COPyRIGHT DEPOSm AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE TITLE-PAGE OF CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH S GENERALL HISTORIB OF VIRGINIA. FROM A COPY IN THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE BY ■ WILBUR F. GORDY FORMERLY SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS, SPRINGFIELD, MASS.; AUTHOR OF "A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES FOR SCHOOLS," "AMERICAN LEADERS AND HEROES," "ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," " STORIES OF AMERICAN EXPLORERS," "COLONIAL DAYS," ETC. * WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON COPYRIGHT, 1912, 1919, 1922, BY CHARLES SCRIBXER'S SONS R SEP 22 72 C!,A683866 PREFACE HISTORY; it has been wisely said, finds its greatest prac- tical value in bringing about the moral revelation of the world in the mind of the child. In organizing the facts of history with the achievement of this moral revelation in view, that material should be selected which the pupil can appreciate and understand; which will be most con- ducive to his moral and intellectual growth, and which mil be most helpful in explaining his life in its relation to the lives of his fellows. With the purpose of thus making history an applied study this book has been written. The plan is based upon the outline prepared by the Committee of Eight for Grade VI, and in the main it fol- lows this outline somewhat closely. As the author was a member of that committee, he has had the best possible opportunity to know just what is the scope of the work which the outline w^as intended to cover. Moreover, after this report was issued he made out for the schools of Springfield, Mass., of which he was superintendent, a course of study in histoiy for Grade VI which was much like that made out for the same grade by the committee. For three years he saw this outline thoroughly tested, in V vi PREFACE the every-day work of the schools. He naturally feels, therefore, that his experience has been very useful to him as a preparation for writing '^'imerican Beginnings in Europe." In explaining his purpose he cannot do better than quote the language of the Committee in its report to the American Historical Association. "It is by no means intended/' says the report, "that the groups of topics outlined in Grade VI should be taught as organ- ized histoiy. Such a use of the material suggested would utterly defeat the purpose in view. Pupils in this grade are not prepared to study scientific histor}^ in its log- ical and orderly development. But they are prepared to receive more or less definite impressions that may be conveyed to them by means of pictures, descriptions, and illustrative stories arranged in chronological sequence. In receiving such impressions they will not understand the full meaning of the great events touched upon, but they will catch something of the spirit and purpose of the Greeks, the Romans, and other types of racial life. '^ It is the hope of the author that through such impres- sions the pupil will cleariy understand that our national history is a part of the history of the worid, and that it had its beginnings many centuries before Columbus started out on his famous voyage of discovery. For some of our American beginnings we are indebted to the Greeks, for some to the Romans, for others to the men of the Mid- dle Ages, and for others still to the peoples of more recent PREFACE vii eras. To make this clear the pupil is taken back in imagination to the time of the GreekS; the Romans, and the men of the Middle Ages. Simple material of great racial types like the Greeks and Romans is used to il- lustrate the traits of character of these peoples, to in- terest the pupil in some of their most precious memo- ries, and to give him some hints as to the contributions they have made to our civilization. In other words, the pupil will learn in a veiy simple way when and where some of the valuable elements of our civilization had their beginnings, what ways of living our forefathers brought with them when they came to America, and something of the spirit which prompted the discover}^^, the exploration, and the settlement of the New World. By means of such impressions, gained through pictures, descriptions, and illustrative stories, it is believed that the learner will receive influences which will enricii iiis in- tellectual and moral life and prepare him for an intelli- gent appreciation of the histoiy of his own countiy. In "American Beginnings," it is hoped, he will get a glimpse of the meaning of American life which will be of untold value to him in his studies at school, but especially in his later adult life as a citizen and as a man. AVherever it could be done, there has been a persistent effort to make representative men the centre of great move- ments and important situations. By getting a glimpse of such men as they appeared to those who knew them, and also some notion, even though slight, of their personal c|ualities, the pupil through his sympathetic imagination viii PREFACE comes into vital touch with the past and gets deep and lasting impressions. For the purpose of emphasizing these impressions, '^Things to Remember^' may be used to great advan- tage after the reading and study of any chapter. They give in a nutshell some of the more important facts men- tioned in the text. A few significant ^Hhings" learned in this way will serve to give a definite and useful quality to the pupil's knowledge. The notes "To the Pupil'' will be found veiy useful not only in testing the child's knowledge of the text, but also in stimulating his interest in men and events. The questions are not intended to cover all the facts in the text. They rather call attention to the more impor- tant ones and suggest additional questions. They may be used in connection with the side topics to give variety to the recitation. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon forming the important habit of locating every event on the map. Not only in preparing the lesson, but also in reciting it, maps should be brought constantly into use. Belie\dng this, the author has taken special pains to see that the maps in this book contain no useless matter. The aim has been to put into them only what will help the pupil to under- stand the meaning of the text. In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge my deep obliga- tion to Professor Bernadotte Perrin and Professor George Burton Adams, of Yale University, for many valuable suggestions; also to Mr. Forrest Morgan, of the Watkin- PREFACE ix son Library, Hartford, and to Mr. Alfred M.Hitchcock, of the Hartford PubHc High School, both of whom have read the proof and offered most helpful criticisms; and espe- cially to my wife, without whose sympathetic encourage- ment and assistance this book would not have been written. Wilbur F. Gordy Hartford, Conn., CONTENTS THE PRESENT AND THE PAST CHAPTER PAGE I. The Present and the Past 1 THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED FROM THEM II. The Greeks and Why We Remember Them ... 11 III. The Greeks as Builders and Artists 28 IV. Greek Boys and Gree:: Men 38 V. Men Who Carried Greek Ways of Living to Other Lands 47 THE ROMANS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED • FROM THEM VI. How THE Romans Began 56 VII. The Struggle Between RoxME akd Carthage . . 65 VIII. The Romans in the West 74 IX. Rome the Capital of an Empire 85 X. Rome and Christianity 104 THE MIDDLE AGES AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED FROM THEM XI. The Germans , 113 XII. The Germans and the Romans 121 XIII. Alfred and the English .......... 128 xi xii CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XIV. How THE English Began to Win Their Liberties . 144 XV. Feudalism: or, the Lord, the Castle, and the Knight 155 XVL Village Life in the Middle Ages 174 XVIL Towns and Guilds in the Middle Ages . . . . 179 XVIIL The Church, the Monastery^ and the ^Ionks . . 185 THE CRUSADES AND COMMERCE XIX. The Crusades 203 XX. Results of the Crusades 219 THE DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN WORLD XXI. Columbus and the Discovery of America .... 229 XXII. The Successors of Columbus 249 XXIII. The Beginnings of Conquest ........ 261 RIVAL POWERS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA XXIV. England in the Days of Queen Elizabeth . . . 279 XXV. France, Another Rival of Spain 296 XXVI. The King of Spain Defied by His Dutch Subjects . 302 XXVII. Englishmen Join in the Fight Against Spain . . 310 XXVIII. English Voyages Westward „ . 320 Pronunciation of Proper Names 333 Suggestions for Teaching . . 335 J.JNUiiiJV • o CO oooc«ooe oo« • OOX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Title-Page of Captain John Smith's Generall Historie of Virginia. From a Copy in the New York Pubhc Library . . . Frontispiece The Mayflower, One Hundred Feet Long Over All, which Carried .One Hundred and Two People 2 The Olympic, Eight Hundred and Eighty-two Feet Long, which Car- ries Three Thousand Three Hundred and Sixty People ... 3 A Mariner's Compass 4 A Printing Press of the Time of Gutenberg 5 Wheels of the Egyptians, a Chariot 6 A Roman Plough 6 Primitive Tools • 6 An Early Spinning Wheel 6 An Archer Using the Long Bow 6 Early Egyptian Pictures. Ploughing, Breaking Clods, and Sowing . 7 Cuneiform Writing 7 Gods Descending to Aid the Trojans 16 A Reading from Homer 17 A Persian Soldier 19 Athenian Foot Soldiers Charging the Persian Hosts at Marathon . 21 Looking toward Thermopylae from the North-west 23 A Greek Ship • 26 A Group of Greek Soldiers, Drawn from Sculptured Decorations on One of the Temples 26 The Acropolis of Athens Restored 30 Athens and the Acropolis 31 Hermes by Praxiteles 32 Model of the Parthenon Restored; at the Metropolitan Museum, New York City (Note Size of Soldier by the Column) 33 Statue of Athene which Stood in the Parthenon 34 Venus of Melos 34 Zeus 35 Greek Theatre at Epidauros 36 Spartan Warriors 40 Discus Thrower, by Myron 40 Scene on the Road to Olympia , . . . . 41 xiii xiv LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE End of a Foot-Race — the Victor Leaping over His Fallen Rival . . 41 Crowning an Olympic Victor 42 Pericles 44 Socrates ' 46 Alexander the Great 50 Alexander in Battle. From the Sarcophagus of the Satraps at Con- stantinople 52 A Roman Slinger 61 The Simple Dress of the Romans 63 Hannibal 68 Hannibal and His Army Crossing the Alps 69 A Roman Seaport, Ships of War and Other Craft 73 Julius Caesar 75 Caesar's Bridge over the Rhine (Showing Construction) 77 A Roman General Addressing His Troops 78 Roman Baths at Bath, England, as They Look To-day 79 Light Armed Soldier 81 A Roman Camp 82 Roman Standards 83 A Bit of Ancient Wall of Rome 85 The Coliseum, Rome 86 Fighting Gladiator 87 A Chariot Race 88 Scene at the Villa of a Rich Roman 90 Ruins of the Forum 92 Arch of Trajan, Timgad, North Africa 93 Arch of Constantino, Rome 94 The Appian Way, a Roman Road . " 95 The Aqueduct at Nimes 97 Claudian Aqueduct on the Roman Campagna 98 Peristyle of the House of Vettius, Pompeii 100 A Roman Book. Papyrus Roll 102 Juno 105 Nero 108 A Portion of a Wall in the Catacombs, Rome 109 Constantine 110 Old Roman Bridge over the Moselle, Germany 113 Early German and Gallic Habitations, Drawn from a Photograph of Those Constructed for the Paris Exposition of 1889 . . . . 114 Another Type of Early German and Gallic Habitation, Drawn from a Photograph of One Constructed for the Paris Exposition, 1889 115 Return of Victorious Germans from a Fight with the Romans . . 117 Impersonation of the God Wotan on the Operatic Stage .... 118 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xv PAGE Siegfried Forging His Sword 119 Tlie Huns Sweeping Everything Before Them as They Invaded Europe 122 Alaric 123 Alaric and His Followers Entering Rome 125 Ruins of a Roman Imperial Palace at Treves, Germany 126 Charlemagne Being Crowned Emperor at Rome 129 A Bit of Stonehenge. The Earliest Architectural Monument in Britain 130 Saxon Ships 131 The Saxon Invaders 132 Pope Gregory I 133 Old Roman Church of St. Martin, Canterbury 134 St. Augustine 135 Remains of the Viking Ship of Gokstad, After Its Removal from the Mound Where It Was Found 137 The Bow of the Viking Ship of Gokstad, Showing Restored Steering Board on the Left, and Complete Ship Above 137 King Alfred 138 King Alfred Inciting His Followers to Repel the Invasion of the Danes, Whose Ships Have Been Sighted 140 William the Conqueror • 145 A Ship of Duke William's Fleet which Transported Troops for the Invasion of England. From the Baycux Tapestry, a Contem- porary W^ork 146 Fighting as Pictured in the Bayeux Tapestry, a Contemporary Work 146 Armor of the Time of William the Conqueror 147 The Norman Gateway of Windsor Castle 147 King Richard I, the Lion-Heart 148 Chateau Gaillard, Normandy, France. One of King Richard's Cas- tles, Once the Main Outpost of His Norman Territory . . . 149 King John Signing Magna Charta 149 Manor House, Acton Burnell, Shropshire. Built for the Holding of the First Parliament 151 Westminster Hall, where Parliament Was Held 153 The Feudal Fortifications, Carcassonne, France, as They Are To-day 156 Kenilworth Castle, Warwickshire. Founded about 1120. Besieged and Taken by Royahsts, 1266. Prison of Edward II in 1327. Granted to John of Gaunt. Scene of Entertainments to Queen Elizabeth. Dismantled under Cromwell 159 The Drawbridge of the Castle 161 The Castle Towers and Battlements, Manned for Defence .... 162 The Great Hall of the Castle. The Oath of Fealty to the Young Lord 163 ^i LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 9ACZ Inside the Main Gate of the Castle. A Minstrel Entertaining the Gate-Watch 164 The Castle Court- Yard. The Return from a Foray 165 A Part of the Ceremony of the Conferring of Knighthood . . . . 167 The Vigil at Arms . 168 The Trial Gallop 169 Armor of 1440, Said to Be the Best Period 170 Disposition or Line-Up of Knights, at One Side of a Tourney Field, Showing Figure-Heads on Top of Helmets 171 The Armor and Lance of a Knight of 1550 172 Manor House in Suffolk, England 175 Feeding Chickens in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter 176 Feeding Pigs in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Man- uscript 176 Grinding with a Hand-Mill in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Manuscript 177 Reaping in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . . 177 Threshing in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . 178 Ploughing in the Fourteenth Century, as Pictured in an Old Psalter . 178 One of the Old City Gates of York, England 180 The City Walls of York, England 181 Phoenix Tower and a Bit of the Old City Wall, Cheste-, England . . 182 Butchers' Guild Hall, Hereford, England 183 The lona Monastery Buildings which Exist To-day and Date from the Eleventh Century. The Cathedral Dates from the Thir- teenth to the Sixteenth Century . 186 Interior of lona Monastery Cathedral 187 St. Benedict Performing Miracles, after the Painting by Rubens . . 188 Monks at Work in the Monastery Kitchen 189 A Monk Dressed in the W^oollen Cassock 190 Melrose Abbey, Roxburghshire, Scotland. Founded in 1136 by the Cistercian Order, Sometimes Called the "White Monks" . . 191 Bolton Priory, Yorkshire, England. Founded in 1120 by the Augus- tinian Order. The Prior Was a Great Feudal Dignitary . . . 192 A Concert in the Monastery 193 Monks Engaged in Literary Work and Copying 194 A Greatly Reduced Page of Illuminated MS. of the Thirteenth Century 196 Furness Abbey, Lancashire, England. Founded in 1127 by the Cis- tercian Order. The Abbot of the Monastery Not Only Possessed Jurisdiction over the Monks, but Governed the People of the Region as Well 197 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xvii PAGE Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, England. Founded in 1132 by the Cis- tercian Order 199 View of Jerusalem, from an Old Engraving 204 Pope Urban II Presiding over the Council of Clermont in 1095 and Calling the Christian People to the First Crusade for the Deliv- erance of the Holy Land, after an Engraving of the Sixteenth Century 206 Peter the Hermit Preaching to His Followers 208 The Crusaders before Jerusalem 210 Vision of St. George on Mt. Olivet 212 Godfrey Enters Jerusalem 213 Richard and Saladin in Battle 214 Blondel Hears the Voice of Richard 216 Venice, which Played Such an Important Part in the Development of Commerce 220 A Door- Way in the Alhambra. The Alhambra Was the Fortress Pal- ace of the Moorish Kings at Granada, Spain 224 Gallery of the Court of Lions, the Alhambra 226 Marco Polo 229 A Section of a Caravan. The Camels Have Been Unloaded and Are Resting 231 Prince Henry 233 Vessels of the Fifteenth Century 234 Christopher Columbus 235 Tablet Marking the House in Genoa where Christopher Columbus Was Born 236 Columbus at the Court of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella . . . 237 The Convent of St. Mary, near Palos, where Columbus Stopped . . 238 Room Occupied by Columbus in the Convent of St. Mary .... 238 Pinta, Santa Maria, Nina. Reproductions of the Vessels of Colum- bus's Fleet as They Appeared in New York Waters During the Centennial Celebration of 1892 239 Departure of Columbus from Palos 241 Columbus Taking Possession of the Land in the Name of King Ferdi- nand and Queen Isabella 243 The Triumphal Entry of Columbus into Barcelona 244 Americus Vespucius 249 Sebastian Cabot 251 St. John's Gate, Bristol, England. A Landmark Contemporary with Cabot's Residence in Bristol 252 Balboa 255 The Strait of Magellan 258' Cartier 25a 2 xviii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE Cortez 262 Cortez Parading His Followers Before the Messengers from Monte- zuma 264 The Death of Montezuma 265 A Street in Cuzco, Peru, To-day, Showing Houses Built upon the Old Inca Walls 267 The Spanish Soldiers of Pizarro Seize the Inca 268 The Inca Making the Mark upon the Wall 269 DeSoto 270 De Soto's Fight with the Indians 272 De Soto's Grave in the Mighty River He Had Discovered .... 273 An Old Spanish Mission in New Mexico, Erected in 1604 .... 276 Queen Elizabeth 280 The Ancient Palace at Greenwich Called Placentia, the Birthplace of Queen Elizabeth 281 Queen Elizabeth in One of Her Many Royal Costumes 282 Sir Walter Raleigh's Cloak 283 Queen Elizabeth at Kenilworth Castle 284 English Ladies of Queen Elizabeth's Time 285 Elizabethan Costumes, from an Old Print 285 An EHzabethan Room and Furnishings 286 A Spanish Ship of Elizabeth's Time 287 A Dash for Liberty. An Incident of the Early Slave-Trade . . . 288 Drake Sees the Pacific 290 Drake in the Pacific Overtaking a Spanish Ship on Her Way from China 291 Drake's Men Boarding a Spanish Treasure-Ship in the Pacific . . . 292 Queen Elizabeth Knighting Drake on Board the Golden Hind, at Deptford, April 4, 1581 293 Martin Luther 294 Francis I 298 Chevalier Bayard 299 Old Spanish Gate, St. Augustine 300 In the Windmill Country, Holland . . ! 3Q3 The Reproduction of Hudson's Half Moon, at the Time of the Hud- son-Fulton Celebration in New York Waters, 1909 303 The Emperor, Charles V 304 King Philip II 30^ Duke of Alva 306 William, Prince of Orange . 308 Sir Philip Sidney 311 Sir Francis Drake 312 English Man-of-War about 1588 313 LIST OF MAPS xix PAGE Frobisher 314 Hawkins 315 One of the Finest Flag-Ships Surrendered to Drake without a Protest When It Fell in His Way 316 Deck Scene on One of the Ships of the Armada during the Fight, Showing Some of the Spanish Armor of That Time 317 Sir Humphrey Gilbert 321 Sir Walter Raleigh ; • • ^^^ The Arrival of the Englishmen in Virginia. From a Drawing by John White, of Raleigh's First Colony, 1585 325 The Lost Colony 327 LIST OF MAPS PAGE Ancient Greece (Colored) ........ Between -pages 10 and 11 Colonies of Phoenicia and Greece (Colored) . . Between pages 12 and 13 Alexander's Empire (Colored) Between pages 48 and 49 The Wars with Carthage, Hannibal's March to Frontier of Italy . . 67 The Roman Empire at the Beginning of the Christian Era .... 106 The Barbarian Kingdoms (Colored) Facing page 124 England at the Close of King Alfred's Reign 141 General Map of the Crusades 217 The World, as Known in the Time of Columbus, Showing Eastern Trade Routes 247 English and Spanish Explorers of America 253 Balboa's Route and the Discovery of the Pacific Ocean ..... 256 Map Showing Route of Cortez 266 Routes of Narvaez, De Soto, and Ponce De Leon, with Huguenot Settlements and Raleigh's Colonies 274 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE CHAPTER I THE PRESENT AND THE PAST I. The Strong Men of the Past Our Teachers. — We Stories of all listen with eager interest to stories of heroic men and help us"to" their brave deeds. Such stories appeal to us because they {j^^X^^® point to the noble tilings we too may do if we learn to hold noble ideals and aims and to take up hard tasks. They somehow make us feel grateful to the strong men whose deeds they tell of; for as we read we easily believe these men were in many w^ays much like ourselves, even though they lived in different times and countries and worked in w^ays quite unlike our own. AATiile in imagination we join with them in meeting their dangers and in solving their problems, we learn how to live more wdsely and how to be of greater service to others. We know that many of the things these heroes of long ago had to learn before they succeeded in doing their w^ork are the very things we too must learn if we are to be successful. These men of the past; to whom w^e ow^e so much; do These men not belong to any one time or country. Some of them belong to lived thousands of years ago, some but hundreds of years JJ^eTand ago, and still others in more recent times. Many had countries their homes in ancient Greece and Rome, many in the European countries of the IMiddle AgeS; and even more AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The purpose of this book belonged to more modern times and countries. But in whatever age or country they Hved, many of the things they did are still helping us to-day. For what we are as a people is largely the outcome of the struggles of many men^ of many ages, and of many lands. Of course it is not always easy to trace the relation be- tween the lives of men in far-away days and our own. Nor is it possible in this httle book, even though it were desirable, to give the history of such men or of the periods or countries in which they hved. The pages which follow do not contain w^hat we call organized history. But it is hoped that in them you may get a few im- pressions which will help you to understand the spirit and purpose of the Greeks, the Romans, and other peoples who have done something to make our civilization what it is. If you get such impressions you vdW understand better the meaning of your THE "MAYFLOWER." ONE HUNDRED owTi hlstorv wheu vou como to study it, FEET LONG OVER ALL, WHICH CAR- ^ *^ RiED ONE HUNDRED AND TWO aud wiW SCO morc clearly the bearing of all histor}^ upon your ow^n life. 2. Where Americans Came From. — Not only do our ways of li\dng come from many lands, but our people do as well. Our forefathers w^ere emigrants from sev- eral countries, and millions of people Hving in the United States to-day were born across the sea. These milHons of foreign-born men and women represent every civilized country of the world. Even in our own community it is probable there are people from many lands. Howimmi- Most, if not all, have come to the United States on grants come q^q^j^ steamships, some of which now travel with great PEOPLE New-comers in our own land THE PRESENT AND THE PAST speed and carry people enough to fill a whole town. The fastest and best make the voyage from England or France to New York or Boston in five or six days, and carry from 2,000 to 3,000 passengers. Some of these steamers have four or five decks, wdth passenger eleva- tors, telephones, and other conveniences, making them like large floating hotels. Of course you know that most of the im- migrants of to-day come over as third- class, or steerage, pas- sengers. Before they are admitted to any of our ports — New York City, for exam- ple — they are exam- ined by the proper offi- cials to see if they meet the requirements of our laws for admission into this ^oun- The ad- tr}\ These laws require that immigrants shall be free from inlmigrants serious disease, shall not be convicts, and shall be self- *° *^^^ supporting. If they pass the examination the new-comers are free to go wherever they like, and, unless they decide to remain in New York, they travel by railroad to the places which they wish to make their new homes. THE "OLYMPIC," EIGHT HUNDRED AND EIGHTY-TWO FEET LONG, WHICH CARRIES THREE THOUSAND THREE HUNDRED AND SIXTY PEOPLE country 4 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Earlier Far different was it with those who in earher days as emigrants found their way to the western world. As you may already know, among the first emigrants to settle in our country were the Pilgrims, who landed at Plymouth in 1620. They knew nothing of the luxuries of the great modern steamship. They set sail in the Mayflower^ a boat which carried only 102 passengers, of whom 20 were boys and 8 were girls. Long weeks and months they were at sea. They suffered many trying experi- ences, and at times must have longed for the simple home comforts they had left behind. At last the tempest- driven Mayflower, with sails rent and timbers strained, dropped anchor safely after she had been sailing sixty-four days. The difference between the vo}'age of 1620 and that of to-day marks the progress of nearl}- three cent- uries in the speed and comfort of ocean travel. Some 3. What Americans Started With. — Allien the emi- Sventions grants from Europe came to America in the seventeenth century they brought with them much that the people of Europe had learned up to that time. But they knew nothing about many ways of do- ing things that we know to-day. The steamship, the railroad, the trolley-car, the spinning- machine, the power loom, the sewing-machine, the telegraph, and the telephone had not been > invented. These and other in- ventions have come into use since the Pilgrims first landed on the " bleak New England shore." But fortunately for the Pilgrims and others who set- A MARINER S COMPASS THF PRESENT AND THE PAST tied in America in the seventeenth century^ many things inventions had been invented before their day. Among the most the^c^omlng^ useful of these were the mariner's compasS; gunpowder, p^,^^? A PRINTING-PRESS OF THE TIME OF GUTENBERG and the printing-press. With the compass as a guide, sailors were ready as they had never been before to vent- ure far out into the sea in search of undiscovered shores; gunpowder made it easier to overcome wild and savage peoples; and the printing-press spread abroad the knowl- edge of new-found lands and of what men were doing everywhere. By the use of such inventions men could wield more power over the forces of nature and, what w^as of still greater advantage, could accomplish far more in their work together. The printing-press has been of especial value in cheapening the cost of books and thus enabling a much greater number of people to profit by the wisdom of the ages. 6 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Still older inventions WHEELS OF THE EGYPTIANS, A CHARIOT A ROM.\N PLOUGH PRIMITIVE TOOLS These inventions had been made many years before Columbus crossed the Atlantic; and very much earlier were many others which to-day seem so commonplace that we do not think of them as inven- tions at all. Some of them arc the house, the boat, the bow, the hatchet, the plough, and the spinning-wheel. It was many years before the rude man of primi- tive days learned to build a house to shelter himself, a boat to carry himself and his goods over the water, a plough to break up the soil, and a way to express his thoughts and feelings in writ- ten words and sentences so as to make a per- manent record. AN EAELY SPINNING-WHEEL AN AKCHER USING THB LONG BOW THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 4. The Invention of the Alphabet. — This last is one of the most remarkable inventions ever made in the his- tory of the world. But like most others it came about slowly, by various steps in a long process. Writing was used long be- fore prmting or eakly Egyptian pictures, ploughing, bkeakinq clods, AND SOWING even the letters of the alphabet. Instead of words the Egj^tians in the earlier days used pictures. But as they had neither paper nor ink, they employed tools of hardened bronze and made the pictures on stone. For instance, if they wished to write the word for man, they cut on the stone a picture of a man, or if they wished to write the word for cat, they cut a picture of a cat. The first step, then, was to use a picture for every word. The second step was to use a picture for a syllable. In this case the pict- ure was followed closely by other pictures. The third and final step was the use of a picture for a sin- gle letter. In this way the alpha- bet as we know it to-day grew CUNEIFORM WRrriNQ QUt of plcturCS. The Babylonians as far back as we know them had already gone beyond picture writing, and wrote in an alphabet of their own. They used tab- lets of clay and wrote with a bronze tool called the stylus. The Egyptians used pictures instead of words The first, second, and third steps in the use of pictures The wedge- shaped letters of the Baby- lonians 8 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The alphabet as we know it lo-day Men's knowledge of geog- raphy in different ages As this was square at the end and they used only a corner of it in writing, the mark left on the clay had the shape of a wedge. Hence arose the name ^'cunei- form/^ which means wedge-shaped. The use of the alphabet as we know it to-day came later. Just when and by whom it was invented is uncer- tain. It is believed by some that the Cretans were the inventors of the alphabet and that the Phoenicians carried it to Greece. 5. How People of Any Age Learn from the Past. — It appears, therefore, from this brief glance backward, that we Americans about three hundred years ago, when John Smith and other Englishmen reached Jamestown and the Pilgrims reached Plymouth, started with many things which had been invented or discovered in the ages long before our ancestors ever dreamed of coming to Amer- ica. Such has ever been the way, for it has always been true that when the men of any time found out a way of doing things which helped them to live with greater ease and comfort, those who came after them continued to use these ways of working, unless they found better ones. In this manner the people of each age profit by the experi- ence of those who have lived before them, and at the same time the}' themselves invent new ways of doing things. Thus the old stock of ideas is ever being added to, each period in the world's histoiy improving a little on what has gone before. 6. The World as Known When the Christian Era Began. — The world in 1620, for instance, when the Pil- grims landed at Plymouth, was quite different from what it was in 1492, when Columbus discovered America. Nor THE PRESENT AND THE PAST 9 < was the difference wholly in ways of living brought about by useful inventions. It was also in men's greater knowl- edge of geography. By consulting the map you will see how different was the earth's surface in 1620 from what it was as Imown in the time of Columbus^ and, again, how different still it w^as at the begiiming of the Chris- tian era, that is, nearly fifteen hundred years before Columbus fomid his way to the New AYorld. The names by which some of the ancient peoples are what some known are not the same as the names by which the peo- pies^of^an- ple now living in these countries are known. For ex- cient times ^ , , , , were cailed ample, those li^ing in what is now England were called Britons; those in France were called Gauls; those in Spain were called Iberians; and the chief part of those in Italy were called Romans. But even in those far- away times the men of Greece were called Greeks, though, to be sure, they called themselves Hellenes. The most intelligent of these peoples were the Greeks, The Greeks yet in the earty day of their histoiy they knew little of of geography what lay be^^ond their ow^n boundaries. Their ideas of geography were hazy and fanciful. They believed the earth to be a plane stretching from the ^Egean Sea in all directions far away into unknown regions. They thought that at the extreme north was an island, which had been discovered by Pytheas, a sailor from Mar- seilles. They called it Ultima Thule, which means most distant goal. The best authority now holds that this was not a real island, but the coast of Norway. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Our ways of living have come from many lands, and there- fore we ov/e much to the past, which we learn through the study 10 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE of history. 2. Many of the people Hving in our country to-day came from other countries, just as our forefathers did. 3. When the emigrants from Europe came to America in the seventeenth century they brought with them many ways of doing things that the people of Europe had learned up to that time. TO THE PUPIL 1. In what ways do the stories of heroic men help us to live more wisely? 2. From what countries do most of the immigrants to our land come now? Which of these countries are represented by immigrants in your own community? 3. From what countries did our forefathers come? 4. How do immigrants come to-day, and how did our forefathers come ? 5. Name some modern inventions which the Pilgrims knew nothing about. Name three important ones made before the Pilgrims came ; and also some older inventions. 6. How do people of any age learn from the past? Z'2 z u > c o CO 1 «g V » THE GREEKS AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED FROM THEM CHAPTER II THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 7. What We Owe to the Greeks and the Romans. — There is little doubt but that we owe more to the Greeks and the Romans than to any other people of ancient times. Although they lived over two thousand years ago and far away on the shores of the Mediterranean^ yet from them we have learned many things. Our ways of living would be very different had not our ancestors brought with them to America Greek and Roman ideas ; for many of our ways are but Greek and Roman ways slightly changed. 8. Geographical Conditions in Greece. — The main- The size land of Greece was but a small countiy^ about the size of o? Greece Maine or South Carolina^ and six times the size of Con- necticut. But it was quite unlike any of these States in outline or surface. It was a roughly triangular pe- ninsula. Its most striking feature was its rugged moun- its rugged tains, Mount Olympus being the highest peak. mountains The high ridges and peaks cut the land into hundreds The land of upland plains and valleys, some of which were only ["nd^iains" tiny basins of a few acres or even less lying among the ^^^ valleys hills. Evei'}^^here the mountains were so steep and unbroken that but few roads or even paths connected .one valley with another. In these upland plains and valleys, shut in by towering 11 12 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The people lived in small groups Two effects of the condi- tions under which the people lived Motmtain passes The rivers short The Greeks and the sea mountains, lived small groups of people, most of them farmers and shepherds. Since in most parts of Greece the soil was thin and bare, the men dwelling in these moun- tain towns had to work hard to make a living from their bar- ley, wheat, and flax, and their herds and flocks on the hills. In one way these conditions worked for good, by making the men strong, sturdy, and self-reliant. But in another way their effect was bad, since the people saw little of others living outside their own small communit}', and thus became narrow in their ideas and petty in their interests. But the mountains, which shut them off from other communities also defended them from the ravages of war. Even the mountain passes were so few and narrow that a small number of brave men could hold back an advancing enemy. Another feature in the geography of Greece which kept the towns — or city-states, as they later came to be called — apart from each other was the smallness of its rivers. If there had been a great river running through the countiy it would have helped to bring about trade be- tween the various groups li^dng near its banks. But the rivers were all short, because the mountains were at no point far from the sea. At the end of winter they were full and strong, while at the end of summer they became either mere threads of water or dr}^ beds. But when they were full of water the current rushed with such force that no boat could sail upon a single river of Greece. Although the Greek communities of the mainland were separated from each other, few of them were cut off from the sea. The eastern and north-western coasts of Greece were full of bays aud inlets reaching up into the land. < o u H (Ji o \ /^ \ \^ '^^^^r^ '^XXJ^ o ^-7^^ \ r __^ ^ Is ^ H/ , - " /5 > w / p^ f ® ft •4 s e JS •= e s ^ ^ E e J / ( V~-~^ ^ ^ W I / v \ ^^ iJ M ** ^ 1 ) \ Q /r ( ? H « «^ [^< 1^1 \ / I THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 13 and these had good harbors. Moreover^ the sea was safe, having as a rule regular winds and clear skies, except in the short winter. In case of a storm the sailors were never far from a good harbor, for the islands in the ^Egean Sea lay close together and provided safe anchorage. These islands stretched in long lines from the shores of Greek Greece to the coast of Asia Minor, which made it easy to ^aders^^ make cjuite long trips without going far from land. This encouraged trade, and many of the Greeks became sailors and traded extensively. It was their life on the sea that more than all else brought the Greeks into touch with other lands and peoples and developed so strongly their power of imagination. No other country in ancient days was so open to the commerce of the world. 9. The Expansion of Greece. — But these mountain Early people, whom we have just described, were only a small part of the Greeks. At an early day the mother coun- tr}^ on the continent began to send out colonies to other lands and continued to do so until the Greeks had spread over much of the ancient w^orld as it was known at that time. By the beginning of the fifth century there were not only Greeks on their mainland of the Balkan penin- sula, but also Greeks in Sicily and the south part of the Italian peninsula, Greeks on the islands and shores of the ^gean basin, and Greeks elsewhere on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and its tributaries. In fact, What Greece TT 1 1 Greece, or Hellas, included not only all of the home included countr}^, but also the larger Greek world outside of the home country. It should be noted also that the cult- ure of the maritime Greeks was in early days far in advance of that of the Greeks of Greece proper and 14 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Greek heroes and their deeds Jason and the Golden Fleece Jason and the Argo- nauts culminated in the splendor of such cities as Ephesus and Miletus on the coast of Asia Minor. 10. Jason and the Golden Fleece. — Although the an- cient Greeks long since passed away they left behind great memories for all who came after them to cherish. Among these are the wonderful stories they told; the famous cities they built; and the heroic deeds of their great men. The stories w^hich they delighted to tell and which they wished their children to learn are not in most of their de- tails what we should call true stories. But they merit mention here because they point to the kuid of heroes the Greeks honored and to the kind of deeds they admired; and still more because it was these heroes that they tried to imitate; and in so ti'}dng they did become more Hke them. One of the most interesting is the stor}^ of Jason and the Golden Fleece. JasoU; heir to the kingdom of lolchiS; was kept from his throne by PeliaS; an unclC; who was hold- ing it for him until he should become old enough to reign. One day young Jason came into the presence of his uncle and declared he now wished the throne for himself. Pe- has promised to yield it to him; but at the same time ad- \dsed that before he became king he should win glory for himself by going in search of the Golden Fleece. This fleece hung in a grove in ColchiS; far from Greece; and was guarded day and night by a fire-breathing dragon which never slept. PeliaS; of course, expected that Jason would never come back. Pleased with the idea, Jason at once began to build a fifty-oared ship. When it was ready, with fifty brave THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 15 young men he started out on his bold adventure. The ship was called the Argo, and the young men the Argonauts, or Argo-sailors. Ha\dng reached Colchis after many dangers, Jason made known his errand to the King. That ruler had no notion of parting with the Golden Fleece, but thought he would soon rid himself of this bold adventurer. He therefore set Jason two impossible tasks, and told Jason him that when he had performed them the Golden Fleece fi^.b're^L should be his. One of the tasks was to plough a field with ^°s bulls two fire-breathing bulls; the other was to plant the teeth of a dragon which had long before been slain by a foreign adventurer named Cadmus. By the aid of the King's daughter Medea, who had fallen in love \\ith Jason and who was skilled in magic, Jason tamed the bulls so that they were easy to manage. Then, after ploughing the field, he planted the dragon's jason plants teeth, from every^ one of which sprang forth an armed {eeth3"'^ soldier eager for battle. Rushing at Jason to cut him slays the 1 1 . dragon down, the warriors were suddenly surprised by a stone which Jason threw among them. Each believing that he had been struck by his neighbor, they all at once began to fight each other and continued the fierce struggle until all were dead. Jason next turned to the dragon. By the use of Medea's magic he put him to sleep and slew him. Then securing the Golden Fleece he carried it back to his own kingdom. II. Hercules a Famous Greek Hero. — .Another of the The twelve heroes of whom the Greeks were proud was Hercules. It ^^^^""^ was said that when only a few months old he strangled two serpents that made an attack on him. But what made 16 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Helen car- ried off by Paris him famous was the twelve labors he performed by order of the king he served. These labors required great strength and skill. Four of them were single combats with strange wild animals — the first with a huge lion, the sec- ond with a hydra having nine heads, the third with a stag ha\dng golden antlers and brazen feet, and the fourth with a wild boar. Another remarkable feat was the bringing from the lower world of the three-headed dog Cerberus, which guarded the gates of Hades. 12. The Trojan War. — But the most famous of all the Greek tales were those centred about the Trojan War, many episodes cf which are told in Homer^s poems called ^^The Iliad '^ and ^^ The Odyssey." According to the stor}^ as told in ^^The Iliad," Agamemnon was King of Greece, and his brother Menelaus was King of Sparta under him. In Asia Minor, just across the iEgean Sea, was a city called Troy, whose king was named Priam. Menelaus^s wife Helen was the most beautiful woman in Greece. Once when Priam's son Paris was ^^siting Menelaus he won the love of Helen, and carried her back to Troy with him. He refused to give her up. To force him to do so, Agamemnon gathered an army from all Greece and made war agamst Troy, which after ten years was captured and burned. The story of the wooden horse tells how they entered and captured the city. GODS DESCENDING TO AID THE 'XKOJANS THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 17 The most noted Greek hero of this war was Achilles, Achilles and the bravest of the Trojans was Priam's son Hector, Hector who was slain by Achilles in a famous combat. 13. The Story of Odysseus. — Another favorite hero of Odysseus this war was Odysseus (Ulysses); King of Ithaca^ a little ten^ye^ars island on the west coast of Greece. In order to save him- A READING FROM HOMER self and his companions on his way homeward; he blinded one of the CyclopS; one-eyed sons of PoseidoU; god of the sea. In punishment for this act; Poseidon kept Odysseus wandering for ten years before permitting him to make safe return to Ithaca. During that timC; in which he lost all his meU; he had many thrilling ad ventures; which are recounted in Homer's ^'Odyssey" (the story of Odysseus). 14. Famous Greek Cities. — Fascinating as are these stories of adventure — full of pictures of Greek thought and character — the life of their cities is not less interesting. Some of the more important ones which played a large part in the life of ancient Greece still keep their names to-day. 18 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Among them are Athens, Corinth, Thebes, and Sparta. 'Evevy one of these can trace its history back to the time when Greece was in her glor}^, and even now they are worth seeing and knowing. But they have a far deeper interest to those of us who know something of their ancient hfe and growth and what their people did many hundred years ago. Athens and Sparta will claim our attention when we speak a little later of the Athenians and of the Spartans. ( 15. Undying Memories of Greek Courage. — ^The fa- mous Greek stories and cities which we have mentior.ed constantly remind us of what the Greek people were and w^hat they achieved. But stronger reminders still are the undying memories of Greek courage; for, after all, among the most precious things we possess is the knowledge of the deeds of brave men. Among the many instances of Greek courage we will recount only a few^, w^hich will help us to see how resolute and freedom-lo^dng these people were. Greek 1 6. The First Persian Invasion. — As we have already seen, much of the soil of Greece was thin and bare. For that reason the country could not support a large popula- tion, and the Greeks were driven to planting colonies on neighboring shores, as, for example, on the islands of the iEgean Sea and in Asia Minor, in southern Italy and Sicily, and on what is now the French and Spanish coast. Of these we have already spoken. The revolt After a time the Greek cities in Asia Alinor became so cities in Asia numerous and so strong that they rose in revolt against ^^^ the Persian King, Darius, who held them under his rule. To this revolt Athens and its neighbor city Eretria lent THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 19 their aid, Athens sendmg twenty ships and Eretria five. This made King Darius so angiy that as soon as he had Darius put down the revolt in Asia Mmor he fixed his mind upon ^^^^ a plan to punish these two insolent cities. Lest in the rush of other occupations he should forget his puipose, he ordered his cup-bearer, accorchng to Herodotus, a Greek historian, to remind him at every banciuet of the insult he had received by saying, ^^ Master, remember the Athenians." How much truth there may be in this stor}^ we do not know, but in the year following the end of the revolt Darius began to make prep- arations to invade Greece. First he sent heralds to all the principal Greek cities to de- mand earth and water as a sign of submission. This was according to the customs of those days. Some of the cities obeyed the King's order, but He demands the Athenians and the Spartans dared to defy the Per- water ^ sian monarch. According to Herodotus, the Athenians threw the herald that came to them iato a pit where he could get earth, and the Spartans threw theirs into a well w^here he could get water. Of course these defiant in- sults made Darius more angiy than ever. In 490 B. C. Darius sent his army against Greece. It The Per- soon captured and burned Eretria. Then the Persians at Marathon made a landing at Marathon, a plain about twenty-four miles north-east of Athens, and anchored their ships near the shore close by their camp. Even before this landing the Athenians had heard of the burning of Eretria and had sent Pheidippides, a profes- A PERSIAN SOLDIER 20 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The Athe- nians send to Sparta for aid The Athe- nian army at Marathon The battle of Marathon sional runner^ to Sparta for aid. He ran with such speed that he covered the entire distance of one hundred and fifty miles between Athens and Sparta — which is the same as the distance between New York and Albany or between Cleveland and Pittsburg — ^in tw^o days or less. The Spar- tans told the messenger to say to the Athenians that they could not at that time send troops, because the full moon was at hand, when all citizens must celebrate the feast of Apollo. ''We will send aid/' they said, ''in about five days. " This meant that they could not reach the battle- field for at least a week. Meanwhile the Athenians marched with all possible speed to Marathon, and pitched their camp between the Persian army and Athens. Here they were jomed by one thousand men from the friendly httle city of Platsea. This made the Athenian army about eleven thousand, wMe the Persian army, according to the estimate of Herodotus, was many times as large. Miltiades, who had made himself a great lord over the Thracian barbarians to the north, had command of the Greeks on the day of the battle. For some days no movement was made by either side. But finally the Persians, who had become impatient, drew up in Ime of battle along the shore. The Athenians, who were almost a mile away, advanced at a very quick step which was almost a run. After a long and hard strug- gle they defeated the Persians and drove them to their ships. During the last part of the battle it is said that the hands of a Greek soldier were cut off as he clung to a Persian vessel in his desperate puipose to prevent its escape. J THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 21 ATHENIAN FOOT SOLDIERS CHAEGING THE PERSIAN HOSTS AT MARATHON The Persians embarked veiy swiftly and sailed away, The Per- heading for Athens, w^here they expected traitors in the back to city to rise and help them. But IMiltiades rallied his arm}^ ^^'^^ and hurried homeward, not stopping to rest his tired sol- diers until they had come to the city. He reached Athens in advance of the Persians, who, finding the city thus de- fended and the traitors not daring to rise, sailed back to Asia mthout making an attack. This \dctoiy of Alarathon was a glorious achievement a glorious for Athens and saved for us the wonderful Greece that ^^ levemen we know. Its memor}^ gave the people courage and self- reliance and spurred them to greater things. The Athenians were right in belie\dng that they had The Athe- not seen the last of the Persians, and they were persuaded by Themistocles^ one of their statesmen, to build a navy of two hundred ships. From this beginning Athens later became a strong naval power. 22 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Xerxes and his army A. wonder- ful sight Crossing the Hellespont The line of march 17. The Second Persian Invasion. — Five years after the Persians were defeated at ^larathon, Darius died. But he had begun, before his death, to prepare for an- other invasion of Greece. His son Xerxes, who succeeded to the throne, continued these preparations on a very large scale. In the spring of 480 B. C. he marched against Greece. His army was the largest that the men of that time had ever seen. It is said that it contained at least half a million men (the romantic estimate of Herodotus was over five millions), and that the fleet consisted of more than three thousand ships of various kinds, though none larger than a small yacht of our day. This army presented a wonderful sight. There were men in it from forty-six nations and tribes, each wearing their own peculiar costumes and carrying strange kinds of arms. One tribe of Persians had daggers and lassoes; while a band of Ethiopians carried, in addition to their javelins, stone-tipped arrows with shafts of reeds. Skins of wild beasts hung from their shoulders, and their bodies were painted half red and half white. To prevent delay, Xerxes had ordered in advance that a bridge of boats be built across the Hellespont (Darda- nelles, separating Asia from Europe), and that it should be all ready on the arrival of his army. It required seven days and seven nights for the Persian forces to cross this bridge, which was nearly one mile long. Let us picture to ourselves the army as it presses for- ward. The baggage trains and infantr}^ headed the line of march. Behind them came the cavalry^ and then ten sacred horses with costly trappings. These were followed by the sacred chariot, di*awn by eight white horses, the THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 23 charioteer walking behind; with reins in hand, for no one was ever allowed to enter this sacred chariot. Then came Xerxes himself, a ver^^ handsome man, riding in a splendid chariot and surrounded by a thousand horse- guards with golden apples ornamenting their spears. After Xerxes came the ten thousand " Immortals/' picked men of Persian birth. Last of all, at some distance be- LOOKING TOWARD THERMOPYLAE FROM THE NORTH-WEST hind; marched the mass of the army, stretching back along the road farther than eye could reach. If the army as estimated by Herodotus had been arranged in ranks of four and the ranks placed five feet apart, it would have extended farther than the distance between New York City and Chicago. The Persians met with no opposition until they reached The pass of Thermopylae, a pass which formed the gateway to all ^rmopyae northern Greece. If Xerxes could capture this, aU Greece 24 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The three The Greek army very small Guarding the path over the mountains as far south as the Isthmus of Corinth would fall under his power. The pass was about four and one-half miles long; extending east and west between a steep ridge of hills or momitains and the Mahan Gulf. It was really a sea-shore road, bordered chiefly by marshes, though in places the deep w^ater w^ashed up far enough to allow boats to land. At one point it was barely wide enough for a wagon to pass. There were three veiy narrow places, or "gates," in this pass — the west gate, the middle gate, and the east gate. The west gate, or the first that one reaches in coming from the north, was ver}" narrow and bordered by low hills only, so that it was not eas}^ to defend. But at the middle gate there was a mound edged by deep water, across which ran an old wall. Behind this wall the Greeks took their stand, and here the battle was fought. The Greek army which was commanded by the Spar- tan lung Leonidas, was veiy small. The Athenians had put all their strength into the fleet. They wished to defend the pass against a landing of the Persians at that point. The entire army consisted of about seven thousand three hundred men, almost the exact number of Corn- wallis's army at Yorktown. Of these, one thousand were set to guard the path which ran over the mountains from the north and ended in the rear of the pass of Ther- mopylae, behind the point where Leonidas and his army were stationed. If the Persians could send a bodv of troops over this path it could attack Leonidas and his men in the rear. THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 25 The outlook for the little Greek army, face to face with A gloomy the Persian host, was gloomy enough. But Leonidas did not waver. He was there to defend Thermop}isD. Xerxes encamped outside the entrance to the pass; The Per- the Greeks were behind the wall at the middle gate. When thTuttie^*^ the Persian scouts were sent in advance of the army to dis- ^^^^^ ^^^y cover what was going on, they saw the Spartan warriors outside the wall combing their long hair and taking exer- cise, as was their custom before fighting in battle. Four days Xerxes w^aited for the Greeks to retreat. On the fifth he made an attack. The best of the Persian troops dashed against the little Greek army. For two days the battle raged. Again and again did the Persians advance to the attack, but the stubborn Greeks would not yield an inch. The Persian army was held at bay. On the evening of the second day, how^ever, a Greek trai- A traitor tor offered for a bribe to lead the Persians over the moun- oTpersians^ tain path. Under his guidance a body of Persians set fountains out early in the evening, took the Greek guards at the top of the mountain by surprise, and passed on without resist- ance. The next morning Xerxes, having waited until this body of troops should have come up in the rear of Leonidas, ordered the attack. Meanw^hile deserters had informed Leonidas of the loss of the path in his rear, and he had sent away two thousand eight hundred of his men. About three thousand six hundred remained, including The heroic three hundred Spartans. Leonidas thought, perhaps, that and^his^^ there was a desperate chance of saving the pass. At all gp^^^g events he was too brave to retreat. He and the Spartan heroes were ready to fight to the death. And they did! The battle raged for hours, the Greeks at the last fighting 26 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The Per- sians capt- ure and bum Athens The Greeks wm a splen- did victory The Greeks crush the Persian forces A GKEEE HTTTP even with their fists and teeth. Leonidas and the three hundred Spartans fought until not a man of them was left. When the Greek fleet heard the news of the defeat at Thermopylae it sailed to Salamis, an island near Athens. The city of Athens was deserted; the people of all Attica taking refuge in other cities. The Persians took possession of Athens and burned the city to the ground. Off SalamiS; the Persian fleet fought the Greek, Xerxes watching the spectacle from a lofty throne built on a hill-side not far away. The battle began at seven in the morning and lasted for seven or eight hours. The Greeks won a splendid \dctory. Xerxes took his fleet back to Asia and left his best gen- eral, MardoniuS; to continue the war with Greece on land. The following year the Persians met the Atheni- ans, Spartans, and Platseans in the battle of Platsea, some twenty-five miles north-west of Athens. Here the Greeks won a signal victoiy and crushed the Persian forces so that they never rallied. Alardonius was killed, and what becam.e of the sur\iving troops is not known. A GROUP OP GREEK SOLDIERS, DRAWN FROM SCULPTURED FIGURES IN THE TEMPLE PEDIMENT THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THEM 27 Many of them must have been cut off by the peasantiy in their flight; probably the rest made their way back to Asia in small bands. Greek courage had saved European Greece from com- Greek cour- ing under Persian rule. Without knowing it; the Greeks o^reece^^ were fighting for the good of mankind; for it was far better that their ideas and ideals should persist rather than the ideas and ideals of the Persians. \ THINGS TO REMEMBER *l. The mountains of Greece cut the land into upland plains and valleys in which the people lived in small groups. 2. Many of the Greeks, however, became sailors and traded extensively. 3. Greece, or Hellas, included not only all of the home country^ but also. In its widest sense, the larger Greek w^orld outside of the home country. 4. Among the great memories which the Greeks left behind are the wonderful stories they told, the famous cities they built, and the heroic deeds of their great men. 5. When the Persians made their first Invasion of Greece they were defeated at the battle of Marathon. This great victory saved for us the / wonderful Greece that we know. 6. At the battle of Thermopylae, which took place during another Persian Invasion of Greece, the heroic Leonidas and his brave Spartans fought until not a man of them was left. 7. In the battles of Salamis and Platsea Greek courage saved European Greece from coming under Persian rule. TO THE PUPIL 1. Explain how it was that the people on the mainland of Greece lived in small groups. 2. What were the two effects of the conditions imder which the people lived? ! 3- If there had been a great river running through the country, what I difference would it have made in the life of the people ? ' 4. Explain how it was that many of the Greeks came to be sailors and traders. 28 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 5. What was the difference between Hellas and the home country? 6. What can we learn from the wonderful stories the Greeks told? It is well worth your while to know what these stories are. Who were Hercules, Achilles, and Odysseus, and what did they do? 7. Name four famous Greek cities and point them out on the map. 8. Why did Darius invade Greece, and what was the result of this in- vasion? In what way did the victory of Marathon save for us the wonder- ful Greece that we know? 9. Compare the size of the two armies at the battle of Thermopylae. Imagine yourself with Leonidas at Thermopylae, and tell what you admire in him and his three hundred Spartans? 10. In what way was it better that the Greenes should defeat the Persians? 11. Locate the following: Athens, Sparta, Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea. CHAPTER III THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS Athens the city-state The city of Athens 18. Athens at the Time of Its Greatest Splendor. — Although the Persians hcid burned Athens to the ground, the Athenians soon rebuilt it and made it more beautiful than before. In imagination let us visit the city at the time of its greatest splendor, in the age of Pericles (461-429 B. C). We must remember that Athens, like other city-states of Greece, was politically not merely a group of houses with a wall running around it. It included also the coun- try outside the wall. The Athenians, then, were not only the people who dwelt within the city walls, but those also who made their homes in the peninsula of Attica. In rebuilding the city the Athenians had put up their dwellings with little attention to symmetry of streets, which were narrow, crooked, and crowded with houses. But this was the case in all old cities. The purpose was THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS 29 to make the walls as small in circuit as possible and there- fore easy to defend against assailants. Those of Athens were only about five miles around, enclosing an area very small for the number cf people who had to dwell within the city. 19. The People of Athens. — Since the population of Theweii-to- Attica was about two hundred and fifty thousand; these cared iftt/e^ may have amounted to seventy-five thousand. The well- ^°^ business to-do Athenian cared little for what we call business. In fact he did not work at all; but spent most of his time out-of-doors with his fellow-meU; talking politics in the market-place or attendmg the public assembly. What the pubhc assembly was we shall see later on. He rose very early in the morning — about daybreak — a day with and after a slight breakfast of wine and bread sallied ^° ^^^ forth bareheaded; with his hair carefully dressed and his cloak pulled about his bod}^; to meet his friends or take part in public affairs. Later in the morning; if he was not called to the public assembly; he w^ould take a walk or ride out to his country house to look after his estate. At noon he enjoyed a hearty meal; his real break- fast, after which he went to the gymnasium either to take exercise or to look on and enjoy the sports w^hile chatting with his friends. At sunset he returned to his home for dinner. The slaveS; of whom there were at this time not less slavery in than one hundred thousand in Attica; did most of the ^^^ physical work of the community. They filled the place of the mass of hired servants, artisanS; farm-hands, minerS; and even professional men, like lawyers, physi- cians, writers, of our times. They also acted as stew^ards 4 30 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE THE ACROPOLia OF ATHENS RESTORED Dwelling- houses small and unattractive The Athe- nians spent but little time in their homes and business managers for merchants. All but the poor- est families had one or twO; and fifty was not a large num- ber for a well-to-do Athenian to own. Some wealthy citizens counted their slaves by hundreds. 20. The Houses of the Athenians. — ^The dwelling- houses of the Athenians were small and not at all attrac- tive. The front of the house was bare and in many cases broken only by a single door. ^^Tien there were windows, they were either in the second stoiy, or, if in the first stor}^, were nine or ten feet from the ground. Oil-lamps were used for lights and drinking-water was drawn from wells and fountains. But the Athenians cared only for plain and simple homes; for they used their houses mainly as places in which to sleep and eat and as a shelter for their families r? * W" ,!? « t 5 2; 3; a* a H H "l OQ .-) O o <{ s» H ,•,■/,*^, , o'J ;• : o K c c2 !'. u V -f 'J-/^ 1 S' A ROMAN BOOK PAPYRUS ROLL. a reed-like plant which grew along the Nile River^ in Egypt. The strips of papyrus were made from six to thirteen inches wide^ and were glued together, end to end, so as to form as long a sheet as was needed for the book. The sheet might be ten feet, fifty feet, one hundred feet, or much longer, for its length depended upon the size of the book. This strip w^as rolled up and unrolled, so that instead of calling it a book we should properly speak of it as a roll. The writing was in fine, clear characters. It was in columns runnmg with the width of the roll; that is, the roll when set on end was in a position to be read. This long sheet was fastened at each end to a rod of polished ivoiy or wood, generally ending in knobs. Aromid one of these rods the whole sheet w^as wound hke a window-shade and tied with thongs. The roll formed a ^S'olume," this word being derived from a Latin word meaning "to roll.'^ Then a stiff label, bearing the title and the author's name, was tied to the knobs, and the book was ready for the bookseller or the libraiy. The booksellers at first made their own copies of the books for sale, and kept assistants for more rapid produc- tion. These assistants were slaves or paid freedmen. Their work was often made easier by dictation, one per- son dictating for several scribes at once. The booksellers hung the titles of books on the door or on the pillars of their shops, and sold their books at moderate prices. \ ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE 103 THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Romans brought under their control most of the civihzed world and made of it one great empire. 2. In the days of the empire the Romans made pleasure-seeking one of their chief aims, the principal centres of amusement being the theatre, the amphi- theatre, the circus, and the bath. 3. It is believed that after the conquest of Gaul slaves made nearly one-half the population of Rome. 4. The freemen were mainlv divided into the verv rich and the very poor. 5. The Senate was now unfit to govern be- cause the senators had become weak and corrupt. It finally yielded to Caesar as its superior and head of the Roman world. 6. The Greeks, through their buildings, their works of art, and their literature, had large influence over the Romans. 7. In the time of Augustus the Romans themselves had historians and poets which helped to make the "Augustan Age" famous. TO THE PUPIL 1. Point out on the map the countries in Europe that were included in the Roman Empire. 2. What was the Coliseum ? The Circus Maximus ? 3. Into what classes were the people of Rome divided ? 4. In what way had the Senate become unSt to govern ? Why ? 5. What was the Forum ? 6. What was the purpose of a Roman triumph ? 7. What were the principal uses of the Roman roads ? 8. In what ways did the Romans come under the influence of the Greeks? Explain in particular the influence of Greek slaves and teachers. 9. Tell what you can about the education of a Roman boy. 10. How did the books of ancient times differ from ours in the way they were made ? 104 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE CHAPTER X ROME AND CHRISTIANITY Early 8o. Roman Religion. — In their religion^ as in their art woreS) ^^^ hterature, the Romans borrowed from the Greeks, but they thought of their gods in a different way. The early Romans, hke the Greeks, worshipped spirits, which they beheved to be all about them. These spirits dwelt in rivers, forests, fountains, and like places, and took an active part in the life of nature and of man. The Roman, however, did not think of his gods and goddesses as per- sonal beings to be loved, but rather as forces to be feared. Roman He w^as as practical and straightforward in his religion Se^we&are ^^ he was in other matters. If he was true to the gods, he of Rome believed, they would be true to him; but he could not ex- pect them to favor him and protect him from evil unless he duly honored them by proper worship and sacrifice. In their worship the Romans had deeply at heart the wel- fare of Rome. It was in their intense love of country that they showed real and deep religious feeling. We may almost say that their patriotism was their religion. Devotion and loyalty to Rome were devotion and loyalty to the gods of Rome. Some Ro- One of the great Roman deities was Vesta, goddess of the hearth. In early Roman days the hearth w^as the centre of the house, and the family in gathering about it for meals made each meal an act of worship. In the tem- ple of Vesta at Rome, a fire was kept continually burn- ing, as if the whole people were one great family. A spark of fire, which we can now strike so easily, was to ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 105 them a sacred thing. Ever}^ family worshipped also the Lares, which were ancestral spirits, and the Penates, which were gods of the household. Other important Roman deities were Jupiter, the supreme ruler of the earth and sky; Juno, his wdfe; Pluto, the god of the underworld; Neptune, the god of the sea; Venus, the goddess of love and beauty ; and Minerva, the goddess of wisdom.. 8i. The Emperor Augustus and One-man His Worship as a God. — Although, Rome as noted elsewhere, Julius Caesar by his army had made himself master of Rome, he could not protect him- self from the revenge of the sena- tors, and several of their party mur- dered him. For a number of years after his death, there were many w^ars among the various factions at Rome. Butatlast (31 B.C.) Caesar's grandnephew, who was afterward called Augustus, triumphed over all his rivals and estab- lished one-man rule forever in Rome. He was called em- peror (commander-in-chief) and came to be worshipped as a god. His rule was wise, and he gave the Roman world such order, peace, and prosperity as it had never had before. 82. The Beginning of Christianity. — It was during his Jesus reign of peace throughout the Roman world that Jesus Bethlehem was born in Bethlehem. This was a quiet little town in the Roman province of Judaea. A province was a con- • quered country outside of Italy. At the time when Jesus was crucified at Jerusalem, Tiberius was the Roman em- JUNO ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 107 peror and Pontius Pilate was the governor sent out by Rome to the province of Judaea. The followers of Jesus Christ were called Christians^ Paul and and one of the most noted of the early Christians was the christkns Apostle Paul. He was a Jew with a Greek education, born in Tarsus (a city of Asia Minor), and was a Roman citizen. You may remember that when Paul was brought to trial in Judaea, he claimed that as a Roman citizen it was his right to appeal to Rome for a special trial. To Rome, then, he was sent in chains as a prisoner; and at Rome he was later put to death because he was a Christian. 83. The Persecution of the Christians. — Paul was not alone in suffering death on account of his religious faith. Man}^ of the early Christians were killed, and all were treated as public enemies. This seems cruel to us, but the Romans thought they had good reasons for getting rid of men and women whom they deemed dangerous. One reason was that the Christians held their religious The Chns- services in secret. The Romans did not like this, because rdigious ser- they believed the Christians were doing evil things which ^g^^^J^ they did not wish to have made known. The Romans also believed that the Christians had formed secret organiza- tions. But secret organizations were forbidden by the government, for it was thought that they might plot against the state. Hence the Christians were punished as public enemies. Moreover, the Christians would not take part in the The Chris- worship of the emperors. ^^ There is but one God," they tcTworsh^p^ declared, ''and we will worship Him alone. We can- pe?or?" not worship the emperors, nor can we worship any of the Roman gods." When we remember that the Ro- 108 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Some refuse to join the army Cruel treat- ment of the Christians Saint Peter and Saint Paul mans honestly believed that unless the gods were duly honored and worshipped the empire would be destroyed, and that denying the divinity of the emperor was the same as denying his right to reign, we can easily see why they regarded the Christians as dangerous to the state. The Romans had no doubt, therefore, that the Chris- tians were public enemies. But many of the Christians gave further proof of their disloyalty, as the Romans thought, by refusing to join the army. ^'It is wrong to fight," said some Christians. ^^You are unwilling to de- fend and protect your countr}', " was the angiy retort of the Romans. Thus we see that the Romans really thought that the Christians wea'e dangerous to the state. So they put them to death, torturing them in all sorts of cruel and shocking ways. Some were tied up in the skins of animals and tossed into the arena to be torn to pieces by hungiy wild beasts. On one occasion the Emperor Nero opened his gardens to the people, and the torches he used to light up the gay scene at night were the burning bodies of Christians, which had been covered with tar and fastened to NERO crosses. Among those who suffered death under the Emperor Nero were Saint Paul and Saint Peter, both of whom are said to have been put to death on the same day. Paul, being a Roman citizen, was killed by a sword, and Peter was crucified on a spot near Nero's gardens. A beautiful ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 109 church, called St. Paul's, outside the walls of Rome, is supposed to mark the spot where Paul died; and you perhaps know that St. Peter's Church in Rome is a veiy great and ver}^ grand church, probably the most famous in the world. 84. The Catacombs. — During this time of persecution What the in Rome the Christians had to worship in secret places, are The most noted of these were the Catacombs. They are J I ji'^ m a' , A PORTION OF A WALL IN THE CATACOMBS, ROME underground passages two and one-half to five feet broad and eight feet high, stretching for about three miles under that part of the city which lies on the west bank of the Tiber. The passages branch off in different di- rections and are cut one under another, making at least three different levels, or ^'stories," so that there is a perfect labyrinth of them. Here in stone niches hewn in the rock that formed the side of the passages were buried the early Christians. Sometimes as many as eight niches were cut one above the other. Near the little chambers where rested the bodies of martyrs, their friends liked to be buried. Funeral services also were held in these chambers, by the light of the old Roman lamps. ^Vhen the Catacombs were begun, there was no need of secrecy about them, for the Roman always respected burial places. It was only after the persecutions that the usual doors were closed and entrance was made in secret ways. no AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Slow prog- ress cf Christianity Spread of the Chris- tian faith The fact that it is thought that from one to six milHon bodies were buried in the Catacombs shows in what num- bers people had adopted the Christian faith. In its early days the progress of Christianity had been slow and un- noticed. The number of Christians was small^ and con- sisted mostly of workingmen and slaves coming from the lowest classes of society and attracting but little notice from those in high places. AVhen it first came to the attention of the great, they tried to crush it. But with the weakening of Roman character, which we have observed, the Roman nation became weaker and weaker, for a strong and good nation is made onh^ of strong and good men. The belief in the power of Jupiter and the other gods was dying out. This left room for the Christian faith to spread more and more rapidly until, by the middle of the fourth centui^^, it had largely taken the place of the old worship. 85. The Emperor Constantine and Christianity. — Early in the fourth century the Emperor Constantine had allowed the Christians to worship freely. Later he w^ent still further and made Christianity the national religion (325 A. D.), and was himself baptized as a Christian. You will remember the name of this man, who was the first Christian Emperor, if you keep in mind that it w^as for him that Constantinople was named. Its old name was Byzantium; but he rebuilt this ancient Greek city and made it, instead of Rome, the capital of the empire. C0NST4.NTINE ROME AND CHRISTIANITY 111 86. Things We Have Learned from the Greeks and the The Greeks Romans. — From the foregoing chapters it is evident that ^^e Romans the genius of the Romans was veiy different from that Practical of the Greeks. For example, both were great builders, but the buildings of the Greeks were graceful and beauti- ful, because the Greeks were artistic, while those of the Romans were massive and imposing, because the Romans were practical. The Greeks were as patriotic as the Romans; but their Greek patriotism was narrow^ed to their own little city-states, narrow^"^ Only in the presence of an ovei'w^helming danger like the Persian invasions, which threatened to bring disaster on all alike, could they sink their jealousies for the time and join one another in the common cause. The danger over, they fell back at once into their old-time habits of caring for none but their own community. To the Romans is due the great work of building up Roman the nation. This they were able to do because the}' had broad*^^°^ a broader patriotism than the Greeks; that is, they had interests in common with a wider circle of people than those living close beside them. The}^ also had the power to organize one great state by binding together many tribes, peoples, and countries. Both systems have been of priceless worth to men. Both sys- The Athenians taught the world the great value of priceless democracy, which meant giving to every free man a J^^e^^o^id share in the government by ^allowing him a part in making the laws. The Romans taught the great value of law, order, and organization. By means of these they established their empire. Thus did the Greeks and Romans find out wa}^s of 112 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE American beginnings in Greece and Rome li\ing and of doing things that are a valuable part of American life to-day. We still use some of their forms of law and government; we still imitate their architecture and their engineering; w^e still enjoy their w^orks of art in our museums, our public buildings, our schools, and our homes; and we still study in our high-schools and colleges, as well as read by our firesides, books written by their poets, their historians, and their philosophers. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. From the stand-point of the Romans, devotion and loyalty to Rome were devotion and loyalty to the gods of Rome. 2. During the peaceful rule of the Emperor Augustus, Jesus was born in Bethlehem. 3. The Romans bitterly persecuted the Christians because, as the Romans declared, the Christians were dangerous to the state. 4. But later the Christian faith spread rapidly until the Emperor Constantine made Christianity the national religion. 5. The Greeks were artistic and the Romans practical; Greek patriotism was narrow, Roman patriotism broad; the Greeks built up the city-state, the Romans the nation. 6. There were many American beginnings in Greece and Rome. TO THE PUPIL 1. How did the Romans connect their worship with the welfare of Rome ? 2. How did there come to be one-man rule in Rome ? 3. Where was Jesus born, and in whose rule ? 4. Who were the Christians, and why were they persecuted ? 5. What were the Catacombs, and how were they used ? 6. Why was the progress of Christianity at first slow ? When was it made the national religion ? 7. What things have we learned from the Greeks and from the Romans ? 8. Name as many as you can of American beginnings in Greece and Rome. THE MIDDLE AGES AND WHAT WE HAVE LEARNED FROM THEM CHAPTER XI THE GERMANS 87. The Romans and the Germans. — You will remem- German ber that after Caesar had defeated Ariovistus and his the Roma^ German followers in Gaul, and had driven them back frontier into their owm land, he built a massive bridge across the Rhine, hoping .. _ __^-^-^ that it would aid the Romans in keeping the Ger- mans out of Gaul. But, even with the aid of the bridge, the Roman legions that guarded the Rhine and the Danube could not hold back the restless barbarians. Many times, during the next few hundred years, invaders crossed the frontier in wave after wave, and few ever went back, most of them finding new homes mthin the empire. Thinking to put an end to these inroads, the Romans The Romans sometimes themselves became the invaders. But they conquer the could not conquer their rude foes to the north, nor were ^®"^^°s 113 OLD ROMAN BRIDGE OVER THE MOSELLE, GERMANT 114 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The circular cabin they able to push the boundaries of the empire beyond the Rhine and the Danube. To make these boundaries more secure, Germans were taken into the Roman le- gions to keep out their fellow-Germans. Caesar was the first to do this, and often in later times w^hole tribes with their chiefs w^ere thus enlisted and settled along the fron- tier. ^¥hJ these world conquerors were always baffled by a horde of rude barbarians, unskilled in the arts of war, is a question we may well ask. To discover the reason, we must know something of the men themselves and their wa^'s of li\dng. 88. The Germans in Their Homes. — Suppose that in those far-off days we had wandered into one of the track- less forests of Germany. After picking our way through thicket and swamp, we *7. V lterr\. ^i:?^ '^ ^ might have found ourselves on the edge of a clearing of con- siderable size. In its centre stands a cabin, cir- cular in shape, with a thatched roof from which smoke is rising through I he German a hole in the top. Lifting our eyes from this primitive dwelling, we notice at a distance a tall, strong-looking man with long flaxen hair and blue eyes, wearing a mantle of wool — unless he happens to be fur-clad. He EARLY GERMAN AND GALLIC HABITATIONS, DRAWN FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF THOSE CONSTRUCTED FOR THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1889 THE GERMANS 115 at home is the owner of the hut; and is just returning from a hunt. Waiting for him at the door is his wife, wearing a purple mantle or cloak, just like the man's except that it is of linen. Her arms are bare from the shoulder. Not far off are the children, plapng at battle. They toa are thinly clad for this cold climate ; but they are brought up to be hardy warriors, and are never indulged. Dinner is ready for the hungiy hunter, who eats at a The hunter table by himself and consum^es a great quantity of veni- son, milk thickened with acid, and fruit. His drink is beer of his own brewing and made from grain raised on his own land. To-morrow, if there is no hunt and he is not called to battle, he will get up late, take a warm bath, and then spend the rest of the day in eating and sleeping. It may be that many days and weeks, one after another, will run on in the same way; for when he is not hunting or at war, he does little but sleep and eat. ^ eiy often he drinks too much of the home-made beer; often to while away the time he plays games of chance with his neighbors; for he is too igno- rant to find amusement in other ways. He has no bocks of any kind, and could not read them if he had. But his wife is far from idle. She has the care of the The village house and children, as well as the tilling of the land, family ^ The master of the house owns his own lot and holds a share in the common pasture-land of the village. By village we must not think of a street with rows of houses; for each dwelhng stands by itself, on any spot which has ANOTHER TYPE OF EARLY GER- MAX AND GALLIC HABITATION, DRAWN FROM A PHOTOGRAPH OF ONE CONSTRUCTED FOR THE PARIS EXPOSITION OF 1889 116 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE attracted the owner, and is surrounded by a plot of ground. There is not a store or public building of any kind in this village. Every family gets its own food as well as it can; the wife, children, old men, and slaves raising the barley and wheat, while the husband does the hunting and fishing. The meeting 89. The Assembly of Freemen. — If we wish to see the better side of the master of the household, we must go with him to battle; for since war is his chief business, it is as a v/arrior that he shows his strongest virtues. Before his summons to war, will probably come a call to the assembly of freemen. In an open plain he and his comrades sit down together, fully armed, each with a bright-colored shield and a short, narrow-bladed spear. Here they discuss questions bearing upon the welfare of the tribe. The proud Qo. The German Warriors Freedom-Loving, Loyal, warrior^ *^^ and Brave. — In all public matters, such as their choice of a leader, the men of the tribe stand on an equal foot- ing; for they are men of proud spirit, with a keen sense of personal honor, and they love independence and free- dom. When the leader of the meeting puts a question, the men shout if their vote is ''no," and clash their spears if it is ''yes." To-day there is a loud clashing, for they have been asked whether they wish to make war on a neighboring tribe, and they are eager to fight. The chief Having voted for war, they next choose a strong, body-guard brave w^arrior and hunter for their chief. Then each chieftain, or head of a clan, gathers his followers about him. The flower of these is chosen for a special body- guard. It is an honor to belong to one of these body- THE GERMANS 117 guards, which are composed of youths of the finest fam- ilies and with a great reputation for braveiy. Their duty is to protect their leader, and never to leave him. Having once chosen a chief to their liking, they must Loyalty and be loyal to him even to death. Cowardice, indeed, is ^^"^^^ RETURN OF VICTORIOUS GERMANS FROM A FIGHT WITH THE ROMANS looked upon as worse than death, while to die on the battle-field is something greatly to be desired; for after death the brave go to Valhalla, the warrior's paradise. Nor must the chief let his followers outdo him in braver\^, or he will lose their respect and bring shame upon him- self for all time. He is loyal to the tribe; his men are loval to him. To desert a leader or to lose a shield in battle is a lasting disgrace. A\Tien a boy reaches manhood, he is brought into the The young solemn assembly of freemen and presented with a spear and a shield. He is thus made one of the defenders of wamor 118 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The women brave and warlike Their gods and heroes his tribe. But he does not become a full-fledged warrior until he has killed his man. Even the women have a warlike spirit. They go with the men to war, and in the hour of battle they dress wounds, give food to the fighters, urge them on to vic- tory, and, if they see them giving way, sometimes even rush in and fight. Such brave women were held m high esteem by their warrior husbands, who sought their ad- vice on all matters of importance. In theii* respect for women, these barbarians were far in advance of the civilized nations whom they supplanted. 91. German Gods and Heroes. — ^But it is in the beautiful myths and legends of these early races that we find most clearly outlined the vir- tues they respected and the re- wards they longed to possess. Like the Greeks and Romans, they had many gods and heroes. In name and character and in the form of worship they received, however, these were quite differ- ent from the Greek and Roman deities. In the first place, the Germans built no temples to their gods. Their only churches were sacred groves presided over by priests. Here the people wor- shipped Wot an, the greatest of their gods ; Thor, god of the thun- der, Wotan's son ; and all the spirits of the woods and air and fields and streams, the great objects of nature IMPERSONATION OF THE GOD WOTAN ON THE OPERATIC STAGE THE GERMANS 119 such as the sun and moon and stars, and the earth and the mysterious thing called fire. Wotan was the god of war. His dweUing-place was Wotan and Valhalla, or "the hall of the slain." Here dwelt with Wotan chosen heroes who had perished in battle, and now spent their time feasting and fighting in his service. In The Valkyrie ^^alhaUa dwelt also the Valkyrie, beautiful maidens, who heroes^^^^ were sent out daily by Vv^otan, fully armed, to select brave warriors for his service. Yvlth Hghtning playing all about them and with gleam- ing spears, they rode through the air upon their flying steeds, and at night returned across the rainbow bridge to A^alhalla, each bearing with her a fallen hero. It was his hope of this shining reward — to serve Wotan in Valhalla — that helped the warrior to fight so bravely. The Germans also had, like The the Greeks and Romans, iied^^^^^^' stories of heroes and their brave deeds. The most SIEGFRIED FORGING HIS SWORD noted of the hero legends are to be found in the Nibelungenlied, sometimes called the German Iliad. Although it was not written until many centuries later, parts of it were perhaps sung by the minstrels X)i those early days, and the stories were handed down orally from generation to generation. 120 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The worth Of these stories Siegfried is the hero; and many thrill- and^good • ^^^S incidents are told which show the worth of loyaUy faith ^Y\d good faith — loyalty of friend to friend; of warrior to chief and chief to warrior^ loyalty to promise and to oath, to the gods and to religion. Upon good faith rests every triumph, and when faith is broken, miseiy and ruin follow. In this matter of good faith, as w^U as in that of personal freedom, these barbarians were above the civilized Greeks and Romans whom they succeeded. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Romans coukl not conquer the Germans nor were they able to push the boundaries of the empire beyond the Rhine and the Danube. 2. The men of the German tribes stood on an equal footing. They were men of proud spirit, with a keen sense of per- sonal honor, and they loved independence and freedom. 3. Loy- alty and bravery were cardinal virtues, and cowardice was looked upon'as worse than death. Even the women were brave and war- like. 4. The Nibelungenlied is sometimes called the German Iliad. TO THE PUPIL 1. Imagine yourself in the home of a German family and tell all you can about the dress, the food, and the daily life of the hunter and his wife. 2. Describe the German village. 3. Who were in the chief's body-guard, and what was their relation to him ? 4. What did the Germans think of bravery ? Of cowardice ? 5. Who was Wotan ? Who were the Valkyrie ? What was Valhalla ? 6. What was the Nibelungenlied and who was Siegfried ? THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 121 CHAPTER XII THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 92. German Tribes Move V/estward and Southward. Why the — In the early centuries of the Christian era, these rest- tribes moved less German tribes continued to move westward and an^*^^'^^ southward. They were driven by growing numbers to southward seek more and better land, and also by the desire to share in the far-famed wealth of the Roman Empire. Its fertile plains and splendid cities had long been known to them by report through traders, and through their own warriors who had served in Roman armies. In the third centuiy certain tribes broke through the Attiia and barriers of the west, and made their way to northern Italy, but were there held back by the armies of the empire. In the fourth centur}^, however, they were urged on by a more pressing need. For the Huns, fierce Mongolian tribes originally from north-eastern Asia, who had for centuries been working westward, were close upon them. Like a tornado they swept ever}^thing before them. Attiia, their chief, was a terror to all less bar- barous tribes, and later became known as the ^'scourge of God." At this time one of the most powerful of the German The Goths tribes was the Goths. A part of them, the Ostro-Goths Romans (Eastern Goths), submitted to the Huns. Another part, the Visi-Goths (Western Goths), crossed the Danube and came into deadly conflict with the Romans. They defeated and killed the Roman Emperor Valens at Adrianople in what is now Bulgaria, but under his sue- 122 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Alaric the King of the Goths Other tribes breait through the western frontier king. cessor, Theodosius,* they settled peacefully in the lands he gave them south of the Danube. Here they remained quiet for a time, but upon the death of Theodosius they rose up against the Romans. They made Alaric their He was young and strong. Although he had been trained in the Roman legions and had twice been in Italy, he loved better the freedom of the north and the ways of his own people. First he led them into Greece, plundering and destroying as he went, and making his name a terror not only in the east, but in the west. Meantime other tribes of German}^, pushed l^y the con- quests of the Huns, had broken through the western frontier of the Rhine. Some of them turned south into Italy, but were starved into submission. Others, among * Theodosius, a man of great ability, was known as Theodosius the Great. He was the last ruler of the whole empire. Upon his death (395 A. D.) it was divided between his two sons. Honorius was Em- peror of the West and Arcadius, his brother, was Emperor of the East. THE HUNS SWEEPING EVERYTHING BEFORE THEM AS THEY INVADED EUROPE \ THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 123 them the Burgundians and the Vandals^ entered Gaul. The Burgundians settled on the upper Rhme; in the proAince which still bears their name, and became alHes of Rome. The YandalS; after plundering Gaul^ crossed the Pyrenees into Spain. The Romans never regained control of these provinces. 93. Alaric Advances upon Rome. — After the breaking Akric hears of the western frontier^ Alaric took courage to advance ^ '''''^^® upon Rome. He believed that he was specially called to do this; for as he was passing a sacred grove^ he had. heard a voice saying over and over again, "Proceed to Rome and make that citv desolate." The words kept ringing in his ears until at last he seemed to have no other choice. Taking their women and children with them, according to the custom of barbarian nations, the Goths marched westward, ravaging the land as they went, defeats and the loss of many warriors, they crossed the Rom^^^^ ^^ Alps and arrived at the very gates of Rome. The Goths laid siege to the city. Day after day they la}^ encamped before it, and daily the Romans watched for aid from the Emperor at Ravenna which he had made his capital. It never came. There was no food. Finally a plague fell upon the starxdng people. Then the Romans sent an embassy to Alaric, and with Alaric and much bravado said they w^re not afraid of him, and ^^* embassy would all come out and fight him unless he would make j fair terms. But Alaric, knowing how helpless they were, ALARIC After many The Goths 124 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE laughed loudly and answered with a Gothic proverb, "Thick grass is easier mowed than thin/' "What, then, are your terms?" they asked. ^^I demand all your gold, your silver, your movable property, and your slaves/' was the haughty answer. Dismayed by these words, the Romans then asked, ^^If you take all these things, what do you leave to us?" "Your lives," was The ransom the gruff answer. But when, later on, a body of sena- tors came to Alaric to plead for easier terms, it was agreed that the Romans should give as a ransom five thousand pounds of gold, three thousand pounds of silver, four thousand silk tunics, three thousand hides dyed scarlet, and three thousand pounds of pepper. The terms of the ransom show that the barbarians were already accjuiring a taste for Roman luxuries. 94. Alaric Captures and Plunders Rome. — Then Ala- ric, with this immense bootv, marched northward till he reached the fertile lands of northern Italy. Here he wished to remain and settle with his followers as the allies of Rome. Instead, therefore, of seizing the lands already his by conquest, this barbarian conqueror asked that they be allotted to his people by the Emperor. ^Mien the Emperor Honorius stupidly refused, Alaric offered to furnish militar}^ aid to Rome if he could have provisions and some land. The Roman Emperor dallied and broke promises. Alaric marched back to Rome, but once more spared the city, hoping to make terms. Finally, about two years after the first siege of Rome, his patience worn out by delays, Alaric in deadly earnest appeared with his army before the city for the third time, and captured it with little or no opposition. Why Alaric captured Rome 1 p. Colored Map Inset, The Barbarian KingdomB, after page 124 THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 125 For three days Rome was given over to the plunder- Aiaric's ing barbarians; but the sacred buildings and all who ^^^*^ sought refuge within their walls were spared. Then Alaric marched down to the southern coast of Italy. ALARIC AND HIS FOLLOWERS ENTERING ROME Before he could cany out his further plans of conquest, however, he suddenly died. That the Romans might not find and dishonor his body, it is said that the current of a river was turned aside and a grave dug in the bed. Here they laid their brave leader, surrounding his body with treasures. The captives who had dug the grave were then killed, lest they should at some time reveal the secret. After Alaric's death, his people went north- w^ard into southern Gaul, where they settled and later extended their rule into Spain. The capture of Rome by barbarians (410) was one of 126 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Why the Romans failed the most astounding events of histon\ The marvel is not that a noble city had been pillaged and plundered, but that Rome; the centre of the world and for six hun- dred years the ruler of nations, had timidly given way to these barbarian hordes. 95. Why the Germans Succeeded in Conquering the Romans. — Yet the simple fact is that the Romans failed because they had become unfit to carr}- forward the work they had done when they were strong and sturdy men. Since the days of ^ Augustus their power as a nation had been weak- ened through increasing luxuiy and self-indul- And while the m ^ BUINS OF A ROMAN IMPERIAL PALACE AT TREVES, GERMANY gence. Romans were gro\Mng Why the Germans succeeded weaker^ the restless barbarian hordes north of the Danube were increasing in numbers and in power. They knew nothing of ease and comfort. In their hard struggle as hunters and warriors m the forest wilds of Germany they had become manly^ self-reliant^ and masterful. As.we have seen, many thousands of them were ser^ing in Roman armies as hired soldiers, for the ease-loving Romans were no longer willing to endure the hardships of war. Many thousands more, also, were slaves and freedmen on the estates of wealthy Roman nobles. Under these condi- tions the Germans had learned much about the life of the Romans, had ceased to fear them, and desired to get control of what the Romans were not strong enough to hold. THE GERMANS AND THE ROMANS 127 Before the close of the fifth centuiy (476), the last Koman Emperor of the west was deposed. Not a prov- ince in western Europe was then Roman; the ruHng power had come into the hands of the Germans. Surely the old reign of Italy was passing aw^ay, and a new Europe was about to take its place. 96. A New Europe under the Control of the Ger- mans. — This new Europe was to be under the control of these vigorous men from the north. As we shall see, it took them many hundred years to appreciate the best things that had been done by the Greeks and the Romans. Therefore they did not stop with over-throw- ing the Roman Empire. They also destroyed many cities, and in some places swept away nearly all that Rome had done. But they preserved more than they destroyed; and added to what the Greeks and Romans had done many ideas, customs, and ways of li\ang which have made life richer for us all. They were in fact both the successors and the heirs of the Romans, and as such took up the work of the Middle Ages, which began in the fifth centuiy and ended in the fifteenth. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The German tribes were driven by growing numbers to seek more and better land, and also by a desire to share in the wealth of the Roman Empire. 2, The Goths, one of the most powerful of the German tribes, defeated the Romans. 3. In 410 Alaric, the king of the Goths, captured Rome. 4. The Romans failed be- cause their power as a nation had been weakened through increas- ing luxury and self-indulgence. 5. The Germans succeeded not only because they had been increasing in numbers, but also because 128 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE they were manly, self-reliant, and masterful. They were the suc- cessors and heirs of the Romans. G. The Middle Ages began in the fifth century and ended in the firteenth. TO THE PUPIL 1. Give tliree reasons why the German tribes moved into the Roman Empire. 2. Who was Alaric ? Y/hat kind of man was he, and what hind of train- ing had he received ? 3. Tell what you can about the following: the sieje of Rome; Alaric and the embassy; the ransom. 4. Why did Alaric capture Rome ? 5. Explain why tlie Romans failed and why the Germans succeeded. 6. In what ways were the Germans unlike the Romans ? 7. What is meant by a new Europe under the control of the Germans ? When did the Middle Ages begin and v/hen did they end ? It is worth your while to remember these dates. 8. Are you making constant use of your maps ? CHAPTER XIII ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH The Franks 97. The Franks in France. — Wc have seen how, early and France . t nn ^ • ,^ , ^^ ^ ^ iA 1 111 the nith centuiy; certain German tnoes broke through the Roman frontiers into Gaul, swept southward into Italy, and captured Rome, the capital of the empire. Toward the close of the same centun' other tribes of Germans, the Franks, who had been dwelling on the middle and lower Rliine, began the conquest of north- ern Gaul. Under the leadership of Clo\iS; one of the most powerful chiefs of that time, they conquered the last of the Roman territor}^ in Gaul, which greatly in- creased their power, and then extended their sway over the German tribes who had occupied the east and south. ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 129 Thus the Franks brought under one dominion nearly all that countiy now known by the name of France. Clovis adopted the faith of the Christians, and hence- CHARLEMAGNE BEING CROWNED EMPEROR AT ROME forth the Frankish government went hand in hand with that of the church, a union which was of great value to both. The greatest successor of Clovis was Charlemagne, who charie- came three centuries later. He added to his realm most of ^^/ his what is now Germany and the western half of the Empire ^°^^ of Austria, and in the year 800 was crowned Emperor at 130 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE How England received its name German tribes in Britain Eome. He is one of the most famous men of all time. We should remember him not only as a great warrior and statesman, but also as a lover of learning who started many schools and did much for education in his day. Although his empire did not last as a whole, out of it grew the feudal system, of which we shall speak later, and the union of the German and Roman w^ays of living. 98. German Tribes Invade and Conquer Britain. — We have now to learn that still other German tribes, some from Denmark and some from northern Germany, invaded and conquered Britain. These were the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Danes, the Angles being the tribes from which England (Angleland) at a later day received its name. After the Romans withdrew their armies from Britain in the earl}- part of the fifth centuiy, it was invaded by the Picts from Scotland, the Scots from Ireland, and bands of Saxon pirates from the coast of Germany. The Brit- ons first appealed to Rome for aid. But Rome was too busy protecting herself from the Goths. Then they turned to the Germans. Under two leaders, Hengist and Horsa, a band of Jutes landed at the island of Thanet in 449. After helping the Britons to overcome their enemies, they decided to remain and conquer the country, and in this conquest the Angles and Saxons took part. These tribes A BIT OF STONEHENGE. THK EARLIEST ARCHI TECTURAL MONUMENT IN BRITAIN ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 131 came from the region which Hes between the Baltic and the North Seas, and includes Denmark and the states of north-western Germany. 99. What the German Tribes Destroyed in Britain. — The Since these German tribes hved far to the north, they Germans had not come under the influence of the Romans as had the tribes further to the south, and therefore were not so far advanced in the arts of living. On that account they were more IfcB^ destructive than their fellow-tribes. They laid waste cities, burned country mansions and -^^ splendid Roman palaces, and murdered, enslaved, or drove out of the land many of the people. Nor did these pagan warriors have any regard for sacred buildings ; for they burned to ashes Christian churches, and drove off or slaughtered monks and priests. Wherever they went, in fact, during the first one hundred and fifty years of their stay in Britain, they put an end to Christianity. 100. Christianity in Britain. — How large a footing the TheDrmds Christian faith had gained in Britain during the stay of the Romans is uncertain. We know that when they conquered Britain they found the people there under the sway of priests called Druids, who w^orshipped in oak groves and offered human sacrifices. We know also that, on account of the bitter opposition of the Druids, the Romans destroyed them. Christian mis- SAXON smps 132 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The invading Angles and Saxons Gregory and the Angle boys sionaries in the time of Constantine labored to make converts among the natives, but their influence was probably not felt much outside the towns and cities. In their career of destruction, these Angles and Saxons w^ere ver}^ different from the other tribes that invaded the continent. There the invaders adopted the cus- toms; language, and faith of the people they con- cjuered ; but in Britain the old ci\dlization was swept aw^ay, and even the lan- guage, Latin and Celtic, gave place to that of the conquerors. All (glasses spoke the Germanic tongue. loi. The Coming of Christian Missionaries. — One bond of union with the past and with Europe, however, was established by Christian missionaries. A pretty stoiy is told of how missionaries from Rome w^ere sent to convert these rude German pagans. One day an abbot of Rome, named Gregor}', saw a group of beauti- ful boys waiting in the market-place of the city to be sold as slaves. '^^ATio are these children?" asked he of the slave-dealer. '^Heathen Angles," was the reply. "Not Angles but Angels," said Gregory, "with faces so angel-like! From what country do they come?" WTien he found that they came from Britain and were '" ■ P ^^•'feS^Slfe^R »W ^7i^i:-:;U:i| V' ' '1 THE SAXON INVALERS ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 133 heathen, he grieved because such fine boys were brought up in ignorance and sin. 102. Augustine and the Monks at Canterbury. — The Later on, when Gregoiy became Pope, he sent to Britain Augusfine a monk named Augustine, with a band of forty other monks, to convert the people to the Christian faith. At first the monks were afraid to go, for people told them fearful tales of the Enghsh barbarians. But Gregor}^ would not let them turn back. They set sail for Britain and landed on the Isle of Thane t (597). After a few days. King Ethelbert of Kent, whose wife was a Christian, came to the isle to meet them. As he thought they were magicians and might throw a spell over him, he and his fol- lowers met them in an open field instead of in a building. Let us tiy to picture the scene. Here under the The royal branches of a spreading oak are seated King Ethelbert ^®^^p^^°^ and Queen Bertha. Beside the King are his counsellors and body-guard, and near the queen are her maids and her chaplain. A crowd has gathered to see the royal reception of the strange priests from over-seas, and you may be sure that little Kentish bo^^s and girls are some- where near to see what is going on. POPE GHEGOKY I 134 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE An interesting procession The sound of men's voices is heard. Then appears a body of priests bearing in front a tall silver cross and a banner with a picture of Christ on it. Following them is a procession of forty monks in russet robes and cowls, headed by a boy singer. They walk slowly, two by two, chanting and pra}dng for the salvation of the English OLD ROMAN CHURCH OF ST. MARTIN, CANTERBURY The King gracious to the monks The monks at Canterbury as they advance. Behind them all is Augustine himself. WTien they reach the assembled English, Augustine sits down and preaches the Gospel to the wondering listeners. The King is gracious to the new-comers. They may remain in the kingdom, he says, and he will see that they have a house in Canterbur}^, his capital. He will not allow them to be in want, and they may pursue their work among his people in peace. This welcome was a great encouragement to the weary monks. They walked on toward Canterbury and, looking down from a neighboring hill, saw in a little meadow crossed by a stream an old town surrounded with Roman walls. Just outside stood the old Roman church of St. Martin, ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 135 which they for a time were to use. The building is still standing to-day. Here they had also a monaster}^^ and lived the quiet, religious life of monks, holding constant service to which every one was welcome, and working faithfully to convert the people to the Christian faith. ' 103. The Spread of Christianity in Britain. — King Thousands Ethelbert was one of the first converts to accept the chSsSans faith, and soon his example was followed by many others. One Christmas day more than ten thousand people were baptized. Augustine was appointed arch- bishop of Canterbury, and dowTi to the present time his successors as heads of the official English church have had the same title. In a short time nearly all who lived in Kent had become Chris- tians, and many converts were made in other parts of the island, -won by the devoted lives of the missionaries. When Augustine and his monks began their work in the south, missionaries from the church in Ireland and the islands west of Scotland were already Success of busy converting the people in the north. They were sionaries' followers of St. Patrick, who had made Ireland a centre "^ ^^® ^^^^ of Christianity after the Celts were driven out of Eng- land by the Saxons. Their missionaries were enthusiastic and devoted men, and won many converts by their un- selfish lives. Monasteries spread rapidly. But it was ST. AUGUSTINE 136 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The monasteries as centres of religious life and learning The Vikings The Vikings as warriors the Roman form of Christianity which finally prevailed over all England. With the Roman monks came Roman literature and culture; and the monasteries became centres not only of religious influence; but of learning as well. Those of Northumbria were not excelled by any in western Europe. It was here that English literature took its start; the most famous man of letters of the seventh and early eighth centuries being the English monk Baeda, called ''The Venerable Bede. " Although Christianity lost its hold in Britain for a time after Augustine's death; his work was so thorough that it was never wholly destroyed; and in time the Christian faith overspread the entire countiy. 104. The Coming of the Vikings. — Britain had not seen the last of her German invaders with the coming of the AngleS; SaxonS; and Jutes. In the eighth and ninth centuries she was beset by the fiercest; most brutal, and least civilized of any of the barbarian invaders. These were the MkingS; or Northmen; bold sea rovers who came swarming down from Scandinavia; visiting the coasts not only of Britain but of all western Europe. In later centurieS; as we shall see; they sailed even to Iceland and Greenland. Fighting and plundering were their greatest jo}^; and they kept Europe in fear for generations. The Northmen included both Danes and Norw^egians; but the Danes were the terror of Britain, and it was feared that the whole countiy would fall under their sway. They were better trained in fighting; and had much more effective weaponS; than the other German ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 137 tribes. Not only had they coats of mail, but swords, spears, and powerful axes. Their ships were long, light, open vessels, and moved Viking quickly. The largest were worked by twenty oarsmen, EEMAINS OF THE VIKING SHIP OF GOKSTAD, AFTER ITS REMOVAL FROM THE MOUND WHERE IT WAS FOUND and each vessel had a heavy scjuare sail to use in favor- able winds. They were painted black, with high prow and stern. The prow w^as carved into the shape of a snake's or a dragon's head. Around the bulwarks hung the round, painted shields of the fighters. When one of these black vessels came suddenly and swiftly sailing up the river with its fierce crew, it stnack terror to the hearts of the people. Year by year their numbers multiplied. Swift as the wind, at first they made only short raids, harrvino; the coasts. But each time thev came thev wTnt the bow of the viking ship of gokstad, C ,1 'I 1 J , 4- A \ +V. SHOWING RESTORED STEERING BOARD ON lui iner mianQ, axxracxeQ Dy ine ^^^ left, and complete ship above 138 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The Vikings raid Britain The little Alfred and the book of Saxon poetry The Danes harass the country cultivated lands and prosperous towns, which were once more a feature of Britain. They raided York^ London, and Canterbur}^, and in time seized the whole country north of the Thames. They were about to advance upon Wessex, which lay to the south, when finally a leader rose up against them. This was King Alfred. 105. Alfred and the Danes. — Alfred, by some considered the best and great- est King that England ever had, was the youngest child of Ethelwulf, King of Wessex and Kent. His mother was a noble lady of the race of Cerdic, one of the original Saxon invading chiefs. Either from her or from the Romans — for he spent a part of his boyhood in Rome — Alfred learned to love knowledge and books. This is well illustrated in a pretty stoiy which is told of his childhood. AMien he was only four years old, his mother showed him and his brothers a book of Saxon poetr}^ It was a beautiful book, illu- minated in brilliant colors, and written by hand, as books were in those days. She promised to give it to the one who should repeat the poems from memory. The little Alfred ran awav with it to his teacher, and soon returned and repeated it to his mother, word for word. Even if this stoiy is not true, it shows how greatly famed Alfred was for his desire for knowledge. He was a bright, attractive boy, of wdnning speech and manners. All through his boyhood the Danes were harassing the country and terrifjang the people; and when at twenty- KING ALFRED ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 139 two years of age he became king (871), he had to give his whole time to beating them back. As they were ignorant themselves and hated those who sought knowl- edge, they sacked abbeys, burned schools and monas- teries, and slaughtered the monks. Alfred fought nine battles wdth them. He was de- The Danes feated each timie, and his army not only became weak, Ai&^d but lost its courage. .Finall}', at the beginnmg of the winter, he was forced to retreat into a region of woods and swamps. The people thought he was lost. It was a long, dreaiy winter for him and his followers. In later days the people were fond of telling stories story of of how Alfred spent his time during this tiying expe- and^the rience. While these stories may not be true, they help ^^^^^^^^'^ us to see what the people thought of the man who did so much to make England a better countiy. According to one of these stories, he once took refuge in the hut of a cowherd who knew him, but whose wife did not. Seeing his ragged clothing, she thought him of little account. She was baking bread before the open fire, and told him to watch it while she went out; but he had more important matters on his mind. AMien the woman returned, Alfred was sitting in a brown study, with the bread burning under his nose. His reward was a sharp scolding for being so stupid, as the woman thought him. Another stor}^, popular among the people, reveals Alfred as a his ability to play on the haip and sing. He gathered °^^°^*^® his comrades into a safe place, disguised himself as a minstrel, and went to the Danish camp, where his sweet music charmed the warriors. The king heard of his ability and called him to the royal tent. Here Alfred 140 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Alfred defeats the Danes overheard the Danish plan of campaign. He sHpped away, called his men, and, making a sudden attack on his enemies, put them to rout. As a fact, however, Alfred spent his winter as a gen- eral and statesman should, in gathering, drilling, and sup- plying his army. This explains to us why he won a \dc- KING ALFRED INCITING HIS FOLLOWERS TO REPFL THE INVASION OF THE DANES, VH08E SHIPS HAVE BEEN SIGHTED toiy when he met his enemy. As spring came on, he gathered liis men behind his fortress at Athelne3\ AMien he unfolded his standard, men rejoiced, for many had given up him and the kingdom for lost. Many new re- cruits, eager to fight under a brave leader, joined his army; and although his force was not large, he made a sudden and desperate attack on the Danes at Ethandune. He drove them to their camp, besieged them for four- teen davs, and forced them to surrender. In the treaty which followed, the Danes agreed to settle 11 141 142 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Alfred and the laws Alfred's interest in education down peacefully north of the Thames and to become Christians. All England south of the Thames remained to Alfred. In fact, as a result of this victory, the English and the Danes came gradually to be united as one people. 1 06. Alfred Improves His Kingdom. — After defeat- ing the Danes, Alfred had time to improve his king- dom. The laws were veiy confused, since each tribe had had different ones. So x\lfred had all the best laws gathered into one book, beginning with the Ten Com- mandments, and forced all his people to obey them. Another important matter to which he gave much thought and time w^as the building of a fleet of swift war vessels; for his experience with the Vikings had taught him the great value of ships in warding off invaders. This was the beginning of the English na\y, which has done so much to make that little island-countr}^ a great world- power. His great desire, however, now that law and order could be kept, was to educate the people. England had the most beautiful books in the world at this time, but few people could read them except the monks. And now that learnmg had so fallen off during the inroads of the Danes, many even of the monks could not under- stand Latm. Alfred, therefore, rebuilt the abbeys and schools which the Danes had destroved, and at his court established a school for his own children and the children of his nobles and bishops and friends. They were taught not only to read and write in their own language but to read Latin. Wherever he knew that there were learned men, he sent there for them and brought them to his court, to teach him and his people. ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH 143 As most of the standard works of that day were in Alfred and Latin and Alfred wished his people to have the benefit literature of them, he made translations of those he considered the most useful; and sent copies to all his bishops. He wrote a few books himself and gathered all the English ballads into one volume. This w^ork of Alfred's was important far beyond the help it gave to his own people and time. For it made English, which was the language of the common people, a language of literature. His translations fixed its form and preserved it for succeeding generations. Alfred became a powerful ruler and left his kingdom "Alfred the far stronger and far better than he found it. All his people loved him, for he was devoted to their welfare. Well has he been called '' Alfred the Great." THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Franks brought under one dominion all that country now known by the name of France. 2. Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of Rome in the year 800. He is one of the most famous men of all time. 3. A band of Jutes landed in England in 449. AYherever the German invaders went during the first one hundred and fifty years of their stay in Britain they put an end to Chris- tianity. 4. Augustine and forty monks landed in England in 597. They had a monastery at Canterbury. 5. Monasteries spread rapidly, and in time the Christian faith overspread all Britain. C. King Alfred defeated the Danes, who had been harassing the country. As a result of his victory over them, the English and the Danes came gradually to be united as one people. 7. Alfred had all the best laws gathered into one book, made translations of standard works, and wrote some books himself. He made Eng- lish a language of literature. 144 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE TO THE PUPIL 1. From what people did France get its name ? 2. Who was Charlemagne and when did he live ? 3. What German tribes invaded Britain ? How did England get its name ? 4. Who were the Druids and what became of them ? 5. Imagine yourself at the royal reception given to Augustine and his monks, and write an account of what took place. 6. What did these monks do for Christianity in Britain ? 7. Who were the Vikings ? Describe these vessels and their methods of making raids. 8. Tell the story of little Alfred and the book of Saxon poetry. What does this story illustrate ? 9. Write out as clearly as you can the story of Alfred and the cowherd's wife. 10. What important things did King Alfred do to improve his kingdom ? Note especially his work in making English a language of literature. 11. Now give as many reasons as you can for calling this noble king Alfred the Great. 12. Are you making constant use of the map ? CHAPTER XIV HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN THEIR LIBERTIES Rolloand 107. Rollo and the Vikings Invade France. — As we Normandy ^^^^.^ already said, England was not the only country^ that suffered from the inroads of the Vikings. France was constantly mvaded in the same way. One band of these warriors, mider a leader named Rolf or Rollo, in the tenth century seized a part of northern France. As the king could not hope to drive them out, he imdted Rollo to settle down with his men and become his vassal. Rollo agreed; and in time this district came to be know^n HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 145 as Normandy, and the people were called Normans, a contraction of '^Northmen." As time passed, many Northmen settled here; and their The leaders, the dukes of the Normans, were often as power- th^ Nonnans ful as any king in Europe. One of these we are especially interested in because he took such an important part in English histoiy. This was Wilham, who became Wil- liam I of England and is known as William the Con- queror. loS. V/illiam, Duke of William's WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR ^t „ _, claim to the the Normans, Conquers throne England. — When Edward the Confessor, King of the English, died without leav- ing an heir, Harold, the greatest noble in the king- dom, v/as elected to succeed him. But William, Duke of the Normans, w^ho had no good claim to the throne, declared that it had been promised to him by Edward, and that Harold himself had sworn on the sacred relics that he would assist him in getting the crown. He made haste to collect an army, sailed to England, wiiiiam, defeated Harold at the battle of Hastings, or Senlac, in English 1066, and the next Christmas day was crowned king in Westminster Abbey. He brought all the people under his rule, but promised to let them be just as free as they had been under their former kings. Though King of the English, he still remained Duke of the Normans. In England he, his two sons, and his grandson are called the Norman kings. 146 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE William's castles and the feudal system The building of monasteries and cathedrals 109. The Influence of the Normans upon England. — The influence of the Normans upon England was marked ui several ways. In the first place, they were a quick- _ mtted and clever people, the most masterful in all Europe. They had remarkable power of doing things well on a large scale, and this showed itself at once. "William placed strong castles all over the kingdom, in which he put vassals loyal to himself and sternly exacted from them, and from their vas- sals in turn, the strictest obe- dience. In this way he built up the feudal system in England, with a strong central government. The same ability show^ed itself in the building of churches and monasteries, which became a great power in the land. It was during this period that many of England's great- est cathedrals were begun, the Norman style of archi- tecture, brought from France, displacing that of the earlier Saxon. A SHIP OF DUKE WILLIAM S FLEET WHICH TRANSPORTED TROOPS 'fOR THE INVA- SION OF ENGLAND. FROM THE BAYEUX TAPESTRY, A CONTEMPORARY WORK FIGHTING AS PICTUKED Ui THB BAYEUX TAPESTRY, A CONTEMPORARY WORK HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 147 ARMOR OF THE TIME OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR In yet another way, more gentle but not less perma- nent, was the Norman influence felt, and that was in language and literature. French became the language which the upper classes spoke, just as Latin was the language of the church, and only the common peo- ple m the every- day walks of life spoke x4nglo-Sax- on. English hter- ature was well- nigh forgotten, and English thought for centuries was fashioned by the French. no. The Wicked King John. — One of William^s suc- cessors w^as Kmg Richard I, the Lion-Heart, w^ho as- cended the throne m 1189. He was a brave warrior and, as we shall see further on, spent much of his time fight- mg as a crusader in the Holy Land. During his ab- sence, his wicked brother John plot- ted to get the throne for himself, and when Rich- ard, on his way home from Je- Norman influence in language and literature King John plots against his brother THE NORMAN GATEWAY OF WINDSOR CASTLE 148 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE A worthless and wicked king A lawless king King John robs soldiers and sailors rusalem, was taken prisoner, John thought that now he could surely be king, as he hoped that Richard would not be set free. But the English people, at a great sacrifice, raised a large sum of money, and bought Richard's freedom. After Richard's death John became King of England (1199). He was such a worthless and wicked king that we feel sorr}^ to think he ever held the throne. But if he had been better, perhaps the people would not have been roused as they were to demand their rights. John^s wicked deeds were so many that we can only mention a few of them. ^\g have already seen how he plotted against his brother. He showed him- self treacherous at another time by mariymg a young woman who was pledged to marr}" the son and heir of one of his own nobles. As this was against the feudal law, it brought him into further trouble. During John's reign, Philip of France invaded Nor- mandy and won it from John. John did not tiy very hard to prevent him from doing this; but when it was done, he gathered his army and uslyj together in Eng- land and prepared to fight Philip. AMien all the fleet was assembled, and the soldiers had left their homes and their work and come to the coast, the King changed his mind and sent them all home again. The worst of this action was that he made every soldier and sailor pay a fine, because they had escaped from going to war. This was an act of robber}'. KING RICHARD I, THE LION-HEART HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 149 chateau gaillard normandy, france. one of king Richard's castles, once the main outpost of his norman territory He also robbed the He robs the churches. He refused to l^^^^^ ^^ obey the Pope, and the Pope, as punishment; ordered that every church in England should be closed. The cler- g}^men thought they must obey the Pope; but when- ever they did; John took their property from them, as well as all the money belonging to their churches. III. King John Signs the The need of Great Charter. — The barons or nobles of England felt that the King's outrages must not be endured. Acting as a leader, the Archbishop of Canterbuiy, Stephen Langton, at a meeting held in St. Paul's, showed them how John might be. made to sign a charter; that is, a written statement in which he should agree that there were certain things he could not do, and that the people had certain rights he could not take from them. To this the barons agreed, and made known to John their demands, saying that they were KING JOHN SIGNING MAGNA CHARTA 150 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE John^ forced to sign the Great Charter The promises in the charter What the Great Charter means to us Henry m and Simon de Montfort ready to fight if necessary. The King was terrified. He wished to escape giving the charter^ but he had no army to fight the baronS; and all the people hated him. Finally he yielded; and called a meeting which was held in the meadow of RunnymedC; near Windsor^ on the Thames River. The barons' camp was on one bank, the King's on the other, and on an island between were the dele- gates who were to discuss the charter. They soon agreed upon one, and John signed it. But he did not intend to keep his agreement. The charter — called Magna Charta (Great Charter) — was long, and contained many promises made by the King to the people. Of these, two were veiy important. The first was, that the King should never collect more money than w^as due him without first getting the con- sent of the Great Council of barons and knights. This meant, among other things, that he would never again fine soldiers and sailors because he decided not to em- ploy them. The second promise was that the King would never again throw men into prison without showing just cause. All who were arrested for wrong-doing must be tried in court, as they are in our times, and if they were not found guilty they must be set free. The most valu- able feature of the charter was that all the rights which came to be founded upon it, were for the common peo- ple as well as the nobles. It is this which has created the democratic freedom of the English-speaking peoples. 112. The English Parliament. — John's son, Henry III, was only a boy when his father died, and until he was grown up noblemen ruled for him. When at length he began to reign for himself, people saw that he was ver^^ weak and unfit to govern a growing kingdom. He HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 151 did not like to take advice, and he was constantly chang- ing his mind. Finally the barons could endure him no longer. They made war on him, and took him and his son Edward prisoners. Then their leader, Simon de Montfort; ruled in his stead, though he was not called king. Simon de Montfort's rule was important, for it w^as he The who called the first Parliament. Before this the Great Padiament Council had been attended by the barons and bishops. Now not only these nobles and clerg}^men were summoned (1265), but also two men from each of certain towns and two from every shire (c ounty ) . This was a long step for- ward. It meant that the common people were to have a share in the government. De Montfort's rule was short, however; for the King's son escaped from prison, and in a sudden attack Simon de Montfort was killed and the barons defeated. Edward proved to be a strong and wise King, beloved Edward i by his people. His favorite motto was "Keep your parUament promise,'' and he always tried to keep his. It was not until 1295 that he called a full Parliament such as Simon de Montfort's, but it proved to be such a successful way of consulting the people that afterward a full Parliament became the rule. Thus the people of all classes were represented in the government. MAXOR HOUSE, ACTON BURNELL, SHROPSHIRE. BUILT FOR THE HOLDING OF THE FIRST PARLIAMENT 152 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE An important event in Edward's reign was the renewal of the Great Charter, with special promises in it that the King would not take money from the people unless the full Parliament was willing that he should. The people 113. American Beginnings in Germany and England, fose their — ^This struggle between the Iving and the barons was no rights sudden thing. For centuries the people had been gradu- ally losmg their rights while the King had been growing in power. To find out how much they had lost and what they were tn^ing to get back, let us look at them as they were in the forests of German}^ long before they left their homes for other lands. The You will remember that those iTigged Germans prized Seraian^ their independence as they prized their life; that in their freemen meetings each freeman helped to elect the chief who should lead- him in battle; and that all freemen stood on an equal footing when matters affecting the good of the people were discussed. Now when the German tribes went across the North Sea to England in the fifth cen- tuiy, they carried with them their ways of managing The moots of their affairs. Each village had its moot; or meeting, thehundr^ed, ^vhere all the freemen assembled to regulate the affairs ^hk *^^ ^^ ^^^ village. A group of \dllages large enough to fur- nish a hundred warriors formed a hundred^ and later a still larger group formed a shire. Just as the village had its moot to attend to the affairs of the \dllage; so had the hundred and the shire each its moot tOv look after the larger affairs of its people. The village But while all the freemen met in the villag-e moot, moot the . beginning of only a Small number of freemen from every village were meeting^ elected by the whole bod}^ to represent them in the moot HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN LIBERTY 153 of the hundred and of the shire. In the village moot each man had the right to share equally in the govern- ment by talving a part in the meeting. This was the beginning of that valuable American institution called the town meeting, where all the voters of the town come together to regulate their local affairs. The electing of men in the village moot to represent The moots them in the larger moots of the hundred and the shire hundred and was the beginning of the American system of represen- wjnnWs^^ tative o;overnment. In these laro;er bodies, as in our ofrepre- 1-1 1 • r^ 1 sentative State legislatures and m our Congress, each voter shared government equally in the government , not by taking part directly, as in the town meeting which is held near his home, but by helping to elect men to represent him. This is the representative sys- tem which those early Angles and Saxons, with a love of fair play and a keen sense of indi- vidual freedom, made a part of the political life of England, just as, in later 3^ears, Anglo-Saxons l)rought it to our own land. The beginnings of much that we freedom -loving Americans enjoy in our political life to-day are to be found in the ^illage moots of Germany and of England. In the centuries of struggle following the concfuest of England by the German tribes, the people, as we have WESTMINSTER HALL, WHERE PARLIAMENT WAS HELD 154 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The English seen, lost much of their power. But the kingship always and^oS^^ remained elective; and finally, as we have noted, the National representative system came into full swing in the Eng- lish ParHament, w^here all classes of people are now represented just as all classes are represented in our National Congress at Washington. THINGS TO REMEMBER , 1. The Vikings invaded France as well as England. A band of these seized a part of northern France. After a time this district came to be known as Normandy and its people as Normans. 2. William, Duke of the Normans, was made King of the English (1066). 3. The influence of the Normans upon England was marked in several ways. 4. King John was so worthless and wicked that the barons or nobles of England felt that his outrages must not be endured, so they forced him to sign the Great Charter (1215). 5. The most valuable feature of the charter was that all the rights which came to be founded upon it were for the common people as well as the nobles. It is this which has created the democratic freedom of the English-speaking peoples. 6. The struggle between King John and the barons indicates that for centuries the people had been gradually losing their rights while the King had been growing in power. When the German tribes went across the North Sea to England in the fifth century they carried with them their ways of managing their affairs. And you will remember that among the German tribes all freemen stood on an equal footing when matters affecting the good of the people were discussed. 7. The village moot was the beginning of the American town meeting; and the moots of the hundred and the shire were the beginnings of suth representative government as we have in our State legislatures and in our National Congress at Washington. FEUDALISM 155 TO THE PUPIL 1. Who were the Vikings and what two countries did they invade ? 2. Can you explain how WUliam, Duke of the Normans, came to be King of the English ? 3. Why did he place strong castles all over the kingdom ? 4. In what ways was the Norman influence upon England marked ? 5. In what ways did John show himself to be a worthless and lawless King? 6. What is a charter ? Name two very important promises made by the King to the people in the Great Charter. 7. Tell what the Great Charter means to us. You will see from this that the barons were doing things which prepared for the greater democratic freedom of the English-speaking peoples who were to come after them. 8. Who was Simon de Montfort and what did he do ? 9. Do you see clearly how the village moot was the beginning of the town meeting in our own country and how the moots of the hundred and the shire were the beginning of our representative government ? 10. In what respect are the English Parliament and our National Con- gress alike ? CHAPTER XV FEUDALISM: OR, THE LORD, THE CASTLE, AND THE KNIGHT 114. How the Feudal System Began. — After the Ger- Each mans got control of affairs in the countries of western Sv^ts^^*^ Europe, they brought to an end much that had been built ^^° ^® up by the Romans. They swept away many of the cities, and failed to keep in repair the superb system of roads and bridges which had closely connected all parts of the empire. As a result travel, and the can^dng of letters, messages, and goods, came to be so difficult that in time trade between one country and another, or even between 156 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE How each community was governed one place and another, often in great measure stopped. Each community; therefore, had mainly to live its own life. It raised its own food and used only those things which its own people could supply. It also handled THE FEUDAL FORTIFICATIONS, CARCASSONNE, FRANCE, AS THEY ARE TO-DAY but little money, for there was but little mone}' to be had, and the old barter of goods for goods suited the local trade fairly well in most things. The method of governing the people became equally primitive. For since Rome was no longer able to main- tain law and order, and there was no strong central gov- erning power an3n^'here in western Europe, each com- munity had to keep order for itself and protect itself against danger and violence, just as it had to provide the food and other things needed for its daily life. FEUDALISM 157 115. Charlemagne's Empire. — ^There was a brief period during the empire under Charlemagne when con- ditions were improved. This great leader of the Franks in his long reign of nearly half a centur}- (768-814) had brought witbiin his vast empire^ as we have seen, much of what is now western Europe, and had ruled it with a strong hand. But Charlemagne's empire did not last. After his charie- death it was broken into so many fragments that such ^piJ-e^ a thing as the authority of a strong central state, like fragmenii^^ that in our own countr}^ to-day, passed away. In the dark and dreadful time of strife and hatred which fol- lowed, things went from bad to worse. There w^as a desperate struggle of rival leaders for power, and when these leaders were not striving to ward off barbarian attacks, they were quarrelling among themselves. 116. The Rich Land-owner and Personal Service. — The rich In the great confusion and disorder of these times, the a^ mier^and ownership of land played a large part. The rich land- i^w-giver owner was the most powerful man in any rural locality, and he became the ruler and law-giver of the people who lived on his land. It was his duty to provide some way of protecting life and property, and of maintaining Protection law and order in the community. To do this, he must have men willmg to fight for him, men to attend his courts of justice, where disputes were settled and wrongs righted, and men to do the eveiy-day work of providing food, clothing, and the usual conveniences of life. These three forms of personal service he could secure by grant- ing to various men the use of his land. They needed protection; he needed personal service. 12 158 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The promises made by the vassal If we wish to learn how this exchange of the use of land for personal service was brought about, and what were the relations between the powerful man who ruled and the weaker men who served him, we must study the feudal system. This began to take deep root in western Europe in the ninth and tenth centuries. 117. The Lord and the Vassal. — Imagine that you are a great land-owner or baron, and that you turn over a part of your land to a man to hold and to use for you. That land is called a fief, or feud, and the man who re- ceives it is called a vassal. In return for the use of the land, your vassal promises to fight for }'ou, who are now his lord, to attend your law court, and under certain conditions to pay you money. The fighting may be in defence of your castle or in an attack upon your enemies; and the payment of money may be for your ransom if you are made a prisoner, for the knighting of your eldest son, or for the marriage of your eldest daughter. In return you, the lord, promise to protect your vassal, and allow him to govern as he sees fit all the people who live on the land he is to hold and to use. The agreement is made in a formal way. The cere- mony is an interesting one. The vassal with bare head man a vassal ]^neels before you, his future lord, places his hands be- tween your hands, and repeats these v/ords: ^^From this time forward I will be your man." You, the lord, raising your vassal to his feet, give him the kiss of peace, and he in turn declares, ^^I will be faithful to you and defend you even at the risk of my life." In token of the grant of land, you then give him a twig or a clod of earth. The cere- mony of makmg a 160 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The relation between the lord and his vassal "William the Conqueror and the land-owners of England Why men became vassals By such a formal ceremony as this^ every lord bound himself to protect his vassal^ treat him justly ; and allow him to remain in control of the land as long as he kept his part of the agreement and was loyal to his lord. Thus the relation between the lord and his vassals was very much like that which we saw existing between the chief and his warriors in the German forests. ii8. The Theory of the Feudal System. — According to the theory, as finally worked out by the lawyers, the greatest of all land-owners was the King. He was the lord of all the land in his kingdom. Some of his vassals were powerful nobles, each of whom had vassals who paid homage to him just as he himself paid hom.age to the King. But when William the Conc|ueror became King of England, he compelled all the land-owners, of any account, to pay homage directly to himself; and in this way he greatly strengthened the royal power in England. The abbot, as head of a monaster}^, might also be lord over vassals, and a vassal under a lord. AYilliam required from each bishop and abbot the same homage and feudal service that he would require from a noble holding the same land. We of to-day also buy protection when we pay taxes to the state or the nation. The amount is so veiT small, however, that it is no burden, and so peaceful are the times that we cannot easily realize the danger and tur- moil of those lawless days when every one in the land from the lowest to the highest, lived in constant fear of being plundered, robbed, or murdered. A violent attack by barbarian invaders or even by a neighboring lord might come any day without warning. Therefore pro- FEUDALISM 161 tection of life and property was worth all it cost. But if the lord was to be the protector of his vassals be must have not only men to fight for him^ but a stronghold for defence. Such he provided when he built his castle. 119. The Castle. — Let us visit one of these castles, The castle which was both a fortress and a dwelling-place^ bearing roundfngs^" in mind that castles differed from one another in many of their details. As w^e approach we catch our first glimpse of it on a distant hill, which commands a view of the surrounding country, and af- fords an excel- lent location for defence. Hug- ging the hill closely is a scat- tering village of peasant huts, with meadows and pasture lands stretching away to dense woodlands beyond. Surrounding the castle are huge stone walls, twelve feet thick and forty feet high. Just outside the walls is a great moat, or ditch, sixty The moat, feet wdde and fifty feet deep, which may be filled with bJfdge^and water. Before w^e can enter the only gateway in the the gateway castle walls, w^e must wait for the drawbridge to be let down over the moat. It is now upright against the THE DRAWBRIDGE OF THE CASTLE 162 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 1 The towers and battlements towers of the gateway, to which, it is joined at its inner end by means of strong hinges. To the outer end of the bridge are fastened long chams by W'hich it is let down by some one in the tower, who turns a windlass. We cross over, but we cannot yet pass through the wall into the court- yard; for the portcullis, an iron gate, bars the en- trance. Presently, if we are patient, this will move from our pathw^ay. It will not swing on hinges like an ordinary gate, but will be raised by a windlass in the towTr. If we are observing, we have noticed that at inter- vals on the w^alls there are towers and battlements which serve to strengthen the defence of the castle, and to protect the defenders when they shoot their arrows, hurl rocks and stones, or pour boiling oil or pitch upon the enemy below^; and the only windows are narrow slits, easily defended, from w^hich missiles can be safely launched. On the walls stand watchmen also, who are THTS CASTLE TOWERS AND BATTLEMENTS, MANNED FOR DEFENCE FEUDALISM 163 constantly on the lookout for an approaching enemy and ready to give the alarm by a trumpet blast. So you see that in the days when cannon and heavy How the guns were unknown, for gunpowder did not come into attacked^ use in western Europe until the early part of the four- teenth centur}^; it was extremely difficult to capture a THE GREAT HALL OF THE CASTLE. THE OATH OF FEALTT TO THE YOUNG LORD castle when there were brave men to defend it. Arrows, lanceS; swords^ and battle-axes would make but little impression on such powerful stone walls. To beat them down, the warriors of the Middle Ages had a huge engine called a battering-ram to force an opening in the castle walls. It consisted of a great beam, or forest tree, with a head of iron, wHch was sometimes like a ram's head in shape, and was swimg by a chain on a strong frame. The attacking party also at times dug their way under 164 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Inside the castle 5*7/ ^h/ \.:X% The furniture and rooms the walls. But if a castle was strongly defended^ the only sure way of capturing it was to lay siege to it and cut off its supplies, thus starvmg the people into sub- mission. The area inside the castle walls sometimes covered several acres. Could we pass through the court-3^ard and enter the castle just as it was in the Middle Ages, we should not think it very comfortable or convenient, even though the one we have in mind was the veiy best in the count n\ The main room was an immense hall, where the lord, his family, his guests, and his retainers and servants, all ate together; and most of the servants slept here unless they slept in the stable. In the middle of the clav floor was a blazing fire, with an opening in the roof above to let out the smoke. At one end of the hall was a wooden platform, or dais, on which stood the table for the noble and his family. There were no glass windows, and the walls were bare and roughly plastered. The rude furniture was mostly built into its place so that it could not be moved. No one knew what it was to have a private room. Nor did rooms open into passageways, but into one another; so INSIDE THE MAIN GATE OF THE CASTLE. A MINSTREL ENTERTAINING THE GATE- WATCH FEUDALISM 1G5 that to get to a distant onC; it was necessarj" to pass through several others. 120. The Hard, Rude Life of the Nobles. — It was a Fighting hard; rude life which e^^n the nobles led in the tenth and ^° ^^ THE CASTLE COURT-YARD. THE RETURN FROM A FORAY eleventh centuries. lighting was their chief business. They gloried in war and knew little of anything else. They cared nothing for books^ and most of them could not even write their own names. If they were not fight- ing — but we must remember that petty warfare was nearly always going on — they spent their time in sports. The life of Hunting and hawking were favorite occupations when 166 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE the weather permitted; but in the long winter evenings they played chess for a pastime and listened with pleas- ure to the songs of minstrels^ and no doubt quarrelled somewhat over their drinking cups. It was this lack of anything in time of peace to keep men busy at hard, honest work which has left the tradition that a country needs frequent wars to keep its men strong and manly. This may have been true in the Middle Ages, but it is not at all true in our times. 121. Knighthood and the Knights. — But the amuse- ments they prized most of all were the tournament and the joust, which we shall understand better when we learn about knighthood and the knights. Knighthood From the latter part of the tenth centur}^, it became feudaSsm °^ ^^16 custom for the men of the higher social classes to fight on horseback, although the common people con- tinued to fight on foot. Out of the custom arose the word chivahy {cheval being the French word for horse), which is much like our word cavalr}\ The warrior who rode the horse was called a knight and belonged to a separate order called knighthood. This order has well been named the flower of feudalism, for it was the blos- soming of the ruder virtues which made the life of the later centuries of feudahsm endurable. Ideals of The knights were men who, in those days of evil and the knights y^^iQ^^Q^ held lofty ideals and tried to keep alive the Christian faith. They were not perfect men; indeed, some of them were very Tvicked, and coarse, and cruel; but they were pledged to noble deeds, and many of them tried to keep their pledges. We shall now see how men became knights, and what they tried to do for the world. FEUDALISM 167 At first any brave men could earn knighthood; but The later on only those of noble birth could enjoy this honor, {he^^pafe^^ At seven years old, the boys of lesser nobles were sent to the castle of some great and powerful lord to begin their training for knighthood. Such a boy was the con- stant attendant of both his master and his mistress. He waited on them in the hall; follow^ed them in the hunt, and served the lady in the bower and the lord in the camp. /C"\ ^--v . ^J>; ,^.. A PART OF THE CEREMONY OF THE CONFERRING OF KNIGHTHOOD He was taught the meaning of religion, love, and right living; and was trained not only in hunting and hawking, but also in such military exercises as carrying a shield and handling the lance. Having served as a page until he was fourteen, he be- came a squire, and either at the same castle or at some other of his own choosing, he was taught to ride, to use his weapons, and to hunt; for a knight must be a good horseman, a good swordsman, and must be able to use his hawk in hunting. At twenty-one he was made a knight, by a ceremony which varied with different times and places but which from the twelfth century came to be chiefly religious. The training of the squire The cere- mony of making a squire a knight 168 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE For we must remember that the knight was not only a warrior; he was also a Christian, and one of his prin- cipal duties was to defend the church. On the evening before he was to be knighted the young man took a bath, during which two grave knights counselled him as to his knightly duties. After the bath two knights put on him a ^^"hite shirt and a russet robe with long sleeves and a hermit's hood. Then in a gay procession he was led to the chapel, where wines and spices were served, after which he was left with a priest. The rest of the night he passed in prayer. At davbreak mass was cele- brated, and later in the da}' knights and sciuires THE VIGIL AT ARMS took him to the castle hall. After his spurs had been fastened to his heels, the prince whose duty it was to knight him, girded on his sword, embraced him, and striking him three times on the shoulder with the flat blade of the sword, said, ''Be thou a good knight." Then the company went to the chapel, where the new knight, laying his right hand upon the altar, promised to support and defend the church. FEUDALISM 169 As a good knight; his vows bound him to obey and The vows of protect the churchy to defend the weak and helpless, to * ^ ^^ ^ be absolutely truthful, to be loyal to his chosen lady, and to defend all ladies of gentle birth. Men of that time did not realize that a true Christian knight should be THE TRIAL GALLOP the defender of all women, whether they were rich or poor. Still the ideals were high and fine, and have sur- vived in the ideals of a gentleman of to-day. The days of true knighthood will never pass. Even yet we speak of men as chivalrous when they are like the knights of the Middle Ages in noble ideals. The knight, as we have seen, alwa^^s fought on horse- The back. Both he and his horse were well protected b}' weapons of armor that was difficult to penetrate by the weapons *^^ kmght in use in those days. He wore a plumed helmet, a shield, and a coat of mail; and for weapons of attack carried a sword and lance, and sometimes a battle-axe. When he went to war, a scjuire attended him as a body servant. 170 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The purpose of the joust and the tournament Rules relating to It was the duty of the squire to look after his master's horse and weapons^ and to come to his assistance if he was wounded. In the course of time, the armor of the knight became so hea\y that it required a strong horse to carry him. 122. The Joust and the Tournament. — After the squire had become a knight, he set about training him- self for the jousts and tournaments, the great social events of that time. Jousts were contests between single combat- ants, while tournaments were more like mimic battles. They might be simple festal occasions, or serious trials of strength be- tween hostile factions. We have seen that war was al- most the only interest the nobles had. Accordingly, when real war was not in progress, mimic wars, or tournaments, were planned, such as Sir Walter Scott describes with graphic power in "Ivanhoe," and Tennyson in ^'Idylls of the King." These not only furnished interest and entertainment, but also the only militar}^ training to be had at that time. The noble who gave the tourna- ment could judge from it which of the knights would be the ablest warriors, and the weak or clumsy were effectu- ally weeded out. That the knights had high standards for themselves ARMOR OF 1440, SAID TO BE THE BEST PERIOD tournaments IS shown by the rulcs relating to tournaments. Since FEUDALISM 171 they were regarded as contests of honor, no knight could take part in one if he had ever committed a crime, offended a lady, broken his word, or taken an unfair advantage of an enemy in battle. In other words, the knight must be pure, courteous, truthful, and fair. Let us suppose that some great nobleman has pro- An imagi- claimed a tournament. Heralds have been sent far and a^touma- near to summon the ablest knights, and foreign cham- ™^^* pions have been specially invited. Many knights and ladies arrive. They are lodged in the castle, in the neigh- boring town, or in tents under the trees in the meadows outside the castle. On the day of the combat the tents of the knights, and the lists — that is, the field of the fight — are decked with banners and coats of arms, and the gal- leries where the knights and the ladies, and some- times even the I^g and Queen, sit are gay with hanging tapestries and gorgeous costumes. In the field are groups of knights and the judges. The horses, gaily decked with rich trappings, are champ- ing their bits and pranc- ing nervously, in their disposition or line-up of knights, at one J, v p side of a tourney field, SHOWINQ FIGURBc cagerness tor tne iray. heads on top of helmets 172 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The mimic battle A costly prize The combatants are in two divisions, one at each end of the field. There may be hmidreds of them. In fact they compose two small armies. The herald proclaims the rules of the combat, the opposing bands advance on horse- back, each knight showing his lady's color, or device. Then the signal is given, and they charge forward amid excited cries and cheers from the galleiy. Usuall}' their weapons are blmit sw^ords or lances, but the contest is very rough and sometimes many are killed. Each knight endeavors to knock his opponent from his horse or break his lance. The clang of armor, the clash of broken spears, the shouts of spectators, the waving of kerchiefs, all add to the intense excite- ment. Sometimes in the hottest part of the fight a strange knight, or a troop of knights all dressed alike, swoop from the crest of a neighboring hill and turn the tide of a battle. When the victoiy is decided, a costly prize is awarded — jewels, armor, or a fine steed, and best of all, the praise of the victor's lady. In these mimic battles, of which there were many, the knights found their best opportunity to win glor}^ for themselves and the approval of their ladies. 123. What We Owe to Knighthood.— After the use of gunpowder began in the fourteenth century, the THE ARMOR AND LANCE OF A KNIGHT OF 1550 FEUDALISM 173 armored horseman lost much of the advantage he had enjoyed in battle over the man on foot, whose principal weapon was the bow and arrow, and little by little the influence of knighthood waned. This did not mean the loss of all the good which The knight chivaliy had brought , however. For the knight had the German same keen sense of freedom, the same proud spirit, and barbarian the same love of war that belonged to the German bar- barians before they left their forest homes; and when he vowed that he would obey and protect the church, that he would defend the weak and the helpless, that he would be lo3^al to his lord and to his chosen lady, and that he would always be brave and truthful, he was setting up a standard of conduct which would never be permitted to die. Some of the strongest ties that bind men together in their common work for the betterment of human life to-day reach back to the age of feudalism and knighthood. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. As there was no strong central governing power anywhere in western Europe, each community had to keep order for itself and protect itself against danger and violence just as it had to provide the food and other things needed for its daily life. 2. The rich land-owner was the most powerful man in any rural locality, and he became the ruler and law-giver of the people who lived on his land. He, as lord, gave them the use of his land, and they, as vassals, gave him, in return, some form of personal service. 3. The castle was both a fortress and a dwelling-place. 4. Knighthood was the flower of feudalism. The vows of the knight bound him to obey and protect the church, to be absolutely truthful, and to defend all ladies of gentle birth. 5. The great social events of 13 174 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE that time were the joust and the tournament, 6. Some of the strongest ties that bind men together in their common work for the betterment of human Hfe to-day had their beginning in the days of feudalism and knighthood. TO THE PUPIL 1. Explain why each community had to govern itself and supply itself with ahnost everything it needed for its daily life. 2. How was it that the rich land-owner came to be a ruler and law-giver ? 3. Why was it that men greatly needed protection in those days ? How did they get it ? 4. Explain the relations between the lord and his vassal. Imagine your- self a lord and tell as clearly as you can what you have a right to expect from your vassal for protecting him. 5. Why did the lord need a castle ? In an imaginary visit to one, de- scribe it as it appears to you. Try to get a clear picture in your mind before you begin to tell what the picture is. 6. Now go inside the castle and tell what you see. 7. What can you tell about the life of the lord ? 8. What was the page, and what were his duties ? 9. What was the ceremony of making a squire a knight ? 10. What were the vows of the knight ? What were his armor and weapons ? 11. What was the purpose of the joust and the tournament ? Imagine yourself present at a tournament and picture what you see. 12. In what respects were the knights like the early German warriors ? In what ways were the vassals like the body-guard of the German chief ? 13. What do we owe to knighthood ? CHAPTER XVI VILLAGE LIFE IX THE MIDDLE AGES The lord and 1 24. The Lord and the Manor. — Having noted some- his vassals thing of the Hfe of the noble and the knight, we may now turn briefly to those who filled a humbler place among the people. As we have seen, in order that a powerful baron might get vassals to fight for him and attend his courts of justice, he granted estates for them VILLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 175 MANOR HOUSE IN SUFFOLK. ENGLAND to use and govern. Each of these vassals — and they might be nobles and lords themselves — also gave por- tions of his estate, under similar conditions, to still other vassals. In other words, the same man might have a lord over him and vassals under him. The estate which a lord held under his control was The manor called a manor (sometimes called a vill also). It was ^"^^^^^^s cut into two divisions. The first, which the lord kept for his own use, was called the domain. The second he turned over to serfs, who paid him for its use in part by working for him on his domain, and in part by giving him a portion of what they produced on the land which they cultivated for themselves. This land of the The serfs serfs was broken up into many parts, as a rule into long ^"^ ^^® ^ strips, a number of which, scattered about the manor, were allotted to each serf" for his own use. In addition to the field which the serfs cultivated, they had the use of meadows, pastures, and woods for their pigs and cattle. WTiile the serf did not owti any of the land, yet the lord what the could not take it from him so long as he did as he had th^lofd^^ agreed. The terms of agreement varied with different estates. Those which the Abbot of Peterborough (Eng- land) made with his serfs will illustrate fairly well the ordinaiy relations which existed betw^een a lord and his serfs. Every week in the year, except three, they were to work for him on the domain; and each was to give him annually a bushel of wheat, eighteen sheaves of 176 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Some duties of the serfs oatS; three hens^ one cock^ and five eggs^ besides tilling the lord's fields and gathering his harvest. The serfs on any estate were to cut and haul wood for the fires in the lord's house^ keep his castle and other buildings in repair^ and perform all other labor that he needed to have done. The house in which the lord lived was called the manor house^ if it was not a castle. It stood near the village where the serfs lived and in the midst of FEEDING CHICKENS IX THE FOUR- TEENTH CENTURY, AS PICTURED IN AN OLD PSALTER the farm lands. 125. The Life of the Serfs. — Their houses We can hardly realize how miserable these peasants were. Their houses were wretchedh^ built of timber covered with mud or thatch^ and each had but one room, which was without windows. In the middle of the floor was a fire, and a hole in the roof above let out the smoke. The fire gave the only heat the shivering family had, and its smouldering embers the only light after nightfall. The peasant and his fam- ily went to bed on heaps of straw, in the clothes thev had worn all da v. Their food was bad. Their food and drink FEEDING PIGS IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, AS PICTURED IN AN OLD MANUSCRIPT The bread was ^^as dark as mud and as tough as shoe-leather." All \nnter long they were mthout veg- etables or fresh food of any kind, even fresh meat; and as salt was veiy expensive, the hams and bacon were poorly preserved, and generally spoiled before the winter VILLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES 177 was over. Honey and evaporated fruit juices were their only sweet; for sugar was costly. Their drink was water^ home-brewed beer^ or cider. There was no tea or coffee^ and no strong drink except their own brew of beer. Tobacco was unknown. The cattle were as badly fed as the people, and were nothing but '^skin and bone'' and undersized. For dress, they wore a Their dress rough garment which left arms and legs uncovered, and which was tied wdth a rope around the waist. This they w^ore day and night. They were wholly uneducated. Veiy few knew even how to read; and as their life was hard and wretched, they were almost as savage and cruel as the wild beasts. The English peasantr}^ were badly off, but the con- Their dition of the serfs in France and Germany was even condition worse. For the nobles there were not held in check under :A§iiii GRINDING WITH A HAND-MILL IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, AS PICT- URED IN AJ>i OLD MANUSCRIPT U i\\» iiiu I, ^ REAPING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.. AS PICTURED IN AN OLD PSALTER a strong central government as nearly always in England, and were constantly at war. War commonly meant the burning of villages, the plundering of the little stores of pro\dsions belonging to the serfs, and the inflicting of shocking personal injuries on them. The serfs w^ere not capable farmers. We should hardly The serfs . , 1 . 1 • 1 • 1 • J 1 . ' as farmers expect them to be, considermg how ignorant and mis- Ml 178 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Poor tools THRESHING IX TH"E FOURTEENTH CEN- TURY, AS PICTURED IN AN OLD PSALTER erable they were. For one thing, they had poor tools. They had no iron ploughs, but only a sort of wooden hoe with which th^^ dug into the earth. Their forks and rakes also were of wood. For weeding they had two sets of tools. In the moist ground; where the weeds came out easily, they used wooden tongs; but when the ground was hard and dry, they pushed the weed away from them with a forked stick, and then cut it off close to the ground with a sharp hook. They had axes and sc}i:hes also, saws, wheelbarrows, butter-churns, and so on; but we do not know how good these tools were. 126. Other People be- sides Serfs on the Manor. — There might be some freemen on the manor who held and used their land like serfs. There were also a few people who were better off than the laborers. These were not farmers, but they paid rent to the lord. Such were the priest,^ the miller, the blacksmith, and other craftsmen. Nearly everything used in the manor was made there, for in the early Mid- die Ages there was very little trading between yillages. PLOUGHING IN THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY, AS PICTURED IN AN OLD PSALTER THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The estate which a lord held under his control was called a manor and sometimes a vill. The part of the estate which the lord kept for his own use was called the domain. 2. The remainder TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 179 of the manor he turned over to serfs, who paid him for its use in part by working on his domain and in part by giving him a por- tion of what they produced on the land which they cultivated for themselves. 3. While the serf did not own any of the land, yet the lord could not take it from him so long as he did as he had agreed. 4. The condition of the serfs was wretched. 5. Nearly everything used in the manor was made there, for in the early Middle Ages there was very little trading between villages. TO THE PUPIL 1. Explain again the relation between the lord and his vassal. 2. What was the manor ? How was it divided ? What was the domain ? 3. What was the relation between the lord and the serf ? What was the serf's relation to the land he used ? 4. What was the difference between a serf and a vassal ? Between a serf and a slave ? Which do you think was better off ? 5. Tell all you can about the houses, food, and drink, and the dress of the serfs. 6. What kind of tools did they use ? What kind of farmers were they ? CHAPTER XVH TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 127. Towns. — When the German barbarians took Villages and control of the countries in western Europe, they Hved °^^^ mostly in villages. There is little doubt that up to the twelfth century the greater part of the people in Eng- land, Germany, and northern and central France lived in the countiy on the great estates belonging to feudal lords, abbots, and bishops. But in the latter half of the Middle Ages, as trade developed, the villages which clustered about the monaster}', or rested under the pro- 180 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Walls, gates, towers, and watchmen The sur- roundings of the towns tection of castle walls; and some which were located on the sea-coast; grew into towns and even cities. On account of the continuous w^arfare of this period, it was found expedient; as in ancient timeS; to surround towns and small cities by massive walls, often eight to ten feet thick, and twenty-five to thirty feet high. As in the case of castles, just outside the wall there was a deep and broad moat or ditch. Opening on a few of the principal streets were strong gates with a tower on each side. At the principal gate was a castle where a garrison was kept, and on the roof of the gate-tower was stationed a watch- man ready to blow a horn in warning if an enemy approached. Scattered here and there along the cit}' wall were kept a few guards chosen from the citizens and relieved daily. Small towers, like little arsenals, stood about one hundred and twenty feet apart along the entire length of the wall. Just outside the walls of these mediaeval towns, and cities were farmino; lands, bevond which extended the pastures, meadows, and w^oodlands belonging to the people in common. City herdsmen aild field watchmen w^ere appointed to drive the flocks out of the town to pasture and to stand guard during the day, for in these dark and dangerous times nothing was safe from the robber bands. ONE OF THE OLD CITY GATES OP YORK, ENGLAND TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 181 Entering a gate of one of these cities, we should pass The streets through narrow streets, some of them httle more than houses alleys, with the upper stones of the houses jutting out over the lower until they almost meet. Many of the towns were so crowded with houses that there were few ;Uii THE CITY WALLS OF YORK, ENGLAND or no open spaces except the market-place. The walls of some of these cities, for example those of Chester, Carcassonne, and Rotenburg, are still standing as pict- uresque relics of the days of feudalism. 128. Guilds. — In our time, every man is his own The town master and free to live where he likes and to do what owner suits him best so long as he does not interfere with the rights of others. But in the early part of the Middle Ages, ever}^ town in western Europe belonged to some lord or to a monasteiy, just as did the manors. The people of the town had to pay hea\y dues to the owner^ 182 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Why the people demanded charters and they had httle trade with other towns. They made almost everything that they needed for themselves^ and had little more freedom than the serfs on the farms. Allien traders from distant comitries began to come in, about the twelfth centur}-, these tow^ns-people wanted to exchange goods with them. They would give the articles they made in ex- change for w^hat the traders brought. This was difficult to managC; because the lords were so strict and so exact- ing. When the towns be- came strong enough; they revolted and demanded charters; that iS; permission to carry on trade as they wished without the lord's meddling, and a written promise from the lord not to tax or fine them except at certain definite times and for certain definite sums of money. Usually they were given the right to govern themselves and to form trade guilds. The These guilds were a ver}^ important part of the town merchants tx* j ^ x xt_ x x* 't'i, and artisans hie^ and a neccssaiy part at that time, the men en- gaged in trade were both merchants and artisans. All the goods were sold in the shops where they were made. The men felt it necessar}^ that every one should have as good a chance as his neighbor to sell his wares, that competition should not lower prices, and that a PHCENIX TOWER AND A BIT OF THE OLD CITY WALL. CHESTER, ENGLAND TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES 183 flood of new workers should not lower wages beyond a fair limit. Accordingly, all the men engaged in a certain trade The rules ( formed a corporation, or guild, and promised to obey ^^^ ^^^^^ certain rules. For instance, aU the cobblers, or shoe- makers, of a town would form one of these guilds, and choose officers from among them- JmmmWm BUTCHERS GUILD HALL, HEREFORD, ENGLAND selves to see that the rules were obeyed. These rules stated, among other things, how many apprentices, or pupils, each shoemaker could have in his shop, and how long a time these apprentices must spend in learning the trade; at how high a price certain kinds of shoes should be sold; and how shoes must be made. The rules also provided that eveiy pair of shoes must be thor- oughly inspected before it was sold, and that disorderly and disobedient members of the guild should be punished. In joining the guild, the shoemakers (or goldsmiths, or whatever they might be) agreed to help any member if in trouble, and in case of his death to aid his widow and children. These guilds were not open to every one. No man The con- could belong to one who had not spent years as an ap- entering^a prentice in learning the trade, and the number of appren- ^^^^ tices was very limited. To be a goldsmith, an appren- tice worked for ten years, and for other trades a shorter time. The apprentice lived in the house of his master and worked very hard, but was paid nothing, although 184 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE he was boarded and clothed. When he became a jour- neyman^ he received wageS; but was still obliged to work for his master. He could not go into business inde- pendently until he became a master-workman. A privilege It was a great privilege to belong to a guild. Nobody a^guiid^^ *° was allowed to practice a trade who did not belong to one; and only the members of guilds took part in the government of the town. Often the}^ came to be very wealthy, through their membership fees and fines and gifts from rich members. The members were very proud of their guild and of the privileges it brought to them. Some of the important ones persist in European cities to-day. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1 . On account of the continuous warfare of this period It was found expedient, as In ancient times, to surround towns and„ small cities by massive walls. 2. In the early part of the Middle Ages every town In western Europe belonged to some lord or to a mon- astery, just as did the manors. 3. When traders began to come in about the twelfth century the townspeople wanted to exchange goods with them. This was difficult to manage because the lords were so strict and exacting. 4. When, therefore, the towns became strong enough they demanded charters; that Is, permission to carry on trade as they welshed without the lord's meddling and a written promise from the lord not to tax or fine them except at certain definite times and for certain definite sums of money. Usually they were given the right to govern themselves and to form trade guilds. 4. All the men engaged In a certain trade formed a guild because they felt It necessary that every one should have as good a chance as his neighbor to sell his wares, that com- petition should not lower prices, and that a flood of new workers should not lower wages beyond a fair limit. THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 1S5 TO THE PUPIL 1. How were towns and cities protected, and why? 2. Who owned the towns ? 3. Why did the people demand charters ? What rights and privileges did the people secure through these charters ? 4. What were the trade guilds and what were their rules ? 5. Why was it a great privilege to belong to a guild ? CHAPTER XVIII THE CHURCH, THE MONASTERY, AND THE MONKS 129. The Growing Power of the Christian Church. — The We have just learned what a power feudahsm was in church^ the Middle Ages. Along \dth this institution and quite ^^^Jy ^^^^^^^ equal to it in importance was the Christian church. We have learned, also, how the Christians, in spite of bitter persecution by Rome, continued to grow in num- bers and influence until, in the first cjuarter of the fourth centuiy, the Emperor Constantine not only allowed them freedom of worship, but made Christianity a state re- ligion. Constantine's successors went further. First they made it the onl}^ state religion and then the only religion of any sort that was allowed. We might have expected that the overthrow of Rome The grow- by the Germans would put an end to the growth of the church^ Christianity. On the contraiy, as the Roman govern- ment became weaker, the Christian church grew stronger, for its priests and bishops became the only protectors of the people against plunder and outrage. And when the Roman civil power was overthrown altogether, the 186 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE graded system of the church — Pope^ bishops, priests, etc. — actually took the place of the destroyed civil govern- ment with its graded system of officials. Thus when Rome could no longer hold together the parts of the empire, the only bond which prevented Middle A^^ Europe from falling mto hopeless and entirely separate fragments was the Christian faith. Then, just as Rome The Roman Catholic Church su- THE lONA MONASTERY BUILDINGS WHICH EXIST TO-DAY AND DATE FROM THE ELEVENTH CENTURY. THE CATHEDRAL DATES FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY The Pope and the bishops had been supreme in her days of splendor, so did the Roman Catholic Church become for a time supreme in the Middle Ages, not alone as a religious power but as a political power. The head of the church was the Pope, who dwelt at Rome. Under him were many bishops, scattered throughout the Christian world, each controlling a dis- trict called a diocese. The principal church of each diocese was called a cathedral. The same system holds THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 187 to-day. But the institution by which the church did its great work in the Middle Ages was the monaster}^ 130. How the Monasteries Began. — In early times. Hermits when there was so much fighting among nations, and no one lived in peace or safety, there were men who chose to dwell apart in some lonely place and there give their lives to holy thinking and prayer. In Egypt, where this practice be- ESfTERIOR OF lONA MONASTERY CATHEDRAL. gan, men went singly into the desert and lived as hermits. There, they be- lieved, with no one near to interrupt their thoughts, they would be free from all temptation and could make themselves more pleasing to God. Later on, however, men found Monks and that it was better to live m groups, for in this way they ™°^^^ ®"^^ could not only support themselves more easily, and be independent of the outside world, but they could learn from each other and inspire each other to do nobler work. The men who formed groups of this kind were called monks, and the houses in which they lived were called monasteries. Monks first appeared in western Europe about the Monasteries middle of the fourth century, and it was not long before western ^^^ monasteries spread all over the west. St. Patrick, of ^"^°p® whom we have already spoken, is said to have introduced 188 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE the monastery into Ireland. On lona, a small island off the western coast of Scotland; his followers built a great monaster}^, one of the most famous of that day. Near it was also a nunner}\ Before the beginning of the sixth centur}^, there were in western Europe hun- dreds of monasteries and thousands of monks. For The abbot ST. BENEDICT PERFORMING MIRACLES, AFTER THE PAINTING BY RUBENS such large numbers of men to live and work successfully together, it was found necessar}^ to organize them; that iS; to have officers and also rules to govern them. 131. St. Benedict's Rule. — "With this need in view, one of the greatest leaders of the monks, St. Benedict, prepared his rule (about 526), which was generally fol- lowed in the west for four centuries. According to this, the abbot who governed the monaster}^ was elected by the monks, who served a long period of probation The vows of before being admitted to the order. As their life was the monks ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ self-denial, they took three vows. They THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 189 promised that they would give up all their property^ that they would never mariy^ and that they would obey the rules and regulations of the monasteiy. They must not only spend much time in prayer and thought, but thev must work also. 132. The Famous Cluny. — Early in the tenth cen- tury, what afterward proved to be the most important monasteiy of that time, was established in Burgundy. This was the famous Cluny _, whose monks followed a ^^rule" some- what different from that of St. Benedict; though they wore the Benedictine habit. At first it had only twelve monks, but later it became a great power, with dependent monasteries in The power of Cluny MONKS AT WORK IN THE MONASTERY KITCHEN man}^ places, all controlled by the abbot of the parent monaster}^ The first ab.bots of Cluny were very great men. The monks at Cluny were required to perform each How the day a certain amount of labor, like shelling beans and their tlme^" weeding in the gardens, though only enough to keep them humble and free from empty pride. Of the re- mainder of their time, the part not spent in religious exercises was to be given to reading, copying manu- scripts, and singing. Cluny became a centre of teaching. The monks kept ciuny as a a school there for novices; that is, for boys who might teaching later become monks. Very stern, strict teachers these monks were, not sparing the rod even for slight offences. 14 190 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Hospitality and charity at Cluny The monk and the soldier They looked carefully after the children's health also, as well as after their morals. HospitaHty and charity were cardinal dutieS; and were looked after by two important officers; one took charge of guestS; and the other of wanderers and beggars. Every day, no matter how^ hard the times were, generous alms in money and food were given to the poor. So it came about that Cluny was beloved by the poor, just as it was courted by the rich and great. Other monas- teries Glided the poor also; but Cluny estabhshed the practice as a constant duty, never to be neglected. 133. The Dress of the Monks. — It is not our puipose to follow the many orders of monks, nor to speak in detail of special monasteries. A brief gen- eral view will serve our purpose. As our glance turns back over the centuries of the Dark Ages and its chief figures pass before our eyes, the flowing black robe of the monk stands out in striking contrast to the gleam- ing armor of the soldier and the richly colored costume of the knight. But his sombre garb is suited to this man of hoi}" vows, whom we shall find it interesting to follow as he moves quietly about in his field of service. Although his monasteiy might be wealthy, perhaps immensely so, the monk did not own any personal property. Even his garments The cassock belonged to his order; that is, to his monastery. His and the cow ^j^^j^gg ^^j.^ coarse and plain, the principal garment being a long woollen cassock, white or black, but generally black, with long sleeves. Over this he wore a black A MONK DRESSED IN THE WOOLLEN CASSOCK 07 o a H a a m a >-« O as* « O a H CO a a H CO CO a 2: o a z < H O o ^ a n n < a O « a S o> 192 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The cloister and the buildings that stirround it mantle with a large hood; called a cowl; unless he was at work. When he was at w^ork the cowl was replaced by a shorter sleeveless tuniC; with a hood such as peas- ants w^ore. On his feet he wore sandals. Sometimes in cold w^eather shoes and stockings and warm cloaks were supplied; but quite as often the dress remained the same in winter as in summer. St. Benedict ad\dsed plenty of wholesome food; but in many monasteries the food was \ery light and scant. 134. The Monastery Buildings. — The monaster}^ build- ings were at first small, plam stmctures; and as there was no thought of providing comfort or privacy, the monks were crowded into as few rooms as possible. Later, as the mon- asteries grew in wealth; size, and importance; their abodes became rpuch more pre- tentious. An open court; or cloister, with a garden surrounded by a BOLTOX PRIORY, YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1120 BY THE AUGUSTINIAN ORDER. THE PRIOR WAS A GREAT S ll a d d Walk; FEUDAL DIGNITARY 111 formed the heart of the monasteiy; wliile the surroundings of the court might include cells for the monks, a chapel, a chapter housC; work alcoveS; the dining-rooni; a sitting-rooni; and quarters for the abbot and guests. As we should expect; the church was the most important part of the monas- ter}^; the grandest ones being cathedrals. THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 193 The growth of a monastery 135. The Sites of the Monasteries. — The sites of the monasteries varied greatly. Sometimes there was no choice of location, as the land was a gift; and again the monks purposely chose undesirable land, to give themselves employment in improving and reclaiming it for agriculture. Often the necessity of a retired and safe location forced them to take untilled soil. But many times, when cir- n cumstances w^ere favor- 1^^ ^^^-^>^- able, they w^ere able to choose fertile grounds, with a stream and per- haps a fish-pond. There, year ]3y year, the build- ings of the monasteiy would rise — first the cloister and the church, then the abbot's lodge and other necessary buildings. These would be enclosed with a stone wall, and beneath this, as in other large estates, the cottages of laborers and servants would lie. • 136. Occupations of the Monks. — The monks did The monks gi3at service in establishing farming on a dignified and ^^ ^^^®^s intelligent basis. We are told that they were the first scientific farmers after the fall of Rome and the invasions of the barbarians. A great deal of land was reclaimed and made valuable by them, and dangerous swamps were drained. They kept live-stock, raised crops of all kinds, grew their own vegetables, made cider and A CONCERT IN THE MONASTERY 194 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE What the monks did cheese, and often kept bees or bred horses. This sort of work was an important part of the hfe of the monastery. The In later times, as you have learned, the monasteiy Sten a^great was often a great feudal estate. Besides farming, many feudal estate Q^j^gj. industries Were carried on. The monks were the millers, carpenters, and masons, and in the early days they were their own cooks. They were the fine and careful artisans and craftsmen of the day, preserving the knowledge of handicrafts for more peaceful ages. And some were archi- tects; also sometimes they made arms and £^, musical instruments. They were the physi- cians of the commu- nity, studying and practising medicine. They studied music, painted, and did wood- carving and weaving. Besides this, they were MONKS ENGAGED IN LITERART "WORK AND COPYING also the teachers of the young, as we have seen at Cluny. In the midst of all this activity their religious duties were not forgotten, for they worshipped together seven times daily, one of their meetings being at midnight. 137. The Monks' Service to the World in Copying Books. — But their greatest service to the world, per- haps, was their work in copying books; for by doing this they preserved for us man}- works which would other- wise have been lost or destroyed. THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 195 In the large room called the scriptorium we may The monks picture from ten to twenty of the younger monks writing or^wrSing"^^ at slanting desks. The novices are probably at work on ^^oks missals, or service books, for the choir. The room is silent, for no talking is allowed. Presently we notice a keen-eyed, elderly monk, who is giving advice to a flaxen- haired boy, possibly about the color or design of au initial letter. Separated from the main room are alcoves where the older and more skilful monks are busy with choicer manu- scripts. They may be copying or they may be writing books of their own. These, of course, would be mainly The monks religious. Others may be at work on a chronicle, for we of history^ must remember that it was the monks who preserved for us nearly all we know of the histor}" of the Middle Ages. Each monastery kept its own record of current events. For centuries the monks were practically the only The educated class. Nearly all English literature down to nterauire^ Chaucer's day (1340-1400) was written in monasteries, or at least by monks — mostly chronicles and religious works in prose and verse. Some of our finest hymns were written in monasteries. All the copying had to be done by hand and was very How the slow, painstaking work. It is not surprising, when we take was'done into account the amount of copying done, that some- times mistakes were made. The monks did not use the loose, careless hand which people write to-day. Each letter was most carefullv formed. Black ink was used, though commonly the titles of the books were in red. Sometimes in the early Middle Ages costly manu- scripts were written in gold or silver on parchment, 196 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The monks preserve the Greek and Roman classics Education for a long time in the hands of monasteries I:. Wi nm dtctmTcxnnricma::non eft- (aim tp(t '^''u ixuxmx £Dmmc fttftcpXD! mats cs-giona -'^.^ mm tjo aminttm d.mj.mfcrn.iuotutr try' or tnonrc Cmrb fuo- iaiaeia' giug | m i g£c!T3 CDimttjt cr fopjiUtts fmn:craftmtn qw a vomtmt& (it(aptrmc.gigBg//iggjgtgggigg '^on nmcip mtiM pipttu ontmiDmrts mc'cf tttigc CDtrnnc fiiuutm mc fiuiuis tnaisfgggi #.^ ?i *^i^o"^^'" nt pcccuflWh omncs aoucrdmrts ^ |a^'ommt cfl-faiU6:crfttf.( lupuann mttm ir I r?^|';:„ini tnuaamricmitwutrmf orusm''' ' nac mfrrmintDutmonf Dtiiiraftt midn- itrri mn.'fraatfDj o:iTnonrm mftmisBI ^j4 uu iDntuntni ufa^qtio gtJiat ontc-urautD DUtsmstumujtrcm^iqucmts mmmcttmifl £ir fcrtDrr (itLonwm mtttftmtttr DommusB Cmdtmi fuum:anntnt:s oatmcf incmmrixi tinted purple or }'ellow. But later on the capital letters alone were gilded in this way^ and were made veiy artis- tic and graceful decorations of the page. Papyrus was used; to some extent, as by. the Greeks and Romans; but later^ vellum made from calf skill; and then parchment from lambskin, took its place. We are told that few of the classics of Greek or Roman lit- erature would have been left to us had not the monks col- lected, preserved, and copied them in such great numbers. We can hardly realize what a loss this would have been to the world. Some of the most beautiful and valuable work in copying was done by the Benedictine nuns, who excelled even the monks in skill and patience. 138. The Monks as Teachers. — For many centuries the only schools were those which the monks kept. Indeed, from the time of Charlemagne until about the eleventh centun\ education was entirelv in the hands of the monasteries. AMien, about the eleventh centuiy, A GREATLY REDUCED PAGE OF ILLUMINATED MS. OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 197 ■universities came to be founded; the higher education passed to them. But the monks still taught most of the element aiy schools. These were not merely for Schools for boys who expected to become monks, but schools for ciaSes ^^ boys of all classes in the community, the sons of knights FURNESS ABBEY, LANCASHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1127 BY THE CISTERCIAN ORDER. THE ABBOT OP THE MONASTERY NOT ONLY POSSESSED JURISDICTION OVER THE MONKS, BUT GOVERNED THE PEOPLE OF THE REGION AS WELL as well as the sons of serfs and freemen. Sometimes one monastery maintained several free schools. Thus they kept alive an interest in learning, which perhaps would otherwise have been lost. 139. How the Monks Treated the Sick and Strangers. The monks — Part of the work done by the monasteries, as we have hospitals seen in the case of Cluny, was in establishing hospitals for sick people, just outside the walls of the monastery, or in the towns. In those days no such provision was made for the sick as we make in our own cities now; 198 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE though endowed hospitals and government charities were far from being unknow^n. So the monks built and sup- ported hospitals, helped by gifts from wealthy people, and nursed the sick. It is hardly necessary to add that in this good work the nuns were of great assistance. In the eleventh centur}^, an order of monks was founded which had as their chief aim the healing of the sick and suffering. They built hospitals in many places, and did a great deal of good. The enter- One of the most important duties of the monks, as strangers we saw at Cluny, was the entertainment of strangers. For this purpose, some of the best rooms of the mon- aster}^ were especially designed. Guests of all ranks, knights and ladies, travelling priests or monks, minstrels, poor men and beggars, aU were entertained with equal courtesy. No charge was made; but those who had money paid what the}^ could afford. It was not con- sidered courteous, as a rule, to stay more than two days and two nights, although the visit often lasted much longer. In each case one of the foremost monks was made the host. The In loneh^ sections of the country, and among the monastery a . . i i r- r refuge for mountams, the monasteries were the only retuge lor travellers. No doubt the good monks were well paid for their hospitality by hearing from such wayfarers the news of the outside world. And no guest ever left these asylums without receiving some gift from the monks. "The bell At a monaster}^ in the midst of wild mountains in wanderers" France, a bell was rung for two hours ever}^ evening, as a summons to travellers w^ho might have lost their way. It was called ^Hhe bell of the wanderers." Along sea- THE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 199 coastS; toO; where there were dangerous rocks^ the monks rang bells as signals to sailors, and were always ready to receive shipwrecked mariners. Some monks in Scot- land placed a great bell on a dangerous rock, still called Bell Rock, so that the motion of the waves would ring it and warn ships aw^ay. In such ways as these the FOUNTAINS ABBEY, YORKSHIRE, ENGLAND. FOUNDED IN 1132 BY THE CISTERCIAN ORDER monks did great service to the people, and won love and loyalty to themselves and to their religion. 140. The Monks Render Many Noble Services to Mankind. — Thus we find that the monks did many noble services for mankind. By their tireless labor, deserts were made gardens, pestilent swamps became fertile farms, and labor gained a new dignity unknown in the days of Roman slavery. The monks, by their missionary^ work, did much toward The monks Christianizing western Europe. The monasteries be- came centres of learning and religion, of quiet work and 200 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE . study, in the midst of dark and stormy times. Had not the monks made diligent search for the best books and copied them carefully, much of the great bod}^ of ' classical literature would have been lost. They fur- nished the only education which was to be had, and gave it to rich and poor alike. The monks They Were the charitable societies, the mainstay of the as bmiders ^^^^^ ^^j ^j^^ homeless, the healers of the sick, the willing hosts of weary travellers. They were the great builders, . also; many of the great churches in Europe were the work of their hands. Although later on they lost much of their power and influence, we must not forget what great good they did among the people of a troubled world. Love and the 141. The Monks and Their High Christian Ideals. — rehgion^ They were faithful, earnest men, and in the work which thev did for their times, and for the davs that were to come, they put into practice the highest and finest ideals of Christianity. The pagan Greeks and Romans feared their gods; the Christian monk had a personal love for the one God whom he called his Father. He also be- lieved that he could not love God without loving his fellow men. While to the pagan, religion had nothing to do with daily living, to the Christian monk a personal True religion love for Christ could live only as it expressed itself in oflo^ve^ ^^^ conduct and in service for others. As to him the cen- tral fact in Christianity was love, so true religion was the practice of love — love for the low as well as the high, for the weak as well as the strong, for the poor as well as the rich. Love rendered cheerful service to all alike, because in the sight of his Maker every IHE CHURCH, MONASTERY, AND MONKS 201 man was equal to every other in his rights as a moral being. It is not denied that some among the many fell from the high ideals of their orders; but we are speaking of the holy aspirations, the self-sacrificing service, and the good works accomplished by the monks as a whole. They made Christianity a great moral power in the Christianity Middle Ages — a power which was altogether unknown moraf power to the Greeks and Romans, but which plays a large part in the modern life of to-day. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. As the Roman Government became weaker the Christian Church grew stronger. Just as Rome had been supreme in her days of splendor, so did the Roman CathoKc Church become for a time supreme in the Middle Ages, not alone as a religious power but also as a political power. 2. Monks first appeared in western Europe about the middle of the fourth century, and it was not long before monasteries spread all over the west. 3. As the life of the monks was to be one of self-denial, they vowed to be always poor, chaste, and obedient. 4. The monastery was often a great feudal estate. 5. The monks rendered a great service to the world in copying books. 6. Nearly all English literature down to Chaucer's day was written in monasteries, or at least by monks. 7. We are told that few of the classics of Greek or Roman literature would have been left to us had not the monks collected, preserved, and copied them in such great numbers. 8. Education was for a long time in the hands of monasteries, and by their missionary work the monks did much to Christianize Europe. 9. The monks were great builders also. Many of the great churches in Europe were the work of their hands. 10. They made Christianity a great moral power in the Middle Ages. 202 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE TO THE PUPIL 1. Explain how it was that the Roman Catholic Church came to be for a time supreme in the Middle Ages, not alone as a religious power but as a political power. 2. How did monasteries begin ? 3. What was St. Benedict's rule ? What were the vows of the monks ? 4. Tell about hospitality and charity at the famous Cluny. 5. Imagine yourself on a visit to a monastery and describe the buildings and the surroundings of the monastery. 6. Visit a room where the monks are copying and give an account of what you see. How was the copying done ? 7. In what way did the monks preserve for us the classics of Greek and Roman literature ? 8. How did the monasteries help to make life better in the Middle Ages ? 9. What great differences are there between Christianity and the re- ligion of the Greeks and of the Romans ? THE CRUSADES AND COMMERCE CHAPTER XIX THE CRUSADES 142. The Monks and, the Knights in the Crusades. — While the work of Christianizing western Europe was carried on mainly by the monks, the church found another faithful ally in the knights. When a young man was knighted; you remember, the ceremony was largely a religious one, in which he pledged himself to defend the church and to champion the weak and helpless. In the great movement of the Crusades the church needed sol- diers as well as monks, and knights and monks served side by side. 143. Pilgrims Go to the Holy Land. — ^To understand what the Crusades (wars of the cross) were, and how they came about, we must look back over a number of cen- turies. From the early days of Christianity, we find that it was the custom in all parts of Christian Europe for people to make journeys to the Holy Land, and worship w^here Christ had lived and died. In so doing, they thought, they were cleansed from all sin ; and should they die in Palestine, or the Holy Land, they felt sure that they would go to heaven. The long, tedious journey was made on foot, whether Suffering the pilgrim was rich or poor, many taking with them no J^urney^^^ money for their expenses, but trusting to charity for food. 203 The Turks in control of Jerusalem 204 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Often they perished from hunger and sickness and lack of shelter. In order to protect them from exposure and save them from distress, many hospitals and asylums were built in lonely places by pious people. 144. The Turks Get Control of Jerusalem. — During the fifth and sixth centuries many thousand Europeans journeyed as pilgrims to Palestine. Some settled there VIEW OP JERUSALEM, FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING permanently, but most of them returned, bringing with them holy relics which were regarded with much venera- tion. In the seventh century the Arabs, who were Mohammedans, swept over Syria and got control of Jerusalem. But the pilgrims were not often molested b}^ them, for the Arabs also believed that the city was sacred. In the eleventh centuiy, however, Palestine was overrun by the Turks, a barbarous and fanatical people THE CRUSADES 205 from central Asia, who devoted themselves to plmidering and destroying. By them the pilgrims were cruelly abused. The Turks Their sacred places were profaned, their worship was pJjgriL^^ interrupted, and they themselves were insulted and some- times massacred. All these hardships were reported by pilgrims returning to their homes. Moreover, in their career of conquest, these fierce Turks came into conflict with the Greek (Eastern) Empire ruled from Constantinople. At a great battle fought in 1071, five years after William the Conqueror won England at the battle of Hastings, the Emperor Romanus IV was defeated and captured. Nearly all Asia Minor was over- run by the Turks, and so horribly devastated that a few year slater the crusading armies nearly starved to death in a wilderness of thorns and briers, in the heart of what had been the most fertile spot in the empire. Later there was danger of the Turks capturing Alexius Constantinople itself, and the Emperor Alexius I sent the1pope° lettei*s to Pope Urban II at Rome, asking help. The ^o^heip Pope, you remember, had great power as head of the Christian church. These letters reached the Pope about The people the time when the people of western Europe were being ^^"^®^ stirred by the shocking news of Turkish cruelty and inso- lence in Jerusalem. So it was just the right moment to arouse deep enthusiasm for a movement which should have for its purpose the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre from the unbelieving Turks. 145. Pope Urban's Eloquent Sermon. — Pope Urban, A great therefore, at a great council which met at Clermont, in people ° France (1095), preached a sermon on the subject. French and German bishops and princes had come to the meet- 206 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The duty of Christians ing, and also a great throng of people — so many that no building could hold them, and the meeting had to be held in the open air. Urban told of the abuses which the pilgrims at Jerusa- lem were enduring, and how the holy places were being profaned. It was the duty of the European Christians, POPE URBAN II PRESIDING OVER THE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT IN 1095 AND CALLING THE CHRISTIAN PEOPLE TO THE FIRST CRUSADE FOR THE DELIVERANCE OF THE HOLY LAND, AFTER AN ENGRAVING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY * An appeal to soldiers of the cross who were brave fighters and whose ancestors had done brave deeds, to fight now for their religion. They were continually warring among themselves, he said; but here was something better worth struggling for. By uniting in this great cause they could wdn for themselves ever- lasting glory in heaven. ''Go, then," he continued, ''on your errand of love, which will put out of sight all the ties that bind you to the spots which you have called your homes. Your THE CRUSADES 207 homes, in truth, they are not. For the Christian, all the world is exile, and all the world is at the same time his eomitry. If you leave a rich patrimony here, a better patrimony aw^aits you in the Holy Land. They w4io die Vvill enter the mansions of heaven, while the living shall pay their vows before the sepulchre of their Lord. You are soldiers of the cross ; wear, then, on your breasts or on your shoulders, the blood-red sign of Him who died for the salvation of your souls." "\Mien he had finished his speech, the people shouted The war-cry ^^It is the will of God." ^^t is indeed the will of God!" c^uiLders exclaimed Urban. ^^Now make that your war-cry." Then he said, ^^No one need go against his will, but when one has vowed to go, let him not turn back until he has fulfilled his mission." Thousands immediately took the vow and received the sign of the cross. Returning from this meeting, people carried the good news all through the land, and everywhere the new work for Christians was eagerly talked about. 146. Peter the Hermit and His Followers. — In the Peter the north, Peter the Hermit at once began to win followers to go to the Holy Land. According to tradition, this small, dark man, with long white beard, barefoot and bareheaded, and dressed in a long frock with coarse hood, rode on a mule from town to town, preaching to the peo- ple about the need for a crusade. As he journeyed, eager followers trudged beside him. The people almost wor- shipped him. So great was their veneration that they believed even the hairs of his mule were sacred, and, what was of greater importance, thousands were won over by his earnest preaching. Hermit 208 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless Failure of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless Instead of waiting for the real armies with experienced soldiers which were, to start later^ a host of common people without training or supplies went forth in two separate bands. One of thesC; num- bering about 15;- 000;leftFranceun- der a knight called Walter the Penni- less; in the spring of 1096. Butm.any perished in Eul- garia^ where they had vexed the na- tives by pillaging — having no mon- ey to buy food — and only the strag- glers reached Con- stantinople. There they waited for Peter. Peter; meanwhile; with a so-called army of Germans, also had trouble in passing through Bulgaria and Hun- gaiy; and lost many of his men. The rest joined Walter at Constantinople in the summer of 1096. The two leaders, with the remnants of their bandS; crossed over to Civitot, a coast city of Asia Minor. But here they were en- trapped by the Turkish sultaU; Da^dd; and only a few escaped to await the coming cf the crusading armies. The rest were either massacred or captured; among those PETER THE HERMIT PREACHING TO HIS FOLLOWERS THE CRUSADES 209 who perished being Walter. Other bands started out in much the same way, but lost their lives on account of their lawless behavior, for they believed they had the privilege of plundering as they pleased. 147. The Crusaders and Their Motives. — In the The first autumn of 1096 Pope Urban probably sent a letter to ^^y *°^ Emperor Alexius, in which he told him that three hundred thousand crusaders would soon start from the West on their way to the Holy Land. Although we are told that the army actually contained one million men, the general belief now is that the number was veiy much smaller. But before this enthusiastic body begin their long jour- ney eastward, let us pause for a moment to discuss their motives in setting out upon an expedition that gave promise of so much peril and suffering. As already noted, all agree that the leading motive was The leading religious. There was a universal desire among Chris- J^ngi^ous tians to reconquer the holy places, and rescue the sacred city from the desecrating hands of unbelievers. More- over, each pilgrim believed, as has been stated, that a visit to the holy city would bring him a sure reward by removing his sins, and that should he lose his life while on the Crusades, all his sins would be forgiven and he would go to heaven. Other motives were the love of adventure and of travel, other rpi •Hi.- I, 1, motives Inese were especially strong m an age when each com- munity heard or knew little of what was going on outside its narrow boundaries. And still other motives appealed to men's self-interests. There were merchants who sought trade, and princes and men of high rank who sought for new principalities or for other forms of power. But whatever their motives, all eagerly joined in a movement 210 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The suffer- ing of men and animals The crusaders reach Jerusalem that aroused deep emotion and enthusiasm in all sorts and conditions of men. 148. The March of the Crusaders to Jerusalem. — The main armies set out in four sections. They were led by powerful nobles, mainly French and Norman. Most went overland by different routes, although some sailed from south- ern Ital}\ There was no one leader in command, nor any systematic provision for food. When marching, they kept no order, but straggled along, the lead- ers mounted on great horses. When fighting, the knights dressed in heavy armor. Many men and animals perished in the deserts, worn out by hardship and lack of food. Others died in camp of disease. Those who went by sea had an easier journey. The four sections, or armies, met at Constantinople, but did not proceed at once to Jerusalem. The leaders were bent on conquering cities for themselves in Palestine. It was not until June, 1099, that they reached the holy THE CRUSADERS BEFORE JERUSALEM THE CRUSADES 211 city. Of the host which left Europe, there remained only about twenty thousand, so many had perished on the way. When they came in sight of Jerusalem, they all fell upon their knees, and, with tears in their eyes, stooped to kiss the sacred soil. 149. The Siege and Capture of Jerusalem. — As Jeru- Hunger salem was surrounded by a high wall, the crusaders were attack the not strong enough to take it by storm. So they sur- crusaders rounded it as well as they could and began a siege. Thirst attacked them, and hunger. Close by was the' little spring of Siloe, which bubbled up every second day. Men and animals, in their eagerness to get the water, crowded so hard that they trampled each other to death at its brink, and choked it with corpses. Finally ships came bringing food and saved them from famine. While the leaders were doing little but quarrel with Peter the each other, it is said that Peter the Hermit had a dream, dream in which he was told, as he reported, that the city would fall if the army should march around it barefoot for nine days. At once they set to work to build siege-towers, without which they could not hope to take the city. Then the w^hole army set out to march around it, led by barefoot priests dressed in white and carrying crosses in their hsiids. As they marched they sang songs and uttered prayers, while the Saracens on the walls mocked them and abused the cross. But of course this method of capturing the city did not The capture succeed, and so the siege continued. It is said that when ^ J®"*^^ ^™ hope of victory had almost been given up, a horseman was seen on Mt. Olivet, waving a shield. "St. George the Martyr has come to help us!" cried one of the leaders. 212 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE At this the men took new courage, and soon won the city (July, 1099). Massacre of We should Hke to believe that Christian knights would the Saracens gi^^^^ mercy to their captiveS; but this was not so. They treated the Saracens in Jerusalem, even the women and their babies, with the most shocking cruelt3^ So ter- rible was the mas- sacre that we are told the streets ran deep in blood. There was only one leader. Count Raymond of Toulouse, who seemed to feel any pity. He set free the people who had fled to the Tower of David, and al- lowed them to leave th# city. Before the army dispersed, they elected one of their leaders, Godfrey of Boulogne, a great nobleman in what is now Luxembourg, to be ruler of Jerusalem, and called him Protector of the Holy Sepulchre. Saladin 1 50. The Beginning of the Third Crusade. — The Second Jerusalem Crusade, fifty 3'ears later, acccn:plished nothing, and in less than a hundred years after Jerusalem was taken VISION OF ST. GEORGK ON MT. OLIVET THE CRUSADES 213 by the Christians; it was captured (1187) by the great Saracen leader, Saladin. As soon as it fell into his hands, messengers were sent to report the fact to the people in the West. There was great grief in Europe over this sad news. The cardinals at Rome said that, if necessaiy, they themselves would go and win back the holy city. Pope Gregory VIII called upon the kings of Eu- rope to cease their quarrels and join in a crusade. Every man in England was re- quired to pay a heavy tax unless he marched to Jerusalem him- self. This was the Third Crusade to the East. The first ruler to start for Jerusalem was Frederick Some lpiQ/4£i1»o it*i '^Barbarossa" (Red-beard), the German emperor, seventy the Third years old. He went by the overland route, but he died Crusade on the way. His army divided and went in different directions. It was in 1189 that Frederick started. Philip Augustus, King of France, and Richard, King of England, whom we have already noted as Richard the Lion-Heart, w^ent the next year by sea. GODFREY ENTERS JERUSALEM 214 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Leopold angry with Richard Richard brave but not steady of purpose 151. Richard the Lion-Heart in Trouble with Leo- pold and Philip. — Richard incurred the hatred of Duke Leopold of Austria almost as soon as he reached Asia Minor. When he arrived there, the Christian armies were besieging the city of Acre. It fell soon after, and Leopold, so the stoiy goes, had set up his banner be- side Richard's on the wall. Rich- ard allowed it to be torn down and flung into the ditch. Leopold returned home at once, in great an- ger at Richard. AVe shall see how he took revenge. Richard and Philip quarrelled constantly. At last Philip went home, but he left his army in Palestine. Its leaders opposed Richard in eveiy way they could. Although not steady of pui-pose, he was a veiy brave warrior and a really good general. Once, it is said, he came on a party of Turks unawares and killed twenty of them. He had a brave enem}^ in Saladin, whom the Christians learned to respect very deeply. It is said that in a fierce battle between the two armies, Saladin heard that Richard had no horse. He at RICHARD AND SALADIN IN BATTLE THE CRUSADES 215 once sent him two vei*}^ fine Arab steeds, and Richard accepted them gratefully. 152. Richard is Made a Prisoner. — Richard at last Richard fell ill before he reached Jerusalem, and was obliged to ^°^^ ^^ go home. A treaty was therefore made with Saladin, by the terms of which the Christians were to have a strip of land along the coast of Syria, and the right to trade freely. They were also to be allowed to visit Jerusalem as much as they wished. Richard hoped to return to Palestine, but he was never able to do so. His journey homeward was very eventful. He had The capture managed to make bitter enemies of several of the most powerful leaders of the Crusade, and Leopold had had him put under the ban of the Holy Roman Empire as a traitor — that is, empow^ered any one in it to capture him and hold him for trial. When nearing Marseilles Richard heard that Raymond of Toulouse, a count of the empire, was planning to capture him there. To escape him he set off in a little private boat with twenty men. Some time later, however, a storm drove him on the Aus- trian shore and wrecked his boat. The Germans in turn were on the watch for him, and he had to hurry through the empire in disguise. But he was caught. The story is told that he stopped to dine at a little The story of inn not far from Vienna. Not wishing any one to sus- pect his high rank, he broiled his own steak; but he forgot that on his finger was a costly ring. A servant of Duke Leopold came in, noticed the ring, and looked closer at its wearer. He soon recognized King Richard, and with- out saying a word hastened away to tell the Duke, who came in triumph and took Richard captive. This was 216 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Blondel his revenge for the insult given him by the King at Acre, and the wrongs he pretended that the whole Christian cause had suffered at the King's hands. Richard and Richard's English subjects knew that he was in prison, but they did not know where. A beautiful story is told of how the min- strel Blondel set out to find him. Blondel wandered through Europe till he reached a castle where, peo- ple said, was held a captive whose name no one knew. Blondel' s sweet music at once won him fa- vor, and when he entered the castle he kept his eyes open to see if he could espy the captive. One day as he was keeping watch he heard a w^ll-known voice singing a verse of a song which he and Richard had com- posed together long before this time, and which was known to them alone. It was the voice of the im- prisoned King, who had seen Blondel from his tiny Tsdndow. Blondel went away rejoicing, to cany the news of the King's whereabouts. But it was almost a year BLONDEL HEARS THE VOICE OF RICHARD r- '« 218 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE later before Richard was free to go to England, after being ransomed by his subjects. 153. Loss of Life and Property in the Crusades. — The third Crusade, like the first, resulted in great destmction of property and of men. As we have seen, according to some estimates nearly one million persons lost their lives in the first Crusade. Some believe that not less than five hundred thousand of the third Crusade failed to return ^to their homes. This, how^ever, is only part of the story. There were eight Crusades in all, as they are commonly numbered, the last of which ended in 1270, nearly two hundred years after the first began (1095). It is safe to say that during those two centuries millions of lives and untold treasures were spent in the crusading expeditions to the East. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The leading motive of the Crusaders was rehgious. There was a universal desire among Christians to rescue the Holy Sepulchre from the unbelieving Turks. 2. The Crusaders captured Jerusa- lem in 1099, but Saladin conquered it about a hundred years later. S. There were eight Crusades in all, the first of which began in 1095 and the last ended nearly two hundred years later (1270). 4. Millions of lives and untold treasures were spent in the crusad- ing expeditions to the East. TO THE PUPIL [i. Why did Pilgrims go to the Holy Land? 2. In what ways did the Turks abuse the Pilgrims ? 3. What did Pope Urban mean by calling Christians soldiers of the cross ? 4. Describe Peter the Hermit as he appeared when preaching to the people. 5. What were the motives of the Crusaders ? RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 219 6. In what ways did men and animals suffer ? 7. Who was Richard the Lion-Heart ? Tell the story of his capture and of the way in which the minstrel Blondel found him in prison. 8. Tell what you can about the loss of life and property in the Crusades. 9. Are you locating on the map all the places mentioned in the text ? CHAPTER XX RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 154. The Love of Travel and the Growth of Trade. — What the The results of the Crusades were varied and far-reaching, leam^d^^n The most marked of these at first were seen in a rapidly ^^® ^^^^ increasing fondness for travel and in the marvellous growth of trade. During the two hundred years that the Crusades lasted; great numbers of men who otherwise would not have left their homes travelled from the coun- tries of western Europe to the Orient. There they saw citieS; peoples, dress, houses, and customs that were all strange to them. Most of these men had known little of the great world outside the castle or village in which they had spent their lives, and great was their surprise to learn that the people of the East had knowledge of many things of which the West was ignorant. They were astonished to find in the cities of the East a ci\41ization higher and finer than their own, and comforts and luxuries far exceeding those to which they were accustomed. The new experiences of travel awakened new tastes New tastes, and a desire to possess at home luxuries enjoyed in the and trade ^^* East. Hence an increasing trade in these things sprang up between the East and the West, which soon brought about many new conditions in Europe. 220 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE A constant 155- Italian Cities Profit by the Trade with the East. th^demand ~"^^ ^^^^ ^^^ benefit of this trade was felt mainly in for ships and Italy. Italy did not take an active part in the fighting sailors of the Crusades, for she sent no warriors to the East; but her cities furnished ships and transportation for Cru- I'f ■% Mi \ mi ■ I T-- A > f^- " VENICE, WHICH PLAYED SUCH AN IMPORTANT PART IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMMERCE saders who w^nt by water. Although at first the routes travelled were overland, later they were either partly or wholly by water. There was, therefore, a constant in- crease in the demand for ships and sailors, and this was met by stronger and larger ships manned by abler sea- men. These were supplied mainly by Venice, Genoa, and other Italian cities, who exacted good pay for their ser- vices and thus made the Crusades a source of great profit. RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 221 From the ever-increasing trade of which we have just Western spoken, these cities acquired vast wealth. In time great Eastern^ ^°^ merchant fleets sailed from Italy, carrying such Western ^oods products as grain, oil, honey, minerals, metal, soap, wool, cloth, leather, and furs. For the East, partly because many Crusaders had settled there, w^as much in need of these things. In Syria and Eg}'pt the Western products w^ere exchanged for silks, spices, perfumes, precious stones, hangings, rich cloths, caipets, mgs, porcelains^ and other products which had been brought by caravans from India, Arabia, and Persia. Loaded with these goods, the merchant-ships made their way homeward across the j\Iediterranean. This was a perilous journey; for frequently the vessels were manned hy unskilled sea- m.en, and pirates were many and daring. 156. The Growth of Commerce in Europe. — On reach- Overland ing Italy the cargoes were stored in Venice and Genoa, and fairs whence eventually they were distributed throughout Europe. Overland routes led to important centres in France and Germany, where commerce w^as carried on at great fairs, held at fixed seasons. Here the importers sold to w^holesale merchants. Retail trade went on in smaller places, although much of it was in the hands of peddlers, who carried their packs from village to village, as a rule travelling on foot, though sometimes on horses. If we had been living in an English village at that time, The peddler w^e should probably have looked with some eagerness for ^^ ^ ^^^ the coming of the peddler. He liked well to arrive on Sunday or a saint's day, when the scattered villagers had gathered together for worship. After the service he would unstrap his pack outside the church, display its 222 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE contents; and ti*}^ to win buyers of his wares. In one of the manuscripts of those times we have pictures of what such a pack contained. There were gloves, a man's hat, a woman's kerchief, hose, a mirror, a woman's head-dress, a man's hood, a purse, a belt, a musical pipe, slippers, and other things. Having made his sales, the peddler would close his pack, slip it over his shoulder by a strap, and be off for the next place. Trade in After a time water routes to the north were established. EuropT^ Merchant-ships ventured out of the Mediterranean mto the Atlantic, and sailed aroimd to northern Europe. Venice sent ships every year to England and the Nether- lands, the latter country becoming the centre of this trade between the north and the south, \^ith Bruges the chief city. Gradually, with the growth of manufactures, the north developed a large commerce of its own and sent its ships to the Mediterranean. 157. What Was Learned from the East and the Moors. — Along with articles of commerce, Venice brought from the East the art of making silk and glass, and began to manufacture them herself. Oriental dyes also w^ere brought in, and probably the use of windmills was learned in the Orient. From the Moors in Spain was obtained a knowledge of gunpowder and artiller}^, as well as the art of making wine, stamped leather, fine steel armor, steel weapons, and other objects made of metal. These new industries all increased the volume and variety of the articles of trade. Men's ideas of com- merce broadened, the field extended. Soon we recog- nize the beginnings of a world commerce which was to lead to momentous results. RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 223 158. The Breaking Down of Feudalism. — This gro^i:h The barons of commerce brought about a great change which had fa^^d-owers already been begun by the Crusades. It was the break- ^^^^ *^®^^ *^ ^ *^ _ power ing down of feudahsm. How this happened; we need here explain only in a veiy general way. In France, for example, barons often sold their lands and their feudal rights and privileges in order to get money to pay the expense of the long and costly journey to the Holy Land. In this w^ay they lost their powder as lords in their own countr}^ Many other barons and great land-owners were killed; and hence their landed possessions passed into other hands. But what the feudal lords lost was gained by the King What the or by the people, who lived either in towns and cities or io^t,^he°^ ^ in \dlla2;es on the great feudal estates. Moreover, with H!°^^ ^°^ , the people the increase in the growth of trade, the guilds and the gained towns-people insisted; as we have seen, upon having charters w^hich would give them certain definite rights, ending at last in their freedom from the control of men who had practically owned the town. The serfs, also, shared in the advance of popular rights. For as there came to be more trade and more money as well; the serfs could pay for the use of the land in money rather than in personal service and in produce. Thus they became free laborers, and in time many came to ow^n their own land. We have already spoken of the vast empire of Charle- increasing magnC; and of the fact that after his death this empire thrSngs was broken into fragments; or separate kingdoms. But you should know that some of these were veiy large; and furnished the foundation for the building later of great nations, like France and Germany. For the kings of 224 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Taxes take the place of personal service Modern states take the place of feudalism these several countries took into their own hands much of the governing power which in feudal times had been held by the owners of feudal estates. With increase of trade and wealth the King could also get from his subjects money in the form of taxes, instead of the personal service which he had received in feudal days. With this money he could build up and keep in order roads and bridges nec- essary for commerce. He could support a standing army not only to fight for him and to defend his kingdom, but also to help maintain law and order and protect life and property. For this pui-pose the towns and cities gladly paid the government large sums, because their increasing trade and wealth needed that security and pro- tection which only a strong * door-way in the alhambra. the al- «/^v^ + >.r,l ^ ^ J. 11 HAMBRA WAS THE FORTRESS PALACE OP central government could the moorish kings at granada. spain supply. And just as the standing army took the place of the feudal forces, so the national courts took the place of the feudal courts. Thus did feudalism give way, and modern states like France, Germany, England, Spain, and Portugal take its place. 159. The Revival of Learning.— Still another result of the Crusades, brought about largely by changes in com- RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 225 merce and government; was the revival of learning. At The knowi- no time during the Dark Ages had the light of ancient Greeks and learning utterly failed. The monks, you remember, had ^^^ J^tt?^^^ done what they could to keep it burning, and in some places schools had been kept up. But in general the knowledge of the Greeks and Romans had been forgotten in the ignorance, poverty, disorder, and absorption in fighting which pervaded the Dark Ages. Now, however, a rapid change was going on. The The Cm- better order and leisure to think, the growth of com- the revival merce, of tow^ns, of new industries, the knowledge of other °^ learning lands and their arts of living, stimulated thought and the love of travel, and there was a keen desire to recover, or revive, all that had been lost. This the Crusades helped directly to do, for they brought back from the East not only luxuries and comforts, but knowledge and ideas that lifted men to higher living and thinking. At the time the Crusaders were coming into touch where the with the cities of the East, many of which contained a civmzation half-million people each, the Arabian civilization was flo""shed the highest in the world. Of this we probably get the general atmosphere in the life pictures of the ^^ Arabian Nights." We should bear in mind, however, that the people among whom this civilization flourished included more than those living on the eastern shores of the Med- iterranean. For they had spread over the whole coast of northern Africa and nearly all Spain, though in the time of the Crusades they had been driven out of the northern part of Spain. Not only was their commerce extensive, for their caravans went to many countries, and ships carried their merchandise to all parts of the 226 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Universities, libraries, and Greek science world as it was known at that time, but the arts flourished as well. They had beautiful architecture^ which included splendid mosques and palaces. No people has ever excelled them in their fine metal work or in the making of fine fabrics. Moreover, their method of cultivating the land was scientific and their system of irrigation was good. Their learning, also, was advanced. One of their large univer- sities, we are told, was attended by twelve thousand stu- dents. They also had libraries, some of them containing sev- eral hundred thou- sand volumes. In their conquest of much of the Greek Empire they became acquainted with the works of the Greeks and studied earnestly Greek science ; and they added ideas of their own to what they learned. Thus while Europe The great was passing through the Dark Ages, with no knowledge service of the Arabs to of the science of the Greeks, this knowledge was being the world preserved and advanced by the Arabs, who were to give it back again to the West. This was their great service GALLERY OF THE COURT OF LIONS, THE ALHAMBRA RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES 227 to the world. They did not invent many new ways of doing things, but by preserving, improving, and handing down to those who should follow them the knowledge and the arts and sciences which they had learned from other peoples, especially the Greeks, they did their most important w^ork. When the quickening life of the West, therefore, turned a rebirth to the study of ancient works, interest centred not only ° earning in those of the Romans, but of the Greeks as well. This great awakening had its beginning in Italy, where the old learning had never really died out, and where the wealth and independence of the cities gave the new move- ment great power. It ushered in a period of literature, art, and science, which was one of the most brilliant the world has known; for it w^as not only a revival of pagan learning, but a lebirth, as it was called, of learning in the Christian world. 1 60. The Crusades a Turning-Point in History. — All The these changes — the enlargement of commerce, the growth and^grea^t of towns, the breaking down of feudahsm, the building ^^^^g^s up of modern nations with strong central governments, the revival of learning — ^w^ere not created by the Cru- sades nor completed by them; but the Crusades gave a wonderful impulse to changes already begun and greatly hastened their progress. They were a great common movement affecting all The Europe, and were shared in by all nations and by people jn?dern^Ufe of every rank. With the Crusades the period of isolation largely passed away. All peoples were moved by similar motives, desires, hopes, and interests, and there was brought about such a unity in the Christian world as had 228 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE not before existed. With the growth of common inter- ests and national feehng, modern hfe had begun. The Crusades were therefore a turning-point in histoiy. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Two marked results of the Crusades were seen in a rapidly Increasing fondness for travel and in the marvellous growth of trade. 2. Venice, Genoa, and other Italian cities acquired vast wealth from this trade with the East. 3. The growth in commerce brought about the breaking down of feudalism. 4. Another result of the Crusades was the revival of learning. 5. With the growth of common interests and national feeling which were developed by the Crusades modern life began. Hence the Crusades were a turning- point in history. TO THE PUPIL 1. Be sure that you know clearly what were the two most marked results of the Crusades. 2. Do you understand why there came to be an ever-increasing trade between Europe and the East? 3. Tell what you can about the following: Overland routes; fairs; the peddler and his pack; trade in northern Europe. 4. What was learned from the East and from the Moors? 5. In what ways did the growth of commerce help to break down feu- dalism? 6. What is meant by the revival of learning ? 7. What was the great service of the Arabs to the world ? 8. Can you tell in your own language in what ways the Crusades were a turning-point in history? THE DISCOVERY OF THE WESTERN WORLD CHAPTER XXI COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA i6i. The Love of Travel. — We have already referred to love of travel as one of the marked results of the Crusades. It was due in part to the wide spread of com- merce and in part to the general awakening of people's minds through the revival of learning. Men became specially eager to know more of the Far East and to profit by its riches. Even before the Crusades ended, European travellers began to make extensive explorations in Asia. 162. Marco Polo and His Travels. — ^The most famous Marco Polo to us of these travellers was Marco Polo, a ^^enetian, *^ though there were many others nearly as well known at the time. Toward the end of the thirteenth centuiy, he went with his father and uncle — who had been mer- chants of Venice, but had been driven by accident to live in China — to the court of Kublai Khan, the ruler of the Mongols at Peking. While there, Marco learned the languages of the empire, and the Khan, taking him into his service, sent him on many important missions through China and other parts of Asia. After dwelling seventeen years wdth the Mongols, the The home- Polos started for home. Putting to sea at a port near of the Polos 229 MARCO POLO 230 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE accounts of his travels The three trade routes Peking, they sailed south to Sumatra, past southern India and up the Persian Gulf to the Euphrates River, and thence overland on their way to Venice. A few years after his return, Marco Polo gave to the world an account of his travels and of what he had heard of the Marco Polo's countries and islands of the Far East. Wonderful were his tales of golden palaces, of beautiful rivers crossed by marble bridges, and of countless treasures of gold, sil- ver, and jewels. Although much that he said was mis- taken, and the whole added Httle or nothing to men's knowledge of geography, yet, with what other travel- lers wrote, it increased the interest in those distant lands. 163. The Trade Routes of Genoa and Venice with the East. — The glowing and romantic accounts of the East appealed to men not only because of their novelty, but because of the wealth which merchants were heaping up from extensive trade with that region. This trade was carried on mainly over three routes: one through the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea, and Constantinople; another through the Persian Gulf and the Euphrates valley to Antioch; and a third through the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea. All these routes by which goods were brought from India, China, Japan, and other Oriental countries led to Genoa and Venice, the two great rivals in the com- merce of western Europe. The overland part of the journey was made by cara- vans. Many traders would band together to protect themselves from robbers, and to help one another in getting such necessaries as pro\dsions and water. This was done because for long distances there were no settled Why cara- vans were necessary COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 231 governments or none strong enough to protect travellers, no roadS; and no inns to afford shelter. Even now in western Asia merchandise is carried largely The by caravans. Camels are generall}' used to transport ^^''^^^^ hea\y goods, especially when the route stretches over veiy dry, level, and sandy regions. The camels, which A SECTION OF A CARAVAN. THE CAMELS HAVE BEEN UNLOADED AND ARE RESTING in a single caravan number from forty to one thousand, walk in single file, forty or more harnessed together, ropes made of liair connecting one beast with another. The leader wears bells, and is gayly decked with trappings and tassels of various colors, while in advance of the long line walks an unladen ass, either for good-luck or as a guide. If the pathway is steep and rocky, mules and asses are used instead of camels to carry the burdens. 164. The Great Commercial Problem. — ^At the best. The Turks these routes were always costly and dangerous; but when overland in 1453 the Turks captured Constantinople, the route ^^"^^^ through the Black Sea was cut off altogether. This 232 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE was a great blow to Genoa, for she depended almost wholly on the northern route, and at once her commerce began to fall off. Venice, more fortunate than Genoa, still received goods by the southern route through Eg}^t, and reached the height of her commercial power. As the Turks extended their sway over western Asia, the other overland routes were threatened, and even the Mediterranean was made unsafe by Turkish pirates. Portugal and This all happened at a time when there was an increas- ttie^cean^ ing demand for Eastern goods, and the rising nations route Qf Europe were most eager for a share in the trade. The great commercial problem, then, was to find an ocean route to India, China, and Japan, and thus escape the dangers of the overland traffic. Portugal and Spain, being the most powerful maritime nations of that time, • naturally took the lead in the search for this all-water route; and Prince Henr}- of Portugal, now called ^^The Navigator," did more than any other man, perhaps, to further the movement. Belief of 1 65. Prince Henry and the All-Water Route. — Portu- geographers guese sea-captains had already, in their encounters with the Moors, begun to make some headway down the western coast of Africa, and Prince Henr}^ set in motion means which would encourage them to venture farther. For it was the belief of many that India could be reached in this way, although some eminent geographers thought that Africa extended so far to the south that it was im- possible to reach Asia by sailing in that direction. But no one could be certain until the trial was made, and in that day it recjuired much faith and courage to put the matter to the test. COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 233 PRINCE HB-NRY Sailors were afraid to venture out into the ''Sea of why sailors Darkness/' as the Atlantic was called. They believed venture °oa that in it were terrible monsters waiting to devour ^^rkness^ them; that in the region of the equator was a belt of fire, and that the water there was steaming hot. But Prince Henry undertook the task of finding out all that was possible about these unknown re- gions. He started a school, where he gathered about him able teachers and seamen who wished to learn the art of navigation. He also sent out captain after captain, each of whom ventured a little farther than those who had gone before. All of these men were moved by Prince Slow Heniy's daring spirit, but the progress p^°^^^^^ was slow. At the time of his death, 1463, only about one-fourth of the distance to the southern coast of Africa had been explored. But even though that wise and noble prince did not win the prize he sought, those who came after him profited by his labors. i66. The Famous Voyage of Diaz. — The man who A stormy finally reached the most southern point of Africa was ^^^^^^ Bartholomew Diaz. In August, 14S6, he started out on a voyage which was to make him famous. After sailing nearly four hundred miles south of the tropic of Capri- corn, his vessels were blown by hea\y winds steadily southward for thirteen days, during which he saw no land. At the end of this time he sailed directly eastward, expecting, of course, that he would reach the coast. But, since he was south of the most southern point of Africa, this did not happen. 234 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The return to Lisbon He therefore steered his course northward, and came to a landing more than two hundred miles east of the Cape of Good Hope. From that point he sailed about four hundred miles farther east; when his men stub- VESSELS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY Good Hope bornly refused to continue the voyage. He was obliged, therefore, to turn homeward. On his w^ay back to Lisbon, which he reached in December, 1487, he saw the head- The Cape of land of southem Africa. This he called the Cape of Storms; but the King was so pleased with the good news of the discover}^ that he said, ^^It shall be called not the Cape of Storms, but the Cape of Good Hope." And he was right, for the promise of the opening of an all- water route filled the Portuguese with ^^good hope" foi the future. 167. Columbus and His Plans. — But Portugal was not alone in the search for an ocean route to India, China, and Japan. Spain, as w^e have already said, was also seeking the same goal, and the man through whom she achieved success was Christopher Columbus. Spain in search of the ocean route COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 235 CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS Let us acquaint ourselves with him more closely and Coiumbus follow some of his adventures. He was an Italian, born ^^ ^^ °^ in Genoa. After he had followed the sea from boyhood and become a distinguished mariner and sea-fighter, we find him at the age of thirty-five or thereabouts in Lisbon, where he was then making his home. Here lived his brother Bartholomew, who had been with Diaz on his famous voyage of discover}^, and here were many sailors also. From them he must have learned .about the voyages which the Portuguese had been making in their at- tempt to round the southern point of Af- rica; indeed; some believe that he may have been on some of these voyages himself. But Columbus felt sure that there was a shorter way His plan of to India than the route around Africa. It had alread}^ indL by become known that there was water to the east of Asia; ^^*®^ and since there was water to the west of Europe, and the earth was round, which he believed with many geogra- phers of his day, he reasoned that by sailing directly across the Atlantic Ocean he could reach India. The more he pondered over this scheme, the more he longed to carry it out. At length he laid his plan before King John of Portugal. The King listened, but would not agree to give aid. Having failed to gain support from the King of Portu- Columbus gal, Columbus started for the court of Spain. He found hearing it no easy matter to get a hearing, however; for the King and Queen, Ferdinand and Isabella, were engaged in war with the Moors, whom they were driving out of Spain. 236 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The war between the Spaniards and the Moors The Moors driven out of Spain Columbus gets a hearing This war had been going on at intervals for centuries. Spain had been so occupied with it that she had taken no part in the Crusades. It was, in fact, a crusade within her own borders, for the Moors were a part of the great ^Mohammedan world to w^hich the Arabians and Turks also belonged. They had the same high civili- zation and culture as the Arabians, and a powerful government. But the Spaniards at last captured their beautiful cit}^ of Granada and defeated them in battle. A little more than a centur}^ later, under Philip II, of whom we shall hear TABLET MARKING THK HOUSE IN GENOA WHERE ag^lU, the AlOOrS WCrC CHRISTOPHER COLCMBUS WAS BORN en' rm Griven out oi Spam. I he Spaniards believed they were ridding the count r}^ cf heathen hordes; but in driving out the Moors, who were more highly civilized than themselves, they lost much of their prosperity and glor}', which they have never since regained. i68. Columbus Gets an Opportunity to Carry Out His Plan. — \Mien at length Columbus obtained the hear- ing which he had patiently sought for seven long years, the King and Queen still kept him waiting for an answer. Some of their advisers reported unfavorably, while others reported the scheme as perfectly sound. Ferdinand COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 237 was absorbed in the war. But Isabella was interested because it was the purpose of Columbus to devote the wealth he should obtain to a great crusade to the Holy Land; and this was to be made in the name of Spain. lATien the war drew to a close, Columbus was given COLUMBUS AT THE COURT OF KING FERDINAND AND QUEEN ISABELLA another hearing. But he demanded so much for his sendees as leader of the expedition that no agreement w^as reached. Much displeased, he left the Queen's pres- ence, and in despair started off to seek aid in France. On his way out of the countr}^ he stopped at the Con- Columbus vent of St. MsLiy, and there talked over his plans with men and the prior. The prior was so deeply impressed that he ^^^^^^^ wrote at once to Queen Isabella, with whom he had influence, and she summoned Columbus back to court. This time she promised men and vessels for the expedi- 17 238 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE How Columbus looked The Northmen voyage westward THE CONVENT OF ST. MARY, NEAR PALOS, WHERE COLUMBUS STOPPED tion. At last he was to have an opportunity to carry out the plan which he had cherished for so many years. History tells us that Columbus at that time was a fine-looking man — tall, strong; and well formed. He had a noble face, with keen blue eyes. His hair, al- ready white, fell in long locks about his shoulders; and although plainly dressed, his courteous manner made him pleasing to all whom he met. 169. The Voyages of the Northmen. — Before taking up the story of this voyage, let us pause to notice some other voyages that had already been made across the Atlantic far to the north. Long before this time, proba- bly in the tenth or eleventh centur}^, when the Vikings w^ere attacking England, other Northmen had voyaged w e s t - ward. Hardy sail- ors from Non\^ay came at that time to Iceland and Greenland. BOOM OCCUPIED BY COLUMBUS IN THE CONVENT OF ST. MARY O < Z iZ ?5 z a O n (M fii 9 < n GO w Ph S o < <; 2 < m a: O IE < Fh U H m H O O Q O « 111 » 05 CO 240 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Leif Ericsson on the coast of Labrador Leif's brother in Vinland The Northmen's discovery not important The sailors afraid to go The three vessels Some of these daring explorers reached America. The first was Leif Ericsson, who, in the year 1000, with five hundred and thirty men, touched upon the coast of Labrador. The chronicles of Iceland call the countn^ Vinland, from the wine his company was said to have made there. In the spring he went back to Greenland with a load of timber. The following year Leif's brother sailed to Vinland, where he passed two winters. In later years other Northmen visited the coast, but none remained long, for the natives wxre unfriendlv and attacked them, \\i\- land, therefore, w^as soon forgotten. This discoveiy was not important, for no colony was planted and no attempt made to follow up the discoveiy. Besides, Vinland was supposed to be an island off in the unknown northern sea; and when Columbus set sail on his first great voyage of discover}^, no one thought of that island any more than of any other lost island thou- sands of. miles away. 170. The Trials of Columbus. — Returning to the stoiy of Columbus, we find that in his struggle to gain the support of the Queen, and even when he was ready to sail, his trials had only begun; for the sailors were afraid to go, and it v/as difficult to find a company of men who would venture on the Sea of Darkness out of sight of land. In course of time, however, three small vessels with one hundred and twenty men were ready to start. The ves- sels were not larger than many of the fishing-boats of to- day. The flagship was called the Santa Maria, and the other two were the Pinta and the Nina. ' COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 241 A half-hour before sunrise on Friday mornings August a sorrowful 3, 1492, the httle fleet sailed from the port of Palos, It ^"^^ was a sorrowful time for the poor sailors and their friends. All believed that the vessels would certainly be lost and DEPARTURE OF COLUMBUS FROM PALOS each other that the sailors would never again see home and friends. When J on September 6, they were out of sight of land, the sailors wept like children. Fears chased each other in quick succession. The ships Fears chase had not sailed far before the compass needle no longer pointed to the north star. This distressed the sailors. A few days later they entered a vast stretch of sea-weed. On every side, almost as far as the eye could reach, the w^ater was covered with a green carpet of weeds and grass. They feared the vessels would stick fast in this grass, or run upon rocks lying just below the surface of the sea, and that they themselves would be shipwrecked. But the wind blew up a little stronger, and the vessels passed on in safety. 242 AMEKICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Columbus's life in danger The landing of Columbus Columbus thinks he is in the East Indies The people welcome Colimibus Tliis danger over, others loomed up. They entered the belt of trade T\inds which blew them steadily- westward. "We are lost!" the sailors cried. "We can never see om' friends agam. " They begged Columbus to turn about and steer for home. He refused. TheA^ became angn'. Thev called him crazv and threatened his hfe. It was planned to push him overboard some night wheii he was looking at the stars. Columbus knew that his hfe was m danger; but the greater the peril, the more firmly he set himself to meet it TNith a strong ^ill and high pmpose. 171. The Discovery of Land. — At length, after ten weeks of wear}' sailing, about two o'clock on the morning of October 12, land was sighted not far away. This was an island of the Bahama group. Early in the morning boats were lowered and even'bodv went ashore. Colum- bus, dressed in a rich robe of bright scarlet, bore aloft the royal standard. Upon reaching the shore, he knelt, kissed the earth, gave thanks to God for the safe A^oyage. and took possession of the land in the name of King Fer- dinand and Queen Isabella. Columbus called the island on which he landed San Salvador, which means Holy Sa\dour. Continuing his voyage, he sailed along the coast of Cuba and Ha}!!. He thought this was Japan and the East Indies, and was therefore on the lookout for the cities where he expected to find the gold, spices, and precious stones which he so eagerly sought. He called the natives Indians, or the people of the Indies. 172. Columbus Returns to Spain. — Ha\ing built a small fort on the island which he named Hispaniola COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 243 (Hayti); he left there forty men as the first Spanish colony in the New World; and sailed for Spain. After a stormy vovao-e, he cast anchor in the harbor of Palos about the middle of ]\Iarch; 1493. Great was the joy COLrTiIBUS TAKING POSSESSION OF THE LAND IN THE NAME OF KING FERDINAND ANT> QUEEN ISABELLA of the people that day. They stopped all business to give their welcome to the man who had won success for himself and Spain. His praise was now on even' man's lips. He was summoned to Barcelona to attend the court. The "idle AMien he entered the presence of King Ferdinand and nowT^eat Queen Isabella, they honored him by rising, and when ^^ he knelt to kiss their hands, they commanded him to rise and sit with them as an eciual. The '^idle dreamer" was now one of the great men of Spain. Ever}'body 244 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE was eager to share his honor and his fame. There was no longer any difficulty in getting men to join him, for all imagined that they would return with great wealth. THE TRIUMPHAL ENTRY OF COLUMBUS INTO BARCELONA Columbus plans to found a colony Bis first colony lost 173. Columbus Makes a Second Voyage. — AMien he sailed again, in September, 1493, he had with him a fleet of seventeen vessels and fifteen hundred men, including many from the best families in Spain. As Columbus planned to found a colony, he took with him on this expedition not only horses, mules, and cattle, but vines, vegetables, and many kinds of seeds. He expected to find the men he had left the winter before in Hispaniola; but on reaching the place where the COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA 245 colony had been, there was no one to welcome him. Not one of the forty men remained; the fort had been torn down and the remnant of food destroyed. A new site was chosen for settlement, and a little coiumbus town, called Isabella in honor of the Queen, was built ^" ^^^^^^^ and surrounded with a wall. After a time Columbus started out to explore the new country. But trouble met him on every hand. The Indians were not always friendly, and his own men were often unwilling to obey him. At the end of three years he sailed back to Spain, leaving the settlement in a wretched condition. The voyage was a long and tr}dng one. All the food on board was used up, and he and his men were almost starved when at last they reached home. Columbus received a kindly welcome at court, and was told that he should have more ships for another voyage. But en- thusiasm had died out, and other things caused delay. 174. The Third Voyage. — It was not until 1498 that Columbus he set sail on the third voyage. This time he landed thrnorth^^ on an island which he called Trinidad, and coasted along; ^^°^^ °^ . ^ * South the northern shore 01 South America. But when he re- America turned to the little town he had built on his preceding voyage he found things were going badly. Trouble had arisen with the Indians and more serious difficulties among the settlers themselves. For two long years Columbus tried to make things Many people right, but he was not successful. Many people were coiuSbus^^ beginning to lose faith in him, because they did not get the wealth they had supposed they would find by join- ing in his expeditions. Others were jealous of him and made plans for his ruin. 246 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE " Admiral of Mosquito Land " Columbus in chains The belief that the world is roimd Meantime Vasco da Gama, of whom we shall speak later, had returned from his famous voyage to India with some of the real wealth of the Far East. He had sailed under the Portuguese flag and had succeeded in getting what the Spaniards sought. To their minds Columbus had miserably failed, and they called him the ^^ Admiral of Mosquito Land.'^ At length an officer was sent from Spain to examine into the affairs of the colony. He was unfriendly, and when he reached the settlement he put Columbus in chains and sent him back to Spain in dishonor. Colum- bus, however, still held the favor of his sovereigns, who sent him on another voyage of discover}^ 175. The Last Voyage of Columbus. — In 1502 he sailed on his fourth voyage, coasting along the eastern shore of Central America. But he was not able to accom- plish much, and was at last shipwrecked on the island of Jamaica, where he spent a long year of hardship and misery. Finally he sailed for Spain, where he arrived but .a short time before Queen Isabella, his only pro- tector, died. For eighteen months he Hved broken in health and cast down in spirit. On May 20, 1506, he died, not knowing that he had discovered the New AVorid. 176. The Greatness of Columbus. — Columbus was one of the great men of histoiy and one of the most remarkable of his time. He was not alone in believing that the earth was round ; for that w^as believed by the wise men of his day, who had their knowledge from the Greeks. It was one of the scientific truths that had been spreading with the revival of learning. 248 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The worthy But his greatness lay in the fact that he had the daring Columbus^ spirit and self-rehance; with the trained seaman's skill and the power of command; to make his belief practical. He was willing to face the danger and the hardship of an uncharted voyage on an miknown sea. And his motive was for the advance of science and the good of the church. It was his purpose to lead a crusade to the Holy Sepulchre with the wealth he should obtain in the new-found lands. But he died poor, not knowing even the grandeur of his great discover}^ It was a glorious fuMnlent of the new spirit of exploration. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The reports of European travellers increased the interest of the people in the Far East. 2. The three overland routes by which goods were brought from the Far East led to Genoa and Venice. 3. When the Turks cut off the northern route, and threatened the other two, the great commercial problem was to find an ocean route to India, China, and Japan. 4. Diaz, by sailing east, discovered the Cape of Good Hope in 1487. 5. Columbus, in trying to reach India by sailing west, discovered the New World in 1492. But he thought he had reached the Indies. TO THE PUPIL 1. How did travellers increase interest in the far-oflF lands ? 2. Why was it necessary for the rising nations of Europe to find an ocean route to the Far East ? 3. Who was Diaz and what did he accomplish ? 4. What was the great plan of Columbus ? 5. Tell what you can about his difficulties in getting help to carry out his plan. 6. Imagine yourself with Columbus on his first voyage and give an account of his trials. What do you admire in him ? 7. Trace on the map his voyages and also that of Diaz. 8. Do you see clearly how trade with the East led to the discovery of America ? THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 249 CHAPTER XXII THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 177. Americus Vespucius and the Naming of America. The — From what you have learned in the preceding chapter, Vespudus^ yon would naturally expect that the New World would be named after Columbus. The reason why it was not can be told in a few words. After Colum- bus had led the way, there were many ex- plorers who sailed for the West. Among them was Americus Vespucius^ a native of Florence. How many voyages he made and just when he made them we do not know. But some believe that one was made in 1501-2, w^hen he skirted the coast of Brazil and perhaps a part of the eastern coast of South America to the south of Brazil. At all events he WTote lettei^ describing what he said he had seen in his V03- aging, and his description was the first printed account of the main-land of the New World. Up to that time Europe, Asia, and Africa wxre known The as the three parts of the world, and it was believed that to the south there might be another unknown continent ft which would make a fourth part. As Americus Vespu- cius called the land which he described ^^The New World,'' meaning by this the fourth part, some geographers be- lieved that he had proved its existence. In a treatise on geography published a few years later, it was suggested, therefore, that this fourth part should be called '^Arper- AMERICUS VESPUCIUS 250 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE ica/' after Americus Vespucius. Accordingly , the name was given first to Brazil^ later to South America; and finally to all of the New World. 178. A Boundary Line Agreed Upon. — As an outcome of the discoveries of Columbus in the West and of Portu- guese sea-captains in the East; there was fear that trouble might arise between Spain and Portugal over the new- found lands. To make clear; therefore; what part of these lands each of the two countries might properly claim ; in 1493 a boundary line was set by Pope Alexander VI, which in the following year was somewhat changed by a treaty. According to the boundaiy agreed upon, east of the line the Portuguese were to have the right in the future to make voyages along the coast of Africa and onward to the east; while SpaiU; sailing to the west of the linC; was to be free to explore and colonize the heathen lands in that part of the world. 179. John Cabot Discovers the Main-Land of North America. — No one had any doubt that the navies of Spain and Portugal would be able to defend their claims, espe- cially since no other countiy as yet had made discoveries in the new lands. John Cabot Even at the time when Columbus sailed on his first voy- age, however; a sea-captain of England was planning to sail westward in search of the Indies. This was John Cabot; a Venetian merchant and mariner li\4ng in Bristol. He had been on many voyages and had spent some time in Mecca (Arabia), where he had seen many caravans laden with the wealth of the East. He was interested in the trade with these countries, and now sought to reach them by a water route. THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 251 SEBASTIAN CABOT Bristol was one of the chief English seaports, where Cabot news of the recent explorations of Portugal and Spain was prtent^from probably talked over among the sea-captains. Doubtless *^^ ^--s some among them had made short voyages of exploration to the west; and the first voyage of Columbus, w^e are told, gave Cabot "a great flame of desire to attempt some notable thing.'' He therefore ob- tained a patent from King Henrv^ Yll, allowing him to go on a ^Sw- age of discovery and trade with un- known countries bevond the sea." It was not until May, 1497, how- exer, nearly five years after the first voyage of Columbus, that Cabot sailed, with only one small ship and eighteen men, principally of Bristol. Hold- He lands on ing his course westerly, he landed on the coast of Labra- Labrador ^^ dor. Here he raised the flag of England and set up a large cross. He then sailed south for about three hundred leagues, including probabh^ a voyage through and around the Gulf of St. Lawrence. But he saw no human beings. He was the first navigator to reach the main-land of The Great North America, for Columbus did not touch the continent ^^""^^^ until 1498. On Cabot's return to England he found him- self a hero, and was called the Great Admiral. Honors were showered upon him, and with much dignity the sim- ple sea-captain now went about dressed in fine silks like the gentlemen of his day. He believed he had reached the empire of the Great Khan, and that if he sailed far- ther south he would reach the land of spices. 252 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The second voyage Why England claimed the continent later The work of Portuguese sea-captains This belief; together with his tales of wonderful fishing grounds where the fish were so numerous that his vessels found it difficult to get through, excited much in- terest; and the King granted him a new patent. The fol- lowing year, with five or six shipS; he made another voy- age, his son Sebastian per- haps being with him. We know nothing of this expedi- tion, but from what was put into the maps just afterward it seems likel}^ that the fleet sailed along the coast of New England and possibly as far south as Florida. For a long time the Eng- lish thought veiy little about the discoveiy. They honored Cabot as a sea-captain, yet his voyages meant little to them, for he had not brought back any rich products from the Far East. Yery soon America came to be regarded merely as a barrier block- ing the way to Asia. Upon these discoveries of John Cabot, however, England later based her claims to the continent when it was recognized as such. i8o. Vasco da Gama Reaches India by an All- Water Route. — ^The year after Cabot discovered the main-land of North America and thus gave the English a footing in the New World, Vasco da Gama reached India by an all- water route around Africa, and thus opened the way for ="3^-^%H^^Ji^i^:^iVi:.-^ ST. John's gate, Bristol, England. a landmark contemporary with Cabot's residence in Bristol 18 254 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Da Gama reaches Hindustan Da Gama's return to Lisbon Portuguese trade in the East. For seventy years Portu- guese sea-captains — a part of the time under the guidance of Prince Heniy, as we have seen — had been slowh^ but surely making their way down the west coast of Africa. In the summer of 1497^ Vasco da Gama was sent by the King of Portugal over the same route to make explora- tions and get spices. - His journal gives some interesting details of the voyage. They landed in southern Africa^ where they gave the na- tives little round bells and red caps in exchange for ivoiy bracelets; and; having erected a cross and pillar; they sailed away. After failing several times on account of storms^ they finall}^ rounded the Cape of Good Hope and continued the voyage eastward. At Mozambique they stopped again and found Mohammedan merchants, who had captives from India. This cheered Da Gama and his companions; for it seemed that they must be nearing India itself — the countrv thev sou";ht. Finalh' in Mav, 1498; they reached Calicut; on the eastern coast of Hindu- stan. Here they were received in state by the King, but had some trouble with Moorish merchants. At last the King gave them a letter to the King of Portugal; and they sailed for home richly laden with Eastern goods. Many died on the way; but those who reached Lisbon (August; 1499) received a great welcome; and Da Gama was given a triumphal entr}^ He brought back with him a rich cargo of silkS; damask robes with satin lin- ingS; and jewels, together with cinnamoU; cloves, ginger; nutmeg; pepper; and other spices. The all-water route to the Far East from Europe was at last found. This voyage of Da Gama, opening up a profitable trade with THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 255 the East; was in marked contrast with the meagre re- turnS; as people thought then, of the voyages of Colum- bus undertaken for the same purpose. Its results were far-reaching. As soon as the Portu- Results of guese established their trade over this new route, goods ^ ^oy^g© could be brought to Europe more cheaply than by the overland routes, and of coui-se prices fell. Italian cities lost their prosperity and Venice gave place to Lisbon as the collecting and distributing centre of Europe. Trade passed from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic coast, and, as we shall see later, gradually shifted north- ward. i8i. Balboa Discovers the Pacific. — Portuguese ex- Balboa plorei*s continued sailing eastward by way of Africa, and Spanish explores westward by way of the Atlantic. And while the Spaniards failed to find the wealth of the Indies, their search led to the discoveiy of riches of another kind — the discoveiy of gold. On the Isthmus of Panama, joining North and South America, were several Spanish posts where a number cf adventurei's were exploring the region for gold. Among them was Vasco Nuiiez de Balboa. He had heard from an Indian chief that be- yond the mountains was a great sea, and that far to the south was a country rich in gold. The Indians knew that the Spaniards were greedy for this precious metal, and, as was the case with all the tribes, they told what they believed would please the strangers. BALBOA 256 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Magellan's plan The On September 1; 1513; Balboa set out with about two the^Pacmc^^ hundred men^ several hundred Indian porters^ and dogs on an exploring expedition. Early on a September morn- ings ha^ang climbed the mountains on his way across the isthmuS; he beheld for the first time the Pacific Ocean. In wonder he gazed upon the vast ex- panse stretching far away to the horizon. Four days later his company reached the coast. Bal- boa waited for the rising tidC; and then, rushing "iJ-'irst seen by NnSez de Balboa lolH) BALBOA S ROUTE AND THE DISCOVERY OF THE PACIFIC OCEAN into the advancing bil- lows with a flourish of his sword; he took possession in the name of the King and Queen of Spain. He named it the South Sea. 182. The Wonderful Voyage of Magellan. — Balboa not only discovered the ocean^ but in doing so led the way in finding out that the land discovered by Columbus was not Asia after all; but a separate continent. It still re- mained to be proved whether; as Columbus believed; the land of silks and spices could be reached by sailing west. The honor of doing this belongs to Ferdinand Magellan. He was a Portuguese captain who had made a vo}^age to the Far East around the Cape of Good Hope; but he believed by sailing west the route would be shorter. His plan was to find a passage or strait in America through which he might sail; for it was now the common belief that America extended to the south pole but was cut THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 257 in two by one or more channels of the ocean. When he asked aid of his King and was refused^ he entered the service of the Spanish King; and started on his famous voyage of discovery. With a fleet of five old vessels, manned by two hundred a trying and eighty men, on September 20, 1519, he put to sea. ®^p®"®°^*^ Many troubles awaited him. Four days after the fleet left port a small vessel overtook the flag-ship with this message from the father of Magellan's wife: ^^Be watch- ful. Some of your captains have said that if you give them trouble they will kill you." ^^Be of good cheer," was Magellan's answer, ^^for be they true men or false I fear them not." It was not long before severe storms and scarcity of food and water bred a spirit of mutiny among the sullen sailors. Four months passed before the fleet reached the A sheltered mouth of La Plata River. There Magellan spent three weeks in finding out that it was not a strait. It took an- other two months amid ceaseless and furious storms to skirt the coast of Patagonia. Then, on the last day of March, six months after leaving the home port, he found a well-sheltered harbor, where he anchored. Here was enjoyed a plentiful supply of fish. But the sailors were disheartened. There was little The bread and wine left, and no hope of getting more. They Magellan begged Alagellan to return. He stubbornly refused. Then open mutiny broke out. He sternly put it down. A little later one of the vessels was wrecked; but even in the face of this discouragement, amid violent storms, he pushed on. To Magellan, dangers and hardships were matters of small concern. 258 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The Strait of At length his fleet entered the passage of water which we ^^^ ^^ now call the Strait of Magellan. From this place one of the ships stole away for Spain. Again the sailors on the Photograx>h by L'tnn icoiiit and I'nderirood, Xeiv York THE STRAIT OF MAGELLAN The Pacific Ocean Magellan slain three remaining vessels begged to return home. ^^I will go on/' was IVIagellan's stern answer^ '^if we have to eat the leather ofT the ship's yards." Still heading westward; they began the long, wesiry vo}'- age across the vast expanse of water which Balboa some years before had called the South Sea. Magellan; how- ever; pleased with its peaceful waters, named it the Pacific Ocean. But although the ocean was calm, Magellan's troubles w^ere not over. The worst even was yet to come. Famine; scur\y; and death followed. Strong men grew sick at heart. The survivors kept alive only by eating the skins and leather bound about the great ropes of the ship. Thus were the words of Magellan made true. At last the Philippine Islands were reached. Here they landed. Magellan converted a native chief to Christi- anity; and; joining in a battle against one of the chief's THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS 259 heathen enemies^ was slain. Those of his men who were left lifted anchor and steered their course homeward. It was still a long voyage; and not until September 6, 1522^ nearly three years after leaving Spain^ did they arrive at the home port. The one vessel which returned was manned by eighteen starving sailors, who were little more than staggering skeletons. This was the greatest voyage that had ever been made. It proved beyond doubt that the earth was round. More- over, the question in men's minds whether the land dis_- covered by Columbus was really the East Indies, as he supposed, w^as also answ^ered. America, men were now sure, was a new continent. 183. Cartier in the St. Lawrence. — While these explo- rations and discoveries w^ere being made by mariners of Portugal, Spain, and England, France was absorbed in strengthening herself wdthin her own bor- ders. Doubtless her fishermen joined those of other nations on the banks of Newfound- land, but not until 1534 did France send out any explorers to the New World.* In that year Francis sent Jacques Cartier, an expert Norman navigator, to find a north- west passage to China. This able seaman coasted along the shores of Newfoundland and Labrador, entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and * In 1524, Francis I planned a voyage under an Italian, Giovanni Ver- razano; and an alleged letter from him to Francis, reporting the voyage and the discovery of the Hudson River, was published many years later. But there is no proof that the voyage was ever taken, or that the letter was ever written; and the contents of the letter make the voyage im- probable. A single vessel reaches the home port A great voyage H Cartier enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence CARTIER 260 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE returned to France with a full report of what he had Cartier lands at Stadacona and Hochelaga The French and the Indians The French fail to plant a colony seen. The following year he made another voyage^ this time sailing up the St. Lawrence^ which he believed to be the passage he was seeking. He landed at the little Indian village of Stadacona^ where Quebec now stands, and was warned by the Indians not to go farther on account of snow^S; tempests, and floating ice. But he refused to be turned from his purpose. On his w^ay upstream he came to another Indian village, Hochelaga, on an island. It had fifty houses strongly defended by a palisade. To-day we call the place Montreal. Here a thousand Indians thronged the shore, eager to welcome the pale-faced strangers. They danced and sang and heaped the boats with gifts of fish and corn. AVhen Cartier landed with his crew, the scjuaws and children pressed about them and in wonder felt of the men's beards and touched their faces. Then the warriors, squatting in a circle about the new-comers, had their sick chief brought to Cartier to be healed by his touch. To the steep hill behind the village Cartier gave the name Montreal, which means ro}^al mountain. After a brief stay the French returned to Quebec. There they spent a terrible winter. Twenty-five of their number died. At one time only three or four w^ere w^ell enough to nurse the sick. As the ground was frozen so hard that they could not dig graves, they hid the bodies of their dead in the great snow-drifts. After a winter of great distress and suffering Cartier returned to France. Five years later he made a second attempt to plant a colony at Quebec, but failed. THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 261 THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. America received its name from Americus Vespucius. 2. John Cabot was the first navigator to reach the main-land of North America (1497). 3. Vasco da Gama was the first sea-captain to reach India by an all-water route (1498). 4. Balboa discovered the Pacific (1513). 5. Magellan in a wonderful voyage proved that the earth was round and that America was a new continent (1519-22). 6. Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence as far as the site of IMontreal (1534). TO THE PUPIL 1. Do you think America should have been named after Columbus? Give reasons for your answer. 2. What did the following men accomplish : John Cabot, Vasco da Gama, Balboa, Magellan, and Cartier? 3. In imagination go with Vasco da Gama, Magellan, and Cartier, and give an account of your experiences. 4. What do you like about Magellan ? 5. In what ways does he resemble Columbus ? 6. Trace on your map all the voyages described in this chapter. CHAPTER XXIII THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 184. Hernando Cortez and His Expedition to Mexico. — Twelve years after Columbus made his first voyage, a young Spaniard of nineteen sailed on one of the fleets for the New World. Like the men who had voyaged with Columbus, he was filled with a desire to get the gold and precious stones which, it was believed, were to be found in the new land. This young man was Hernando Cortez. After a stormy voyage he landed at Hispaniola. Here cortez in he made himself useful in putting down an Indian revolt, Cuba 262 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE A man of force and daring The Aztecs The huge pueblo and after a few years joined a successful expedition to Cuba, where he hved on a large plantation granted him by the governor. He owned, also, some gold mines, from which in a few years he made a large sum of money. Strong and forceful, of good mind and temper, he won admiration, and men looked to him for leadership. When, therefore, a suitable commander was needed to head an expedition to Mexico, Cortez was chosen. Although his orders were to con- fine himself to exploration, his heart was set on conquest. 185. The March to the Mexican Cap- ital. — He landed on the east coast of ]\Iex- ico in Februaiy, 1519, and with his men marched along the shore, the fleet keeping alongside until they reached a point on the coast where Cortez founded the town of Vera Cruz, which he made his head- quarters. From the natives of that region he learned that they had to pay tribute to a confederacy of three powerful Aztec tribes, whose chief w^as Montezuma. Each of these tribes lived in a huge ^^ pueblo, " or village, consisting of one long building of many rooms, like those of our Pueblo Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, only the pueblos were not built in cliffs. The most powerful of their towns was Tenochtitlan, the Mexican capital, which was situated in the valle}- of Mexico, on an island of a lake. The island was reached from the shore by long causewa3^s. On the same site now stands the mod- ern City of Mexico. CORTEZ THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 263 It was August before Cortez set out on his march The Spanish toward the Mexican capital with four hundred and fifty ?hdr^aiUes^ men and fifteen horses. To the natives the horses were as frightful as the guns and, the cannon, all of which were new and strange to them. At Tlascala, Cortez found a strong tribe which was independent of Montezuma. These natives opposed him savagely at first, but he con- quered them and made friends of them, the more readily as they were enemies of the Aztecs. They were very valuable to him during his campaigns, for they furnished him with a large body of warriors. Indeed, the whole Spanish conc^uest was based on the fact that each native race or tribe hated the others worse than it did the foreigners, . The chief reason why so few Spaniards dared venture amono; so manv thousand foes was because thev were protected by body armor. It was of solid metal and the arrows and spears of the savages could not pierce it. One white man could thus fight a hundred Indians, with little risk beyond that of being unhorsed and beaten to death on the ground. The coming of the pale-faced strangers had caused Montezuma widespread alarm. Montezuma was greatly troubled. For, many years before that tim.e, according to a story which all Mexicans believed, a fair-skinned being, called the Sky God, had been driven out of the countrv^ by the God of Darkness. This Sky God had been their friend, Cortez and and had taught them many things. A^Tien driven awa}' e y o he had said, ^^Some day I shall return, and when I do I shall come with men as fair-skinned as mvself and become the ruler of the country. " 264 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Montezuma believed Cortez to be the Sky God, and therefore he feared him. He sent messengers with gifts of great value — shields^ helmets, and various ornaments of gold. They said the march to Mexico was full of danger. But Cortez was deter- mined to go forward. i86. The Span- The Aztecs hate and fear . , . ,, ■»«- • the Spaniard i^rds in the Mexican Capital. — Seeing this, Montezuma decided not to oppose him. When, therefore, he entered the capital, in November, 1519, it was with an escort provided by Monte- zuma himself. Cortez and his men were given quarters in the council-house near the great temple. This they at once began to fortify and provision; for they knew that the Aztecs hated and feared them, and would destroy them if possible. In order to weaken the power of his enemies, Cortez seized Montezuma and held him and his brother, the next heir to the throne, as hostages. For a while he kept them in chains, although he pretended to treat them as guests. The Aztecs were angry and full of terror for the future. Although they were eager for revenge and for security, yet they were intensely superstitious and dared not act without a king consecrated by their priests. CORTEZ PARADING HIS FOLLOWERS BEFORE THE MESSENGERS FROM MONTEZUMA Montezuma a captive THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 265 When at last; however, they were attacked during a a furious reHgious festival and several hundred of their foremost ^^^^^^ men were killed, a part of them could restrain themselves no longer and fell furi- ously upon the Spaniards. Cortez was awav and did not order or wish the massacre, but upon his return he had to accept its results. During the siege which followed the attack he sent out Mon- tezuma's brother to get supplies. But; instead of carr}dng out the orders of Cortez ; he urged on the Aztec warriors and was at once made their lead- er. Cortez forced Mon- tezuma to go out on the battlement and order the fight- Death of ing stopped; but now that his brother ha^jd become leader of the people Montezuma was regarded as only a private person and the tool of the foreign foe. Making him the target for arrows and stoneS; they wounded him so se- verely that he died soon afterward. After an entire week of desperate fighting; it became Cortez plain to Cortez that he must leave the Mexican capital, but^wi^tii He tried to steal away at night without being discovered ; ^®^^ ^^^^ but the Mexicans were on the watch and attacked the Spaniards. The struggle in the darkness was frightful. Only after desperate fighting did Cortez at last succeed in THE DEATH OF MONTEZUMA 266 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Cortez as an explorer The search for the passage to India C'uautitlar^ making his escape, and then with the loss of much of his army. That night is still called by Spaniards ^^La Noche Triste" — ''The Sorrowful Night." About six months later, however, Cortez with reinforcements and fresh Indian allies returned and laid siege to the IVIexican capital. After a stubborn defence of five months, the Aztecs surrendered (1521). 187. Cortez a Conqueror and Explorer. — This ^dctory, which was a veiy important part of the conquest of IVIexico, brought great honor to Cortez. He was made governor and captain-general of the counti-}', now^ called New Spain. But Cortez was more than a warrior and conqueror. For while busy, looking after the affairs in Mexico, he still found time to es- tablish Spanish settlements at im- portant points in different parts of the countr}\ He also did some val- uable exploring. He fitted out a fleet to explore the Gulf of Mexico, and another to explore the shores of the Pacific. In one of his expeditions on the Pacific coast he discovered the Peninsula of California; and he also tried to discover the strait which, men believed, connected the Atlantic and Pacific. You will remember that only two years before the con- quest of Mexico, Magellan had discovered what is now known as the Strait of Magellan. This was so far to the south, however, that the voyage to the East Indies by that Ormaho Ta^Uhuacan, piateau '^"f, \ o Jcxcuco yL. leicuco Cuemavaca'^'^Kf^^}'}:^;Ch:j(ula .^' linao? CorlezTdefeated c-NuivaezT ■\i;.v Ai^i. (C~^ei landed, April 'Jl, i:.lyi4. - Anahuao ^ :.^ „„, ,z — :,- ^~^Mt^ T x^Si Citlaltepetl ;« UrizabcL^ MAP SHOWING ROUTE OF CORTEZ THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 267 route was too long for practical purposes. Therefore explorers continued for many years their search for the passage through America to the north, as we have already seen in the case of Cartier. In these explorations men were finding out many things of value about the geogra- phy of the New World. i88. Francisco Pizarro and the Conquest of Peru. — Francisco Not many years after the conquest of Mexico by Cortez, another Spaniard; equally daring, carried on a similar campaign against the Incas of Peru. This soldier, who made his name famous, was Francisco Pizarro. He was a resident of Panama, one of the Spanish settlements which had grown up on the isthmus since the discovery of the South Sea by Balboa. Here he owned a house, a farm, and Ind- ian slaves, and was a leading man of the settlement. He had already distinguished himself in conquest ; and full of zeal, he ob- tained permission from the gov- ernor to explore the coast of the South Sea eastward. Returning from this expedi- pizan-o made tion, he brought back reports of ge^^grai'of a wonderful city, Tumbez, with a Peru palace, a temple, and figures of men and animals made of gold. He had with him llamas, fine woollen garments, and vases of gold and silver. Seeking aid from the King, he went to Spain where for what he had done he was made captain-general of Peru, for that was the country he visited. 'mi/ pi '^"ii J%- \. A STREET IN CUZCO, PERU, TO- DAY, SHOWING HOUSES BUILT UPON THE OLD INCA WALLS 268 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Pizarro in Peru The Inca visits Pizarro The Inca seized After a year he returned to the New World with his four brothers and a small band of followers, and in 1531 we find him again in Peru. This time he captured its ruler, the Inca, penetrated to the sacred capital, Cuzco, and made himself the conqueror of Peru very much as Cortez had done in Mexico. The stor}' of the capture and ransom of the Inca wdU give some idea of the way in which the Spaniards won their conquests and heaped up their gold. 189. The Spaniards Seize the Inca. — Upon the ap- proach of Pizarro, the Inca had despatched messengers with gifts and words of wel- come; and Pizarro, on near- ing the capital, sent Her- nando de Soto, a gallant cavalier and trusted captain, with thirtv-five horsemen to in^^te the Inca to visit him. The next daA' the Inca re- turned this A^sit, attended by a large body of follow- ers, who wore quilted cotton doublets, and carried weap- ons including lances and copper-headed clubs, bows, slings, and lassos. The size of the Inca's army disturbed Pizarro, but he gave no sign of fear. He concealed his men in a house near by, however, and sent a priest to meet the Inca. When the Inca approached, the priest addressed him in a long speech, telHng him he must pay tribute, must. THE SPANISH SOLDIERS OF PIZARRO SEIZE THE INCA THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 269 believe in Christ; and must give up the worship of idols. The Inca, not understanding the strange words and manner of the priest, threw the Bible that was handed him upon the ground. At once, by signal; the Spanish soldiers rushed from their hiding-places, seized the Inca, and cut down his followers. 190. Pizarro, the Inca, and the Conquest of Peru. — The ransom The Inca was confined in a room twenty-two feet long and seventeen feet wide. Desiring his freedom; he reached as high as he could on the wall Jind; making a mark; promised to fill the room with gold up to that height; if Pizarro would let him go. The crafty leader agreed. It took six months for the na- tives to collect this vast c|uan- tity of gold and silver; which they gathered in the form of' vaseS; tabletS; ornamentS; and bullion from all over Peru. Finally it was brought together — in value an enormous sum. The grasping Spaniards were of course overjoyed; and The inca for a time they seem to have treated the Inca with with a kindness. But a little later; fearing his power; Pizarro ^ow-strmg brought him to trial; and condemned him to be burned to death unless he declared his belief in Christ. This he did; but nevertheless he was strangled with a bow- string. Pizarro then marched upon CuzcO; the capital, Pizan-o con- and there appointed a new Inca to take the place of the ^"^^^ ^^ 19 THE INCA MAKING THE MARK UPON THE WALL 270 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE DE SOTO De Soto made governor of Cuba A brilliant body of followers one he had cruelly murdered. He had succeeded in his purpose. He had conquered Peru (1533). 191. Hernando de Soto and His Followers. — As one explorer after another returned with glowing accounts of his adventures^ the belief quickly spread that the newly discovered countries were the richest in the world. IVIen were eager to tiy their fortunes^ and each new ex- plorer hoped to surpass the last in getting wealth and gold.* Among this eager number was Hernan- do de Soto. As we have just seen, he was one of Pizarro's trusted captains. It was he that arrested the Inca, but he had no part in his murder. He also shared in the enormous ransom, and from this ex- pedition he had returned to Spain with great wealth and honor. Hoping to find another land as rich as Peru and Mexico, he asked the King of Spain to make him governor of Cuba. This the King did, and also granted him permission to conquer and settle Florida. De Soto easily found men to join his expedition. They sold houses and lands, and in fact all that they had, in order to go. A brilHant com- pany, therefore, soon gathered about him as their leader. There were six hundred in all, including gay nobles and * One was Pamfilo de Narvaez. With four hundred men he anchored in Tampa Bay, Florida (1528.) Marching inland, he found, instead of gold, only a pathless wilderness and unfriendly Indians. Ponce de Leon had discovered this land in the full bloom of an Easter Sunday (1513). He named it Florida from Pascua Florida, the Spanish name for Easter Sunday, the day on which he landed. THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 271 veterans of war. After arriving in Cuba, De Soto spent some time there, and then, leaving his wife to govern the island, set out to explore Florida with five hundred and seventy men and two hundred horses. After a voyage of about two weeks the}' landed at Tampa Bay, upon the western coast of Florida, in May, 1539. 192. Hostile Indians but No Gold. — But soon after De Soto landing their troubles began. The journey was full of i^ians ^^ danger, and the Indians w^ere hostile. From the start De Soto treated them cruell}', for he respected neither their rights nor their property. Everywhere he demanded corn of the chiefs, and forced both braves and scjuaws to carry baggage and do other forms of menial work. Many of the Indians whom he used as porters and guides were enslaved or put to death. De Soto had no feel- ing for their suffering. He thought only of the gold for which he was searching, and was alwa3^s demand- ing that the Indians should tell him where it could be found. Gold he did not find, but his difficulties increased daily. The suffer- There were no roads, and the explorers had to struggle l^^^niard^^ through lakes and streams and marshes, threading their way through dense woods and tangled underbrush, or following when they could the trails of Indians or wild beasts. They suffered almost beyond bearing from swarms of mosquitoes, so fierce that the blood from their stings sometimes streamed off the soldiers' bodies. They suffered too from hunger, and had constantly to fight with the Indians. The woods seemed full of these dusky warriors, and often the Spaniards could advance only by fighting them step by step. 272 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The stubborn De Soto The giant chief After a while the men implored De Soto to return, but he was stubborn. When once he made up his mind, no one could move him from his purpose. 193. A Furious Fight with the Indians. — On one occa- sion he reached a town where the ruler, a giant chief, sat on cushions upon a raised platform, his slaves holding over him a buckskin umbrella stained red and white. With sullen dignity, which the white men should have respected, he awaited the approach of the Spaniards. Even their prancing steeds did not disturb his calm- ness of manner. But De Soto, according to his cus- tom, compelled this chief to supply him wdth a quan- tity of food and attend him on the next stage of his journey. Together they arrived The Indians at a town called Alavilla, an Indian word from which Spa^ards we get the name Mobile, for the city and river in Ala- bama. Here De Soto's insolence brought on an attack from the Indians. The fighting was furious. The Spaniards at last set fire to the houses, and by night- fall the town was destroyed. Of the Spaniards one hundred and seventy were killed or wounded and most of their clothing, arms, and supplies were burned. They were now so destitute that they were obliged to weave DE SOTO's FIGHT WITH THE INDIANS THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 273 long grass into mats for clothing. They were in a piti- able condition. 194. The Fruitless Search for Gold. — Marching north- ward, about the middle of December they reached a little Indian town of two hundred houses, probably on the west- ern bank of the Yazoo River. After spending the winter here, they again took up their march late in the following April. It was the old stoiy over again. They had to fight their w^ay through hostile tribes, stopping to make boats when the Indians would not give them canoes, and always searching for the gold lands, which they .could never find. 195. De Soto Discovers the Mississippi. — In the spring of 1541, about two years after landing at Tampa Bay, they reached the banks of the Mississippi. Here they built four boats, crossed the river, and continued the search for the prov- inces said to contain gold. But still there was no gold to be found. Finall}^ De Soto de- cided to go to the coast and build ships in which to send for aid. Tired, discouraged, and weak- ened in body, in May, 1542, he fell sick wdth a severe fever and died. His followers, fearing that the red men might attack them if they More dan- gers and hardships De Soto reaches the Mississippi De Soto's death DE SOTO S GRAVE IN THE MIGHTY RH^ER HE HAD DISCOVERED 274 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE learned of De Soto's deaths wrapped his body in blank- ets, weighted it with sand, and, in the darkness of mid- night, lowered it into the black waters of the Mississippi. De Soto had come to America to seek gold and fame. What he found was hunger, suffering, disease, and a grave Spain made wealthy by gold and silver in the gloomy waters of the mighty river he had dis- covered. 196. Gold and Silver Mines in Mexico and Peru. — Although De Soto did not find the gold he sought, other Spaniards found in Mexico and Peru immense quantities of the precious metals. Spain became enormously wealthy from her mines. It is believed that the gold and silver THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 275 that poured into her treasury from this source would now be worth five thousand milHon dollars. At first native Indians were employed as laborers in the Indians and mines. But they were lazy^ incapable^ stupid, and hard jjf uie min?s to govern. Moreover, being accustomed to a wild life, they sickened and died under confinement. In Mexico, where the number of Indians w^as large, this mattered little to their new masters; but on the islands the supply was not sufficient. The Spaniards were forced, therefore, to import slaves from Africa. The change in climate and the hard work caused a rapid death rate even among the negroes. At the same time, they were so much better workers than the Indians that there was an increasing demand for them, and a thriving slave trade was carried on. The great number of inhabitants of negro extraction in all the Spanish- American lands to-day makes it clear that many Africans were imported. 197. Spain's Missionary Work with the Indians. — But Tireless a brighter and more attractive picture of the treatment pr^^s^ts of the Indians by Spain is presented in her missionarv ^.^ mission- ^ i. i:^ ^ J aries work carried on for the conversion of the natives to Christianity. It was this religious motive that largely inspired Ferdinand and Isabella in giving aid to Colum- bus, and Spain continued to send friars and priests wherever she conquered new territor}^ and established settlements. The missionaries were earnest and tireless. They went everywhere, learning the native languages^ and teaching and converting the natives. Besides looking after the Indians in the Spanish towns, Indian they built in every Indian village a church, a hospital, ^^ ^^^ and a school where they taught the children to read and 276 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Spanish missions write Spanish and explained the meaning of the Chris- tian rehgion. In Mexico, where the Indians were more civiHzed, boys were taught in workshops to be tailors, AN OLD SPANISH MISSION IN NEW MEXICO, ERECTED IN 1604 carpenters, blacksmiths, shoemakers, and painters. By the middle of the sixteenth centur}^, colleges even were established. Faithful missionaries went out also among the wild Indians and by degrees gathered them into \dllages and won them over to Christianity and to habits of work. Each mission was reallv a sort of industrial school, where the Indian had to cultivate a plot of ground for himself, besides working two hours a day on the \illage farm for THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST 277 the support of the church. Prayer and the catechism came at the beginning and at the end of the working day. 198. The Growth of Spanish Colonies in the New Spanish World. — By 1574 such missions could be found in ever}^ fn^the^New country of Spanish America from California to Chile. World It has been estimated that in that year the Spanish population in the New World was more than 150,000, and the number of Indians in the regions they controlled about 5,000,000, most of whom had come under the teach- ing of the friars and priests. Such was the extent of the Spanish colonies, and such a most was the extent of their Christianizing work among the g^^?'^|^^ natives. The vastness of their enterprise is all the more wonderful when w^e remember that at this time not a single Enghsh, French, or Dutch settlement had found a foothold anywhere in North or South America. Spain had made a most promising beginning in the work of colonizing the New World. THINGS TO REMEMBER ♦ 1. Cortez conquered Mexico (1519-1521); but he was an ex- plorer as well as a conqueror. 2. Pizarro conquered Peru (1531- 1533). 3. De Soto discovered the Mississippi River (1541). He sought gold and fame; he found suffering, disease, and death. 4. Spain was made wealthy by the gold and silver from Peru and Mexico. 5. By 1574 Spain had planted many colonies in America and had done a large missionary work among the Indians. TO THE PUPIL I. Who was Montezuma? Why did he and the Aztecs fear Cortez and the Spaniards ? 2o What did Cortez accomplish ? 278 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE 3. How did Pizarro treat the Inca ? 4. In what way did Spain profit by the conquests of Mexico and Peru ? 5. How did De Soto treat the Indians, and how did they treat him ? 6. What do you thmk of De Soto ? What was he trying to do ? What did he accomplish ? 7. Tell what you can about the missionary work the Spaniards did among the Indians. 8. Are you making use of your map in preparing every lesson ? RIVAL POWERS IN EUROPE AND AMERICA CHAPTER XXIV ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 199. Spain Has a Seeming Advantage in America. — Reasons for Thus far Spain seemed to enjoy a distinct advantage claims over other nations. The Spaniards had explored so much in both North and South America that thev could give good reasons^ from their point of view^ for claiming both continents. An even stronger claim could be made by \drtue of their colonies ; and from these came pouring into the Spanish treasuiy great wealth which gave the mother counti'v the means for defendino; her claims. It looked as if Spain^ through her colonieS; might soon have complete control in the New World. But this was not to happen. Other nations — the The rivals English; the French^ and the Dutch — were rising to power ^ ^^"^ and would soon claim a share; indeed^ they had to do so for their own safety and even existence; for if Spain had owned all the New World she could easily have conquered all the Old World. Wh}^ in the struggle that followed, the Spaniards failed and their rivals succeeded in plant- ing colonies in various parts of North America, we have now to see. 200. England and the New World. — You remember Why Eng- that John Cabot was the explorer who first reached the North Amer- main-land of North America, and that upon this dis- ^^^ 279 280 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE England not a strong power coveiy England based her claim to the whole continent. For nearly one hundred yearS; however, nothing was done toward establishing her claim, either b}^ further explora- tion or by planting colonies. This is easy to explain; for since Cabot brought back no gold, jewels, nor spices, there was little to attract the English to the New World. Even if there had been, England was not then a great maritime power, and could not compete with Portugal, which had discovered and now controlled the route to India; nor with Spain, which had discovered America and controlled the ocean route to the AVest. Moreover, even in the middle of the six- teenth centuiy, England was not a great trading countr}^ b}^ sea; and she had no na^^^ for the same reason that she had no armv — she did not need it for defence, and the people would not pay for it for aggression. Her island position warded off attack from foreign powers, and Enghshmen would not arm their rulers with vreapons that might be used against their own liberties. But the lack of a na^y made it appear to be impossible to plant or defend any colonies in America, or prevent Spain from mastering the whole Xew World. QUEEN ELIZABETH ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 281 201. Elizabeth Made Queen of England. — When^ England about sixty years after Cabot reached North America, country Elizabeth was crowned Queen of England, there was little prospect of the colonial growth of her country. There was no money in the treasury with which to support army or nsivy, to pay soldiers, or to build war vessels. The countr}^ was not very poor, but it had not been used to paying war taxes, nor indeed any beyond current needs as they arose. And not only w^as Eliza- beth without money, but her people were di- vided because of differences of re- ligion. This, more than anything else, stifled the spirit of union. Indeed, no countiy ever stood in greater need of wise leadership than did England when her young Queen of twenty-five ascended the throne in 1558. It is said that when the news came to her that she was Elizabeth's to be Queen, she was so overcome that she fell on her knees, serve ^Uie^ and after a pause exclaimed, ^'It is the Lord's doing, and People it is marvellous in our eyes." From that moment she thought of herself as responsible for the welfare of Eng- land. Her great hfe purpose was to serve her people; and during all her long reign she made it clear that, whatever her owTi faults and weaknesses might be, she was stri\dng with all her might to do the best she could for her countr}^ THE ANCIENT PALACE AT GREENWICH CALLED PLACENTIA, THE BIRTHPLACE OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 282 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE *'Good Queen Bess' ,)> Elizabeth's love of finery and display Elizabeth likes to ap- pear in public It is not surprising, then, that the people loved a queen so devoted and that they called her '^Good Queen Bess." She was deser\4ng of their love, and tried to keep their good-will by kindly and courteous acts. Though she could be very haughty to her courtiers, she was always gracious and sympathetic to the common people. \\Tien she entered London for the iii*st time as Queen, an old woman handed her a bunch of rosemar}', the only tribute she had to offer. Elizabeth accepted it graciously, and all the way to Westminster held the sprigs in her hand. This Queen, so noble in her bearing and so tender in her sympathies, had very human faults. She was vain and fond of fine clothes and jewels. It is said that she had in her wardrobe three thousand gowns made of the richest material and ornamented with lace, embroidery, and jewels. A Ger- man traveller tells of seeing her as she went to chapel at her palace. Elabo- rately attired in costly silk and jewels, she was attended by richly dressed ladies and nobles of her court, in a procession of great pomp and splendor. She took great pleasure in ap- pearing in public as the central figure of her splendid court. Some- times she went on horseback, at others on a litter, borne on the shoulders of her greatest nobles. But she liked I best to make her public appearances in the royal barge, hung vdth elegant draperies, taking the lead of a long line of boats filled with, admiring followers. QUEEN ELIZABETH IN ONE OF HER MANY ROYAL COSTUMES ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 283 IT'^ She loved flatter}^, and looked for gallantr}^ from her nobles. There is a famous story of how one day, walking along the street, she came to a muddy spot. AMiile she was hesitating, not wishing to step into the mud, Walter Raleigh, who was stand- ing by, quickly took off the handsome plush cloak he was wearing and laid it down for her to walk on. The Queen was greatly pleased with Raleigh's gallant atten- tion. She extended to him her favor and soon he rose to a high place in the court. Elizabeth not only made him a knight, but presented The Queen and Sir Walter Raleigh SIH WALTER RALEIGH S CLOAK gifts him with costly and estates, and show^ered upon him offices of rank and dignity. The brave knight, Sir Walter Raleigh, became a man of great w^ealth and influence. 202. England Constantly Grows in Wealth and Power. — But we must remember that all these things came about many 3^ears after Elizabeth was made Queen. For under her able leadership England was constantly growing in power. Her long reign was one of great peace and prosperity and the country made enormous gains in wealth. The signs of tliis increasing wealth were many. It was especially apparent in the splendor of display and ceremony in court life. Not only the Queen and her splendor of display and ceremony in court life 284 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Sir Walter Raleigh's dress ladies but courtiers and gentlemen were given to elabo- rate dress. In their brave finery they were very pictu- resque. The men wore tight-fitting doublets, often of velvet and lace, which were stuffed to make a full shape. Their breeches were short, sometimes gathered into puffs around the thigh, and sometimes tied below the knees with silk and trimmed with lace. Often the sleeves of the doublet were slashed to show a lining of lace. Great starched ruffs stood out around their throats, and their shirts were deco- rated with costly embroider}^ The nobleman's shoes were frequently of fine white leather; his cloak was of costly material, trimmed with embroi- deiy and lace. Hats were as varied as other articles of dress, and w^ere of velvet, wool, or beaver, in all colors and shapes. Sir Walter Raleigh is a good example of the fashions of his day. His dress in some of its detail was rich and dazzling. We are told, for instance, that he wore a hat with a pearl band and a black jewelled feather, that his shoes were tied wdth white ribbons and studded with costly gems, and that he had a suit of silver armor that glittered with diamonds and other precious stones. Such were the QUEEN ELIZABETH AT KENILWORTH CASTLE ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 285 gay and gorgeous costumes that belonged to the higher social life of Queen EHzabeth's day. As men were more richly DweiUngs dressed than formerly, so their J^rtabieTnd dwellings were more comfortable convenient and convenient. In those days of greater peace and security the feudal castle gave place to the charming Elizabethan palace, and new mansions were built all over England. Countiy houses english ladies op queen Elizabeth's time began to be of brick or stone. One of the greatest improve- ments was the increased number of windows. Where before they had been few and small, they were now larger and let in more sunlight. This was not only pleasanter, but more healthful. Chimneys were built to carry off the smoke, and the delightful chimney-cor- ners, sometimes w4th great carved chimney-pieces, were a feature of the modern dwellings. Tapestries hung on the bare walls, and chairs and cabinets carved in cjuaint figures had a place in parlors or drawing- rooms. On the table, pewter dishes took the place of wooden, and a brave display of silver was often seen. 20 ELIZABETHAN COSTUMES FROM AN OLD PRINT 286 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE More com- fortable ways :)f living 11%, AN ELIZABETHAN ROOM AND FURNIbHINGd The principal apartments were now on an upper floor^ and stately stairways were built in. Carpets were used in place of the filthy rushes. Immense carved bedsteads adorned the sleeping-rooms. PihowS; at one time used only for the sick, now became more general. Before this, people had slept on straw pallets, wuth "si good round log under their heads in- stead of a bolster or pillow." In eating, knives had taken the place of fingers; but forks were not used until the following centuiy. These are a few of many changes that had come by the close of Elizabeth's reign, when personal comfort for the first time became possible. New ideas, 203. England Awakes to a Larger, Richer Life. — and new^de- England had been backward about taking up these more ^^^^^ comfortable w^ays of living, because so long as world trade centred in the Mediterranean, she was not in close touch with the leading nations. But when trade passed to the Atlantic, England found herself in the swift current of modern life. New ideas, new interests, and new desires seized her. A Spaniard who visited England in Queen Mary's days is said to have remarked, ''These English have houses made of sticks and dirt, but they fare com- monly as well as the King." This was no longer true. England had waked to a larger, richer life, which soon ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 287 placed her abreast of the foremost nationS; and before long she became a rival for world power. 204. Bitter Hatred Between England and Spain. — Spain over- But while England was thus only emerging from darkness^ ^^"^^ Spain was advancing in the full course of her glory. Her brilliant success had given her power and made her overbearing toward other nations. Nowhere was this resented more keenl}^ than in England. There the hatred be- tween the two countries w^as bitter; and it was nourished and kept active by English privateers. During Elizabeth's time the English Channel swarmed with these adventurers; who lay in wait to plunder passing vessels of countries with whom England was at war^ and who sometimes did not stop to find out as to the state of war. As Spain English had the greatest number and the richest cargoes^ and ^ ^^^ ^^ ^ there was a war going on between the two countries much of the time^ she suffered most from these attacks. Yet her hea\dest losses w^ere not here. English mariners and traders began more and more to trespass on her trad- ing rights at sea and in the colonies. 205. Drake, Hawkins, and the Slave Trade. — The Drake's Spanish colonists wanted African slaves, and English spain traders gladly furnished them for a good return in gold. Having learned their way to distant Spanish ports, Eng- A SPANISH SHIP OF ELIZABETH S TIME 288 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Drake and Hawkins at Vera Cniz lish sea-rovers began to prey upon Spanish commerce on a much larger scale. The boldest of these captains was Francis Drake, the story of whose adventures is more ex- citing than any ^^ pirate book" ever written. He hated Spain very much as Hannibal hated Rome; and this hatred, quite as truly as his zeal for England and his love of adventure, was the motive which controlled his re- markable career. His first expedition to America was with Sir John Haw- kins, for whom he was pilot. As this was a slave-trad- ing venture, they went first to Africa and collected about 500 negroes. On the northern coast of South America they traded them for gold and pearls, and sailed for home. But hur- ricanes shattered their fleet and drove them into the Gulf of ^lexico. They put into the harbor of Yera Cruz, and while their ships were undergoing re- pairs, the Spaniards, although they had signed a truce with Hawkins, fell treacherously upon them, captured their treasure, and destroyed all but two of their ships. Indeed, the English barely escaped with A DASH FOR LIBERTY. AN INCIDENT OF THE EARLY SLAVE-TRADE their lives. Drake's purpose 206. Drake Makes an Ex- pedition to Panama. — After this tresLchery, Drake gave up slave-dealing and vowed vengeance on Spain. As ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 289 soon as possible after returning to England, he prepared to make a series of voyages with the purpose of capturing all the Spanish treasure-ships he could find, and attacking all the Spanish settlements he could reach. In 1572, with only two small vessels manned by a veiy Drake at yomig crew, he sailed for Panama, intending to capture ^°^™^ the treasure-house of the Spanish colonies, located on the northern shore of the isthmus. With great daring and bravery he made an attack, but his force was too small and he did not succeed. He sent back this message, how- ever, by a Spaniard: ^^Tell your governor to hold his eyes open. For before I depart, if God lend me life and leave^ I mean to reap some of your harvest which you get out of the earth and send into Spain to trouble all the earth." Before leaving that part of the coast, he made some Drake capt- brilliant captures and then suddenly disappeared. T\Tiere spaniTh ^ he had gone was a mystery to the Spaniards. But he treasure had changed his plan. Knowing that King Philip's great ^ opiate Fleet" would arrive from Spain in a few months to receive the gold and treasure gathered at Panama, he determined to waylay the caravans on their way across the isthmus to the ships. During months of w^eaiy wait- ing, Drake and his men suffered untold hardships. But from their safe retreat, they swept the seas of passing cargoes, swooped dow^n on unsuspecting fleets, and robbed distant store-houses of the treasure intended for the King. A\Tien at last the Kino-'s ships arrived, Drake's first at- He attacks tempt at capture was foiled. But later, after the Spaniards thought all danger w^as over, he made a sudden assault on one of the mule trains and got off with a great store of treasure. With the greatest difficulty it was conveyed ■• 290 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE to the shipS; and theii; laden with their precious booty and rejoicing at their good fortune, they set off for home. 207. Drake Sees the Pacific. — In his passage across the isthmus, while on his way to attack the caravans, Drake was taken by the natives to the top of a hill where, from under the spreading branches of a gigantic tree, he gazed over the vast w^aters of the Pacific. He was the first Englishman to behold, this ocean. In awe he sank upon his knees, praying God to give him life and leave to sail upon those seas. 208. Drake's Voyage Around the World. — It was several years before Drake could again make a voyage to the New World. Spain and Drake starts England were at peace, and the Queen would not allow him ' IS voyage ^^ ^^.^^ j^ 1577, however, conditions had changed; and by the help of wealthy friends he obtained command of five ships and set out with the Queen^s consent. It was understood that he was starting for Egypt, and it w^as long before his men knew whither they were bound. AMien they found out, a serious mutiny threatened him^ but his great ability as a master of men saved the day. The fleet sailed down the coast of Africa, struck across to South America, and made for the Strait of Magellan. Storms rendered the strait almost impassable. For two DRAKE SEES THE PACIFIC He enters the Pacific ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 291 weeks the vessels were tossed about by squalls and whirl- winds amid threatening rockS; and a worse storm struck them as they entered the Pacific. For two months they were driven helplessly hither and The "Golden thither. One ship went down with all her crew. One sailed back through the strait. Two had already been lost before entering the strait; so that Drake's ship, the Golden Hind, was left alone. He was dnven southward to Cape Horn, but was too rejoiced over his discover}^ of the cape to be afraid. He had found the spot where the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific rolled together. Finally the storm died away^ and fortune turned in favor of the jubilant adventurers. They roused the astonished people of Chile as they sailed north, plundering as they went. At Valparaiso they Drake piun- collected provisions, and farther on they refitted the ship Spaniards and set up a pinnace, making ready for further exploits. They then went on, plundering shamelessly and joyfully. They had many races after treasure-ships ahead. One important capture they made off the coast of Nicaragua. This was two Chinese pilots with Spain's secret trade- charts of the Pacific, a prize worth more than many treasure-ships. Continuing his course, Drake next capt- DRAKE IN THE PACIFIC OVERTAKING A SPANISH SHIP ON HER WAY FROM CHINA 292 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE He steers^ across the Pacific Queen Elizabeth makes Drake a knight Drake's achieve- ments ured some Spanish vessels on their way from China. On one of them he found more charts, along with silks, fine white china, and other precious things. The Spaniards were in a fever of alarm. But with his splendid booty Drake was off again. In vain they hunted for him along the coast. He had van- ished. Going north about as far as San Francisco, he steered straight across the Pacific, seeing no land for sixty-eight days. He made the Philippines, reached Java after a peril- ous voyage, then rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed northward. He arrived in England early in November, 1580, after a voyage of nearly three years. At first he was not al- lowed to land, for his at- tacks on Spanish vessels had threatened a war be- tween England and Spain ; but later he was invited to court and treated with distinguished honor. The Queen herself dined on board his ship, and knighted him. From that time he was called Sir Francis Drake. He was the second man and the first Englishman to sail entirely around the globe. His achievements, with those of other sea-captains of his class, did much to establish the British on the seas and DRAKE S MEN BOARDING A SPANISH TREASURE- SHIP IN THE PACIFIC ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 293 to weaken the power of Spain. Drake was the first EngHshman who set out to reduce the strength of PhiHp II by striking at him in America. For he saw clearly QUEEN ELIZABETH KNIGHTING DRAKE ON BOARD THE GOLDEN HIND, AT DEPTFORD. APRIL 4, 1581 that the Spanish King was using the enormous quantities of gold and silver from IVIexico and Peru to carry on his many European w^ars. 209. Differences of Religion. — The hatred of Sir TheRef- Francis Drake for Spain was in large measure shared by all Englishmen, and the bitterness of their feeling was greatly increased by differences of religion. During the Middle Ages the people all belonged to one church. The Pope, as we have seen, was its supreme head, and there was no question about his rule. But after the Crusades • and the rebirth of knowledge, the minds of men were 294 AMERICAN BEGIXXINGS IN EUROPE stirred with nevf ideaS; and in course of time there came to be much discussion and bitter disputing about some of the practices and teachings of the church. The great rehgious movement which followed is called the Reforma- tion. It ended in establishing Protestantism. Those who favored the Reformation are now called Protestants. From a painting by Baron Leys MARTIN LUTHER Religion a part of the national spirit During Elizabeth's time there were many Protestants in England; France^ German}'; and Holland; — in Germany the followers of Alartin Luther, and in France and the Netherlands the followers of John Cahdn, — and in all these countries there w^as political mirest. As the church had been veiy closely united with the state, the division in the church caused division also in the nation. Feeling ran high; and religion became a part of the national spirit. Many so-called religious wars were fought, during this ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH 295 period; not directly on questions of religion, but to de- termine whether the Protestant or the Catholic party should have control in the state. The same cause also made trouble and brought on wars Wars of re- between some of the leading countries of Europe, making ^^^^°° more keen their strife for power. Spain was Catholic and the most threatening to the weaker nations, though they soon became her successful rivals and far outdis- tanced her in the race for power. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Spaniards, the EngUsh, the French, and the Dutch were rivals in Europe and in America. 2. When EUzabeth was made queen, England was not a strong country. But during her long reign the English people constantly grew in wealth and power. 3. When trade passed from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, England found herself in the swift current of modern life. 4, There came to be a bitter hatred between the English and the Spaniards. 5. Drake's great purpose was to capture all the Spanish treasure- ships he could find and attack all the Spanish settlements he could reach. In this way he sought to weaken Spain's power in Europe. 6. The bitterness of feeling between England and Spain was greatly increased by differences of religion. TO THE PUPIL 1. In the latter part of the i6th century what advantages did Spain seem to have over her rivals in America ? 2. In what ways was England weak when Elizabeth was made queen? 3. Tell what you can about Queen Elizabeth. What do you think of her? Why was she called "Good Queen Bess"? . 4. What were the signs of England's increasing wealth? 5. Can you explain why there was bitter hatred between Enrland and Spain? 6. What was Drake's great purpose? What did he accomplish? What do you think of him? 7. What is meant by the Reformation ? 296 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE France and the wealth of the New World French privateers and fisher- men CHAPTER XXV FRANCE ANOTHER RIVAL OF SPAIN 210. France in the New World. — While following the conquests of Spain in the New World and the achieve- ments of England at sea, we have lost sight for a time of France. That is because France was so much occu- pied in strengthening her kingdom at home that she had little interest in the new-found distant lands. Moreover, she had neither the religious zeal of the Spaniards nor the adventurous love of the sea so strong in the English. And yet she knew the advantage of discovering a short route .to Asia, and she wished to share in the wealth which Spain, her rival, was gathering across the seas and pouring into the royal treasury. French privateers were constantly on the lookout for Spanish treasure-ships on their way from America, and made frequent captures. French fishermen from Brit- tany and Normandy also continued to ply their trade on the coast of Newfoundland. They had known this region since the time of the Cabots, and had gone there in boats of their own as early as 1504. An enduring trace of their early occupation is found in the name Cape Breton, the inhabitants of Brittany (in French, Bretagne) being called Bretons. The hardy mariners of northern France also made many expeditions to the Canaries and the African coast, and in these southern waters continued to prey upon Spanish treasure-ships. In 1534, Francis I sent out an expedition, as you remember, to explore the northwestern coast of North FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 297 America^ the leader being Jacques Cartier, a Breton France adventurer from St. Malo. His reports were encourag- of^J^rth ^^^ ing; but a new w^ar with Spain put an end to further pur- America suit in this direction. Verv Httle more was done bv France during this centur}-^ but enough had been explored to give her a claim to a part of North America when the rivalries of European nations were transferred to the New World. 211. France a Strong and Wealthy Kingdom. — Let The growing us look briefly at the position of France in Europe during prrnch^ the sixteenth centuiy^ the period at which we have ar- ^^^^^ rived. At that time she was held to be the foremost king- dom of Christendom^ the wealthiest and strongest. The great reason for this was that the country was united under one head; the King. For a long time the French kings had been strengthening their own power by lessen- ing the power of the nobles. This they had done partly by marrying the royal princes and princesses to the heirs of the nobles; partly by taking lands from them on pretext of treason; and in other ways. They had also humbled the cities. As long as the cities A united and w^ere small; the kings had helped them in every way, so that they might weaken the landed nobility. But now that the strength of the nobles was gone^ the aid of the cities was no longer needed. The people as a whole were filled with a spirit of obedience to the King; and this made the nation united and strong. Moreover, the army and na\y were excellent; and France was well able to de- fend herself. 212. Francis I and His Dangerous Rival. — The reign Francis of Francis I began in 1515; when the King was only twenty rival in Italy 298 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Chevalier Bayard a wonderful man Bayard the savior of his country years old. It was largely occupied with wars against Charles V; who was not only King of Spain, but was also ruler of the Netherlands, Naples, Sicily, Austria, the New AVorld, and w^as made Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Francis first attacked his dangerous rival in Italy, where they both claimed the right to the same territory, and by a brilliant victoiy made good his claim to Milan. After this battle he received knighthood from the renowned Chevalier Ba3'ard, who is known to his- toiy as 'Hhe knight without fear and without reproach." Bayard was a wonderful man. AMien barely twenty he had been made a knight for his braveiy in battle. Of the many stories told of his chivalr}^, one is about a contest between thirteen French and thirteen German kniofhts, in which he won the dav. On another occasion it is said that he held a bridge single-handed against two hundred Spaniards. Twice, when captured, he was set free without ransom. In fact all men, whether friends or foes, admired him for his splendid courage and gal- lantly. It is not strange, therefore, that Francis would allow no one else to knight him. But the deed which more than any other gives Bayard a place as a national hero was his six weeks' defence of an old French fortress with one thousand men against FRANCIS I FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 299 thirty-five thousand. He heartened his men by his own splendid braver}-^ and by a clever trick finall}^ drove the Spaniards away. He thus gave Francis time to collect an army^ and so saved France. Parliam.ent thanked him as the savior of his countrv. The Kino; made him a */ CD knight cf his own order^ and gave him command of one hundred men in his own name — an honor usually re- served for royalty. In his next war against Charles in Itah^^ Francis was Bayard's taken prisoner and held for about a year in Madrid. In serious^ loss one of the battles of this war^ Bayard lost his life. Hav- ^^^ France ing received a mortal wound; he sat with his back against a tree facing the enemy. The Duke of Bourbon, who had deserted his lung and gone over to Charles, came up to the dying Bayard and expressed his sympathy. ^^Weep not for me/' said the chevalier, ^M^ut for thvself. I die in performing my duty; thou art betraying thine." His death was a grievous loss to his King and to his country. 213. Civil Wars of Religion in France. — The w^ars went on for many years. WTien at last in 1544 they were brought to an end, out of years of bloodshed and hardship for the nation noL...ng The outcome had been gained for France. Later there were serious bidod^hed^ troubles in France itself between the French Protes- tants, or Huguenots, and the Catholics. Finally these CHEVALIER BAYARD 300 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Serious troubles The first colony The second colony The Spanish soldiers massacre the French troubles developed into civil wars of religion, and out of these grew an attempt to plant a colony in Florida. 214. The Huguenots in Florida. — Admiral Coligny, a great French nobleman, w^as the Huguenot leader. Desiring to find a refuge for his people in America, he sent out a small colony in 1562, which settled at Port Royal, South Carolina. But the settlers, not being the kind of men to meet the demands of a rough backwoods life, soon tired and sailed back to France. Two years later Coligny sent out another colony, which settled on the St. John's River, many miles south of the first col- ony. These men also w^ere unfit for their task, and were soon in need of food. They were saved from starving only by the coming of new colonists with fresh supplies. But scarcity of food pro\'ed not to be their greatest danger. The Spanish King, Philip II, was so angiy with the French for plantmg col- onies on w^hat he was pleased to call Spanish soil that he sent a body of soldiers to destroy them. Having built a fort, they attacked the French settlement and brutally put to death at least 700 men, women, and children. Only a few, perhaps a half-dozen, escaped, and after many dangers got back to France. The Spanish fort w^as the beginning of St. Augustine, which is now the oldest town in the eastern part of the United States. ' "'^"T ■>_-,-.. 'C'i;-. "■' i OLD SPANISH GATE, ST. AUGUSTINE FRANCE A RIVAL OF SPAIN 301 On account of religious strife at home, France did not a French openly resent this outrage by Spain. But a French aTengesthe leader, De Gourges, fitted out at his own expense an expe- massacre dition for the purpose of avenging this massacre. Sail- ing to Florida, he captured two Spanish forts and put to death nearly all the Spanish soldiers. As his force was st. not strong enough to attack St. Augustine, he returned ^sustme to France the following 3^ear, leaving the Spaniards in control in Florida. It was nearly three-quarters of a century before the French tried again to plant a colony in North America, and then at a point far to the north of Florida. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. France claimed that part of North America which Cartier had explored. 2. At that time France was held to be the w^ealthiest and strongest country in Europe. 3. By reason o the many w^ars be- tween Francis I and his dangerous rival, Charles V, for a long time the French made no attempt to plant colonies in America. 4. When, at last, a body of Huguenot settlers made their homes in Florida, they were nearly all massacred by Spanish soldiers. TO THE PUPIL 1. What part of North America did France claim, and why? 2. Do you see how it was that France had become the foremost king- dom in Europe? 3. Why did the French King, Francis I, pay so little attention to America ? 4. What can you tell about Chevalier Bayard, and what do you admire in him? 5. Explain why the Huguenots tried to plant a settlement in Florida. What became of these settlers ? 6. What was St. Augustine ? 21 302 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Little Holland The dikes and the ocean The work of the wind- mills CHAPTER XXYI THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY HIS DUTCH SUBJECTS 215. The Dutch People. — Another people whom Spain was striving to conquer at this time was the Dutch. Before following this stubborn little nation in their struggle for liberty; let us get a glimpse of their interest- ing country. It lies about the mouths of the Rhine^ the Meuse, and the Scheldt Rivers^ and is composed mainly of the silt which these rivers deposit as they near the sea. It is low and marshy^ much of it below^ sea-level; and its flat surface is broken by lakes and swamps and inlets of the sea. Great tempests sweep over it; and mists and fogs envelop it much of the time. Such is little Holland and northern Belgium; the land of the Dutch people. A seem- ingly useless spot; the Dutch have bravely and patiently rescued it from the sea by a long fight; and have made of it thriving townS; green pastures; weaving wheat-fields, fruitful orchards; and blossoming gardens. To do all this called for a great deal of time and money and patience; for the ocean with its ceaseless flow had always to be kept out. They had to build strong dikes; that iS; solid w^alls with gates that could be opened when necessar}'. Even then they had to be ever on the watch; as they must be to-day; for a tiny leak, if not repaired; might bring disaster. But keeping out the rush of the sea is only a part of the battle; for the swamps and lakes have to be drained of THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY THE DUTCH 303 useless water. Countless wind- mills; since the time of the Cru- sades, have per- formed this task. They stretch in picturesque rows along the dikes, and pump the water from the fields into canals which form a net-work all over the land. Even scattered farms in the countr}^ are connected with each other and with cities b}^ these water-ways, which also connect them with the sea. IN THK WINDMILL COUNXKY, HOLLAND Copyright by Underwood and Underwood, New York THE REPRODUCTION OF HUDSON'S " HALF MOON," AT THE TIME OF THE HUDSON FULTON CELEBRATION IN NEW YORK WATERS, 1909 Bemg so close Dutch mari- , 1 ners and to the sea, many explorers of the Dutch earned their liv- ing in their boats. Some were fisher- men, some trad- ers, and some sturdy mariners and explorers. Perhaps they were more pru- dent than ad- venturous. At all events they had 304 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Dutch fishermen and trade Dutch courage and love of freedom Charles V and the Netherlands no Columbus nor Drake. But Hudson River and Bay, Bering Strait, Block Island, and perhaps Rhode Island, and other places, named after or by Dutch explorers, bear evidence that they had a part, though a small one, in the discoveries of the New World. Their mariners were much more active in fisheries and trade. The fisheries became extensive, and after Portu- gal had discovered the water route to the Indies, Dutch towns for a time carried on a thri\Tng trade by sea with Lisbon. Dutch merchant-men steadily and rapidly in- creased in number and became the chief carriers of the northern seas. The coasts of their provinces thronged with traffic, and thus was begun their great future as a trading nation. Whether struggling against the sea or building up a world commerce, this sturdy race showed a stubborn courage, a patient industr}^, and a never-failing perse- verance. These same qualities con- trolled their public life. They had a love of freedom which expressed itself in a free and independent gov- ernment. They made their own laws and voted their own taxes, and these liberties were very dear to them. 216. Philip II and the Nether- lands. — When Philip II ascended the throne of Spain, in 1556, he received the Netherlands, including the present Holland to the north and Belgium to the south, as a part of his kingdom from his father, Charles V. Charles had not been mindful of THE EMPEROR, CHARLES V THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY THE DUTCH 305 presses the Nether- landers the rights of the people, and was very cruel to the Protes- tantS; who lived mostly in the north. But in spite of his faults he won men to himself, for he was really a great man and ruler. Philip, however, was a narrow and haughty man with his human feeling withered by religious bigotry, and was much disliked and feared by the Dutch. Their fears were not groundless. For when he became Philip op- their King he at once began to take away their liberties. He appointed Spanish officials to represent him, kept a body of Spanish troops in the countrv^, and increased the taxes. Worse than all else, in his determination to stamp out heresy he added religious persecution. This he did through the Inquisition, which was a court to examine and punish here- tics, as those were called who were not Catholics. 217. Bitter Opposition to Philip. — Thus he aroused bitter opposition. Certain noblemen formed a league to protect themselves against these measures. Two hundred or more of their number pre- sented a ^^ request" to Margaret, Philip's sister, who was acting as regent for him. They marched The four abreast to the palace and asked that she suspend the "request"^ punishment of men on account of their religion until she could send an envoy to the King and learn his pleasure. As these men with serious faces filed by, Margaret's eyes filled with tears, for she felt sure that the outcome would be a deadly struggle between these stubborn men and the equally stubborn King. u^ KING PHILIP II 306 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The "Beggars" A wave of patriotism Thousands put to death One of the royal councillors, on seeing Margaret's dis- tresS; said to her, ^^Is it possible that your Highness can be afraid of these beggars!" AVhen this remark came to the ears of the Dutch patriots, they adopted the name '^ Beggars" for themselves and made it a watchword of liberty. Not only the noblemen but their wives and children now clothed themselves in the beggar's dress of coarse gray. The nobles hung upon their caps small w^ooden cups like those which beggars used, and fastened a special medal of gold or silver to chains on their breasts. On one side it w^as engraved with Philip's image, on the other with a beggar's wallet and the motto, '^Faithful to the King, even to bearing the beg- gar's bag. " Cheaper medals of cop- per and lead were in great demand. Sailors on the sea and working-men on the land gloried in wearing them and in calling themselves '^Beggars. " A wave of patriotism swept over the whole countiy. The stubborn spirit of a freedom-lo\^ng people was on fire with indignation. 218. Pitiless Cruelty of the Duke of Alva. — As a result of the con- tinued excitement, a Protestant riot broke out in the cities. The mobs sacked churches and cathedrals, de- stroyed images, and carried off church treasures. To restore order and compel submission, Philip sent to the Netherlands (1567) the Duke of Alva, a Spanish general. Alva w^as a pitiless soldier and his men equalled him in cruelty. Through the Incjuisition he executed men in DUKE OF ALVA THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY THE DUTCH 307 droves. With little or no pretext, he put thousands to death. Some were beheaded, some were hanged, and others burned at the stake. During Alva's stay in the countiy, it is said that more than 18,000 people were executed by his orders. Nor did he stop with the punishment of the Dutch Protestants in the north. He was cruel as well to the southern Netherlanders who remained Catholic. 219. William, Prince of Orange, and the Dutch Re- William the volt. — A great revolt followed these outrages, a bitter great leader struggle which lasted over fort}^ years. The Dutch patriots, fighting for their political rights and for relig- ious freedom, were led by William, Prince of Orange, sometimes called ^^ William the Silent." He was a rich and powerful nobleman and a veiy brave and patriotic man. His followers looked up to him with the greatest respect and confidence. Under his strong leadership they resisted with stubborn heroism the terrible might of the Spaniards. It was also through his leadership that the northern Netherlands finally became a free and miited nation; though the southern provinces fell away and went back under Spanish rule rather than dis- obey the Roman Catholic Church. He has been called the Dutch Washington. 220. The Siege of Ley den. — The crisis of the struggle The came in 1574 with the siege of Leyden. This city was su^roun/ one of the most beautiful m the land, showing every sign *^® ^^^^ of thrift and prosperity. The first siege of the Spaniards was short, but when the city w^as relieved it fooHshly neglected to lay in supplies. As a result, when the Span- iards again surrounded it, about two months later (June), 308 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE "Better a drowned land than a lost land" The citizens dying of hunger and pestilence The fleet advances to the rescue the city was without surplus provisions and almost with- out troops for its defence. The only way in which the Dutch could hope to over- power the Spaniards was by their fleet. But Ley den was not on the sea. Therefore the sea must be brought to Ley den at any cost. William had long been convinced that the onl}^ way to save the city was to break the dikes. This would greatly damage villages; fields, and growmg crops. Yet; notwithstanding the outlook; the patriots fearlessly cried out; ^^ Better a drowned land than a lost land. " In August; therefore, the dikes which kept out the ocean were cut, and the water rose over the land. The fleet advanced with the tidC; captured the dikes near the city; and broke through them. Then unfavor- able winds came; held back the water; and the fleet lay stranded in the shallows. The citizens of Levden, mean- while, were dying of hunger and pestilence. Still they held out against the besieging Spaniards in desperate hope of relief. From his head-Cjuarters not far from Ley den ; AYill- iam encouraged them. ''As long as there is a living man left in the countr^^;" he said; ''we will contend for our liberty and our religion.'' At last; to the great joy of the starving citizenS; a severe storm arose. The waters rushed in, floating the ships, and the}^ came sailing on- ward to the rescue of the brave men and women in the WILLIAM, PRINCE OP ORANGE man THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY THE DUTCH 309 city. One Spanish garrison fled in terror, many drowning as the waves swept on. But there was still a formidable Spanish redoubt facmg the Dutch fleet. That night; in the storm and darkness, a great crash The was heard. The city wall had caved in, and the whole retreS^ ^ place was at the mercy of the Spanish soldiers. They, however, already terror-stricken by the advance of the ocean, were all the more alarmed by the crash and silently fled in the darkness. In the morning, when the fleet was preparing for a last desperate assault, they dis- covered that the fort was deserted. Without opposition, the welcome vessels sailed into the city amid the wild joy of the survivors. 221. Death of William, Prince of Orange. — ^This did A heroic not end the struggle. William continued to champion the cause of the patriots. In 1580, Philip II declared him a traitor and an outlaw and put a heavy price on his head. Five attempts were made after this to murder him. The sixth was successful. He was shot in 1584 by a fanatic, who thought he was doing a Christian duty. The death of this heroic man, whose whole life was one of devotion to his people, was a serious loss to them; but the struggle for their rights as freemen did not stop, as we shall see in the foUomng chapter. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. The Dutch were a sturdy race with stubborn courage, never- failing perseverance, and a deep love of freedom. 2. When Philip II became the King of the Netherlanders he at once began to take away their liberties. 3. The Dutch patriots, fighting for their politi- cal rights and foi^ religious freedom, were led by William, Prince of 310 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Orange. 4. The crisis of the struggle came in 1574 with the siege of Leyden, the result of which was the defeat of the Spaniards. 5. The heroic Prince of Orange was at last shot by a fanatic (1584). TO THE PUPIL 1. Can you explain how the Dutch people rescued from the sea the land on which they lived ? 2. What kind of people were the Dutch, and how did most of them earn their living? 3. What kind of king was Philip II, and how did he oppress the people of the Netherlands? 4. Who were the "Beggars"? 5. What do you think of the Duke of Alva? 6. What kind of leader was William the Silent? How do you like him? 7. Imagine yourself in Leyden during the siege and tell what happened. 8. Are you using your map in the preparation of every lesson ? CHAPTER XXVII ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN THE FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 222. Elizabeth Sends Aid to the Netherlands. — Eliza-, beth had long refused to send aid to the struggling Neth- erlands. But at last she saw clearl}^ that Philip II, with his powerful arm}^ and nsiYj, might overwhelm them if they were left to fight their battles single-handed. She knew also that with the Netherlands at his feet Philip would next try to crush England. In 1585, therefore, she sent to their aid a small army under the command of the Earl of Leicester. A true 223. Sir Philip Sidney. — The Dutch gained little from thelge^ this venture of Elizabeth's, but England lost one of her noblest men. This was Sir Philip Sidney, a true knight ENGLISHMEN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 311 of the age. He was a nephew of Leicester and a great favorite of the Queen. To him had been given the posi- tion of governor in Flushing, a Dutch town held as a pledge by Elizabeth. He fell in a hopeless engagement in which he had taken part as a volunteer. A touching incident of this encounter has come down to us. As Sidney was returning from his last charge he received a fatal wound. Some one brought him a cup of water, but, observing a dying soldier near by, he insisted upon its being given to him, saying, ^'Thy need is greater than mine." Sidney himself died soon after. Though only thirty-two, he had m.ade a place among the leading men of his day. He was a noted The idol of scholar, a brave soldier, and an accomplished gentleman. ^^ ^^^ Noble and generous, with a rare charm of manner, he was a favorite not only in the court but in the camp. He has been called the idol of his time. His gracious act on the field of battle gives but a glimpse of his unselfish and chivalrous spirit, which found its greatest pleasure in serving others. 224. The Invincible Armada and Sir Francis Drake. Philip's — Elizabeth continued to give a w^avering support to p^^p^^^^ Holland, while Philip of Spain meantime secretly has- tened preparations for a long-planned invasion of England. He believed the time had come for seizing the English throne,* and that wdth England added to his empire he SIR PHILIP SIDNEY *rhilip II, as husband of Mary, who was Queen of England (1553-8), had color of legal claim which he thought the English Catholics might recognize , 312 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Drake " singes the King's beard " would soon put an end to the stubborn resistance of Hol- land. His ambition knew no bounds. The great fleet which he was building he called the '' Invincible Ar- mada/' for he believed nothing afloat would be able to conquer it. Notwithstanding his secrecy, however, Elizabeth and her advisers knew quite well w^hat was going on. She therefore sent Sir Francis Drake — who, you remember, had been made her Majesty's admiral at sea — with a fleet of twenty-three vessels and orders to sail against Spain. In the summer of 1587 he entered the port of Cadiz at a time when the harbor was full of transports and store- ships in preparation for the coming attack upon Eng- land. At sight of Drake the Spaniards were paralyzed ^Aith fear, and made little opposition while he plundered, burned, and sank some forty or fifty of their vessels and destro}^ed immense quantities of provisions. After this ^^ singeing the King's beard," as he called it, Drake sailed along the coast, leaving terror and destruction in his wake. By reason of his attack the Spanish Armada was prevented from sailing for England until the following year. 225. Philip's Plan. — Philip's plan w^as clearly mapped out. The fleet w^as to sail from Lisbon to the English Channel. \Mien off Calais, the Duke of Parma, who SIR FRANCIS DRAKE ENGLISHMEN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 313 men unite was then at Dunkirk, on the Flemish coast, was to come with a large army on transports to meet it. The Armada was to escort Parma across the Channel, then keep off the English and Dutch fleets, while Parma and his army should attack London. Parma alone bitterly opposed this plan. He knew that it would be next to impossible to get his men across the Channel, since they would have to face not only unfavorable weather, but the ships of the Dutch and the English. 226. England Prepares for the Armada. — At the All English- approach of the Armada the excitement in England was intense. The royal fleet was not large, but scores of privateers joined it. Men and cities furnished ships; farmers and fish- ermen from all over the kingdom hastened to the front as volmiteers. In fact, all ranks and classes joined, for love of country, in a united effort to ward off the invader. Seamen were glad of a chance to fight Spain. A great wave of national feeling made men forget religious dif- ferences, and Catholic and Protestant stood side by side ready to fight to the death for England. The commander of the English fleet was himself a Catholic. ii^'^ y ENGLISH MAN-OF-WAB ABOUT 1588 ;3i4 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The brave spirit of Queen Elizabeth The Armada arrives In the hour of England's need; Queen Ehzabeth showed her real greatness. Her self-confidence and unflinching courage gave confidence and courage to the people. She went out to Tilbur}^; where the raw recruits were gather- ing, and addressed the camp. ^'I have placed my chief- est strength and safeguard in the loyal hearts and good- will of my subjects/' she said to them, ^^and therefore I am come amongst 3"0U; as you see, resolved, in the midst and heat of battle, to live or die amongst you all. I know that I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart of a King, and of a King of England, too." Her words and spirit aroused great enthusiasm. 227. The Defeat of the Armada. — Lord Howard of Effingham commanded in name, but Drake was the real admiral; and the other chief officers included such famous sea-captains as Norris, Frobisher, and Hawkins. Their hasty preparations having been made, the English waited with eagerness the approach of the great fleet. It was late in arriving, but finally, when least expected, on the afternoon of Friday, July 19, 1588, it was sighted off the English coast. It is said that when the news reached Plymouth, Drake was play- The English ing bowls with the chief officers of the fleet. He realized the great danger, but gave no sign of alarm. Indeed he finished his game. By the next morning, however, the ships, in the face of a strong wind, had cleared the harbor and were beating along the coast to meet the foe. FKOBISHER ENGLISHMEN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 315 HAWKINS The Armada had 134 ships. They were large and fine and very completely equipped, but they moved clumsily and slowly. The English ships were more numerous than the Spanish. They were also much Hghter and more active, and had more guns and better seamen. More- over, their commanders were old sea- dogs whose homes were on the water. Many of them had measured swords with Spaniards upon the sea. For eight days a running fight was kept up as the Armada sailed along the Channel toward Calais. The English, shunning fights at close quarters, hung around the great fleet, pouring shot into the Spanish hulls and racing away again. The Spanish galleons, '^gilded, towered, floating castles with their gaudy standards and their martial music," were too clumsy to give chase. They formed a beautiful crescent seven miles across; but they were no match in action for the light pin- naces of the English. Many hot encounters took place. One of the finest flag-ships surrendered to Drake without a protest when it fell in his way. His veiy name was a terror to the Spaniards. On the second Saturday of the long fight the Armada anchored off Calais and waited for Parma, who had been blockaded bv the Dutch fleet at Dunkirk, only six leagues awa}^ To prevent the two forces from uniting, the English sent fire-ships among the Spanish galleons. Just after midnight eight flaming vessels bore down on the terrified The two fleets The clumsy galleons and the light pin- naces Drake a terror to the Spaniards The English fire-ships 316 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE The Spaniards in great danger Spaniards. The whole fleet fell into confusion, cutting their cables and getting hopelessly entangled with each other. The next morning the scattered vessels were ONE OF THE FINEST FLAG-SHIPS SURRENDERED TO DRAKE WITHODT A PROTEST WHEN IT FELL IN HIS WAY being driven headlong by a furious wind. Forty were separated from the rest, and on these the English bore down. In as hot a battle as ever w^as fought, all but six- teen Spanish ships were destroyed. It seemed that the wind would complete the victory, for it came out of the north-west and headed the Armada straight on to the shoals of Flanders. The English waited in grim delight to see their foes carried to their doom. At last, when the Spaniards, overwhelmed with fear, were on their knees praying for deliverance, a sud- den shift of wind came and carried them safely off again and out to sea. <. ., > DECK SCENE ON ONE OF THE SHIPS OF THE ARMADA DURING THE FIGHT, SHOWING SOME OF THE SPANISH ARMOR OF THAT TIME 22 317 318 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Panic among the Spaniards Storms and wrecks The shat- tered fleet The Netherlands saved from Philip Philip's wars in the Netherlands strengthen England The English did not despair^ though their provisions and ammunition were practically gone. Keeping up a good face and hiding their real weakness^ they gave chase for two days. The Spaniards flad before them in panic. 228. Results of the Great Defeat. — At last, however, a long-expected tempest came and released the wearied EngKsh fighters. For a time at least the Spaniards could do no harm. As it turned out^ the Armada was never to harm any nation agam. In the succession of storms which followed, the great fleet went to its doom among rocks and crags and shoals. Some forty ships were wrecked on the Orkney Islands, the coast of Ireland, and the English coast. Fifty-three useless wrecks reached Spain. Possibly a third of the crews survived. Most of the leaders were dead or in captivity. Phihp had spent 6,000,000 ducats on the fleet, and there was as much more in the treasure chests on board. All this had gone for nothing, in the face of the daring patriotism of the Enghsh seamen and the stubborn pluck of the Dutch, who had held Parma at ba}^ It is said that when Philip received the news of the disaster his countenance did not change. Turning to the defeated admiral, he calmly remarked, ^^I sent you to war with men but not with the winds.'' He could not know, nor could any one know then, how the defeat had weakened Spain. It was now impossible for Philip to conquer the United Netherlands, which finally secured their independence. Moreover, in his attempt to weaken the Dutch, he had strengthened England in two w^ays. In the first place, his persecution had driven from such cities as Antwerp thousands of merchants and manu- ENGLISHMEN FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN 319 facturers who thereafter made their homes in England and built up English industries. In the second place^ it had greatly reduced the Dutch carr}dng trade, much of which passed at once into the hands of English merchants and ship-owners. Philip did not know how strong his despised rival had Spain loses become, nor did he know that Spain could never again supremacy attack England with any hope of success. '\\Tien the little island kingdom crushed the great Armada it be- came certain that henceforth Spain was not to be the greatest sea power in the world. And with her naval supremacy lost, it was no longer possible for her to pro- tect and control her vast empire. A large part of her possessions was, as we have seen, in the many Spanish- American states, where the impress of her language, her literature, her religion, and her ways of living can still be traced. These possessions, now that her power on the seas was waning, she was destined to lose. But Spain's loss was England's gain. The outcome of England the duel with the greatest sea power of the world gave place among England courage and self-reliance. After the defeat of ^^^j-f^^^^ the Armada she at once took a prominent place among powers the great world powers, and along with the growth of her navy went the growth of what was to become a mighty empire. THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. When Queen Elizabeth saw that Philip II would crush the Netherlands if they were left to fight their battles single-handed she sent them help. 2. Philip's purpose was to seize the English throne and add England to his empire. 3. All Englishmen joined, 320 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE for love of country, in a united effort to ward off the Spanish in- vaders. 4. Queen Elizabeth's self-confidence and unflinching cour- age gave confidence and courage to the people. 5. The Armada met with overwhelming defeat. 6. There were three striking results of this defeat: (1) the Netherlands were saved from Philip; (2) Spain lost her naval supremacy; and (3) England took her place among the great world powers. TO THE PUPIL 1. Why did England at last send aid to the Netherlands? 2. Who was Sir Philip Sidney, and what do you admire in him? 3. What were the purposes of Philip 11? 4. What is meant by Drake's "singeing the King's beard"? 5. Tell what you can about the way in which all Englishmen united to drive off the invaders. How did Queen Elizabeth show her brave spirit? 6. How long did the battle last and what kind of battle was it? 7. What were the many results of the great defeat? CHAPTER XXVIII Spain in the full blaze of her glory English explorers ENGLISH VOYAGES A^^STWARD 229. England in the New World. — Until the defeat of the Armada Spain was in the full blaze of her gloiy. Her empire in the New V/oiid was established, the Dutch were partially subdued, Portugal was hers by conquest^ and England seemed hardly beyond her grasp. As we have seen, all Europe stood in fear of her. In striking contrast to her grandeur and power was the untried strength of the English nation and the slender thread of discovery and settlement connecting England with the New World. Up to this time her explorers had not ventured into that part of America to which Spain laid claim. Martin ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 321 Frobisher had visited the coast far to the north, boldly searching for a north-west passage to India, and had dis- covered the strait which bears his name (1576). John Cabot also had voyaged along the eastern coast, as we have already noticed, and English privateers had taken part in many encounters with Spanish merchant-men on the high seas. Chief of these was Francis Drake, whose brilliant exploits on the Spanish main and elsewhere had made even Philip II uneasy. But the English had gained no permanent footing in the New World, and there was nothing, it seemed, to show that Spain's great rival for power in America had already made a start in the race. We have now to look for the beginnings which led to that struggle in America. 230. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Attempts to Plant a Colony .^Sir Humphrey Gilbert was the first Englishman to attempt a settlement in the New World. Unlike some of the priva- teersmen, he was not a lawless ad- venturer, but a gentleman and a scholar as well as a trained soldier, and one of the noblest men of his time. It was the great desire of his life to found in America an English colony, and having received a pat- ent from the Queen, he set out in 1578 with eleven ships. The first expedition was a total failure. Five years later, however, he made a second at- tempt. Sir Walter Raleigh furnished one ship, the best of the little fleet, and Gilbert managed to get four more. English privateers Sir Humphrey Gilbert SIR HUMPHREY GILBERT Gilbert's second colony 322 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Ill-luck follows the expedition Fresh troubles Gilbert starts homeward Gilbert's tiny vessel goes down at sea With him went 260 men skilled in various trades — masonS; miners, carpenters, and so on; for he intended to found a permanent colony. He took trinkets also in order to attract the natives into trading. But ill-luck followed the expedition from the ver}^ first. The ship furnished by Raleigh deserted almost at the outset. Two others were separated from the fleet during the voyage, but rejoined Gilbert at Newfoundland. In St. John's harbor were many ships of various nations, but the English were welcomed cordially. They took possession of the land in the name of the Queen of Eng- land. Soon fresh troubles began. The colonists did not feel much interest in the venture, except for what they could get out of it for themselves. This we should expect of them, for they were mainly adventurers of a low type. Many deserted and managed to get passage home in other vessels. Others fell sick. Gilbert, leaving one ship to take home the invalids, started southward to explore the countr}-. Then came a most discouraging loss. His best remaining ship struck on a rock and went down, taking most of the provisions and supplies. Only a few of the crew escaped. So many disasters followed that Gilbert, much against his will, had to give up his quest and start for home. He sailed in the Squirrel, the tinier of the two remaining ships, though his friends begged him not to do so, for she was overloaded. But he had come over in her and he would not desert his little company, he said. In a hea\y storm the tiny vessel went down, and neither vessel nor crew was ever seen again. The men in the other ship said they ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 323 last saw Gilbert ^^ sitting abaft with a book in his hand, and crying to us, ^We are as near heaven by sea as by land.' But the same night suddenly the frigate's lights went out, and in that moment she was swallowed up." He has been called 'Hhe father of English colonization." 231. Sir Walter Raleigh Sends an Expedition to Raleigh America. — Gilbert's great desire, namely, to plant English plant a colonies in America, was strongly held also by Raleigh, ^®^°^y his half-brother. Raleigh made careful plans, and gained permission from the Queen to make discoveries and take pos- session of lands not already occupied by any Christian prince. His wish was to plant a colony in the country north of Florida, a land which England claimed because of the discoveries of John Cabot. In 1584, about the time Philip II was beginning to gather ships for the Ar- mada, Raleigh sent two vessels to the New World to find out something about the country. His captains brought back, as products of the expedition. The new two Indians and some skins of wild animals, and gave caSed^ such a glowing account of the land they had seen, of its ^^s^ia beautiful trees and fertile soil, that Queen Elizabeth said it should be called Virginia, in honor of herself, the virgin Queen. 232. Raleigh^s First Colony. — The next year Raleigh The colonists sent out a colony of 108 persons. His cousin, Sir Richard cruel to the T J * Grenville, was commander of the fleet, and Ralph Lane ° ^^°^ governor of the colony. They landed at Roanoke Island. Here they met with great misfortunes, in large measure SIK WALTER RALEIGH 324 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE ladian tales A foolish expedition Drake appears The return to England due to their harsh treatment of the Indians. The story is told that when an Indian stole a silver cup from the colonists they punished the whole tribe by burning their village. Such cruelty, of course, made the Indians hate the white men. Besides bringing upon themselves the ill-will of the na- tives, which led to many troubles, they ran short of food, and Grenville sailed to England for more. During his absence Lane started out to explore the Roanoke River, of which he had heard wonderful tales from the Indians. This stream, they said, ran through a land rich with min- erals. Its waters flowed from a fountain so near the South Sea that in time of storm the waves broke over into the fountain. Near this stream, they declared, was a town with walls of pearls. Lane and his followers, too eager in believing such tales, went in search of the fountain and the wonderful town. After great hardships and suf- fering they returned, having been obliged to eat their dogs to keep from starving. During his absence things had gone badly at the set- tlement. Ever}^body felt discouraged and the future looked gloomy. About this time Sir Francis Drake with a fleet of twenty-three vessels anchored near Roanoke Island. He had come from the West Indies, where he had been plundering the Spanish settlements. On hear- ing of the condition of the colonists he offered to leave a part of his fleet mth provisions. But when a hea\y storm came up all the colonists decided that they wished to return to England. At their request he took them all aboard, and they sailed for home, little dreaming that Gren\dlle with a full ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 325 supply of provisions would reach Roanoke in about three weeks^ only to find the settlement deserted. They had found no gold, but they carried to England things sn:* ■5- CSECf^TAH % 4 Paiaufrlftf '-"^ A ■"Si-'-.. - W WEAPEMEOC '^ .^ 3)^ T,-B ■Z THE ARRIVAL. OF THE ENGLISHMEN IN VIRGINIA. FROM A DRAWING BY JOHN WHITE, OF Raleigh's first colony, 1585 that had quite as much value as gold or precious stones — tobacco, potatoes, and Indian-corn. No one then thought so, however. 233. Raleigh's Second Colony.^The wealth that lay hidden in the soil was yet unknown, and there was no enthusiasm over the new colony of Virginia. Most men would by this time have lost hope. But Raleigh showed splendid courage in not letting the failure of his first attempt to found a colony dishearten him. In 1587 he sent to Roanoke a second company under Captain John White. This colony contained 150 men, 17 women, and Raleigh's splendid courage The second colony sails 326 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Captain White goes back to England He returns to Roanoke Croatoan 11 children. Raleigh himself wished to join it^ but the Queen would not allow him to leave her court. He directed that the colonists, after first landing at Roanoke Island to pick up 15 men who had been left there by GrenvillC; should make a settlement at Chesapeake Bay. The men, however, were not to be found; and after staying on the island a while the sailors refused to pro- ceed to the Chesapeake, for the summer was far spent. So the colonists were obliged to remain where they were. Like the earlier settlers, they were harsh in their treat- ment of the Indians, and began to have trouble with them. Finally provisions began to fail, and they begged Captain White to go to England for fresh supplies. Un- wilHngly he consented, for he did not like to leave the colonists nor to separate himself from his little grand- daughter, Virginia Dare, who was the first white child born in the New World. ^ He reached home just as his countr}^men were pre- paring to meet the attack of the Spanish Armada. As we have seen, England needed all the ships that her seamen could muster. The two small vessels, therefore, which Raleigh fitted out for the colony, had to remain at home. It was almost three years before Captain White could return to Roanoke. He sailed then not on his own ves- sel, but as a passenger on a merchant-ship bound for the West Indies. AATien he reached Roanoke the only traces he could discover of the missing colonists were some chests of books, some maps, and some fire-arms. When Captain White had gone to England three years before, the colonists had agreed that if they should leave the place for any reason they would cut into the bark of ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 327 a tree the name of the place to which they were going. If they were in distress they would cut a cross above the name. Captain White found ^^Croatoan" cut in a tree in capital letters^ but he found no cross. Croatoan is the name of an island near Roanoke. AATiite urged the captain of the vessel to csivry him there. But as the weather had become stormy the captain refused. What became of the lost colony has never been surely The lost known. Some twenty years afterward, however, a Vir- ^^^^^ ginia Indian told one of Captain New- port's company that after many years the medicine - men had grown jealous of the whites, and just before New- port's arrival had If . THE LOST COLONY had them all killed except four men, two boys, and one girl, who had been adopted into an Indian tribe. A part of the tribe seems to have gone to North Carolina; and some think that the bulk of the lost colony was spared and went with them. Raleigh himself sent out five expeditions in search of his lost colony, but without success. Thus Raleigh failed in one of the greatest desires of A new idea his life, namely, to make a new England in America. The undertaking cost him what would be in our money a milHon dollars, and both colonies were complete fail- ures. Yet the venture was by no means a useless one, since it called attention to a new idea, namely^ that the 328 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE Columbus and Cabot Balboa and Magellan real value of America did not lie in its mines of silver and gold, and that the best way to secure a hold upon the new country was through permanent colonies. 234. Two Great Contests. — In the last two di\dsions of this book — '^The Discovery of the Western World" and "Rival Powers in Europe and America" — we have noted two great contests. The first was between Portugal and Spain in their race to reach the Indies by a water route. The second was shared in by four European rivals — Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands — and was a struggle for power in Europe and in America. In the first contest Portuguese mariners, by sailing east, found the ocean route to the Indies, while Columbus, by sailing west, discovered the New World. In the second contest the struggle for power was extended from Europe to America by the explorers and conquerors of the newly discovered lands. Columbus in four voyages reached Cuba, Hayti, and the other West India islands, the northern coast of South America, and the eastern coast of Central America. John Cabot, who sailed under the English flag in his voyage to Labrador, was the first to discover the main- land. In a second voyage he may have sailed along the coast of North America as far south as Florida. But at that time nobody knew whether the New World was an immense island like Austraha, a penin- sula extending in a south-easterly direction from Asia, or a distinct continent. AMien, however, Balboa discov- ered the Pacific Ocean he led the w^ay to the important discover}^ that South America was not a part of Asia; and when Magellan in his famous voyage sailed through ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 329 the Strait of Magellan he clearly proved that America was a distinct continent. Balboa and Magellan^ you will remember, made their other discoveries in the name of Spain, and in the first half expior^ers of the sixteenth century Spanish explorers were most active in the New World. Cortez made an expedition to Mexico and Pizarro to Peru ; while farther to the north De Leon, Narvaez, and De Soto all landed on the western coast of Florida and marched inland, De Soto discover- ing the Mississippi River. France, however, was not Cartier idle; for Cartier not only explored the Gulf of St. Law- rence, but sailed up the St. Lawrence River as far as the site of Montreal. 235. Two Results of All These Explorations. — All European these explorations had two interesting and important territory results. In the first place, through them men were learn- ^^^^^^^ ing more about the geography of the New World. In the second place, by reason of discoveries, explorations, or conquests, European rivals based their claims upon territoiy in the New World. Spain claimed all of North and South America, except Brazil, which Portugal claimed. England claimed North America, and France claimed the valley of the St. Lawrence. These claims led to serious disagreements, which not A mighty only increased the bitterness of the rival powers toward control In^he each other in the Old World, but prolonged the mighty ^®^ ^°^^^ struggle on the part of the Spaniards, the French, and the EngHsh for control of the New World. In the course of years, as you will learn in your later study, the Dutch also joined in this struggle. It will be interesting for you to find out in your future reading which of these 330 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE four European rivals succeeded, which failed, and the reasons for success and failure. Why we 236. The End of Our Journey. — The point at length s op ere j^^^ l^^^^ reached when colony planting was about to begin in that part of America which is now our country; for in less than twenty years after the defeat of the Span- ish Armada the first permanent English colony was es- tablished at Jamestown, Virginia (1607). And here, on the threshold of what is commonly called American his- tory, our journey ends. Our long It is a long journey that we have taken together, together through more than 2,000 years of history and includ- ing visits to many countries. We have been to Greece and Italy; to Germany, France, Spain, and Portugal; to Denmark and Holland and England. We have followed fearless explorers to South America and North The purpose America and even round the world. If the journey journey ^as succeeded in its purpose, this thought has come to you many times: How much lies back of American history; how many things of to-day had their beginning centuries ago and in distant lands; and how different our life would be were it not for what we have gained from the Greeks and the Romans, from the men of the Middle Ages and of more recent times. America As you grow older you will feel more keenly how t'o'the^past* greatly America is indebted to the past. For as you study the history of European countries you will learn of many events of far-reaching influence which we, in our rapid journey, were forced to overlook. You will learn of many great souls besides the few this book has men- tioned — not alone kings and queens and statesmen and ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD 331 warriors and explorers, but preachers, teachers, inventors, artists, poets. You will learn, too, that we are indebted not only to prominent leaders, but to many who find little or no place in histories — to hard-working peasants, to craftsmen leading industrious lives, to unselfish mothers Gentle 11 r xx TTi influences eveiy where whose very names are forgotten, b or many which of the gentler influences which make life wholesome and more whole- uplifting can be traced not to those whose greatness is some apparent, but to the common people. In parting company, after our long journey together, America let it be with this thought in mind: Just as many things the worW of to-day had their beginning centuries ago and in dis- tant lands, so here in America much is being done the influence of which is widely felt and will continue to be widely felt ages hence. The little Jamestown colony has grown into a nation second to no other in the world, and its responsibility is correspondingly great. America, which has received so many gifts from Europe, must now do her best for the world. But a nation is made up of individuals, and its strength, Every one moral and intellectual, depends upon their strength, patriot What the individuals are, what you and I and others are, that will the nation be. Few of us can do great deeds that will attract world-wide attention, but if we do what we think is right, unselfishly serving those about us, we are as truly patriots as Leonidas, or the Chevalier Bayard, or ^^Good Queen Bess." We are helping America to help the world. In the long run, it is the little deeds of daily life that leave the deepest impression and most truly enrich the lives of men and women. 332 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. Up to the time when England defeated the Armada her ex- plorers had not ventured into that part of America to which Spain laid claim. 2. The great desire of Sir Humphrey Gilbert was to found in America an English colony; but he failed. 3. Sir Walter Raleigh wished to make a new England in America. 4. Although both his colonies were complete failures, he called attention to a new idea, namely, that the best way to secure a hold upon a new country was through permanent colonies. 5. There were two great contests: the first was between Portugal and Spain in their race to reach the Indies by a water route; and the second was a struggle on the part of Spain, England, France, and the Netherlands for power in Europe and in America. TO THE PUPIL 1. What had English explorers done in America up to the time when the Armada was defeated ? 2. What did Sir Humphrey Gilbert try to do, and with what result? 3. What did Raleigh try to do ? 4. Tell all you can about his first colony; about his second colony. What became of his second colony ? 5. What was Raleigh's new idea ? 6. What were the two great contests in Europe ? 7. Tell in a few words what each of the following men accomplished: Da Gama, Columbus, Cabot, Balboa, Magellan, Cortez, Pizarro, De Soto, and Cartier. 8. What countries have we visited in our long journey together? Point them out on the map. During the journey, what thought has come to you many times ? 9. What do you mean by saying that America owes a debt to the past? How can she help the world? 10. How can every American boy or girl be a patriot? PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES Achilles (a-kil'ez). Acropolis (a-krop'o-Us). ^gean (e-je'an). ^neas (e-ne'as). Agamemnon (ag-a-mem'non). Alaric (ara-rik). Alexandria (al-eg-zan'dri-g,) . Alexius (a-lek'si-us). Appian (ap'i-an), Arabia (a-ra'bi-Q,) . Arabs (ar'abz). Argonauts (ar'go-natz) . Ariovistus (a'ri-o-vis'tus) . Aristotle (ar'is-totl). Armada (ar-ma'da). Athene (a-the'ne). Attila (at'i-la). Augustine (a-gus'tin or a'gus-tin). Aztecs (az'teks). Babylonians (bab-i-lo'ni-anz). Baeda (be'da). Balboa (bal-bo'a). Barbarossa (bar-ba-ros'a). Barcelona (bar-se-lo'na). Bayard (ba'ard). Blondel (blon-del'). Bruges (bro'jes). Burgundians (ber-gun'di-anz). Byzantiimi (bi-zan'tium). Capitoline (kap'i-to-lin). Carcassonne (kar-ka-son'). Carthage (kar'thaj). Cassivelaimus (kas'i-ve-la'nus). Chariemagne (char'le-man). Cincinnatus (sin-si-na'tus). Clovis (klo'vis). Coligny (ko-len-ye' or ko-len'ye). Coliseum (kol'i-se'um). Constantinople (kon-stan-ti-no'pl) . Corinth (kor'inth). Cortez (kor'tez). Croatoan (kro-ton'). De Leon (da la-on'). De Narvaez (da nar-va-eth'). Diaz (de'ath). Ephesus (ef'e-sus). Eratosthenes (er-a-tos'the-nez). Ericsson (er'ik-son). Ethelbert (eth'el-bert). Etruscans (e-trus'kanz). KEY TO PRONUNCIATION* a as in fat e as in mete 5 as in note a a fate • e u her 6 ^i nor a a far i u pin 6 i( move a u ask 1 li pine u a tub e n met a not 11 mute A single dot under a vowel in an unaccented syllable indicates its abbre- viation and lightening, without absolute loss of distinctive quality. Thus: a as in prelate, courage o as in eulogy, democrat e " episcopal u '' singular, education A double dot under any vowel indicates the short u-sound, as in but. 23 * According to Century Dictionary. 333 334 PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES Frobisher (fro'bish-er). Genoa (jen'o-a). Granada (gra-na'dg,). Hamilcar (ha-mil'kar). Hannibal (han'i-bal). Hellenes (hel'-enz). Hellespont (heres-pont). Hengist (heng'gist). Hercules (her'ku-lez). Herodotus (he-rod 'o-tus). Hispaniola (his-pa'ni-o'la). Horatius (ho-ra'shi-us) . Huguenots (hu'ge-nots). Leicester (les'ter), Leonidas (le-on'i-das). Leyden (li'den). Magellan (ma-jeran). Magna Charta (mag'na kar'la). Marathon (mar'a-thon) . Marius (ma'ri-us). Marseilles (mar-salz'). Miletus (mi-le'tus). Miltiades (mil-tl'a-dez). Montezuma (mon-te-zo'ma). Nibelimgenlied (ne-be-loong-en-lef). Odysseus (o-dis'us). Palestine (pal'es-tm). Paios (pa-los'). Panama (pa-na-ma')- Parhament (par'li-ment). Parma (piir'ma). Parthenon (par'the-non). Patrician (pa-trish'an). Penates (pe-na'tez). Pericles (per'i-klez). Phidias (fid'i-as). Pizarro (piz-a'ro). Plataea (pla-te'a). Plebeians (ple-be'yanz). Pontius (pon'shus). Ptolemy (tore-mi). Ravenna (ra-ven'a). Rotenburg (ro'ten-borg). Saladin (sal'a-din). Saracens (sar'a-senz). Scipio (sip'i-o). Siegfried (seg'fred). Socrates (sok'ra-tez). Thebes (thebz). Themistocles (the-mis'to-klez) . Theodosius (the-o-do'shi-us). Thermopylae (ther-mop'i-le). Tiberius (ti-be'ri-us). Trasimene (tras-i-me'ne). Ulysses (u-lis'ez). ValhaUa (val-hal'|). Valkyrie (val-ki're). Vercingetorix (ver-sin-jet'o-riks), Verrazano ( ver-rat-sa'no) . Vespucius (ves-p6'shi-us). Vikings (vi'kingz). Xerxes (zerk'sez). SUGGESTIONS FOE TEACHING In the ''Outline" which follows, no attempt is made to say exactly how ''American Beginnings in Europe" should be used. There is no fixed and uniform method of teaching this or any other book. For certain limita- tions and conditions must be met by eveiy teacher — among them being the age, capacity, and previous train- ing of his pupils as well as the time devoted to the sub- ject — and these limitations and conditions vary from school to school and in the same school from vear to year. Notwithstanding this fact, however, it is hoped that by getting the point of view from which the book was written and the educational purpose it is intended to serve, even ex-perienced teachers may find it more ser- viceable than it could otherwise be. The plan of the book is based upon the outline pre- pared by the Committee of Eight for Grade VI, and in the main it follows this outline somewhat closely. As the author was a member of that committee, he has had the best possible opportunity to know just w^hat is the scope of the work which the outline was intended to cover. Moreover, after this report was issued he made out for the schools of Springfield, Mass., of which he was super- intendent, a course of study in history for Grade VI, which w^as. much like that made out for the same grade by the committee. For three years he saw this outline 335 336 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE thoroughly tested, in the e very-day work of the schools. He naturally feels, therefore, that his experience has been very useful to him as a preparation for writing "American Beginnings in Europe." In explaining his puipose he cannot do better than quote the language of the committee in its report to the American Historical Association. "It is bv no means intended/' says the report, "that the groups of topics outlined in Grade VI should be taught as organized his- tor}^ Such a use of the material suggested would utterly defeat the puipose in view. Pupils in this grade are not prepared to study scientific history in its logical and orderly development. But they are prepared to receive more or less definite impressions that may be conveyed to them by means of pictures, descriptions, and illustrative stories arranged in chronological sequence. In receiving such impressions they will not understand the full mean- ing of the great events touched upon, but they will catch something of the spirit and puipose of the Greeks, the Romans, and other types of racial life." It is the hope of the author that through such impres- sions the pupil will clearly understand that our national history is a part of the histor}^ of the world, and that it had its beginnings many centuries before Columbus started out on his famous voyage of discovery. For some of our American beginnings we are indebted to the Greeks, for some to the Romans, for others to the men of the Middle Ages, and for others still to the peoples of more recent eras. To make this clear the pupil is taken back in imagination to the time of the Greeks, the Ro- mans, and the men of the Middle Ages. Simple material SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING 337 relating to these racial types is used to illustrate their traits of character^ to interest the pupil in some of their most precious memories, and to give him some hints as to the contributions they have made to our civilization. In other words, the pupil will learn in a veiy simple way when and where some of the valuable elements of our civilization had their beginnings, what ways of living our forefathers brought with them when they came to America, and something of the spirit which prompted the discovery, the exploration, and the settlement of the New World. From the foregoing, it is evident that it has been no part of the author's purpose to give even an outline of Greek, Roman, or Mediaeval history^ Moreover, much that is given is not intended for the children to learn or memorize, but for the teacher to interpret for their under- standing and enlightenment. It follows, then, that the pages and sections of '^American Beginnings in Europe'' cannot all be handled alike. The way in which each of them should be used depends upon the kind of material which it contains. Some of them, as already hinted, should be interpreted by the teacher without further treatment; some should be merely read by the pupil in connection with such interpretation; others should be thoroughly studied, learned, and recited; and others still, under certain conditions, which depend partly upon the age and capacity of the class and partly upon the time devoted to the study of history in the sixth grade, may perhaps be altogether omitted, the teacher, of course, supplying any necessary thread of connection. In other words, this book — and the same may be said of any other 338 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE book — should be adapted to the needs of the pupils and to the other conditions and limitations under which the work in histor}^ must be carried on. Other conditions re- maining the same^ however^ the brighter and more ma- ture the clasS; the less of the book has to be explained and interpreted by the teacher, and the more of it can be studied and actively assimilated by the pupils. '^American Beginnings/' then, supplies material which the teacher will use as his intelligence; good sense, sound judgment, and teaching skill may direct. But it goes without saying that if these qualities are to be applied to the work in hand, there must be an intimate acquaintance with the spirit, purpose, material, and method of the book itself. The author, therefore, respectfully suggests, especially to teachers of little or no experience, that, be- fore teaching any division of the book, they first read the text in connection with a careful study of the maps, the illustrations, the side-topics, ^'Things to Remember,'' and the suggestions and questions ''To the Pupil." After following this plan, teachers will then be ready to profit by the ''Suggestions" contained in the "Outline." Skilful teachers of long experience need not be re- minded that there are two kinds of mistakes — and each kind is of a very serious nature — which may be made in teaching a book like this to sixth-grade pupils. The first is to act upon the assumption that nothing useful is ac- complished unless every section is studied, memorized, and recited, as if in preparation for a drastic examination. Thoroughness is the watchword of the teachers who in- sist upon the wisdom of such a method. The second kind of mistake is to study nothing seriously. In this SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING 339 case, the chief aim is to make everything interesting, easy, and pleasant. Each recitation is to be a sort of picnic excursion, where everybody is in a cheerful mood because he expects to do nothing but to have a good time. If something useful comes out of the experience as a sort of by-product, all well and good, but such does not seem to be the primaiy aim. It is not easy to determine which of these mistakes is the least harmful. There can be no doubt that many teachers have erred in following the second plan of work. The result is that the pupil gets only hazy nortions and learns very little in a definite way. Even ''impressions,'' it must be remembered, may be definite or so shadowy as to be almost without value. To get really definite im- pressions in histoiy, as in any other branch of study, some facts must be positively known as a result of active mental effort on the part of the learner. So when, in the suggestions which follow, the author speaks of impressions, he means that some facts must be known before the impressions find lodgment in the pupil's mind. And no impression will find such lodgment unless the pupil's historic imagination and historic feeling are called into play before he is required to memorize the material supplied by the book. In teaching ''American Beginnings in Europe '^ two methods should be employed, both of which are valu- able. AMien pursuing the first you will do your pupils a great service if you will often study with them in the preparation of any lesson you may assign. Bearing in mind that study is largely intensive reading, read over a paragraph with them silently in recitation. Then 340 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE require them to give you the important facts in the paragraph. To aid the memory^ use the side-topics. In pursuing this plan, you will at the outset find it necessary to ask many suggestive questions. But you will very soon find that the pupils, under skilful guidance, will gradually gain the power to give the gist of any paragraph in their own language. This is a power worth acquiring. Of great assistance in developing the ability to study is training the child to form mental pictures. If you will persistently follow the habit of asking — ^w^hen the material is especially suitable — '^What mental picture do you get from reading this paragraph?" ^'Describe this picture in your own words," the pupil will grow in power to revive and make real the human experience embodied in the narrative. A\Tien you teach after this manner, you make an appeal to the child's sympathetic imagination, without the free play of which he can make no progress in historical interpretation. Another method of teaching this book equally impor- tant with that of training the pupil to correct habits of study, is to make the text a foundation for reading or language lessons. When the author ''suggests," from time to time in the ''Outline," that certain passages fur- nish excellent material for reading and language lessons, he has in mind this method. Such work has a double value, for while it serves as a means to develop the learn- er's power to read and to express his thoughts, it also increases his knowledge of histoiy, and, if skilfulty con- ducted, is frequently more effective for acquiring facts or making deep and lasting impressions than lessons in his- tory mechanically assigned, studied, and memorized. SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING 341 Nor is there any reason why the two methods of teach- ing may not often be combined. In this case^ the reading of a number of sections, in connection with the teacher's interpretation, may be accompanied by oral or written language work. After this the children are ready for in- dividual and silent study, in connection with the sugges- tions and questions ''To the Pupil/' of a lesson assigned them for recitation. If the author were to use ''American Beginnings in Europe" in a sixth-grade class, he would most certainly teach a considerable part of it through reading and lan- guage lessons as suggested above, and would expect from the pupils much serious and thoughtful work. This method is extremely valuable for boys and girls of this age. But whatever the method employed, the great end to be attained should be steadily kept in view, and that is to teach the child the meaning of human life, indi- vidual and collective, or the meaning of his own life in its relation to that of his fellows. With this end in mind, the author, in writing "Ameri- can Beginnings in Europe," has tried to make represen- tative men the centres of great movements and important situations whenever this could be done. By getting a glimpse of such men as they appeared to those who knew them, and also some notion, even though slight, of their personal qualities, the pupil through his s}Tnpathetic imagination comes into vital touch with the past and gets deep and lasting impressions. It is worth while, there- fore, to make much of the personality and work of such men as Alfred the Great, Columbus, Magellan, and Sir Walter Raleigh, with the distinct purpose, in each case, 342 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE of bringing the pupils into close relation with the man himself. Remember^ fellow-teacher, that here, as else- where, personality is the supreme embodiment of truth. To make distinguished men, the leaders and heroes of their day and generation, stand for the great movements with which they were identified in their life and work is the simplest and most direct way of impressing the great moral lessons of history, and of thus humanizing the learner and of developing in him the spirit of co-operation with others. THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS I. THE PRESENT AND THE PAST THINGS TO REMEMBER It will be clearly seen that "Things to Remember" in this chapter are not so much distinct facts as definite impressions. SUGGESTIONS In helping the pupils to get the desired impressions, the teacher may first have them read aloud the chapter and then discuss it with them in connection with a brief consideration of the " Questions " * at the end of the chapter. The aim is to utilize the children's knowledge and experience in order to help them see that all about them — in many communities certainly — are people who came from European countries, just as our forefathers did, and that when the latter came to America they brought with them inventions — ways of living, ways of doing things — which the people of Europe used at that time. Some of these inventions were known in the time of Columbus and had come into use long before Columbus found his way to the New World. In such a simple way, without requiring the children to learn in detail either what these inventions were or how useful they have been to man- kind, we can give them some impressions of this fundamental and ele- mental fact, namely, that many " American beginnings " had their origin long ago, and that therefore the men who lived in other lands have been helpful to us in our living to-day. In a very real sense, then, do we profit by their experience. For their life and work have made our lives richer, easier, and more comfortable. By conveying such impressions we can train the child's historic sense. We can help him to understand the connection between the past and the present, between the life of men he has never seen and his own life. In * Here as elsewhere under "Suggestions" in this outline, reference is made to the questions and suggestions under the heading "To the Pupil/* to be found at the end of every chapter. 343 344 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE so doing we can render him an invaluable service by enabling him to understand that the present has grown out of the past and that Ameri- can life and experience are an integral part of the life and experience of the world. This chapter may easily be taught in two lessons. 11. THE GREEKS AND WHY WE REMEMBER THExM THINGS TO REMEMBER Be sure that your pupils get the following facts from this chapter: 1. Owing to geographical conditions, the people on the main- land of Greece lived in small groups. 2. Many of the Greeks became sailors and traded extensively, and many others left their home country and planted colonies in other lands. 3. Greek courage saved European Greece from coming under Persian rule. SUGGESTIONS This chapter should not be assigned section by section for study and memorizing. A better way is to use a part or all of the text for work in reading and language, in connection with the side-topics, the maps and illustrations, and the " Questions." In some schools, however, the chil- dren would enjoy looking up the answers to the " Questions," especially after the text had been read and talked over in the recitation. But what- ever the method pursued, the famous stories told in the text and the ac- counts of the Persian invasions should not be studied and memorized in all their details. Nearly all the material is rich for oral or written language as well as for stimulating the imagination, and if used in this way the desired re- sults can be achieved without an undue expenditure of time and strength. But how much of the chapter should be carefully reproduced in oral or written language, and how much should be merely explained by the teacher or read aloud by the pupils in the recitation, will of course depend upon your judgment in adapting the material to the special needs of your pupils. In any case you may well be satisfied if they can answer the " Questions " intelligently. Require the pupils to memorize the dates of the first and the second Persian invasions of Greece. THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS 345 III. THE GREEKS AS BUILDERS AND ARTISTS THINGS TO REMEMBER While the children should get a few ideas of Athens and of Athenian life, the leading purpose here is to put emphasis upon the Greeks as artists and builders and upon their keen sense of beauty. The statues of their gods, the Parthenon and other beau- tiful temples, illustrate the fine artistic feeling of the Greeks. SUGGESTIONS This chapter, if well taught, will strongly appeal to the child's imagina- tion. To that end, a careful study should be made of the illustrations. Sections i8, 24, and 25 may be merely explained, and the other sections read and discussed. Then require your class to answer the " Questions." Be sure that the children get a definite impression that the Greeks had a keen sense of beauty. The children should learn the dates of the Age of Pericles, 461-429 B. C. IV. GREEK BOYS AND GREEK MEN THINGS TO REMEMBER Nos. 1 and 3, in the outline given in the book, are the most important. SUGGESTIONS In imagination, and through reading and language lessons — and the material in this chapter is excellent for such work — the pupils should go to school with the Athenian and Spartan boys, should take part in the Olympic games, and should witness performances on the stage of the Greek theatre at Athens. Pericles and Socrates are two great leaders of whose work the pupils should receive at least some faint notion. 346 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE V. MEN WHO CARRIED GREEK WAYS OF LIVING TO OTHER LANDS THINGS TO REMEMBER Do not be satisfied unless your pupils understand clearly that Greek sailors, traders, and colonists brought about the spread of Greek knowledge and ways of living; and that Alexander the Great not only mastered the Persian Empire, but also, by founding many Greek cities, prepared the way for the spread of Greek ideas and ways of living in countries outside of Greece. SUGGESTIONS In helping the pupil to get the definite impressions suggested under " Things to Remember," a careful study should be made of the map. Much time can be saved in this way. In fact, here, as elsewhere, every coimtry and city or other important geographical fact mentioned in the text should be located on the map. Of course it should be made clear that the most significant part of Alexander's work was the carrying of Greek thought and cultiu-e to the East. The first two paragraphs in Sec- tion 33, the second in 34, all of 37, and all of 39 should be studied and recited. The rest of the chapter may be used for language and reading in connection with the " Questions." Require the pupils to learn that Alexander the Great began his con- quest of Persia and the East something like a century after the death of Pericles. VI. HOW THE ROAL\NS BEGAN THINGS TO REMEMBER The following things should be emphasized: 1. The remarkable success of the Romans was due in a measure to the geography of Italy and of Rome, but in a far higher degree THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS 347 to the character of the Romans themselves. 2. The simpUcity of early Roman life. 3. The Romans were at that time a heroic and nation-loving people. SUGGESTIONS If when reading and discussing geographic conditions constant use is made of the map, much time will be saved. The stories of Romulus and Remus, of Horatius at the Bridge, and of Cincinnatus admirably illustrate Roman traits of character. What were these traits? In most sixth-grade classes Sections 45 and 51 may be explained by the teacher without much comment, the pupils not being required to study or even to read them. The simple life which these early Romans lived should receive careful attention. In this case, details should be studied and learned. The date of the founding of Rome, 753 B. C, should be learned. Are you helping your pupils to study lessons which you assign for them to learn? VII. THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN ROME AND CARTHAGE THINGS TO REMEMBER 1. In dealing with the wars between Rome and Carthage, let your main purpose be to help the pupil get a definite impression of the colossal struggle by which the Romans extended their power. Make it clear in this chapter and the next that they did this by conquering and organizing under one government all the lands lying around the Mediterranean Sea and all Western Europe to the Danube and the Rhine and even to the borders of Scotland. In doing this the map should be studied at every step. 2. In the terrible and distressing war with Hannibal, both the Roman Senate and the Roman people were brave, unselfish, and patriotic. SUGGESTIONS It would be easy to spend too much time on this chapter, a thing which is certain to be done if an attempt is made to teach, as organized history, the wars between the two rival cities. To do this may be a great tempta- 348 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE tion to the teacher who has a full knowledge of Roman history. But the best results will be achieved by limiting the purpose to the conveying of a few such impressions as are outlined above. This can be easily done by reading and discussing the text in connection with the use of the section headings, the side-topics, and the " Questions." Of course the wonder- ful Hannibal can be made fascinating to boys and girls; but the heroism of the Roman people should receive the greatest emphasis. Sections 52, 53, and 57 should be explained and interpreted by the teacher, and this may be sufficient in many schools. The pivotal things in the chapter, however, are the last two paragraphs in Section 56, which should be thor- oughly learned. The remainder of the chapter may be read and repro- duced. The pupils should learn that the war with Hannibal began in 218 B. C. and ended with the battle of Zama in 202 B. C. VIII. THE ROMANS IN THE WEST THINGS TO REMEMBER The pupil should get from this chapter the definite impressions outlined under "Things to Remember," the most important of which is the last. SUGGESTIONS The military parts of this chapter have no practical value for our pur- pose, except as they help to convey the impressions just mentioned. Sec- tions 58, 59, 62, and 65 are the important ones. They merit study, but the others may well be only read and discussed, and, perhaps, the sub- stance of them reproduced in oral language. Remember that Caesar began the conquest of Gaul in 58 B. C. and that his first invasion of Britain took place three years later. IX. ROME THE CAPITAL OF AN EMPIRE THINGS TO REMEMBER The most important things are Nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6. The most striking fact is that while Rome had gained almost the whole world, she had lost her own moral strength and heroic qualities. THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS 349 SUGGESTIONS In carrying out the purpose of this chapter, the teacher should not be satisfied until the pupils can answer correctly all the " Questions." The material is rich, and should make a strong appeal to the imagination of the learners. The careful study of the illustrations in connection with the reading or study of the text will be found a great help. Sections 72 and 73 are worthy of special emphasis, and should be compared with Sections 48-50. Details should be avoided in teaching Sections 67, 68, 69, 70, and 75. The careful reading and discussion of these will suffice. But the first three paragraphs in Section 79 are very important. The pupils should see clearly that the practical Romans were great builders. X. ROME AND CHRISTIANITY THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline in the book. SUGGESTIONS After giving the pupil a little idea of Roman religion, make clear to him how Christianity had its beginnings and the reasons why the Romans per- secuted the early Christians. In reading and discussing this chapter, the side-topics and the " Questions " at the end of the chapter will be very helpful. Section 86 will prove valuable as a summary, and may be used to advantage by connecting it with a review of Sections 8, 34, 51, 65, and 76. The final paragraph of the chapter may well receive special atten- tion, although th ^ teacher must not expect children to understand its full meaning as would adult students. Remember that Caesar's grandnephew, who was afterward called Augustus, established one-man rule in Rome in 31 B. C, or about thirty years before Jesus was bom in Bethlehem. XL THE GERMANS THINGS TO REMEMBER Be sure that your pupils know Nos. 1, 2, and 3 in the outline given in the book — not merely these four sentences, but the sig- nificant facts which they summarize. 24 350 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE SUGGESTIONS When reading and reproducing this chapter, the side-topics and the " Questions " will stimulate the thinking of the pupils. An excellent oral language lesson will result if the teacher, after the children have read and discussed the chapter in the recitation period, should be called upon t^ reproduce the narrative from the side-topics written upon the blackboard. The teacher should merely explain the last two paragraphs. XII. THE GERINIANS AND THE ROMANS THINGS TO REMEMBER The important impressions to be conveyed are stated in Nos. 1, 2, 4, and 5 of the outline given in the book. SUGGESTIONS You need not try to do more than help the child to get these impres- sions. The first paragraph in Section 92 and all of Sections 95 and 96 should be thoroughly studied. Pages 122-125 need only be read. The children should learn that Alaric captured Rome in 410 A. D. and that the Middle Ages began in the fifth century and ended in the fifteenth. XIII. ALFRED AND THE ENGLISH THINGS TO REMEMBER The most important are the following: 1. German tribes made conquests in Gaul and in Britain. 2. Wherever the German invaders went during the first one hun- dred and fifty years of their stay in Britain, they put an end to Christianity. 3. After Augustine and a body of monks landed in Britain, monasteries spread rapidly, and in time the Christian faith made its wav over all Britain. 4. As a result of King THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS 351 Alfred's victory over the Danes, the EngHsh and the Danes came gradually to be united in one people. SUGGESTIONS Be satisfied with telling your pupils the substance of Sections 97, 98, and 99. The rest of the chapter furnishes excellent material for pains- taking work in reading and language. As a test of your teaching, find out whether or not your pupils can answer the *' Questions." Remember that the Jutes landed in Britain in 449 A. D. XIV. HOW THE ENGLISH BEGAN TO WIN THEIR LIBERTIES THINGS TO REMEMBER Emphasize the following: 1. King John was forced by the barons or nobles of England to sign the Great Charter. 2. The most valuable feature of this charter was that all the rights which came to be founded upon it were for the common people as well as for the nobles. 3. The village moot was the beginning of the American town meeting; and the moots of the hundred and the shire were the beginnings of such representative government as we have in our state legisla- tures and in our National Congress at Washington. SUGGESTIONS Merely give your class the substance of Sections 107, 108, and 109, but require careful study of Sections iii, 112, and especially 113. The chil- dren should understand clearly what were the " American Beginnings in Germany and England." Section no should be read and discussed in the recitation period, but not learned. Dates to be learned: 1066 and 1215, 352 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE XV. FEUDALISM; OR, THE LORD, THE CASTLE, AND THE KNIGHT THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline given in the book. SUGGESTIONS This chapter will be full of interest to the children, as it contains much picturesque and colorful material, which will stimulate imagination. The pictures may be used to great advantage. Section ii8 should merely be explained to the class, and Section 122 should simply be read by the chil- dren, without much discussion; but Section 123 merits careful study. The remaining sections furnish the best kind of material for work in read- ing and in oral and written language. XVI. ^TLLAGE LIFE IN THE MIDDLE AGES THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline in the book. SUGGESTIONS Freely use the pictures in connection with the side-topics and the " Questions," and the children will with but slight effort reproduce in oral or written language the things you wish them to remember. XVn. TOWNS AND GUILDS IN THE MIDDLE AGES THINGS TO REMEMBER Use all the outline in the book, except the part referring to guilds. In most classes, the teacher need do nothing more than explain what the guilds were and what was their purpose. THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS 353 SUGGESTIONS The material here is simple. As already hinted, no effort should be made to teach Section 128 so that the pupils can recite the details. XVIII. THE CHURCH, THE MONASTERY, AND THE MONKS THINGS TO REMEMBER The following are important: 1. As the Roman government became weaker the Christian Church grew stronger. Just as Rome had been supreme in her (lays of greatest splendor, so did the Roman Catholic Church become for a time supreme in the Middle Ages, not alone as a religious power but also as a political power. 2. The monks rendered a great service to the world in copying books. We are told that few of the classics of Greek or Roman literature would have been left to us had not the monks collected, preserved, and copied them in such great numbers. 3. Education was for a long time in the hands of monasteries and, by their missionary work, the monks did much to Christianize Europe. SUGGESTIONS In order to teach the important facts and produce the desired impres- sions, it is not necessary to study this chapter paragraph by paragraph, although the children should have no doubt about the supreme place of the Church in the Middle Ages, and of the important service to mankind rendered by the monks. In order to attain this result, Section 129 should be merely explained by the teacher. Sections 136-140 should be studied by the class, and the remainder of the chapter should only be read and discussed in the recitation. 354 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE XIX. THE CRUSADES THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline in the book. SUGGESTIONS This chapter is rich in interesting materials, especially those parts of it which bear upon Peter the Hermit and Richard the Lion-Heart. Sec- tions 142, 143, the first two paragraphs of 144, 147, and 153 should be studied with care; Sections 145, 146, and 148-150 should be read and discussed; while the remainder of the chapter should be used for work in language or perhaps should be merely read. The " Questions " will help to fix impressions. Please bear in mind that it is well worth your while to help the children to form mental pictures from what they read. A little gain in such power is worth pages of detailed facts memorized and reproduced from some text-book, without a realizing sense of their meaning. In reading about the crusades, it is most important that all countries and places mentioned in the text should be located on the map. The author again wishes to urge that in this way much valuable time will be saved and something will be done also to help the pupil to establish good working habits. XX. RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES THINGS TO REMEMBER The most important things are Nos. 1, 2, and 5 of the outline in the book. These should be accurately learned. SUGGESTIONS The sections which should be studied and learned are 154, 156, and the last paragraph of 160. In handling the rest of the chapter, the teacher should do little more than give in simple language his own interpretation of the material, although the temptation will be strong to require the pupils to study carefully what, from the standpoint of organized history, may seem of great importance to the adult student of this rich period. THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS 355 But such temptation should be resisted. The pupil should memorize the fact that the crusades began in 1095 and ended in 1270, or nearly two hundred years later. Are you helping your pupils to get the important things from a section or paragraph and reproduce them in their own words ? XXI. COLUMBUS AND THE DISCOVERY OF AMERICA THINGS TO REMEMBER All the things in the outline in the book should become a part of the pupil's stock of knowledge, as. the facts have a significant bearing upon American history. SUGGESTIONS The material in this chapter is simple. The pupils can easily under- stand the relation between the crusades and European trade with the East, as well as the relations between this trade and the famous voyages of Diaz and Columbus. A strong effort should be made to help them to appreciate the great significance of Colimibus's first voyage of discovery, which was of course much more important than anything recounted in Sections 162, 165, 166, the first two paragraphs on page 236, or in Section 169, although even these should be read and discussed with the class, yet without any attempt to memorize details, as only general impressions are necessary. To be sure the material in all these is full of interest, but it should in every case be made emphatically subordinate to that which outlines the events leading to the discovery of the New World. If the pupil sees this clearly, he will understand the vital connection between the discovery of the New World and the life-current that swept through the Old World. The date of Columbus's discovery of America should be memorized. Every one of the " Questions " and suggestions " To the PupiJ " will be found most helpful, and this is especially true of the one which requests pupils to imagine themselves with Colvunbus on his first voyage and to give an account of his trials. In this connection bring out in as bold re- lief as possible the commanding qualities of the MAN. The use of the map in tracing every voyage of exploration is of the highest importance. 356 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE XXII. THE SUCCESSORS OF COLUMBUS THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline given in the book. Do not require the pupil to memorize the exact dates, but help him to get the idea of historical sequence, and to see that all these events took place within a brief period after Columbus discovered America. It is assumed that this date will be firmly fixed in memory. SUGGESTIONS Follow the suggestions given in the book ; but in so doing you can easily- waste time upon Sections 177, 178, and 180. They should be read and perhaps briefly discussed. While the voyages of Magellan and Cartier are very interesting and furnish valuable material for reading and lan- guage, there is no good reason why a special effort should be made to memorize details, as the definite work accomplished by each of these men can be learned without such memorizing. XXIII. THE BEGINNINGS OF CONQUEST THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline given in the book. SUGGESTIONS In this chapter, it is easy, very easy, to waste time on unimportant de- tails. Their value consists in helping to give important impressions or to fix important facts, but they should not be thoroughly learned and mem- orized. For example, it is not worth while to spend much time upon Sections 184, 185, 189, 193, and 194, although the material may be read and discussed. Sections 196, 197, and 198, while they may not strongly appeal to the children, contain facts of much historical value in helping the teacher to impress one or two important things. THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS 357 It is by no means necessary or even wise to teach with exactness every date mentioned in the text. The children may memorize 1541, the date when De Soto discovered the Mississippi. At the same time they should note the fact that this was about fifty years after Columbus discovered America, and that between 1492 and 1541 Cortez, Pizarro, and De Soto did their work. XXIV. ENGLAND IN THE DAYS OF QUEEN ELIZABETH THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline in the book, SUGGESTIONS According to the Report of the Committee of Eight, one of the considera- tions by which this committee was governed in outlining work for history for the sixth grade was the desire " to associate the three or four peoples of Europe which were to have a share in American colonization with enough of their characteristic incidents to give the child some feeling for the name * England,' ' Spain,' * Holland,' and ' France.' " Such is the purpose of the author in the last division — " Rival Powers in Europe and America," — of " American Beginnings in Europe." Please note carefully the mod- est purpose—" to give the child SOME FEELING for the name ' Eng- land,' etc." If this purpose is kept steadily in mind the task set for both teacher and pupil in all the chapters of this division will be very easily accomplished. It is to be hoped, then, that before a single step with the class is taken, the teacher, especially if he is lacking in experi- ence, will read all the chapters of this division, and carefully consider the " Things to Remember," the " Questions," and the " Suggestions." If the author's purpose is carried out, the teacher will NOT make a detailed study of these chapters, because such a method is not necessary and is too expensive in time. By reading and discussing the various sections of this chapter on " England in the Days of Queen Elizabeth," in connection with the section headings and the side-topics, the class will get the desired impressions and will be able to respond intelligently to the " Questions." Sections 199, 200, the first paragraph of 201, 204, and 209 should be interpreted and explained by the teacher. 358 AMERICAN BEGINNINGS IN EUROPE XXV. FRANCE, ANOTHER RIVAL OF SPAIN THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline in the book. SUGGESTIONS If the teacher will carefully read and discuss this chapter with the chil- dren, the desired impression will be conveyed. Nothing more than this will be attempted, if the purpose of the Committee of Eight and of the author of this book is carried out. XXVI. THE KING OF SPAIN DEFIED BY HIS SUBJECTS THINGS TO REMEMBER Follow the outline in the book. SUGGESTIONS Here again details need not be MEMORIZED in order to carry out the general purpose already mentioned for this division of the book. By reading over the text with the pupils and by using the material in oral language, the teacher will do all that is necessary to deepen and fix the desired impressions. XXVII. ENGLISHMEN JOIN IN THE FIGHT AGAINST SPAIN THINGS TO REMEMBER Emphasize the purpose of Philip II in sending the "Invincible Armada" against England, and also the three striking results of its overwhelming defer t. THE OUTLINE BY CHAPTERS 359 SUGGESTIONS The strong temptation on the part of many teachers to require the pupils to study and memorize details of these interesting events should be stead- ily resisted. The valuable things in the chapter can be learned more easily and naturally by reading, discussing, and reproducing the material in oral language and certain parts of the chapter, perhaps, in written lan- guage. Be sure, however, that the pupils learn the important things and are able to answer the *' Questions." Require the memorizing of the year 1588, when the " Armada " was defeated. XXVIII. ENGLISH VOYAGES WESTWARD THINGS TO REMEMBER As this is a very important chapter, the pupils should know' thoroughly "Things to Remember" as outlined in the book. The most significant of these are what Raleigh tried to do and what he achieved, and also the two great contests. SUGGESTIONS In dealing with this chapter. Sections 229, 230, and 236 should be care- fully read and discussed, while Sections 231-235 should be studied in order that the principal facts may be thoroughly memorized. It is espe- cially desirable that the pupil should, through his sympathetic imagina- tion, be brought into vital touch with Raleigh the MAN, and also that he should get clear and definite ideas of the meaning of the two great con- tests in their significant bearing upon American history. Downright study is called for here. In the review work connected with the two great contests, a very care- ful use should be made of the map. In the last section the author makes a personal and ethical appeal to every pupil who may read the book, and he invites you, fellow-teacher, to join with him in making this appeal to the boys and girls of your classes. He suggests that, when doing so, the children review with the teacher the first section of " American Begin- nings." Such work will not only help the learner to reahze that the history of his country is a part of the history of the world, but also that he himself can be truly patriotic by rendering honest and faithful service to his community and to his country. INDEX Abbey, Westminster, 145 Abbott, 160, 188 Achilles, 16, 17, 49, 51 Acropolis, 32, 34 ^gean Sea, 9, 13, 18 iEneas, 58 Agamemnon, 16 Alaric, 121-125 Alexander the Great, 46, 49-54 Alexander VI, 250 Alexandria, 52-54 Alexius, Emperor, 209 Alfred the Great, 138-143 Alphabet, invention of, 7, 8 Alva, Duke of, 306, 307 Amphitheatre, 80, 86 Angles, 130, 132, 153 Anglo-Saxons, 153 Appian Way, 96 Aqueducts, 96-98 Arabians, civilization, 225, 226, 236 Arabs, 204 Argonauts, 15 Ariovistus, 75, 76 Aristotle, 46, 49 Armada, Spanish, 312-319, 326 Art, 34, 99 Asia, European trade with, 219- 223, 230-232 Assembly, Greek, 43, 44 Assemblv of Freemen, 116 Athene, 32-35 Athenians, 20, 28-39 Athens, 18-21, 28-46 Attica, 26, 28 Attila, 121 Augustine, Saint, 133-135, 300 Augustus, Emperor, 85, 101, 105 Aztecs, the, 262-266 Babylonians, 7 Baeda, 136 Balboa, 255, 256 Barbarossa, Frederick, 213 Barcelona, 243 Baths, Roman, 80, 88, 89 Bayard, Chevalier, 298, 299 "Beggars," the, 306 Belgium, 302 Benedict, Saint, 188, 192 Bishop, 169, 185, 186 Blondel, 216 Books, 101, 102, 194-196 Britain, 77-80, 130-138 Bruges, 81, 222 Burgundians, 123 Byzantium, 110 Cabot, John, 250-252, 280, 321 Cabot, Sebastian, 252 Caesar, Julius, 75-82, 91, 105, 114 Calvin, John, 294 Canterbury, 134, 135 Capitoline Hill, 95 Caravans, 52, 231 Carcassonne, 181 Carthage, 65-74 Cartier, 259, 260, 297 Cassivelaunus, 78 Castle, the, 161-164 Catacombs, 109, 110 Cathedrals, 146, 182 Charlemagne, 129, 157, 196 Charles V, 298, 299, 304 Charter, the Great, 149, 150 Charters, for towns, 182 Chester, 80, 181 China, 230, 259 Chivah-y, 166-173 Christianity, 105-110, 131-136, 200, 201 Church, Roman Catholic, 186 Church, the Christian, 185, 186 Cincinnatus. 61 Circus Maximus, 87 Classics, the Greek and Roman, 196 Clovis, 128, 129 Clunv, 189, 190 Coligny, 300 Coliseum, the, 86 * Colonies, Greek, 13, 47; Roman, 64, 65; Spanish, 277 Columbus, 54, 234-248 Commerce, 219-222 Constantine, the Emperor, 110, 185 Constantinople, 110, 205, 208, 231 361 362 INDEX Corinth, 18 Cortez, 261-266 Crassus, 91 Croatoan, 327 Crusades, the, 203-218 Cuba, 242 Cuneiform writing, 7, 8 Da Gama, Vasco, 246, 252-255 Danes, 130, 136, 138-143 Danube, 113, 114 Darius, 18, 19 De Leon, 270 De Montfort, 151 De Narvaez, 270 De Soto, 268, 270-274 Diaz, 233, 234 Discus thrower, 34 Drake, Sir Francis, 287-293, 311, 312 Druids, 131 Dutch, the, 302-309 East, the, 219, 220, 229, 250, 254- 256 Eastern Empire, 122, 205 Education, 38-41, 99-101, 190-197 Edward I, 151 Egypt, 52, 187, 221 Egyptians, 7 EUzabeth, Queen, 280-283, 310, 312, 314, 323 Empire, the Roman, 85 England, 279-295, 320-328 Ephesus, 14 Eratosthenes, 53 Ericsson, Leif, 240 Ethelbert, King, 133 Etruscans, 59 Ferdinand, King, 235, 236, 243, 275 Feudal system, 155-173, 223, 224 Florida, 270, 301 Forum, the, 91, 92 France, 296-301 Francis I, 259, 296-299 Franks, the, 128 French, the, 259-260 Frobisher, 314-321 Gaul, 75-83, 128 Genoa, 220, 221, 230, 232, 235 Geographical conditions in Greece, 10-12; in Italy, 56, 57 Germans, the, 75, 77, 113-127 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 321-323 Gladiatorial contests, 86 Godfrey of Boulogne, 212 Gods and Goddesses, Greek, 35; Roman, 104, 105; German, 118- 120 Golden Fleece, story of, 14, 15 Golden House of Nero, 89 Good Hope, Cape of, 234, 256 Goths, 121-125 Granada, 236 Greece, 10-13 Greek colonies, 13, 47 Greek education, 38-41 Greek religion, 35 Greeks, 9-54, 98-100, 111, 112 Greenland, 238 Gregory I, 132, 133 Gregory VIII, 213 Grenville, Sir Richard, 323, 324 Guilds, 181-184 Gunpowder, 5, 222 Gymnasiums, 29, 88 Hamilcar, 68 Hannibal, 68-74 Hastings, battle of, 145 Hawkins, 287, 288, 314 Hayti, 242 Hellas, 13 Hellenes, 9 Hellespont, 22, 50 Hengist, 130 Henry, Prince, 232, 233 Hercules, 15 Hermits, 187 Herodotus, 19, 20, 23 Hispaniola, 242, 244, 261 Holland, 302, 311 Holy Land, 147, 203-205 Holv Roman Empire, 215, 298 Homer, 16, 49, 101 Horatius, 58, 59 Horn, Cape, 291 Horsa, 130 Huguenots, 299-301 Huns, 121, 122 Iceland, 238 Iliad, 16, 49, 101, 119 Immigration laws, 3 Incas, the, 267-270 India, 230, 252 INDEX 3G3 Indians, 260, 270-274 Inquisition, the 305, 306 Inventions, 4, 5 lona, 188 Ionia, 34 Irish Monks of Britain, 135 Isabella, Queen, 235, 237, 243, 245, 246, 275 Italian cities, 220, 255 Jason, 14, 15 Jerusalem, 148, 204, 205, 210-212 John, King of England, 147-150 Jousts, 170 Jupiter, 95, 105, 110 Jutes, 130 Knight, the, 166-173, 203 Langton, Stephen, 149 Lares, 105 Learning, revival of, 224, 225, 227 Leicester, 311 Leonidas, 23-26 Leopold, Duke of Austria, 214, 215 Ley den, siege of, 307-309 Lincoln, 80 Lisbon, 234, 254, 255 Literature, 99, 195 London, 80 Luther, Martin, 294 Macedonians, 40 Magellan, 256-259 Magna Charta, 149, 150 Manor, the, 174-178 Marathon, 19-21 Mariners' Compass, 5 Marius, 91 Marseilles, 48, 215 Mayflower, 4 Mexico, 262-266 Middle Ages, 127 Miletus, 14 Military service, feudal, 157, 158 Miltiades, 19-21 Minstrels, 166 Missionaries, 132, 135, 275, 276 Missions, Spanish, 275, 276 Mississippi River, 273 Mohammedans, 204 Monastery, the, 135, 136, 146, 185- 201 Monks, the, 187-201, 203 Montezuma, 202-265 Montreal, 260 Moors, the, 222, 235, 236 Moot, 152, 153 Museum at Alexandria, 53 Nero, Emperor, 108 Netherlands, the, 222, 304, 310, 318 Nibclungenlied, 119 Normans, the, 144-147 Northmen, the, 13G, 115, 238, 239 Northumbria, 13G Odysseus, 17 Odyssey, 16, 101 Olympic games, 41, 42 Olympus, Mount, 11, 35 Palace, Roman, 89, 131 Palestine, 203-205 Palos, 241 Panan-a, 255, 267, 289, 290 Parliament, the English, 150, 151, 154 Parma, Duke of, 313 Parthenon, the, 33, 34, 35 Patricians, the, 60 Patrick, Saint, 135 Paul, Saint, 107, 108 Penates, the, 105 Pericles, 43, 44 Persecution of Christians, 107-110 Persia, 50-52, 221 Persians, the, 18-27 Peru, 267-270 Peter, Saint, 108 Peter the Hermit, 207, 208, 211 Phidias, 32, 33 Philip, Augustus, 148, 213 Phihp II of Spain, 148, 289, 300, 304-306, 309-311 Phihp of Macedon, 48, 49 Picts, the, 130 Pilgrims, 203-206 Pizarro, 267-270 Platsea, battle of, 26 Plato, 46 Plebeians, 60 Polo, Marco, 229-230 Pompev, 91 Pontius Pilate, 107 Pope, the, 149, 186, 293 Portuguese, the, 232-234, 252-255 364 INDEX Printers' Press, 5 Privateers, 287, 296 Protestantism, 293, 294 Ptolemies, 53 Ptolemy, 54 Quebec, 260 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 283, 284, 321, 323-328 Ravenna, 123 Raymond, Count, 212 Reformation, the, 293, 294 Religion, 35, 104, 105, 118-120 Remus, 58 Representative Government, 151- 154 Rhine, the, 113, 114 Richard I, the Lion-Heart, 147, 213-216 Rivals of Spain, 279 Roads, Roman, 80, 95, 96 Roanoke Island, 323-326 Rollo, 144 Roman Catholic Church, 307 Roman Empire, 85 Roman Empire of the East, 122, 205 Roman Empire of the West, 122 Roman Province, 105 Romans, 56, 114, 126 Rome, the city of, 61, 85-95, 125 Romulus, 58 Rotenburg, 181 Runnymede, 150 Saint Peter's Church, 109 Saladin, 213-215 Salamis, 26 Saracens, 211, 212 Saxons, 130, 132, 153 Schools, 130, 142, 197 Scipio, 73 Scots, 130 Senate, Roman, 72, 91 Senlac, battle of, 145 Serfs, 175-178 Sicily, 66 Sidney, Sir PhiHp, 310 Siegfried, 120 Slavery, 29, 89, 90, 100, 275, 288 Socrates, 44-46 Spain, 225, 232, 236, 279, 292, 319, 320 Spaniards, 236, 274, 277, 300 Sparta, 18 Spartans, 20, 39-41 Statues, Greek, 34 Sulla, 91 Syracuse, 48 Tarquin, 59 Theatres, 35-37, 86 Thebes, 18 Themistocles, 21 Theodosius the Great, 122 Thermopylae, 23-26 Tiberius, 105 Tournament, the, 170-172 Towns in the Middle Ages, 179-181 Trade, 219-222, 230-232, 286-288 Trasimene, Lake, battle of, 71 Travel, love of, 219, 229 Triumph, Roman, 92-95 Trojan War, 16 Turks, 204, 205, 214, 231 Ulysses, 17 Universities, 53, 197, 226 ' Urban, Pope, 205-207, 209 Valhalla, 117, 119 Valkyrie, the, 119 Vandals, 123 Vassals, 157-161, 174, 175 Venice, 220, 221, 222, 230, 232, 255 Venus of Melos, 34 Vercingetorix, 80-83 Verrazano, 259 Vespucius, Americus, 249 Vesta, 104 Vikings, the, 136-138, 144, 238 Villa, Roman, 80, 89 Vinland, 240 Walter the Penniless, 208 Western Empire, 122 White, Captain, 326, 327 William of Orange (The Silent), 307-309 William the Conqueror, 145, 160 Wotan (Odin), 118-119 Xerxes, 22-27 York, 80 Zama, battle of, 73 Zeus 35 ■ ., ,1 i-rt Tnnimrmmmniiinnii nniif i fi iiii finnnnfi i Mwiwii i i i iB i m i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 018 487 741 7 -'r'r nr'trt nrir l 'nM ii ww ifi t ftriri iririiii i Hii W iuimtiiriiiiiiiiiwui ■■ maaawtaaaatt