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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
 
 (SMITHSONIAN DEPOSIT.) 
 
 Chap T '/f^/45" 
 Shelf .(2. g 
 
 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 
 
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/ 
 
 ACOUSTICS AND LOGIC 
 
 IN THEIR APPLICATION TO 
 
 READING ALOUD. 
 
 A LECTURE, DELIVERED IN UNIVERSITY HALL, OCT. 12, 1855. 
 
 OTtti) an glppenbtx 
 ON THE CLERGYMAN'S SORE THROAT. 
 
 BY RICHARD CULL, 
 
 FELLOW OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETT. 
 
 LONDON: 
 WALTON AND MABERLY, 
 
 UPPER GOWER STREET, AND IVY LANE, PATERNOSTER ROW. 
 
 1855. 
 

 W. M WATTS, CROWN COURT, TEMPLE BAR. 
 
INTRODUCTORY LECTURE, 
 
 The art of Reading aloud is essentially an art, and requires 
 special study in order for its successful practice. The object 
 aimed at in this art is the expression of mind. The object 
 aimed at in the art of Painting is the expression of mind. The 
 Sculptor's aim is the expression of mind. The object aimed at 
 in Music, and the other Fine Arts, is the expression of mind. 
 Indeed, these Arts are designated Fine because their object is 
 the expression of mind. The art of Reading aloud, then, is a 
 Fine Art. No matter what the material is in which the 
 artist works, the artist who has studied his art is able to mould 
 that material at will, and imprint it with mind. 
 
 I claim for the art of Reading, then, a high place amongst 
 the arts : and you will find that much and varied knowledge, 
 a sound judgment, a refined taste, with both energy and 
 activity of mind, are required for the successful practice of this 
 art. It requires much and varied knowledge, because it is 
 impossible for a reader to express by his voice the sense of his 
 author unless he apprehends that sense. The due appre- 
 hension of the author's scope and intention is a necessary 
 condition for its accurate expression : and a sound judgment 
 is no less necessary to appreciate the relationship and sub- 
 ordination of the several parts which constitute the author's 
 text. 
 
 If well stored and trained intellectual powers be so neces- 
 sary in a public reader, no less so are the emotional faculties, 
 duly controlled by a refined taste ; for without these how 
 shall he be able to express the phases of sentiment of the 
 
author's text ? And how shall he avoid affectation, on the one 
 hand, and vulgarity on the other ? But whatever the mental 
 constitution may be, and however efficiently it may be trained, 
 but little can be effected in this or any other Fine Art, if the 
 genius of perseverance be lacking : for it is necessary to take, 
 as it were, the principles in one hand and with the other to 
 grasp and struggle with the difficulties, until, by continuous 
 effort, they are overcome. And Sir Joshua Reynolds' dictum 
 on painting holds equally true in public reading, " that but 
 little is denied to well-directed exertion." 
 
 The art of reading aloud, then, is not so easy an acquisition 
 as many persons suppose it to be. 
 
 If, however, a low view of the art be taken, such as is 
 commonly gained from the perusal of the popular treatises on 
 Elocution, no doubt such knowledge is easily gained; but, 
 being superficial and vague, it is found to be of little practical 
 value. The mere imitation of some reciter, however able 
 and successful he may be, is not art, it is mimicry and cari- 
 cature. In public reading imitation bars originality, 
 as it does in every other art. 
 
 The object aimed at in reading aloud, whether in public 
 or private, is the expression of mind. In this general pro- 
 position, what is meant by the term expression of mind ? The 
 mere successive utterance of the author's words, as if they 
 were being read from the columns of a dictionary, with all the 
 accuracy obtained from a finished education, and the usage of 
 good society, is not what is meant. The utterance of the 
 author's words with the most slavish attention to the rules 
 of Walker is not what is meant. But the utterance of the 
 author's text with an intonation of voice appropriate to the 
 sense and sentiment ; separating by the voice what he intends 
 to be kept apart ; connecting by the voice, in that close or 
 remote degree of connection, what he intends to be so con- 
 nected ; making prominent by the voice what he in- 
 tends to claim the attention; throwing into the background 
 what he intends not to be strongly marked ; and the whole 
 to present that unity in the reading which the author has 
 given to his composition ; — this is what is meant by the term 
 expression of mind. And when a reader can effect all this 
 
without apparent effort, it will be found that the sense and 
 sentiment of the author have been honestly conveyed to the 
 auditors without drawing their attention to himself. 
 
 The expression of mind by the voice is a high object. It is 
 unselfish and disinterested. The reader's duty is to convey 
 the ideas and feelings of his author, not his own, to the 
 audience. He must not draw attention to himself ; and should 
 he, from vanity on the one hand, or ignorance on the other, 
 do so, he will fail in accomplishing the object for which he 
 reads aloud. Yes ! all egotism must be in abeyance ; he must 
 remember that he is simply the mouth of another, although he 
 is engaged in the noble work of breathing vitality into the 
 words of his author. 
 
 The art of reading, then, is essentially an art whose aim is 
 the expression of mind by the voice. The human voice is the 
 noblest and most perfect of musical instruments. It comprises 
 the voice of song and the voice of speech. The two voices 
 have much in common, and yet each has its own peculiarities : 
 and, strange to say, the voice of song, which is only used as a 
 gratification, is cultivated most sedulously for that purpose ; 
 but the voice of speech, which is daily and hourly used 
 in common life, as well as by public speakers and readers, 
 is left uncultivated, or receives only that unscientific training 
 which is given by its untaught exercise in the actual business 
 of life. 
 
 The advantages of knowledge, and the disadvantages of 
 ignorance, are well exemplified in the case of public singers 
 and readers respectively. The singer is taught to produce 
 pure tone by vocalizing aright, and is well trained to a proper 
 use of the vocal organ, the larynx ; and the result is that he 
 can follow his profession during a long career with ease, and 
 find so much pleasure in the act of singing, that, beyond 
 the demands of his profession, he spends much of his leisure in 
 the practice of vocal music. The public reader is not taught 
 to vocalize aright, and being in ignorance of the use of his vocal 
 organ, the larynx, he frequently, as a habit, misdirects his 
 efforts, and the result is a loss of voice, pain in reading, until a 
 weakened throat entirely disables him. This condition of 
 voice and throat is so common amongst the clergy as to be 
 
6 
 
 named the Clergyman's Sore Throat. One basis of the art 
 of reading is to train the speech-voice to produce the greatest 
 possible effect with the least expenditure of power, so that 
 reading may become to the reader as pleasurable an exercise 
 as singing is to the singer. 
 
 In this course of Lectures I shall describe the vocal ap- 
 paratus and its functions in relation to the right formation 
 of the speech- voice, and must therefore request your attention 
 to some anatomy and physiology in connection with acoustics 
 and music. Be not, however, alarmed ; for this description 
 will only be carried so far as is necessary for comprehending 
 the office of the vocal organ in producing the speech- voice, 
 in some degrees of its pitch and some modifications of its 
 loudness. 
 
 The varieties of sound that we hear in the speech-voice may 
 be classed under a few general heads. The varieties known 
 under the terms high and low belong to the general head, Pitch 
 of Sound. A common noise, such as the collision between my 
 hand and this desk, has no pitch. A sound, to possess pitch, 
 must consist of a certain number of impulses, or common 
 noises, of which the details are given in treatises on physics. 
 The keys of a pianoforte opposite to your left hand, as you 
 stand before it, are for notes or sounds of a low pitch ; and these 
 ascend higher, step by step, towards the right, until you arrive 
 at the top of the compass of the instrument. The human 
 voice, both of song and speech, is capable of these distinctions 
 of pitch. In song and instrumental music a few only of the 
 degrees of pitch are used, but in speech we use all of them. 
 I shall describe some of them as they occur in common con- 
 versation, and in the excitement of the passions, in order that 
 you may observe them as they are displayed in every day 
 life: and I shall endeavour to point out the emotional and 
 the intellectual signification of some of them for your own 
 application to the high purpose of expressing mind by the 
 voice. 
 
 The expressive power of the seven notes in music — for the 
 eighth, or octave, is a repetition of the first — and the variety of 
 permutations of which they are capable, are themes on which 
 many writers have been eloquent. It will be my duty to 
 
shew that the expressive powers of the speech-notes are far 
 greater — the permutations of which they are capable far more 
 numerous: and it would be easy to shew, if this were the 
 proper place for it, that some of the choicest graces of music 
 are borrowed from the expressive powers of the speech- voice — 
 as the shake, for example — which is the tremulous voice of 
 high eulogy, and, modified, of other conditions of mind. 
 
 The distinctions of sound known in the Musical Academy 
 under the terms piano and forte — soft and loud— belong to the 
 general head, Loudness of Sound. These distinctions belong, 
 also, to speech-sounds. I shall have to draw your attention to 
 loudness of sound as it is heard at the initial, middle, and end 
 of a speech-note in relation to the expressive power it gives to 
 utterance when it characterizes a man's speech. 
 
 The distinctions of sound known by the term Quality will 
 require some consideration. Every man has three distinct 
 qualities of voice, which he adapts to express the object he has 
 in view. These three qualities are — 
 
 1. The Conversational. 
 
 2. The Oratorical. 
 
 3. The Falsetto. 
 
 The Conversational, as its name implies, is used in common 
 conversation. The Oratorical is a voice of fuller volume and 
 power, and is well suited to the dignified utterance of oratory. 
 And the Falsetto, voce di testa of the singing school, is adopted 
 in both crying and laughing. 
 
 When we recognise a friend by his voice, it is the quality 
 of his voice that we recognise. It is quite true that we hear 
 and become familiar with the peculiar use and combination of 
 pitch, loudness, quality, rate of utterance, &c, of our friends, 
 and all concur to produce that style and manner which cha- 
 racterise his speech ; but it will be found, on observation, that 
 the quality of voice plays an important part in our recog- 
 nition. 
 
 The quality of each human voice is capable of being de- 
 scribed with more or less exactness. The Greek and Roman 
 rhetoricians of antiquity have left us an abundance of terms 
 for that purpose, as may be seen by consulting then' treatises. 
 I am bound, however, to confess that those terms seem to be 
 
8 
 
 better adapted for metaphorical description than for the de- 
 mands of accurate modern science. An intelligible description 
 of sounds can be given in no other language than that of 
 acoustics and music ; and even such language is unintelligible 
 to those who are practically unacquainted with sounds, as is 
 shewn by the example of the congenital deaf mute. Sounds 
 must be heard to be known, and can be known in no other 
 way. And this, I believe, is the reason we can make so little 
 practical use of the writings of the rhetoricians of antiquity. 
 
 All that is audible, then, in the speech-voice may be classed 
 under the general heads of Pitch, Loudness, and Quality ; and 
 such sounds exist in time during a longer or shorter period. 
 In music there is a well-ordered arrangement of the duration 
 of the note. In speech-notes this length depends chiefly on the 
 duration of the syllable, upon which I shall have more to say 
 in the sequel. A speech-note, then, is of some pitch, of some 
 loudness, of some quality, and of some duration in time, all of 
 which may be described — the pitch and duration with mathe- 
 matical exactness, and the loudness and quality with less ex- 
 actness. And every syllable in speech is uttered on such 
 a speech-note, there being a distinct speech-note for each syl- 
 lable. 
 
 If this description be accurate, the notes employed in speak- 
 ing are capable of receiving a notation, at least, as accurate 
 as that of music. I shall shew you the notation which I have 
 adopted, and exhibit some speech-melodies expressive of several 
 conditions of mind. The fact of an adequate notation to com- 
 pose speech-melodies will gradually become known, and speech- 
 melodies will be composed for reading with expression the 
 works of our great authors. 
 
 The speech-voice is the raw material of speech, into which 
 it is converted in its passage through the mouth. The Greeks, 
 observing this effect of the movements of the mouth, described 
 man as a voice-divider ; but the Romans, looking more to his 
 power of joining syllables, described man as a voice-articulator. 
 He is both a voice-divider and a voice -joiner. The divisions 
 and junctions of the voice appear to be, and to have been, uni- 
 versally the same, in the main, in every age of human history, 
 as is evident from the circumstance that many of the elemen- 
 
tary sounds of our speech are common to all languages. And 
 it must be so, for the human mouth is constructed on the same 
 plan, by means of the same parts, in every variety of the human 
 family. 
 
 The elementary sounds of English speech, about forty in 
 number, combined in various orders of succession, constitute 
 our phonetic or spoken language. Hence a good utterance 
 must depend on the ability to enounce these component sounds 
 of our speech. And if the utterance is affected by provin- 
 cialism, affection, or imperfection of any sort, recourse must be 
 had to a training on these elementary sounds as a basis for the 
 systematic acquisition of a good utterance. 
 
 The phonetic or spoken language is a system of audible 
 signs of our ideas. The written language is a system of signs 
 of the audible signs : so that they are two removes from the 
 ideas. In the act of writing from dictation we convert audible 
 into written signs, and are removing our signs one step further 
 from the things signified. In the act of reading aloud we con- 
 vert written into audible signs, and thus remove our signs one 
 step nearer the things signified. 
 
 The elements of spoken language are sounds, those of written 
 language are letters. The circumstance that the written ele- 
 ments do not agree with the spoken elements, the alphabet 
 with the elementary sounds, is much to be regretted, as it not 
 only occasions much difficulty in our first introduction to let- 
 ters, but continues to present difficulties in after life. It is im- 
 portant to keep in mind the distinction between, sounds and let- 
 ters ; and the mouth should be as well trained to the right utter- 
 ance of the one as the hand is trained to rightly form the other. 
 
 Sounds are combined into syllables, and syllables are arti- 
 culated into words. The time consumed in uttering a syllable 
 is the sum total of the times consumed in uttering each elemen- 
 tary sound of that syllable. I carefully avoid the term quan- 
 tity, as that invariably suggests to us the proportion of two to 
 one, and other dogmas attributed as excellencies to the Greek 
 and Latin languages. In English our syllables, as read in the 
 columns of a dictionary, differ in duration at least as much as 
 the various notes of music, so that our means for metrical and 
 rhythmical purposes are far greater than those attributed to 
 
10 
 
 Greek and Latin, and are equal to those of .music itself. An 
 examination of the following words in this respect will satisfy 
 you on this point : city, invite, require, to be, cork-screw, wild 
 cat, length, chasms. In measuring the duration of the sylla- 
 bles the ear alone, or a metronome, should be employed. With 
 syllables of such varied lengths the English language possesses 
 ample materials for a temporal metric arrangement of its 
 words to adapt it to the highest and widest purposes of the poet. 
 
 When a word of two or more syllables is uttered, one of 
 them receives an accent, as the first in the substantive " convoy," 
 and the second in the verb "convoy." Now what is the condition 
 of voice called accent ? Do not think this to be a trifling in- 
 quiry. Goodly octavo volumes have been written on it, and 
 much learning was brought to the discussion of the question 
 by keen disputants, who, in the eagerness of the contest, entirely 
 overlooked the fact that it is a question not of classical autho- 
 rity but of acoustics. What is the condition of voice, then, 
 which gives accent to the syllable cus in the word " discussion ?" 
 It must be some condition of pitch, loudness, quality, or dura- 
 tion, for all that is audible in the voice is referrable to one of 
 these general heads. Careful observation will shew you that 
 the special condition of voice on the syllable cus of the word 
 "discussion" is an abrupt or sudden loudness. The syllable may 
 or may not be uttered louder as a whole syllable, but the 
 initial part of the speech-note on which the syllable is uttered 
 starts abruptly into its loudness. 
 
 We must not^generalise too hastily, and assert that such is 
 the condition of voice on all accented syllables. We ought 
 rather to observe what constitutes accent on many other sylla- 
 bles, and thus make a wide induction before we venture to 
 generalize. You will find the vocal condition producing 
 accent on the syllable al of the word " alien," is an extended 
 duration, and not an abrupt loudness. And you will find 
 syllables in which the accent depends on the combination of a 
 slightly extended duration with a rather abrupt loudness, in 
 which you are unable to decide which plays the more impor- 
 tant part. 
 
 The condition of voice to produce accent depends on the 
 structure of the syllable, and will therefore be considered 
 
11 
 
 under that head. I have thus glanced at some of the promi- 
 nent features of the speech-voice, and also at the structure of 
 isolated words, ^ich it will be my duty to discuss in the 
 present course as introductory to the object we have in view. 
 And I therefore pass on to offer a few brief remarks on read- 
 ing aloud. 
 
 The author's connected words and sentences are to be so 
 read that his thoughts and feelings shall be conveyed, 
 honestly conveyed, in their full integrity, without note or com- 
 ment by the reader. This can be done by the judicious use of 
 sound and of silence. And all that silence can effect in the 
 work of expression in reading should be effected by it, as it 
 economises the vocal power of the reader. By silence I mean 
 those pauses which separate the words into distinct groups. 
 But where are we to pause, and on what principle are we to 
 form the words into groups ? The printer has already grouped 
 them by his punctuation. Shall we adopt that grouping, and 
 pause at his stops ? Those who have attempted to do so have 
 failed to convey the sense, and have distressed themselves in 
 reading, in one breath, the large groups of words between the 
 stops. If we consider the object of the punctuation in our 
 books, we shall see that it is placed in entire relation to the 
 written language, to which commas and colons exclusively be- 
 long. Its office is to display the grammatical construction and 
 syntax of the text, so that the eye of the reader may catch that 
 construction, and thereby he may apprehend the sense of the 
 author. Punctuation, then, has no relation to spoken language ; 
 and in attempting to apply it to a purpose it was not intended 
 for, we cannot be surprised at a failure. 
 
 Thought is expressed in spoken language, and spoken lan- 
 guage is expressed in written. Standing on the platform of spoken 
 language, with written language on the one side and thought 
 on the other, it appears to me that we must take up the written 
 words in groups, in relation to the whole thought and its 
 several component parts. Now the science which deals with 
 thought, which analyses thought, and which shews the connec- 
 tion between thought and thought is Logic ; and to logic we 
 must look for those great principles which will enable us to 
 group the works in relation to thought. 
 
12 
 
 The first condition for reading aloud with perspicuity is to 
 present each distinct thought as a unity ; and this can only be 
 accomplished by presenting its successive paj^B, as separate yet 
 component portions of the entire thought. There must be no 
 confusion of the subject and predicate. In whatever order a 
 proposition may be stated, however much the statement of the 
 predicate may be mixed up with that of the subject, their 
 boundaries must be clearly defined, so that each may be duly 
 apprehended as component parts of a distinct thought. 
 
 The science of logic, then, will yield principles for grouping 
 our text to display the propositions and parts of propositions of 
 which it consists. And as the whole contents of our books, 
 except interrogations and exclamations, is resolvable into pro- 
 positions, there is but a small residuum for us to deal with. 
 But interrogations are framed in relation to the thing sought 
 and inquired for : and however the information given may be 
 expressed, the reply is always an entire proposition, although 
 it may be very defectively stated. And hence the doctrine of 
 the logical proposition is applicable to interrogations, which 
 diminishes our small residuum. But exclamations themselves, 
 perhaps not even excepting the shortest interjections, although 
 not propositions, are so nearly allied to them, that the doctrine 
 of the proposition is applicable also to them, so that our resi- 
 duum has entirely disappeared. 
 
 In supplying principles to guide us in grouping words toge- 
 ther by the divisional agency of an interposed silence, called 
 pause, logic has not exhausted her power of rendering service 
 to the public reader whose education and ability enable him 
 to receive it. The scholar who is sufficiently acquainted with 
 logic to analyse an argument will appreciate the advantages to 
 be derived from this science in reading aloud ; and having a 
 just notion of the relative value of the terms of a proposition 
 may well smile at the common misreading of the first proposi- 
 tion in the Lord's Prayer, where equal importance is given to 
 the subject, predicate, and copula. The low value of the 
 copula in relation to the subject and predicate, in the large 
 majority of propositions, is familiar to logicians; and, therefore, 
 the error of raising the copula into equal importance in the 
 example, " Our Father which art in heaven ;" is a logical 
 
13 
 
 impropriety well calculated to excite a smile. This, and indeed 
 all the faults that occur in public reading, are relative to excel- 
 lencies ; and he who presumes to notice defects ought to be pre- 
 pared to speak of perfections, especially of those in relation to 
 the noticed defects. 
 
 The Holy Scriptures, like other writings, consist of, or are 
 resolvable into series of logical propositions; and hence the 
 science of logic is applicable as a guide to the public reading of 
 the Bible. There are peculiarities of language and style in 
 the Scriptures which commonly embarrass public readers. 
 These will be found chiefly to belong to 
 
 a The English diction, grammar, and style of the time 
 when our authorized version was made. 
 
 /3 The preservation of certain Hebrew and Greek forms 
 of expression, which, being literally translated into 
 English, give us Hebrew and Greek idioms in an 
 English dress. And, 
 
 y The distinctive peculiarities which belong to each of 
 the sacred writers, and which marks his special 
 mission, his era, and his personal character. 
 
 a The difficulties presented to the public reader by those 
 peculiarities classed under the first head are scattered through 
 every book of the Holy Scriptures. 
 
 The occurrence of words which have become, or are be- 
 coming obsolete, grammatical forms which have long passed 
 away from the language, both of our books and conversation, 
 and an antiquated style, present many difficulties to the reader 
 in conveying the sense of the sacred writers to a congregation. 
 I do not draw attention to this subject to supply an argument 
 for a new translation of the Bible, or even for a revision of the 
 present one. My object is not to deal with that question, but 
 to simply point out some peculiar difficulties you will 
 meet with, and must overcome, in order to convey the sense 
 of the sacred writers in the authorized version, for that is 
 the book you will have to read aloud to your congrega- 
 tions. 
 
 /3 The difficulties presented to the public reader, by the 
 
14 
 
 peculiarities classed under the second head, are of two kinds, 
 viz. — (a) the Hebrew idioms of the Old Testament, and (/3) the 
 Greek idioms of the New. There is an example of the first in 
 the record of that ever-memorable event, when Elijah publicly 
 called upon the Israelites assembled at Mount Carmel to 
 declare whether they chose Jehovah or Baal for their God. 
 They chose Jehovah, declaring, in words which are literally 
 rendered in our authorized version, " The Lord, he is the 
 God: the Lord, he is the God," 1 Kings xviii. 39. The 
 repetition of the subject in this proposition is a difficulty to 
 most public readers. The difficulty lies in this, that the 
 repetition, which ought to enhance the first statement, is effected 
 by a word greatly inferior to a noun-substantive, a personal 
 pronoun, the use of which, as stated by grammarians, is to 
 avoid the heaviness and tautology occasioned by repeating the 
 substantive. The pronoun in this sentence not only adds 
 no strength to the substantive, but actually weakens it : and I 
 believe it will be found that this substantive can be 
 strengthened only by being repeated, as perhaps will appear 
 by comparing the two forms of expression — 
 
 The Lord, he is the God. 
 
 The Lord, the Lord is the God. 
 Now a knowledge of the Hebrew language will partly remove 
 this difficulty, as it will account for the Hebrew pronoun, 
 by explaining its function in the sentence ; and as the English 
 words, " The Lord, he (is) the God," literally render the 
 Hebrew O^rH^n fc^in TDtX] (Yehovah hoo haelohim), we 
 shall be able to rightly estimate the value of the pro- 
 noun he in our authorized version, "The Lord, he is the 
 God." The Hebrew pronoun WH, (hoo) he, is not placed in 
 the sentence for the purpose of adding strength to the sub- 
 stantive rn^n% " Jehovah," but occurs simply as an idiom of 
 the language for the logical copula. 
 
 In the Hebrew language the logical copula is seldom stated, 
 as in most cases the mere juxta-position of the subject and pre- 
 dicate is sufficient. And, when necessary, there are two 
 modes of stating it, viz. (a) By a personal pronoun of 
 the third person, which refers to the predicate and connects it 
 
15 
 
 with the subject : and (ft), much less frequently the copula is 
 expressed by the substantive verb nVT (hay a). 
 
 Now in the sentence under consideration, as both subject 
 and predicate are definite, an ambiguity would arise as to which 
 is the subject ; but the insertion of the personal pronoun as a 
 copula shews that 7T)tV> is the subject. The Hebrew word 
 WH, he, stands in the place of the copula, and performs its 
 function in the sentence ; so that the Hebrew pronoun b^Ji in 
 this sentence exactly corresponds, in its office of affirmatively 
 connecting the subject and predicate, to the English verb is. 
 This enables us to rightly understand the value of the word 
 he in our version, " The Lord, he is the God." And, knowing 
 its value, we shall avoid drawing attention to it, as if it were 
 intended to add strength to the sentence by emphatic repetition 
 of the subject. 
 
 I will not now occupy your attention with more of these 
 examples, as the one cited sufficiently illustrates the character 
 of the difficulty which the idioms present to reading aloud the 
 Holy Scriptures. 
 
 (7) The difficulties presented to the public reader by the 
 peculiarities classed under the third head are those which 
 specially belong to the writer. The parenthetic style found 
 in the Epistles of St. Paul, the intersecting thoughts which 
 cross the path of his arguments, the digressions in following 
 up a train of thought which one of his own words has sug- 
 gested, are personal peculiarities of the individual. These 
 peculiarities often make it difficult for the reader to keep the 
 thread of the writer's argument before the audience. In illustra- 
 tion of these difficulties I would respectfully direct your atten- 
 tion to the first chapter of the Epistle to the Ephesians, to the 
 fourth chapter of the Epistle to the Hebrews, as far as the 
 eleventh verse, and to the statements and details concerning 
 Melchisedek, which intersect the statement of a proposition 
 concerning his priesthood, and which occur in the first three 
 verses of the seventh chapter of the same Epistle. These in- 
 stances do not exhaust the examples in his writings, but are 
 simply referred to as specimens of the class of difficulties under 
 consideration. 
 
16 
 
 I have briefly stated these peculiar difficulties which lie in 
 the way of perspicuity in reading, and I shall now make a few 
 remarks on overcoming them ; and first, of obsolete words. 
 The difficulty occasioned by these words is less in the mouth 
 of the reader than in the mind of the hearer. It resolves 
 itself into a question of the knowledge of the signification of 
 words ; and no kind of verbal utterance that I am acquainted 
 with will confer on the hearer this knowledge. The obsolete or 
 dead words will be heard and generally not understood, so that 
 their occurrence will occasion blanks in the sense of the writer. 
 
 The other difficulties are all such as encumber more or less, 
 in one way or another, the statement of propositions, and thus 
 present serious obstacles to the reader. But I now suppose 
 the reader to have overcome all these difficulties in the way of 
 his own apprehension .of the sense, and to see his way quite 
 through all the maze which bewildered him, with clearness 
 and far-sighted vision. The next question is, How is he to 
 manage his voice to make it all equally clear to his audience ? 
 How shall he distribute his emphasis to effect all these various 
 ends ? It is evident that this question can only be solved by 
 solving all those contained in it. The question of emphasis, 
 its objects and means, must find a large place in a course on 
 public reading. The definition of emphasis must be much 
 extended to embrace the wide range of function it has in dis- 
 course. And the description of the condition of voice which, 
 laid on a syllable, gives emphasis to a sentence, as found in the 
 books on Elocution, must be extended to embrace every pos- 
 sible condition of voice, which can be given to a syllable to 
 distinguish it from its fellows. It must even go further, for it 
 must include the use of silence itself, which is so frequently 
 placed in juxta-position to a word to enhance its value by 
 giving it prominence. A popular error on the subject of 
 emphasis is to suppose it to be additional loudness. Perhaps 
 the common expression, to lay emphasis on a word, has sug- 
 gested that emphasis is something additional to the ordinary 
 current of voice laid on a particular word or syllable. Such 
 may have been the origin of the error. The condition of voice 
 which makes a syllable important by standing out from its 
 fellows, is always a condition of voice different from its fellows. 
 
17 
 
 The emphatic syllable is distinguished from its neighbours by 
 some condition of pitch, or loudness, or quality, or duration of 
 voice different from theirs. If it had the same pitch, the 
 same loudness, the same quality, and the same duration as its 
 neighbours, it would not be distinguished from them. Hence, 
 the speech-note of the emphatic syllable differs in some respects 
 from its adjoining speech-notes. And this difference may be 
 chiefly a greater or less loudness, a different form of loudness, 
 a higher or lower pitch, or a greater or less duration of time. 
 Every word in a discourse is in relation to other words, so that 
 they each possess a relative value to each other, and to the 
 group of which they are constituents. This relationship can- 
 not be displayed by the voice, by drawing attention to a word 
 here and there in the sentence, according to the rules laid 
 down in elocution books ; for according to these rules a vague 
 direction is given for the utterance of the two or three words, 
 while that of every other in the sentence is left to chance. 
 Such meagre directions leave at least three-fourths of the 
 words totally unprovided for ; and the consequence is, suppos- 
 ing the rules to be good so far as they go, that a mere harshly" 
 correct outline is given, reminding one of those rude efforts at 
 portrait-painting in which some hard lines suggest a likeness 
 of the original, but in which the relationship of the various 
 parts to each other is lacking ; in which we seek in vain for that 
 due gradation of colour, of light, of shadow, of linear and 
 aerial perspective, and consistency of parts, by which the regu- 
 lated diversity of the constituent elements combine into a unity. 
 In reading aloud, then, every word, aye, every syllable, must 
 have its degree of pitch, its amount and character of loudness, 
 its duration, its rate of utterance, and every other vocal acci- 
 dent in due relation to its own value in the sentence. The 
 diversity of each must be so regulated as to conduce to the 
 unity of the whole. And those who have erected for them- 
 selves this high standard of excellence seek a kind of public 
 reading, able to satisfy the requirements of an enlightened 
 understanding, a refined taste, and an ear trained to demand 
 a full, flexible, and pure tone of voice. 
 
 An essential condition for becoming such a reader is the 
 cultivation of the voice, to develop its excellencies, correct 
 
18 
 
 its faults, enlarge its compass, increase its powers, and subject 
 it entirely to the will. By vocalizing aright the organ is 
 strengthened for its work, as is familiarly known in the school 
 of music, and the strength that is given by a proper cultivation 
 of the speech-voice forbids the approach of Clergyman's sore 
 throat. When the organ of voice is properly used its exercise 
 in public reading becomes, not distressing, but healthy and 
 pleasant. 
 
 We each have our own individuality of mind. Much of 
 our general education is common to us all; much of the 
 professional education, mode of life, and after career, is common 
 to groups of us, yet we each maintain our own individuality of 
 mind throughout life. It is in this respect " The child is 
 father of the man." This individuality of mind, this sub- 
 jectivity of the German school, imparts its own hue to all 
 external objects we observe and contemplate. Like poetry, 
 in the poetical language of Lord Bacon, u it conforms the shows 
 of things to the understanding" It gives its own tinge to 
 the sense and sentiment of every author we read, every con- 
 versation we hear. It displays itself in the voice both of 
 speaking and reading. It is this last circumstance that 
 enables a man to read a text, in which one class of sentiment 
 prevails, better than another text which is marked by a different 
 sentiment : and it is this which appears in and characterizes 
 each man's reading. Now the cultivation of voice I re- 
 commend will enable the reader most fully to stamp his 
 reading with his own individuality of mind ; because his voice, 
 in all its capabilities, is brought more completely under 
 subjection to his will: and the individuality of mind will 
 manifest itself by the voice in as spontaneous a manner as it 
 does now. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 ON CLERGYMAN'S SORE THROAT. 
 
 This condition of throat, so common amongst the clergy, 
 is produced either by excessive use of the voice in continuously 
 severe duty, or by misdirected effort in the art of vocalization. 
 Barristers endure without ill consequences more severe and 
 continuous vocal exercise than the clergy. The chief dis- 
 tinction is, that the voice of the barrister is produced for speak- 
 ing, that of the clergyman for reading. If this malady were 
 simply the result of overworking the voice, barristers ought to 
 suffer from it as much as the clergy, nay more, for the rate of 
 utterance being far greater in speaking than in reading, it is 
 evident that the organ of voice performs more work in a given 
 time in public speaking than in public reading. From this 
 circumstance it might be inferred that the organ of voice 
 is able to do more work in speaking than in reading. If 
 all the clergy, and if all other public readers suffered from this 
 malady, such an inference might be valid : but some public 
 readers only suffer ; and those are commonly not the men who 
 read aloud most, or those who are weak of constitution. 
 
 The organ of voice, it is true, like every ^other organ, may 
 be overworked, and very often is tasked beyond its powers by 
 singers, speakers, and readers. Long-continued overwork 
 induces great fatigue, with a sense of exhaustion in the throat, 
 and then pain is experienced in every attempt to vocalize. 
 Morbid conditions of the throat, familiar to medicine, are found in 
 connection with this state of the voice. Medical treatment, how- 
 ever, is capable of removing these ill effects of overwork, and the 
 voice again becomes able to perform its usual amount of work. 
 
 The case, however, is different in regard to Clergyman's 
 sore throat ; for although the morbid condition of the throat 
 may yield to medical treatment, yet the voice is seldom able to 
 perform its usual amount of work for long together, in con- 
 sequence of the occurrence of pain and distress in the act 
 of producing voice to read aloud : and not only is vocalization 
 painful, but the voice is found to be less under control than 
 formerly, and, as a consequence, the character of the reading is 
 deteriorated. 
 
 Rest, continued cessation from vocal effort, which is so bene- 
 

 20 
 
 ficial to the overworked voice (whether in singing, speaking, . 
 or reading) in regaining its power, seems to give but little 
 power to the reader suffering from Clergyman's sore throat. 
 All these circumstances concur in confirmation of the view 
 that Clergyman's sore throat is not the result of excessive, but 
 of misdirected effort in producing voice. < 
 
 The song-note and speech-note are essentially different, 
 yet each may be produced in their respective work of singing 
 and speaking for several hours daily without injury to the 
 throat. It is only the speech-note, as produced for reading, 
 that induces this condition. I observe that the highly culti- 
 vated voice of the singer, and the instinctively produced voice 
 of spontaneous speaking, can alike be exercised without fatigue 
 and without pain. Thus art successfully competes with 
 nature. The voice instinctively produced for spontaneous 
 speaking is equalled by the highly cultivated voice of the 
 singing school — the pure tone of the Italian system. This is 
 indeed a triumph of art : and we see the voice of reading, 
 which is not instinctive, on the one hand, nor cultivated on the 
 other, is unable, in most cases, to effect its purpose, and fre- 
 quently breaks down under moderate work. 
 
 This suggests that the voice must be either instinctively 
 produced like the one, or highly cultivated like the other, 
 in order to last. But in reading it cannot be instinctive ; for 
 even in those cases where the language is recited from 
 memory, as many clergymen go through our Morning Service, 
 we find that the close connection of the thought, language, and 
 voice of spontaneous speaking does not exist. The alternative, 
 therefore, of a highly cultivated voice must be adopted : and 
 by this term I do not mean the application of those rules of 
 reading which are taught by Elocution masters, but a cultiva- 
 tion of the voice on sound acoustic and physiological principle 
 analogous to those which are so eminently successful in culti- 
 vating the voice of song. 
 
 This is not mere theory. Voices have been cultivated on 
 such principles with great success. Weak ones have been 
 strengthened, and greatly improved in flexibility and tone : 
 and even those supposed to be permanently silenced by long- 
 continued Clergyman's sore throat have been restored to 
 public usefulness. 
 

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