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ELEMENTARY COURSE 
 
 IN 
 
 WOODWORK 
 
 DESIGNED FOR USE IN HIGH 
 
 AND TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 / 
 
 WITH 
 
 ONE HUNDRED AND THIRTY-FOUR ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE ALEXANDER ROSS 
 
 INSTRUCTOR IN 
 
 WOODWORK AND PATTERNMAKING 
 LEWIS INSTITUTE, CHICAGO 
 
 J 3 i 1 1 1 > 
 
 • > < ) 
 
 > > y 
 
 i > > > j J j ) j 
 
 » o*° 
 
 > J 
 
 FIRST EDITION 
 
 O j ' o 
 
 A. FLANAGAN COMPANY 
 
 CHICAGO :: NEW YOKK 
 

 THE LIBRARY OF 
 CONGRESS, 
 
 Two Copies Received 
 
 JUL 19 1901 
 
 Copyright entry . 
 
 SLA] 19,/yc! 
 CLASS <3-XXc n*. 
 
 COPY B. 
 
 Copyright, 1901 
 
 BY 
 
 A. Flanagan Company 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The character and object of this book is set forth on its title 
 page. It is a manual designed principally for the practical 
 assistance of students in elementary woodwork in the Lewis In- 
 stitute. 
 
 The author has endeavored to present the subject in such a 
 manner as to make simple the transition from the easier to the 
 more difficult operations; the exercises have been selected after 
 having had a . thorough test covering a period of three years, 
 and will be found practical in their application to the students 
 in High and Technical Schools in elementary woodwork and 
 turning. 
 
 Part one, the bench work, is intended to cover a period of 
 eight weeks, two hours per day, and part two, wood turning, 
 four weeks, two hours per day, thus making a course which will 
 be found to touch the principal points in elementary work, at 
 the same time giving practice in the uses of the tools most com- 
 monly used in carpentry, joinery and wood-turning. Disston 
 & Sons' Handbook for Lumbermen has furnished many of the 
 facts presented under "Care of Saws. 1 ' 
 
 It has been the author's aim in this course to give just enough 
 instruction in the work so that the student might be led to 
 study out the problems for himself; by this means he is able to 
 study the course of work that follows the second part of this 
 book, i. e., Pattern Making. 
 
 A cursory perusal of the work will disclose many features 
 which the author feels sure will commend themselves to in- 
 structors and others interested in this department of school 
 work, and with the hope that theae pages may prove a valuable 
 aid to students and teachers alike, this work is presented to the 
 
 public. 
 
 George A. Ross. 
 Lewis Institute, Chicago, 1901. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Care of Saws and Equipment .... 7 
 
 Exercise in Sawing and Planing .... 21 
 
 The Halved Joint ...... 47 
 
 The Mortise and Tenon Joint .... 51 
 
 Keyed Mortise and Tenon with Brace . . 57 
 Exercise with the Bench, Bead, Rabbet, and Mold- 
 ing Planes ......... 62 
 
 Blind Mortises and Tenons with Beading and Rab- 
 beting ........ 66 
 
 Dovetail Corner Joint (Common) .... 71 
 
 Glass Panel Door Frame ..... 79 
 
 Bench Hook. Use of Shellac .... 87 
 
 Box with Sliding Top ... . 89 
 
 Problem in Truss Work ..... 94 
 
 Problem in Stair Building .... 100 
 
 Problem in Stair Railing ..... 106 
 
 To Prepare Shellac ...... 114 
 
 To Prepare Glue and How to Use It . . . 115 
 
 To True Oil Stones 116 
 
CARE OF SAWS, AND EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Elementary woodwork can be more readily learned 
 from small pieces of wood than from large; so the exer- 
 cises that are here given are of such dimensions that 
 they can be easily handled in working out the prob- 
 lems. 
 
 Since it is by what we study and learn that we are 
 able to do something else, the student in beginning 
 this work should thoroughly familiarize himself with 
 the tools, their names and uses, so that he may more 
 readily understand their application in the work that 
 follows. 
 
 The equipment for the general use of students in 
 each bench locker is as follows: 
 
 1 20-inch Rip-Saw. 
 
 1 20-inch Cross-Cut Saw. 
 
 1 10-inch Back-Saw. 
 
 1 8-inch Try-Square. 
 
 1 8-inch Bevel. 
 
 1 8-inch Wing Dividers. 
 
 1 Marking Knife. 
 
 1 3-8-inch Hand Mortising Chisel. 
 
 1 Bit Brace. 
 
 1 1-4-inch, 3-8-inch, 1-2-inch and 3-4-inch Auger Bit. 
 
 1 Nail Set. 
 
 1 Mallet. 
 
 1 Hammer. 
 
 1 Oil Stone. 
 
8 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 1 Oil Can. 
 
 1 Screw Driver. 
 
 1 Dust Brush. 
 
 The equipment of tools in drawer and under the care 
 of individual students is as follows: 
 
 1 Number 5 Bailey Iron Plane (Jack Plane). 
 
 1 Number 4 Bailey Iron Plane (Smooth Plane). 
 
 1 Marking Gauge. 
 
 1 1-4-inch, 1-2-inch, 3-4-inch, and 1-inch Bevel Edge 
 Paring Chisel. 
 
 1 1-4-inch and 3-4-inch Skew Turning Chisel. 
 
 1 1-4-inch and 3-4-inch Turning Gouge. 
 
 Tools, such as molding, beading, rabbeting, and plow 
 planes are found in the tool room, and are issued to 
 students on check when required. 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 Fig. 1 shows the double bench equipped with 
 rack, cam and quick acting vises, with the locker 
 for the general tools and four drawers on each side of 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 9 
 
 the bench with tools for the use of the individual stu- 
 dent. Carpenters' benches are usually about 33 inches 
 high, while cabinet and pattern makers' benches are 
 from 2 inches to 4 inches higher. 
 
 The careful workman as a rule takes great pride in 
 the condition in which his bench is kept; so the begin- 
 ner should see that his immediate surroundings are 
 kept in a neat, workmanlike manner, and with every- 
 thing in proper place. 
 
 Care should be taken to protect the top of the bench 
 from injury; it should never be marked by the chisel 
 or cut by the saw. If chiseling has to be done on the 
 bench, . place the work on the bench hook or on a 
 board, and in sawing use a bench hook such as is shown 
 in Fig. 2, that has a side lip that will protect the 
 bench top. 
 
 The bench hook is 
 made by students as 
 an exercise, and is used 
 to replace those hooks 
 that have become worn 
 out. 
 The material, which is delivered from the lumber 
 yard in boards or planks, has to be cut up into lengths 
 and widths suitable for the work to be done. The 
 tools used for doing this cutting are the rip-saw and 
 the cross-cut saw. 
 
 Now, a great amount of time can be lost in this 
 work by the student, for the reason of his trying to do 
 work with one tool when another should be used, and 
 especially is this so in regard to saws. A saw will cut 
 
10 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 faster than a chisel in some places, and sometimes 
 make the work as good if not better; so the student 
 should learn to file and to keep a saw in just as good 
 order as any other tool used. 
 
 "We devote considerable space here, to the saw, for 
 we feel that the saw as one of the principal tools is 
 often neglected, and is not used by students in their 
 work as much as it should be. By a judicious use of 
 this tool much time can be saved and a greater amount 
 of ground covered than by trying to use a chisel or a 
 jack knife in its stead. 
 
 Saws are either reciprocating or continuous in action; 
 the first being a flat blade and a practically straight 
 edge, making a plane cut, as in mill, jig, and sash saws; 
 the latter either a circular or rotating disc, cutting in 
 a plane at right angles to its axis (see buzz-saw in 
 shop) or a continuous ribbon or band running on two 
 pulleys, making a plane or curved cut with a straight 
 edge parallel to their axis of rotation (see band-saw in 
 shop). 
 
 Practically speaking, the teeth are a series of knives 
 set on a circular or straight line, each tooth cutting 
 out its proportion of wood, and kept from cutting more 
 by the teeth on either side of it. Each tooth should 
 cut the same amount and carry out the chips or dust, 
 dropping it to the side or below the material being 
 sawed . Different kinds of woods require teeth different 
 in number, angle or pitch, and style of filing. 
 
 The perfect saw is one that cuts the fastest and 
 smoothest with the least expenditure of power; to do 
 this it is evident that each tooth should be so con- 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK.. 
 
 11 
 
 structed and dressed as to do an equal proportion of 
 the work, for if any of the teeth are out of line or 
 shape they are not only useless themselves but a dis- 
 advantage to the others. 
 
 A saw tooth has two functions — paring and scrap- 
 ing. A slitting or rip saw for wood should have its 
 cutting edge at about right angles to the fibre of the 
 wood, severing it in one place, the throat of the tooth 
 wedging out the piece. 
 
 F 1G.3 
 
 The rip saw, Fig. 3, should be filed square across, 
 and the front or rake of tooth should be at about right 
 angles to the edge of the saw. 
 
 After jointing and setting, file one half the teeth 
 from each side, which will give to the cutting edge of 
 the tooth the slight bevel it should have for soft wood; 
 for medium hard woods use a finer toothed saw, and 
 file in the same manner; for the very hard, tough and 
 cross-grained woods, use a saw still finer with the teeth 
 filed slightly beveling, as ripping cross-grained stuff 
 partakes a little of the nature of cross-cutting. 
 
 In all cases where ripping is done, the thrust of a 
 saw should be on an angle of about 45 degrees to the 
 material being cut, as shown in Fig. 4. This makes a 
 
12 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN AVOODWORK. 
 
 shearing cut, an advantage that can be quickly dem- 
 onstrated with an ordinary pocket knife, cutting any 
 piece of soft wood. 
 
 Saws are designated by the num- 
 ber of points or teeth per inch, and 
 the selection of a saw depends upon 
 the character of wood to be worked. 
 A rip-saw should have from 4 to 10 
 teeth per inch, the cross-cut saw 
 from 6 to 16 teeth per inch. This 
 includes the back-saw ; it being filed the same as a 
 regular cross-cut saw. 
 
 The harder the wood, the greater the number of 
 teeth the saw should have. 
 
 We will now consider the cross-cut saw tooth in re- 
 gard to rake or pitch; this being one of the most im- 
 portant features, too much care cannot be taken to 
 have the correct amount of pitch for the duty required. 
 To illustrate this. Fig. 5 represents a board, across 
 
 which we wish to make a deep mark or score with the 
 point of a knife. Suppose we hold the knife nearly 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 13 
 
 perpendicular as at B; it is evident that it will push 
 harder and will not cut as smoothly as if it were in- 
 clined forward as at A. It follows then that the cut- 
 ting edge of a cross-cut saw should incline forward as 
 at C, Fig. 6, rather than stand perpendicular as at D, 
 Fig. 7. 
 
 Fig. 6 Fi G 7 
 
 Too much hook or pitch and too heavy a set are 
 very common faults, not only detrimental to good 
 work but ruinous to the saw; in the first case, by hav- 
 ing a large amount of pitch, the saw takes hold so 
 keenly that frequently it "hangs up" suddenly in 
 the thrust — the result, a kinked or broken blade; in 
 the second, by having too much set, the strain caused 
 by the additional and unnecessary amount of set is out 
 of proportion to the strength of the blade, and it is 
 broken in the same manner. The most general value 
 of pitch used is 60 degrees, though this may be varied 
 a little, more or less, to advantage, as occasion may 
 demand. 
 
 In all cases the size of tooth depends largely upon 
 the duty required; a long tooth has the demerit of be- 
 ing weak and liable to spring, but the merit of giving 
 a greater clearance to the saw-dust. The throat space 
 in front of each tooth must be large enough to contain 
 the dust of that tooth from one stroke; the greater the 
 
14 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 feed the deeper the dust chamber required, or the more 
 teeth. Where the teeth are fine the shape of the 
 throat is of special interest. 
 
 The teeth of a hand-saw should be filed so true that 
 on holding it up to the eye and looking along its edge, 
 it will show a central groove down which a fine needle 
 will slide freely the entire length. This groove must 
 be angular- in shape and equal on each side, or the saw 
 is not filed properly and will not run true. 
 
 Fl G. 9 
 
 Fig. 10 
 
 Fig. ii 
 
 Fig. 8 shows how the groove should appear on look- 
 ing down the edge of the saw. The action should be 
 such that the bottom of the cut or kerf will present the 
 appearance as shown in Fig. 9, and not as in Fig. 10; 
 the cutting action is shown in Fig. 11, the cutting being 
 done with the outside of the tooth; the fibre of the 
 wood is severed in two places, and the wood is crumbled 
 out from point to point by the thrust of the saw. 
 
 The proper amount of bevel is very important, 
 as is demonstrated by the above figures, for if too 
 much bevel is given the points will score so deeply 
 that the fibres severed from the main body will not 
 crumble out as severed but will be removed by con- 
 tinued rasping. This is true, particularly in hard 
 woods, as they require less bevel, as well as pitch, than 
 soft wood. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 15 
 
 The next point to be considered is the_bevel or fleam 
 of the point. In Fig. 12 the filer, as in all cases, files 
 from the heel to the point; which is the only correct 
 way. 
 
 The file is supposed to be perpendicular to the side 
 of the saw in the vertical plane (see Fig. 13), at an 
 angle of about 45 degrees in the horizontal plane, 
 measuring from file line towards heel (see Fig. 14). 
 
 Fig. 15 is a fair representation of many saws that we 
 have seen owned by workmen; the result of owning such 
 
16 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN AVOODWORK. 
 
 tools is shown in the poor work turned out by them. 
 
 As has already been said, the filing should be done 
 
 from the heel of the saw toward the point. Many prac- 
 
 FlG.14- 
 
 tical saw filers contend that this is wrong; that the 
 filing should be done from the point of the saw toward 
 the handle; but the only support they offer for this 
 theory is that they do away with the feather edge that 
 the filing from the heel of saws puts on the cutting 
 face of the tooth. The feather edge is no objection, as 
 the main part of it is removed when the teeth are side- 
 dressed after the saw is set and sharpened. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 17 
 
 Against the correctness of filing from point to handle 
 may be cited the following objections: 
 
 Where a different angle of back is required (it should 
 be remembered that that angle of face should be the 
 same in nearly all cross-cut hand saws, and that angle 
 of back governs angle of point) it will be found very 
 difficult to obtain it without changing the angle of face 
 
 Fig. 15 
 
 of the tooth, and as the cutting duty is on the long side of 
 the face, any change is, of course, of great influence. 
 Again, to file from the point of the saw it is necessary 
 to file with the teeth bent toward the operator. This 
 will cause the saw to vibrate or chatter, a thing which 
 not only renders good, clean, even filing impossible, 
 but breaks the teeth off the file. 
 
 The setting of a saw is an important part of the 
 work in keeping a saw in order, and should be done 
 after the saw has been jointed, and before filing. 
 
 The set should be uniform throughout, as the good 
 working of a saw depends nearly as much on this as on 
 the filing. One great mistake is often made in setting 
 a saw, and that is that many try to put the set in the 
 blade instead of in the tooth. The set should not go 
 
18 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 at the most lower than half the length of the tooth; by 
 going lower it is liable to spring the body of the saw, 
 if not break the tooth out. 
 
 Two methods may be given for setting saws. The 
 first, or old method (employed before saw-sets were 
 invented, and still used by old mechanics) is to take a 
 hardwood block, lay the saw on it, and with a nail-set 
 and hammer set every other tooth on the side, then 
 turn the blade over and repeat the operation on the 
 teeth missed from the first side. It is needless to 
 make any comment on this method when saw sets can 
 be boughtth at are absolutely reliable in their operation. 
 
 The second method is to use 
 the saw-set. Saw-sets are made 
 in many styles, and can be 
 bought at any hardware store. 
 
 Figs. 16 and 17 show two 
 
 Fig. 17. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 styles of saw-sets; much might 
 be said in favor of each. 
 
 Saw clamps or vises used to 
 hold the saw when filing can 
 be bought (see Fig. 18), but 
 a simple homemade vise can 
 be put together by means of 
 one 3 feet 6 inches long and 
 
 two pieces of board, 
 6 inches wide, and 
 one 2 feet 4 inches long and 6 inches wide. By fast- 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 19 
 
 ening a piece 2^ inches thick about 10 inches from the 
 top of each, to act as a fulcrum, and fastening a piece 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 Fig. is 
 
 r\ - - ii !■! i i- ■ m ii m~ m— <— Mm| 
 
 on each board at the top to act as jaws, and using a 
 wedge at the bottom to tighten it up, a very service- 
 able vise is obtained (see Fig. 19). 
 
 To assist those not skilled in the art of filing, there 
 is made a saw-filing clamp with a guide, of which a 
 cut is here shown in Fig. 20. 
 
 A few general rules may be observed in saw-filing: 
 See that the file is held at the same angle throughout 
 the operation. File every other tooth on one side, 
 and when filed, reverse the saw and file the other teeth 
 from the other side. For rip saws, place the file at 
 right angles with the saw, and file the rake of tooth at 
 right angles to the edge. After a saw is properly set 
 and filed, lay it on a flat board and rub over the points 
 of the teeth on the sides with an oil stone; this will 
 
20 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 regulate the set and insure smooth cutting, making the 
 filing last longer. Should the saw not run true take 
 another cut with the oil stone over the side toward 
 which it leads. 
 
 FlG.2 
 
 A fast cutting cross-cut saw should have deep teeth. 
 
 Much useful information on saws can be obtained 
 from a small book published and issued by Disston & 
 Sons, Philadelphia, entitled "Hand Book for Lumber- 
 men," which, I believe, can be obtained on applica- 
 tion. 
 
 The other tools used in this course will be taken up 
 in order as they are used in the work. 
 
 
EXERCISE NO. 1. 
 
 The following operations are designed to give the 
 student a training in the use and care of the most 
 commonly used carpenters' and joiners' tools. It is 
 not intended that the student will be able to finish 
 each exercise in one trial, as mistakes will be very 
 common at the beginning, and it is advised that at 
 least two or three trials may be given for the practice 
 and training involved. 
 
 In Fig. 21 is shown the working drawing (mechani- 
 cal drawing) of a rectangular block of wood, and before 
 we proceed to do the work required to finish this, we 
 will study the drawing. 
 
 In order to represent solid figures with their three 
 dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness, on a plane 
 surface, i. e., a sheet of paper, we must have at least 
 two drawings (projections), but to simplify the reading 
 still further a third drawing is given, sometimes with 
 additional drawings in the form of cross-sections. 
 
 To understand fully the principle upon which a 
 working drawing is made, we will suppose that two 
 transparent planes cross each other at right angles, 
 making four right angles as shown in Fig. 22, (these 
 angles to be known as the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th 
 angle of the co-ordinate planes), and respectively called 
 the Horizontal and the Vertical planes. 
 
 21 
 
22 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 l^.J**i 
 
 QO 
 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 23 
 
 Two of these angles are used in practice, the 1st and 
 the 3rd; the most modern practice is to use the 3rd, 
 although the 1st is still used in some manufacturing 
 establishments and by some teachers. 
 
 We will take, first, the 1st angle, and compare it 
 with the results obtained from the 3rd angle. We 
 place the solid (exercise 1) in space in the 1st angle, 
 and also place a similar one in the 3rd angle (see 
 Figs. 23 and 24). 
 
 By projecting the lines back on the vertical, and 
 down on the horizontal plane, we obtain two views 
 which are respectively the elevation on the vertical 
 
24 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 25 
 
26 
 
 ELEMENTAEY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 and the plan on the horizontal plane; to obtain the 
 third view or end elevation, we have another plane 
 placed perpendicular to planes H and V, as shown in 
 Figs. 23 and 24, and the lines projected back from the 
 left end; by opening or revolving these planes into one 
 plane, as shown in Fig. 25, we have a working draw- 
 ing made in the 1st angle. 
 
 \ 
 
 •.p. 
 
 
 
 FIG. 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ► 
 
 -I.R \ iT ANGLE 
 
 
 
 
 
 Referring to Fig. 24, where we placed the solid in 
 the 3rd angle, we project the lines up on the horizon- 
 tal and to the front on the vertical plane, and by plac- 
 ing another plane "at the end, perpendicular to the H 
 and V planes, we obtain the third projection. Revolv- 
 ing the planes into one plane (i. e., a sheet of paper) 
 Fig. 26, we have the working drawing in the third 
 angle. Compare the results obtained, and note the 
 difference in the reading of the drawing. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 27 
 
 In the first angle we see the plan is below the eleva- 
 tion, and in the third angle the plan is above; the 
 pieces cut out of the exercise may also be noted in the 
 end projection by the lines passing through the center 
 of the exercise; in the first angle the line comes out 
 full, the end being exposed, and in the third angle the 
 surface is behind the full end and shows a dotted line. 
 
 Lines that are seen are shown as full lines. 
 
 H. P 5 1° A N G L e 
 
 
 
 ) 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 I 
 
 ! 
 
 V.R FIG. 26. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lines that are below a surface and are required in 
 the reading of a drawing are shown as dotted lines. 
 
 The drawing, Fig. 21, calls for a piece that is 8 
 inches at its longest, 2 inches at its widest, and 1 inch 
 at its thickest point, and that may be designated thus: 
 piece 8 inches x 2 inches x 1 inch finished. 
 
 For measuring, a standard rule 2 feet long that can 
 be folded up is preferred. The rule is divided into 
 feet, inches, ^ inches, J inches, J inches, 1-16 inches, 
 
28 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 etc. On some rules will be found scales that can be 
 used in measuring drawings that are drawn to scale. 
 The drawing may be of any scale, using f, \, J, 1, 1^, 
 3, or 6 inches to the foot. 
 
 The first thing to be done toward carrying out the 
 work is to saw out a piece from the plank that is laid 
 on the saw trestles (Fig. 27). Mark with a pencil the 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 lines to be sawed; holding the rule in the left hand, 
 and the pencil in the right, and placing the index finger 
 of the left hand against the edge of the plank, as shown 
 in Fig. 28, draw both hands toward the body, thus 
 marking out the piece lengthwise; then measure the 
 length required and place the try-square (Fig. 29) 
 against the edge of the plank, and draw a line along 
 the blade through the point marked. 
 
 The piece should be marked out larger than the fin- 
 ished exercise so that there will be stock enough in the 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 29 
 
 piece to perform the operations required, say 8^ inches 
 x 2\ inches, the plank being thick enough to provide 
 for the work on the sides. 
 
 Having "laid out" the piece on the plank, take the 
 rip-saw and hold it as shown in Fig. 30; saw down the 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
 line, taking care that the "kerf" is square to the side 
 of the plank; then take the cross-cut saw, and saw 
 across the line marked. Hold the cross-cut saw as in 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 After having cut the piece from the plank take the 
 jack-plane and put it in good condition for work. A 
 sectional view of the Bailey Iron Plane is shown in Fig. 
 31, and the parts are as follows: 
 
 A — Plane Iron. 
 
 B — Cap Iron. 
 
30 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 C — The Iron Lever. 
 
 D — Thumb piece and Cam. 
 
 E — Screw which acts as a fulcrum when the thumb 
 piece is pushed into position. 
 
 F — Thumb screw by which the Plane-Iron A is reg- 
 ulated for any thickness of shaving. 
 
 M'|M« M'I'I'I'T" 
 
 3 12 
 
 TT 
 
 M 
 
 Fl g. a a. 
 
 G— Lever which is in contact with Plane-Iron. 
 
 H — Screw which holds the iron bed piece in place. 
 
 I — Bed piece. 
 
 K — Lever. 
 
 The plane-iron should be ground on the grindstone 
 if nicked or rounded. 
 
 To grind the plane-iron it should be held in the hand 
 as shown in Fig. 32. 
 
 Apply the iron to the stone, as indicated by dotted 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 31 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 M\ 
 
 
 Li 
 
 ■ 
 
 I 
 
 'VHH 
 
 
 w& 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 
 
 ■^■t 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 Fig. 
 
 3» 
 
32 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 line A, Fig. 33; then raise it until the proper angle is 
 reached, a position indicated by full lines B. 
 
 Move the tool gradually from one side of the stone to 
 the other. See that there is plenty of water on the 
 stone. The tool should be held during the operation 
 
 so that it revolves toward the person grinding. The 
 tool thus held is not so liable to have a "wire edge" as 
 it is if held on the stone while it is revolving away 
 from the operator. 
 
 The "whetted" edge should never be ground away 
 unless the plane-iron is in very poor condition. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 33 
 
 The grinding is complete when the bevel reaches the 
 cutting edge, — a condition which can readily be deter- 
 mined by holding the finger along the flat side of the 
 iron and having the light fall in the proper direction; 
 a thin bright line will be seen which will determine 
 whether the iron is ground enough. The plane-iron is 
 shown before it is ground in Fig. 34, and Fig. 3/5 shows 
 it after it is ground. 
 
 Fig. 3 4-. 
 
 Z3 
 
 Fig 35. 
 
 To whet or sharpen the iron an oil stone is used. 
 Oil stones are of different grades; a stone of medium 
 hardness is best, as it will cut a little faster and leave 
 
 a fairly smooth edge; whereas if the stone be hard much 
 time is required to whet the iron, but it leaves a 
 smoother edge. A coarse stone leaves a rough edge. 
 
34 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Use oil that will not become gummy on the stone. 
 Several good artificial stones have lately come on the 
 market which give good service. To sharpen the iron, 
 apply it as shown in Fig. 36, 1 and 2, and move it back 
 and forth as indicated in Fig. 37. 
 
 FJ6-37 
 
 Many persons sharpen their plane-irons as indicated in 
 Fig. 38; at first thought this may appear to be right, 
 but many mechanics of long experience sharpen the 
 ''iron" as indicated in Fig. 36. This method gives a 
 
 PiG.sa. 
 
 stronger edge, which is not so liable to get nicked when 
 the iron strikes a knot or a hard spot in the work. 
 
 Great care should be taken to avoid giving the iron 
 a rocking motion on the oil stone, as this will round 
 the edge and the iron will not be any sharper than it 
 would be if it were in the form shown in Fig. 39. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODAYORK. 
 
 35 
 
 After having whetted the bevel side of the iron suffi- 
 ciently, turn the iron so that it will rest perfectly flat 
 
 on the stone, as shown at 3, 
 
 /=— j Fig. 36, and whet it in this 
 
 position; this will remove the 
 "wire edge." Care should be taken to see that the iron 
 is not raised in whetting the flat side; if raised as in 
 Fig. 40 the cutting qualities of the edge will be injured. 
 
 Ft& 40. 
 
 The iron is now sharpened. Replace the cap-iron, 
 keeping it back from 1-64 to 1-32 of an inch from the 
 cutting edge; then place it in position and fasten it; 
 look down the face of the plane and see that the edge 
 protrudes far enough to cut the 
 required thickness. The ad- 
 justments are made by the 
 thumb-screw F and lever K, 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Place the block already sawed 
 on the bench against the bench 
 stop, Fig. 41, and then follow 
 the method here given for planing a piece to the given 
 dimensions. 
 
 FIRST. 
 
 Plane one side true and mark (0) for the "working 
 face."' (A surface is said to be true when it is per- 
 
 FlG 41 
 
36 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK 
 
 fectly straight across; straight lengthwise, and free 
 from twist). 
 
 "Side" here used means one of the wider surfaces in 
 distinction from the narrower surface, the edge. 
 
 Methods for testing the surface with parallel strips, 
 etc., will be shown by the instructor. 
 
 SECOND. 
 
 Plane one edge perfectly straight lengthwise, and 
 square to the face side. Mark this edge for the " work- 
 ing edge"; use the try-square, Fig. 29, to test the work. 
 
 S.42, 
 
 THIRD. 
 
 Set the gauge, Fig. 42, to the width given in the 
 drawing, and gauge a line from the face edge on both 
 sides; then plane to the gauge lines. 
 
 In using the gauge see 
 that it is held as shown in 
 Fig. 43, and push away 
 from the body, having the 
 pressure on the gauge as 
 shown by the line A, B, 
 Fig. 44. This will keep the head of the gauge close to 
 the work. Do not try to mark a line by holding it as 
 in Fig. 45, with the spur at right angles to the work, as 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 37 
 
 it will generally follow the fibre of the wood and a 
 crooked, ragged line will be the result. By holding it 
 as shown in Fig. 43 (and gently letting the spur touch 
 the work, going over it once or twice until the 
 line is of the desired heaviness to work to) a clear, 
 clean-cut line will be obtained. 
 
 FOURTH. 
 
 Set the gauge to the given thickness (see drawing for 
 dimension) and gauge a line on both edges from face 
 side; then plane to gauge lines. This, if done correctly, 
 
 Fig. 4-6. 
 
 
 will finish the four surfaces. It is sometimes necessary 
 that the ends of a piece of work should be finished 
 smooth; the method of procedure is as follows: 
 
 Mark (from one end about 1-64 of an inch) a knife 
 line all around (see Fig. 46), placing the head of the 
 try-square against the face edge and the face side only; 
 then take a small block and put behind the exercise as 
 shown in Fig. 47, fasten in the vise, and plane to the 
 knife lines. This block will save the corners from 
 breaking. 
 
38 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 39 
 
 To finish the other end measure the length and mark 
 as on the first end. Then if the piece is too long to 
 plane, saw off near the line, using the back saw as 
 shown at Fig. 54, and then finish with the plane to the 
 lines. 
 
 In planing care must be taken to 'see that the plane 
 is held firmly on the work to secure a true surface. A 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 rocking motion must be avoided. In order to get the 
 best results see that the front of the plane is held down 
 with the left hand, also pressing down and forward 
 with the right hand at the same time, and at the end of 
 the stroke lift the front of the plane as shown in Fig. 
 48; never let it drop as in Fig. 49. 
 
40 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 A proper and an improper position to stand while 
 planing is shown by Figs. 50 and 51. 
 
 In planing the edge if it is higher on one side than 
 the other, move the plane over to the high side and 
 plane it down. Fig. 52 shows the position of the plane. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 After the block is planed true and to the correct 
 dimensions, lay out the lines across the face at the left 
 hand end shown in the drawing and square the lines 
 down the depth on the edges; then set the gauge and 
 mark around the end and notch on both edges. Be- 
 ginners will find it a little difficult at first to saw a per- 
 fectly clean line so as to secure a sharp corner; by cut- 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 41 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
42 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Fig. 51 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 43 
 
 ting notches with a 
 knife point as shown 
 at Fig. 53, it will be 
 easy to secure sharp 
 corners. Place the 
 back saw, Fig. 54, 
 in the notch, hold 
 it tightly against 
 the flat side, and 
 saw down to the 
 desired depth, re- 
 moving the portion 
 from the end with 
 the rip saw (see 
 Fig. 5^). 
 
 To remove the 
 portion between the 
 sawed lines take the 
 chisel, Fig. 56 (the 
 same directions to 
 be used for grinding 
 and sharpening a 
 
 chisel as are used for the plane-iron), pare lightly 
 (about half through the width of the piece), cut down 
 
 Fig. 52. 
 
 > 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 to the gauge line, and then turn the piece around 
 and finish from the other side, leaving a straight 
 
44 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 surface at the bottom of the notch. Be careful 
 not to take too heavy a cut, for the chisel will be 
 hard to guide if the workman has to exert his whole 
 strength to push it through the wood. The chisel has 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 a tendency to go down into the work if the flat side is 
 not used as a guiding surface; this side, if kept in con- 
 tact with the solid wood, will insure a straight surface? 
 and consequently accurate work. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 45 
 
 The lining on the exercise is made with the gauge 
 for the lines running parallel with the edge, with the 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
 square and the knife for the lines at right angles to the 
 edge, and with the bevel, Fig. 57, and the knife for the 
 
 Fl G. 56 
 
 oblique lines. Figs. 58 and 59 give methods for find- 
 ing the angle of 45 degrees, which is the angle that is 
 used for the oblique lines. 
 
46 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Too much attention cannot be given to the opera- 
 tions in this exercise, for in all work that requires 
 
 material to be prepared, carelessness in detail and in- 
 attention to methods, etc., will always appear in the 
 finished work. 
 
EXERCISE NUMBER 2. 
 
 HALVED JOINT. 
 
 When two pieces of timber of equal thickness cross 
 each other and the joint is to be flush, i. e., the pieces 
 when joined are to form a flat surface, they are halved 
 
 together; or, to put it in another way, a piece is taken 
 out of each half its thickness and as broad as the piece 
 
48 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 which is to cross it, thus allowing the one to drop into 
 the other, as shown in Fig. 60. The working drawing 
 is shown in Fig. 61. 
 
 To make this piece of work, refer to methods and 
 operations given for the preparation of material in the 
 first exercise. 
 
 o •» 
 
 FtCKGI 
 
 Special results are sought for by specific methods in 
 this exercise. Exercises that are not finished (by the 
 methods given) as they should be, are thrown out as 
 not coming up to the requirements and fall short of the 
 object for which they are designed. 
 
 The drawing shows two pieces of wood of given 
 dimensions crossing each other at right angles and 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 49 
 
 halved together, making a flush joint. Requirements: 
 The pieces to be of the exact length, breadth-, and 
 thickness called for, fitted closety on both sides, each 
 piece to be exactly in the center of the other, and both 
 sides smoothed off and perfectly flat when finished; 
 the ends of the pieces to be planed square, and the 
 ends of the halving to be fitted from the saw. Methods: 
 After sawing out a piece (long enough to make both 
 
 pieces, allowing for work on the ends), plane the piece 
 by the methods given for planing in the first exercise; 
 then saw it across in the center and proceed to lay out 
 the pieces so that the face side of each piece will come 
 on the same side; this means that the halving is cut 
 out of the face of one piece and the back of the other 
 (see Fig. 60). 
 
 It will be well to consider this problem of laying out 
 work as a problem in arithmetic. The pieces called for 
 in the drawing are 5^ inches long, 1^ inches wide, and 
 1 inch thick. The piece thai crosses comes exactly in 
 
50 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 the center. Therefore we have a problem like this: 
 5^"— 1 J"=4", which is the difference between the length 
 of one piece and the breadth of the other; but the 
 piece comes in the center ; and so we take the differ- 
 ence of the length, which is 4", and divide it b}^ 2. 
 I" =2, which will give the distance from the end up to 
 the first edge of the cross piece. As all measurements 
 have a beginning somewhere, we mark a line near the 
 end of the piece as shown in Fig. 62, and from this line 
 we lay off the distance to the eross piece, marking with 
 a knife point the position of the edge. Then we lay 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 off the width of the cross piece, which is 1%", leaving 
 the distance to the other end 2", the same as at the 
 first end. 
 
 Having found the position of the edges of the cross 
 piece, we mark a line across the work (using a knife 
 and a square); then mark the lines down the edges. 
 Now taking the gauge, we gauge from the face side of 
 each piece the depth required. Then we cut a notch 
 inside the lines with a knife, as shown at Fig. 53, place 
 the piece on the bench hook, saw down to the gauge 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 51 
 
 lines with the back saw (position shown in Fig. 54), 
 and remove the portions to be taken out by the 
 methods given for the notch in the first exercise. 
 
 Then plane the ends of each piece perfectly square 
 to the face side and face edge. 
 
 An exercise that was made by a careful student and 
 one that was made by a careless student are shown at 
 Fig. 63, revealing the final results of careful as against 
 careless work. 
 
 Having cut out the center pieces and finished the 
 ends we fit them together, seeing that the surfaces 
 come flush; then smooth off the surfaces, being care- 
 ful not to cut too much off the ends, for this will round 
 the surfaces and thus spoil the work. Sharp tools are 
 essential to good work. 
 
 Lines drawn in their proper places, and then cut to, 
 will give the results sought for in fitting. 
 
 EXERCISE NUMBER 3. 
 
 MORTISE AND TENON. 
 
 When beams or pieces of wood stand square with 
 each other, and the strains are also square with the 
 pieces and in the plane of the frame, the most common 
 junction is the mortise and tenon. 
 
 A mortise is an opening, which may be square or 
 oblong, intended to receive the tenon, and which may go 
 into the work only a short distance, or may go all the 
 way through. Where it goes only part way through it is 
 
52 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 called a blind mortise, and where it passes all the way 
 through, a through mortise. A tenon is a projection 
 on the end of a piece and fits into the mortise. The 
 tenon usually has two shoulders formed by cutting 
 away the sides, and should be about one third the 
 thickness of the piece. 
 
 Fl Cr. 6 4. 
 
 1 
 
 
 A 
 
 ^ . 6 ^ 
 
 ■■n 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 
 i S£ ' 
 
 There are a number of different styles of this joint 
 and methods of fastening, which we will consider later 
 in our work. 
 
 The working drawing shown in Fig. 64 gives the 
 dimensions of the pieces, the material of which is to be 
 worked out in one piece, as directed in the previous 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 53 
 
 exercise, and then cut up into lengths suitable for the 
 exercise. The student should commence work on a 
 piece with a full understanding of what is required to 
 be done in order to finish the work as called for, and 
 not try to make any kind of work do in order to pro- 
 ceed to the next task. 
 
 Notice what is required in this exercise: 
 
 1st. That the pieces be perfect ly straight and square. 
 
 2nd. That the tenon piece be exactly in the center 
 of the mortise piece, and that the angles be right angles 
 or "square." 
 
 3rd. That the work be laid out systematically, with 
 the lines in their proper places. 
 
 4th. That the tenon be made altogether with the 
 saw. 
 
 5th. That the mortise be cut out with the hand 
 mortising chisel. 
 
 6th. That the tenon fit into the mortise, and not 
 be squeezed. 
 
 7th. That the joint fit closely, and that the work 
 be finished off smoothly on the sides, with all the cor- 
 ners sharp and the end of the pieces sawed square. 
 
 The following methods if carried out will help the 
 student to finish the work as required. 
 
 It will be unnecessary to repeat hereafter the method 
 of planing, as the student by this time should have 
 learned to plane the pieces properly to dimensions. 
 
 After the material has been planed, mark the piece 
 to the desired lengths as shown in Fig. 65, and saw off 
 the pieces square on the ends. Use the knife to mark 
 the lines. In sawing, care must be taken to saw on 
 
54 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 -* 
 
 the right side of the line, for the saw will cut out its 
 own thickness and reduce the length of the piece that 
 much if the piece is sawed on the wrong side of the line. 
 
 Fl&65. 
 
 Leave the tenon piece about J inch longer than the 
 drawing calls for so that the tenon will protrude 
 through and be finished off even with the mortise piece. 
 
 Proceed to lay out the work. Take the mortise 
 piece, which is 6 inches long, and mark the distance 
 from one end (6'— lj'-=4j"0 f"=|xj=f or 2J"; 
 locate the first point on the face edge; then measure 
 from this point the width of the tenon piece, which is 
 1-j"". Through the points just found draw the lines 
 square to the face side. Place the square against the 
 face edge and mark (on the 
 opposite edge on the corner, 
 a small cut for both lines 
 (see Fig. 66) and square from 
 the face side across the 
 edge; lay the piece aside; 
 take the tenon piece and point off the distance from 
 the end of the piece to the shoulder, and mark across 
 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 55 
 
 the face and back, using the square and the knife in 
 marking. Prepare the shoulder lines for the back saw, 
 as shown in Fig. 53, taking care that the notch is cut 
 on the right side of the line. 
 
 Take the gauge 
 and set it to the 
 distance from the Ftoev. 
 
 face side to the first side of the mortise, and gauge the 
 lines for the mortise on both edges; gauge the lines for 
 the tenon. (This is for a single gauge.) Take the 
 mortise chisel, Fig. 67, and make a mark from this line 
 (see Fig. 68), which will give the thickness of the tenon 
 and the width of the mortise; set the gauge out to the 
 width and gauge the rest of the lines. 
 
 Take the rip-saw and 
 saw down the outside of 
 the lines on the tenon 
 
 i 
 
 ' ' & ' G s piece the length required; 
 
 cut off the sides with the back saw. In sawing split 
 the line so that the tenon will be as thick as the mor- 
 tise is wide. This means that half the line is to be 
 left on the work. Fasten the mortise piece in the vise, 
 putting a piece below to keep it from going down when 
 cutting. 
 
 Place the mortise chisel about the center of the mor- 
 tise; hold it vertically, and with the mallet drive 
 the chisel down into the work; release the chisel and 
 make a new cut, keeping the flat side of the chisel 
 towards the end to which the mortise is being cut. 
 Fig. 69 shows how the cutting should be done. 
 
 Having reached the end, turn the chisel around, and 
 
56 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. 69, 
 
 cut towards the other end in the same manner. 
 (Where the mortise goes through it will be unneces- 
 sary to take the chips from 
 the first side.) 
 
 Turn the piece over, and 
 repeat the operation on the 
 other side, when the chips 
 can be easily removed. 
 Proceed to test the work; 
 see that the mortise is 
 straight on the ends. Gen- 
 erally the student will leave 
 the ends rounding as shown 
 in Fig. 70; this, if the ten- 
 on is driven into the mortise, will squeeze the edges 
 out of true (Fig. 71) and leave an opening on the ends 
 of the mortise, as shown in Fig. 72. 
 
 FlG,7 
 
 ^s> 
 
 Fig. in. 
 
 J 
 
 Care should be taken to avoid this fault in this ex- 
 ercise. (A mortise gauge such as a joiner uses is 
 
 shown in Fig. 73; it has 
 two spurs, one being ad- 
 justed by the thumb 
 screw at the end of the 
 
 I 1 
 
 F\&, 7 2 
 
 shank. We will use a mortise gauge in our work 
 later on.) 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 57 
 
 Fig, 73. 
 
 After the pieces have been cut, put them together, 
 having the face sides together, and finish smoothly. 
 
 EXERCISE NUMBER 4. 
 
 KEYED MORTISE AND TEXOX, WITH BRACE. 
 
 This method of joining timbers is sometimes used in 
 heavy frame work, but can be used to advantage in 
 light frame work that has to be taken apart, such as 
 curtain frames, etc. 
 
 In Fig. 74 is shown the assembled and the detailed 
 drawings of this piece of work. The experience gained 
 from the previous exercises can be used to advantage 
 in working this problem. 
 
 The requirements in this exercise are that all pieces 
 be square and to dimensions. 
 
 That the upright and cross pieces when keyed be 
 square to each other. 
 
 That the brace fit snugly, and form two angles of 
 45 degrees back at its junction with the upright and 
 cross piece. 
 
 That all joints fit closely, and the whole work be 
 smoothed off and made true. 
 
58 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 The method of laying out the keyed joint is some- 
 what similar to that in the third exercise. 
 
 On the upright locate the cross piece (on the face 
 edge), which is 1^ inches from the end to the upper 
 edge, and measure the width of the piece, which is 1J 
 
 JZL 
 
 81 8'S 
 
 k|-> 
 
 >4 .. s 
 
 k-r4'-J 
 
 inches; draw the lines square to the face side, deduct 
 the amount of splay or bevel that is given to the mor- 
 tise and tenon from the lower end of the mortise, and 
 add to the upper end the width of the key; draw the 
 lines, and mark them in some manner so that they will 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 59 
 
 be known as working lines. Figs. 75 and 76 will show 
 how this may be done. 
 
 From the line which locates the lower edge of the 
 cross piece (using the square on the face edge) mark 
 the position (on the oppo- 
 site corner) of the lower 
 
 
 y 
 
 
 x 
 
 X 
 
 
 
 Fig 75 
 
 line on the outside edge, 
 by the method given in the previous exercise (see Fig. 
 66), and square this line across the outside edge; then 
 measure the width of the tenon, plus the width of the 
 key, and square the line across. 
 
 (Where work is to be finished on the faces, care 
 should be taken not to mark the work with knife lines, 
 but if auxiliary lines must be used, then mark them 
 with a pencil so that they may be cleaned off when 
 the work is being smoothed.) 
 
 Having laid out the keyed mortise lay out the brace 
 mortise, the lower end of which is located 3^ inches 
 
 
 K 
 
 :< X 
 
 
 7< * 
 
 / 
 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 3j- » 
 
 below the lower edge of the cross piece; the drawing 
 gives all the dimensions for this. 
 
 Take the cross piece and lay out the tenon in the 
 same way that the tenon in Exercise Number 3 is pre- 
 pared, using the dimensions that are given in the 
 drawing for the work on hand. 
 
 After marking the shoulders of the cross piece lay 
 out the brace mortise, which is 3| inches from the 
 
60 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 shoulder to the farthest end, and mark the other lines 
 as called for in the drawing. Use the single gauge as 
 directed in Exercise Number 3 to mark the side lines 
 of the mortise and tenon, and cut the mortise with the 
 mortising chisel, taking care to cut the ends to the 
 proper angle. 
 
 Saw the tenon as previously directed, and after the 
 sides have been cut off, mark the splay on the lower 
 side of the tenon and cut it off with a paring chisel. 
 
 The method of finding the length of the brace is of 
 importance, as it will give the student some idea of the 
 application of square root to practical work of this 
 kind. 
 
 The hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle equals the 
 square root of the sum of the squares of its sides. For 
 example, take the triangle that is formed by the up- 
 right, the cross-piece, and the outside of the brace. 
 We have a triangle that has two sides of equal length 
 and wish to obtain the length of the brace on its long- 
 est side. 
 
 We will designate the angle where the cross-piece 
 meets the upright, A, and the lower point of the brace 
 on the upright, B, and the outside point of the brace 
 on the cross-piece, C. Then we have the side AB, and 
 the side AC, which we will square and add together, 
 then extract the square root of this sum, which will 
 give us the length of the brace on the longest side, to 
 which we must add the length of the tenons that go 
 into the upright and the cross-piece. The angles at 
 each end of the brace will be 45 degrees, as the oppo- 
 site angles of the triangle are equal, there being 180 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 61 
 
 degrees in the sum of the three angles; one of the angles 
 is a right angle (90 degrees), which we subtract from 
 180 degrees; the remainder divided by two will give 
 the number of degrees contained in the angle at the 
 ends of the brace. 
 
 The lines at the outside of the tenons on the brace 
 are parallel with the upright and the cross-piece re- 
 spectively. 
 
 A method often used by practical men to get the 
 length of short braces is to take a steel framing square 
 
 and a rule, and find the length of the brace by apply- 
 ing the rule to the square as shown in Fig. 77. On 
 the short leg of the square will be found a brace meas- 
 ure which gives the length of the sides of the triangle 
 and the length of the brace, thus, S"=76.31". 
 
 Bevels and tapers are found by applying the bevel 
 to the square according to the bevel or the taper re- 
 quired, such as 1 inch on one side and 4 inches on the 
 
62 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODAVORK. 
 
 other side of the square; this would be called a taper 
 of 1 inch in 4 inches. 
 
 Having cut the pieces to dimensions as called for in 
 the drawing, put them together, and finish smooth. 
 
 EXERCISE NUMBER 5. 
 
 Moldings and beads are sometimes used to ornament 
 work, but the chief use of the bead is to conceal open 
 joints by the shadow it casts. An example of this 
 may be seen in beaded wainscoting or large surfaces 
 that are finished with matched ceiling. If the boards 
 were put together without a beaded edge, an unsightly 
 crack would be the result from the shrinking and swell- 
 ing of the material. 
 
 Moldings are so varied in form that it would be use- 
 less to try to describe them here. The molding shown 
 in the drawing is given for practice in the use of the 
 molding plane. 
 
 A rabbet is generally a square corner cut out of the 
 edge of a piece so as to 
 lap over, or to make a 
 place for glass, etc., as 
 in window sash, glass ' 
 panel doors, and door 
 frames. The rabbet 
 plane (see Fig. 78) is so 
 constructed that the iron F1&.7& 
 
 comes out flush with both sides, so that it will cut 
 out a sharp corner or interior angle. 
 
ELEMENTAEY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 63 
 
 To cut the rabbet, the iron combination plow, bead- 
 ing, and rabbeting plane may be used, an illustration 
 of which is shown in Fig. 
 79. 
 
 This tool can be set up as 
 a rabbet plane or fillister, 
 having a fence to guide it 
 along the side and a shoe 
 to stop its cutting when the 
 desired depth is reached. 
 
 The plan and end eleva- 
 tion of this exercise is found 
 in Fig. 80. The bead plane, Fig. 81, that is used on 
 the edge of the exercise is known as a single quirked 
 bead, and has a fence or guide by which it is held in 
 position while the bead is being stuck on the work. 
 
 Fig. 7 9, 
 
 Fig. 8 o. 
 
 t 
 
 to 
 
 6" 
 
 I ?__rJ-<* 
 
 \-r-i 
 
 The angle bead is made with the same plane, but 
 the work must be turned in order to cut the quirk on 
 the other side. 
 
 The center bead plane (see Fig. 82) is a double 
 
64 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 quirked bead plane, and requires a piece fastened on 
 the work in order to guide it. « rA 
 
 The guide piece can be held in |L ei 
 
 w 
 
 place by several methods; one method 
 
 is to tack it on to the work, but this in 
 
 leave.3 the nail holes in . the work. Another method 
 
 is to make a piece as shown in Fig. 83; if the work is 
 
 long a thin strip with small blocks fastened on the 
 
 ends, Fig. 84, and a wedge driven between one of the 
 
 blocks and the work will hold it firmly in place. 
 
 FlG.8 + 
 
 After planing the piece to the desired dimensions we 
 would advise the student to follow the following order 
 of work: 
 
 First, cut the rabbet. 
 
 Second, stick the center bead and cluster of beads 
 or reeding. 
 
 The reeding is done by first sticking one of the beads 
 by means of the guide piece and then letting one of 
 the quirks of the bead plane follow in the quirk of the 
 bead already stuck. 
 
 Third, cut the edge and angle beads. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 65 
 
 Fourth, stick the molding. 
 
 In Fig. 85 is shown the molding plane held in posi- 
 tion for work. On the front end of the plane will be 
 found a line, which must be kept vertical when the 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wm 
 
 
 
 
 W\ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 •■7 •'"' 
 
 9HKUM I A 
 
 ^^H 
 
 ^^^ V J 
 
 
 , -4_*~- "' »■ , . ^^ ■" 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 H5 
 
 
 
 
 ^^^gflS &J 
 
 
 
 ^«*tf 
 
 arafijif'-Vi'lA.*;. ' : " /. " '. j 
 
 
 Pig. 85. 
 plane is at work. Finish the beads with sand paper 
 in order to remove all roughness. 
 
 Bead and molding plane irons are ground on an 
 emery wheel with a rounded edge. 
 
 The sharpening is done with a slip-stone. A slip- 
 stone used for beads and 
 molding planes is wedge- 
 shaped in the cross section, 
 with rounded edges (see' 
 Fig. 86). Fig. 86 
 
 Where sharp corners occur in molding plane irons, 
 triangular and square slips are used. 
 
EXERCISE NUMBER 6. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that a bead is used 
 in decoration. An application of the bead as a dec- 
 oration is given in connection with the use of the rab- 
 bet in this exercise, the bead can be applied to door 
 frames where glass panels, etc., are to be used. 
 
 6)8 
 
 H-li-^ 
 
 In Fig. 87 is shown the working drawing. The 
 features in this exercise to be specially noticed are the 
 method of joining the bead so as to form a continuous 
 bead around the edge, the method of laying out and 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 6? 
 
 cutting the shoulder so that the opening in the frame 
 will be kept to size; the mortise and tenon used here 
 is what is called a blind mortise and tenon. 
 
 Having noticed these features, proceed to prepare 
 the material, by methods previously given, to dimen- 
 sions called for in the drawing. The requirements for 
 this exercise are that all measurements be correct, that 
 all joints fit closely, that the angles be right angles, and 
 that the work be finished in a neat workmanlike manner. 
 
 The material having been prepared, proceed to lay 
 the work out. 
 
 Suppose this exercise to be the top of a glass panel 
 door; the pieces on the sides of a door are called the 
 stiles; the cross pieces are called the rails, and, accord- 
 ing to the position they occupy, are called respectively 
 the top rail, the mid-rail, and the bottom rail. The 
 pieces that stand in the center are known as muntings. 
 
 To lay out the work, mark out the mortise on the 
 
 top of the stile about 1^ inches from the end. It will 
 
 be noticed that the mortise is not so long as the top 
 
 rail is wide; the piece that is cut out of the tenon is 
 
 known as a rebate or rabbet. The reason for cutting 
 
 out this piece and shortening the mortise is to strengthen 
 
 the joint by leaving a piece of solid wood so that the 
 + ;_:n_ + u c ^ 
 
 on the end. Fig. 88 
 
 k 
 
 shows the piece marked 
 
 IT NkBEflO CINE 
 
 out for the stile; the ar- Figs a 
 
 row heads in the figure are known as witness marks 
 
 and show between what lines the cutting is to be 
 
 done. 
 
68 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 The shoulders on the top rail and on the muntings 
 are to be specially noticed. In laying out the top rail 
 the opening between the munting and the stile is 4 
 inches. The shoulder on the. face side of the top rail 
 reaches to the farthest side of the bead so as to form a 
 close fitting joint, and the shoulder on the back 
 reaches to the bottom of the glass rabbet. 
 
 In order to keep the opening as called for in the 
 drawing and to miter the bead so as to make it con- 
 tinuous around the edge, lay out the work in the fol- 
 lowing manner: Locate a line on the edge of the rail 
 that will represent the side of the opening next to the 
 stile, leaving enough for the tenon; then lay off the 
 width of the opening; draw a line which will represent 
 the end of the mortise for the munting; mark the 
 length of the munting mortise. On the inside of each 
 end of the mortise lay off the width of the bead which 
 is stuck on the munting. 
 
 Return to the first line which represents the open- 
 ing, and add to the outside of that the width of the 
 bead and rabbet; then from those lines mark across the 
 face from the line which will represent the bead, and 
 across the back from the line which represents the depth 
 of the glass rabbet. sHoyuwreRR^BEr. 
 
 Prepare the shoulder 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TKNOM 
 
 
 
 
 MO(?T(5 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 shouCder Line fob bead 
 
 lines for the saw as di- 
 rected in previous work. Fig 89 
 The lines to be drawn on the edge of the rail are shown 
 in Fig. 89. 
 
 The shoulders on the munting are prepared in the 
 same way as the rail. In marking the sides of (he 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 G9 
 
 mortise and tenon use the mortise gauge (see Fig. 73) . 
 
 Cut the mortise and the tenon as directed in pre- 
 vious work, using a narrow chisel to remove the chips 
 from the mortise. The bead is to be joined so that it 
 will appear continuous; the method of joining is called 
 mitering. A miter is made by cutting, at an angle of 
 45 degrees, the pieces to be joined. 
 
 The practical man will try many methods of cutting 
 material .in order to save time. For instance, if he is 
 to make frames where the corners are to be mitered, 
 he will make a miter box. This box (which is not a 
 box at all) is three pieces fastened together to form a 
 bottom and two sides, all of which must be true before 
 
 \ • • • • 
 
 Fig 90 
 
 being nailed together; then by cutting across the sides 
 in both directions with the saw at an angle of 45 de- 
 grees and square to the bottom, the so-called miter 
 box is made, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 
 90. Iron miter boxes are now in general use; of these 
 Fig. 91 is a good representation. 
 
 In the mitering of the bead, a templet, which can 
 be made by the student, is of great service. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK 
 
 A templet is a 
 mould or pattern 
 used as an auxiliary. 
 The templet for this 
 work is made in the 
 following manner. 
 Take a piece and 
 rabbet out one corner as shown in Fig. 92; then cut 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Fig 03 
 
 FlO.0 2. 
 
 the ends as shown in Fig. 93, which are at 45 degrees. 
 With this templet placed on the work as shown in Fig. 
 
 FlG.£>4- 
 
 94, with a chisel cut off the bead, which protrudes be- 
 yond the templet. 
 
 Fig. 95 
 At the mortises remove part of the bead as shown 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 71 
 
 in Fig. 95; then place the templet in position, and cut 
 to the angle. 
 
 Care should be taken to see that the mortises are 
 
 cut square to the edges on the ends, so that they will 
 
 not squeeze the tenon when putting the work together. 
 
 After all cutting and fitting is done glue the work 
 
 (see note on glue at the end of 
 the book), and clamp the pieces 
 together with handscrews. 
 Hands crews are of the form as 
 shown in Fig. 96. 
 
 In order further to strength- 
 FlG * 96 - en this kind of joint, small 
 
 iron pins may be driven into the back through 
 the tenon, but they must not come through the work. 
 The pins may be made by cutting wire brads off to 
 the required length and driving them in and setting 
 them below the surface with a nail set. After the glue 
 is set finish off the work with a smooth plane. 
 
 EXERCISE NUMBER 7. 
 
 DOVETAILING. 
 
 One of the most important methods employed by 
 the joiner is that termed dovetailing, which is of three 
 kinds, namely, common, lap, and miter. Common 
 dovetailing (see Fig. 97) shows the form of the pins or 
 projecting parts, as well as the excavations made to 
 receive them. Lap dovetailing is similar to this, but 
 
72 
 
 ELEMENTARY COUESE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 in that system the ends of the dovetails of the side A, 
 Fig. 98, are shortened, and the recesses which are to 
 receive them in B are not cut through when joined 
 
 F« G, 97. 
 
 together; only the ledge is visible on the return side. 
 Miter dovetailing (sometimes also called secret dove- 
 tailing) conceals the dovetails, and shows only the 
 miter at the edges. The manner in which this joint 
 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 73 
 
 is made will be understood from Fig. 99, in which the 
 two parts A and B are given, each part being lettered 
 to correspond with the position it is to occupy when 
 
 Fig. as 
 
 the sides are joined. Concealed dovetailing is par- 
 ticularly useful where the faces of the boards are in- 
 tended to form a salient angle; that is, one which is on 
 the outside of any piece of work; but when the faces 
 
74 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 form a re-entrant angle, that is, a joint to be seen from 
 the inside, common dovetailing will answer best; for, 
 first, it is stronger, because the dovetails pass entirely 
 
 Fig. 69 
 
 instead of only partly through; secondly, it is cheaper, 
 for the dovetails which go through the whole wood 
 take up much less time in working than where a miter 
 
 Fig. ioo. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 75 
 
 has to be left; and further, if well executed, the dove- 
 tails are, by the very nature of the work, concealed in- 
 ternally. 
 
 Fig. 100 shows a variation of the common dovetail, 
 
 r 
 
 tf 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 4". 
 
 *j 
 
 ,-.. 
 
 t 
 
 — 
 
 i 
 
 | 
 
 
 
 •I. 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. i oi, 
 
 used in attaching the fronts of drawers to the sides, 
 and for similar purposes. 
 
 In Fig. 101 is given the working drawing of the 
 common dovetail, and Fig. 102, A-B shows the details 
 of each piece. 
 
76 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 The stock can be prepared in one piece (having it 
 long enough so that if a poor joining is made, the dove- 
 tails can be cut off and new ones cut on this piece). 
 After planing, cut in two, square one end of each piece 
 (the ends to be joined). To lay out the work, it is 
 advisable to lay out the piece with the pins or tenons 
 first. From the squared end measure mthe thickness 
 of the side; then mark on both sides, using the knife 
 to draw the lines. 
 
 On the face side (which is the side that would be 
 toward the inside of a box) lay off the lines shown for 
 
 B 
 
 Fig. I o z. 
 
 the pins in the detail marked A, Fig. 102. These lines 
 can be drawn from the working edge with a gauge, or, 
 if the ends are perfectly square, the square can be 
 used (the lines being parallel with the edge). From 
 these lines will be drawn the oblique lines across the 
 end with the bevel set at a taper of 1 inch to 4 inches. 
 The bevel can be set by the steel framing square, by 
 the methods already given. 
 
 After drawing the lines saw down the required depth 
 on the outside of the line, and remove the pieces be- 
 tween the pins or tenons by first boring a hole through 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK 
 
 77 
 
 the piece to be removed, then cutting from both sides 
 with the chisel. 
 
 Fig i 
 
 (The boring is done with the brace, Fig. 103, and 
 the bit, Fig. 104. Bits are of different forms; Fig. 105 
 shows a number of different styles). 
 
 Fig .104 
 
 It will be necessary only to draw the lines across 
 the end of the piece marked B, Fig. 102, as the mark- 
 ing of this piece for the recesses will be made by hold- 
 ing in position the piece already cut, and scribing or 
 marking the pins or tenons, then squaring the lines 
 across the end. 
 
 Great care must be taken in sawing the mortises if a 
 perfect fit is desired. This can be done only by saw- 
 ing on the inside of the line, cutting the lines in two. 
 The pieces should go together by light driving, and 
 should be perfectly square on the inside. If the joint 
 is satisfactory take apart and glue together. After the 
 glue is dry the joint can be smoothed and the ends of 
 
78 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 the pieces cut off and squared to the proper dimen- 
 sions given in Fig. 101. 
 
 THfcBseWGD; 
 
 FlG.IOS 
 
EXERCISE NUMBER 8. 
 
 DOOR FRAME FOR GLASS PANEL. 
 
 The preceding exercises are only a few of the meth- 
 ods employed by the workmen in joining pieces to- 
 gether. The experience gained in their execution will 
 be of great help in the work that follows. 
 
 Fig. 106 shows the working drawing for a small 
 frame door for a glass panel; the details and sections 
 of the pieces required are shown in Fig. 107. 
 
 It must be taken into consideration that this door 
 is actually to fit into an opening of a given size, and a 
 little forethought will be necessary to work the ma- 
 terial so that when all cutting and fitting is done the 
 correct size will be the result of the labor expended. 
 
 Study the drawing and make out a bill of lumber, 
 noting what work must be done in order to proceed 
 intelligently with the work. 
 
 The outside size of the door is 9 inches by 12 
 inches, and the width of the stiles is 2 inches. The 
 width of the top rail is 1^ inches, and the width of 
 the bottom rail is 2 inches, so that (allowing a little on 
 the length of the rails so that the tenons would project 
 through the stiles about |- inch, and the stiles would 
 project beyond the rails about ^ inch, leaving what 
 is known to workmen as horns) the bill of lumber 
 would be: 
 
 2 pieces 13 in x 2 in x 1 in. 
 1 piece 9J in x 2 in x 1 in. 
 1 piece 9i in x 1^ in x 1 in. 
 
 Bill of Lumber 
 
 79 
 
80 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 2 — 
 
 
 -w 
 
 ± 
 
 K- 
 
 a~ 
 
 
 ^ — * 
 
 "f 
 :*- 
 
 /K' 
 
 ru 
 
 -v 
 
 . 
 
 \ . jfc. „£' 
 
 :-*vJ 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 i • 
 i ■ 
 
 ; i 
 ■ i 
 
 i i 
 
 I 
 i 
 
 Fig, loo. 
 
 It must also be taken into consideration that the 
 door must be planed on the edges and the ends when 
 it is all put together; it will be necessary to allow for 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 81 
 
 this work when the material is being planed; having 
 the stiles and rails a little over size in width will pro- 
 vide for this. 
 
 The laying out of this exercise is important, for 
 there are several things to be considered; we must 
 first find out the depth of the rabbet and the width of 
 the molding before we proceed to lay out the work. 
 
 It will be seen from section drawing A, Fig. 107, 
 that the molding from the edges of the piece to the 
 quirk is 5-16 inch, (this is the depth that the molding 
 plane cuts); the rabbet is also the same depth; the 
 opening between the stiles is 5 inches; to this must 
 be added the depth of the molding and rabbet on both 
 sides, which makes the distance between the shoulders 
 of the rails 5-| inches. 
 
 A simple rule to follow in laying out work, where 
 pieces are in pairs or right and left, is to place the 
 pieces together with their faces out and their edges up. 
 
 Placing the rails in this position, lay out the rails. 
 At the end draw a line across the edges. (It must be 
 remembered that when the pieces were sawed out, 
 they were left a little longer than the width of the 
 door, so that the position of the first line is to be de- 
 termined by the amount of extra stock left). From 
 this line measure off the width of the door and mark 
 across the other end. From these lines measure in 
 the width of the stiles, which is 2 inches; this gives 
 the width of the opening. 
 
 We saw from A, Fig. 107, that the depth of the 
 molding and the rabbet was 5-16 inch; so from the 2 
 inch line we measure back on each end 5-16 inch; this 
 
82 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 k& 
 
 T3 1 
 
 6 
 
 Fl G.IQ7. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 83 
 
 gives the lines from which the shoulder lines are to be 
 drawn across the faces and the backs of the pieces. 
 Prepare shoulders for back saw as directed in other 
 work. 
 
 Now, taking the stiles, and placing them together 
 by the rule given, lay out the lines for the extreme 
 length of the door, and from one end measure in the 
 width of the top rail (1-| inches). From the other end 
 measure in the width of the bottom rail (2 inches). 
 From these lines measure back the length of the mor- 
 tises. It will be understood that by measuring is 
 meant that lines are to be drawn. 
 
 Lines are also needed on the back edges of the stiles 
 for the mortises, as the mortise is cut all the way 
 through. To obtain those lines apply the method 
 given in exercise No. 3; never mark lines across the 
 outside of the work unless it is absolutely necessary, 
 and then with pencil only, so that they may be 
 cleaned off when the work is being finished. 
 
 The marking of the sides of the mortises and the 
 tenons is done with the mortise gauge set to the 
 dimensions given in the drawing, the gauge to be ap- 
 plied to the face side. Cut out mortises and tenons 
 as in former work, using the J inch mortising chisel 
 which is found in the tool room. 
 
 (All gauging for mortises and tenons having been 
 done from the face side, and all cutting having been 
 done to the lines, it necessarily follows that the face 
 side of the door will be flush. This is absolutely nec- 
 essary for the molding and the rabbet to match.) 
 Take the combination plow and set it to cut the rab- 
 
84 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 bet, applying the fence to the face side and cutting 
 the rabbets out of the corners opposite to where the 
 plow is placed. See that the shoe is set to stop the 
 plane cutting when the desired depth is reached. 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 Fig. 108 shows how this may be done. After cut- 
 ting the rabbet, stick the molding (which in this case 
 is called a Gothic or Scotia molding). Prepare the 
 stiles as shown in Fig. 107, B. 
 
 The joining of the molding is to be what is known 
 as coping. This is done in the following manner: The 
 molding is left projecting beyond the inside end of the 
 mortises, as shown in Fig. 107, B. The molding on 
 he rails is to be cut at an angle of 45 degrees. This 
 is done by taking the templet used in Exercise No. 6 
 and placing it on the rail as shown in Fig. 107, C, and 
 cutting the molding with a chisel down to the tenons. 
 
ELEMENTARY COUESE IN WOODWORK 
 
 85 
 
 This will give the line by which the coping is to be 
 cut. The cutting is done by using the gouge, Fig. 
 109, one that is ground on the inside preferred; cut 
 the coping deep enough to receive the molding which 
 
 ( 
 
 Ft G. 109. 
 
 projects beyond the mortise, Fig. 107, B. The line 
 which will show at the joining of the molding on the 
 face of the exercise will look like a miter joint. This 
 joint has the advantage of always being close, for no 
 amount of shrinking or swelling will open it. 
 
 After all cutting is done, put together and see if all 
 joints fit; having tenons cut as shown in Fig. 107, C. 
 This allows room for wedges. 
 
 The wedges are cut with a back saw out of a piece 
 of board of the same thickness as the tenons. Fig. 
 110 shows how this is to be done. 
 
 If the joints are all satisfactory 
 open them enough to allow the glue 
 brush to go between the shoulders 
 and the stiles; put a little glue on 
 both sides of the tenons and drive 
 together, putting clamps or large 
 handscrews on to bring the joints 
 up close; dip the points of the 
 
86 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 wedges in glue and drive them between the ends 
 of the mortise and the edges of the tenon; re- 
 move the clamps and let the glue set before smooth- 
 ing the sides of the work. The door, when the 
 wedges are driven and clamps removed, will look as 
 shown in Fig. 111. 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 The ends of the tenons and horns are sawed off and 
 the edges planed. (The gouge, Fig. 109, has a blade 
 that is curved in its section the whole length; gouges 
 are of different sweeps. The bevel which is ground 
 on the cutting edge may be on the concave or the 
 convex side; and according to this grinding the tools 
 are known as inside and outside gouges. The sharpen- 
 ing is done with a slip-stone. 
 
 After the glue is hard enough, smooth the surface 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 87 
 
 with the smooth plane, and then take sand paper and 
 finish the work. Put the sand paper on a block, be- 
 ing careful not to round the surfaces when using it. 
 
 EXERCISE NUMBER 9. 
 
 BENCH HOOK. 
 
 (This exercise may be omitted at the option of 
 instructor.) 
 
 It will not be necessary to give many directions for 
 this exercise, as the student by this time should have 
 learned the sequence of operations in preparing ma- 
 terial. The special points to be noticed in the work- 
 ing out of this exercise are that the sides are cut out 
 with the rip-saw; the ends cut with the back saw; the 
 sides to be finished with the plane, using the rabbet 
 plane to plane the corners at the stops at the ends, 
 and the jack-plane for the rest of the surfaces. Sur- 
 faces are to be finished with sand paper and shellaced. 
 
 In Fig. 112 will be seen the working drawing. The 
 thickness of stock required is If inches. The angle 
 at which to set the bevel for the ends is \ inch in 4 
 inches. All the other dimensions are found on the 
 drawing. 
 
 After the piece is cut out and finished with sand 
 paper, give it a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry 
 from 8 to 10 hours. Then with No. 00 sand paper 
 smooth the shellac (but do not cut through). After 
 which give another coat. To obtain a glossy surface 
 
88 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 the pores of the wood must be filled with the varnish; 
 by repeating the operation with the sand paper and 
 giving another coat of shellac, a very good surface 
 will be obtained. 
 
 Care must be taken in putting on the shellac var- 
 nish not to put it on too thick, as it sets or dries 
 
 IO" 
 
 o 
 
 «l 
 
 n 
 
 ■ ■ 
 ,i 
 I 
 ,1 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■± 
 
 Fig. ii2 
 quickly and an uneven coat of varnish is unsightly. 
 Spread it quickly; see that plenty of shellac is on the 
 brush; do not go over it after it has once been spread 
 evenly, as it will- roll up in small lumps which will have 
 to be left to dry before anything can be done to it, 
 and then it will take a great amount of labor to 
 smooth it. 
 
 This is one method of finishing with shellac varnish. 
 
 To prepare shellac varnish see note. 
 
EXERCISE NUMBER 10. 
 
 BOX WITH SLIDING TOP. 
 
 There are so many ways in which a box may be 
 made that it would be out of place here to enumerate 
 them all. The joints used here are known as butt 
 joints. 
 
 Fig. 113 is the working drawing; the details of the 
 work are shown in Fig. 114. 
 
 The first steps to be taken in making this exercise 
 is to make out a bill of lumber. By the drawing we 
 find the length of the box to be 12 inches, the width 
 to be 7 inches, and the height to be 5 inches, allowing 
 | inch on each end of the sides for finishing. The side 
 pieces would be 12^ inches. The thickness of the 
 sides is ^ inch and the ends are let into the sides 
 J inch as shown in Fig. 114, A; this would make the 
 length of the ends 6i inches finished; one end 
 being £ inch narrower than the other to let the top 
 slide over it in the groove on the sides. The width 
 of one end would be 5 inches, and of the other 4i 
 inches. The bottom is to be let into the sides and 
 ends in a groove which is J inch deep. This would 
 make the bottom 11^ inches long, 6^ inches wide, and 
 | inch thick. The top slides in the groove shown in 
 the section at B, Fig. 114, which is J inch deep, and 
 the end of the top goes into the groove in the end of 
 the box, which is } inch deep. This would make the 
 length of the top llf inches, the width 6^ inches, and 
 
90 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 **t — 
 
 f 
 
 I., > ^ ... 
 
 ,*9 
 
 --■* 
 
 ' =W 
 
 • — S 
 
 ■ — lol- 
 — «■ 
 
 LL 
 
 K 
 
 ni 
 
 -Lj_ 
 
 — -»- 
 
 !r— - - it- 
 
 to 
 
 6 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 91 
 
 the thickness £ inch. The bill of lumber would be as 
 follows : 
 
 Bill of 
 
 Sides, 2 pieces 12|inx+in 
 Lumber Top, 1 piece llfinx6iinxiiii. 
 
 Cherrv or End ' X piece 6 i inxomx 2in. 
 p.- i? End, 1 piece 6^inx4^inx^ir 
 
 Finished 
 
 Size. 
 
 Bottom, 1 piece Il^inx6^inx2in. 
 
 2=i 
 
 1 
 
 
 SECTION 
 OF 5 I DE5 ANO 
 WIDE END 
 
 
 1 
 
 Si 
 
 PfC.II4r 
 
 5ECTI ON OF • 
 
 TOP f\tt D BOTTOM. 
 
 SECT! ON O f= 
 NflRROW SI 
 
 -"■ 
 
 
 1 
 
92 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 The material used in this exercise will be planed 
 nearly to the thickness by the planing machine, 
 enough being left to smooth the work. Select and lay 
 out on a board the pieces required (allowing enough for 
 the work on the edges) . Saw out the pieces; then 
 plane the edges by the methods given, omitting the 
 planing of the face side and the back, but select and 
 mark the sides for the working faces. 
 
 The extremities of the end pieces are to be planed 
 perfectly square to insure a close fit against the sides. 
 The method of planing the ends is to plane half way 
 through from the edge, then plane from the other 
 edge, being careful not to let the plane go all the way 
 across, as the corner will be liable to break off. 
 
 It will not be necessary to plane the ends of the 
 sides until the box is glued together, when they can 
 be finished off even with the end. 
 
 To lay out and prepare the sides, place the pieces 
 together, faces out and edges up, draw a line across 
 the edges at the ends for the full length of the box, 
 then measure back the thickness of the ends. From 
 these lines mark across the faces of each piece. It 
 will be noticed that one end of each side can be sawed 
 across, but the other end where the top enters the 
 grooves will have to be cut partly with a saw and the 
 rest of the way with a chisel. Prepare the ends the 
 same as the shoulders of the tenon, being careful 
 not to cut the groove all the way across where the top 
 enters. 
 
 Gauge the depth to which the ends go into the 
 sides, and after sawing across remove the pieces from 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 93 
 
 the corners with a chisel. It will be necessary only 
 to have the end pieces the correct length, as there will 
 be no lines to be drawn on them. 
 
 Take the plow plane and put a J inch iron into it, 
 and set it for the grooves that are cut out of the sides 
 and the ends. 
 
 The grooves are all the same distance in from the 
 edges and are all the same depth. To protect the 
 bench while using the plow, get a piece of board and 
 on it fasten pieces to hold the work while running the 
 groove. This is done by sawing out three or four 
 pieces as shown in Fig. 115, and fastening them to the 
 board as shown in Fig. 116. 
 
 FiG.»i5. F:g. lie. 
 
 The tongue on the edges of the top and the bottom 
 can be made with the plow by fastening the pieces in 
 the vise and rabbeting out the corners as shown in C, 
 Fig. 114. 
 
 After all cutting and fitting has been done smooth 
 the inside of each piece with the plane; then take the 
 steel scraper (shown in Fig. 117), and scrape the sur- 
 faces: then finish with sand paper; glue the corners; 
 
 put the bottom in place and 
 fasten together with hand screws 
 and let dry. There are no nails 
 used in the construction of this 
 Fig (17 exercise. 
 
94 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Finish the outside of the box in the same way that 
 the inside was done. 
 
 After finishing the outside and the top, use filler or 
 stain to color the wood. The filler is a mixture of 
 fine whiting and linseed oil with a little turpentine to 
 act as a dryer, colored with any of the pigments de- 
 sired. A little experience is necessary in using the 
 colors to obtain the desired shade. 
 
 The filler comes already prepared, of a cream color, 
 and must be colored as required. Apply the filler 
 with a brush, and let it stand on the wood for a short 
 time; then rub it off with cotton waste or a rag; then 
 set the work aside until the surfaces are perfectly hard; 
 then give a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry. Re- 
 peat the operation two or three times, using sand 
 paper to smooth each coat of varnish. 
 
 After the varnish is thoroughly hard, take powdered 
 pumice and oil or water, using a soft rag, and rub the 
 surfaces until they are smooth; then take rotten stone 
 and oil and rub until it has a fairly bright gloss. Rub 
 with a soft dry cloth, then finish with the palm of the 
 hand until a bright glossy surface is obtained. 
 
 For polishing see note. 
 
 PROBLEM IN TRUSS WORK. 
 
 The preceding work is what might be termed joiner 
 work; the carpenter also is called upon to join timbers, 
 and uses to a great extent the same joints that the 
 joiner does, but the joiner's work is usually where it 
 must bear inspection, whereas the carpenter's work is 
 generally covered over either by plaster or casings. A 
 single mechanic may be able to perform every kind of 
 
ELEMENTAEY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 95 
 
 work that is required in the construction of a building; 
 thus the two trades are usually spoken of as one, i. e., 
 arpenter work. 
 
 i a' 
 
 ~7T 
 
 r 
 i 
 
 
 *r 
 
 Fig. n&; 
 
 In Fig. 118 is shown a method that is sometimes 
 used in the construction of trusses. A truss is that 
 part of a roof which supports the purlines, rafters and 
 sheathing. A roof is the covering or upper enclosure 
 of a building with the frame work by which it is sup- 
 ported. It may be of almost any shape. A light roof 
 is usually of moderate span, without trusses, the raft- 
 ers being supported by the walls or partitions of the 
 building. A heavy roof is employed for wider spans, 
 
96 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 and the rafters are then supported by the purlines and 
 trusses. A truss is usually required for spans of more 
 than 20 feet. 
 
 *The span of a roof is the horizontal distance be- 
 tween the external surfaces of the walls of the build- 
 ing; its rise is a vertical let fall from its ridge to a 
 horizontal line joining the intersections of the external 
 surfaces of the walls and the roof surfaces. The in- 
 clination of a roof equals the angles between its sur- 
 face and a horizontal. 
 
 The span of a truss is the horizontal distance be- 
 tween the centers of its end joints, and is usually the 
 same as that between the centers of the walls, which 
 support the truss. Its rise is the vertical connecting 
 its span line and the center of the joint at the apex or 
 highest point of the truss. 
 
 A member of a truss is any straight or curved piece 
 which connects two adjacent joints of the truss. 
 
 The upper chord is composed of the members which 
 form the upper edge or margin of the truss. Each 
 half of the upper chord of a triangular truss is often 
 called a principal. The lower chord is composed of 
 the members forming the lower edge of the truss. If 
 straight, this is termed the tie-beam or tie-rod; the first 
 being a wooden timber; the second, one or more rods 
 of iron. 
 
 The web members connect the joints of one chord 
 with those of the other, and may be radials in case of 
 curved trusses, diagonals, or verticals. They are com- 
 monly called struts where they resist compression, ties 
 
 * Definitions from Ricker's Trussed Roofs. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 97 
 
 where they resist tension, and strut-ties where they re- 
 sist compression and tension. 
 
 A joint is the connection of two or more members 
 whose center lines must intersect at a common point 
 if possible, this common point being the center of the 
 joint. 
 
 The rafters of light roofs are not trussed, but rest 
 directly on the walls, and support the sheathing and 
 covering of the roof. 
 
 Heavy roofs are supported by trusses resting on the 
 side walls. 
 
 The sheathing is supported by rafters which rest on 
 the purlines, these being supported by the trusses. 
 
 The drawing, Fig. 118, shows the half of a truss; the 
 members are the upper chord, the lower chord, and a 
 strut. 
 
 Although carpenter work is usually of a rough char- 
 acter, the joints of a truss should fit snugly so that 
 there will be no room to give when loaded; so, for the 
 practice, the student will plane the stock either to the 
 sizes given in the drawing or double the sizes, making 
 the whole truss as time and circumstances permit. 
 (This to be determined by the instructor.) 
 
 Fig. 119 shows what is termed a truss diagram; the 
 distance from point A, to B, is the distance between 
 the center of the walls, and the angle A, C, D, is the 
 inclination or pitch of the roof. The pitch of the roof 
 is determined by the distance the peak of the roof 
 rises above the walls; thus if a roof has a quarter pitch, 
 the peak would rise above the walls one quarter the 
 width of the building; if half pitch the peak would rise 
 
98 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 one half the width of the building, etc. For simplicity 
 in laying out this problem we will make the pitch one 
 half. The points A, B, represent the span of the 
 walls; also the lines A, C, and B, C, show the outside 
 
 Fig. iia 
 
 margin of the upper-chord of the truss. By bisecting 
 A, B, and erecting a perpendicular at D, to C, we divide . 
 the triangle A, B, C, into two triangles, A, D, C, and B, 
 D, C. Now, the line A, C, is the hypotenuse of the right- 
 angled triangle A, D, C. We had one example of find- 
 ing the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angled tri- 
 angle in Exercise No. 4. The workman who lays out 
 rafters or trusses rarely takes time to calculate the 
 hypotenuse of the triangle, but uses the steel framing 
 square in the following manner. He obtains the hori- 
 zontal distance at the bottom of the rafters, and the 
 pitch. Take for example a truss that is 30 feet across 
 from point to point, and a pitch of one half; then the 
 distance the peak would rise would be 15 feet. Take 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 99 
 
 the framing square and lay it on the chord, taking 12 
 inches on the blade and 12 inches on the tongue and 
 mark off 15 triangles as shown in Fig. 120, which is 
 half the width of the building. The rise was also 15 
 feet; so by using the square as shown, we obtain the 
 rise and the run of the rafter. The line on one side of 
 
 id 
 • — 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 
 FlG.120 
 
 T»E^ BEAM, 
 
 the square gives the angle at which the chord or rafter 
 is to be cut at the peak. The line at the other end of 
 the chord gives the line from which to measure the 
 distance the tenon and shoulders go down into the tie- 
 beam. The strut shown in the drawing, Fig. 118, has one 
 joint square, and the other at an angle of 45 degrees. 
 
 LofC. 
 
100 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Where the pitch is one half, the angles are 45 degrees 
 and right angles. 
 
 The line E, D, on the diagram represents a tie-rod, 
 which by the construction of this truss would natur- 
 ally tend to stiffen the structure by supporting the 
 center of the tie-beam. 
 
 Wire, nuts, and washers are supplied (where the stu- 
 dent makes a whole model) to make the tie-strut. 
 
 The student in writing out notes will make two 
 sketches of trusses he may have observed on shop 
 visits. The buildings visited almost all have trussed 
 roofs, either wood or iron. • 
 
 PROBLEM IN STAIR BUILDING. 
 
 Two or three students may work together on this 
 problem. 
 
 Read all through before commencing work. 
 
 The stair and the hand-rail may be considered as 
 one problem, since the hand-rail forms part of the com- 
 pleted staircase, but they are separated into two dis- 
 tinct problems for convenience in working them out. 
 
 In Fig. 121, is shown the plan and the elevation of 
 the stair, the dimensions for each piece required are 
 calculated by the student from this drawing. The 
 name of each piece also is found in Fig. 121. The 
 nosing is to be added to the width of the tread. The 
 nosing is the part which projects beyond the front of 
 the riser. 
 
 The thickness of the stringers is to be -| inch, the 
 risers f inches, the treads | inches, and the well-hole 
 is to be built up as in practical work, as shown in Fig. 
 122. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 101 
 
 TREflO 
 
 UUT^IPE STSINtei 
 
 LAN PINO. 
 
 WELL. 
 
 
 «r 
 
 Pl( 
 
 » 121 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 • ^ 
 
 
 
 5?" 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ^ ^^^ 
 
 ^v 
 
 in 
 5 
 
 V 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 
 / 
 s 
 
 * 
 
 ' ( 
 
 
 FORM OF BILL OF LUMBER. 
 
 / 
 
 Wall stringer 
 
 Outside stringer 
 
 Risers (5 pieces) 
 
 Treads plus nosings (4 pieces) 
 
 Top tread (1 piece) 
 
 Well hole piece 
 
 Length W 
 
 dth Thickness 
 
 C i 
 
 i i 
 a 
 a 
 
 c i 
 
 u 
 
102 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 F\ G . I 2 2 
 
 
 
 •v/ 4 N^ 
 
 s/ sx; 
 
 ^y e /\ 
 
 \2 / 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 x^v^/^x 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 v» 
 
 S UPPORT fO R 
 WtUL-HOLt PIECE 
 
 H 
 
 3^ 
 
 R 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 103 
 
 After the material is prepared, proceed to make the 
 templets. The templets required are shown in Fig. 
 122. 
 
 Templet E, is used to lay out the brackets for the 
 risers and treads on the wall and outside stringers; 
 templet G, to lay out the housing for the treads on the 
 wall stringer; templet H, for the housing for the risers 
 on the wall stringer. 
 
 Now take the piece for the wall stringer, A, Fig. 
 122, and draw the line X, Y; proceed to lay it out. 
 
 Commencing at the bottom, lay templet E on the 
 piece as shown at 1 A, and draw lines for the riser and 
 the bottom of the tread; then place the templet as 
 shown by 2 A, (remembering that in order to have the 
 bottom step the same height as the others the bottom 
 riser must be the thickness of the tread narrower than 
 the others. This will be seen by looking at the draw- 
 ing, Fig. 122, which shows the height of the risers). 
 Then place templet E, in position as indicated by 3 A, 
 and draw the line for the riser and the tread, and so 
 on until all the lines have been drawn which will rep- 
 resent the front of the risers and the bottom side of 
 the treads. 
 
 After having drawn these lines, take templet G, and 
 place it on the tread line as shown at J, Fig. 122, and 
 draw the lines for the top of the steps, the nosing, and 
 the wedges; the thickness of the step is to be measured 
 up from the tread line. 
 
 Now take templet H, place it in position on the riser 
 lines, J, Fig. 122, draw lines back of the riser line for 
 the thickness of the risers and the wedges; then pro- 
 
104 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 ceed to cut out the housing in the following man- 
 ner: 
 
 Take a center or auger bit the same size as the thick- 
 ness of the step and bore the depth that the housing 
 is to be, as shown at 5 A, Fig. 122.; then take a chisel 
 and cut out as shown at 4 A, Fig. 122. This will give 
 room to use the back saw to cut the rest of the lines. 
 Now take a chisel and remove the pieces to the depth 
 required, which, in this case, is J inch; cut for the 
 risers and remove in the same manner. 
 
 In larger work of this kind a router should be used. 
 
 To lay out the outside stringer take templet E, Fig. 
 122, and mark as at B, Fig. 122. The riser is to form 
 a miter with the front of the bracket; so it will be 
 necessary to begin at the top step and saw the stringer 
 off square to the face; then take a bevel (which will be 
 set at an angle of 45 degrees) and mark from the riser 
 line so that it will form a miter. Saw down this line; 
 then saw the next tread line square to the face. Re- 
 peat with the bevel as before, and saw the next riser 
 line, and so on until the bottom is reached. C, and D, 
 Fig. 122, show how the risers and the treads are to be 
 cut. The ends of the risers are to be cut at an angle 
 of 45 degrees to fit the bracket on the outside stringer. 
 The end of the step is cut as shown in order to receive 
 the return nosing. The dovetails on the end are to 
 receive the baluster which supports the hand-rail. 
 
 The piece F, which is to form the well-hole, is built 
 up of pieces, then planed out with a round bottom 
 plane. ' The method of fastening this piece to the 
 stringer is to halve the stringer and to cut out the well- 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 105 
 
 hole piece to receive it; then glue and screw together. 
 I, Fig. 122, shows what the top or landing step is to 
 be. 
 
 The curves that are shown at the bottom and the top 
 of the stringers are known as easings. The student will 
 use his own ingenuity in forming the easing, remem- 
 bering that a little glue will fasten pieces together, 
 and that it is not necessary to take a board the whole 
 width at those points of the stringers to accomplish 
 this. 
 
 To put the stairs together after all the pieces have 
 been prepared, place the bottom riser in place and 
 fasten it in with glue and a wedge; then toe-nail it into 
 the stringer from the back. Now fasten the outside 
 stringer to the riser, bracing it into position; then fit 
 the second riser and the first tread into place; then 
 fasten with glue and wedges, and. toe-nail the riser and 
 the tread to the stringer. The treads will be nailed to 
 the risers so as to unite the work firmly together. 
 
 Another method of fast- 
 ening the riser to the tread 
 is to groove the front edge 
 of the tread and have a 
 tongue on the riser, an illus- 
 tration of which is shown 
 in Fig. 123. 
 
 To decorate stairways 
 mouldings are used; gener- 
 ally a cove moulding is fast- 
 ened under the front and the end of the tread, an 
 illustration of which is shown at Fig. 124. The ham- 
 
100 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 mer is used in this problem; it is hardly necessary to 
 explain its use. 
 
 Toe-nailing is the driving of nails obliquely in order 
 to fasten two pieces that may be at an angle to each 
 other, as illustrated by Fig. 125. 
 
 Fig. 125 
 
 problem in hand railing. 
 
 The student, not having had wood turning as yet, 
 will not consider the making of the turned balusters, 
 such work being introduced in the course in wood 
 turning. 
 
 In commencing work on the hand railing, notice the 
 several parts that have to be made; first, the newel 
 
ELEMENTAEY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 107 
 
 Fig. 126 
 
 post; second, the easing 
 at the bottom of the 
 stairs; third, the straight 
 piece of railing; fourth, 
 the return or twist at the 
 top. 
 
 Fig. 126 shows the 
 working drawing for the 
 newel post, the explana- 
 tion of which will be un- 
 necessary. The easing is 
 the bend in 'the rail be- 
 fore it strikes the newel 
 post . The method of lay- 
 ing out a graceful easing 
 is shown in Fig. 127. 
 The straight piece of rail 
 is worked out with the 
 hollow and the round 
 planes which are to be 
 found in the tool room. 
 
 The return or twist re- 
 quires to be developed by 
 
 descriptive geometry, and to do this we will refer to 
 drawing Fig. 121 in order to find the diameter of the 
 well. It will be noticed that one half of the twist is 
 parallel with the landing and that the curve for that 
 half would be a true quarter circle, while the other half 
 of the twist, that part which follows the incline of the 
 stairs, would be part of an ellipse. 
 
 To demonstrate this, take a cylinder and cut it at an 
 
108 
 
 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Fig. 1 27 
 
 angle to its axis; the section through which the cylin- 
 der was cut would be an ellipse, an illustration of 
 
 which is shown by Fig. 128. 
 To develop this part of the 
 ellipse lay out, on a board, 
 by the following method, 
 a full sized drawing of the 
 rail required. 
 
 On the board draw a 
 straight line which will be 
 the center line of the well, 
 and on any convenient 
 Ft G.i 28, point placing the leg of the 
 compass (which will be set 
 at the required radius), de- 
 scribe a semi-circle, which 
 will represent the diameter 
 of the well given in the plan 
 in Fig. 121. Now from the 
 semi-circle draw lines par- 
 allel to the center line, which will represent the out- 
 side stringer of the stair and the casing on the landing. 
 Fig. 129 shows the development thus far. 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 109 
 
 The rail is to be 1^ inches wide and the balusters to 
 be i inch square. The side of the balusters which 
 come on the outside of the stairs comes even with the 
 stringer, and the rail is to be placed so that the bal- 
 usters are on its center. 
 
 From the line which is already drawn to show the 
 part which is parallel to the landing, draw a line for 
 the center of the rail, and on each side of the center 
 line lay out half the Avidth of the rail. On the other 
 half, which represents the outside stringer (the incline 
 
 of the twist), draw the center 
 line of the rail for the straight 
 part; then draw lines for the 
 width of the rail as on the other 
 half. Now, to obtain that part 
 of the ellipse required, take the 
 pitch-board E, Fig. 122, and 
 place it on the drawing as shown 
 in Fig. 130; then draw lines 
 from points X, Y, Z, perpendic- 
 ular to the center line. Now set 
 the compass to the distance A, 
 B, and mark the distance A, B, 
 on each side of the point Y. 
 This gives the width of the piece 
 required for the twist on the 
 center line. 
 
 Describe the ellipse. The 
 major chord would be 2 (E, F,) 
 for the outside ellipse, and the minor chord is G, H, 
 for the inside. 
 
 Mi 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 fl: 
 h 
 1/5 
 
 tL 
 
 
 111 
 
 Z 
 
 HI 
 
 z 
 
 in 
 
 H 
 
 5 
 
 z 
 
 5 
 
 z 
 
 j 
 
 u. 
 
 
 U! 
 Z 
 
 Fig. i2o. 
 
110 
 
 ELEMENTAKY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Pi 6,130 
 
 There are several methods used in describing an 
 ellipse which the student no doubt has used in study- 
 ing geometry, but the practical stair builder uses a 
 trammel and block. The block 
 is grooved through its center as 
 shown in Fig. 131, and the tram- 
 mel is a strip of wood; a pencil 
 is fastened on one end and pins 
 are fixed at points to be found 
 by trial near the middle. Fig. 
 132 shows how the trammel is 
 made. The pins slide in the 
 grooves of the block, and the 
 pencil marks the curve required 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Fig. 131 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Ill 
 
112 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Fig. 133 gives a very comprehensive idea of the 
 pieces before they are worked down. The pieces at 
 
 JL 
 
 "1 — w 
 
 Pig. 13a 
 
 the right and at the top are the moulds, and the mould 
 for the rail is on the top of the piece which is seen in 
 the front of the figure. 
 
 After having laid out the lines as directed make the 
 moulds or templets out of thin stuff; then mark the 
 stock (out of which the pieces of the rail are to be 
 made), by the templets, and saw them out, either with 
 a compass saw, or with the band saw where it is con- 
 venient to do so. 
 
 It will be noticed that the piece out of which the 
 curved or twisted piece is made is thicker than the 
 piece which is parallel with the landing. 
 
 After the pieces are sawed out, proceed to lay out 
 the lines by which the rail is to be worked out. The 
 templet E, Fig. 122, is used to obtain the perpendicu- 
 lar and the horizontal lines, from which is drawn the 
 rectangle that is seen on the end of the rail, (in Fig. 
 133,) and the templet seen on the right (in Fig. 133) 
 is used to obtain the curved lines on the top. Work 
 off the surplus stock on each side of the rectangle 
 with the draw knife and the spokeshave, then work 
 off the top and the bottom, taking care to make a 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 113 
 
 graceful curve on the top and the bottom. Then 
 mark the shape of the rail on the end and work out. 
 In Fig. 134 is seen the finished twist developed from 
 the pieces shown at Fig. 133. 
 
 Fig. 131 
 
NOTES. 
 
 TO DISSOLVE SHELLAC. 
 
 Put gum shellac into a glass or earthen vessel (a wooden box 
 coated inside with glue makes a very good vessel in which to 
 dissolve shellac), and pour over it alcohol enough to cover the 
 shellac; keep stirring it until no lumps remain. This will take 
 from two to three hours, according to quantity. If left in a tin 
 can the shellac becomes very dark. To clear it when dark add 
 a little oxalic acid and stir until cleared. 
 
 TO POLISH WITH SHELLAC. 
 
 Dissolve shellac in 90 per cent alcohol. Stir for two hours, 
 though not continually; do not allow it to stand long enough for 
 lumps to settle. After the shellac is dissolved the polish is 
 ready for use. 
 
 Now take a piece of old soft woolen material, and form it into 
 a ball about the size of an egg in a way to permit the lower side 
 to remain smooth. On the latter pour about from one-half to 
 one thimbleful of the polish. Around the whole put a four- 
 cornered piece of old linen about 10x13 inches, and fold it 
 around the ball just as you have done with the woolen cloth but 
 in such a way that you can hold it by the end of the goods. On 
 the smooth side put a few drops of linseed oil, and then begin 
 to polish the surface with a light and even pressure in a circular 
 movement from one side to the other, forward and backward, until 
 the entire surface receives a slight covering of polish. When 
 the work becomes more difficult the ball requires moistening by 
 a few drops of oil; at the same time put a few drops of oil on the 
 plate, and the ball w?ll move easily again. You must observe 
 the work constantly. If everything is in order the plate as well 
 as the ball will keep clean, but if the ball sticks to the plate and 
 gets smeary then you will know that the polish is too thick and 
 must be thinned with alcohol, which you are to put on the 
 woolen cloth, previously removing the linen and putting it back 
 on the other side; that is, turn the linen rag before putting it 
 
 114 
 
ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 115 
 
 back on the ball. After having polished it sufficiently so (hat 
 all the pores of the wood are filled and the surface has a nice 
 gloss, put another soft linen rag around the ball, and moisten it 
 with a few drops of alcohol; again polish as before until the flat 
 surface has a high grade of smoothness and gloss and all the 
 greasy appearance has disappeared. You must be very careful, 
 however, to apply but a few drops of alcohol and to press these 
 into the ball as well as possible; otherwise the strength of it 
 may dissolve the polish in some places entirely. When at last 
 the ball leaves but weak traces, then polish fast with strong 
 strokes forward and backward until the ball is completely dry 
 and the surface of the wood very glossy. 
 
 If you polish the finished surface once more after ten days 
 the gloss will be nicer, as the surface gets harder with age. 
 
 If you want the polish to be colored use Curcuma for yellow, 
 Sandal for red, and Spanish green for green. The color is to be 
 put in a thin coat between two linen rags, over which should be 
 put a woolen rag. While polishing some of the coloring will 
 stick to the polish. 
 
 It is not to be expected that by working according to these 
 directions you will learn how to polish perfectly, as there are 
 always some unlooked-for difficulties, but generally you can tell 
 what to do in any emergency. 
 
 glue. ' 
 
 How to dissolve and how to use. 
 
 Glue, which one workman finds all right and from which he 
 obtains excellent results, may, in the hands of another work- 
 man, prove a failure from many causes, some of which may be 
 that the glue is too thick, or it may have been chilled before the 
 pieces were clamped together, or the glue is too thin. The 
 workman has to know from experience just how thick the glue 
 has to be for the work he has on hand. A hardwood piece of 
 work requires a thinner glue than soft wood. The average con- 
 sistency of glue should be about like that of thin syrup, and 
 should be applied hfit to the work. Sometimes in cold weather 
 the glue "sets " quickly; then the pieces to be glued should be 
 
116 ELEMENTARY COURSE IN WOODWORK. 
 
 heated so that the glue may be kept soft. When the pieces are 
 put together clamp them up quickly or rub them together, forc- 
 ing out the surplus glue from the joint. When work is glued 
 together it should stand from eight to twelve hours before be- 
 ing handled. 
 
 When the end grain of wood has to be glued, it should first 
 be sized, that is, it should be given a coat of glue and let dry. 
 This fills the pores of the wood so that when the joint is made 
 it will hold. 
 
 There are two kinds of glue, animal and fish glue. Animal 
 glue is made from the refuse of slaughter houses and tanneries, 
 and the number of grades and colors are innumerable. Fish 
 glue is made chiefly from the entrails and skin of fish, and is 
 mostly in liquid form. 
 
 To prepare glue, put as much as is needed in the glue pot 
 and cover over with cold water; then let it soak from six to ten 
 hours, according to the quantity ; after this place the glue pot in 
 the water kettle or glue heater, and apply heat in any conven- 
 ient way to the water, which in turn heats the glue. The use of 
 the two vessels is to prevent the glue from burning. 
 
 Glue should always be used as freshly as possible, for then it 
 holds better than when it is old. 
 
 It can be made to stand the weather by adding boiled lin- 
 seed oil. Add the linseed oil to the glue slowly, stirring it all 
 the time, the proportion of oil to glue being two ounces of oil 
 to sixteen ounces of glue. Another method of preparing glue 
 to stand the weather, is to use skimmed milk instead of water 
 when preparing it. 
 
 TO TEUE OILSTONES. 
 
 Oilstones by their continuous use by students become hollow 
 at the center and must be trued up so that plane-irons and 
 chisels can be sharpened properly on them. There are a num- 
 ber of methods that can be employed to accomplish this; any of 
 them, if tried, will give good results: 
 
 1st Method. Take a piece of flags ton e.or any kind of stone 
 that has a flat surface, and on it place sharp sand and wet it 
 
ELEMENTARY COUESE IN WOODWORK. 117 
 
 with water. Take the oilstone, and with a circular motion rub 
 on the sand until a flat surface is obtained. The sand should 
 be kept moist during the operation. 
 
 2nd Method. Take a flat board and on it place a sheet of 
 number one and one-half sand paper; moisten slightly and rub 
 the oilstone on it until the desired results are obtained. Emery 
 cloth is also good. 
 
 3rd Method. "We have obtained the best and quickest re- 
 sults from this method, which is to have an iron plate finely 
 corrugated and sprinkle No. 30 or No. 40 emery on it; rub the 
 oilstone over the plate, sprinkling a little emery from time to 
 time as the work advances. Use the emery dry. An oilstone 
 in very poor condition can be trued up by this method in from 
 three to five minutes. 
 
 A mixture to apply to a hard oilstone to make it " cut " when 
 sharpening a plane iron or a chisel, is to take glycerine one part 
 and alcohol one part. This mixture will not become gummy, 
 and an oilstone that is sometimes considered worthless while 
 using common oils, will be found to give good satisfaction. 
 
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•SIX! 5IX! 
 
 BRIGHT NEW 
 
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 In the Misty 
 Realm o^ Fable 
 
 By Emma Robinson Kleckner 
 
 Turning Points 
 
 in Teaching' 
 
 By D. C. Murphy, Ph. D. 
 Superintendent Training- Depart- 
 ment of Slippery Rock (Pa ) 
 State Normal School. 
 
 25>6e Students 
 Guide to Music 
 
 By J. N. Whybark 
 
 Norton's 
 Practical 
 Studies in 
 Grammar 
 
 Miss HaucK's 
 New Reproduc 
 tion Stories for 
 Primary 
 Grades 
 
 A New Help in 
 United States 
 History 
 
 By O. H Marsh, 
 County Supt., Mills County, la. 
 
 m THE MISTY REALM OF FABLE 
 
 " The book contains all that is best in 
 Mythology, and what it presents is made 
 the most of in the way it is told."— Wm. 
 Hawley Smith, Author and Lecturer. 
 This book is admirably adapted as a 
 Supplementary Header for fourth 
 and fifth grades. Second Edition. 
 Cloth. Eight full page illustrations. 
 Many smaller ones. 160 pages, hand- 
 some cover, list 50 cents. 
 
 TURNING POINTS IN TEACHING 
 
 Dr. Murphy is a practical teacher; he 
 knows the needs of teachers and has 
 given them a book full of New Methods, 
 Ideas, Anecdotes and Helps. Some of the 
 chapters are: The First Day of School; 
 Critical Moments in the School Room; 
 Managing the Bad Bov; Managing the 
 Bad Girl; Blue Monday. Cloth, 144 
 pages, 50 cents; paper, 545 cents. 
 
 THE STUDENT'S GUIDE TO MUSIC 
 
 In the Student's Guide to Music we find 
 just what its name indicates; all the 
 necessary rudiments of music; talks on 
 Voice Culture, Breathing and Theory; 
 nearly 100 Exercises in Sight Singing 
 for classes in. unison; a Complete Dic- 
 tionary of musical terms. Manila bind- 
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 NORTON'S PRACTICAL STUDIES IN 
 
 GRAMMAR Theory and Practice are 
 unnniinHn conlbine d; principles and 
 definitions given from the outset, but 
 with little formality; abundance of easy 
 examples for illustrations; varied selec- 
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 several full page and haif page illustra- 
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 If the book is adopted the amount paid 
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 MISS HAUCK'S NEW REPRODUCTION 
 STORIES FOR PRIMARY GRADES 
 15 original and rewritten stories. 
 They embrace all subjects, as Little 
 Stories about Nature, Stories about 
 Animals, Children, Flowers, Trees, 
 Birds, Leaves, etc. Price 15c. 
 
 A NEW HELP IN UNITED STATES HISTORY 
 
 This is not purposed as a patent 
 method for teaching history, but 
 is the result of long experience in the school room and in normal institutes. 
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THE NEW PRACTICAL ARITHMETIC 
 
 By A. W. Rich, Professor of Mathematics in the Iowa State Nor- 
 mal School. 
 
 This book is the result of practical work in the class room, and 
 furnishes a complete course for all ordinary purposes. 
 Among the Features of Special Note are : 
 
 i. A set of tables and drills for mental work. These cover the 
 essential operations of arithmetic and are designed to make 
 the pupil proficient in the shortest time possible. 
 
 2. A presentation of the necessary definitions, principles, and 
 
 rules in compact form so as to indicate clearly the arith- 
 metical elements and relations. 
 
 3. A great number of model problem solutions. The scope, the 
 
 varied character, and the helpfulness of these emphasize the 
 thought side; and are of the highest value in developing the 
 reasoning powers. 
 
 4. A large variety of Drill Tables, Test Problems, and other 
 
 means of testing the pupil's power as well as giving him 
 mastery over the subject. 
 
 Cloth, 5 x 75^ inches; 222 pages. Price, 50 cents. 
 
 THE NEW HIGHER ARITHMETIC 
 
 The need of a good, practical, and suggestive higher text in 
 arithmetic has long been felt. Not a book of catch problems, or a 
 book filled with curious or obsolete matter is here presented; but a 
 helpful, inspiring, useful text-book. 
 
 A Special Feature May be Mentioned": 
 
 The Model Solution found so valuable in the New Practical' 
 Arithmetic, has been carried forward in this work. To this has been 
 added a feature known as "indicated work," inventional in its nature, 
 by which the pupil is taught to formulate his problems and to express 
 them in clear and definite language. 
 
 This work is regarded as of high value in enabling a pupil to 
 determine promptly the conditions of a problem, and to sec the end 
 from the beginning and then proceed by logical £teps from the 
 beginning to the end. 
 
 Cloth, 5x7^ inches. 320 pages. Price, 75 cents. 
 
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 will be refunded. 
 
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