- ever he boards he gets it. On the other hand, he neither needs nor is able to bear the stinuilants to which he may have been accustomed ; and if he has been in the habit of taking strong drinks, the sooner he dis<.'ontinues it here, the better. ro THE UNITED STATES. 27 From rain tables, prepared from observations during a series of years at different places, it appears that the moan yearly fall of rain is about thirty-five inches. On the Atlantic coast, and indeed over most of the country, the rain-fall is distributed throughout the year. On the Pacific coast, the rains occur as a rule in the winter and spring months. Among the llocky Mountains, the rain-fall is light, varying from three to twenty inches annually, with occasional violent showers. Snow rarely falls south of the Potomac, except among the mountains. Its average duration in the north is from three months on the coast to five months in the interior. SOIL. Th s will be described under the States and Territories, Parts III. and IV. MINERAL RESOURCES. The mining region may be naturally divided into four districts, each having a tolerably distinct character : 1st, the region of the Alleghany Mountains ; 2d, the valley of the Mississippi. 3d, the valley of the Great Lakes ; 4th, the Cordillej' as, or ranges from the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast. The Alleghany region abounds in coal from the northern part of Alabama to the New York line. The western part of Virginia, eastern Ohio, central Pennsylvania, and eastern Kentucky contain the Appalachian coal field, which has over 50,000 square miles of work- able coal, all bituminous except a few hundred square miles of anthra- cite in central Pennsylvania. This coal field is as yet imperfectly developed, and a large part of the lands containing Avorkable seams is for sale at lovf prices. The coal in this region is divided into three main varieties, ordinary bituminous, carinel, and anthracite. Just east of this great basin is a narrow slip of coal land extending through southern Virginia, near Richmond, down into North Carolina, which contains some very good bituminous coal. A small amount of hard coal is also found in Rhode Island. Iron ore occurs in abundance at a great many points along the Alleghany range between Canada and Georgia. Copper has been worked in Vermont, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and northern Georgia. Lead occurs at a num- ber of points, and is now worked in southw^estern Virginia. Gold has been found at several points, but never worked to profit except along the eastern flanks of the mountains in Virginia, North and South Caro- lina, and Georgia. Mines and washings in these States were carried on until the outbreak of the Rebellion, in some cases Avith consider- able profit. In the Mississippi valley we have another coal field, which under- lies a large part of Illinois and southwestern Kentucky. This basin, though less extensive and valuable than the Alleghany basin, contains a great deal of good coal, most of Avliich is accessible without deep working. Except in coal and iron, there is little mineral wealth as yet discovered east of the Mississippi. West of that river we have, in Missouri, extensive deposits of lead ore ; on the borders of AVi - ' consin, Iowa, and Illinois, many small mines of lead, producing once 28 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS large quantities of that metal, but now somewhat less than it was a fcAv' years ago. The richest iron ores of the Mississippi valley are those about Iron Mountain in Missouri, Avhere high hills are composed of quite pure ores. Zinc is found in Wisconsin and Arkansas. That portion of the basin of the Great Lakes which lies to the west of Lake Erie contains some very valuable mineral lands. Michigan contains one of the richest iron regions, Avhose mines now supply more ore than those of any other region in the LTnited States. The basin of Lake Superior also affords the principal copper mines of North America. Although these mines are now less profitable than they were some years ago, they are still surpassed only by those of Great Britain and Chili. The mountainous region of the West, stretching from the Plains to the Pacific, is peculiarly rich in mineral deposits of varied character. Coal has been found in considerable quantities in Colorado, but of rather inferior quality ; a better quality has been found in Utah, Wyoming, and California. No considerable deposits have as yet been developed in any other part of this district. Gold mines are worked extensively and with success in Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Arizona, Idaho, Montana, and California ; the largest number of successful mines in the last State. Some of the lodes in this region are among the most productive that have ever been worked. Silver ores occur throughout these States and Territories, but the mines of Nevada are the most extensive, and proiuise very large yields in the future. Copper and lead ores have been found at various points, but the cost of labor and transportation has caused them to remain uuAvorked, except in California, where they have been mined •successfully. The quicksilver mines of California are also worked to advantage. The immigrant miner knows the hardships of mining. He needs to be cautioned only on tAvo points. 1st. The strikes among the coal miners of the East will interfere with his steady employment as one of their number. 2d. The necessity of capital to develop the gold mines of the West will prevent his success if he has only labor to bring with him. ANIMALS. 1. Domesticated. — North America has but one native animal which has ever been domesticated, that is, 'the turkey. All the other animals which are kept in that state have been brought by European col- onists. Though this continent has furnished no animals useful to man, all those which have been brought here by him succeed very well indeed. All the domesticated animals of Europe can be raised over the whole of the United States, and in by far the larger part fare quite as well as at home. Horses do well everywhere, and are on the average better than in Europe. Horned cattle, except on the sandy soils of South Carolina, Georgia, and the other States of the extreme South, are as good as the best European. Sheep, both for wool, and flesh, prosper over the whole country. Swine succeed equally well. On the Avhole, these animals are less liable to contagious diseases than in Europe. It must be noticed, however, that at some points in the new lands of the West, especially along the borders of TO THE UNITED STATES. 29 the Ohio River and its tributaries, there is a peculiar disease termed " milk sickness " which is fatal to cattle, and can be communicated through the flesh and milk of the animals to man. This disease is singularly local, rarely affecting the cattle in any but a small region in each country where it occurs. It does not affect other animals. These localities are always well known, and the settler can easily avoid them. The disease is supposed to be caused by certain peculiar elements in the water of the springs where it occurs. While the settler should exercise caution on this point, he need not allow it to deter him from locating in the region where the disease occurs. The best region for raising horned cattle and horses is found in the valley of the Ohio, especially that part of it which lies to the south of the main stream and in the State of Missouri. The State of Texas is the region where they can be reared at the least expense, as no winter provision is necessary there; but the quality of the cattle is inferior, and they are more liable to disease than in other localities farther north and east. Goats have been introduced at several points, and have succeeded well. The Cashmere variety is beginning to be reared with success. Camels have been successfully reared, but are not required, and therefore are no longer used. The wild buffalo has not been tamed, nor is that from Europe in use. All the domesticated birds which are reared in Europe succeed very well indeed. The culture of the silk-worm was followed for a while with great success. The dearness of labor during the last twenty-five years has made it difficult to compete with European manufactm^es. The worm is freer from disease than in Europe, and on this account the eggs of the silk-Avorm are shipped in large quantities Irom San Francisco to Europe, where they give larger cocoons than native eggs. Bees suc- ceed in all cultivated regions ; wild swarms are numerous in the West. Do not try to bring European animals to America. You are likely to fail in the effort to get them over the water, and the native stocks will suit your purpose better. Some native silk-worms which feed upon the wild cherry have been reared experimentally, with success about Washington. The silk produced is of a coarse quality, and cannot be reeled from the cocoon, but has to be carded. 2. Wild. — Most of the large game of the country has been killed off. Deer are rare east of the Alferiianies ; in the Western States they abound at certain points. The other large-horned animals are not found out of the Indian country, except in a part of northern Maine where moose still exist. Bears are also (juite rare, being essentially limited to the States beyond the Mississippi and the Southern States. Beavers are about extinct in all the region east of the Mississippi. The birds differ little from those of Europe. Water-fowl are plentiful in their season in the level region of the Northwest. Partridges and quail (small birds related to pheasants) abound in the West and South- west. There being no laws for the protection of birds in most of the States, except against gunning at certain seasons, they are rapidly killed off. Wolves are almost unknown east of the Mississippi. The common bear is not dangerous ; the grizzly is not found out of the Rocky 30 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS Mountain region. Small animals like the minx and weasel abound in the frontier settlements, and are somewhat destructive to fowls. They soon become extirpated. Venomous serpents are found in small num- ber over nearly the whole country, but fatal accidents are rare, much rarer than deaths by lightning in Europe. AVhen bitten by any ser- pent with a blunt tail and rather sluggish movement, the wound should be burnt. A good plan is to make a cross-shaped cut through the wound, Avipe it, pour a little gunpowder upon it, and set it on fire. If on a limb, tie a tight bandage above the wound so as to stop the blood. Alchoholic stimulants are also very useful. Not one serpent in a hundred is dangerous. Insect plagues are not more frequent than in Europe. Except in Texas, there are none which can do serious injury to man by their sting or bite. There are no insects very injurious to stock Avhichare not found in Europe. The marine fishes of the United States on the eastern coast resem- ble those of Europe quite closely. The principal catch of school fishes is of mackerel and herrings. The ground fish of most value are the cod and the halibut. Salmon, once very plentiful on the whole coast, have been driven from most of the rivers ; efforts are now being made in the New England States to restore them to the streams by artificial breeding, with prospects of success. The shad, a fish related to the mackerel, but much larger, and counted the most valuable market fish all things considered, abounds in the streams from the Florida coast northward at certain seasons. The fresh-water fishes of the United States are not as varied as those of Europe. Trout abound in the mountain streams of the little settled regions. The fresh-water lakes of the Northwest are stocked with valuable edible fishes, but the settler can set little store by this resource. PLANTS. The timber trees of America resemble those of Europe in a general way. Pines, firs, larches, beeches, oaks, lindens, walnuts, poplars, maples, willows, etc., etc., abound in the regions of similar tempera- ture to those in Europe. All these forms of trees, however, are found in greater variety here than in the Old World ; several times as many different sorts of some forms as in Europe. There are also very fine kinds of trees, such as the tulip-trees, the sweet gums of the central region of the United States, the live-oaks and cypress of the Southern States, and the giant trees or sequoias which once, many thousand years ago, lived in Europe, but now have perished there. In New England, along the high lands of the Alleghanies, and over the sand plains of the Carolinas and Georgia, pines and other evergreen cone-bearing trees abound ; in the valley of the Ohio, oaks, maples, tulip-trees, walnuts, ash, sycamores, locusts, etc. West of the Ohio (State) line timber becomes scarcer. Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Iowa, Wisconsin, and all the region from two to five hundred miles east of the llocky Mountains count scarcity of timber among their most disadvantageous features. The want of timber is due to the spread of fires ; most trees do well on the prairie soil. The Robinia TO THE UNITED STATES. 31 pseudacacia or locust, one of the most beautiful and valuable trees, giving a timber Avhicli rots more slowly than any other, grows with such rapidity on the better sorts of prairie soil ihat in ten to twenty years it is ready for the market. As yet the want of timber in the West has been little felt. Nearly all the prairies have patches of woodland every few miles. Chestnuts will grow well except in the very coldest regions. Wal- nuts, the native and English kinds, flourish almost everywhere. Sugar is made in large quantities from the juice of the sugar-maple. In New England and New York many farmers find it a profitable crop. The southern pine, found in the Carolinas and Georgia, as Avell as in other States, though in less abundance, yields resin, tar, and tin*- pentine. The trees whose bark is useful in tanning, namely, the red oaks, the hemlock, and the sumacs, abound throughout the central and northern regions. The vegetation is a valuable indication of the quality of soil. As a general rule, the hard-wood trees which lose their leaves every year, indicate richer soil than the pines, firs, spruces, and hemlocks. In the valley of the Ohio, the best lands are those which have a varied tim- ber. Beech and walnut grow on good soils ; where the oaks predom- inate, the land is generally of a less' fertile character. The follov>'ing trees, being of quick growth, are valuable plants in those regions where "trees are not plenty : — Cotton-wood (Populus monUiferd), very rapid growth, wood good for many purposes, but not enduring. Locust {Robinia })iieudacacia), rapid growth, wood enduring, flowers very beautiful and sweet scented ; grass will grow beneath the trees. The black-walnut (Juglans nir/ra), rapid growth, beautiful tree, valuable wood, but not useful until the tree is at least thirty years old, except for commoner uses. Wood not fitted for out-door use. The wild fruits are much like those in Europe. Strawberries abound in the northeast region. Blueberries, huckleberries, and cranberries, fruits of heath-like plants, abound along the shore region, some ranging far Avest. Blackberries are found over nearly the Avhole country, and raspberries are common in the northern regions. Tavo wild American fruits are unlike any found in Europe. The papaAv, a tall shrub or small tree, groAvs to tAventy-five feet in height on good land, bearing a number of fruit, as large as small cucum- bers, Avith a rich custard-like interior. The persimmon, or date plum, groAvs in southern Ncav York and Illinois and to the soutliAvard ; a small, bushy tree, Avith fruit much like dates Avhen quite ripe. It grows on poor soil in Kentucky, Virginia, and some of the neigh- boring States. All European fruits, except those of the south, succeed avcH in the Northern States. Apples do Avell in the northernmost regions, and south to South Carolina and Mississippi ; peaches, from southern NcAv York and southern Illinois soutliAvard ; grapes, from Massachu- setts and Lake Erie to the Gulf. Plums groA\-, but are generally damaged by insects. POPULATION. Soon after the independence of the United States Avas established, 32 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS the census of 1790 showed a population of 3,929,827. Since then an enumeration has been made every ten years, with the following result : — 1800. 1810. 1820. 1830. 5,305,937 7,239,814 9,638,191 12,866,020 1840. 1850. 1860. . 1870. 17,069,453 23,191,876 31,445,080 38,530,500. The growth of a single State will illustrate the growth of the whole. In 1787, the country northwest of the Ohio River was ceded to the United States by the States which had previously claimed it ; in 1788, the first permanent settlement was made at Marietta; in 1799, the Northwestern Territory, including all this district, was organized ; and in 1803, Ohio was admitted into the Union. In 1800, the popu- lation of Ohio was 45,365 ; in 1810, 230,760 ; in 1820, 581,434 ; in 1830, 937,903; in 1840, 1,519,467; in 1850, 1,980,929; in 1860, 2,346,000 ; in 1870, 2,662,333. This is, to a considerable degree, the natural increase of a people occupying a new country, and extending their settlements without the obstacle of prior claims. But it is also due, and in large measure, to the immigration, chiefly from Europe, which began with the colo- nial, and has continued through the national period. In the half- century ending with 1870, it is computed that 7,400,000 immigrants arrived in the United States. Add to this great number the yet greater number of their children and grandchildren, and the result surpasses all historical parallels. As to the cause of this vast move- ment, Mr. Friedrich Kapp, late member of the Board of Commis- sioners of Immigration in New York, makes the following remarks in a paper prepared for the American Social Science Association : — " Why is this, and how can we explain this apparent anomaly ? However equal such inducements to immigrants as fertility of soil, salubrity of climate, security of property, and facility of communica- tion may be in different countries, the immigrant prefers the country where labor is best remunerated, where land is cheap, where govern- ment does not interfere with him, where no class privileges exist, and where, from the day of his landing, he stands on a footing of absolute equality with the natives. Thus we" find that, in this respect also, moral as well as physical causes control immigration. The first are as powerful, if not more powerful, than the latter. In the United States, both are at work in attracting immigrants, and hence there is a larger European immigration to this country than to any other on the face of the globe. " The secret of the unparalleled growth, and of the daily increasing power of the United States, is that the government, in its practical working, is confined to the narrowest limits, that it is the agent, not the master of the people, and that the latter initiate all changes in its political and social life. And similarly, it is the condition of the success of a colony or a settlement that the immigrant relies on his own strength, acts on his own responsibility, and seeks by his own efibrts the prosperity which he is sure to find, if undisturbed. All mistakes which he may make, all errors of judgment which he may TO THE UNITED STATES, 33 commit, are of no consequence, if his self-relying spirit is not inter- fered with. In spite of obstacles and disappointments, he will make his way, and ultimately attain his object." HISTORY. Columbus discovered America in 1492. Five years after, John Cabot, a Venetian in the service of England, reached the coast of North America. The next year, 1498, Sebastian Cabot,. in the same service, is supposed to have visited the coast of the present United States. From that time, for nearly three quarters of a century, no perma- nent settlement within the limits of the United States was made. In 1565, a Spanish colony founded St. Augustine in Florida. In 1607, an English colony Avas planted at Jamestown in Virginia. In 161.3, some Frenchmen established themselves for a time in Maine; and in the same year, the Dutch began their colony on Manhattan Island in Nev/ York. In 1638, a Swedish settlement was effected in DelaAvare'. From 1638 forward, the settlements of separate nations were grad- ually combined under one nation, the English, and organized as the Thirteen Colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Ncav York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania-, Delaware, Mary- land, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. Dur- ing the century and a quarter in Avhich the Thirteen Colonies ab- sorbed the possessions of other Europeans, and of the Indian tribes, wars were of frequent occurrence, and sometimes of terrible severity. "VVlien one of these was brought to a close, in 1763, the Colonies stood face to fice with the mother country, England ; and after twelve years of almost constant dispute, chiefly about the rin-ht of tlie latter to tax the former, the American Revolution began. The first blood was shed in 17 75. A Declaration of Independence was made by a Congi*ess, and thus the United States became a na- tion, July 4th, 1776. Led by George Washington, and sustained by their own self-control and self-sacrifice, the Americans fought out the war, and obtained the recognition of their indejicndence from Great Britain in 1783. The importance of this event was greatly increased by the imme- diate and successful efforts of the new nation to establish a govern- ment on a broad and lasting foundation. Trained by long years of industry and trial, and nurtured in the political principles which marked Great Britain as the leading constitutional state of Europe in the eighteenth century, the American people had acquired a de- votion to hiAv quite as strong as their devotion to liberty. Their town or municipal institutions were left unaltered by the Revolu- tion, and the colonial governments were easily altered into govern- ments for the States. But the formation of a government for the nation was a more difficult matter ; and the first experiment, made during the war in tlie Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union, proved a failure. Four years of peace followed, and then, in 1787, a convention asseml^lecl in the same hall in Philadelphia where the Declaration of Independence had been adopted, and 3 34 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS after nearly four montlis' session, agreed to a form of Constitution. This on being presented to Congress, the existing national authority, and by that body transmitted to the several States for accej3tance, was accepted in the course of the following year, and the spring of 1789 saw the new government, with Washington as President, fully inaugurated. The Constitution will be explained on the next page. Nearly a century has now elapsed since the iridependence of the United States was thus established. The national territory, at first confined to a comparatively narrow belt on the Atlantic coast, with unoccupied and undefined tracts in the interior, has since received immense additions. Louisiana (not the present State, but a vast region in the Southwest) was purchased from France in 1803. Flor- ida was purchased from Spain in 1819. Texas, formerly a part of Mexico, was annexed in 1845. Oregon was secured by treaty with Great Britain in 1848. New Mexico and California Avere conquered from Mexico in 1848, and Southern Arizona purchased from the same State in 1854, Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. Of the foreign affairs of the United States since 1789, the most important were the system of neutrality established under Washing- ton's administration ; a brief naval war with France, under John Adams, in 1798-99; a much more serious war Avith Great Britain, under James Madison's administration, in 1812, closed by the Treaty of Ghent in 1814; the declaration of the Monroe doctrine, so called from the President, Avhose annual message of 1823 declared against any attempt on the part of the European poAvers to extend their system to the Western hemisphere ; a Avar Avith Mexico, on account of Texas, under President Polk, from 1846 to 1848; and lastly, the difficulties not yet settled Avith Great Britain, respecting the course of that nation during the recent Avar for the Union. The domestic history of the United States is crowded Avith mo- mentous events, sometimes perilling the very existence of the na- tion. Great financial crises, especially in 1837 and 1857 ; political disturbances, amounting to positive insurrection in Pennsylvania against the national government (1794), and in Rhode Island against the State government (1842) ; harassing and often alarming con- flicts Avith the Indian tribes of the West and South, — these and other troubles interrupted the general prosperity. A far more bitter source of evil existed from the very beginning in slavery. It left its marks upon the Constitution. It generated jealousies and controversies Avithin the government and among the people. The strife became tAvofold : first, as to slavery itself, and second, as to nationality, or the national sovereignty. For the sup- porters of slavery Avere constantly driven to magnify the sovereignty (jf the States, as authorizing slavery, A\diile the opponents of slavery upheld Avith all the greater earnestness the sovereignty of the na- tion. Thus the conflict deepened and Avidened until it swept over all other questions, and made American politics a life and death struggle between freedom and slavery. It turned in 1820 upon the admission of Missouri, Avhere slavery was alloAved, though prohib- ited in the territory beyond, by Avliiat Avas called the Missouri Com- promise. In 1832, South Carolina developed a neAv phase of the controversy by making the tariff, or custom duties, the objects of TO THE UNITED STATES. 35 opposition, and declaring them null and void ; this was called nulli- fication. In 1850, another compromise in Congress effected a tem- porary settlement of subjects then in dispute. In 1854, the Missouri Compromise was repealed, and the territory formerly saved from slavery was given over to it, if the inhabitants so pleased. Then arose a fierce combat, in which blood was shed, resulting, after four or five years, in the admission of Kansas, a part of the territory in dispute, as a free State. The passions of more than half a century found vent at last, in the war which the Southern States began in the spring of 1861, with the purpose of separating themselves from the- nation. The nation sprang to arms, and poured out its best blood for four years in defence of the Union. During this conflict, slavery was abolished, first in the Dis- trict of Columbia and the Territories, by act of Congress, and second in the rebellious States, by proclamation of the President, Abraham Lincoln. It was finally abolished throughout the entire country by a constitutional amendment, December 18, 1865. Thus the nation tri- umphed, and its great curse fell, in one and the same year. The last five years have been occupied, so far as public history is concerned, with the reconstruction of the States lately in rebellion, and the gradual evolution of measures for regulating the finances, extend- ing the industries, and developing all the material interests of the country. Nor are the immaterial neglected. Education, literature, science and the arts, the pursuit of reforms and charities, are keeping pace with the other growths of the nation. govp:rxmext. The government of the United States is, 1. National; 2. State; 3. Municipal ; and 4. Territorial. 1. National. The general government, of which Washington is the seat, has a twofold character. First, it is federal, or in the nature of a league, because it recognizes the different States as parties to it; and second, it is national, or in the nature of a single sovereignty, because it de- clares itself to have been established by the people, and also because it acts directly upon the people. This composite character is not easily understood except through experience. But it must always stand at the head of any explanation of the United States Constitu- tion. The Constitution divides the national authority into three branches : executive, legislative, and Judicial. The executive power is placed in the hands of a President elected for four years, and capable of being reelected. The legislative is divided between two houses ; the upper, called the Senate, representing the States, with two members for each State, elected for six years ; the loAver, called the House of Representatives, rejn'csenting the people, with one mem- ber for so many thousand inhabitants, elected for two years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, and a Court of Claims, the judges being appointed by the President, and 36 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS confirmed by the Senate, to hold office during good behavior. A Vice-President, chosen for four years, presides over the Senate, and takes the place of the President in case of death or removal. To the President is attached a Cabinet, or nunistry, consisting of Secretaries of State, Treasury, Interior, War, Navy, an Attorney-General, and a Postmaster-General, who are appointed by himself, and confirmed by the Senate. To the different branches thus organized belong all the powers usually vested in a national government, but under certain restrictions unusual to other governments. These restrictions are of two classes, arising first, from the republican character of the government, and second, from its relations with the States. Of the first class are such provisions of the Constitution as are intended to secure the privilege of habeas corpus, the freedom of religion, speech, and the press, the right of the people to assemble, to petition, and to keep and bear arms, and many others. Of the second class are the provisions which oblige the United States to guarantee to every State a republican form of government, and reserve to the States respectively the powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution. 2. State. The State governments are organized, like the general government, in three branches, executive, legislative, and judicial. The first is in the hands of a Governor and other officers, chosen for terms of from one to four years ; the second, in a legishxture of two houses, whose members are chosen for terms of from one to four years for the Senate, and one to two years for the House of Representatives ; the third, in a judiciary, consisting of superior and inferior courts, whose judges are mostly elected by the people, to serve for terms of from four to fifteen years. In fifteen States the judges of the higher courts are appointed by tlie executive or the legislature, and hold their office either for a stated term or during good behavior. The first question with regaixl to the State governments relates to their function. To what do they correspond in the -European states ? The answer is, to nothing Avitli any degree of exactness, but if to any- thing, to the cantonal institutions of Switzerland. The States are republics, complete in organization* but incomplete in sovereignty. Their authority is not only purely domestic, but limited, even in that capacity, Ly the authority of the United States. They frame and execute laws, judge in civil and criminal cases, establish corpo- rations, levy taxes, and control the militia, except when it has been called into the service of the general government. Thus many of the daily concerns of a citizen are more immediately dependent upon the States than upon the United States ; and if the authority of the latter should ever be interrupted, that of the former would provide for at least his temporary protection or control. But the States have no national functions. They are expressly forbidden by the Consti- tution to enter into treaties, coin money, levy custom duties (without consent of Congress), keep troops or ships of war, or engage in war, unless in innninent danger, or deprive their own citizens, or those of other States, of their political rights. TO THE UNITED STATES. 37 3. Municipal. A large portion of local authority is ve?Led, as in Europe, in the cities or towns of the United States. But the precious privilege of self-government is infinitely more developed in the American repub- lic than in any other nation. It was the stronghold of the Colonies in their early history and in the crisis of their Jievolution, and it has been the stay and stalf of the nation in developing its political life through the last eighty years. Wherever, on the other hand, it has become corrupted, sutiering and shame have invariably ensued. Its organization in the larger towns follows the common forms. Each city has its executive in the office of Mayor ; its legislature in a Council composed of two boards, one generally called Aldermen, the other, Common Councilmen ; and its judiciary in various courts, usually styled Municipal or Police. Each town, not a city, commonly governs itself with the aid of a board, usually called Serectmen, who constitute an executive, while the legislative power resides in the townspeople, and the judicial is generally exercised by the courts of the State. 4. Territorial. Temporary governments are established in the Territories. A Governor, Secretary, and several Judges are appointed by the Presi- dent of the United States ; while other officers, executive and judicial, and a legislature of two houses, are chosen by the people. The leo-is- lative acts are subject to revision by Congress, in Avliich each Terri- tory is represented by a delegate, with the right to speak, but not to vote. AA'hen a Territory acquires about the number of inhabitants which entitles it to a member in the national House of Representa- tives, an enabling act, authorizing the formation of a constitution, is passed by Congress ; and when this instrument has been approved by the same body, another act admits the new State to the Union. ARMY AXD NAVY. These are organized on a small scale compared with that of Euro- pean states. The army numbers about 30,000 men, the navy about 8,000. Each force constitutes a nucleus for larger forces in time of war, when volunteers are called for to fill up regiments or crews to the required standard. NATUIIALIZATIOX. This means becoming a citizen of the United States. The manner of effecting it is laid down in several acts of Congress, to Avhich body the power of establishing a uniform rule of naturalization was given by the Constitution. An immigrant arriving under eighteen years of age, may be naturalized when he is twenty-one by making applica- tion at the proper court. If eighteen, or over, on landing, he must wait five years-, and two years or more before being naturalized, he must declare before a court his intention of becoming a citizen. The naturalizatiou of a parent carries with it that of a child; and shovild a parent declare his intention of being naturalized, but die before 38 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS carrying it into effect, his widow and children may be naturaUzed in his stead. A woman entitled to naturalization, and married to a citizen, is considered a citizen likewise. Any person naturalized has all the rio-hts of a native citizen, except that he cannot be elected President or Vice-President. Recent conventions with several European poAvers, Great Britain amono- them, have established the principle that a naturalized citizen of the United -States is free from all allegiance to his former government. Such is naturalization under the authority of the United States, but under that of many among the States the process is changed. In fact. State legislation -in numerous instances has put an end to naturalization under national legislation. The privileges of citizen- ship relating to property and suffrage are now generally acquired under the State governments. The following section of this part sketches the laws of property ; Parts III. and IV. give the constitu- tional i)rovisions of the several States with regard to suffrage. It may be stated here that persons under guardianship, paupers, and criminals are prohibited from voting throughout the country. Naturalization according to United States statutes is still requisite to establish a title to any purchase of public lands, as will be re- peated hereafter. LAWS OF PKOPERTY AFFECTING IMMIGRANTS. Formerly by common law an alien could not take lands by descent, or transmit them to others as his heirs. But the disability of alien- age is removed in whole or in part in most of the United States. The general rule as regards personal property is that aliens may obtain, hold, and transmit it in the same manner as citizens. The right to real estate by descent is governed by the several laAvs of the different States. The following States have virtually no disability for aliens to take, hold, or devise real estate : Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Florida, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Michigan, Wis- consin, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Nevada, California, and Oregon. The following have no disability, if a declaration of inten- tion to become citizens be made : Rhode Island, Delaware, Vir- ginia, South Carolina, Georgia, Texas, "Tennessee, and Arkansas. The following differ from the tAvo cases just laid down. New York has no disability to take and hold real estate, if inten- tion of becoming a citizen is declared, and an alien may during six years thereafter dispose of it in any way ; but he may not leave or devise such real estate until he be naturalized. North Carolina has no disability, if an alien take oath of allegiance ; but he shall not ob- tain by descent, and the estate in such case shall go to those who would inherit if there were no alien relatives. Alabama has much the same regulations ; if the heir is an alien, the next heir who is a citizen inherits. Kentucky has no disability for an alien, who has resided two years in the State, to take, hold, or transmit, whether he take by descent or in any Avay whatever. Vermont and Louisiana have no provisions upon the subject. Those States which have no disability to take, hold, and transmit TO THE UNITED STATES. 6\) real property would seem to have no disability to take by descent ; and those v.hieh have no disability i;pon the fulfilment of a condi- tion, as a declaration of intention to become citizens, haA^e no disa- bility to take by descent upon a similar notice. Of those which differ from those two conditions, New York, Xorth Carolina, and Alabama allow no aliens to take by descent. Kentucky allows acquisition by descent after two years' residence. Those States Avhich have no provision upon the subject allow no acquisition by descent, because they follow the common law. EXEMPTION OF PROPERTY FROM SEIZURE FOR DEBT. By United States Law, " There shall be exempt from execution necessary household and kitchen furniture, and such other necessaries as the assignee shall designate, not exceeding five hundred dollars. Also the Avearing appanel of bankrupt, and that of his wife and chil- dren, the uniform and arms of any person who is or has been a sol- dier in the militia or service of* the United States, and also such property, not included in the foregoing exceptions, as is exempted by the laAvs of the State in which bankrupt has his domicile at the time of commencement of the proceedings in bankruptcy." The articles most generally exempted by the State statutes (though the same articles are not common to all the States) seem to be wear- ing apparel ; beds (for every tAvo persons, and in some cases one or two beds in family of Avhatever size) ; household furniture, not usually exceeding $250 in value, though in one State, Kansas, reaching as high as $500 ; tools, books, and other implements necessary for a man's trade or profession ; live stock, one to five cows ; in some States from six to ten sheep, one yoke of oxen, and what is necessary for a limited agricultural business' in the Avay of carts and other im- plements ; a limited amount of fodder for cattle ; food for family sufficient to keep them from immediate suffering. These are by no means all the articles exempted in the several States, but they suffice to show the classes of articles Avith regard to Avhich the stat- utes of some States are more liberal than those of others. . In more than half of the States the homestead of the debtor, of a certain quantity or value, is exempt from execution. The value assigned differs^ much in the several States, though from $500 to $1,500 Avould perhaps cover the most common values as fixed by statute. In Texas, two hundred acres of land, or, if in a city, land to the value of $2,000. The person of the debtor is not liable to imprisonment in any part of the United States. LAWS OF INHERITANCE. AMien a person dies seised, or OAvner, of real estate without devis- ing the same, it descends hi the folloAying manner: in equal shares to his children, and to the issue of any deceased child in shares equal to Avhat the parent, if living, Avould have been entitled to. In case of failure of lineal descendants, the estate goes to the next of kin. These rules are common to all the States, but they are subject to 40 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS the right of dower for the wife, which consists of a right for life to one third part of all the real estate of the husband, in all the States except West Virginia, Louisiana, Texas, Indiana, Nevada, and Cali-' fornia, in which there is no right of dower. In the foUoAving States dower exists only in what the husband dies seised or owner of : New Hampshire, Vermont, Connecticut, Georgia, Florida, and Mississippi. In the States first mentioned, if the husband dies intestate, the wife receives either one third (as in Texas), or, what is most common, a child's share of the estate. In Nevada and California the wife takes one half of the common property. In Pennsylvania the wife takes one third of the estate remaining after payment of debts, and half if the husband die without issue ; if there be no heir, she takes the whole absolutely. In case of a will and no provision for the wife, she can have no interest in the real estate in these States. These rules are also subject in almost all of the States to the right of curtesy for the husband, in case of the death of a married woman intestate. This consists of a right to all the real estate of which the wife died owner, during the husband's life, provided they have issue. In Indiana, Michigan, Iowa, Kansas, Nevada, California, and Daco- tah, this right is abolished. In South Carolina the husband takes only a part, generally a child's shar£ if there be issue, and half, if there be none ; but what he takes, he takes to himself and heirs. In Georgia the husband takes absolute estate in all the wife's real and personal property. In Ohio and Oregon the right is given, even if there be no issue. The rules in Louisiana amount to^ much the same. In Nevada and California the husband takes the whole of common property of both on death of wife. In Kansas the husband takes one half, if there be issue, and all, in fee, if there be none. In Iowa it is provided that the husband shall have the same right in the estate of his wife that she would have in his by dower. In the United States generally, the following facts as regards inheritance are to be noticed, namely : 1. The preference is given to males. 2. The right of primogeniture does not exist, but all chil- dren inherit equally. 3. Posthumous children inherit, in all cases, as if they had been born in lifetime of intestate. Personal property, in case of intestacy, goes, in almost all the States, to those who are heirs to the real estate, subject, however, to restriction in favor of widows and widowers. When a man dies intestate and leaves no issue, the wife usually has one half of the per- sonal property, and the residue goes to next of kin ; if there be issue, the wife has in some States one third, which is the most common portion, or in others a child's share. RIGHTS OF PROPERTY BELONGING TO MARRIED WOMEN. In almost all of the United States the separate property of the wife is recognized. Delaware, Virginia, and Georgia seem to be principal exceptions to this rule. But in all the other • States the separate property of a married woman is exempt from her husband's debts, and this is true of both real and personal property. In Texas, Nevada, and California, all the property a woman has before marriage remains her separate property, while all she n^.ay TO THE UNITED STATES. 41 acquire after is held in common with her husband. The husband manages both common and separate property, and conveyance of separate property is made by joint deed. The rules in Louisiana amount to much the same. A married woman may not convey her separate real estate except in a joint deed with her husband, as a general rule ; but in Maine, New York, Illinois, Kentucky, Wisconsin, Iowa, IMinnesota, and Kansas, she may convey alone. In general, with regard to conveyance by joint deed, the wife is examined in private by an otHcer of the State, in which examination she shows that the conveyance is made with her free will, and that there is no compulsion. In most of the States a married woman may devise by will her real and personal property, but this power is limited in a few of the States by statute, providing that no will shall be made by a married woman to the injury of the husband's right of curtesy in her real estate, and his right to a certain share in her personal property. In New Jersey a married woman can make no will of her real estate, but may of her personal. This is the case also in Virginia. In North Carolina, no married Avoman can make will unless allowed by deed of husband. Pennsylvania, Maryland, Arkansas, Missouri, Michigan, Minnesota, Kansas, and Nebraska are among those States which require consent of husband to give validity to a married woman's will. EDUCATION. The Bureau of Education connected with the Department of the Interior of the national government is not charged with the founda- tion or management of educational institutions. Its proper function is to collect and distribute information on all matters relating to edu- cation. The only schools under the control of the United States govern- ment are those in the District of Columbia, the Military Academy at West Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. The general government has borne an indirect part in establish- ing and extending schools throughout the country, by making large grants of public land to be used by the State governments for pur- poses of education. To each of the States organized since 1 785, the sixteenth section of each township, and to each of the States organized since 1859 (ex- cept West Virginia, Avhich contained no public land), the thu'ty-sixth section also of each township, have been reserved by the general government for the support of common schools. The State and municii)al governments are the patrons, so to speak, of the common school system. Most of the States have a board of education, with a secretary or general superintendent ; and a large number have county superintendents, one for each county. Most of the cities have a board, or committee and a superintendent, while the smaller towns generally have committees or trustees, but no superintendents. The schools themselves are usually graded, or classified, beginning with primary schools for the youngest pupils and advancing as grammar, high, and in many States agricultural and 42 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS industrial. Free colleges of a literary or scientific character are es- tablished in a few places. Normal schools, for the training of teach- ers, are found almost everywhere. A movement of great interest, in an industrial as well as educa- tional point of view, has been begun in several quarters, by the es- tablishment of drawing-schools especially designed for the working classes. The Massachusetts legislature of 1870 authorized every city and town of more than 10,000 inhabitants to make provision for free instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing to persons over fifteen years of age, either in day or evening schools. An evening school of this character in Boston numbers 500 pupils, with applica- tions for admission from half as many more. Evening schools for instruction in the same branches as are taught in the day schools have been opened in many cities to persons too busy or too old to attend the latter. To all in attendance, children or adults, day or evening pupils, the schools established by State or municipal authority are almost uni- versally free. In some districts, however, pupils are expected, if able, to pay a small rate for instruction. The support of the schools comes almost wholly from the treasury of the State or town ; chiefly from taxation, but partly from funds set apart for the purpose. An Education Fund for the benefit of schools in the Southern States was recently established by the late George Peabody. Private schools of every grade abound throughout the more pros- perous States. The higher institutions, whether literary, scientific, or professional, are generally of private foundation. Even if aided by the local government, they are free from all but nominal control on the part of the government, and occupy a much more independent posi- tion than that of most similar institutions in Europe. In all or nearly all of them, provision is made for students unable to pay the expenses of instruction. As might be expected, the utmost variety in quantity and quality exists among the educational institutions of the different States. The stranger Avho seeks a good school for his children cannot be too careful in his inquiries before establishing himself in his new home. If he is from some parts of Europe, Sweden or Prussia, for instance, he will find a much less general attendance at the American schools ; for there is no compulsory system, except in laws as yet unexecuted. Factory acts, as they are called, have been passed in the six New P^ngland States, in order to prevent the employment of young chil- dren in manufactories, unless they have previously attended school. Massachusetts and Pennsylvania require a child so employed to attend school for a part of the year. The Amei'ican school-houses, at least in the cities, are much superior to those of Europe ; but the work done in them, especially in freshly settled districts, is far otherwise, and the new-comer, if from such a country as Prussia, must be prepared for disappointment, should he desire his children to be well educated. Yet there is no reason why he should not succeed, with the aid of others like him- self, in improving the schools of liis neighborhood. They are his, from the moment of his settlement, as much as anybody's, and he TO THE UNITED STATES. 43 need fear no censure or hindrance from any government in an honest effort to increase their efficiency. The general tendency is in the right direction, and every year witnesses the removal of some defect or the introduction of some improvement in the schools. The foUoAving table of School Statistics, compiled from the most recent infoi-mation, is taken from the last Report of the Commissioner of Education. Alabama Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia niinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada N. Hampshire New Jersey New York No. Carolina Ohio Orejjon Pennsylvania Rhode" Island So. Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Virpinia W. Virginia Wisconsin School Popula- tion. 1800 18ti9 ISG!) 1870 1870 1S70 18(!8 1870 1870 i8(;'j 1870 1870 1870 l8t)!) 1809 I8(i9 1870 1870 1S70 1870 18(WI 1870 1870 1.S70 1809 •1870 1S(!9 1870 1809 1870 1 1809 180!) 1809 5-21 .>-2l 5-15 4-10 5-21 4-21 G-21 (5-21 5-21 .5-21 0-20 0-21 4-21 5-20 5-15 5-20 5-21 5-21 5-21 5-21 0-18 4-21 5-18 5-21 (y-2l 5-21 4-20 G-21 (t) 5-18 0-20 0-18 4-18 5-21 6-21 4-20 *f«0,000 180,000 112,753 125,407 41,900 83.3,130 619,590 418,168 92,517 370,808 254,533 228,167 182,205 ] 271,052 ! 374,774 144,414 584T02O 32,619 .3,778 75,505 2.58,227 l,46.i,299 .342,1<;8 1,028,877 975,7.=i3 56,934 168,819 410,000 76,759 ■160,000 100,000 73,754 105,313 7,575 706,780 462,527 200,138 58,681 160,446 50,000 12«).946 99,315 247,080 269,587 102,080 249,729 i:!,893 2,028 .".2,19(t 101,6.S3 998,004 ■19.:!(>2 740,;-i82 29,477 15,918 '185.845 59,028 264,0:33 60,000 49,802 04,707 269,766 281,912 178,329 .31,124 112,030 40,000 100,815 203,408 242,029 45,497 1 ,.S82 4.-., 755 78,612 408,421 3 1,81 -J 434,805 555,941 23,857 55,744 30,6S4 o2 3,804 2,.5O0 1,.3.M 1,647 "250 10,500 8,S01 0,78S 1,707 4,209 483 4,004 4,903 5,052 2,521 7,000 782 45 2,528 1,4,>S 11.750 1,398 11,714 14,211 (!.50 ;«i 2,308 4,735 al2 5 months 8 mos. 3 days 3 months 7 mos. 3 days 3 mos. 7 days 6 mos. 6 days 5 montlis 5 months 4 mos. 11 days 4 mos. 20 dayi 10 months 5 mos. 6 days 6 mos. 3 days 4 mos. 6 days 3 months 8 mos. 2 days 3 mos. 15 dayi 8 mos. 14 days 8 mos. 4 days 3 months 7 mos. 15 days 6 mos. 1 day 8 months No. of Teaehcn Public School 151 days 1 1,.300 700 7:>0 VKJl 679 2,134 — — 8.240 10,797 7,104 4,722 4,479 V,515 896 263 150 475 1,981 4,020 1,0.58 7,048 2,354 7,895 1,155 2,620 4,615 2,.531 •^il 260 19 30 624 3,1.57 915 1,905 6.230 22,080 l,o;i0 385 9,171 12,455 7,4.38 10,174 173 500 2.55 273 2.000 1,087 2,813 7,146 521 55 3,781 2,820 28,310 1,415 21.626 17^12 673 528 2,283 8,795 The following table of School Expenditure per capita of the School Population is also taken from the Keport of the Commissioner of Education. As Nevada has very few children of school age, Massa- chusetts is virtually at the head of the list. Nevada S10.17 Iowa Massachusetts . 16.45 New York California . 11.4t A'ermont Connecticut . . 10.29 Kansas Pennsvlvania 7.86 Ohio . Illinois . 7.83 Michigan $7.21 6.83 6.47 6.45 6.43 6.40 * Estimated. t No person excluded from school : enumeratioD under 15 years. truant age, 6 to 16; school mt illstributed on basis of the 44 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS New Jersey $6.38 Delaware $2.70 Rhode Island . 6.20 Missouri . 2.65 Minnesota . 5.71 Nebraska 2.65 Wisconsin 4.98 Indiana . 2.37 Maine 4.78 Alabama 1.49 Maryland . 4.50 Tennessee .91 New Hampshire . 4.46 Florida . ... .91 Arkansas 3.97 Kentucky . .60 Louisiana . 2.84 North Carohna .48 Agricultural and Scientific Schools are reported as 26 in number, with 144 teachers and 1,413 students. Industrial Schools, especially devoted to the mechanic arts, are very few, but increasing. In these institutions, the immigrant will probably be most interested, next after the common schools. From the latter he will obtain general training ; from the former, special. Technical, Agricultural, Manufac- turing, and Commercial education is given with more or less efficiency, and the tendency to improvement in its methods and results is very marked. RELIGION. The Constitution of the United States provides that " Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohib- iting the free exercise thereof," and that " no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States." The same principle is recognized in almost all the State constitu tions ; and wherever any exception appears, it is a dead letter. Church and state are thus entirely separate. Religious organiza- tions and creeds arc all purely voluntary. No man is obliged to belong to, or to abandon any society, or to accept or reject any doc- trine, in the name of religion. The proportion of Roman Catholics to Protestants is estimated as one to five or six. Of the Protestant denominations, the largest is the Methodist, and next to this the Baptist. The other leading bodies are the Congregationalists, the Lutherans, and the Presbyte- rians. But whatever the religious faith of an individual may be, he is almost sure of finding fellow-believers in .one part of the country or another. On this head it will always be easy to obtain local infor- mation. CHARACTER OF THE PEOPLE. Many of those who use this volume want to hear something about the character of the Americans. " It is well," they may say, " to be acquainted with the country, the history, and the institutions of the United States, but it is not enough. What sort of a people is to be found there ? Who are to be our neighbors if we dwell among them ? Will they help us, or hinder us, in finding a happy home ? " These are very important questions, and if they could be answered fully, no better service could be rendered to our readers. Nor will it be use- less to ansAver them in part. The American character, generally speaking, is such as might be TO THE UNITED STATES. 45 expected from the statements in the previous pages. This vast and open territory, this growth and historic experience, these liberal forms of government, these beneficent laws, have exerted their natvi- ral influence, and the people possessing them are also, one may say, possessed by them, that isf, affected by them, both outwardly and in- wardly. The tact that the people has been composed of many races, with the utmost variety of habits and characteristics, has likewise borne its fruits. The Americans are neither Celts nor Teutons, nei- ther English nor L^ish, neither German nor Swedish, but a nation made up of all of these, and of many others besides them. First and foremost among the traits of the national character is independence. The American is born free, he lives free, and he dies free. His government regards him not as a subject, but as a citizen. His laws treat him as equal wdth everybody about him. His superiors, if he has any in one sense, whether rulers or employers, are not en- couraged by him or by public opinion to regard him as an inferior. The whole spirit of this society is in favor of personal independence. If sometimes pushed too far, if sometimes changed into coarseness or lawlessness, it has worked good in far greater proportion than evil. But the ncAv-comer ought to be on his guard against claiming any excess of it, indeed, against claiming it all, until he understands it. He will find it conceded to him without any claim. Few if any native Americans are now disposed to assert superiority over a for- eigner as such, and none making the assertion are sustained in it by the temper of the people at large. Next in prominence is the mobility of the Americans. All phys- ical influences, particularly those of territory and of origin, favor it, and render this nation quicker than any other to adapt themselves to new circumstances and new interests. Their frequent changes of residence and occupation are proverbial. Sons seldom live in their fathers' houses, and very few men die in the house Avhere they were born. A large number of every industrial class, instead of confining themselves to it, pass into another, and engage in new callings, for which they think they can fit themselves Avithout any special difficulty. This disposition makes life comparatively easy for the immigrant. He is not more on the wing than many of them ; and instead of being regarded with doubt because he is changing his abode, he rather gets credit for his enterprise. He finds them all the more ready to be approached, all the more hospitable and frank in their relations with him, freer from anything like exclusiveness or caste. The character of' the Americans in an industrial point of view^ is especially interesting to an immigrant. He will be satisfied with them, as a general rule, whether they are his employers or his fellow- laborers. Labor is respected, skilled labor very highly respected, among them. They are disposed to avoid merely manual labor, not as labor, but as manual, the lowest grade of work. They like higher grades, and it is good for those who come among them as well as for themselves that "they do, because it promotes a generally upward tendency among the industrial classes. An American strives a little too earnestly, however, not to be subordinate as a business or labor- ing man, and his ambition for rapid success is often fatal. As ^ an employer of labor, he is usually faithful and punctual in his duties, 46 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS and they who work for him seldom complain. As a fellow-laborer, he is not always considerate or kind towards a stranger from whom, as a competitor, he thinks he suffers, and wdio must be made to suffer from him in return. But these cases are happily exceptional. There is perhaps stronger reason for warriing the immigrant against the rather increasing readiness of the American operative to join in those industrial organizations which serve only to widen the breach between him and the capitalist, and to heighten the difficulties of his toil. The Americans are uncommonly intelligent. Their minds are not given to abstract thought, nor are they to be called a. philosophical or imaginative race. But in practical matters, in dealing with men and things as they are, surmounting obstacles, and working out results, they show a wonderful smartness, another word for ingenuity. It wins the better name of inventiveness when applied to the numer- ous fabrics and machines of American origin. Perhaps the chief intellectual distinction of the people is that of inventors. The best ideas in the machinery at the Paris Exposition of 1867 were said to be American. The moral qualities of the Americans are not striking, but gener- ally sound. They are a good-natured people, and treat one another, and the stranger likewise, kindly. Fairness and honesty prevail among them. Discipline is rather weak, but more in private than in public. They respect their institutions, and deserve to be called a law-abiding people. Their homes are usually well ordered, and the domestic virtues are above, not below, the average among European nations. The Americans Avere once distinguished for their strictness ; they are now often remarked upon for being too fond of amusement, and too ready to break through a wise restraint. But the change is only to that degree which is inseparable from great expansion. Im- morality is certainly not the rule, but the exception, and the great body of the people cherish the principles of their fathers. The im- migrant Avho wishes to do right will not be obstructed by those around him. This is an account of the national character merely as a whole. Different sections, different pursuits, bring about dilferent results ; and what is true of one neighborhood, is not always true of another. The inhabitants of some districts, particular!}^ those not yet really settled, or those not yet relieved from the effects of slavery, are marked by a decidedly lower tone, both morally and intellectually. The stranger must make especial inquiries, if he thinks of establishing himself in any such community, and cares whether its character be good or bad. INDUSTRY. The reader will find in Parts III. and IV. specific mention of the industries prevailing in the different parts of the United States. A few general statements will be made here. 1. Agriculture. The crops of 1869 above $100,000,000 in value are reported as follows : — TO THE UNITED STATES. 47 Indian corn . . . 874,320,000 bushels. $658,532,700 Hay .... 26,420,000 tons. 337,662,600 Cotton . . . 3,000,000 bales. 303,600,000 Wheat .... 260,146,900 bushels. 244,924,120 Oats . . . . • 288,334,000 " 137,347,900 Whether dairy products belong to agriculture more than to manu- factures maybe a doubtful point, particularly since the establishment of the factory system in making cheese. But there can be no harm in stating under the present head that the value of butter produced in 1869 is estimated to have been nearly $210,000,000. That of cheese was about $36,000,000. All these are enormous figures, and suggest ideas partly accurate, and partly inaccurate. They show with sufhcient correctness the proportions of the different crops, how corn ranks first, and hay second, throughout the country. But they give an incorrect impres- sion of the relative value of agricultural products. If this be deter- mined by the yield per acre, tobacco (total product, $32,000,000) stands at the head of the crops; potatoes ($71,650,000) second, cotton third, hay fifth, corn sixth, oats eighth, and Avheat tenth. The condition of agriculture in the United States is not what might be desired. AVith admirable soil, admirable machinery, in inventing and employing which the Americans have distinguished themselves, the yield per acre is generally on the decrease. The trouble is the want of proper method. The art of agriculture is imperfectly known and yet more imperfectly practiced. Agricul- tural colleges are numerous, agricultural societies abound, agricultural publications are active, yet the agricultural system is full of defi- ciencies. A department, under a commissioner, has been recently established at Washington, for the purpose of diffusing useful information on subjects connected with agriculture. A museum and garden are connected with the department, and plants or seeds, received from abroad or from different points at home, are transmitted to the dit- ferent agricultural centres. Of one thing the immigrant may be sure, as stated before, that he will find agricultural employment if he seeks it. It is more plentiful in some sections than in others, and in the new Western States above all, but it is to be found almost everywhere. Unskilled labor is in demand through the country ; skilled, in the new districts where the cereals are grown, or where the vegetables and fruits required by the cities are supplied. A later part of the Handbook describes the manner of obtaining a farm from the public domain. '' Almost all the farmers with whom I came in contact," says a practical Scotch farmer, in describing some of the Western States, " seem to have settled down with little or no means. Some bought land who had' no more money than would pay the first instalment on it, and had to work for others to make money to pay the other instalments as they came due. They were able in this way in the course of a few years to settle down and cultivate. AVhen farms are rented — which is often done — the system adopted is the following, namely : If the tenant is not able to provide stock, implements, and seed, the proprie- 48 HANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS tor supplies him with all those, and in such a case allows him one third of the grain crops. Another system is common. If the tenant can provide himself Avith stock, implements, and seed, he gets one half of all the grain crops. In this way many a man works himself into a farm of his own. The regular rate for borrowed money is ten per cent., but even at this high rate it usually pays a farmer well,- and there is every facility given to a respectable and industrious man. There are often cultivated farms in the market for sale, but one wishing to buy such a farm would require to be always present wait- ing a chance. The farmers east often sell out and go further west, where they can get land cheaper and as good ; many of them make a trade of breaking up farms and selling them. This is an easy way of getting settled down on a farm if one has sufficient means to spare. But in buying a second-hand farm, one should be careful to see that it be not mortgaged. This can, with very little cost, be ascertained at the record office of the county in which the land is situated." 2. Manufactures. The name of manufacturing is very commonly limited to employ- ment in factories, upon linen, silk, cotton, woollen, and worsted goods, and to the work done in iron mills. These employments require the lai'gest amount of machinery and the least amount of labor. There are a few hemp, jute, and linen factories in the Northern States for making piece goods, and many small bagging factories in the Middle States ; but line linen piece goods are not made at all. Operatives in these branches cannot depend upon finding employ- ment, unless sent for by factory owners. Silk piece goods are made in one or tAvo places only, but are not yet fairly established. Most of the sewing silk used in the country is made in Connecticut and New Jersey. There are over 7,000,000 cotton spindles in the United States, mostly in Ncav England and Pennsylvania. A few factories are to be found in New York, and a few in the Southern States. There is generally a full supply of carders and spinners, but good weavers can almost always find employment if willing to adapt themselves to the hours of work, Avhich are generally eleven hours a day, and to the monthly in place of Aveekly payment of Avages. Good weavers (female) can generally earn one dollar a day in currency, equal to three shillings and ninepence English money, working four looms on common printers. Very skilful weavers can earn from four to six shillings a day. Board in factory toAvns costs $2.50 to $2.75 per Aveek for Avomen, and for men $3 to $3.50. The food furnished is abundant and good ; meat or fish and tea and coffee are served every day. Cheese and beer much less used than in England. Woollen cloths, cassimeres, and other piece goods are made in quantity nearly sufficient for home consumption, as are caypets also. The Avoollen mills, Avhich contain in all about 6,000 sets of cards, are to be found chiefly in Ncav England, but are quite numerous in some of the Western States. The business has been much depressed since the Avar, but is noAv recovering. Skilful Aveavers would be very sure to find work, but operatives avIio depend entirely upon carding TO THE UNITED STATES. 49 or spinnino; should not come unless they have work secured before leaving. Weavers earn from one to two dollars a day, according to their skill. Board the same as in cotton mills. Woollen worsted fabrics are but little made as yet ; such mills as have begun the manufacture are chiefly in New England. Pig-iron has been mostly produced in Pennsylvania, New York, and Ohio, but is now being made in large quantity in Michio-an, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, and Tennessee. Immense deposits of excellent bituminous coal exist throughout the Western and Middle States, and the supply of iron ore is unlimited. The ore and coal are generally found near or upon the surface, are easily worked, and are in very many cases in the midst of the best farming country. Railroads are already constructed to the extent of nearly 50,000 miles, and over 5,000 miles of new railroads are now being built. Rolling mills must therefore be generally well employed, as it would be impossible to get the full supply of rails, except they were made at home. Wages in iron-works are much higher than in Europe, after making all allowances for the greater cost of living in the United States ; sober, industrious men can hardly fail of good employment, if Avell skilled in their work. The manufacture of boots and shoes, and of ready-made clothing, fives employment to nearly as many, if not more persons in New Ingland than are employed in all the cotton and woollen mills of that section ; and in these employments good workmen and women are very sure of steady work and fair Avages ; poor or unskilful workmen and poor sewing women are always too numerous. The manufactures thus far named are the most prominent, and are usually considered the most important ; yet they really constitute but a small part of the true manufactures of the country. Other branches are much more diffused ; but not being conducted in large factories, they attract less attention. These other branches are on the whole much better paid, so far as the working people are concerned, and may be considered most valuable to the country, as they form a part of the industry of every community, however small. Industrious and sober men may be sure of good employment in the following branches of manufacturing, and women in some of them. Wood-workers, such as cabinet-makers, wheelwrights, car and carriage builders, and carpenters, are needed everywhere. Iron and steel workers, such as stove-makers, hollow-ware moulders, machinists, cutlers, engine-builders, and the like, are always in demand. So are workers in leather, curriers, tanners, bookbinders, harness-makers, etc., etc. The manufacture of agricultural tools and implements gives em- ployment to a very large and constantly increasing force of highly paid mechanics in the Eastern and Western States, and will presently be equally important at the South. It may here be said that since the abolition of slavery in the South- ern States, an urgent demand has been felt for mechanics and artisans of every kind, but it is not yet easy to give specific directions as to the best places wherein to settle. As a final illustration of the importance of some branches of manufacture seldom heard of as such, it may be said that it has been 4 60 UANDBOOK FOR IMMIGRANTS well established as a fact that the cost of the butter actually con- sumed in the United States is nearly as great as the cost of the wheat ; and as the wheat crop is known to exceed $200,000,000 in value, it follows that butter is one of the most important manufactures, while cheese is one of the most important articles of export. Those immigrants may be certain of success who are skilful in the branches of manufacture not done in large factories, but which, as we have stated, form a portion of the industry even of those communities which seem to be almost entirely engaged in farming. They can follow their trades and at the same time own a farm, either under the Homestead Act or by purchase in the more thickly settled places. 3. Commerce. The physical formation of the United States exhibits remarkable opportunities for both foreign and inland commerce. Tables of tonnage, that is, of vessels according to their measure- ment in tons, show the number of vessels on the lakes and rivers to bear a very important proportion to that of vessels on the seas. In fact, the increase of inland commerce is far more marked, in late years, than that of foreign, as will appear from some statements to be made in this section. The great ports of foreign commerce are New York on the Atlan- tic, New Orleans on the Mississippi, or virtually on the Gulf of Mexico, and San Francisco on the Pacific. Buffalo, Cleveland, Chi- cago, and Milwaukee are among the great lake ports ; Cincinnati and St. Louis, among the river ports. At all these, and at many other ports concerning which informa- tion is given in Part III., the immigrant who seeks commercial em- ployment, whether in ship-building or navigation, in loading and unloading vessels, storing or transporting merchandise, will find it without difficulty. The fisheries, if included under this head, constitute a large ele- ment of American enterprise. They were objects of attention from the beginning of European colonization ; and a cargo of fish, cured with salt made by the colonists, was among the first shipments from Massachusetts to England. Between 80,000 and 90,000 tons of shipping are now employed in the cod and mackerel fisheries, and over 70,000 tons in the whale fisheries. Ship-owning and ship-building are at present very much depressed. Vessels built in 1869 1870 .... Almost all these were built for the domestic trade along the sea- coasts, and on the lakes, rivers, and canals. Compared with the reports of previous years, the figures of the last two are small, and show a striking exception to the general growth of industry in the United States. The explanation, if desired, may be given as follows. Primarily, the cause of the decline is to be found in the late civil war, and the '^umher. I onnage. 1,726 275,230 1,489 290,189 ro THE UNITED STATES. 51 lV ^VJ|\K ♦ aV •*>(, . ^liS ♦ «? FLA . r^f- "Kd^ 'o.T* .^ <. *?XT* ,0^ ^>^^.-Sv -^^^ .^