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The 
 
 Stadg o? Breeds 
 
 In flmerica 
 
 Cattle, Slr^eep ar^d Swine 
 
 Bg T|40]VIfiS SflAW 
 
 Professor of Animal Husbandry at the University of Minnesota 
 
 Author of 
 
 " Public School Agriculture " ** Weeds and How to Eradicate Them " 
 
 "Forage Crops Other Than Grasses " 
 
 '* Soiling Crops and the Silo," Etc. 
 
 New York and Chicago 
 
 Orange dudd Con^pang 
 
 1900 
 
xo^ 
 
 ^O copies BBC.VVKO, 
 
 9ffl««* of thai 
 
 MAP 961?"^ 
 
 56830 
 
 Copyright, 1900, 
 
 BY 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 
 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 
 
 The author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to 
 the secretaries of the various Live Stock Associations for infor- 
 mation furnished, to the owners of sketches previously made 
 and of animals sketched to provide the illustrations used, and 
 to Mr. Charles P. Taylor of the University of Minnesota for 
 valuable assistance in preparing many of the sketches and 
 otherwise assisting in the preparation of the book. 
 
To the students of the agricultural colleges and the growers 
 of live stock in America, this zvork is most respectfully dedi- 
 cated by The Author. 
 University of Minnesota, igoo. 
 
THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE 
 
 In this book it has been the aim of the author to 
 discuss, in a manner at once brief and concise, all the 
 pedigreed breeds of cattle, sheep and swine at pres- 
 ent existing in America, and also the more important 
 of the sub-breeds. It has been written in the hope 
 that the student of the college and the farm will not 
 be necessitated to travel the same toilsome road trod- 
 den by the author wiien gathering the information 
 which it contains. 
 
 When the author was called to the chair of 
 Animal Husbandry, no way marks relating to this 
 study had been set up for the guidance of either 
 teacher or student. No work had ever been written 
 on the study of breeds as such. The historical truths 
 relating to the subject existed, but they were strewn 
 about as though with the w^inds of centuries. No 
 one had dealt in a systematic way w^th the character- 
 istics of the breeds. No one had presumed to formu- 
 late standards of excellence where they did not exist, 
 nor had the standards in existence for the pure 
 breeds been all collected and published in one volume. 
 The leading truths relating to this great study had 
 of course been discovered, but no one had undertaken 
 the work of collecting and systematizing them so 
 that they would be of easy access to the student or 
 the farmer. To thus gather and systematize these 
 truths has been the aim of the author. 
 
 It is expected that exception will be taken to 
 some of the statements made, more especially with 
 
 vii 
 
Vlll PREFACE. 
 
 reference to animal form, to type within the breeds 
 and to the comparisons drawn with reference to 
 breed characteristics. It could not be otherwise 
 when men differ so widely in regard to these ques- 
 tions, and more especially where those differences of 
 view rest upon a basis of self-interest, as they fre- 
 quently do. The foremost dairymen are not yet 
 agreed as to the exact furnishings of the highest type 
 of a dairy cow, nor can two judges of beef cattle be 
 found who are likely to work for one hour together 
 in the show-ring without differing in their opinions. 
 It is expected, therefore, that criticisms will be made 
 in the spirit of candor and fairness in which the 
 author has tried to discuss the whole question. 
 
 It is also believed that some of the comparisons 
 drawn will not hold good some years hence, owing 
 to the modifications in form and adaptation that will 
 be made with some of the breeds. It is not neces- 
 sary, however, to attempt to forecast these changes. 
 Posterity may be safely trusted to deal with them 
 when they arise. 
 
 Students of the agricultural colleges and of the 
 farms, and breeders of America, this is your book. 
 May it prove to you the stepping stone to higher 
 things in this great industry. 
 University Experiment Farm, 
 
 St. Anthony Park, Minn., ipoo. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Lecture No. i. 
 Origin of the Domesticated Races of Cattle . . . i 
 
 Lecture No. 2. 
 Origin of the British Breeds of Cattle .... 4 
 
 Lecture No. 3. 
 Classification of Cattle 7 
 
 Lecture No. 4. 
 Indications of Correct Form Common to the Beef Breeds 10 
 
 Lecture No. 5. 
 Indications of Correct Form and Function Common to 
 
 the Dairy Breeds 13 
 
 Lecture No. 6. 
 
 Indications of Correct Form and Function in Dual- 
 
 Purpose Cattle 19 
 
 THE BEEF BREEDS. 
 
 Lecture No. 7. 
 Shorthorn Cattle — Their Origin and History . 
 
 Lecture No. 8. 
 Shorthorns — Their Distribution in Other Countries 
 
 Lecture No. 9. 
 Shorthorns — Their Leading Characteristics 
 
 Lecture No. 10. 
 Shorthorns — Their Principal Points .... 
 
 Lecture No. 11. 
 Hereford Cattle — Their Origin and History . 
 
 Lecture No. 12. 
 Hereford Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics 
 
 Lecture No. 13. 
 Hereford Cattle — Their Principal Points . 
 
 IX 
 
 23 
 
 28 
 
 31 
 34 
 37 
 43 
 46 
 
X TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Lecture No. 14. page. 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus Cattle — Their Origin and History . 49 
 
 Lecture No. 15. 
 Aberdeen-Angus Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . 55 
 
 Lecture No. 16. 
 Aberdeen-Angus Cattle — Their Standard Points . . 58 
 
 Lecture No. 17. 
 Galloway Cattle — Their Origin and History ... 63 
 
 Lecture No. 18. 
 Galloway Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . . 67 
 
 Lecture No. 19. 
 Galloway Cattle — Their Standard Points .... 70 
 
 Lecture No. 20. 
 
 Sussex Cattle — Their Origin and History, Character- 
 istics and Principal Points 72 
 
 Lecture No. 21. 
 
 West Highland Cattle — Their Origin and Histor3% Char- 
 acteristics and Principal Points 78 
 
 DAIRY BREEDS. 
 
 Lecture No. 22. 
 
 Holstein-Friesian Cattle — Their Origin and Histor}-^ . 85 
 
 Lecture No. 23. 
 Holstein-Friesian Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics 89 
 
 Lecture No. 24. 
 Holstein-Friesian Cattle — Their Standard Points . . 92 
 
 Lecture No. 25. 
 
 Dutch Belted Cattle — Their Origin and History, Charac- 
 teristics and Standard Points 95 
 
 Lecture No. 26. 
 Ayrshire Cattle — Their Origin and History . , . loi 
 
 Lecture No. 27. 
 Ayrshire Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . . 106 
 
 Lecture No. 28. 
 Ayrshire Cattle — Their Standard Points .... 109 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI 
 
 Lecture No. 29. page. 
 
 Guernsey Cattle — Their Origin and History . . .113 
 
 Lecture No. 30. 
 Guernsey Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics 
 
 Lecture No. 31. 
 Guernsey Cattle — Their Standard Points . 
 
 Lecture No. z^. 
 Jersey Cattle — Their Origin and History . 
 
 Lecture No. 2>2)- 
 Jersey Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . 
 
 Lecture No. 34. 
 Jersey Cattle — Their Standard Points 
 
 Lecture No. 35. 
 
 French Canadian Cattle — Their Origin and History, 
 
 Characteristics and Standard Points .... 133 
 
 Lecture No. 36. 
 
 Kerry Cattle — Their Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Principal Points 139 
 
 116 
 119 
 123 
 127 
 130 
 
 THE DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS. 
 Lecture No. 2>7- 
 
 Polled Durham Cattle — Their Origin and History, Char- 
 acteristics and Principal Points 145 
 
 Lecture No. 38. 
 
 Brown Swiss Cattle — Their Origin and History, Charac- 
 teristics and Standard Points 151 
 
 Lecture No. 39. 
 
 Red Polled Cattle — Their Origin and History, Charac- 
 teristics and Standard Points 156 
 
 Lecture No. 40. 
 Devon Cattle — Their Origin and History .... 163 
 
 Lecture No. 41. 
 Devon Cattle — Their Leading Characteristics . . . 167 
 
 Lecture No. 42. 
 Devon Cattle — Theix Standard Points .... 170 
 
XU TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 SHEEP. 
 Lecture No. i. page. 
 
 Sheep — Their Introduction Into America .... 173 
 
 Lecture No. 2. 
 Sheep — Their Improvement and Classification . . . 177 
 
 Lecture No. 3. 
 Sheep — Leading Essentials as to Form and Wool . . 180 
 
 THE FINE WOO LED BREEDS. 
 
 Lecture No. 4. 
 
 The American Merino — Origin and History, Character- 
 istics and Principal Points 183 
 
 Lecture No. 5. 
 
 Delaine Merino — Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Standard Points 192 
 
 Lecture No. 6. 
 
 Rambouillets — Origin and History, Characteristics and 
 
 Principal Points 198 
 
 THE MEDIUM WOOLED BREEDS. 
 
 Lecture No. 7. 
 
 Southdown Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Principal Points 2o6 
 
 Lecture No. 8. 
 
 Tunis Sheep — Their Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Standard Points 211 
 
 Lecture No. 9. 
 
 Dorset Horn Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Principal Points 217 
 
 Lecture No. 10. 
 
 Shropshire Sheep — Their Origin and History, Charac- 
 teristics and Principal Points 225 
 
 Lecture No. ii. 
 
 Cheviot Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics and 
 
 Principal Points 231 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll 
 
 Lecture No. 12. page. 
 Suffolk Down Sheep — Origin and History, Characteris- 
 tics and Standard Points 237 
 
 Lecture No. 13. 
 
 Hampshire Down Sheep — Origin and History, Charac- 
 teristics and Standard Points 243 
 
 Lecture No. 14. 
 
 Oxford Downs — Origin and History, Characteristics and 
 
 Standard Points 249 
 
 THE LONG WOOLED BREEDS. 
 
 Lecture No. 15. 
 
 Leicester Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Principal Points 257 
 
 Lecture No. 16. 
 
 Lincoln Sheep — Origin and History, Characteristics and 
 
 Standard Points 263 
 
 Lecture No. 17. 
 
 Cotswold Sheep— Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Standard Points 271 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 Lecture No. i. 
 
 Swine — Origin of the Domesticated Races . . . 276 
 
 Lecture No. 2. 
 Swine — Their Improvement and Classification . . . 280 
 
 Lecture No. 3. 
 Swine — Leading Essentials as to Form .... 283 
 
 THE LARGE BREEDS. 
 
 Lecture No 4. 
 
 Chester Whites — Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Principal Points 287 
 
 Lecture No. 5. 
 
 The Improved Large Yorkshires — Origin and History, 
 
 Characteristics, and Standard Points .... 295 
 
XIV TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 Lecture No. 6. page. 
 
 Tamworths — Origin and History, Characteristics and 
 
 Principal Points 301 
 
 THE MEDIUM BREEDS. 
 
 Lecture No. 7. 
 
 The Berkshires — Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Standard Points 307 
 
 Lecture No. 8. 
 
 Poland-Chinas — Origin and History, Characteristics and 
 
 Standard Points 313 
 
 Lecture No. 9. 
 
 The Victorias — Origin and History, Characteristics and 
 
 Standard Points 321 
 
 Lecture No. 10. 
 
 The Duroc-Jersey — Origin and History, Characteristics 
 
 and Standard Points 327 
 
 Lecture No. ii. 
 
 The Cheshire — Origin and History, Characteristics and 
 
 Standard Points Z2>Z 
 
 THE SMALL BREEDS. 
 
 Lecture No. 12. 
 
 The Improved Suffolks — Their Origin and History, 
 
 Characteristics and Principal Points 339 
 
 Lecture No. 13. 
 
 Improved Essex Swine — Origin and History, Character- 
 istics and Standard Points 343 
 
 Lecture No. 14. 
 
 Small Yorkshire Swine — Origin and History, Character- 
 istics and Standard Points 349 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Frontispicce- 
 
 -"In the Shade of the El 
 
 ms." 
 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 FIG. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 I. Typical 
 
 Dual-Purpose Cow 18 
 
 2. 
 
 Shorthorn Bull 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 3- 
 
 Shorthorn Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 4. 
 
 Hereford Bull 
 
 
 
 
 
 38 
 
 5. 
 
 Hereford Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 6. 
 
 Aberdeen- Angus Bull . 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 7. 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus Cow . 
 
 
 
 
 
 12, 
 
 8. 
 
 Galloway Bull 
 
 
 
 
 
 62 
 
 9. 
 
 Galloway Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 10. 
 
 Sussex Cattle, Group oi 
 
 
 
 
 
 7i 
 
 II. 
 
 West Highland Heifer 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 12. 
 
 Holstein Bull . 
 
 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 13. 
 
 Holstein Cow . 
 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 14. 
 
 Dutch Belted Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 96 
 
 15. " 
 
 Ayrshire Bull 
 
 
 
 
 
 102 
 
 i6. 
 
 Ayrshire Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 105 
 
 17. 
 
 Guernsey Bull 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 112 
 
 i8. 
 
 Guernsey Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 115 
 
 19. " 
 
 Jersey Bull 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 122 
 
 20. 
 
 Jersey Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 125 
 
 21. 
 
 French Canadian Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 134 
 
 22. 
 
 Kerry Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 140 
 
 23. 
 
 Polled Durham Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 148 
 
 24. 
 
 Brown Swiss Cow . 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 150 
 
 25. 
 
 Red Poll Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 157 
 
 26. 
 
 Devon Cow 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 164 
 
 SHEEP. 
 
 27. Typical American Merino Ewe 
 
 28. " Delaine Merino Ewe 
 
 29. " Rambouillet Ewe . 
 
 30. " Southdown Ewe 
 
 31. " Tunis Ram 
 
 32. " Dorset Ewe 
 
 XV 
 
 184 
 191 
 199 
 
 205 
 212 
 218 
 
XVI 
 
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 FIG 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 36^ 
 
 37 
 
 38 
 
 39 
 40 
 
 Typical Shropshire Ewe 
 
 '' Cheviot Ewe . 
 
 *' Suffolk Down Ewe 
 
 '^ Hampshire Down Ewe 
 
 " Oxford Down Ewe 
 
 " Leicester Ewe 
 
 " Lincoln Ewe . 
 
 " Cots wold Ram 
 
 PAGE. 
 224 
 232 
 238 
 244 
 250 
 256 
 264 
 270 
 
 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 41. 
 
 Typical 
 
 Chester White Sow . . . . .288 
 
 42. 
 
 (( 
 
 Large Improved Yorkshire Sow 
 
 
 • 294 
 
 43- 
 
 <( 
 
 Tamworth Sow 
 
 
 . 302 
 
 44- 
 
 << 
 
 Berkshire Sow 
 
 
 
 
 . 308 
 
 45. 
 
 (( 
 
 Poland-China Sow 
 
 
 
 
 . 314 
 
 46. 
 
 (( 
 
 Victoria Sow . 
 
 
 
 
 . 322 
 
 47. 
 
 (< 
 
 Duroc-Jersey Sow . 
 
 
 
 
 . 326 
 
 48. 
 
 << 
 
 Cheshire Sow 
 
 
 
 
 . 334 
 
 49. 
 
 (( 
 
 Suffolk Sow . 
 
 
 
 
 . 338 
 
 50. 
 
 tt 
 
 Essex Sow 
 
 
 
 
 . 344 
 
 51. 
 
 <( 
 
 Small Yorkshire Sow 
 
 
 
 
 . 350 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 52. Illustrating Points of Animal Form 
 
 53. Illustrating Points of Animal Form 
 
 356 
 357 
 
PART I 
 
 BREEDS OF CATTLE 
 
 LECTURE NO. i. 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTICATED RACES OF CATTLE. 
 
 I. Reliable information regarding the differ- 
 ent races of cattle is very meager until we reach the 
 seventeenth century, owing 
 
 (i) To the very partial references made to them by his- 
 torians before that time, and 
 
 (2) To the imperfect nature of the sketches made by 
 artists, so far as these have been handed down to us. 
 
 II. It is noteworthy that the first shepherd and 
 the first farmer were cotemporaneous. 
 
 (i) Likewise the keeping of live stock and grain growing 
 have gone hand in hand through all the centuries wherever 
 agriculture has been distinctively progressive. 
 
 (2) The exceptions are mountainous and infertile dis- 
 tricts, and those with a great abundance of fertility. 
 
 (3) The comparatively unimproved condition of the live 
 stock interest is to-day the weakest point in American 
 agriculture. 
 
 III. The term cattle is applied to the various 
 races of domesticated animals belonging to the genus 
 Bos — the ox. 
 
 (i) It belongs to the class Mammalia, the order Ruminan- 
 tia, and the family Bovidae and comprises two primary groups, 
 viz: The Bos indicus and Bos taunts. 
 
 (2) The sub-genus. Bos indicus, includes the zebus or 
 humped cattle numerously found in some parts of Asia and 
 Africa. 
 
 ^ ' 1 
 
2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (3) The other sub-genus, Bos taurus, includes all cattle in 
 which the hump is absent, whether domesticated or otherwise. 
 
 IV. From the testimony of the rocks, we know 
 that the ox existed in northern Europe prior to the 
 glacial period. 
 
 (i) Whether the species then existing were the ancestors 
 of the breeds of the present time can never certainly be 
 known, but 
 
 (2) It is more probable that the present types are the 
 descendants of cattle brought by the various migrations of 
 the human family as they journeyed westward. 
 
 V. Cattle did not exist in America prior to its 
 discovery by Europeans. 
 
 (i) The bovine races in America are all descended from 
 the cattle of Europe. 
 
 (2) With but few exceptions they have been furnished 
 by Great Britain, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Spain. 
 
 VI. It is generally supposed that the domes- 
 ticated cattle of Europe, including those of Great 
 Britain, have been derived from at least two distinct 
 species, namely the Bos primigenius or Bos urus, 
 and the Bos longifrons. 
 
 (i) The Bos urus were of extraordinary size, strength 
 and swiftness, and were withal very fierce. 
 
 (2) The Bos longifrons were small in size, short in body 
 and had fine, deer-like limbs. 
 
 (3) Other fossil specimens, formerly classified as Bos 
 frontosus and Bos trochocerus, have more recently been 
 identified as belonging to one or the other of the afore- 
 mentioned species. 
 
 VII. There is much difference of opinion as 
 to whether the domesticated cattle of Europe and 
 America are descended from the Bos urns, ov the 
 Bos longifrons, or from a blending of the two 
 species. 
 
 (i) Some regard them as the degenerate offspring of the 
 former. 
 
 (2) Others regard them as the improved offspring of the 
 latter, and 
 
DOMESTICATED RACES OF CATTLE. 3 
 
 (3) Yet others regard them as the result from crossing 
 these. 
 
 (4) The second theory is more likely to be correct, since 
 improved environment is followed by improved development. 
 
 VIII. Nearly all the improved breeds of cat- 
 tle found in Anglo-Saxon speaking countries have 
 been derived from Great Britain, because 
 
 (i) Of the great variety and superior excellence of the 
 breeds found there, and 
 
 (2) Of the natural genius of her people for stock keeping 
 — a characteristic which the colonists have carried along 
 with them. 
 
 IX. In many of the older countries of the 
 Eastern world the cattle are probably descended 
 from an ancestry going far back beyond the Chris- 
 tian era. 
 
 (i) They have not improved because agriculture has not 
 materially improved, and 
 
 (2) This is more particularly true of pastoral countries. 
 
 X. Nature unaided can in suitable locaHties 
 maintain a certain standard of excellence through 
 the laws that govern natural selection, but she can- 
 not improve upon these, hence 
 
 (i) Domestication is necessary to effect improvement, but 
 (2) It does not follow, of necessity, that domestication 
 always improves upon nature. 
 
LECTURE NO. 2. 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE BRITISH BREEDS OF CATTLE. 
 
 I. The precise origin of the British breeds of 
 cattle will probably never be fully known. 
 
 (i) Fossiliferous remains prove that at least some of the 
 present types of cattle have been long in the land. 
 
 (2) Some are of the opinion that they came originally 
 from the continent, when the bed of the English Channel 
 was dry. 
 
 (3) Some regard them as the conglomerate produce of 
 two or more distinctly different species of the genus Bos. 
 
 (4) Others regard them as the differentiated offshoots of 
 one great parent stem. 
 
 II. It is not impossible, nor can it be said to 
 be improbable, that the many and varied breeds of 
 cattle now found in Great Britain came from the 
 one parent stem, the aboriginal cattle of the country. 
 
 (i) Great variations would be induced by locality, and 
 conditions belonging to the same. 
 
 (2) These variations would relate to such properties as 
 production, size, color, form, flesh, milk and maturity. 
 
 (3) They would be increased by fusion with other races 
 of cattle brought into the country through the successive 
 invasions of the Saxons, the Danes and the Normans. 
 
 (4) They would be further intensified by some public and 
 private importations from the continent, in the later centuries. 
 
 III. The principal agencies in producing evo- 
 lution or variation of race and type in cattle are 
 inter-breeding or crossing, climate, food, habit and 
 treatment. 
 
 (i) Inter-breeding or crossing is one of the most potent 
 agents in producing variation, especially as to form. 
 
 (2) Climate affects color, the nature of the coat, develop- 
 ment and maturity. 
 
 4 
 
BRITISH BREEDS OF CATTLE. 5 
 
 (3) Food affects development both of the frame and 
 flesh, and also the milking qualities. 
 
 (4) Habit affects constitution and transmission. 
 
 (5) Treatment affects constitution and performance, and 
 qualifies all the influences indicated above. 
 
 IV. The great improvement in the many 
 breeds of cattle found in Great Britain has been 
 brought about through the molding influences of 
 man, operating in the line of natural laws. 
 
 (i) These influences are: Careful selection in breeding, 
 judicious mating, inter-crossing of the progeny for a time, 
 liberal sustenance and wise management generally. 
 
 (2) They have been aided by a favorable and varied soil 
 and climate and by the fusion of different breeds and types, 
 each possessing intensified peculiarities. 
 
 (3) The tastes of the British people, arising in part out 
 of their necessities, have conduced to the same end. 
 
 V. The aboriginal cattle of Great Britain are 
 probably represented in the Kyloes of Scotland and 
 the Black cattle of Wales, with little or no admix- 
 ture of other blood, and in purest form in the wild 
 white cattle still found in certain parks. 
 
 (i) The differences which characterize these arise from 
 some of the influences named as concerned in variation, more 
 especially climate and food. 
 
 (2) All or nearly all of the other races have probably 
 been influenced to a greater or less extent by the fusion of the 
 blood of other breeds. 
 
 VI. The chief of the herds of wild white cat- 
 tle still existing in Great Britain are found in Chil- 
 lingham park, Lyme park, Chartley and Chadzow 
 forest. 
 
 (i) The prevailing color is white with a few of the bulls 
 cream, but the whole of the ear inside and one-third outside 
 from tip down is red or brown. 
 
 (2) The horns are rather fine and white, with black tips. 
 
 (3) The color of the muzzle is black. 
 
 (4) The bulls have coarse hair on the neck from one and 
 one-half to two inches long. 
 
 (5) They mature at six years, when the males weigh, 
 dressed, about "550 pounds." 
 
6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 VII. The many breeds of cattle in Great 
 Britain have been classified as Long-horned, Middle- 
 horned, Short-horned and Polled. 
 
 (i) The Long-horned varieties represented in the Long- 
 horns, prominent in the closing half of the last century, are 
 probably waning in popularity. 
 
 (2) The Middle-horned breeds include the Herefords, the 
 Sussex, the Devons, the West Highland and the Ayrshires. 
 
 (3) The Short-horned breeds include the Durham, more 
 frequently called Shorthorn, the Jersey, the Guernsey and 
 the Kerry. 
 
 (4) The Polled, or hornless breeds, which are an artificial 
 variety, include the Aberdeen-Angus Polls, the Galloways and 
 the Red Polls. 
 
 VIII. All the breeds named under Note VII 
 are more or less represented in the United States 
 and Canada, and in addition the following: 
 
 (i) The Holsteins and Dutch Belted breeds from the 
 Netherlands, the Brown Swiss from Switzerland, the Cana- 
 dian cow of French origin and the Texans of Spanish 
 ancestry. 
 
 (2) The Texans, numerous on southern ranges, are small 
 in size and long of horn, and they are kept pure as are the 
 other breeds, but are not registered. 
 
LECTURE NO. 3. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE. 
 
 I. The formal classification of cattle on the 
 basis of utility does not appear to have been 
 attempted by those who have written on bovine hus- 
 bandry, owing probably 
 
 (i) To the difficulties attending such classification, 
 arising from 
 
 (2) Variations in performance growing out of variations 
 in environment and treatment, and from the different ends 
 for which cattle of the same breed are kept, hence 
 
 (3) No classification can be adopted at the present time 
 that is likely wholly to escape criticism. 
 
 II. The classification of cattle, and indeed of 
 ^11 domestic animals, cannot longer be deferred, 
 owing 
 
 (1) To the necessity for such classification. 
 
 (a) In the systematic teaching of live stock husbandry in 
 our public institutions, and 
 
 (b) In preventing unfair competition in public showrings. 
 
 (2) The general adoption of suitably prepared standards 
 of excellence will more and more simplify the work of classi- 
 fication, but 
 
 (3) No classification can be submitted that may not 
 require modification sometime in the future. 
 
 in. Cattle in the United States and Canada 
 may be classified as pure bred, common and ''scrub" 
 or unimproved. 
 
 (i) Pure breds are those which have been bred without 
 admixture of alien blood and whose lineage is kept in suitable 
 public records. 
 
 (a) They possess marked adaptation to certain conditions 
 of environment, and 
 
 (b) The males are capable of effecting a marked improve- 
 ment in the offspring of common and unimproved cattle when 
 crossed upon the^e. 
 
8 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) Common cattle are those of mixed breeding, and of 
 what may be termed average development. 
 
 (a) Their blood elements may and do var>' exceedingly, 
 but they are usually possessed of some pure blood. 
 
 (h) For various reasons their numbers are likely to con- 
 tinue to predominate. 
 
 (3) Scrub cattle are those of inferior individuality. 
 
 (a) They have not been improved by up-grading or cross- 
 ing, and 
 
 (b) They are usually inferior in form and low in 
 performance. 
 
 IV. The pure breeds of cattle in the United 
 States and Canada may be classified as beef, dairy 
 and dual-purpose. 
 
 (i) Beef cattle are those which are chiefly valuable for 
 producing beef. 
 
 (2) Dairy cattle are those which are chiefly valuable for 
 producing milk. 
 
 (3) Dual-purpose cattle are those which are capable in a 
 fair degree of producing both meat and milk. 
 
 V. Adaptation in the beef breeds. 
 
 (i) They should usually be kept on the ranges and on 
 large arable farms where it is not practicable to milk them. 
 
 (2) They suckle their calves up to the weaning period 
 and then go dry. 
 
 VI. Adaptation in the dairy breeds. 
 
 (i) They should be kept by dairj-men who are chiefly 
 concerned in dairy production. 
 
 (2) The calves not wanted for breeding should be sent 
 to the block at a comparatively early age,, as 
 
 (3) The dairy form becomes more pronounced with 
 advancing maturity, and the relative meat value correspond- 
 ingly declines. 
 
 VII. Adaptation in the dual-purpose breeds. 
 
 Ci) They should be kept on the arable farm where the 
 farmer is seeking a return in both meat and dairy products, and 
 
 (2) They should invariably be milked and the progeny 
 reared by hand. 
 
 VIII. The following enumeration of the 
 breeds in America which belong to these respective 
 classes is submitted as being approximately correct : 
 
CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE. Cj 
 
 (i) Beef breeds: Shorthorn, Hereford, Aberdeen- Angus 
 Poll, Galloway, Sussex and West Highland. 
 
 (2) Dairy breeds: Holstein, Dutch Belted, Ayrshire, 
 Guernsey, Jersey, French Canadian and Kerry. 
 
 (3) Dual-purpose breeds: Shorthorn, Polled Durham, 
 Brown Swiss, Red Poll and Devon. 
 
 IX. Observations. 
 
 (i) It has been the aim to place all the breeds enumerated 
 under VHI in the order of relative size, beginning with the 
 largest, but the average of size in some of the breeds is not 
 far different. 
 
 (2) The classification of Shorthorns as beef and also as 
 dual purpose is based on the large use that has been made 
 of them as beef and dual-purpose cattle. 
 
 (3) The Polled Durhams are very similar, but more 
 attention probably has been given to the development of their 
 milking qualities. 
 
 (4) Milking properties are somewhat more pronounced 
 in the Red Poll breeds than beefing properties, while these 
 would seem to be about equal in the Devons. 
 
 (5) Qasses for dual-purpose cattle were first created at 
 the World's Fair, held in Chicago, 1893. 
 
 (6) Dual-purpose cattle are numerously found among 
 grades of various blood elements, but more especially among 
 those distinctively of Shorthorn lineage. 
 
LECTURE NO. 4. 
 
 INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM COMMON TO THE 
 
 BEEF BREEDS. 
 
 I. All the beef breeds have certain features of 
 form which they possess more or less in common. 
 
 (i) These may be considered essential to good beef 
 production. 
 
 (2) The differences between them relate more to size and 
 to breed peculiarities than to essential features of form. 
 
 II. The more essential indications, important 
 perhaps in the order named, are : 
 
 (i) A compact form, that is, one wide and deep 
 throughout and but moderately long in the coupling. 
 
 (2) A good back, that is, one wide from neck to tail, well 
 fleshed and straight. 
 
 (3) A good front quarter, that is, one wide, deep and full. 
 
 (4) A good hind quarter, that is, one long, wide and deep. 
 
 (5) Good handling qualities, as indicated in soft and 
 elastic flesh and pliant skin. 
 
 III. Indications of correct form given in 
 detail. 
 
 (i) Size — The size should be medium to large for the 
 breed and the bone medium. 
 
 (2) General Outline — The body should resemble a par- 
 allelogram in shape and should be equally and smoothly 
 developed throughout. 
 
 (3) Head — The head should be medium in size, inclining 
 to short rather than to long, clean cut, broad between the 
 eyes, only moderately dished, and level across the top, save in 
 the polled breeds. 
 
 (a) Nose, moderately fine, neither dished nor Roman and 
 of medium length. 
 
 (b) Muzzle, broad, full, distinct and dewy. 
 
 (c) Nostrils, large. 
 
 (d) Eyes, large, full, clear and calm. 
 
 (e) Horns, absent or varying according to breed, not 
 coarse and set on a level with the withers, back and tailhead. 
 
 10 
 
BEEF BREEDS. II 
 
 (f) Ears, medium in size, broad rather than long, not over 
 sensitive nor yet sluggish, and v^ell covered with hair, but 
 varying somewhat in the different breeds. 
 
 (4) Neck. — Medium to short, longer in the female and 
 also finer. 
 
 (a) It should not be coarse at the junction with the head, 
 and 
 
 (b) It should gradually deepen and widen toward the 
 neck vein so as to blend insensibly into the shoulder. 
 
 (5) Back — Wide from the base of the neck to the tail- 
 head, well covered with flesh, especially on the loin, straight 
 and level. 
 
 (6) Forequarters — Wide, deep and full and about 
 equally developed with the hindquarters. 
 
 (a) Withers, wide and level. 
 
 (b) Shoulders, well developed, laid well back toward the 
 ribs and forward toward the neck vein, sloping but gradually 
 and neither prominent nor bare. 
 
 (c) Chest, capacious. 
 
 (d) Breast, broad, deep and full. 
 
 (e) Brisket, broad and well rounded. 
 
 (f) Arm, broad, full and tapering nicely toward the knee. 
 
 (7) Barrel or Coupling — Only moderately long, but wide 
 and deep, and more roomy in the female. 
 
 (a) Ribs, well sprung, that is, rounding out nicely from 
 the spinal column, long, close spaced, not readily apparent 
 to the eye, and coming well forward and backward. 
 
 (b) Crops, well filled throughout. 
 
 (c) Fore flank, full and deep. 
 
 (d) Hind flank, deep, full and thick. 
 
 (e) Underline, straight, or nearly so. 
 
 (f) Girth, good around the heart and about equally good 
 at the hind flank. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long from hook point to tailhead, 
 deep from hook point to hind flank and hock, and thick from 
 side to side. 
 
 (a) Hips, full in every part. 
 
 (b) Thigh, broad and full and tapering gradually toward 
 the hock. 
 
 (c) Buttock, square and upright, but in some breeds a 
 little rounded. 
 
 (d) Twist, full and commencing far down. 
 
 (e) Tail, broad at the tailhead, but fine rather than coarse 
 and hanging at right angles with the line of the back. 
 
 (9) Legs — Medium to short, straight, fine below the 
 knee, standing firmly under the body, and yet a fair distance 
 apart. 
 
 (10) Skin — Of medium thickness, but varying with the 
 breed, mellow and elastic, and well covered with hair mossy 
 to the touch. • 
 
12 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (ii) General Appearance —There should be a nicely 
 balanced development and an easy and active carriage, but 
 not sprightly or sluggish. 
 
 (a) There should be an absence of all undue prominences, 
 as at the shoulder points, the hook points and the pin 
 bones, also 
 
 (b) An absence of patchiness when in high flesh, as at the 
 shoulders, hook points and rumps. 
 
LECTURE NO. 5. 
 
 INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM AND FUNCTION 
 COMMON TO THE DAIRY BREEDS. 
 
 I. All the dairy breeds have certain features 
 of form and function which they possess more or 
 less in common. 
 
 (i) These may be considered essential to good perform- 
 ance in the dairy. 
 
 (2) The differences between them relate more to size and 
 breed peculiarities than to essential features of form and 
 function. 
 
 II. The more important indications, impor- 
 tant perhaps in the order given, are : 
 
 (i) Much length and depth in the barrel or coupling, 
 indicating a large consumption and utilization of food. 
 
 (2) Refinement of form, as evidenced more particularly 
 in the head, neck, withers, thighs and limbs. 
 
 (3) Good development of udder and milk veins. 
 
 (4) Constitution, as indicated by a capacious chest, much 
 width through the heart, a broad loin, a full, clear eye, and an 
 active carriage. (See Note VIII below.) 
 
 (5) Downward and yet outward sprung and open spaced 
 ribs, covered with a soft, pliable and elastic skin. 
 
 III. Indications of correct form and function 
 given in detail. 
 
 (i) Size — The size should be medium to large for the 
 breed. 
 
 (2) General Outline — The triple wedge shaped formation 
 has long been considered essential, although it is not very 
 explicit. It implies 
 
 (a) Increasing width from the withers downward. 
 
 (b) Increasing width toward the rear parts. 
 
 (c) Some increase in distance between the top and bottom 
 lines as they go backward. 
 
 (3) Head — The head .':hould be medium to fine, clean 
 cut and relatively longer, lighter and more dished than in 
 the beef breeds. , 
 
 13 
 
14 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (a) Forehead, broad and dishing. 
 
 (h) Nose, fine. 
 
 (c) Muzzle, medium to broad and moist. 
 
 (d) Nostrils, large and open. 
 
 (e) Cheeks, clean and spare. 
 
 (f) Eyes, prominent and lively. 
 
 (g) Poll, medium to wide, according to breed. 
 (h) Horns, fine. 
 
 (i) Ears, medium, with ample secretions, thinner than in 
 the beef breeds and somewhat livelier. 
 
 (4) Neck — Inclining to long and light, almost slim. 
 
 (a) It should be fine at the junction of the head and 
 should widen and deepen only gradually. 
 
 (b) The junction with the body should be well defined, 
 almost abrupt in character. 
 
 (5) Back — Narrow at the withers, wide at the loin, and 
 at least moderately so at the pin bones, and straight or swayed 
 according to breed and individuality. 
 
 (a) A straight back is to be preferred, other things being 
 equal. 
 
 (b) The spinal column should be large, well defined and 
 open spaced. 
 
 (c) There should be more or less of a downward slope 
 from the crupper to the outer edge of the hip. 
 
 (6) Forcquartcrs — Lighter than the hindquarters, and 
 spare. 
 
 (a) Withers, narrow. 
 
 (b) Shoulders, not heavy, pronounced in their upward 
 slope toward one another, and more or less abrupt in front. 
 
 (c) Chest, wide through the heart and capacious. 
 
 (d) Breast, wide below, but not prominent. 
 
 (e) Brisket, wedge-shaped. 
 
 (f) Arm, inclining to light. 
 
 (7) Barrel or Coupling — Long, deep, capacious, in a 
 sense, paunchy. 
 
 (2i) Ribs, broad, wide spaced, with a deep downward and 
 outward spring, and much space between the last rib and 
 hook point. 
 
 (b) Crops, steep, but not necessarily depressed. 
 
 (c) Fore flanks, fairly well filled. 
 
 (d) Hind flanks, thin but not sunken. 
 
 (e) L^'nderline, more or less sagged. 
 
 (f) Girth, at least fairly good around the heart, and 
 increasingly so at the hind flank. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long, but varying somewhat in the 
 breeds, wide at top of the hips and coming well down, but 
 without fullness. 
 
 (a) Hips, not heavy, but more heavy in some breeds. 
 
 (b) Thighs, inclining to light, thin and more or less 
 incurved. 
 
DAIRY BREEDS. 15 
 
 (c) Buttock, upright or receding somewhat toward tlic 
 thigh. 
 
 (d) Pin bones, prominent and wide spaced. 
 
 (e) Twist, open, placed high, and roomy. 
 
 (f) Tail, not coarse, tapering, of good length, and hanging 
 at right angles to the back. 
 
 (9) Escutcheon — Well defined and well developed from 
 the perineum to the udder and extending well outward on 
 the thighs. 
 
 (a) Breadth below the perineum is said to denote pro- 
 longed milking qualities. 
 
 (b) Width at the thighs is said to indicate deep milking 
 qualities. 
 
 (10) Udder — Long, broad and deep, extending well for- 
 ward and well up behind, and evenly quartered. 
 
 (a) It should be well let down, but not pendulous, and 
 the skin should hang in loose folds behind when the udder 
 is empty. 
 
 (b) In quality, it should be fine and elastic, glandular, 
 not fleshy. 
 
 (c) The hair on the udder should be soft and not plentiful, 
 
 (d) The veins on the same well defined. 
 
 (e) The teats of medium size and squarely placed or 
 pointing slightly outward. 
 
 (11) Milk Veins — Large, tortuous, preferably branched 
 and entering the abdominal wall well forward and through 
 large orifices, usually called milk wells. 
 
 (a) More commonly there are but two milk wells, but 
 more are much prized. 
 
 (b) The veins increase in size with advancing age in the 
 animal. 
 
 (12) Legs — Medium in length, fine in bone and straight, 
 at least fairly wide apart and yet well under the body. 
 
 (13) Skin — Medium to fine, finer than in the beef breeds, 
 easily movable, and covered plentifully with fine, soft hair. 
 
 (14) General Appearance — The carriage should be 
 active, the prominences at the angles and also the ribs dis- 
 tinctly apparent, and there should be evidences of a tendency 
 to spareness in form when in milk. 
 
 IV. The males as distinofuished from the 
 females. 
 
 fe' 
 
 (i) They should be stronger in bone and more masculine 
 throughout:, especially in the head and neck, and not so rangy 
 in body or limb. 
 
 (2) The first requisite is constitution as indicated by a 
 capacious chest, much width through the heart and an active 
 carriage. 
 
1 6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (3) Prominent among the evidences of milk transmitting 
 power are 
 
 (a) Easily traceable milk veins in the underline. 
 
 (b) Embryo teats, large and placed well forward and wide 
 apart. 
 
 (c) Amplitude of skin on the rear parts of the underline. 
 
 V. Nerve-power, or temperament, the out- 
 come of form, is supposed to influence favorably 
 milk elaboration and the following are prominent 
 among its indications : 
 
 (i) A broad and dished forehead with a lively eye and 
 active ear. 
 
 (2) Good width at the junction of the spine and skull, 
 and large development of the spinal column. 
 
 (3) A forceful disposition the outcome of energy, not of 
 bad temper, and an active carriage. 
 
 VI. Prominent indications of abundant milk 
 production : 
 
 (i) A roomy, capacious, open-ribbed barrel. 
 
 (2) Good development of udder and milk veins. 
 
 (3) General refinement and spareness of form, and 
 
 (4) Marked indications of nerve-power, as given in 
 Note V. 
 
 VII. Prominent indications of quaHty in milk. 
 
 (i) Good handling qualities, as evidenced in a nice, 
 pliant skin. 
 
 (2) Skin, creamy to a rich yellow in color, more especially 
 inside the ears, at the flanks and around and over the udder. 
 
 VIII. Leading indications of good constitu- 
 tion and vitality given in detail. 
 
 (i) Absence of extreme refinement in head, neck and 
 limbs. 
 
 (2) A full, clear and restful eye. 
 
 (3) Much width of chest cavity and much of roominess 
 in the same. 
 
 (4) Large development of the spinal column. 
 
 (5) Much width at the loin, with distinctness in the pelvic 
 arch and roominess in the pelvic cavity. 
 
 (6) Activity in the secretions of the skin, and 
 
 (7) Active and easy movement. 
 
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LECTURE NO. 6. 
 
 INDICATIONS OF CORRECT FORM AND FUNCTION IN 
 DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 
 
 I. Dual-purpose cattle of pure and likewise 
 of mixed breeding have certain features of form 
 which they possess more or less in common. 
 
 (i) These may be considered essential to good perform- 
 ance in the production of milk and meat. 
 
 (2) The differences between them are snch as relate 
 chiefly to size, to breed peculiarities in pure breds, and to 
 mixed blood elements in grades. 
 
 II. The more important indications, impor- 
 tant, perhaps, in the order named, are : 
 
 (i) ]\Iedium to large size for the breed or grade. 
 
 (2) Good length and depth in the coupling, especially in 
 the females. 
 
 (3) Good development of udder and milk veins. 
 
 (4) Good constitution as indicated by good width" through 
 the heart. 
 
 (5) Head and neck inclining to long and fine, and 
 
 (6) Ribs of medium spring, open spaced and covered 
 with a good handling skin. 
 
 III. Lineage — The best specimens are found 
 in the pure dual-purpose breeds, or in high grades 
 of these, but 
 
 (i) Mixed blood elements are not seriously objectionable 
 in foundation animals of correct type, and 
 
 (2) In breeding, well chosen pure bred dual-purpose sires 
 should be used. 
 
 IV. Indications of correct form and function 
 given in detail : 
 
 (i) Sise — The dual-purpose cow is large in form and 
 capacious in body, not massive like the high type beef animal, 
 neither coarse nor unduly refined, and possessed of what may 
 be termed a happy equilibrium in development. 
 
 19 
 
20 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) General Outline — The form should be parallelogram- 
 mic rather than wedge-shaped, and nearly evenly developed in 
 front and rear. 
 
 (3) Head — Only moderately large and inclining to long, 
 clean cut and free from throatiness. 
 
 (a) Forehead, wide. 
 
 (b) Nose, inclining to long and fine. 
 
 (e) Muzzle, medium to strong and moist. 
 
 (d) Nostril, large and open. 
 
 (e) Cheeks, lean. 
 
 (f) Eyes, large, prominent and neither restless nor sleepy. 
 
 (g) Poll, varying with the breed or grade. 
 (Ii) Horns, inclining to fine when present. 
 
 (i) Ears, of medium size, thickness and action, but vary- 
 ing with the breed or grade. 
 
 (4) Neck — Inclining to long and fine, but not slim. 
 
 (a) Not coarse at the junction with the head. 
 
 (b) Of medium increasing width and depth toward the 
 shoulder, and joining the latter neither abruptly nor so 
 smoothly as in the beef breeds. 
 
 (5) Back — Moderately wide at the withers, wide at the 
 loin and pin bones, and straight. 
 
 (6) Forequarters — Nearly equal in development with the 
 hindquarters. 
 
 (a) Withers, moderately wide. 
 
 (b) Shoulders, large, but not prominent, and possessed of 
 medium upward and forward slope. 
 
 (c) Chest, wide through the heart, capacious. 
 
 (d) Breast, wide, moderately deep and full. 
 
 (e) Brisket, wide and but moderately full. 
 
 (f) Forearm, broad and but moderately full. 
 
 (7) Barrel or Cotipling — Long, deep, roomy, capacious. 
 
 (a) Ribs, at least fairly well sprung and deep, well spaced, 
 easily discernible when the animal is giving milk, and pos- 
 sessed of good snace between the last rib and hook point. 
 
 (b) Crops, filled up level, or nearly so, with the shoulder. 
 
 (c) Fore flanks, low and full. 
 
 (d) Hind flanks, low, moderately full and of medium 
 thickness. 
 
 (e) Girth, good at the heart and at least good at the hind 
 flank. 
 
 (f) Underline, straight or slightly rounded downward. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep and but slightly 
 dropping away from the sacrum and crupper. 
 
 (a) Hips, straight on the sides. 
 
 (b) Thighs, broad and in a line externally wath the hips, 
 and possessed of but little or no incurvature behind. 
 
 (c) Buttocks, straight, or nearly so. 
 
 (d) Pin bones, wide, but not prominent. 
 
 (e) Twist, open and placed moderately low. 
 
DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE. 21 
 
 (f) Tail, inclining to fine and long, smoothly set on and 
 hanging at right angles with the body. 
 
 (9) Udder — Capacious, evenly quartered, coming well 
 forward and backward and not too high or too low. 
 
 (a) When empty it should be pliant, not fleshy, and with 
 much loose skin hanging in folds at the rear. 
 
 (h) The teats should be of good size and pointing slightly 
 outward. 
 
 (10) Milk Veins — Large, long, tortuous, all the better if 
 branched, and they should enter the body through large orifices 
 or milk wells. 
 
 (11) Legs — Medium in length and bone, straight and 
 widely placed. 
 
 ( 12) Skin — Medium, inclining to fine, easily movable, 
 particularly on the ribs, and plentifully covered with soft hair 
 devoid of coarseness or harshness. 
 
 (13) General Appearance — The large, refined and fairly 
 smooth form of the dual-purpose animal carries along with it 
 evidences of producing capacity. 
 
 (a) In movement it is neither sprightly nor sluggish, 
 but easy. 
 
 (h) When in milk it is not high fleshed, but puts on flesh 
 quickly when dry. 
 
 V. The more important points of contrast 
 between the males and females : 
 
 (i) The former are heavier and stronger and shorter in 
 head, horn, neck and limbs. 
 
 (2) They have relatively more of breast development and 
 are relatively a little shorter in the coupling. 
 
 VI. Dual-purpose cattle contrasted with beef 
 cattle. 
 
 (i) In general outline the former are less massive, not so 
 even in their proportions and not so smooth. 
 
 (2) In size they are about the same, but do not weigh 
 so well. 
 
 (3) They are a little longer in the head, neck, limbs and 
 barrel. 
 
 (4) They are not so wide at the withers, are a little less 
 full in the breast, shoulders, hips and twist, and are not quite 
 so rounded or close spaced in the ribs, and 
 
 (5) The development of udder and milk veins is much 
 more marked. 
 
 VII. Dual-purpose cattle contrasted with dairy 
 cattle. 
 
22 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (i) In general outline the former are usually much larger 
 and heavier, the fore and hindquarters are more evenly bal- 
 anced, the angular points are not so prominent and the form 
 is not so spare. 
 
 (2) The withers are wider, the spinal column less promi- 
 nent and the back straighter. 
 
 (3) The breast is more strongly developed, the spring of 
 rib rounder, the hips and thighs heavier and the bone some- 
 what larger. 
 
 (4) In general development of head, neck, body, udder 
 and milk veins, the difference is not greatly marked. 
 
THE BEEF BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 7. 
 
 SHORTHORN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. This breed of cattle is so named from the 
 shortness of the horns which characterize it. 
 
 (i) It is also known as the Durham, from the county in 
 which it originated. 
 
 (2) These terms are now regarded as synonymous and 
 interchangeable. 
 
 II. The precise origin of the Shorthorn, like 
 that of nearly all the other British breeds of cattle, 
 is involved in much obscurity. 
 
 (i) The Romans, Saxons, Danes and Normans, who 
 conquere-d England, in turn brought cattle with them that were 
 successively crossed on the native breeds, and this in part 
 accounts for the variety of these. 
 
 (2) The lack of interchange in live stock for centuries 
 after the Norman conquest favored the development of dis- 
 tinctive types, through the modifying influences of climate, 
 soil, shelter and treatment. 
 
 (3) Thus it was, that in the rich pasture lands of the 
 counties of Durham and Yorkshire, and especially in the 
 valley of the River Tees, a comparatively large type of cattle 
 existed several centuries ago, the ancestors of our modern 
 Shorthorns. 
 
 (4) For a long time there were two independent strains 
 of ancestry, vie: The Teeswater and the Holderness ; but these 
 have long since been blended through the almost indiscriminate 
 crossing of their descendants. 
 
 III. Those Teeswater and Holderness pro- 
 genitors of the modern Shorthorn possessed high 
 and broad carcasses, good milking qualities and an 
 aptitude to fatten; but their flesh was coarse and 
 accompanied by a large amount of offal. 
 
 23 
 
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SHORTHORNS. 25 
 
 IV. It is alleged and as stoutly denied that 
 improvements were effected on the Teeswater and 
 Holderness cattle by the use of Dutch bulls and on 
 the improved Shorthorn by the introduction of a 
 Galloway cross. 
 
 (i) It is pretty certain, however, that a Dutch cross was 
 introduced about the year 1640, and also at a subsequent period 
 or periods. 
 
 (2) The Colling Bros, introduced a Galloway cross known 
 as ''the Alloy" about the end of the eighteenth century. 
 
 V. Several good herds of Shorthorns existed 
 in England, in the northern comities, as early as the 
 middle of the eighteenth century. 
 
 (i) Notable among these were the herds of the Earl of 
 Northumberland, Sir Wm. St. Quinton, Millbank, Croft, 
 Stevenson, Ma3^nard and Wetherell. 
 
 (2) The averag^ size of the cattle in those days was 
 larger than it is now, but they were not equal to the cattle of 
 to-day in quality, symmetry and early maturing properties. 
 
 VI. The following include the more noted of 
 the early improvers of Shorthorns : — 
 
 (i) The Colling Bros, of Ketton, who commenced their 
 work of improvement about 1780, or somewhat earlier. 
 
 (a) They selected their foundation stocks wherever they 
 could get good animals. 
 
 (b)^ They aimed at reducing the frame and improving the 
 general symmetry and fleshing properties of their favorites. 
 
 (c) They bred many famous bulls, and also the "Dur- 
 ham Ox" and the "White Heifer that Traveled." 
 
 (d) The purchases made at the dispersion sale of the 
 Colling Bros., in 1810, did much to improve the Shorthorn 
 herds in England. 
 
 (2) Thomas Bates, a faithful disciple of the Colling Bros., 
 who commenced breeding Shorthorns at Kirklevington late in 
 the eighteenth century. 
 
 (a) The Princess, Duchess and Oxford families, were 
 among the most famous of the tribes which he founded. 
 
 (b) Mr. Bates died in 1849, and his herd was dispersed 
 in 1850. 
 
 (3) Richard Booth, who founded the famous herd at 
 Studley about 1790, a work well sustained at a later period by 
 his sons. Thomas and John, at Warlaby and Killerby, 
 respectively. . 
 
26 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (a) The special aim of R. Booth was to lengthen the hind 
 quarter, to fill up the fore flank, to secure greater depth of 
 flesh and a strength of constitution that would stand forcing 
 well. 
 
 (b) The Booth bulls have been found great improvers of 
 herds into which they have been introduced. 
 
 (4) Amos Cruikshank of Sittyton, Aberdeenshire. Scot- 
 land, who may be regarded as the originator of Scotch 
 Shorthorns. 
 
 (a) The many tribes of this famous herd were built upon 
 a mixed Bates and Booth foundation. 
 
 (b) It was founded in 1837 and dispersed in 1889. 
 
 VII. The Bates, Booth and Cruikshank cattle 
 contrasted. 
 
 (i) The Bates Shorthorns were distinguished by their 
 size, good milking qualities, cleanness of head, neck and limbs, 
 and elegant style. 
 
 (2) The Booth Shorthorns were equally large, possessed 
 greater heart girth and length of hind quarter, and more depth 
 and mellowness of flesh, but in instances not a few they were 
 plain in the head, strong in the horn and deficient in style. 
 
 (3) The Cruikshank cattle, or Scotch Shorthorns, were 
 less in size than either the Bates or Booth cattle, but they 
 were more compact and blocky in build, took on flesh more 
 readily, and were superior when placed on the block. 
 
 (4) Scotch Shorthorns have been great prize winners 
 during recent years. 
 

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LECTURE NO. 8. 
 
 SHORTHORNS THEIR DISTRIBUTION IN OTHER 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 I. First importations to America. 
 
 (i) Between 1783 and 1795 Messrs. (joff and Miller of 
 Virginia imported Shorthorn cattle of both sexes into Balti- 
 more, Md. 
 
 (2) Some of their descendants were taken to Kentucky, 
 where they effected much improvement upon the native stocks 
 of that State. 
 
 (3) But little is known of the exact genealogy of these 
 cattle, although it has been a fruitful subject of discussion. 
 
 IT. Importations to other States. 
 
 (i) The first direct importation of Shorthorns into New 
 York State was made by Samuel M. Hopkins of Moscow 
 in 1815. 
 
 (2) The first direct importation was made into Kentucky 
 in 1817, by Col. L. Sanders of Grass Hill. 
 
 (3) The first direct importation was made into Massa- 
 chusetts in 1817 by Steven Williams of Northboro. 
 
 III. Other importations to the United States. 
 
 (i) From 1817 onward, importations of Shorthorns from 
 England have been made almost every year until the present 
 time. 
 
 (2) Notable among those in point of time were the 
 importations made by the Ohio Company for Importing Eng- 
 lish Cattle, of Chillicothe, O., in 1834 to 1836. 
 
 (3) Kentucky, New York and Ohio early became noted 
 centers of the breed. 
 
 IV. Prominent Shorthorn breeders. 
 
 (i) They are so many that their names even cannot be 
 given here, much less can the grand, good work they did 
 be noticed. 
 
 (2) Lewis F. Allen of New York and William Warfield 
 of Kentucky stand foremost among their advocates. 
 
 28 
 
SHORTHORNS. 29 
 
 V. The New York Mills sale. 
 
 (i) The most notable sale of Shorthorns ever held was 
 that of Messrs. Campbell and Walcott of New York Mills, 
 N. Y., in 1873. 
 
 (2) The 108 animals sold of all ages aggregated $382,000. 
 
 (3) One Duchess cow was sold for $40,600, the highest 
 price ever bid for a cattle beast. 
 
 VI. Importations into Canada. 
 
 (i) The first importation of Shorthorns was made into 
 Canada by the New Brunswick Board of Agriculture in 1825, 
 or the year following. 
 
 (2) The first importation was made into Ontario by 
 Robert xA.rnold of St. Catharines in 1832. 
 
 (3) The first direct importation of English Shorthorns 
 from Britain into Ontario was made by Roland Wingfield of 
 Guelph in 1833. 
 
 (4) Since that time Canada has become famous as an 
 importing center and also as a breeding center of Shorthorns. 
 
 (5) Prominent among the Canadian breeders and im- 
 porters stand out the names of Simon Beattie, Hon. M. H. 
 Cochrane and James I. Davidson. 
 
 VII. The Hillhurst herd. 
 
 (i) This herd was established by the Hon. M. H. Coch- 
 rane in 1865. 
 
 (2) In 1877, thirty-two animals were exported from it 
 to England and sold by public auction at Millbeckstock, 
 Bowness, Windermere, at an average of about $2,500 each. 
 
 (3) The tenth Duchess of Airdrie and fifteen of her 
 progeny, bred at Hillhurst and sold at difterent times, aggre- 
 gated more than $175,000. 
 
 VIII. Dissemination in countries other than 
 the United States and Canada. 
 
 (i) Shorthorns have been exported to nearly every 
 country colonized by Anglo-Saxons and also to many lands 
 where other languages prevail. 
 
 (2) Outside of the United States, Great Britain and 
 Canada, they are most numerously found in Bueno.s Ayres, 
 Australia and New Zealand. 
 
 IX. The English herd book. 
 
 .(i) The first volume of the English Shorthorn Herd 
 Book was published in 1822, by George Coates of Carlton, 
 Pontefract, Yorkshire, England. 
 
 (2) Its proprietorship was transferred to Henry Stafford 
 in 1846, after five volumes had been published. 
 
30 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 X. The American herd books. 
 
 (i) The first volume of the American Shorthorn Herd 
 Book was published by Lewis F. Allen of Black Rock, Buffalo, 
 N. Y., in 1846. 
 
 (2) The first volume of the American Shorthorn Record 
 was published by A. J. Alexander of Woodburn, Ky., in 1869. 
 
 (3) The first volume of the Ohio Southern Shorthorn 
 Record was published by the Shorthorn breeders of Ohio 
 in 1878. 
 
 (4) The American Shorthorn Association purchased the 
 interest in all these American records in 1882, and since that 
 date Shorthorn pedigrees have been published in the American 
 Shorthorn Herd Book. 
 
 XL Canadian herd books. 
 
 (i) The first volume of the Canadian Shorthorn Herd 
 Book was published in 1867. of the British- American Short- 
 horn Herd Book in 1881, of the Dominion Shorthorn Herd 
 Book in 1887. 
 
 (2) The last named record has absorbed the records 
 previously published. 
 
 XII. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Shorthorns are now found in almost every state of 
 the Union and in every province of Canada. 
 
 (2) Ontario stands first in the number of its recorded 
 Shorthorns. 
 
 (3) In the United States they are probably most numer- 
 ous in Illinois and Iowa in the order named, but they are also 
 quite numerous in nearly all the Central States, especially 
 Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky. 
 
 XIII. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Forty-five volumes of the American Shorthorn Herd 
 Book have been issued and fifteen volumes of the Dominion 
 Shorthorn Herd Book. 
 
 (2) In the American Shorthorn Herd Book, 367,950 
 animals have been recorded, of which 134,566 are males and 
 233.384 females. 
 
 (3) In the Canadian Herd Books, 62,071 animals have 
 been recorded, making a total in these two countries of 430,021. 
 
LECTURE NO. 9. 
 
 SHORTHORNS THEIR LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) Shorthorns have unquestionably been the most 
 popular breed of cattle in the worl^i during the whole of the 
 present century. 
 
 (2) Of this we have abundant evidence in the fact that 
 they are cosmopolitan to an extent far in advance of any 
 other breed. 
 
 (3) As enduring popularity is always the result of merit, 
 we find in the favor shown to Shorthorns a proof of their 
 great utility. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) They possess much power of adaptation to the vary- 
 ing conditions of life, as changes of soil and food products 
 and climatic conditions, but they flourish best in temperate 
 zones. 
 
 (2) They are best adapted, however, to arable countries, 
 level or gently undulating, rich in agricultural production, and 
 where much meat and milk are desired on the same farm. 
 
 (3) In point of hardihood they are at least medium. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size and weight they have something of a lead 
 over all breeds as yet introduced into this country. 
 
 (2) This is owing to their greater scale, combined with 
 good all-round development. 
 
 IV. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 d) In early maturing properties they stand second to no 
 breed, and are superior to many. 
 
 (2) With suitable food and good care they may be made 
 quite ripe for the block at the age of two and a half years. 
 
 (3) Under average conditions they attain a maximum of 
 growth at about four years. 
 
 31 
 
32 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are only average, since the heavy frames 
 possessed by Shorthorns render them less active as foragers, 
 hence 
 
 (2) When being grazed, the pastures should furnish them 
 with plentiful supplies. 
 
 VL Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the first order. 
 
 (2) They make a good use of the food given them, are 
 contented under confinement, will feed well for a long period, 
 stand forcing well and lay on flesh evenly and deeply. 
 
 VII. Quality of meat. 
 
 (i) Shorthorns furnish meat tender, juicy and nutri- 
 tious, and 
 
 (2) They kill well, as the proportion of bone and offal is 
 relatively small, but 
 
 (3) The fat and lean are not quite so well intermixed as 
 with some breeds, the grain of the flesh is not so fine nor is 
 the meat so highly flavored. 
 
 VIII. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) In the last century and during much of the present, 
 Shorthorns generally were possessed of good milking qualities. 
 
 (2) Several families still retain these, more especially in 
 England, where, as a breed, they still rank high for dairy 
 uses, but 
 
 (3) These qualities have been much impaired not only in 
 Britain, but more especially in America, through the lines of 
 breeding and management adopted. 
 
 (4) However, during recent years much more attention 
 is being given to the restoration of good milking qualities. 
 
 (5) The milk is excellent for calf rearing, and may be 
 used with advantage in making butter and cheese. 
 
 IX. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) No breed has been equally useful for purposes of 
 crossing, either upon grade cattle or upon pure breds of 
 other breeds. 
 
 (2) They have wrought a wonderful improvement upon 
 the common cattle of Ireland, North and South America, 
 Australia. New Zealand and some other countries. 
 
 (3) Nearlv all the cattle exported to Britain from these 
 countries are Shorthorn grades. 
 
SHORTHORNS. 33 
 
 (4) They impart to other breeds, and especially to grades, 
 size, form, quality, rapid growth, early maturity, marked 
 fattening properties, and in many instances good milk produc- 
 tion, hence 
 
 (5) When properly bred they are particularly adapted to 
 the production of grades of the dual-purpose type. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) In some instances they are possessed of an impaired 
 constitution, resulting from in-and-in breeding and the highly 
 artificial treatment to which they have been subjected, and 
 
 (2) In other instances they inherit a tendency to sterility, 
 more especially where they have been forced in their feeding. 
 
 3 
 
 
LECTURE NO. lo. 
 
 SHORTHORNS THEIR PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 In the absence of an authorized scale of points, 
 the following is submitted : — 
 
 I. Si::;c — The size should be relatively large, 
 but medium for the breed. 
 
 (i) The fore and hind quarters should be equally well 
 developed. 
 
 (2) Compactness of form is more important in the male, 
 but it is essential in the female as well. 
 
 II. Head — Small in proportion to the size of 
 the animal, clean cut, handsome and well set on, 
 longer and narrower in the female, but stronger in 
 the male. 
 
 (i) Forehead, broad between the eyes. 
 
 (2) Face, slightly dished in the female, and tapering 
 gracefully below the eyes to the nostril. 
 
 (3) Nose, medium in size and straight. 
 
 (4) Muzzle, medium to broad, full and moist and flesh 
 colored. 
 
 (5) Nostrils, large and fairly expansive. 
 
 (6) Cheeks, not heavily fleshed, the lower jaw in the 
 female thin. 
 
 (7) Eyes, large, full, bright, intelligent, calm. 
 
 (8) Ears, medium in size and thickness, well covered with 
 soft hair, somewhat erect and possessed of an average amount 
 of play. 
 
 (9) Poll, fairly broad and level. 
 
 (10) Horns, short but longer and finer in the female, flat 
 rather than round at the base, spreading and curving grace- 
 fully forward, with a slightly downward or upward tendency, 
 and of a creamy white or yellowish color. 
 
 III. Neck — Medium in length, strong and 
 arched in the male, but finer in the female, and grad- 
 
 34 
 
SHORTHORNS. 35 
 
 iially widening and deepening and slightly rounding 
 as it approaches the shoulder. 
 
 (i) It should spring straight from the back, should set 
 well into the shoulder and brisket and should carry the 
 head gracefully. 
 
 (2) The throat should be clean cut and without dewlap. 
 
 IV. Body — Long, broad, deep, only mod- 
 erately Ic^ng in the coupling and rectangular, almost 
 a parallelogram, and evenly covered with firm flesh. 
 
 (i) Back, straight, wide and level from withers to tail- 
 head, broad and well filled in the loin, and well fleshed 
 throughout. 
 
 (2) Withers, broad. 
 
 (3) Shoulders, well developed and lying well within 
 the body, blending nicely with the neck in front and crops 
 behind and well covered. 
 
 (4) Forearm, strong and broad where it joins the body 
 and tapering gracefully to the knee. 
 
 (5) Breast, full, wide and deep, and the chest capacious. 
 
 (6) Brisket, broad and well rounded. 
 
 (7) Crops, full. 
 
 (8) Ribs, springing well and level from the backbone, 
 coming well down, and so filling the space behind the shoul- 
 der and in front of the hooks, that the animal will appear 
 straight and level from the shoulder to the buttock. 
 
 (9) Heart girth and flank girth, good, and about equal. 
 
 (10) Hind quarters, long and full from the hooks to the 
 pin bones, deep throughout and broad in every part. 
 
 (11) Hips, broad and on a level with the back and loin. 
 
 (12) Hind flank, full, deep and thick. 
 
 (13) Thigh, broad, full and well fleshed within and 
 without. 
 
 (14) Rumps, broad but not prominent. 
 
 (15) Buttock, broad and square. 
 
 (16) Twist, deep and full, and placed low. 
 
 (17) Tail, rather fine, somewhat broad at the top, but 
 level, set perpendicularly on a level with the back and not 
 too much covered with hair. 
 
 V. Udder — Broad and full, extending well 
 forward along the belly and well up behind and 
 evenly quartered. 
 
 (i) Teats of good size and squarely placed, well apart, 
 and having a slight oblique pointing outward. 
 
 (2) Milk veins, large, tortuous and swelling, and with 
 fairly large orifices leading into the body. 
 
36 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 VL Legs — Short, and well placed under the 
 animal, fine and clean below the knee, and fine, clean 
 and flat below the hock. 
 
 (i) Hocks, somewhat straight and short, and turning 
 neither outward nor inward. 
 
 (2) Foot, flat, and in shape an oblong semicircle. 
 
 VII. Skin — Of medium thickness, finer in 
 the female, mellow and elastic to the touch, of a 
 cream or orange color, and well covered with an 
 abundance of fine, soft hair. 
 
 VIII. Color — The standard colors are red, 
 white and roan. 
 
 (i) Red is most in favor, white is now considered objec- 
 tionable, and red and white spots alternating are not in favor. 
 
 (2) All shades of roan are admissible, but red roan is 
 preferred. 
 
 (3) The skin around the eye and bald of the nose should 
 be a rich cream color. 
 
 IX. General Appearance — Shorthorns should 
 have large, rectangular and yet compact develop- 
 ment of body, smoothness of outline, symmetry of 
 form and gracefulness of carriage. 
 
LECTURE NO. ii. 
 
 HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. But little is known regarding the origin 
 and history of Hereford cattle prior to the last half 
 of the eighteenth century. 
 
 (i) John Speed in a book published in 1627, speaks well 
 of the cattle of Herefordshire. 
 
 (2) The next reference is made by Marshall in 1788. 
 
 (3) His description of a Hereford ox would answer well 
 for one of the present day. 
 
 II. A careful analysis of the somewhat con- 
 flicting statements of the principal writers on Here- 
 fords pretty certainly establishes the following : — 
 
 (i) That Hereford cattle are descended from one or 
 more of the aboriginal breeds of Great Britain, and that in 
 this respect they share a common ancestry with the Devon 
 and Sussex breeds. 
 
 (2) That the original color as in the case of the Devon 
 and Sussex was probably a whole red. 
 
 (3) That at an early period the white cattle of Wales 
 were crossed upon the native stocks, thus enlarging their 
 frames and imparting a tendency to white markings. 
 
 (4) That the white markings thus originated were further 
 enstamped by a cross of white-faced Flemish cattle imported 
 by Lord Scudamore from Flanders prior to 1671, and by using 
 certain other white-faced bulls obtained in various parts of 
 England. 
 
 (5) That the white face, though generally recognized as 
 indicating purity of breeding for some time prior to the close 
 of the last century, was not universal, as some of the animals 
 had mottled faces and some were possessed of but little white 
 of any kind. 
 
 (6) That the greater size of the Herefords as compared 
 with the Devon and Sussex breeds is owing to the abundance 
 of the food products in Herefordshire, and to the effect of 
 crossing them by animals of large size. 
 
 37 
 
QQ 
 
 ■o 
 3 
 
 Urn 
 
 'a. 
 
 ill 
 
 
HEREFORD CATTLE. 39 
 
 (7) That the Hereford cattle were noted for their good 
 grazing and beef making properties in the eighteenth cen- 
 tury, and 
 
 (8) That the oxen were extensively used for purposes of 
 labor prior to the nineteenth century. 
 
 III. The most noted of the early improvers 
 
 of Hereford cattle were Benjamin Tompkins, father 
 
 and son, but the latter was the more noted of 
 
 the two. 
 
 (i) The elder Benjamin Tompkins, born at New House, 
 Kings Pyon, in 1714, died in 1789. 
 
 (2) The younger Benjamin Tompkins was born at the 
 Court House, Canon Pyon, in 1745, and died at Wellington 
 Court in 1815. 
 
 (3) Many of the best herds afterward built up in England 
 rested upon foundation stocks purchased from the younger 
 Tompkins. 
 
 (4) Like Bakewell, he improved his cattle through the 
 most careful selection in mating and through in-and-in 
 breeding. 
 
 (5) At the dispersion sale of his stock in 1819, the breed- 
 ing animals sold for an average of more than $700 each. 
 
 IV. Prominent among the early improvers of 
 Herefords are the names of Galliers, Tully, Skyrme 
 and Haywood, and somewhat later the names of 
 John Price and John Hewer. 
 
 (i) At the four sales held by John Price it is said that 
 he realized not less than $100,000 for Herefords. 
 
 (2) Some of the animals bred by John Hewer were of 
 extraordinary size. 
 
 V. Progress of Herefords early in the 
 century. 
 
 (i) Prior to 1835 herds had been established in fifteen 
 English and Welsh counties. 
 
 (2) During the first half of the century Herefords won 
 more prizes at the Smithfield London Show than the animals 
 of any other breed. 
 
 VI. Some influences which hindered the dis- 
 semination of Herefords. 
 
 (i) Their milking powers were not equal to those of some 
 other breeds, notably the Shorthorn. 
 
40 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) The unfortunate controversy carried on toward the 
 middle of the century between the breeders of the mottle- 
 faced and white-faced varieties respectively. 
 
 (3) They were not advertised in the same way or to the 
 same extent as the Shorthorns, and 
 
 (4) The want of organized effort on the part of the 
 breeders until a comparatively recent period greatly hindered 
 the dissemination of the breed. 
 
 VII. Distribution of Herefords. 
 
 (i) They have been reared to some extent in Scotland, 
 Ireland, Jamaica, Canada and Australia, and 
 
 (2) They have became numerous and popular in many of 
 the prairie sections of both North and South America. 
 
 VIII. Importations to the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) The first accredited importation was made into the 
 United States by the Kentucky statesman, Henry Clay, in 1817. 
 
 (2) Several sundry importations were made to various 
 states between 1817 and 1839, but during that interval Here- 
 fords do not seem to have made much progress. 
 
 (3) Between 1839 and 1843, William H. Sotham, who has 
 probably done more than any one person to advance the Here- 
 ford interest in the United States, made three successive 
 importations into the state of New York. 
 
 (4) In i860 and subsequently, F. W. Stone of Guelph, 
 Ont., imported and bred many excellent animals, and from 
 these many of the herds of the United States have either been 
 built up or greatly enriched. 
 
 (5) Thomas Aston of Elyria, O., was the third of the 
 leading importers prior to 1880, since when the distribution of 
 Herefords has been phenomenal. 
 
 (6) Among the leading importers and breeders of the last 
 two decades the names of C. Culbertson, Newman, 111., 
 T. L. Miller, Beecher, 111., and Thomas F. B. Sotham, Chilli- 
 cothe, Mo., stand out pre-eminent. 
 
 IX. Associations formed. 
 
 (i) The American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association 
 was organized in 1881. 
 
 (2) The Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association of Eng- 
 land was formed in 1884. 
 
 X. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Nearly every state in the Union and nearly every 
 province of Canada has its quota of Herefords, but 
 
o 
 
 
 <0 
 
 ■q. 
 
 TOO 
 
42 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) They are most numerous in the Central Mississippi 
 basin, and in the range states west of the Mississippi and 
 south of the Missouri. 
 
 (3) The most important breeding centers are Missouri, 
 Kansas, Nebraska, Illinois and Indiana. 
 
 XI. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) The first volume of the American Hereford Record 
 was published in 1880 and of the English Hereford Herd Book 
 in 1884. 
 
 - (2) Twenty volumes of the American Record have been 
 issued and 95,000 animals have been recorded therein, of 
 which about one-half are males. 
 
LECTURE NO. 12. 
 
 HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER- 
 ISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) In the last century and during the early part of the 
 present one, Herefords were equally popular with Short- 
 horns, but 
 
 (2) Since that time Shorthorns have been more in favor 
 with the average farmer, unless in rich pastoral districts. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Herefords, like Shorthorns, readily adapt themselves 
 to the changed conditions of soil and climate, and their 
 marked docility is eminently favorable to such adaptation. 
 
 (2) They are well adapted to arable countries, level or 
 gently undulating, and capable of rich production in grain 
 and pastures. 
 
 (3) They have proved themselves eminently fitted for 
 range conditions, such as prevail in the western and south- 
 western states. 
 
 (4) Although they have proved hardy in northern lati- 
 tudes, they would seem better adapted relatively than the 
 Shorthorns to warm temperatures. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In average size and weight, as a breed, they are 
 almost equal to the Shorthorns, while 
 
 (2) In many instances individual animals outweigh 
 Shorthorns. 
 
 IV. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) In early maturing qualities they are fully equal to the 
 Shorthorns. 
 
 (2) Like the latter, with good feeding, they may be made 
 quite ripe for the block at two and one-half years. 
 
 V. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) Their grazing properties are decidedly superior, since 
 they take on flesh rapidly on good pastures, and 
 
 (2) Their grades have shown much capacity for well 
 doing on the dry and not overabundant pastures of the open 
 range. 
 
 43 
 
44 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 VI. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) In feeding qualities they stand much on the same 
 plane as Shorthorns. 
 
 (2) They make a good use of the food given them, and 
 lay on flesh most heavily on the parts of the frame from which 
 the best meat is cut, as the back and loin, but 
 
 (3) Under heavy forcing they are somewhat inclined 
 to patchiness. 
 
 VII. Quality of meat. 
 
 (i) The quality of the meat is very good, and finds much 
 favor with butchers and consumers. 
 
 (2) It is juicy and tender, the fat and lean are nicely 
 blended, and the proportion of the lean to the fat is large, and 
 
 (3) The proportion of the dressed meat to the live weight 
 is relatively large. 
 
 VIII. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) The milking properties of Herefords were at one 
 time fairly good, but they have been much impaired through 
 the system of breeding and management adopted. 
 
 (2) The quality of the milk is good, but it is oftentimes 
 deficient in quantity. 
 
 IX. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Herefords cross well with some breeds, as Short- 
 horns and Galloways, but not so well with others, as Devons 
 and West Highland cattle. 
 
 (2) In crossing with Shorthorns the best results have 
 been obtained when the male was Hereford. 
 
 (3) Herefords answer well for crossing upon grades and 
 common stocks when meat-making is the object sought. 
 
 (4) Hereford grades are probably more numerous on 
 southwestern ranges than those of any other breed. 
 
 X. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The breeding qualities of Herefords are good. 
 
 (2) When submitted to high pressure feeding, they still 
 usually breed with regularity and oftentimes they breed to an 
 advanced age. 
 
 (3) They are said to be less subject to abortion and to 
 milk fever than some other breeds. 
 
 XL Weak points. 
 
 (i) The chief of these as to properties is scant milk 
 production. 
 
HEREFORD CATTLE. 45 
 
 (2) As to form, unnecessary dewlap sometimes, and fre- 
 quently lightness of thigh. 
 
 XIL Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) They are probably something ahead in grazing and 
 breeding qualities and in quality of meat. 
 
 (2) In size, adaptability, maturing and feeding qualities 
 and utility in crossing, they are not greatly different. 
 
 (3) In all-round popularity and in milking properties 
 they are scarcely equal to Shorthorns. 
 
LECTURE NO. 13. 
 
 HEREFORD CATTLE THEIR PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 In the absence of an authorized scale of points 
 the following is submitted : — 
 
 I. Sij:e — Relatively large, but medium for 
 the breed. 
 
 (i) The fore and hind quarters should be equally well 
 developed, but 
 
 (2) In many instances the hind quarter is relatively light. 
 
 (3) Compactness of form is desired in both sexes, but is 
 more sought for in the male. 
 
 II. Head — The head should be small in pro- 
 portion to the substance of the body, clean cut and 
 well set on, not coming out too low from the neck. 
 In the bull it should be masculine, but finer in the 
 female and not too long in either sex. 
 
 (i) Forehead, broad between and above the eyes. 
 
 (2) Face, slightly dished in the female and gently tapering 
 below the eyes. 
 
 (3) Nose, medium in size and straight, not too fine. 
 
 (4) Muzzle, broad, dewy and cream colored. 
 
 (5) Nostrils, large and open. 
 
 (6) Cheeks, not heavily fleshed nor coarse. 
 
 (7) Eyes, large, full, calm, mild, and surrounded by a 
 cream-colored circle. 
 
 (8) Ears, medium in size and thickness, well fringed, 
 fairly erect and active. 
 
 (9) Poll, broad and level. 
 
 (10) Horns, springing out straightly from the poll, more 
 than medium in length, flat at the base and of a yellow or 
 white waxy appearance. 
 
 (a) In the male the curve is in the form of a semi-circle. 
 
 (b) In the female it is in the form of a graceful wave, 
 with a slightly spreading upward tendency. 
 
 III. Neck — Medium in length, strong and 
 arched in the male, but finer in the female and grad- 
 
 46 
 
HEREFORD CATTLE. 47 
 
 ually widening and deepening and slightly rounding 
 as it approaches the shoulder. 
 
 (i) It should spring straight from the back, should set 
 well into the shoulder and brisket, and should carry the head 
 gracefully. 
 
 (2) The throat should be clean cut and without dewlap, 
 but frequently there is more or less of dewlap. 
 
 IV. Body — Long, broad, deep, not too long 
 in the barrel, rectangular, almost a parallelogram 
 and evenly covered with firm flesh. 
 
 (i) Back, straight, wide and level from withers to tail- 
 head, broad and well filled in the loin, and well fleshed 
 throughout. 
 
 (2) Withers, broad. 
 
 (3) Shoulders fully developed and lying well within the 
 body, blending nicely with the neck in front and crops behind, 
 and well covered. 
 
 (4) Forearm, strong and broad where it joins the body 
 and tapering gracefully to the knee. 
 
 (5) Breast, full, wide and deep. 
 
 (6) Brisket, broad and plump, and often lower than in 
 the Shorthorn. 
 
 (7) Crops, full. 
 
 (8) Ribs, springing well and level from the backbone, 
 increasingly so toward the back rib, coming well down, and 
 extending well forward and backward, as in the Shorthorn. 
 
 (9) Heart girth and flank girth, good and about even. 
 
 (10) Hind quarters, long and broad and deep, as in the 
 Shorthorn. 
 
 (11) Hips, broad and full and on a level with the back 
 and loin. 
 
 (12) Hind flank, full, thick and deep. 
 
 (13) Thigh, broad, full and well fleshed within and with- 
 out, but in many instances it is light. 
 
 (14) Rump, broad, but not prominent, and on a line 
 with the back. 
 
 (15) Buttock, broad and square. 
 
 (16) Twist, deep and full and placed low. 
 
 (17) Tail, rather fine, somewhat broad at the top, set on 
 a level with the back and falling in a plumb line to the hocks. 
 
 V. Udder — Broad, full and long and evenly 
 
 quartered, but oftentimes it is not possessed of much 
 
 capacity. 
 
 (i) Teats of good size and well placed, as with the 
 Shorthorn. 
 
48 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) Milk veins, same as in the Shorthorn, but frequently 
 they are lacking in large development. 
 
 VL Legs — Short and well placed under the 
 body, fine and clean below the knee, and fine, clean 
 and flat below the hock. 
 
 (i) Hocks fairly straight and short, and turning neither 
 outward nor inward. 
 
 (2) Feet, flat and in shape like a semi-circle. 
 
 VII. Skin — Of medium thickness, but some- 
 what thicker than in the Shorthorn, mellow and 
 elastic to the touch, and well covered with an abun- 
 dance of fine, soft hair, in many instances more or 
 less ciuded. 
 
 VIIL Color — In color, the face, throat, 
 chest, legs, lower part of the body, crest and tip of 
 tail are a beautiful white, and all other parts are red. 
 
 (i) The red should be neither very dark nor light. 
 (2) A small red spot above the eye and a round red spot 
 on the throat have many admirers. 
 
 IX. General Appearance — Herefords are 
 characterized by large, rectangular and yet compact 
 development of body, smoothness of outline, mild- 
 ness of mien, and easy carriage. 
 
 X. Compared zvith Shorthorns — They have 
 longer and more spreading horns, more dewlap, 
 lower briskets, rather thicker hides, lighter thighs, 
 more curly coats, and the differences in color 
 mentioned. 
 
LECTURE NO. 14. 
 
 ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 I. Fossiliferous remains that have been dis- 
 covered in Britain render it highly probable that the 
 aboriginal cattle from which existing races have 
 been derived were all horned originally, yet 
 
 (i) Several varieties of hornless cattle have existed in 
 Britain from time immemorial, some of which have disap- 
 peared, hence 
 
 (2) The only existing polled breeds at present are the 
 Polled Aberdeen, the Galloway and the Red Polls. 
 
 II. The precise causes that have led to the 
 loss of horns have never been exactly understood. 
 
 (i) It may have arisen from sudden organic changes, 
 spontaneous, accidental or proper, and was then perpetuated 
 by selection in breeding, as, 
 
 (2) It is more than probable that these variations occurred 
 within the period of domestication. 
 
 III. Of the four principal breeds of Scotch 
 cattle, the Ayrshires only have an admixture of for- 
 eign blood. 
 
 (i) The other three, viz., the Aberdeen-Angus, frequently 
 called Polled Aberdeen and Angus, the Galloway and the 
 West Highland are all supposed to be descended from the 
 aboriginal wild horned cattle of Caledonia. 
 
 (2) The minor differences which they present are doubt- 
 less due to climatic and other influences. 
 
 IV. It is highly probable that the Aberdeen- 
 Angus cattle are indigenous to the northeastern 
 counties of Scotland, with Forfar and Aberdeen as 
 their chief centers, as 
 
 (i) There is much evidence to show that late in the last 
 century and early in the present, polled cattle were numerous 
 in these counties, and 
 
 4 49 
 
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 5 1 
 
 (2) In the ancient horned domestic races of Scotland, 
 there seems to have been a decided tendency to variation in 
 the loss of horns. 
 
 V. The Aberdeen-Angus of to-day is no 
 doubt the result of the amalgamation of two sorts 
 of polled cattle inhabiting the districts of Scot- 
 land, where, even now, the breed abounds most 
 numerously. 
 
 (i) The former of these were puny and thin in flesh, 
 pre-eminently the crofters' cow. 
 
 (2) The latter were a larger variety, with better all-round 
 development, but could not stand roughing it so well as the 
 former. 
 
 VI. Hugh Watson of Keillor, Meigle, For- 
 farshire, was the most noted of the early improvers 
 of Aberdeen Polls. 
 
 (i) Both his father and grandfather owned good herds 
 of the same kind of cattle, the latter as early as 1735. 
 
 (2) He established the Keillor herd in 1808, and prose- 
 cuted the work of breeding with much vigor and success until 
 1865, when it was dispersed. 
 
 (3) He bred from those animals only which came nearest 
 to his ideal, and did not seem to care whether they were 
 closely related or not. 
 
 (4) He was singularly successful in raising calves, fre- 
 quently suckling five on one cow. 
 
 (5) Nearly 500 prizes were awarded him in leading show- 
 rings of England, Scotland and France. 
 
 VII. After Hugh Watson, the most noted 
 improver of Aberdeen Polls- w^as William Mc- 
 Combie of Tilly four, who was born in 1805 and died 
 in 1880. 
 
 (i) His herd was founded in 1830 and dispersed in 1880. 
 
 (2) His success in the showyard has few parallels in the 
 history of farm stock. 
 
 (3) In 1878 he won highest honors in Paris, France, 
 competing against all breeds. 
 
 VIII. Early in the century Lord Panmure 
 tried to improve the Aberdeen Polls by means of a 
 Galloway cross, but the effort resulted in failure. 
 
52 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IX. Toward the middle of the century Short- 
 horn bulls were extensively crossed on Aberdeen- 
 Angus cows, the result being a very superior animal 
 for the block. 
 
 (i) To so great an extent did this practice prevail at one 
 time that fears were entertained for the preservation of the 
 purity of the breed. 
 
 (2) The after crosses, however, did not prove so satisfac- 
 tory, and the practice was abandoned. 
 
 X. Extension to other countries. 
 
 (i) Aberdeen-Angus cattle reached Ireland prior to 1843, 
 and England somewhat later, and several good herds have 
 been established in both these countries. 
 
 (2) They first reached the United States in 1873, where 
 already there are probably more herds of this breed than in 
 Scotland. 
 
 (3) They were first introduced into Canada in 1876, and 
 several herds have been established in various parts of that 
 country. 
 
 (4) They are also kept in considerable numbers in 
 Canada, South America, New Zealand and several countries 
 in Europe. 
 
 XL Organizations established. 
 
 (i) The Polled Cattle Society was established in 1879, 
 largely through the efforts of Sir George McPherson Grant. 
 
 (2) The American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders' Associa- 
 tion was organized in 1883. 
 
 XII. The first volume of the 'Tolled Herd 
 Book" was published in 1862. 
 
 (i) In the first four volumes Galloway cattle are regis- 
 tered along with the Aberdeen Polls. 
 
 (2) The first volume of the American Aberdeen-Angus 
 Herd Book was published in 1886. 
 
 XIII. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Aberdeen- Angus cattle are now being reared in 
 twenty-seven states and provinces. 
 
 (2) They are bred and owned by 728 persons. 
 
 (3) The more important centers for the breed are Iowa, 
 Illinois, Missouri, Ohio and Indiana, and in the order named. 
 
o 
 U 
 
 3 
 
 'on 
 
 c 
 
 < 
 
 c 
 
 <J 
 (J 
 
 -o 
 
 < 
 
 'a. 
 
 
54 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (4) About one-third of all the pure Aberdeen-Angus 
 cattle in the United States are in Iowa and one-fourth in 
 Illinois. 
 
 XIV. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) Nine volumes of the Aberdeen-Angus Herd Book 
 have Jbeen issued. 
 
 (2) A total of 32,500 animals have been recorded, of 
 which 13,744 are males and 18,756 are females. 
 
LECTURE NO. 15. 
 
 ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHAR- 
 ACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) The Polled Aberdeens were but little known outside 
 of Scotland prior to the middle of the present century. 
 
 (2) Now they occupy a place in the public mind as beef 
 producers that is probably not second to that given to 
 Herefords. 
 
 (3) The rapid diffusion of the breed since its introduction 
 into the United States augurs well for its future. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Aberdeen- Angus cattle are best adapted to temperate 
 climates when shelter can be given them in winter. 
 
 (2) Although reared in considerable numbers on the open 
 ranges of the west, they are probably better adapted to what 
 may be termed semi-range conditions. 
 
 (3) They have highest adaptation for arable land, level 
 or undulating, and rich in all kinds of food production, and 
 where it is desired to produce meat of a high class. 
 
 (4) The absence of horns is favorable to feeding while 
 running loose in sheds and yards, and also to transporting 
 long distances by rail. 
 
 (5) In hardihood they are about medium. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) They follow closely upon the Shorthorns and Here- 
 fords, although they do not possess quite the same average 
 size, but 
 
 (2) They weigh remarkably well in proportion to their 
 size. 
 
 (3) With good feeding, cows at maturity will weigh from 
 1 100 to 1500 pounds, and bulls 2000 to 2400 pounds. 
 
 IV. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) Formerly they were slow in maturing, but in this 
 respect they have been greatly improved. 
 
 55 
 
56 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) With good feeding they will mature for the block at 
 the age of, say, thirty months. 
 
 V. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) In grazing qualities they are about average. 
 
 (2) Like the large bodied Shorthorns and Hereford? 
 they do not graze well on broken and rugged lands where the 
 pastures are scant. 
 
 VI. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Their feeding qualities are of the first order, as they 
 stand confinement well and make an excellent use of the food 
 given them. 
 
 (2) They are remarkable for their reteniion of symmetry 
 of form while being fattened, as they rarely become patchy 
 or disproportioned. 
 
 (3) During recent years, pure and high grade Aberdeen- 
 Polls have won more prizes at the leading fat stock shows for 
 the number of animals shown than have been won by any 
 other breed. 
 
 VII. Quality of meat. 
 
 (i) In quality of meat they are probably ahead of the 
 Shorthorns and Herefords, and are equal or nearly equal with 
 the Galloway and West Highland breeds. 
 
 (2) As a rule the flesh is well mixed and contains a large 
 proportion of compact, finely grained meat, and 
 
 (3) No other breed produces a higher percentage of dead 
 meat in proportion to the live weight. 
 
 VIII. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) Formerly they were possessed of good milking 
 qualities, more especially that branch of the parent tree known 
 as the crofters' cow. 
 
 (2) These qualities have been impaired, however, through 
 the system of breeding and management adopted, save in some 
 individuals and in a few families. 
 
 (3) The quality of the milk is first-class. 
 
 IX. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Polled Aberdeens cross particularly well with Short- 
 horn grades. 
 
 (2) They are also excellent for crossing upon common 
 stocks in arable sections where quick feeding, absence of horns 
 and a high quality of meat are desired in the progeny. 
 
 (3) A large percentage of the progeny are hornless and 
 black or gray in color. 
 
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 57 
 
 X. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Their breeding qualities were formerly of a high 
 order, as witnessed in "Aiild Granny," owned by Hugh Wat- 
 son, but 
 
 (2) To some extent they have been impaired through the 
 artificial treatment to which they have been subjected, so that 
 now they cannot be placed higher than good average. 
 
 XT. Weak points. 
 
 (i) As to properties, they do not appear to have any 
 weaknesses which stand out markedly prominent. 
 
 (2) As to form, they are in some instances a little lacking 
 in scale. 
 
 XII. Compared with Shorthorns, 
 
 (i) They are probably something ahead in quality of 
 meat, and in suitability for shipping by rail. 
 
 (2) In adaptability, early maturity, grazing and feeding 
 properties, utility in crossing and in breeding properties, they 
 are about equal. 
 
 (3) In general popularity, size, and milking qualities they 
 are as yet a little behind. 
 
LECTURE NO. i6. 
 
 ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE THEIR STANDARD 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the Aberdeen- Angus Breeders' Association in 
 1890: 
 
 FOR cows. 
 
 POINTS 
 
 (i) Color — Black. White is objectionable, except on 
 underline behind the navel, and there only to a 
 moderate extent 2 
 
 (2) Head — Forehead moderately broad, and slightly 
 indented ; tapering toward the nose ; muzzle fine ; 
 nostrils wide and open ; distance from eyes to nos- 
 trils of moderate length; eyes full, bright and ex- 
 pressive, indicative of good disposition ; ears 
 large, slightly rising upward, and well furnished 
 with hair ; poll, well defined and without any ap- 
 pearance of horns or scars; jaws, clean . . 10 
 
 (3) Throat — Clean, without any development of loose 
 flesh underneath ... . . -3 
 
 (4) Neck — Of medium length, spreading out to meet 
 the shoulders, with full neck vein . • • 3 
 
 (5) Shoulders — Moderately oblique, well covered on 
 blades and top ; with vertebra or backbone slightly 
 above the scapula or shoulder blades, which 
 should be moderately broad . ... 6 
 
 (6) Chest — Wide and deep; round and full just back 
 
 of elbows 10 
 
 (7) Brisket— Deep and moderately projecting from 
 between the legs, and proportionately covered 
 with flesh and fat ...... 4 
 
 (8) Ribs — Well sprung from backbone, arched and 
 deep, neatly joined to the crops and loins . 8 
 
 (9) Back — Broad and straight from crops to hooks; 
 loins strong; hook bones moderate in width, not 
 prominent, and well covered : rumos, long, full, 
 level and rounded neatly into hindquarters . 10 
 
 58 
 
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 59 
 
 (10) Hindquarters — Deep and full; thighs thick and 
 muscular, and in proportion with hindquarters ; 
 twist filled out well in its "seam" so as to form an 
 even, wide plain between thighs .... 8 
 
 (11) Tail — Fine, coming neatly out of the body on a 
 line with the back, and hanging at right angles 
 
 to it -3 
 
 (12) Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line 
 with the body and well up behind ; teats squarely 
 placed, well apart and of good size . . 8 
 
 (13) Underline — Straight, as nearly as possible; flank 
 deep and full 4 
 
 (14) Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed; hind 
 legs slightly inclined forward below the hocks; 
 forearm, muscular ; bones, fine and clean . . 3 
 
 (15) Flesh — Even and without patchiness . . 3 
 
 (16) Skin — Of moderate thickness and mellow touch, 
 abundantly covered with thick, soft hair. Much 
 of the thriftiness, feeding properties and value of 
 the animal depend upon this quality, which is of 
 great weight in the grazier's and butcher's judg- 
 ment. A good "touch" will compensate for some 
 deficiencies of form. Nothing can compensate for 
 a skin hard and stiff. In raising the skin from 
 the body it should have a substantial, soft, flexible 
 feeling, and when beneath the outspread hand it 
 should move easily, as though resting on a soft, 
 celljlar substance, which, however, becomes firmer 
 as the animal ripens. A thin, papery skin is ob- 
 jectionable, especially in a cold climate . . .10 
 
 (17) General Appearance — Elegant, well bred and 
 feminine. The walk square, the step quick, and 
 the head up 5 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 FOR BULLS. 
 
 POINTS 
 
 (i) Color — Same as for cows, but add, a white cod is 
 
 most undesirable 3 
 
 (2) Head — Same as for cows, but substitute forehead 
 broad, face slightly prominent for "forehead mod- 
 erately broad and slightly indented," and eyes 
 mild, full and expressive, for "eyes, full, bright 
 and expressive" 10 
 
 (3) Throat — Same as for cows 3 
 
 (4) Neck — Of medium length, muscular, with mod- 
 erate crest (which increases with age) spreading 
 out to meet the shoulders, with full neck veins . 3 
 
6o 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (5 
 (6 
 (7 
 (8 
 (9 
 
 (10 
 
 (II 
 
 (12 
 
 (13 
 (14 
 (15 
 (i6 
 
 Shoulders — Same as for cows . 
 
 Chest — Same as for cows 
 
 Brisket — Same as for cows 
 
 Ribs — Same as for cows 
 
 Back — Same as for cows . 
 
 Hindquarters — Same as for cows 
 
 Tail — Same as for cows . 
 
 Underline — Same as for cows 
 
 Legs — Same as for cow 3 . 
 
 Flesh — Same as for cows 
 
 Skin — Same as for cows . 
 
 General Appearance — Same as for cows, but sub 
 
 stitute masculine for feminine 
 
 Perfection 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 10 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 The following additional points are sub- 
 
 11. 
 
 mitted : 
 
 (i) Head, not large, clean cut, handsome and well set on. 
 and finer in the female. 
 
 (2) Muzzle, black in color. 
 
 (3) Cheeks, not heavy, but probably deeper than in some 
 breeds. 
 
 (4) Body, fairly long, broad, deep, cylindrical, well 
 rounded at the angles and evenly covered with smooth flesh. 
 
 (5) Breast, full, wide and deep and brisket broad. 
 
 (6) Forearm, broad and plump and tapering gracefully to 
 the knee. 
 
 (7) Crops, full and level with the shoulder. 
 
 (8) Hind flanks, full, deep and thick. 
 
 (9) Buttock, moderately broad and slightly rounded at 
 the sides. 
 
 (10) Milk veins, distinctly traced. 
 
 (11) Hoofs, semi-circular. 
 
 (12) Skin, stronger in the male than the female. 
 
 (13) The hair in the best animals has two growths, or 
 lengths, the under one being short, thick and downy. 
 
 III. Color — The color most in favor is black 
 without any variation. 
 
 (i) A shade, of brown is not rejected, nor is some white 
 about the udder, but white above the underline or on the legs 
 will exclude from registry. 
 
 (2) Red or brindled is also inadmissible. 
 
 (3) Formerly they embraced a great variety of colors, as 
 brindle, red, brown, silver colored yellow, and dark red and 
 black stripes alternating. 
 
ABERDEEN-ANGUS CATTLE. 6l 
 
 IV. General Appearance — In general appear- 
 ance they are low set and sturdy, fairly long in body 
 and very smooth in outline. 
 
 V. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) The Aberdeen-Angus are longer in body in proportion 
 to the hight, smoother and more cylindrical, less prominent 
 at the angles and even shorter in the limbs. 
 
 (2) They are something finer in the muzzle and longer in 
 the nose, a trifle longer in the neck and somewhat thicker in 
 the hide. 
 
 (3) There are also the differences in horn and color pre- 
 viously mentioned. 
 
LECTURE NO. 17. 
 
 GALLOWAY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Galloway cattle are so named from the 
 province of Galloway, which now comprises the 
 stewartry of Kirkcudbright and the shire of Wig- 
 town. 
 
 (i) The principal pedigreed herds in Britain are found 
 in Kirkcudbright, Dumfriesshire and Cumberland, where they 
 have been bred pure further back than any authentic records 
 carry us. 
 
 (2) Several writers of the sixteenth century speak in 
 high terms of the excellence of the fiesh of the cattle of the 
 Galloway district. 
 
 II. The Galloways are certainly one of the 
 purest, as well as one of the oldest, of the improved 
 breeds. 
 
 (i) Some authorities hold to the opinion that they are 
 descended from a wild aboriginal polled breed still repre- 
 sented at Chatellerault in Lanarkshire. Scotland. 
 
 (2) There has been no infusion of outside blood whatever 
 within the period of their recorded history, as all efforts to 
 improve the breed from an outside source have been un- 
 successful. 
 
 (3) This is not inconsistent with the fact that horned 
 cattle of other breeds have been bred simultaneously in the 
 same districts. 
 
 (4) An unmistakable proof of the antiquity and purity 
 of the breed is found in the entire absence of scurs in pure 
 Galloways, and in the great power which they have to remove 
 the horns when crossed upon other breeds. 
 
 III. The treatment to which they have been 
 subjected, and the cold, damp climate in which they 
 were originally reared, have contributed much to 
 their proverbial ruggedness. 
 
 63 
 
64 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (i) They have there been frequently reared 1500 feet 
 above the sea level, where grain will not ripen. 
 
 (2) The long wavy coat which protects them is probably 
 owing to the dampness of the climate. 
 
 IV. During much of the last century and also 
 the beginning of the present one, it was customary 
 to drive Galloways in large numbers to the south- 
 eastern counties of England to be finished for the 
 London market. 
 
 (i) For many years, from 20,000 to 30,000 head were 
 thus driven annually from the home of the Galloways. 
 
 (2) This trade ceased after the introduction of turnip 
 husbandry into that part of Scotland. 
 
 V. Introduction into America. 
 
 (i) The first recorded Galloways were imported into 
 Canada by Graham Bros, of Vaughan, Ont., in 1853, but 
 
 (2) Their dissemination in that country was owing 
 chiefly to the untiring efforts of Thomas McCrae of Guelph, 
 Ont., who began breeding them in 1861, and importing them 
 from Scotland a few years subsequently. 
 
 (3) They were imported into Michigan about 1870, and 
 somewhat later to Wisconsin and Missouri. 
 
 (4) They have also been introduced to some extent into 
 other Anglo-Saxon countries. 
 
 VI. During the last century there \vere many 
 Galloways of mixed colors, a point that is well 
 brought out in crossing them on other breeds. 
 
 (i) Some were belted, some had white faces and a white 
 mark along the back, others w^re brindled, drab or dun, red, 
 and red and white. 
 
 (2) When crossed with an old established breed, one-half 
 the calves will probably show a variety of colors. 
 
 VTI. Galloway Breeders' Associations 
 
 (i) The Galloway Cattle Society in Britain was estab- 
 lished in 1877. 
 
 (2) The American Galloway Breeders' Association was 
 established in 1882. 
 
 VIII. Registration in Britain. 
 
 (i) The first volume of the Galloway Herd Book, as 
 distino-uished from that of the Aberdeen-Angus was published 
 in 1878. 
 
o 
 U 
 
 a. 
 
 uu 
 
66 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) Previous to that time they had been registered in 
 the same record as the Aberdeen-x\ngus breed. 
 
 (3) The Rev. John Gillespie, Mousewald Manse, Dum- 
 fries, has been the editor of the Galloway Herd Book since 
 the adoption of separate registration. 
 
 IX. Registration in North America. 
 
 (i) Registration was commenced in Ontario in 1872, and 
 up to 1874 was entirely confined to Canada. 
 
 (2) The first volume of the American Galloway Herd 
 Book was published by the Agriculture and Arts Association 
 of Ontario in 1883. 
 
 (3) In 1883, the interest of the last named association 
 was purchased by the American Galloway Breeders' Associa- 
 tion, and since that time the American registration of Gallo- 
 ways has been conducted in the United States. 
 
 X. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) The more important centers of distribution in the 
 United States are Missouri, Iowa, Illinois, Kansas and 
 Minnesota and in the order named. 
 
 (2) A considerable number are found in the various 
 provinces of Canada, and they are probably most numerous in 
 Ontario and Nova Scotia. 
 
 XL Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) Nine volumes of the American Galloway Herd Book 
 have been issued. 
 
 (2) A total of 14,401 animals have been recorded, of 
 which 6,262 are males and 8,229 females, and 1,000 pedigrees 
 await record. 
 
LECTURE NO. i8. 
 
 GALLOWAY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER- 
 ISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) Galloway cattle are probably not so popular as the 
 Shorthorn, Hereford and Polled Aberdeen breeds, yet 
 
 (2) Among the leading beef breeds they are entitled to 
 at least the fourth place. 
 
 (3) In the United States, and also to a less extent in 
 Canada, they are gaining ground where cattle must needs 
 rustle in inclement weather. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) They are incomparably the hardiest of the British 
 races, except the West Highland breed. 
 
 (2) Their long hair and thick mossy undercoat enables 
 them to endure well the severities of weather arising from 
 wet and cold, hence 
 
 (3) They are very well adapted to rugged regions and 
 to the purposes of the range, both in the western states and 
 the Canadian Northwest. 
 
 (4) They do better on spare diet than nearly all of the 
 ether beef breeds, as they have been much reared on rocky and 
 thin land. 
 
 (5) This vigor of constitution enables them to stand well 
 long journeys by road, rail or ship transit. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size they are considerably less than the Shorthorns 
 and Herefords, and something less than the Aberdeen Polls, 
 and possibly the Sussex, but 
 
 (2) They weigh remarkably well in proportion to the 
 apparent size. 
 
 IV. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They do not mature quite so quickly as some of the 
 beef breeds, owing to the way in which they have been 
 reared, but 
 
 (2) When fed a forcing ration they are capable of matur- 
 ing at an early age. 
 
 67 
 
68 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) The grazing qualities of Galloways are of a high 
 order. 
 
 (2) They are capable of "roughing it" on rugged pastures, 
 and of making fair gains on these, and 
 
 (3) When put on rich pastures they finish quickly and 
 in fine form. 
 
 VI. Feeding qualities. 
 
 ^^i) Galloways feed well, not only in the pure form, but 
 when crossed upon certain other breeds, as the Shorthorn and 
 West Highland. 
 
 (2) The largest specimens are not usually equal in feed- 
 ing qualities to the short legged animals with small, fine bone. 
 
 (3) They take on flesh smoothly, being almost entirely 
 free from patchiness. 
 
 VII. Quality of meat. 
 
 (i) Galloway beef has been noted for its fine quality in 
 the London markets for nearly two centuries, where, during 
 that time, it has commanded the highest market price. 
 
 (2) The fat is put on more internally than externally, 
 and is finely intermixed with lean, the proportion of the latter 
 being unusually large. 
 
 (3) The grain of the flesh is extremely delicate and it is 
 rich in flavor. 
 
 VIII. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) Galloways cannot lay claim to any superiority as a 
 milking breed, since they have been bred mainly for the 
 block, but 
 
 (2) Some individuals milk well and the milk of all is rich. 
 
 IX. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) For prepotency Galloways are almost unrivaled. 
 
 (2) When a bull of this race is crossed upon any of the 
 various horned breeds, a large percentage of the produce will 
 be black, and from 95 to 100 per cent without horns. 
 
 (3) A first cross from cows of various breeds has per- 
 plexed good judges to distinguish them from pure breds. 
 
 X. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The breeding qualities of Galloways are excellent, 
 owing largely, doubtless, to freedom from confinement during 
 much of the year. 
 
 (2) For a similar reason they breed to a good old age. 
 
GALLOWAY CATTLE. 69 
 
 XL Utility in the hides. 
 
 (i) The hides of Galloways are likely to be much used 
 for robes and outer garments, owing to the length and beauty 
 of the outer coat of hair. 
 
 (2) This feature is also likely to exercise an influence on 
 the character of the sires chosen for breeding. 
 
 XIL Weak points. 
 
 (i) Their undeveloped milking qualities render them 
 less well adapted to mixed husbandry, and 
 
 (2) Their lack of size renders them less suitable for rich 
 arable sections. 
 
 XIII. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) They are ahead of Shorthorns in hardihood, in 
 adaptability to exposed situations, in grazing properties, in 
 the high quality of the meat, in prepotency and in breeding 
 qualities and in the value of the hides, but 
 
 (2) They are not equal to them in popularity, in general 
 adj ptability, in size, in feeding qualities and in milk pro- 
 dut. iion. 
 
LECTURE NO. 19. 
 
 GALLOWAY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following scale of points was drawn 
 up by the Council of the Galloway Cattle Society of 
 Great Britain in 1883: 
 
 (i) Color — Black, with a brownish tinge. 
 
 (2) Head — Short and wide, with broad forehead and wide 
 nostrils; without the slightest symptoms of horns or scurs. 
 
 (3) Eyes — Large and prominent. 
 
 (4) Ears — JModerate in length and broad, pointing for- 
 ward and upward, fringe of long hairs. 
 
 (5) N^cck — Moderate in length, clean and filling well into 
 the shoulders ; the top in a line with the back in the female, 
 and in a male naturally rising with age. 
 
 (6) Body — Deep, round. 1 and symmetrical. 
 
 (7) SJwuldcrs — Fine and straight, moderately wide above; 
 coarse shoulder points and sharp or high shoulders are 
 objectionable. 
 
 (8) Breast — Full and deep. 
 
 (9) Baek and Rump — Straight. 
 
 (10) lUbs — Deep and well sprung. 
 
 (11) Loin and Sirloin — Well filled. 
 
 (12) Hook Bones — Not prominent. 
 
 (13) Hindquarters — Long, moderately wide and well filled. 
 
 (14) Flank — Deep and full. 
 
 (15) Thighs — Broad, straight and well let down to hock; 
 rounded buttocks are very objectionable. 
 
 (16) Legs — Short and clean, with fine bone. 
 
 (17) Tail — Well set on and moderately thick. 
 
 (18) Skin — Mellow and moderately thick. 
 
 (19) Hair — Soft and wavy, with mossy undercoat; wiry or 
 curly hair is very objectionable. 
 
 II. Compared with the scale of points given 
 by Aiton in 181 1, the following are the chief points 
 of difference : 
 
 (i) The muzzle is now broader. 
 
 (2) More prominence is now given to the ear. 
 
 (3) The hams are squarer. 
 
 (4) The tail is finer, and 
 
 (5) The hide some thinner. 
 
 70 
 
GALLOWAY CATTLE. yi 
 
 in. The following list of undesirable points 
 in Galloways was drawn up by James Biggar, Dal- 
 beattie, Scotland : 
 
 (i) Long, narrow head with high crown. 
 
 (2) Narrow tapering muzzle. 
 
 (3) Long, drooping ears. 
 
 (4) Small, deep-set eyes. 
 
 (5) Small, light neck. 
 
 (6) Light, scraggy breast. 
 
 (7) High, narrow shoulders. 
 
 (8) Flatness behind shoulders. 
 
 (9) Light fore or back ribs. 
 
 (10) Square and prominent hook bones. 
 
 (11) High or drooping rumps. 
 
 (12) Weak or slack loins. 
 
 (13) Rounded buttocks. 
 
 (14) Fleshy double thighs. 
 
 (15) Big, coarse bones. 
 
 (16) Thick, stiff skin. 
 
 (17) Hard, wiry or too curly hair. 
 
 (18) Black, hard hair without soft undercoat. 
 
 IV. General appearance of Galloways. 
 
 (i) They are low set, sturdy, robust, lively and spirited. 
 
 (2) The muscles are strong, especially those concerned 
 in traveling. 
 
 (3) The coat is long, beautifully waved and handsome. 
 
 V. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) Galloways are less in size, more low set, and not 
 quite so squarely built. 
 
 (2) They are shorter in the head and polled, broader in 
 the ear. more prominent in the arm and thigh, not quite so 
 well filled in the crops, less prominent at the hooks and 
 stronger at the tailhead, and 
 
 (3) They are thicker in the hide, longer and more wavy 
 in the coat and are black in color. 
 
 VI. Compared with Aberdeen-Angus. 
 
 (i) Galloways are something less in size and not quite 
 so long in body. 
 
 (2) They are shorter in the head and less prominent and 
 pointed at the poll. 
 
 (3) They are a little more prominent at the angles of the 
 body, not quite so cylindrical in shape, more prominent at the 
 arm and thigh, a little stronger at the tailhead and not quite 
 so well filled in the crops, and 
 
 (4) They are a little thicker in the hide and longer and 
 more wavy in the coat. 
 
LECTURE NO. 20. 
 
 SUSSEX CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Some obscurity hangs over the origin of 
 this breed, but there are good reasons for beheving 
 that they are closely associated in ancestry with 
 the Devons. 
 
 (i) Their breeding in England is largely confined to the 
 counties of Sussex, Kent, Surrey and Hampshire, and 
 
 (2) It is only recently that they have been exported to 
 other countries. 
 
 II. It is only within a comparatively limited 
 period that the improvement of the breed has 
 received marked attention. 
 
 (i) Formerly the animals of both sexes were used for 
 plowing and other farm work, but now they are bred mainly 
 for beef. 
 
 (2) Of late years they have scored well at the Smithfield 
 Show at London, and also to some extent at the Fat Stock 
 Show in Chicago. 
 
 (3) The calves are generally reared on the dams, usually 
 getting only a part of the milk at first, and afterwards the 
 wh -^le of it. 
 
 (4) The Sussex Herd Book was established in England 
 in i860. 
 
 III. Sussex cattle in other countries. 
 
 (i) They were imported to the United States by Overton 
 Lea of Nashville, Tenn.. in 1884. 
 
 (2) In 1891 a small importation was made into Canada 
 by the Ontario Experiment Station at Guelph, but some speci- 
 mens of the breed had been brought into the country at an 
 earlier period, although they were eventually taken to the 
 United States. 
 
 72 
 
CO 
 
 X 
 
 3 
 to 
 
 '5. 
 
 a. 
 
 3 
 O 
 
 •Of) 
 LL. 
 
74 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) It can scarcely be said that Sussex cattle have made 
 marked progress since their introduction into the United 
 States. 
 
 (2) A few herds have been established, chiefly in the 
 Mississippi basin, but accessible information regarding them 
 is very meager. 
 
 (3) They are now found in the states of Tennessee, 
 Maine, Illinois, Indiana, Oklahoma, Texas, Kansas, Colorado 
 and in Canada. 
 
 V. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) No Herd Record for Sussex cattle has yet been pub- 
 lished in the United States, although 
 
 (2) Material for the same is accumulating. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity and adaptabihty. 
 
 (i) Sussex cattle are popular only in limited areas 
 owing in a considerable degree to the little effort made by 
 breeders to place them before the outside public. 
 
 (2) Like the Shorthorns they are best adapted to locali- 
 ties rich in production and temperate in character. 
 
 II. Relative size. 
 
 (i) They are a heavy breed, fully equal to the Galloways 
 in weight, but are rather larger than the Galloways in frame. 
 
 (2) They are possessed of several of the same properties 
 as the Devons, to whom they bear a somewhat close resem- 
 blance, but they are considerably larger. 
 
 III. Early maturing and grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) In maturing they are a little behind some breeds, but 
 in this respect they are rapidly improving. 
 
 (2) As grazers they are nearly, if not quite, equal to the 
 Herefords. 
 
 IV. Feeding qualities and quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) They feed well, but in some instances are said to be 
 a little over-nervous in temperament. 
 
 (2) The quality of the meat is very good, though some 
 individuals are a little overstrong in bone. 
 
SUSSEX CATTLE. 75 
 
 V. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) In milking qualities they are measurably deficient, 
 hence they are not much used in the dairy. 
 
 (2) They are usually suckled by their own calves. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) They have not been greatly used for this purpose in 
 the United States, hence 
 
 (2) But little on these points can be said with definiteness. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are good, since 
 
 (2) They have not been reared quite so artificially as 
 some breeds. 
 
 VIII. Weak points. 
 
 (i) They have scarcely been tested enough in this country 
 to know which these are, but 
 
 (2) They will include milking qualities that rank not 
 high, and in many instances a little slowness in maturing. 
 
 IX. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) They are not nearly equal to Shorthorns in popu- 
 larity and in milking qualities, and 
 
 (2) They are not quite equal to them in all-round 
 adaptability, in size, in early maturing and feeding qualities 
 and in value in crossing and grading, but 
 
 (3) They are probably something ahead of them in the 
 marbling of the meat and in breeding qualities. 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 In the absence of an authorized scale of points 
 the following is submitted : 
 
 I. SijjC — Medium for the breed, inclining 
 to large. 
 
 II. Head — Medium, though in some instances 
 it inclines to large. 
 
 (i) Forehead, wide. 
 
 (2) Nose, medium in size and inclining a little to long. 
 
 (3) Muzzle, fairly broad and moist, and nostrils about 
 average. 
 
 (4) Eyes, large, full, clear and of medium calmness. 
 
^6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (5) Horns, somewhat long but not coarse, fairly spread- 
 ing, with a graceful forward curve in the male and forward 
 and upward curve with some spread in the female. 
 
 III. Neck — Medium in length and cleanly 
 made, but some animals of the breed have a little 
 dewlap. 
 
 (i) It should widen and deepen as in the Shorthorn, but 
 (2) It is sometimes not quite so well filled in the neck 
 vein. 
 
 IV. Body — Of the parallelogrammic type. 
 
 (i) Back, wide and straight throughout, with a flat loin, 
 nearly as wide at the fore as at the hind end, and each side 
 lying on a level with the chine. 
 
 (2) Withers, moderately wide. 
 
 (3) Shoulders, large and smooth. 
 
 (4) Breast, wide and projecting well forward, as is also 
 the brisket. 
 
 (5) Crops, full and heart girth good. 
 
 (6) Ribs, well sprung, giving a rounded appearance to the 
 body, and narrow between the last rib and hip bone. 
 
 (7) Hooks, broad, with a wide space between and lying 
 nearly as high as the chine. 
 
 (8) Hips, large and straight without, both at the side 
 and rear. 
 
 (9) Thighs, flat on the outside and without incurvature 
 behind. 
 
 (10) Rumps, long and flat and wide at the setting on of 
 the tail. 
 
 (11) Buttock, wide and straight. 
 
 (12) Twist, deep and set low. 
 
 (13) Tail, perpendicularly hung. 
 
 V. Legs — Medium in length and neither fine 
 nor coarse in bone. 
 
 VI. Skin — Only moderately thick and mel- 
 low and covered with soft hair. 
 
 VII. Color — Usually a solid red, both light 
 and dark shades being common. 
 
 fi) These shades sometimes commingle to form a beauti- 
 ful dapple bay. 
 
 (2) A little white is permissible about the udder and a 
 few white hairs, nearly always single, except on the foretop 
 and flank, are regarded most favorably. 
 
SUSSEX CATTLE. "Jj 
 
 VIII. General Appearance — Sussex cattle are 
 smooth and symmetrical and neither massively built 
 nor of the pony order. 
 
 IX. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) The Sussex breed are not so large, something less 
 in width and a little longer and stronger in limb. 
 
 (2) They have heads slightly stronger and longer, horns 
 longer and more upturned, are scarcely so well filled in the 
 neck vein and breast, and are not so wide nor massive though 
 equally smooth. 
 
 (3) In color, they are red only. 
 
LECTURE NO. 21. 
 
 WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS- 
 TORY^ CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The West Highland cattle, sometimes called 
 Kyloes, are no doubt descended from the aboriginal 
 wild cattle of the country. 
 
 II. Although Argyleshire is their central 
 home, they occupy the whole of the west and middle 
 Highlands, and the western islands, being found in 
 the greatest perfection in the larger Hebrides. 
 
 (i) One of the oldest herds is that of Poltalloch, founded 
 in 1795. 
 
 (2) In many places to the southward they have displaced 
 the deer formerly kept in the parks of noblemen. 
 
 ni. Much attention has been given of late to 
 the improvement of the breed, and with a success 
 that is encouraging. 
 
 (i) The cows suckling calves are housed for a short time 
 in winter, and some of the young cattle have sheds provided, 
 but the principal portion winter in the open air. 
 
 (2) A Herd Book has recently been established for the 
 breed, in Great Britain, largely through the influence of Lord 
 Dunmore. 
 
 IV. West Highland cattle in other countries. 
 
 (i) Some have been imported to the United States, more 
 especially the far West, and some to the Dominion of 
 Canada, but 
 
 (2) As yet they have not obtained an extensive foothold 
 outside of Great Britain. 
 
 78 
 
WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 79 
 
 V. They have a beautiful appearance when in 
 finest bloom, which is during the last three months 
 of the year, owing 
 
 (i) To the sturdy character of the frame. 
 
 (2) To the wild piercing glance of the eye, and 
 
 (3) To the long shaggy coat which grows so abundantly, 
 especially about the head and neck. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) West Highland cattle have as yet but little popularity 
 outside of Great Britain, since 
 
 (2) They have been but little exported to other countries. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Their incomparable hardihood and their fine grazing 
 qualities adapt them to mountainous conditions, cold and 
 bleak, where many other breeds could not subsist. 
 
 (2) There should be a place for them on the mountain 
 pastures of both the eastern and western states. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) They are considerably the smallest of the distinctive 
 beef breeds, but 
 
 (2) They weigh well in proportion to their size, owing to 
 their sturdiness of build. 
 
 IV. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They are not good, owing to the conditions to which 
 they are subjected, but 
 
 (2) Under improved conditions of environment these 
 would also improve. 
 
 V. Grazing qualities. 
 
 Ci) These are of a high order, as they are contented with 
 the coarsest fare, and ultimately get fat where more tender 
 breeds could scarcely exist. 
 
 (2) They are well capable of enduring both damp and 
 cold, and 
 
 (3) Their staying powers are almost without limit, hence 
 they can travel far in gathering food. 
 
 (4) In winter they frequently eat heather and furze, and 
 when taken south they fatten on pastures from which the best 
 portions have been eaten. 
 
3= 
 
 c 
 
 'q. 
 
 
WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 8l 
 
 (5) They are generally finished on low land, and for this 
 purpose they are in high favor in Scotland and England. 
 
 VI. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are only medium, as they mature so slowly, and 
 (2) Owing to their natural wildness, they take some time 
 to become accustomed to confinement, 
 
 VII. Quality of meat. 
 
 (i) The meat is well laid on, is of the finest quality, and 
 commands the highest price in the English markets. 
 
 (2) The proportion of the dressed meat to the live weight 
 is also large. 
 
 VIII. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) These are not good, since they are subjected to con- 
 ditions unfavorable to milk production, but 
 (2) The quality of the milk is excellent. 
 
 IX. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) For either use there would seem to be no place for 
 West Highland cattle, since 
 
 (2) Decreased hardihood in the progeny would make 
 them less well adapted to mountain pastures, and want of size 
 would make them less valuable than other breeds on lowland 
 pastures, but 
 
 (3) When crossed upon by the Galloways, the progeny 
 are excellent where the food conditions can be improved. 
 
 X. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the best, since 
 
 (2) Their environment is favorable to such breeding. 
 
 XL Weak points. 
 
 (i) For cold, bleak conditions they seem to be completely 
 furnished, but 
 
 (2) Want of size, scant milk production and shyness of 
 disposition will hinder them from supplanting the large and 
 more completely domesticated breeds. 
 
 XII. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) They are considerably behind Shorthorns in popu- 
 larity, general adaptability, size, maturing, feeding and milk- 
 ing qualities, and for crossing and grading, but 
 
 (2) They are considerably ahead of them in hardihood, 
 grazing and breeding qualities and in the marbling of the meat. 
 
 6 
 
82 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 In the absence of an authorized scale of points, 
 the following is submitted : 
 
 I. Size — Medium, but it will naturally adjust 
 itself to the attendant conditions of environment. 
 
 II. Head — The head is short and well pro- 
 portioned, and has a profusion of long, shaggy and 
 curly hair coming down below the eyes. 
 
 (i) Forehead, broad and jawbones to correspond. 
 
 (2) Eyes, prominent and possessed of a quick piercing 
 glance. 
 
 (3) Nose, slightly turned up at the point. 
 
 (4) Horns, long, wide apart, curved and pointed and 
 tipped with black. 
 
 (a) They should come out level with the head, and 
 {b) They should then incline forward and upward with 
 a peculiar back set curve and wide sweep. 
 
 III. Neck — The neck should be medium in 
 length and strong. 
 
 (i) It should be without dewlap, but oftentimes is not. 
 (2) On the crest of the bulls there is a mane of coarser 
 hair. 
 
 IV. Body — The body is strong, deep, thick, 
 muscular and compact. 
 
 (i) Back, straight, wide and well rounded from the 
 shoulders backward. 
 
 (2) Shoulders, thick and immensely filled out downwards, 
 from the point to the lower extremity of the forearm. 
 
 (3) Chest, wide and deep with much breadth between 
 the forelegs. 
 
 (4) Ribs, well developed and fairly arched. 
 
 (5) Hind quarters, large development, square between 
 the hip bones and the tail, and also at the buttock. 
 
 (6) Thighs, possessed of immense development. 
 
 (7) Tail, thick and strong, with a full bunch of hair 
 hanging down toward the ground. 
 
 V. Legs — The legs are short, extremely mus- 
 cular, are "well feathered," bone thick, broad and 
 straight and hoofs strong. 
 
WEST HIGHLAND CATTLE. 83 
 
 VI. Skin — Rather thick, but mellow to the 
 touch. 
 
 (i) The hair should be abundant, long, glossy, and pos- 
 sessed of a graceful wave. 
 
 (2) A curl in the hair is a decided fault. 
 
 VII. Color — The color varies, some animals 
 being black, others red, dun, yellow and brindled or 
 red and black. 
 
 (i) As a rule, the color is black, but fashion now inclines 
 to yellow or light dun and brindle. 
 
 (2) A well marked brindle is said to be the favorite color 
 for bulls. 
 
 VIIT. General Appearance — In general ap- 
 pearance the West Highlander is sturdy and strong, 
 and when seen on mountain or in timber pastures 
 and in good condition he is weird, stately, grand. 
 
 IX. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) They are much smaller, but sturdier, and more 
 low set. 
 
 (2) The head is shorter, the horns much larger, and the 
 eye livelier. 
 
 (3) The bones are stronger, and the arm and thigh much 
 more fully developed, and 
 
 (4) They have a more picturesque appearance, owing 
 largely to the long hair which covers them, more especially 
 about the head and neck. 
 
THE DAIRY BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 22. 
 
 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 I. But little is known with certainty regarding 
 the ultimate origin of this breed, but 
 
 (i) Judging from the few flashlight statements coming 
 from a remote past they would seem to have been bred pure 
 in much of the country eastward from the North sea for fully 
 2000 years. 
 
 (2) History makes it clear that since the Christian era, 
 if not, indeed, before that time, cattle keeping has been the 
 chief occcupation of the rural population. 
 
 (3) There is some evidence to show that as early as the 
 ninth century, Holland was famed for its dairy products. 
 
 (4) The historian. Motley, referring to this country, 
 speaks of oxen 2000 pounds in weight, and of the immense 
 production and exportation of butter and cheese, even in the 
 seventeenth century. 
 
 II. Holland has several breeds or types of cat- 
 tle, of which the Friesian, or Friesland, are the most 
 numerous. 
 
 (i) The Friesian and North Holland cattle, resembling 
 each other in all essentials and the progenitors of nearly all 
 the Holstein-Friesian cattle in the United States, are by many 
 supposed to have come originally from the duchy of Holstein. 
 
 (2) The sub-breeds. Oldenburgers, West Friesian. East 
 Friesian. Gronnigen and Beemster are all supposed to have 
 been derived from one parent stem. 
 
 (3) The differences are owing in part to differences in 
 management, but more probably to differences in soil pro- 
 duction, 
 
 8s 
 
o 
 c 
 
 O 
 
 
 CO 
 
 vo 
 
 00 
 
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 87 
 
 III. Offshoots from Holland cattle. 
 
 (i) Among these are the Flanders breed of Belgium and 
 France, the Oldenburg and Brittenburg breeds of Germany, 
 and the Holmogorian breed of Russia. 
 
 (2) Cattle are also numerous in other parts of Europe 
 which evidently possess the blood of the cattle of Holland in 
 a greater or less degree. 
 
 IV. Importations into Britain. 
 
 (i) In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries more or 
 less of the blood of Dutch cattle was carried into England 
 and Scotland and exercised some influence on the milking 
 qualities of the old Teeswater and Ayrshire breeds. 
 
 (2) In England this influence extended northward from 
 the Humber and over a considerable region. 
 
 V. These cattle have for centuries past been 
 noted for their extraordinary dairy properties. 
 
 (i) The effort to further improve them would seem to 
 have been constant and unceasing. 
 
 (2) The unusual succulence and productiveness of the 
 pastures, which grow largely on reclaimed dyke lands, have 
 facilitated such improvement. 
 
 VI. Care and management in Holland. 
 
 (i) They are carefully housed in clean, well lighted and 
 comfortable stables in winter and are milked in the pastures 
 from aboin May ist to November ist. 
 
 (2) When on pasture they are blanketed during inclement 
 weather. 
 
 (3) Only a few of the choicest bulls are kept for breeding 
 and about 20 per cent of the choicest females. 
 
 (4) The calves not reared are usually sold for veal and 
 the cows for beef, after having produced five or six calves. 
 
 VII. Importations into the United States. 
 
 (i) The first cattle imported from Holland are supposed 
 to have reached the Mohawk valley about 1621, and other 
 sundry importations are thought to have been made subse- 
 quently by Dutch settlers. 
 
 (2) The first importation of which we have any definite 
 knowledge was made to Cazenovia by the Holland Land 
 Company in 1795. 
 
 (3) The first herd, the blood of which has been kept pure, 
 was imported by W. W. Chenery of Belmont, Mass., in 1861. 
 
 _ (4) Importations did not become general or frequent 
 until about 25 years ago. 
 
88 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 VIII. Registration of Holstein-Friesian cattle. 
 
 (i) Nine volumes of the Holstein Herd Book were pub- 
 lished by the Holstein Breeders' Association of America, the 
 first of which appeared in 1872 and the last in 1885. 
 
 (2) Four volumes of the Dutch Friesian Herd Book were 
 published by the Dutch Friesian Herd Book Association of 
 America, the first of which appeared in 1880 and the last 
 in 1885. 
 
 (3) These two associations were united in 1885 under the 
 name of the "Holstein-Friesian Association of America." 
 
 (4) Public herd records are also now kept in Ontario,. 
 Holland, Belgium and Germany. 
 
 IX. Advanced registry. 
 
 (i) The Holstein-Friesian Association of America was 
 the pioneer association in establishing a system of advanced 
 registry based on structural form and actual performance. 
 
 (2) It was established in 1885, and largely through the 
 efforts of Mr. S. Hoxie of Yorkville, N. Y., who was made 
 the first superintendent. 
 
 (3) No animals are admitted under ihe age of two years. 
 
 (4) No bull will be admitted which ha-: not evidenced 
 superior quality in his progeny and that will not scale eighty 
 points in the rigid standard set for advanced registry. 
 
 (5) A cow must have borne a calf and m.ade certain milk 
 and butter records required of cows of her form or year. 
 
 X. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Holstein-Friesian cattle are kept in every state in 
 the Union. 
 
 (2) They are most numerous in New York, Pennsylvania, 
 Ohio, Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts and Michigan, 
 and probably in the order named. 
 
 XL Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) Since the consolidation of the associations named 
 under Note VIII, sixteen volumes of the Holstein-Friesian 
 Herd Book have been issued. 
 
 (2) Four volumes of the advanced registry were pub- 
 lished separately, beginning with 1887, but the records com- 
 mencing with Vol. XII of the Holstein Herd Book are now 
 bound up with and appear in the several volumes of the same. 
 
 (3) There have been recorded in the records of the con- 
 solidated association, including Vol. XVI, 93,464 animals, of 
 which 31.. =133 are males and 61.931 are females. 
 
 (4) The American branch association of the North Hol- 
 land Herd Book has also recorded 396 males and 1125 females. 
 
LECTURE NO. 23. 
 
 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHAR- 
 ACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) The Holsteins deservedly rank very high among dairy 
 cattle in America. 
 
 (2) Although they entered the field considerably later, 
 they are only second to the Jerseys in point of numbers. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) The large, capacious frame of the Holstein calls for 
 environment where the land is level rather than broken, and 
 rich in forage and grain production. 
 
 (2) When these conditions are present they may be kept 
 with rnuch advantage in providing milk for cities, for cheese 
 factories and creameries and also for private dairies, in which 
 the skimmilk can be turned to excellent account. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 -. S'^X ^^^ Holsteins are unquestionablv the largest of the 
 distinctive dairy breeds found in America' 
 
 _ (2) The frame is fully as large as that of the Brown 
 bwiss and is not much behind that of the Shorthorn. 
 
 (p The average live weight of cows may be put at 1200 
 pounds, while they vary from 1000 to 1500 pounds. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) In the production of milk. Quantity alone considered 
 the Holsteins are without a rival, but 
 
 (2) The milk does not average so high in butter fat as 
 that of some breeds, although to this there are some exceo- 
 tions. ^ 
 
 _ (3) The milk is good for cheese or butter making, and 
 either fresh or skimmed it is excellent for promoting quick 
 development in young animals, since it is rich in constituents 
 that go to form bone, muscle and fibrous tissue 
 
 89 
 
90 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) Because of their large size they do not mature quite 
 so quickly as some of the smaller breeds, but 
 
 (2) The heifers usually become milk producers at from 
 twenty-four to thirty months. 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are good, but not of the highest. 
 
 (2) The large frame forbids grazing them on lands much 
 broken, or where they would have to travel far in gathering 
 food. 
 
 (3) Soiling foods can be used with peculiar advantage in 
 supplementing their summer pastures, 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) They are of quiet disposition, grow rapidly, make 
 large relative gains and attain good size when grown for meat 
 production, but 
 
 (2) As they go on toward maturity they frequently lose 
 in smoothness, although 
 
 (3) Up to the age of about eighteen months they should 
 be capable of producing much meat relatively and of excellent 
 quality. 
 
 (4) It is probably true that much of the discrimination 
 shown against matured Holstein beef in this country, but not 
 all of it, is grounded in prejudice. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Holsteins may be crossed upon common animals with 
 much advantage when the object is to produce large dairy 
 cows of free milk producing powers. 
 
 (2) When the object is to produce dual-purpose cattle 
 they are not so well adapted to this end as some other 
 breeds, but 
 
 (3) Where large quantities of skimmilk are wanted for 
 pork production, or where what is termed "baby beef" is 
 reared, the Holstein cross may be eminently in order. 
 
 (4) Their marked prepotency is well brought out in the 
 distinctive color markings which they impart, 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities, 
 
 (i) As breeders Holsteins stand high among the dairy 
 breeds, since 
 
 (2) In-breeding has been carefully avoided, more espe- 
 cially in the parent stocks, hence in a great measure their 
 freedom from disease, but 
 
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 91 
 
 • 1 {l^ Under feeding too forced and conditions too artifi- 
 cial, these good breeding properties will wane. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) The milk of this excellent milk producing breed does 
 not average really high in butter fat. 
 
 (2) The average handling qualities are not so good as in 
 some breeds which would point to a relatively large con- 
 sumption of food, and 
 
 (3) The quality of the matured meat does not rank among 
 the very best. ® 
 
LECTURE NO. 24. 
 
 HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE THEIR STANDARD 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 I. The following scale of points was drawn 
 up by the Holstein-Friesian Association of America 
 in 1885: 
 
 FOR BULLS. 
 
 POINTS 
 
 (i) Head — Showing full vigor, elegant in contour . 2 
 
 (2) Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing . 2 
 
 (3) Face — Contour graceful, especially under the 
 eye, medium in length, broad muzzle . . .2 
 
 (4) Ear — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft 
 hair I 
 
 (5) Eyes — Moderately large, full and bright . . 2 
 
 (6) Horns — Medium in size, fine in texture, short, 
 oval, inclining forward 2 
 
 (7) Neck — Neatly joined to head and shoulders, 
 nearly free from dewlap, of good length, proud 
 
 in bearing 5 
 
 (8) Shoulders — Of medium hight, well rounded 
 and even over tops 4 
 
 (9) Chest — Low, deep and full . . . . . 8 
 
 (10) Crops — Full and level with shoulders . . 4 
 
 (11) Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open . 3 
 
 (12) Barrel — Well rounded, with large abdomen . . 6 
 
 (13) Loins and Hips — Broad, full, long and level . 5 
 
 (14) Rump — High, long, broad and level . . 5 
 
 (15) TJiiirl — High, with great width ... 4 
 
 (16) Quarters — Long, straight behind, wide and full 
 
 at sides 5 
 
 (17) Flanks — Deep and full . . . . . 2 
 
 (18) Legs — Short, clean, tapering, with strong arm, 
 in position firm, wide apart, feet of medium 
 size, round, solid, and deep . . . . .6 
 
 (19) Tail — Reaching to hocks or below, large at set- 
 ting, tapering finely to a full switch ... 2 
 
 (20) Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, 
 skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and 
 
 of a rich brown or yellow color . . . .10 
 92 
 
HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN CATTLE. 93 
 
 (21) Mammary Veins— Long, large, branched, with 
 extensions entering large orifices ... 10 
 
 (22) Rudimentary Teats— Not less than four, large, 
 well spread 2 
 
 (23) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . 8 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 FOR COWS. 
 
 POINTS 
 
 (i) Head— -Decidedly feminine in appearance, com- 
 paratively long from eyes to base of horns, fine 
 in contour ........ 2 
 
 (2) Forehead — Broad between the eyes, dishing . 2 
 
 (3) Face — Contour fine, especially under the eyes, 
 showing facial veins, length medium, broad 
 muzzle ......... 2 
 
 (4) Ears — Of medium size, fine, covered with soft 
 hair ......... i 
 
 (5) F^yes — Moderately full, large and mild . . 2 
 
 (6) Horns — Set moderi.tely narrow at base, fine, 
 oval, well bent, inclining forward ... 2 
 
 (7) Neck — Fine, nearly free from dewlap, neatly 
 joined to head and shoulders, top line slightly 
 curving, of good length, moderately thin, ele- 
 gant in bearing ....... 4 
 
 (8) Shnulders — Fine and even over tops, lower than 
 hips, and moderately thick, deep and broad . 3 
 
 (9) Chest — Low, deep and broad .... 6 
 
 (10) Crops — Full and level with shoulders . . 2 
 
 (11) Chine — Straight, broadly developed and open . 3 
 
 (12) Barrel — Well rounded, with large abdomen . 5 
 
 (13) Loins and Hips — Broad, full, long and level . 5 
 
 (14) Rump — High, long, broad and level, with 
 roomy pelvis 4 
 
 (15) Thiirl — High, with great width .... 4 
 
 (16) Quarters — Long, straight behind, roomy in the 
 twist, wide and full at sides .... 4 
 
 (17) Flanks — Fairly deep and full .... 2 
 
 (18) Legs — Short, clean, tapering with strong arm, 
 in position firm, wide apart ; feet of medium 
 size, round, solid and deep .... 5 
 
 (19) Tail — Reaching to hocks or below, large at set- 
 ting, tapering finely to a full switch . . .2 
 
 (20) Hair and Handling — Fine, soft and mellow, 
 skin of moderate thickness, secretions oily and 
 
 of a rich brown or yellow color ... 10 
 
94 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (21) Mammary Veins — Large, long, crooked, 
 branched with extensions entering large orifices 10 
 
 (22) Udder — Capacious, flexible, well developed 
 both in front and rear, teats well formed, wide 
 apart, and of convenient size . . . . 12 
 
 (23) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . . 8 
 
 Perfection , 100 
 
 II. General appearance. 
 
 (i) The large parallelogrammic rather than the wedge 
 shaped frame of the Holstein conveys the idea of much ca- 
 pacity, and 
 
 (2) The long and slender head, neck and limbs, with the 
 distinctiveness of the black and white markings, convey the 
 idea of generations of careful breeding. 
 
 III. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) Holsteins are usually as large, but not so massive 
 in frame. 
 
 (2) They are something longer and less wide in head and 
 neck and longer in limb. 
 
 (3) They are not so full in the neck vein, brisket and 
 flank, and are lighter in arm and thigh, but 
 
 (4) They have the same squareness of development at 
 the rear, except that they slant away a little more from the 
 sacrum, and 
 
 (5) They have a more accentuated development of milk 
 veins. 
 
LECTURE NO. 25. 
 
 DUTCH BELTED CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS- 
 TORY^ CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The Dutch Belted cattle originated in Hol- 
 land prior to the seventeenth century. 
 
 (i) They are the outcome of scientific breeding and selec- 
 tion carried on through long generations. 
 
 (2) From the outset they have been chiefly if not entirely 
 controlled by the nobility of Holland. 
 
 II. Origin of the name. 
 
 (i) They are so named from the white belt or band which 
 encircles the barrel of every animal of the breed. 
 
 (2) The original Dutch name is "Lakenfield cattle." from 
 "Laken, a sheer to be wound around the body of the animal." 
 
 III. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) They are not found in many countries outside of 
 Holland, owing 
 
 (2) To the decimation of the herds by contending armies 
 and to the disinclination of the owners to part with them. 
 
 IV. Importation into the United States. 
 
 (i) The first importation definitely traced was made by 
 D. H. Haight, Goshen, Orange county, New York, about 
 1838, but 
 
 (2) It is thought that early settlers had brought some 
 specimens to that county at an earlier date. 
 
 (3) Importations have been infrequent, owing to the diffi- 
 culty in securing the animals. 
 
 (4) A large proportion of the best specimens now in the 
 United States trace to the herds of D. H. Haight, mentioned 
 in Note (i), J. A. Holbert, Goshen, New York, and J. H. 
 Knight, Monroe, New York. 
 
 V. Organizations. 
 
 (i) It is only during recent decades that Dutch Belted 
 cattle have been registered in Europe or America, 
 
 95 
 
o 
 U 
 
 3 
 
 t9 
 
 '5- 
 
 •on 
 
 
DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. 97 
 
 (2) The Dutch Belted Cattle Association was organized 
 in New York city in 1886. 
 
 VI. Distribution in North America. 
 
 (i) Dutch Belted cattle are now kept in twenty-six states 
 cf the Union, in Mexico and in Canada. 
 
 (2) They are most numerously kept in New York, Mas- 
 sachusetts, Pennsylvania and Ohio, and in the order given. 
 
 VII. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) Five volumes of the Dutch Belted Herd Book have 
 Leen issued. 
 
 (2) There have been recorded 1250 animals,, of which 367 
 are males and 883 females. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) Dutch Belted cattle have not as yet come greatly into 
 favor with the many in Europe or America. 
 
 (2) This is probably more the result of circumstances 
 connected with their origin and distribution than of any want 
 of inherent excellence. 
 
 II. AdaptabiHty. 
 
 (i) Dutch Belted cattle haye much the same adaptation 
 as Holsteins. 
 
 (2) They do best in tillable areas where grazing is plenti- 
 ful and where fodders can be grown in ample supply, as, for 
 instance, in the Mississinpi basin. 
 
 (3) While not delicate, they are not perhaps so well 
 adapted to withstand rigors of climate as some dairy breeds, 
 hence their movement in this country has been southward 
 rather than northward. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) They are somewhat less in size than the average Hol- 
 stein and are a little ahead of the Ayrshire and Guernsey. 
 
 (2) The average weight of the cows has been put at 1000 
 to 1200 pounds and of the bulls at about 1800 pounds, or a 
 little more than that. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) These are excellent, but their utmost capacity in milk 
 production does not appear to have been heretofore tested, as 
 in the case of the Holsteins. 
 
 (2) The average in milk production, however, would 
 probably be very similar, as also the character of the milk and 
 the uses to which it is adapted (see Page 89). 
 
 7 
 
98 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They are average in this respect. 
 
 (2) Like the Holsteins they come into milk at from 
 twenty-four to thirty months, but continue to develop for at 
 least two years subsequently. 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are much the same as with the Holsteins, that 
 is to say, they need good grazing lands rich in production and 
 that do not involve climbing on the part of the animals grazing 
 them. 
 
 (2) Their grazing properties do not appear to have been 
 much tested in northerly latitudes and in exposed situations. 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) As in the case of the Holstein they feed well up to 
 the age of one to two years and they grow quickly. 
 
 (2) Up to the age mentioned, the killing qualities are 
 good, but not so good relatively, subsequently, owing to more 
 accentuated development in the dairy form. 
 
 VI II. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Their marked prepotency is shown in the reproduc- 
 tion of the band or belt around the body when they are crossed 
 upon common animals. 
 
 (2) Such crosses should prove beneficial where the chief 
 object sought is improvement in dairy qualities. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are average, but not probably of the highest 
 type, although 
 
 (2) When properly managed they are sufficiently repro- 
 ductive. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) By inheritance they stand on the borderland of undue 
 refinement, hence 
 
 (2) They have probably not the same all-round vigor of 
 some breeds. 
 
 XL Compared with Holsteins. 
 
 (i) They are not as yet so generally popular as the Hol- 
 steins, nor are they quite equal to them in size or vigor. 
 
 (2) In all the other essential characteristics the two breeds 
 are very similar. 
 
DUTCH BELTED CATTLE. gg 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following scale of points was adopted 
 by the Dutch Belted Cattle Association of America : 
 
 FOR cows. 
 
 POINTS 
 
 (i) Body— Color, black, with a clearly defined con- 
 tinuous white belt. The belt to be of medium 
 width, beginning behind the shoulder and ex- 
 tending nearly to the hips g 
 
 (2) //^flrf— Comparatively long and somewhat dish- ' 
 ing; broad between the eyes; poll prominent; 
 muzzle fine; dark tongue .... '5 
 
 (3) ^3'^.y— Black, full and mild; horns" long com- 
 
 pared with their diameter ... 4 
 
 (4) Neck— Fine and moderately thin and should 
 
 harmonize in symmetry with the head and 
 shoulders g 
 
 (5) Shoulders— Fine at the top, becoming deep and 
 
 broad as they extend backward and downward 
 with a low chest ' . 
 
 (6) Barrel— Large and deep, with well developed* 
 
 abdomen, ribs well rounded and free from fat 10 
 
 rol ^'^•^— ^road. and chine level with full loin . 10 
 
 (») Kump—Uigh, long and broad ... 6 
 (9) Hindquarters— Long and deep, rear line in- 
 curving; tail, long, slim, tapering to a full 
 
 switch o 
 
 (10) ^^^J— Short, clean, standing well apart . * '3 
 
 (11) Udder— Large, well developed front and rear; 
 teats of convenient size and wide apart ; mam- 
 
 ^ mary veins large, long and crooked, entering 
 ^ large orifices ... on 
 * (12) Escutcheon— . . . .".'.* 2 
 J (13) Hair— Fine and soft; skin of moderate thick- 
 ness and of a rich dark or yellow color . -? 
 
 (14) Quiet disposition, and free from fat . .'4 
 
 (15) General condition and apparent constitution ' . 6 
 
 Perfection .... 
 
 FOR BULLS. 
 
 100 
 
 II. For males the scale should be the same as 
 for females, except that 
 
lOO THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (i) No (ii) should be omitted and the bull credited lo 
 points for size and wide spread, and placing of rudimentary 
 teats, and 
 
 (2) Five points additional should be allowed for develop- 
 ment of shoulder and five for perfection of belt. 
 
 III. General appearance. 
 
 (i) Dutch Belted cattle are a handsome breed because of 
 their symmetry of form, their clean cut head, neck and limbs 
 and the striking character of their color markings. 
 
 IV. Compared with Holsteins, 
 
 (i) The all-round development is 'something less with 
 Dutch Belted cattle. 
 
 (2) They are a little finer at the muzzle and a trifle more 
 prominent at the poll, the horns are wiier spread and more 
 uniformly tipped upward at the points, they are something 
 more incurved at the rear and the tendencies to refinement of 
 form are stronger than with the Holsteins. 
 
 (3) There are also the differences in color markings. 
 
LECTURE NO. 26. 
 
 AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The origin of the Ayrshire breed of cattle 
 is involved in much obscurity, but it is generally sup- 
 posed that they are made up largely of the blood of 
 the Holderness, Dutch, Alderney, Kerry and West 
 Highland breeds, engrafted upon the native stocks 
 of the country during the eighteenth century. 
 
 (i) No particular individuals stand out prominently as 
 improvers of the breed. 
 
 (2) Their chief excellences are supposed to have arisen 
 from the peculiar circumstances of climate and soil and from 
 the situation of several of the western counties of Scotland. 
 
 (3) Much attention was drawn to the breed toward the 
 close of the last century by exhibitions gotten up for the pur- 
 pose of improving it, and 
 
 (4) During the first half of the present century, the devel- 
 opment of the wedge shape and hindquarters was much 
 improved and the udder was brought to its present beautifully 
 symmetrical proportions. 
 
 II. Ayrshires are so named from the county 
 
 of Ayr, where the breed originated, and which is still 
 
 its principal center. 
 
 (i) They were at one time frequently spoken of as Dun- 
 lop cattle from a family of that name wio had given consid- 
 erable attention to breeding them in the eighteenth century. 
 
 (2) They now form the only class of dairy stock in the 
 counties of Ayr, Wigtown, Bute, Argyle, Dumfries, Kirkcud- 
 bright and Perth. 
 
 (3) They also exist numerously in other counties of 
 Scotland and in England. 
 
 III. Their mixed ancestry is indicated in the 
 following resemblances : 
 
 (i) The wide and deep hindquarter points to Shorthorn 
 blood in the ancestry. 
 
 (2) The fine skin to Alderney blood. 
 
 TOI 
 
3 
 09 
 
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 'a. 
 
 JO 
 
AYRSHIRE CATTLE. IO3 
 
 (3) The general outline and high milking qualities are 
 akin to those of the Holsteins. 
 
 (4) Their ability to give milk from sparse pastures points 
 to Kerry relationship, and 
 
 (5) Their natural shyness of disposition with certain horn 
 and hair resemblances indicate West Highland kinship. 
 
 (6) This view of their mixed origin is strengthened by 
 the numerous instances of atavic transmission found in some 
 herds. 
 
 IV. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) They have obtained a fair footing in Finland, pure or 
 crossed on native stocks, and are numerous in Sweden and 
 Norway. 
 
 (2) In New Zealand they stand next to the Devons in 
 point of numbers. 
 
 (3) They have also been introduced into various other 
 countries, including Japan, and in all of these they are dis- 
 tinguished for their dairy qualities. 
 
 V. Importations to the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 ( 1 ) Ayrshires were brought into Canada by Scotch settlers 
 early in the century, and during the past two or three decades 
 importations into that country from Scotland have been 
 frequent. 
 
 (2) The first importation into the United States is thought 
 to have been that made by Henry W. Hills of Windsor, Ct., 
 in 1822. 
 
 (3) Recent importations into the United States have been 
 less frequent than into Canada, hence the closer resemblance 
 now observable between Scotch and Canadian Ayrshires. 
 
 VI. Ayrshire Breeders' Associations. 
 
 (i) The American Ayrshire Breeders' Association was 
 established on its present basis in 1875, although the breeders 
 had done organized work since 1859 in conjunction with ''The 
 Association of Breeders of Thoroughbred Neat Stock." 
 
 (2) The Ayrshire Importers' and Breeders' Association 
 of Canada was established in 1870, and merged into the 
 Dominion Ayrshire Breeders' Association in 1898. 
 
 (3) The Dominion Ayrshire Breeders' Association was 
 established in 1889. 
 
 VII. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Ayrshires are more numerous in Ontario and Quebec, 
 in the order named, than in any of the states of the Union. 
 
104 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) In the United States they are most numerous in New 
 York, Massachusetts, Vermont and New Hampshire in the 
 order named. 
 
 (3) They are kept in considerable numbers in the eastern 
 states and to some extent in the states of the south which 
 border on the Atlantic. 
 
 (4) But few Ayrshires are found west of the Mississippi 
 river. 
 
 VIII. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Twelve volumes of the American Ayrshire Record 
 have been issued of the new series, or sixteen volumes in all. 
 
 (2) In the Canadian Records 22,152 animals have been 
 recorded. 
 
 (3) In the American Ayrshire Records 22,061 animals 
 have been recorded, of which 6798 are males and 15,263 
 females. 
 
o 
 
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 ■5. 
 
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LECTURE NO. 2j. 
 
 AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER- 
 ISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) Ayrshires are not popular over so wide an area as 
 Holsteins, but they stand third among dairy breeds in point 
 of numbers in the United States. 
 
 (2) They have been introduced into northerly rather than 
 southerly latitudes and probably because of their hardihood. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Ayrshires are decidedly the hardiest of the dairy 
 breeds imported into America, except Ihe Kerry and the 
 French Canadian breeds. 
 
 (2) This natural vigor combined with their activity fits 
 them for areas where the seasons are somewhat rigorous and 
 where some traveling is necessary in gathering food from 
 the pastures. 
 
 (3) They are pre-eminently the cow for the dairy farmer 
 where lands are broken and not particularly fertile, and yet 
 they do equally well relatively under better conditions. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The average weight of matured Ayrshire cows is put 
 at 1000 pounds in the standard, but the tendency now is to 
 breed them of a somewhat greater weight. 
 
 (2) They are therefore considerably behind Holsteins in 
 weight, though a trifle ahead of Guernseys. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 Ci) Ayrshires have not produced yields so phenomenal 
 as the Holsteins, Guernseys, or Jerseys, but in average milk- 
 production they are not excelled if indeed equaled by any 
 other breed. 
 
 (2) The milk is excellent for butter or cheese, hence these 
 cows are equally useful for the cheese factory and the 
 creamery. 
 
 (3) Like the milk of the Holstein it is admirably adapted 
 to calf-rearing in the new or the skimmed form 
 
 106 
 
AYRSHIRE CATTLE. IO7 
 
 (4) It is also claimed that because of even quality and 
 well balanced constituents it is growing in favor as a food for 
 children in cities and towns. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are not more than average, but 
 
 (2) The heifers, as with those of the Holstein, come into 
 milk at the age of from twenty-four to thirty months, and 
 
 (3) Since Ayrshires have been less inbred and less arti- 
 ficially reared than some dairy breeds they are productive to 
 a greater age. 
 
 VL Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) Ayrshires will give more milk than Holsteins, Guern- 
 seys, or Jerseys when they have to travel over considerabU' 
 areas when gleaning food. 
 
 (2) Although well adapted to rich pasture lands, their 
 active disposition and somewhat light development of form fit 
 them admirably for grazing on abruptly undulating and hillv 
 or broken lands. ^ 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 .u \^1 '^^^^^ f^^ "l""^^ ^^^ ^^"^^ ^s with the Holsteins, with 
 the difference that the Ayrshires are much less in size than 
 the former. 
 
 fl. i.^f l.^^J" "°/ '?^ "''^^' ^'^^ ^^^ Holsteins, they take on 
 tlesh better than the Guernsey, or Jersey. 
 
 (3) The plump form and good hindquarters of the Ayr- 
 shire calves fit them for good meat production up to the age of 
 nine to, say, eighteen months. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Ayrshires when crossed upon the grades of certain 
 other breeds and upon common cattle of good size produce a 
 line dairy animal. 
 
 (2) Excellent results have been obtained by crossing Ayr- 
 shires upon Shorthorn and PTolstein grades, but 
 
 (3) Such crosses shot^ld not be made when the conditions 
 ot adaptation suited to the Ayrshires are not present. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 d) The breeding qualities of Ayrshires are excellent 
 • J^'^^A^^^^ i^ largely the outcome of the absence of in-and- 
 in breeding, of undue pampering, and of the extent to which 
 they are grazed in the fields. 
 
I08 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) Though generally quiet and docile, they are sometimes 
 over-nervous and shy, and are possessed of that temperament 
 that resents ill treatment. 
 
 (2) The teats are frequently a little small for the highest 
 comfort to the milker. 
 
 XI. Compared with Holsteins. 
 
 (i) Ayrshires are not nearly equal to Holsteins in size, 
 and are also behind them in general popularity, in milk pro- 
 duction, quantity alone considered, and in marked docility, but 
 
 (2) They are ahead in ruggedness and all-round adapta- 
 bility, evenness of milk production and quality of milk and in 
 grazing and breeding qualities. 
 
 (3) In early maturity, in feeding qualities and in value in 
 crossing and grading they are probably not far different. 
 
LECTURE NO- 28. 
 
 AYRSHIRE CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following scale of points was adopted 
 by the American Ayrshire Breeders' Association 
 ini889: 
 
 FOR COWS. 
 
 POINTS 
 
 (i) Head — Short; forehead wide; nose, fine be- 
 tween the muzzle and the eyes ; muzzle large ; 
 eyes, full and lively; horns wide set on, inclin- 
 ing upward 10 
 
 (2) Neck — Moderately long, and straight from the 
 head to the top of the shoulder, free from loose 
 skin on the under side, fine at its junction with 
 the head, and enlarging symmetrically toward 
 the shoulders • • 5 
 
 (3) Forequartcrs — Shoulders, sloping; withers, fine; 
 
 chest, sufficiently broad and deep to insure con- 
 stitution ; brisket and whole forequartcrs light, 
 the cow gradually increasing in depth and 
 width backwards 5 
 
 (4) Back — Short and straight ; spine, well defined, 
 especially at the shoulders ; short ribs, arched ; 
 
 the body deep at the flanks .... 10 
 
 (5) Hindquarters — Long, broad and straight, hook 
 
 bones wide apart and not overlaid with fat ; 
 thighs, deep and broad ; tail long, slender and 
 set on a level with the back .... 8 
 
 (6) Udder — Capacious and not fleshy, hind part 
 broad and firmly attached to the body, the sole 
 nearly level and extending well forward ; milk 
 veins about udder and abdomen well devel- 
 oped ; the teats from two to three inches in 
 length, equal in thickness — the thickness being 
 in proportion to the length — hanging perpen- 
 dicularly; their distance apart at the sides 
 should be equal to one-third of the length of 
 the vessel, and across to one-half the breadth 30 
 
 (7) Legs — Short in proportion to size, the bones 
 
 fine, the joints firm 3 
 
 109 
 
no THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (8) Skin — Yellow, soft and elastic and covered with 
 soft, close, woolly hair 5 
 
 (9) Color — Red of any shade, brown or white or a 
 
 mixture of these, each color being distinctly 
 defined 3 
 
 (10) Average Live Weight — In full milk about 1000 
 
 pounds ........ 8 
 
 (11) General Appearance — Including .-,tyle and move- 
 
 ment ......... 10 
 
 (12) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . 3 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 FOR BULLS. 
 
 POINTS 
 
 (i) Head — The head of the bull may be shorter 
 than that of the cow, but the frontal bone 
 should be broad, the muzzle good size, throat 
 nearly free from hanging folds, eyes full ; the 
 horns should have an upward turn with suffi- 
 cient size at the base to indicate strength of 
 constitution ........ 10 
 
 (2) Neck — Of medium length, somewhat arched 
 
 and large in the muscles, which indicate power 
 and strength 10 
 
 (3) Forequarters — Shoulders close to the body, 
 
 without any hollow space behind ; chest broad, 
 brisket deep and well developed, but not too 
 large 7 
 
 (4) Back — Short and straight ; spine, sufficiently de- 
 
 fined, but not in the same degree as in the cow ; 
 ribs, well sprung and body deep in the flanks . 10 
 
 (5) Hindquarters — Long, broad and straight; hip 
 
 bones wide apart ; pelvis, long, broad and 
 straight ; tail, set on a level with the back ; 
 thighs, deep and broad 10 
 
 (6) Scrotum — Large, with well developed teats in 
 
 front 7 
 
 (7) Legs — Short in proportion to size, joints firm; 
 
 hind legs well apart and not to cross in walking 5 
 
 (8) Skin — Yellow, soft, elastic and of medium 
 thickness 10 
 
 (9) Color — Red of any shade, brown or white or a 
 
 mixture of these — each color being distinctly 
 
 defined 3 
 
 (10) Average Live Weight — At maturity, about 1500 
 
 pounds 10 
 
AYRSHIRE CATTLE. I I I 
 
 (ii) General Appearance — Including style and move- 
 ment 15 
 
 (12) Escutcheon — Large and fine development . . 3 
 
 Perfection , 100 
 
 II. General Appearanee ■ — The Ayrshire is a 
 sprightly looking animal of what may be termed the 
 plain plebeian type, with straight top and rear lines 
 and possessed of much relative development in the 
 hindquarters. 
 
 III. Compared with Holsteins. 
 
 (i) In general outline of body the Ayrshire might almost 
 be called a miniature Holstein. if the color markings were 
 changed and the horns differently curved, but 
 
 (2) The head of the Ayrshire is probably a little stronger 
 relatively, the horns are much more erect, the eye is not so 
 restful, the play of the ear is more active, the skin is thinner 
 and the teats are considerably smaller. 
 
 (3) The Ayrshire is also more active in movement. 
 

 s 
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LECTURE NO. 29. 
 
 GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Guernsey cattle are so named from the isl- 
 and of Guernsey, one of the Channel island group off 
 the northwest coast of France. 
 
 (1) Like the Jersey, they are supposed to be descended 
 from the cattle of Brittany and Normandy, but more par- 
 ticularly from the latter. 
 
 (2) For many centuries they have been bred without 
 admixture of alien blood. 
 
 (3) Through long years the importation of cattle to 
 Guernsey from any quarter except for purposes of slaughter 
 has been strictly prohibited. 
 
 II. The climate of the island of Guernsey is 
 less genial than that of Jersey, hence something more 
 of hardihood in development has been sought. 
 
 (i) The extreme length of Guernsey is ten miles, and it 
 contains only 16,000 acres of land and rock surface. 
 
 (2) The growing of cattle and dairy products is the chief 
 concern of the farmers. 
 
 (3) In 1896 the total number of cattle on the island was 
 5262, and yet many animals are exported every year. 
 
 III. Management of cattle in Guernsey. 
 
 (i) In the summer they are tethered in the fields, which 
 partially explains their great docility. 
 
 (2) In winter, hay is supplemented with roots and meal 
 and bran. 
 
 IV. Improvement of Guernseys. 
 
 (i) For more than a century the improvement of Guern- 
 seys has been carefully sought in their island home. 
 
 (2) The outcome of these efforts is increased size, earlier 
 maturity and a more fully developed lacteal system. 
 
 8 113 
 
114 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. The objects most sought by breeders. 
 
 (i) The animals are selected and bred with a view to 
 utility rather than beauty, and for maximum butter production 
 of a high quality, which explains 
 
 (2) The relatively plain appearance of Guernseys, the 
 rich orange color of the skin and the superlative golden color- 
 ing of the milk and butter. 
 
 VI. Exportation to other countries. 
 
 (i) Guernseys have long been exported, more or less, to 
 various countries, but chiefly to England and the United States. 
 
 (2) In several of the counties In the south of England 
 they stand high in favor. 
 
 VII. Importations into the United States. 
 
 (i) Information on this head is as yet not plentiful. 
 (2) They have been numerously imported within the last 
 two or three decades. 
 
 VIII. Organization in the interests of the 
 
 breed. 
 
 (i) Associations have been formed in Guernsey, the 
 United States and other countries to protect the interests of 
 Guernseys. 
 
 (2) Two herd records have been established in Guernsey, 
 one on the principle of selection and the other admitting all 
 Guernseys on the island to registration. 
 
 (3) The American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized 
 in 1897. 
 
 (4) It now offers prizes from time to time to the largest 
 producing cows to encourage the breeders to keep private 
 records and to reach out to higher production. 
 
 IX. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Guernseys are now being registered from some 
 twenty-eight states in the Union and from nearly all the 
 provinces of Canada. 
 
 (2) They exist most numerously in New England, New 
 York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Wisconsin and least 
 numerously in the Southwestern states. 
 
 X. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) The Guernsey herd register, first published in 1878, 
 has been issued qua-terly since 1895 under the name of the 
 Guernsey Herd Register and Breeders' Journal. 
 
 (2) The total number of animals recorded is 18,053, of 
 which 6132 are bulls and 11,921 are cows. 
 
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 o 
 
 ■q. 
 
 
LECTURE NO. 30. 
 
 GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTER- 
 ISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) Although there is no little resemblance between the 
 characteristics of the Jerseys and Guernseys, the latter have 
 never become so generally popular in this country. 
 
 (2) This may probably have arisen, in part at least, from 
 their greater plainness in form, but more from the less effort 
 put forth to place them before the public, as 
 
 (3) While breeds are yet young in a country, men have 
 more to do with their popularity than even merit. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) The Guernsey is better adapted to temperate and mild 
 climates than to those that are rigorous, but good herds have 
 done well in the climate of Quebec. 
 
 (2) Through ancestral inheritance rather than great size 
 they are not well adapted to endure fatigue in gathering food 
 on thin pastures and hilly lands. 
 
 (3) They are best adapted to the average arable farm 
 where milk is wanted for the creamery or the private dairy 
 and where attractive looking and high class butter is an impor- 
 tant consideration. 
 
 (4) A limited number of Guernseys in a large dairy of 
 average cows adds to the marketable quality of the butter 
 through the rich color imparted. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Guernseys are about equal to the Ayrshires in 
 size of frame, but they are probably a trifle behind them in 
 average weight. 
 
 (2) Putting the average weight of the matured Ayrshire 
 cow at 1,050 pounds, the mature Guernsey would be about i,ooo 
 pounds. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) The Guernsey has deep and prolonged milking quali- 
 ties, the average production of whole herds being high, and 
 the relative cost of production is low. 
 
 116 
 
GUERNSEY CATTLE. II7 
 
 (2) The milk is fully equal to that of the Jersey in butter 
 fat, is even richer in color, and the average yield per cow is 
 probably greater. 
 
 (3) It is relatively better adapted to making butter than 
 cheese, though for cheese-making it is good also. 
 
 (4) The naturally rich color of the butter is unexcelled, 
 so that when Guernsey milk is jmixed with that from common 
 cows and from certain dairy breeds, the color of the butter is 
 proportionately improved. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) The Guernseys are only average in maturity, being a 
 little behind the Jerseys probably in this respect. 
 
 (2) They usually come into milk something over the age 
 of twenty-four months. 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) For a breed of only moderate size, they are not by 
 inheritance adapted to other than productive grazing and also 
 easy of access. 
 
 (2) Like the Holstein and the Jersey they have special 
 adaptation to the combined system of grazing and soiling. 
 
 VIL Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Their offspring grow to a larger size than the Jersey, 
 and they are. on the whole, more in favor as meat producers, 
 but they should be made ready for the block at an age consid- 
 erably prior to maturity in order to obtain from them the 
 greatest profit. 
 
 (2) The cows discarded from the dairy have some capac- 
 ity for meat making. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Guernseys are especially valuable for crossing on 
 cows of mixed breeding to produce milkers of fair size and 
 hardihood and that will give a good fair quantity of high class 
 milk for butter making. 
 
 (2) Any favorable influence on the progeny as meat pro- 
 ducers should not be too highly prized, as certain other breeds 
 exercise a much higher influence in this respect. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are at least average, but 
 
 (2) As with all other breeds, they improve or decrease 
 according as they are subjected to wise or unwise manage- 
 ment in breeding, feeding or environment. 
 
Il8 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) These are not pronounced in any direction. 
 (2) They are not so rugged as some breeds, but they are 
 not delicate. 
 
 XL Compared witii Holsteins. 
 
 (i) The Guernseys have a decided lead in average rich- 
 ness of milk, are probably something ahead in easy keeping 
 qualities and are better adapted for crossing where improve- 
 ment in the character of the milk and butter product are both 
 sought. 
 
 (2) The Holsteins lead as yet in the extent to which they 
 prevail, are fully 200 pounds ahead in size, give more milk and 
 are relatively better adapted for meat-making, either in the 
 pure or graded form. 
 
 (3) In other essential characteristics, as early maturity, 
 grazing and breeding qualities they are about equal. 
 
LECTURE NO. 31, 
 
 GUERNSEY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the American Guernsey Cattle Club : 
 
 POINTS 
 
 COUNTS 
 
 (i) Quality of Milk. 
 
 (a) Skin, deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of 
 tail, at base of horn, on udder, teats and 
 
 body generally 
 
 30 — (b) Skin loose, mellow, with fine, soft hair . 
 
 (2) Quantity and Duration of Flow. 
 
 (a) Escutcheon, wide on thighs, high and 
 broad, with thigh ovals 
 
 (b) Milk veins, long and prominent 
 
 (c) Udder, full in front . 
 
 (d) Udder, full and well up behind 
 
 (e) Udder, large but not fleshy 
 
 (f) Udder, teats squarely placed . 
 40 — (s) Udder, teats of good size . 
 
 (3) Size- and Substance. 
 
 (a) Size, for the breed 
 
 (b) Not too light bone 
 
 (c) Barrel, round and deep at flank 
 
 (d) Hips and loins, wide . 
 (c) Rump, long and broad . 
 
 16 — (/) Thighs and withers, thin . 
 
 (4) Symmetry. 
 
 (a) Back, level to setting on of tail 
 
 (b) Throat, clean with small dewlap 
 
 (c) Legs, not too long, with hocks well apart in 
 walking ..... 
 
 (d) Tail, long and thin 
 
 (e) Horns, curved and not coarse 
 
 (f) Head, rather long and fine, with quiet and 
 gentle expression ..... 
 
 14 — (s) General appearance 
 
 100 — Perfection 
 
 (5) For bulls, deduct 20 counts for udder. 
 
 (6) For heifers, deduct 20 counts for udder. 
 
 119 
 
 20 
 10 
 
 ID 
 
 6 
 6 
 8 
 4 
 4 
 2 
 
 5 
 I 
 
 4 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 3 
 I 
 
 2 
 I 
 2 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 100 
 
120 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 II. The above very neatly worded scale of 
 points would seem to be defective. 
 
 ■ (i) In the excessive number of counts allotted to the 
 indications of milk production in the skin, udder, milk veins 
 and escutcheon. 
 
 (2) In the meager allotment of counts for other essentials, 
 especially in form, indicative of good milk production and also 
 stamina, as head, neck, body capacity and width through the 
 breast, and 
 
 (3) In want of comprehensiveness in detail. 
 
 III. Additional particulars not given in the 
 above scale : 
 
 (i) Head, inclining to long and not coarse, with mod- 
 erate dish. 
 
 (2) Muzzle, broad and white or buff in color and sur- 
 rounded by a fillet of light short hair. 
 
 (3) Eyes, large, clear and mild. 
 
 (4) Horns, inclining to small, circling well forward and 
 considerably upward, and yellow and waxy at the base. 
 
 (5) Ears, not large nor thick and thinly covered with hair. 
 
 (6) Neck, inclining to long, deep and thin. 
 
 (7) Forequarters, something less in development than 
 the hindquarters, moderate width at the withers and wide 
 through the heart. 
 
 (8) Breast, wide below, but not full. 
 
 (9) Barrel, capacious, increasingly so far downward and 
 backward. 
 
 ( 10) Ribs, of but moderately rounded and deep spring and 
 well defined. 
 
 (11) Excessive downward slant away from the sacrum and 
 droop toward the tailhead are to be avoided, though both fre- 
 quently characterize good animals. 
 
 (12) Thighs, inclining to broad and thin and to incurva- 
 ture. 
 
 (13) Twist, open and placed high. 
 
 (14) Limbs, moderately fine. 
 
 (15) Skin, not thick, soft, pliable, unctuous. 
 
 (16) Hair, plentiful, soft and not long 
 
 (17) Prominence at the angles characterizes many excel- 
 lent animals, but should not be carried too far. 
 
 (18) When in full milk there is an appearance of spare- 
 ness of flesh. 
 
 (19) The indications of gentleness should be present in 
 both look and movement. 
 
 (20) The color and color markings vary considerably. 
 
GUERNSEY CATTLE. 121 
 
 (a) The colors include red, light lemon, orange and yel- 
 low fawn, sometimes solid but more commonly with white 
 markings. 
 
 (b) The shading includes such hues as reddish yellow, 
 darker than brown, and fawn dun, but never gray, as in the 
 Jersey. 
 
 (c) The color markings are white and are distinct, and 
 they are found sometimes on the body, but oftener on the face, 
 flanks, legs and switch. 
 
 (d) Among the favorite colors are orange red, orange 
 fawn and lemon fawn, with white markings. 
 
 IV. Bulls contrasted with cows. 
 
 (i) They are stronger and more masculine in form and 
 limb. 
 
 (2) The head is shorter, wider and less dished, and the 
 horns are stronger, shorter and less curved upward. 
 
 (3) The neck is shorter, thicker and more arched. 
 
 (4) The forequarters have more relative development and 
 more width through the breast, the coupling is relatively not 
 so long and the angular points less distinctly defined. 
 
 (5) The skin should be thicker and particularly loose and 
 pliable before and around the scrotum and the embryo teats 
 widely placed. 
 
 (6) The carriage and action are more pronounced. 
 
 V. General Appearance — The Guernsey has 
 that plain attractiveness and evenness of balance in 
 dairy development which conveys the idea of capacity 
 for everyday work and her mild look speaks of a 
 quiet and contented disposition. 
 
 VI. Compared with Holsteins. 
 
 (i) The Guernseys are considerably less in size and 
 weight than the Holsteins and they are also more prominent 
 at the angular points. 
 
 (2) They are not so long in the head, are less incurved at 
 the horn, less straight in the back and at the rear, shorter, 
 lighter and less square relatively in the hindquarter and thin- 
 ner and more incurved at the thigh. 
 
 (3) They are somewhat thinner, more unctuous and high 
 colored in the skin and there are the differences in color 
 markings. 
 
LECTURE NO. 32. 
 
 JERSEY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. This excellent breed of dairy cattle origi- 
 nated in the island of Jersey, which is a dependency 
 of Great Britain. 
 
 (i) The island is about eleven miles long and considerably 
 less than that in width and contains 39.680 acres, of which 
 about 25,000 acres are tillable. 
 
 (2) Dairy cattle and dairy products are the chief concern 
 of the farmers. 
 
 II. It is generally believed that Jerseys are 
 descended from the cattle of Brittany and Nor- 
 mandy on the adjacent coast. 
 
 (i) It has been claimed that they have been bred with 
 little or no admixture of alien blood for a period of 500 years. 
 
 (2) Since 1789 the importation of other cattle into the 
 island has been strictly prohibited except for purposes of 
 slaughter. 
 
 III. Improvement of the breed In Jersey. 
 
 (i) For more than 100 years the breeders of Jerseys have 
 steadily sought the improvement of the breed, more especially 
 in prolonged milk giving and in milk rich in butter fat. 
 
 (2) To attain this end much care has been exercised in 
 breeding and selection during all those years, and 
 
 (3) Along with these qualities they have secured much of 
 beauty and utility in their cows. 
 
 IV. Management of cattle in Jersey. 
 
 (i) They are pastured all the year during the day by the 
 tethering system. 
 
 (2) From May to October they are out night and day, 
 except during the hottest portion of the day in midsummer. 
 
 (3) In winter they are housed at night and the grass pas- 
 tures are liberally supplemented with hay and roots. 
 
 123 
 
124 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Importations to the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) In 1850, John A. Taintor imported several Jerseys for 
 a little club of gentlemen in Hartford, Ct., but it is probable 
 that Jersey blood had reached the United States prior to that 
 date. 
 
 (2) In 1851, an importation was made by Thos. Motley of 
 Jamaica Plain, Mass. 
 
 (3) In 1868, S. S. Stephens of Montreal, Can., imported 
 nine animals. 
 
 (4) Many of the descendants of these animals have be- 
 come greatly distinguished as butter producers. 
 
 (5) From 1868 onward, importations became frequent, 
 not only from Jersey, but from England. 
 
 VI. Exportation to other countries. 
 
 (i) The great demand for Jersey cattle came first from 
 England. 
 
 (2) Because of their beauty they were much sought for 
 to graze in the parks of noblemen. 
 
 (3) For a time the craze for solid colors and for beefy 
 types wrought much injury to the dairy qualities of Jerseys 
 in England. 
 
 (4) They are now found in many countries in both hemis- 
 pheres, but the United States is pre-eminently their home. 
 
 VI I. Competition at the World's Fair in 
 Chicago in 1893. 
 
 (i) Twenty-five pure bred animals, of the Jersey, Guern- 
 sey and Shorthorn breeds respectively, were pitted against each 
 other for fifteen days in the production of cheese and by-prod- 
 ucts, and for ninety days for the production of butter. 
 
 (2) In both instances the first awards went to the Jerseys 
 which produced the most milk, cheese and butter respectively, 
 of the highest quality and at the lowest cost, but 
 
 (3) In this magnificent showing the greater number of 
 the eligible Jerseys that could be selected from should not 
 be overlooked. 
 
 VIII. Organization to promote the interests 
 of Jerseys. 
 
 (i) Associations have been formed to promote the in- 
 terests of the breed in the United States and Canada, Jersey, 
 England and other countries. 
 
 (2) The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in 
 1868 with a membership of forty-three. 
 
Fig. 20. Typical Jersey Cow 
 
 (125) 
 
126 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (3) About 1834, the Royal Jersey Agricultural Society 
 drew up a scale of points as an aid to breeders and judges. 
 
 IX. Distribution of Jerseys in North America. 
 
 (i) Jerseys are kept in all parts of the United States and 
 in all the provinces of Canada. 
 
 (2) They are most numerously kept in the Middle and 
 Eastern states and are also kept in considerable numbers in 
 the West and South. 
 
 X. Registration of Jerseys in the United 
 States. 
 
 (i) There have been issued fifty volumes of the American 
 Jersey Cattle Club Register, the first of which appeared in 1871. 
 
 (2) The total registration is 199,500, of which 55,500 are 
 males and 144,000 females. 
 
 XL Butter tests. 
 
 (i) Provision has been made for conducting butter tests 
 with recorded animals and keeping a record of the same. 
 
 (2) The first volume of the book of butter tests, records 
 3955 such trials, carrying the record of the same up to August 
 I, 1898. 
 
LECTURE NO. 33. 
 
 JERSEY CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) The Jersey is unquestionably the most popular breed 
 of dairy cattle in America, if numbers are taken as the basis 
 of judgment. 
 
 (2) It is probably true that Jerseys, excluding Holsteins, 
 outnumber all the other dairy breeds combined. 
 
 (3) This great popularity is to some extent owing to the 
 longer period they have been in the country and to the great 
 enterprise shown in disseminating them, but it is chiefly owing 
 to their intrinsic merit in the dairy. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) The Jersey is par excellence the cow for the indi- 
 vidual who keeps but one, because of her gentleness and her 
 easy keeping and unexcelled cream-producing qualities. 
 
 (2) She has also marked adaptation for the dairy, where 
 butter primarily is sought. 
 
 (3) Jerseys can be kept in cold climates, but are better 
 adapted to mildly temperate regions, and they will thrive fur- 
 ther south than some other dairy breeds. 
 
 (4) Although small in frame they should not be kept on 
 sparse or rugged pastures, as they have not the staying powers 
 of the Ayrshires, or Kerries. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Jersey is small and deer-like in form, the average 
 weight in the matured cow being under rather than over 900 
 pounds. 
 
 (2) She is the smallest of the dairy breeds in America, 
 save the French Canadian and the Kerry, and the system of 
 breeding and selection practiced for many years would seem 
 to have reduced rather than increased the size. 
 
 (3) In recent years a wise revolt against too small size 
 and over-refinement of frame has set in among breeders in the 
 Eastern states at least. 
 
 (4) As a result the average Jersey of the Eastern states 
 is probably 50 to 100 pounds more than the figures given above 
 in Note (i). 
 
 127 
 
J 28 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) The Jersey is noted rather for the richness of her 
 milk than for the quantity of the same, although she is notably 
 persistent in milk production. 
 
 (2) In the production of butter fat she is without a peer 
 and without a close rival, save in the Guernsey and French 
 Canadian breeds. 
 
 (3) The fresh milk undiluted has in some instances been 
 found too rich for successful calf-rearing. 
 
 (4) It is good for cheese-making also, but some other 
 breeds are ahead of the Jersey in that respect, because of the 
 greater quantities given. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) No other breed of dairy cattle matures more quickly. 
 (2) The heifers usually come into milk at the age of two 
 years, and in some instances at an earlier age. 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) Jerseys should be given rich pastures, but they will 
 do fairly well on such as are of average production. 
 
 (2) It will be found more profitable with Jerseys than with 
 some other breeds to supplement scant pasture production with 
 soiling foods rather than to have them travel far in search 
 of food. 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) In easy keeping qualities Jerseys rank high, but 
 
 (2) They stand low as meat producers, even among dairy 
 breeds, because of the extreme dairy form which characterizes 
 them. 
 
 (3) The claim that the steers will make as rapid growth 
 prior to maturity as those of the beef breeds is yet to be ques- 
 tioned, but 
 
 (4) Though they should, the discrimination in price 
 against such meat is severe, however 
 
 (5) Jersey calves fed substantially on skimmilk and cer- 
 tain meal and fodder adjuncts up to the age of sav six to 
 eight months, make good and profitable meat. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing ."and grading. 
 
 (i) The marked prepotency of the Jersey when crossed 
 upon common cattle, and even upon pure breds of the other 
 dairy breeds, almost invariably results in adding to the rich- 
 ness of the milk. 
 
 (2) When butter-making is the chief concern on the farm, 
 Jersey blood may oftentimes be used with great advantage. 
 
JERSEY CATTLE. 1 29 
 
 (3) Where skimmilk is an important factor, or where it 
 is desired to grow good beef, such crosses should not be 
 introduced. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The breeding qualities of Jerseys naturally have been 
 in some instances impaired by in-and-in breeding, and in others 
 by subjecting them to conditions too artificial, but 
 
 (2) It would not be correct to say that as a race they are 
 shy breeders. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) Chief among these are small size, lack of width 
 through the heart, and in some instances a tendency to delicacy 
 of constitution. 
 
 (2) Injudicious selection, in-and-in breeding, environ- 
 ment too artificial, and the search for extreme refinement and 
 spareness are largely responsible for these weaknesses. 
 
 XL Compared with Holsteins. 
 
 (1) The Jerseys lead in all-round popularity, in richness 
 of the milk, in early maturity and probably in easy keeping 
 qualities. 
 
 (2) The Holsteins lead in all-round adaptation, in size, 
 in quantity of milk produced, including value of skimmilk, in 
 value for meat production and probably in average stamina. 
 
 (3) In grazing qualities, in value ifor crossing and grading 
 and in breeding qualities the difference between the two breeds 
 would not seem to be greatly marked. 
 
 XII. Compared with the Guernseys. 
 
 (i) The Jerseys are more refined in form and limb and 
 are as yet more in favor with the general public. 
 
 (2) The Guernseys are considerably larger and stronger 
 in frame, have larger teats, are even more characteristically 
 yellow in the skin and are something ahead in meat pro- 
 duction. 
 
 (3) In all other essential characteristics they are very 
 similar. 
 
LECTURE NO. 34. 
 
 JERSEY CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following scale of points was adopted 
 by the American Jersey Cattle Club, 1885 : 
 
 FOR cows. 
 
 POINTS COUNTS 
 
 (i) Head — Small and lean ; face dished, broad be- 
 tween the eyes and narrow between the horns . 2 
 
 (2) Eyes — Full and placid; horns, small, crumpled 
 and amber colored i 
 
 (3) Neck — Thin, rather long, with clean throat, and 
 not heavy at the shoulders . . . . .8 
 
 (4) Back — Level to the setting on of tail . . . i 
 
 (5) Loins — Broad across 6 
 
 (6) Barrel — Long, hooped, broad and deep at the 
 flank 10 
 
 (7) Hips — Wide apart; rump long 10 
 
 (8) L^g^— Short . ....... 2 
 
 (9) Tail — Fine, reaching the hocks, with good switch i 
 
 (10) Hide — Mellow, inside of ears yellow ... 5 
 
 (11) Fore Udder — Full in form and not fleshy . . 13 
 
 (12) Hind Udder — Full in form and well up behind . 11 
 
 (13) Teats — Rather large, wide apart and squarely 
 placed 10 
 
 (14) Milk Veins — Prominent 5 
 
 (15) Disposition — Quiet 5 
 
 (16) General Appearance and Apparent Constitution 10 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 (17) In judging heifers, omit Nos. ii, 12 and 14. 
 
 FOR BULLS. 
 
 (18) The same scale of points shall be used in judging bulls, 
 omitting Nos. 11, 12 and 14, and making due allowance 
 for masculinity; but when bulls are exhibited with 
 their progeny in a separate class, add 30 counts for 
 progeny. 
 
 II. Additional particulars submitted, though 
 net given in the above scale : 
 
 130 
 
JERSEY CATTLE. I3I 
 
 (i) The head should incline to long from the eye to the 
 muzzle. 
 
 (2) Muzzle, black in color and encircled with a band of a 
 hght color. 
 
 (3) Eyes, intelligent, liquid and rimmed with black above 
 and below. 
 
 (4) Horns, tipped with black. 
 
 (5) Ears, inclining to small and well fringed with hair 
 apd possessed of considerable erection and movement. 
 
 (6) Withers, fine and inclined to rise. 
 
 (7) Back, frequently swayed, more or less, the spinal 
 column prominent at the chine and open spaced, the pelvic 
 arch somewhat elevated, and the cruoper prominent with a 
 downward slope toward the outer hips. 
 
 (8) The junction of the neck is somewhat abrupt. 
 
 (9) Breast, wide in lower front, but not full, and brisket 
 V-shaped. 
 
 (10) Chest, wide through the heart, but frequently it is not. 
 
 (11) Forearm, long but not full. 
 
 (12) Thighs, long, lean and incurved. 
 
 (13) Escutcheon, well developed. 
 
 (14) Udder, thinly haired and the veins covering it well 
 defined. 
 
 (15) Milk veins, long, tortuous, branched, and they 
 should enter the body through two or more large milk wells. 
 
 (16) Lunbs, inclining to fine and placed well apart in front 
 and behmd. 
 
 (17) Skin, inclining to thin and distinctively yellow at the 
 armpits and around the udder. 
 
 (18) Hair, abundant, sleek and fine. 
 
 (19) The appearance when in milk should be spare. 
 
 (20) The color may include gray fawn and white, yellow 
 fawn and white, silver gray dun, cream-colored fawn and light 
 snver and dark steel gray, solid colors with black points being 
 formerly much in favor. 
 
 HI. Bulls contrasted with cows. 
 
 (i) The head of the former is stronger, wider relatively 
 and shorter, and the horns are shorter, stronger and more 
 upturned. 
 
 (2) The neck is thicker and is arched. 
 
 (3) The relative development of rhe forequarters is 
 greater, more particularly at the withers, breast and through 
 the heart. 
 
 *u Ml ^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^ relatively shorter, the hide thicker and 
 the limbs stronger. 
 
 IV. General Appearance — Tn general outline 
 the Jersey has a beautiful, deer-like form, a large 
 
lX2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 body supported by fine, clean limbs, a small head, 
 small and crumpled horns, large, lustrous and liquid 
 eyes, and, when in milk, a decided inclination to 
 spareness in frame. 
 
 V. Compared with Holsteins. 
 
 (i) The Jerseys are much smaller, more refined, shorter 
 in limh, more distinctively wedge-shaped, and as a rule not so 
 straight in ontline. 
 
 (2) They are not so long in the head and neck, are higher 
 and narrower at the withers and pelvic arch and frequently 
 have more of a downward sway in the back and droop toward 
 the tailhead. 
 
 (3) They are less wide in the breast and chest, less wide 
 and straight in the hips, thinner and more incurved in the 
 thighs and smaller in the teats, and 
 
 (4) There are the differences in color. 
 
 VI. Compared with Ayrshires. 
 
 (i) The Ayrshires are not so refined in form and limb, 
 are more plain in appearance, particularly about the head and 
 neck, and are more than 100 pounds heavier in average weight. 
 
 (2) The head is a little stronger and not quite so much 
 dished, the poll is wider and the horns are a little stronger and 
 are upturned more or less, whereas in the Jersey they are 
 crumpled. 
 
 (3) The hack is straighter, the chest wider through the 
 heart, the coupling a little shorter relatively, the hindquarter 
 has more of relative development, being more straight above 
 at the sides and at the rear, the teats are a little smaller and 
 the legs are probably relatively shorter. 
 
 (4) They are more sprightly and active of movement, and 
 
 (5) There are the differences in color. 
 
 VII. Compared with Guernseys. 
 
 (i) The Guernseys are less clean cut and less handsome 
 than the Jerseys, some coarser in the bone and larger in 
 every wav. 
 
 (2) They are something plainer in the head, less crumpled 
 in the horn, deeper in the neck, a little wider at the withers, 
 something wider through the heart, a little heavier in the hip, 
 even more prominent at the angular points, a little longer in 
 average length of limb and richer in the color of the skin. 
 
 (4) The formation of udder and average size of teat are 
 even more perfect than in the Jersey. 
 
 (5) In other respects they are very similar, save in the 
 color markings. 
 
LECTURE NO. 35. 
 
 FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND 
 
 HISTORY^ CHARACTERISTICS AND 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The French Canadian cattle are doubtless 
 descended from the cattle of Brittany and Nor- 
 mandy. 
 
 (i) The early settlers of Quebec came largely from these 
 provinces of France, and doubtless brought with them the 
 stocks of cattle bred there. 
 
 (2) They were found in the new French colony as early 
 as 1620. 
 
 II. Subsequently to 1620 the additional colo- 
 nists who from time to time arrived from north- 
 western France, added, by sundry importations, to 
 the cattle previously introduced. 
 
 (i) These early importations were the only source from 
 which French Canadian cattle derived their characteristics. 
 
 (2) No other cattle were introduced into the colony prior 
 to 1776. 
 
 III. It is more than probable that the ancestry 
 of French Canadian cattle is identical with that of 
 the Channel island breeds. 
 
 (i) So close is the resemblance that it would not be easy 
 to distinguish a French Canadian cow from a dark-colored 
 Jersey. 
 
 (2) Their essential characteristics other than those \Vhich 
 relate to form are very similar. 
 
 IV. Introduction of the Eng-lish breeds. 
 
 ), cat 
 imitei 
 
 (i) Subsequent to 1776, cattle of English origin were 
 introduced to a somewhat limited extent, but 
 
FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE. 1 35 
 
 (2) Their introduction has been chiefly confined to the 
 neighborhood of cities and to the limited rural districts occu- 
 pied by Anglo-Saxon settlers. 
 
 (3) Their blood has been mingled only to a limited extent 
 with that of the French Canadian cattle, hence 
 
 (4) Many of the latter have been bred pure in Quebec 
 for more than 250 years. 
 
 V. The effects of environment. 
 
 (i) The long and cold winters of Quebec and the expo- 
 sure to which these cattle have been subjected have begotten 
 in them a hardihood that is simply unrivalled in dairy cattle. 
 
 (2) The coarse fare upon which they have been fed dur- 
 ing much of the year has made them content with such food 
 in the absence of meal, and 
 
 (3) The continuous handling to which they have been 
 subjected has made them exceedingly docile. 
 
 VI. Registration of foundation animals. 
 
 (i) The rules relating to the registration of foundation 
 animals were first established by the Quebec legislature. 
 
 (2) Before these foundation animals could be admitted 
 to registry, they must be correct in form and of undoubted 
 purity in descent. 
 
 (3) The foundation herd book was kept open until the 
 end of 1896, that is to say, for a period of ten years. 
 
 VII. Organization. 
 
 (i) The French Canadian Cattle Breeders' Association 
 was organized in 1895, chiefly through the efforts of Dr. J. A. 
 Couture, D. V. S., who was elected "perpetual secretary" of 
 the same. 
 
 (2) In September, 1895, the registration of French Cana- 
 dian cattle was placed under the care of the said association. 
 
 VIII. Distribution in Canada and the United 
 States. 
 
 (i) The French Canadian cattle are the prevailing breed 
 in nearly all the counties of Quebec. 
 
 (2) They are most numerously kent in the pedigreed form 
 in the counties of Berthicr, Joliette, Drummond. Kamouraska 
 and L'Islet. 
 
 (3) A number of herds are also found in the state of 
 New York. 
 
 IX. Resfistration in Quebec. 
 
136 THE STUDY OF BREEDS 
 
 (i) Up to the end of 1899 there were recorded in the 
 Foundation Herd Book, 922 bulls and 5,307 cows. 
 
 (2) The whole number of animals now on record is 6,966. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) The popjilarity of French Canadian cattle is almost 
 entirely confined to Quebec province and portions of states 
 and provinces bordering on the same, but 
 
 (2) Now that they are being systematically improved, 
 these robust little money makers will doubtless become favor- 
 ites in other states and provinces. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Because of their inherent ruggedness they arc 
 adapted to climates where the winters are long and stern, as 
 in Quebec, the maritime provinces of Canada, the New Eng- 
 land states and the highlands of t'' e northern Alleghenies. 
 
 (2) Because of their lightness of form they are eminently 
 adapted to rugged pastures v/here much traveling must be 
 done when grazing, and 
 
 (3) Because of their excellent milking and easy keeping 
 qualities, they are unexcelled for dairy uses on lands that 
 respond tardily to the efforts of the husbandman. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) French Canadian cattle are the smallest of the dairy 
 breeds in America unless it be the Kerry. 
 
 (2) The cows weigh on an average 700 pounds. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) They do not give so large a flow of milk as some 
 breeds, but they milk with great persistence, and aggregate 
 large yields in proportion to their size. 
 
 (2) When well supplied with food they should give from 
 5,000 to 6.000 pounds of milk a year. 
 
 (3) The milk is said to test on an average from 4 to 5 1-2 
 per cent, and 
 
 (4) They have much power relatively to produce milk on 
 fodder supplemented by only a small addition of grain or even 
 in its absence. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are not marked, but 
 
 (2) With more generous feeding they will improve. 
 
 (3) Even now heifers frequently come into milk at the 
 age of thirty months and sometimes earlier. 
 
FRENCH CANADIAN CATTLE. 1 37 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the very highest order. 
 
 (2) They will gather food and give fair supplies of milk 
 where the large breeds and the small and less robust breeds 
 would completely fail. 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) They give an excellent return in milk for food con- 
 sumed, but 
 
 (2) They do not excel for meat production, since the 
 dairy form is quite pronounced. 
 
 (3) The calves, however, may be turned into profitable 
 meat at an early age. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) The experience in crossing French Canadian cattle 
 upon other breeds or grades has not been extensive, but 
 
 (2) When improved milking qualities combined with 
 hardihood are desired, they may be crossed with advantage on 
 unimproved stock. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of a very high order. 
 
 (2) The unpampered conditions to which they have been 
 subjected for generations and the exercise which they 
 must needs take in gathering food have proved eminently 
 favorable to reproduction. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) The chief of these are their small size for some con- 
 ditions, and a little slowness in maturing, but 
 
 (2) With improved conditions as to feed and environ- 
 ment they would doubtless soon improve in size and maturing 
 qualities. 
 
 XL Compared with Holsteins. 
 
 (i) The French Canadian cattle are much less well 
 known, very much less in size, mature more slowly and give 
 a less quantity of milk, but 
 
 (2) They are more rugged, are better grazers, easier 
 feeders and give richer milk. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the French Canadian Cattle Breeders' Associa- 
 tion : 
 
 (i) Head — Short; forehead wide; horns generally turned 
 inward and sometimes a little upward, white in color with 
 
1^8 THE STUDY OF BREEDS- 
 
 black tips ; muzzle surrounded with a gray or yellowish circle ; 
 ears neither very small nor very long, the inside of which is 
 orange color and covered with thin, short hair. 
 
 (2) Neck— Thin. 
 
 (3) Back — Almost straight. 
 
 (4) Chert — Deep and almost in a line with the belly. 
 
 (5) Belly — Not bulky and forming a continuous line with 
 the ribs and hips. 
 
 (6) Loins — Very broad. 
 
 (7) Rump — Broad and long. 
 
 (8) Barrel — Round, broad and deep at the flank. 
 
 (9) Tail — Thin, long, reaching very often to the fetlock. 
 
 (10) Legs — Short, fine and straight. 
 
 (11) Skin — Thin and mellow and covered with an abun- 
 dance of hair. 
 
 (12) Color for Females — Solid black, black with a yellow 
 stripe on the back and around the muzzle, brown with black 
 points, brown brindle. 
 
 (13) Color for Males — Black, with or without the yellow 
 stripes in order to get the color uniformly black within as 
 short a time as possible. 
 
 II. The following additional points are sub- 
 mitted : 
 
 (i) Head, fine and well dished. 
 
 (2) Neck, joining the shoulders abruptly. 
 
 (3) Withers, inclining to fine. 
 
 (4) Spine, sharp and well defined. 
 
 (5) Shoulders, coming near in the upward slope. 
 
 (6) Chest, wide through the heart. 
 
 (7) Brisket, V-shaped. 
 
 (8) Barrel, capacious. 
 
 (9) Ribs, distinct and open spaced. 
 
 (10) Twist, open. 
 
 (11) Udder, large and well quartered. 
 
 (12) Milk veins, well defined and well forward and more 
 or less branched. 
 
 III. General Appearanee — French Canadian 
 cattle are small in size and limb, relatively capacious 
 in body, and inclining to spareness in form. 
 
 IV. Compared with Holsteins. 
 
 (i) French Canadian cattle are not much more than half 
 as large, are shorter in limb, less square in quarter and more 
 spare in development. 
 
 (2) They are more abrupt at the angular points, and 
 
 (3) There are the differences in color. 
 
LECTURE NO. 36. 
 
 KERRY CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Keny is the only purely native breed 
 of cattle in Ireland that is possessed of much merit. 
 
 (i) From time immemorial they have been bred pure, but 
 only in an aimless way until within a comparatively recent 
 period. 
 
 (2) In size, shape and color they bear a close resemblance 
 to the native cattle of Brittany. 
 
 II. Kerry cattle are so named from the county 
 of Kerry, and until a comparatively recent period 
 they were confined chiefly to the southwestern coun- 
 ties of Ireland. 
 
 (i) The unartificial conditions which surrounded them 
 for centuries have made them the hardiest of the British dairy 
 breeds. 
 
 (2) They have frequently been called the "poor man's 
 cow" from the great service they have rendered to the cottager 
 in rural districts. 
 
 (3) The extent to which they have been kept for this pur- 
 pose measurably accounts for their characteristic docility. 
 
 III. Improvement of the breed. 
 
 (i) This was late in commencing, but has been rapid dur- 
 ing recent years. 
 
 (2) Both in England and Ireland noblemen have zealously 
 engaged in the work. 
 
 IV. Exportation of Kerries. 
 
 (i) Details with reference to this work are meager, but 
 
 (2) From their original home they have been introduced 
 into many of the counties of Ireland. 
 
 (3) They are also numerously kept in several of the 
 southwest counties of England, and 
 
I. 
 
 tJ 
 
 -^ 
 
 Cl. 
 
 
 o 
 
KERRY CATTLE. I4I 
 
 (4) They have been exported to the United States and 
 Canada, though as yet only in very limited numbers. 
 
 V. The Dexter cattle. 
 
 (i) The Dexter is a variety of cattle, the outcome of a 
 cross between the Kerry and Devon breeds, according to some 
 authorities, and of selection, according to others. 
 
 (2) Opinions differ as to the origin of the name. 
 
 (3) As distinguished from the Kerry they have a rounder 
 and plumper body, shorter and rather thicker legs, a heavier 
 and stronger head, and larger, straighter and coarser horns, 
 and are better for beef, though not so good for milk, but 
 
 (4) These distinctions arc being (juickly obliterated 
 through the indiscriminate blending of the two types. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) The popularity of Kerries can scarcely be said to have 
 been tested in the United States, owing to the very limited 
 numbers yet introduced. 
 
 (2) In Ireland they are the most popular breed of dairy 
 cattle, and in some parts of England they are meeting with no 
 little favor. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Kerry cattle have special adaptation to conditions 
 where the pastures are much broken and not abundant, thus 
 involving much traveling in seeking food. 
 
 (2) They should be admirably suited for the dairy in 
 semi-mountainous areas in the United States, where hardihood 
 and staying qualities are an important consideration. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) They are quite the smallest of the dairy breeds as yet 
 imported into this country. 
 
 (2) In many instances the hight does not exceed forty 
 inches, and the average weight of matured cows is not more 
 than 600 to 700 pounds. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) The ability of this little creature to give milk under 
 adverse climatic and pasture conditions is simply surprising. 
 
 (2) The quality of the milk is also rich, being not far 
 behind that from Guernseys or Jerseys in butter fat, and the 
 quantity is large for the size of the animal. 
 
142 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Early maturity. 
 
 (i) These cattle are slower in maturing than any of the 
 dairy breeds yet introduced into the United States, owing 
 
 (2) To the unameliorated conditions under which they 
 were kept in former years. 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the very highest order because of their 
 natural activity and hardihood. 
 
 (2) Kerries will prove profitable under conditions where 
 nearly all dairy breeds would fail. 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) High feeding qualities are claimed for Kerries by 
 some British writers, but probably on insufficient grounds, 
 although 
 
 (2) Kerry cows will fatten quickly when dry. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Their highest value in crossing and grading in this 
 country would probably be found in mating Kerry sires with 
 common animals kept in semi-mountainous regions, with a 
 view to improving their milking qualities. 
 
 (2) On good grazing lands it would seem wise to main- 
 tain larger breeds. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the first order, owing 
 (2) To the unartificial nature of the conditions of their 
 environment. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) The chief of these are their small size and slowness 
 in maturing, but 
 
 (2) In both respects they are being improved. 
 
 XL Compared with the Jerseys. 
 
 (i) They are not to be compared to the Jerseys in the 
 general estimate of the public, in general adaptation or in the 
 field that lies before them for crossing and grading, and they 
 are not equal to them in size or maturing qualities, though 
 nearly equal in the quantity of the milk produced, but 
 
 (2) They are far ahead of Jerseys in vigor of constitution, 
 in ability to "rough it" under adverse conditions, and they are 
 something ahead in easy keeping and in feeding qualities and 
 in the ability to breed with unfailing regularity. 
 
KERRY CATTLE. I43 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 In the absence of an authorized scale of points 
 in the United States the fohowing is submitted : 
 
 I. Si/:c — This should be regulated to a con- 
 siderable degree by the nature of the environment. 
 
 II. General Outline — The body is essentially 
 dairy in form, though not of the most pronounced 
 type. 
 
 III. Head — Small, inclining to fine, tapering 
 and well balanced in the different parts. 
 
 (i) Forehead, wide. 
 
 (2) Nose, fine and inclining to long. 
 
 (3) Muzzle, fine. 
 
 (4) Nostrils, placed high and somewhat open. 
 
 (5) Cheeks, lean. 
 
 (6) Eyes, mild, full and lively. 
 
 (7) Horns, rather thick at base, but gently tapering, with 
 black tips, and coming gracefully forward and upward with 
 considerable erection. 
 
 (8) Ears, small and fine and rather lively in movement. 
 
 IV. Neck — Straight, fine, inclining to deep, 
 with medium abruptness at the neck vein. 
 
 V. Back — Straight from withers to tailhead. 
 
 (i) It is not wide at the withers, and is but moderately 
 prominent at the chine, and 
 
 (2) It slopes down considerably away from the sacrum. 
 
 VL Foreqiiarters — A little less in develop- 
 ment proportionately than the hindquarters. 
 
 (i) Shoulders, smooth and relatively deep, but not broad. 
 
 (2) Chest, wide. 
 
 (3) Breast, fairly deep and broad, but not full. 
 
 (4) Brisket, V-shaped. 
 
 (5) Forearm, inclining to full. 
 
 VII. Barrel — Capacious and deep, inclining 
 to round more than to flat. 
 
 (i) Ribs, of medium spring and distinct when the cows 
 are in milk. 
 
 (2) Crops, medium in fullness. 
 
144 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (3) Fore flank, full. 
 
 (4) Hind flank, not thick. 
 
 (5) Heart girth, good for the size of the animal and nearly 
 equal with the flank girth. 
 
 (6) Underline, a little depressed. 
 
 VI II. Hindquarters — Deep and of medium 
 development. 
 
 (i) Hips, straight on the side. 
 
 (2) Thighs, inclining to light. 
 
 (3) Buttocks, a little incurved. 
 
 (4) Pin bones, of but medium distance apart. 
 
 (5) Twist, open and placed somewhat high. 
 
 (6) Tail, long and fine. 
 
 IX. Udder — Between oblong and rounded in 
 shape, capacious and evenly quartered, with teats of 
 good size and placed well apart. 
 
 X. Milk Veins — Large and long ; very promi- 
 nent for so small an animal, branched. 
 
 XL Skin — Fine, soft, unctuous and of a fine 
 orange tint clearly visible at the muzzle, eyes and 
 ears. 
 
 XII. Legs — Short, not coarse, and clean. 
 
 XIII. Color — The color most in favor is a 
 rich black with, in some instances a ridge of white 
 along the back and a white streak under the belly, 
 but some are black, brown, black and white and 
 brown and white. 
 
 XIV. General Appearance — Tne Kerry is a 
 neat little creature, almost if not quite as handsome 
 as the Jersey, and she carries in her appearance that 
 too infrequent combination of docility and sprightli- 
 ness of movement. 
 
 XV. Compared with the Jersey. 
 
 (i) The Kerry is considerably smaller and is less promi- 
 nent at the angles. 
 
 (2) She has a finer muzzle, stronger and more upturned 
 horns, a straighter back and a slightly heavier frame for her 
 size, and 
 
 (3) There are the differences in color. 
 
THE DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 37. 
 
 POLLED DURHAM CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS- 
 TORY^ CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Polled Durhams originated in the United 
 States, and more particularly in the state of Ohio. 
 
 (i) The development of this breed has all been accom- 
 plished within the last two or three decades, and 
 
 (2) It has been done by several breeders who for a time 
 worked independently of one another, though essentially on 
 the same lines. 
 
 (3) The efforts of Dr. W. W. Crane of Tippecanoe City, 
 O., to popularize the breed have been abundant and unceasing. 
 
 II. The Polled Durhams have come from two 
 different sources of ancestry. 
 
 (i) One branch has been established through the crossing 
 of pure Shorthorn males upon selected common muley cows. 
 (2) The other is pure Shorthorn but hornless. 
 
 III. The following details relate to the estab- 
 lishment of the Polled Durhams upon a muley 
 foundation : 
 
 (i) Good common muley cows were selected, of large 
 form and good milking qualities. 
 
 (2) These were crossed by pure Shorthorn bulls, red in 
 color. 
 
 (3) The female progeny only were reared for a time, and 
 of these only such as were hornless. 
 
 (4) When possessed of 75 per cent of Shorthorn blood, 
 and hornless, they were considered eligible for entry in the 
 record, but the standard has been raised at certain times, as 
 stated below. 
 
 10 145 
 
146 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. The following details relate to the estab- 
 lishment of the Polled Durhams upon a pure Short- 
 horn foundation. 
 
 (i) Recorded Shorthorn bulls that had never possessed 
 horns were secured by different breeders, and these were bred 
 to pure Shorthorn cows. 
 
 (2) Only such of the progeny were kept to breed from 
 as were hornless. 
 
 V. The American Polled Durham Breeders* 
 Association was organized in Chicago in 1889. 
 
 (i) Eight persons took the initiative in the work, all of 
 whom had been engaged for some time previously in establish- 
 ing the breed. 
 
 (2) The membership at the end of 1893 numbered forty, 
 and included residents of several states. 
 
 VI. The following are the requirements for 
 registration in the American Herd Book of Polled 
 Durham cattle. 
 
 (i) Animals for registry must be at least one year old. 
 
 (2) They must be hornless. 
 
 (3) They must have the color and markings characteristic 
 of the Shorthorn. 
 
 (4) They must not have less than 87 1-2 per cent of Short- 
 horn blood after 1893, 93 3-4 per cent after 1896, and 96 7-8 
 per cent after 1899, and the requisites previously mentioned. 
 
 (5) The produce of animals already on record will be 
 recorded, provided they conform to the requirements men- 
 tioned in I, 2 and 3, also 
 
 (6) The produce of any bull in the Polled Durham Herd 
 Book, with the same requirements, and 
 
 (7) The produce of any cow in the Polled Durham reg- 
 istry, when by a bull recorded in the American Shorthorn Herd 
 Book, and possessed of the same requirements. 
 
 VII. The leading Fair Associations were slow 
 to give recognition to Polled Durham cattle in their 
 prize lists, but 
 
 (i) At the World's Fair in Chicago in 1893, a full list 
 of premiums was offered for Polled Durhams. 
 
 (2) The grand sweepstakes prize at the same fair open 
 to all "general purpose" cattle, was won by the Polled 
 Durhams. 
 
POLLED DURHAM CATTLE. I47 
 
 VIII. The future of Polled Durhams. 
 
 (i) There would seem to be a bright future before this 
 breed in the United States and also in certain other countries 
 possessed of the requisite adaptation, since 
 
 (2) They meet the growing demand for cattle with all the 
 essential characteristics of Shorthorns, and yet without horns. 
 
 (3) They are rich in the blood of several of the best 
 strains of English and Scotch Shorthorns, and many of them 
 have in addition the renovating influence of muley foundation 
 blood. 
 
 IX. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Polled Durhams have been recorded from about 
 twenty different states. 
 
 (2) The leading centers of distribution are Indiana, Illi- 
 nois, Ohio, Texas, Michigan, Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Tennes- 
 see, Missouri, Iowa and Wisconsin, and probably in the order 
 named. 
 
 (3) The first exportation of Polled Durhams was made 
 to Argentina from the herd of J. H. Miller, Peru, Ind.,. in 1894. 
 
 X. Registration of Polled Durhams. 
 
 (i) But one volume of the American Polled Durham 
 Herd Book has yet been issued, and it was published in 1894. 
 
 (2) There have been recorded 2100 animals, of which 850 
 are bulls and 1250 cows. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. The characteristics of the Polled Durhams 
 are essentially the same as those of the Shorthorns 
 given in Lecture No. 9. 
 
 (i) They have the same large parallelogrammic frames, 
 and 
 
 (2) Like the Shorthorns they are adapted to arable locali- 
 ties rich in food production. 
 
 II. They differ in the following essentials : 
 
 (i) More attention has been given to the development of 
 their milking qualities, and 
 
 (2) They are more free from the weaknesses of some 
 highly inbred Shorthorn families, as, for instance, shyness in 
 breeding. 
 

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POLLED DURHAM CATTLE. I4g 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 I. No standard scale of points has as yet been 
 drawn up for this breed, but 
 
 (i) These are essentially the same as in the Shorthorn, 
 (2) They are given in detail in the scale submitted for 
 Shorthorns in Lecture No. 10. 
 
 II. They differ in the following essentials : 
 
 (i) The Polled Durhams are hornless, and 
 
 (2) They do not carry the beef form to quite the same 
 
 extent as Shorthorns, since more attention has been given to 
 
 the development of their milking qualities. 
 
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LECTURE NO. 38. 
 
 BROWN SWISS CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Switzerland has two distinct breeds of cat- 
 tle, and several minor breeds, which are chiefly the 
 offshoots of these two parent stems. 
 
 (i) One of these, the Berner spotted, a large and heavy 
 breed, is found most numerously in the canton of Berne. 
 
 (2) The other, the Brown Schwytzer, originated in the 
 canton of Schwytz, and it is now kept numerously in many 
 of the cantons of Switzerland. 
 
 (3) Both breeds have been refined by many centuries of 
 careful treatment and intelligent breeding. 
 
 II. The uniformity which characterizes the 
 Brown Swiss cattle has been brought about by a 
 long period of careful breeding. 
 
 (i) The government gives encouragement to careful 
 breeding, and the cattle receive the best of care. 
 
 (2) Every animal of the breed exhibited at Pans, m 1878, 
 was awarded a prize, but 
 
 (3) It can scarcely be said that marked uniformity in type 
 characterizes the breed in the United States. 
 
 III. Distribution throughout Europe. 
 
 (i) The demand for Browm Swiss cattle in various Euro- 
 pean countries has been greater than the supply. 
 
 (2) They stand high in favor in nearly all countries of 
 Europe to which they have been exported, but the greatest 
 demand for them has come from Italy, Germany and Russia. 
 
 IV. Exportation to the United States. 
 
 (i) The first importation of Brown Swiss cattle was 
 made into the United States in 1869 by Henry M. Clark of 
 Belmont, Mass. 
 
152 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) Since that date many importations have been made, 
 and more especially since 1882. 
 
 V. Organizations. 
 
 (i) The interests of the breed are protected by organiza- 
 tion, both in Switzerland and the United States. 
 
 (2) The American Swiss Cattle Breeders' Association 
 was formed in 1880. 
 
 VI. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Some animals of the breed are found in almost every 
 state in the Union and there are a considerable number also 
 in Mexico. 
 
 (2) In the east they are probably most numerous in Con- 
 necticut ; in the middle states, Illinois ; and in the west, 
 Colorado. 
 
 VII. Registrations in the United States. 
 
 (i) Three volumes of the American Brown Swiss Record 
 have been issued, the first of which appeared in 1882. 
 
 (2) There have been registered 2914 animals, of which 
 1207 are males and 1707 females. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) Brown Swiss cattle are probably the most popular 
 cattle in Europe among continental breeds. 
 
 (2) They are also steadily coming into favor since their 
 introduction into the United States and Canada. 
 
 (3) This result is unquestionably based on merit, since no 
 effort has been made to boom them. 
 
 II. AdaptabiHty. 
 
 (i) Brown Swiss cattle are best adapted to the arable 
 farm where beef and milk are both sought for. 
 
 (2) Their strong, vigorous frames enable them to gather 
 food with profit where some breeds not so heavy would prove 
 less profitable. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size they are medium to large. 
 
 (a) The weight of the standard cow in Switzerland has 
 been put at 1200 to 1300 pounds, but 
 
 (b) As the size is much affected by altitude, on the higher 
 elevations the average weights would be considerably less. 
 
BROWN SWISS CATTLE. 1 53 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) Notwithstanding the strongly built frames of Brown 
 Swiss cattle and the size of their hams, their milk-giving 
 qualities average well. 
 
 (2) The milk is good for butter production, for con- 
 densing and for cheese-making, and it is excellent for calf- 
 rearing. 
 
 (3) Their docility and gentleness, largely the outcome of 
 kind treatment, still further commend them for the dairy. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are but medium. 
 
 (2) The breeders have avoided rather than sought undue 
 precocity. 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of a high order, as they have been much 
 grazed in their original home, but 
 
 (2) The larger types require richer and more level pas- 
 tures than the smaller. 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The cows fatten readily when dry, and the steers 
 grow to a good size at an early age when properly fed. 
 
 (2) The calves especially make a rapid growth, but 
 
 (3) The strength of the bone detracts somewhat from 
 their feeding value. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Brown Swiss cattle are particularly valuable for 
 crossing upon common animals more or less debilitated by 
 .injudicious breeding and over-artificial treatment, with a view 
 to infusing renovating power. 
 
 (2) The cross-bred steers grow with great vigor and at- 
 tain heavy weights at an early age, but they are not quite so 
 smooth as the progeny of some of the distinctive beef breeds. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are excellent. 
 
 (2) They are the outcome of inheritance, of sensible man- 
 agement and of well balanced milking qualities. 
 
 (3) They do not breed quite so young as some breeds, but 
 they continue to produce to a ripe old age. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
154 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (i) They would seem to have more of bone than is neces- 
 sary, and they are somewhat rough at the shoulder points and 
 sacrum. 
 
 (2) They are also less uniform in type than could be 
 desired. 
 
 XL Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) Shorthorns are much better known in the United 
 States, are larger and smoother in frame, mature a little earlier 
 and produce a more valuable carcass of beef. 
 
 (2) The Brown Swiss are more uniformly good milkers, 
 are ahead in average ruggedness and have something of a lead 
 over the Shorthorns in grazing and breeding qualities. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following scale of points was drawn up 
 by the Brown Swiss Cattle Association in America : 
 
 (I 
 (2 
 
 (3 
 (4 
 
 (5 
 (6 
 
 (7 
 
 (8 
 (9 
 
 (10 
 (II 
 (12 
 (13 
 (14 
 
 (15 
 (16 
 
 (17 
 (18 
 
 POINTS 
 . 2 
 
 Head — Medium size and rather long . 
 
 Face- — Dished, broad between the eyes and nar- 
 row between the horns ..... 
 
 Ears — Of a deep orange color within . 
 
 Nose — Black, square, and with the mouth sur- 
 rounded by a light, meal colored band, tongue 
 black 
 
 Eyes — Full and placid ..... 
 
 Horns — Rather short, flattish and regularly set 
 with black tips 
 
 Neck — Straight, rather long and not too heavy 
 at shoulders 
 
 Chest — Broad and deep 
 
 Back — Level to the setting on of tail and broad 
 across the loin ...... 
 
 Barrel-hooped — Broad and deep at flank . 
 
 Hips — Wide apart, rump long and broad . 
 
 Thighs — Wide, with heavy quarters 
 
 Legs — Short and straight with good hoofs . 
 
 Tail — Slender, pliable, not too long, with good 
 switch ......... 
 
 Hide — Thin and movable .... 
 
 Color — Shades from dark brown to light brown 
 and at some seasons of the year gray ; slight 
 splashes of white near udder not objectionable; 
 light stripe along back ..... 6 
 
 Hair Between Horns — Light, not reddish. (No points.) 
 
 Fore Udder — Full in form and carried far for- 
 ward on the abdomen 10 
 
BROWN SWISS CATTLE. 1 55 
 
 (19) Hind Udder — Not too deeply hung, full in form 
 
 and well up behind 10 
 
 (20) Teats — Rather large, set well apart and hanging 
 straight down 5 
 
 (21) Milk Veins — Prominent 4 
 
 (22) Escutcheon — High and broad and full in thighs . 7 
 {22,) Disposition — Quiet and good-natured . . 4 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 (24) In judging bulls and heifers omit Nos. 18, 19 
 and 20, and for color they should be dark brown, 
 
 II. Additional particulars submitted though 
 not given in the above scale of points : 
 
 (i) Poll, in many instances broad and always fringed with 
 long and abundant hair. 
 
 (2) Horns, fair amount of outward and upward curve. 
 
 (3) Dewlap, usually present more or less. 
 
 (4) Breast, of medium fullness. 
 
 (5) Brisket, wide but inclining to the V shape. 
 
 (6) Withers, possessed of medium width. 
 
 (7) Back, usually prominent at the sacrum and tailhead 
 and slanting away somewhat from sacrum downward toward 
 outside of hips. 
 
 (8) Tailhead, often strong. 
 
 (9) Hide, thicker than in some breeds. 
 
 III. General Appearance — They are some- 
 what plainer in form, but evidence contentment, 
 strength and capacity and there is an attractiveness 
 about the uniformity of their markings. 
 
 IV. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) Brown Swiss cattle are not quite so large nor mas- 
 sive, but they are stronger in bone and limb. 
 
 (2) They are somewhat longer in the head, larger and 
 -stronger in the horn, more fringed at the poll, less rounded in 
 
 the breast and more V-shaped in the brisket. 
 
 (3) They are more prominent at the shoulder points, 
 sacrum and tailhead and have a thicker and richer colored 
 hide. 
 
 (4) There are also the differences in color markings. 
 
LECTURE NO. 39. 
 
 RED POLLED CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Red Polled cattle are the outcome of 
 the amalgamation of two types which inhabited the 
 counties of Norfolk and Suffolk respectively. 
 
 (i) The former of these, which was the smaller, was 
 usually of a blood-red color, except the head, which was mot- 
 tled, and it was possessed of fair milking and beef-making 
 properties. 
 
 (2) The latter had more of the dairy form, and was origi- 
 nally a sort of mouse dun in color, but 
 
 (3) The colors in both were more or less broken far on 
 into the present century, although a whole red continually 
 grew into favor. 
 
 (4) Both types were polled and both have been freely 
 inter-crossed for more than a century. 
 
 (5) They have been recognized as one breed since the 
 year 1846. 
 
 II. Other breeds, as the Galloways, West 
 Highland cattle and Shorthorns, have to some extent 
 been used in crossing upon the Red Polls. 
 
 (i) A dark nose, which occasionally appears, would seem 
 to indicate Galloway blood, but 
 
 (2) These crosses, introduced many years ago, have prob- 
 ably played an unimportant part in the improvement of the 
 breed. 
 
 III. Improvement has been chiefly brought 
 about by a most rigorous selection, breeding to a 
 certain standard, improved care and liberal feeding. 
 
 156 
 
158 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (i) It began early in the century, but was not rapid until 
 the recognition of the Norfolk and Suffolk types as one and 
 the same breed, in 1846, and 
 
 (2) It has been more general than local in character. 
 
 IV. In Britain the breeding of Red Polls is 
 still largely confined to the counties of Norfolk and 
 Suffolk. 
 
 (i) This is partly owing to the decimation of the breed 
 by rinderpest several years ago. 
 
 (2) And partly to the comparatively recent period during 
 which they have been prominently before the general public. 
 
 V. Extension to other countries. 
 
 (i) Polled cattle from Suffolk were introduced into Vir- 
 ginia, and probably some other states, fully two centuries 
 ago, but 
 
 (2) The first regular importation of Red Polls into 
 the United States in their improved form was made by Gilbert 
 F. Tabor of Patterson, N. Y., in 1873. 
 
 (3) They have also been exported in considerable num- 
 bers to Ireland, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. 
 
 VI. Organizations. 
 
 (i) Associations have been formed both in England and 
 America to promote the interests of the breed. 
 
 (2) The Red Polled Cattle Club of America was formed 
 in 1883. 
 
 VIL Herd books. 
 
 (i) Sixteen volumes of the English Red Polled Herd 
 Book have been published, the first of which appeared in 1874. 
 
 (2) Vol. I of the American Red Polled Herd Book, which 
 appeared in 1887, is a condensation of the first six volumes of 
 the English book and subsequent volumes are the same in 
 their registrations. 
 
 (3) These books contain all the recorded Red Polls in 
 the world, and 
 
 (4) In registering, a tribal letter is given to the cattle of 
 each herd or neighborhood, for convenience in tracing tribal 
 history. 
 
 VIII. Distribution of Red Polls in the United 
 States. 
 
 (i) They are now registered from nearly all the states 
 of the Union, and 
 
RED POLLED CATTLE. I 59 
 
 (2) They are most numerously kept in the states of Illi- 
 nois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Ohio, Kansas and Texas, and prob- 
 ably in the order named, 
 
 IX. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) This is not easily ascertained because of the dual 
 nature of the registrations. 
 
 (2) There have been registered in England and America 
 21,172 animals, of which 6753 are bulls and 14,419 cows. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 L* Popularity. 
 
 (i) If numbers in proportion to recent introduction are 
 taken as the gauge of popularity, Red Polls are probably the 
 most popular at present of the purely dual-purpose breeds in 
 the United States, and 
 
 (2) That popularity would seem to be increasing in an 
 accelerated ratio. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) The medium-sized bodies and the inherited influences 
 arising from environment adapt the Red Polls in an eminent 
 degree to average arable conditions, and 
 
 (2) The same inheritance best adapts them to equable 
 climates, although they will doubtless thrive in more severe 
 climates as well as many other breeds. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size Red Polls stand about midway between the 
 Shorthorns and the Devons. 
 
 (2) The average weight of mature cows would be about 
 1200 to 1250 pounds. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) The Red Polls are more uniform and persistent in 
 their milking qualities than many other breeds. 
 
 (2) The milk, like the breed itself, has a happy equilib- 
 rium in its qualities, but 
 
 (3) The teats are in some instances over-large. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) In early maturity they rank a little better than 
 medium. 
 
 (2) As a breed they have not been forced, when young, to 
 the injury of their breeding qualities. 
 
l6o THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These, too, are of the middle zone order. 
 (2) They are most at home where food is plentiful, but 
 can probably gather the same better than their heavier rivals. 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) In no breed perhaps is the tendency so strong to pro- 
 duce abundantly when in milk and at the same time to fatten 
 rapidly when dry. 
 
 (2) The steers, though of good fair size, fatten smoothly 
 and cheaply, kill well and make an excellent quality of beef. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Red Polls are highly adapted for being crossed upon 
 common stocks to improve them, both in form and utility. 
 
 (2) The progeny have a close resemblance to the Red 
 Polls in form, appearance and qualities. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are at least medium. 
 
 (2) As with all other breeds they are much affected in 
 this respect by artificial conditions. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) More uniformity would be desirable in breeding them, 
 and 
 
 (2) A little more of heart girth and uniformity in size 
 and setting of teats. 
 
 XI. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) Red Polls are not nearly so well known or distributed 
 as Shorthorns, and they are considerably less in size. 
 
 (2) They are more even in milk production and are better 
 adapted to produce steers of the "pony" order. 
 
 (3) In other respects their characteristics are not far dif- 
 ferent. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the only authorized scale 
 of points for Red Polled cattle sanctioned by the 
 American Red Polled Cattle Club: 
 
 (i) Essentials. 
 
 (a) Color, red ; the tip of the tail and the udder may be 
 white ; the extension on the udder a few inches along the inside 
 of the flank, or a small white spot or mark on the under part 
 
RED POLLED CATTLE. l6l 
 
 of the belly by the milk veins shall not be held to disqualify 
 the animal whose sire and dam form part of an established 
 herd of the breed, or answer all other essentials of this stand- 
 ard description. 
 
 (b) Form ; there should be no horns, slugs or abortive 
 horns. 
 
 (2) Points of a Superior Animal. 
 
 (a) Color, a deep red, with udder of the same color, but 
 the tip of the tail may be white. 
 
 (b) Nose, not dark or cloudy. 
 
 11. The following notes are appended to the 
 above very incomplete description of so excellent a 
 breed : 
 
 (i) Sise — Medium, inclining to large. 
 
 (2) General Outline — Parallelogrammic form, 
 
 (3) Head — Neat, clean, inclined to fine, polled and promi- 
 nent at the poll. 
 
 (a) Nose, somewhat fine and a little long. 
 
 (b) Muzzle, flesh-colored. 
 
 (c) Nostrils, open. 
 
 (d) Eyes, full, clear and well apart, with a little dish be- 
 tween them. 
 
 (e) Ears, a little long and thin and pointed upward and 
 outward. 
 
 (4) Neck — A little long and inclining to fine. 
 
 (a) Neat at junction with the head, guarding against 
 dewlap. 
 
 (b) Widening development at neck vein, but not massive. 
 
 (5) Back — Wide, particularly at the loin, and straight. 
 
 (a) Withers, medium to wide. 
 
 (b) Too much prominence at hook points to be guarded 
 against. 
 
 (6) Forequarters — Nearly evenly developed with the hind- 
 quarters, but not massive. 
 
 (a) Shoulders, fairly large, smooth, sloping gradually up- 
 ward and forward. 
 
 (b) Chest, wide, especially through the lower half. 
 
 (c) Breast, wide, deep and fairly full. 
 
 (d) Brisket, between V-shaped and rounded, and wide, 
 
 (e) Forearm, of medium development. 
 
 (7) Body — Large, somewhat long, especially in the 
 females, and capacious. 
 
 (a) Ribs, at least moderately outward and rounded in 
 spring and coming well down. 
 
 (b) Slackness at crops and fore flank to be guarded against. 
 
 (c) Hind flank, coming well out and well downward, but 
 only moderately thick. 
 
 II 
 
1 62 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (d) Deficient heart girth is to be guarded against. 
 
 (e) Underline, nearly straight. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long, deep and wide. 
 
 (a) Straight rather than full. 
 
 (b) Thighs of medium development. 
 
 (c) Buttock, straight, square, rather than rounded. 
 
 (d) Pin bones, wide, but not prominent. 
 
 (e) Twist, medium. 
 
 (f) Escutcheon, wide and pronounced. 
 
 (g) Tail, long and fine rather than coarse. 
 
 (9) t/rfrfrr— Capacious, not high nor pendulous and nicely 
 quartered. 
 
 (a) Not fleshy, but glandular. 
 
 (b) Unduly large teats to be guarded against. 
 
 (10) Milk Veins — Large, coming well forward, branched 
 and milk wells well defined. 
 
 (11) Skin — Medium in fineness, pliant, flexible and unc- 
 tuous and covered with soft hair. 
 
 (12) Legs — Medium in length, fine rather than coarse, 
 clean and placed wide apart. 
 
 III. General Outline — Red Polls are a neat, 
 trim and active breed of cattle, with clean cut outline 
 and much uniformity of color. 
 
 IV. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) Red Polls are considerably smaller, somewhat less 
 angular, and less broad throughout. 
 
 (2) They are somewhat finer in head, neck and limb. 
 
 (3) They have more marked development of milk veins, 
 and 
 
 (4) The differences in horn development and in color. 
 
LECTURE NO. 40. 
 
 DEVON CATTLE THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Devons are one of the most ancient 
 and pure of the distinct breeds of cattle found in 
 Great Britain. 
 
 (i) They belong to the middle horned class, and are sup- 
 posed to be descended from the same aboriginal breed as the 
 Herefords and the Sussex. 
 
 (2) The most ancient records tend to show that they have 
 been bred without admixture from time immemorial, in parts 
 of Devonshire and Somerset. 
 
 II. They now occupy, with Httle exception, 
 the whole of the district from Dartmoor forest to 
 the Bristol channel, and from West Somerset to 
 Cornwall. 
 
 (i) Good herds of the breed were established early in the 
 century in the shires of Leicester, Gloucester and Shropshire, 
 and in some other parts of England. 
 
 (2) Individual herds have also been established at various 
 other points in England and in Ireland, but not to the extent 
 of becoming the prevailing breed, and 
 
 (3) Where they were supplanted for a time in the south 
 of England by other breeds, as Shorthorns and Herefords, 
 they are again regaining the ground lost. 
 
 III. Of all the British breeds they had the 
 
 greatest reputation as grazers a century ago, hence 
 
 (i) The precedence given them in the prize lists of the 
 Smithfield Cattle Club, and of the Bath and West of England 
 Society. 
 
 (2) At that time the North Devon was considered the 
 breed par excellence for small bones and high quality. 
 
 (3) They were also very popular as oxen, owing to their 
 activity, combined with their staying powers. 
 
 IV. It cannot be said that the name of any 
 one person stands out supremely conspicuous as the 
 great improver of Devons, as improvement was 
 
 163 
 
o 
 U 
 
 c 
 o 
 
 CL 
 
 in 
 
 v^ 
 
DEVON CATTLE. 1 65 
 
 effected by a number of persons working simultane- 
 ously and more or less in concert. 
 
 (i) Prominent among the early improvers stand the names 
 of Francis Quartly of Champson, Molland ; John T. Davy of 
 Rose Ash; Walter Farthing of Stowey Court, Bridgevvater ; 
 and the Earl of Leicester of Holkham, Leicestershire. 
 
 (2) In several instances Devons have been bred in the 
 same families for at least 150 years. 
 
 V. The high prices paid for meat early in the 
 
 century, while the wars with France continued, 
 
 tempted many breeders to part with their best 
 animals. 
 
 (i) This led to a lowering of the average standard of 
 excellence in many herds, but 
 
 (2) The equilibrium has again been restored, largely 
 through the establishment of agricultural societies and the 
 demand for good breeding stock. 
 
 VL Devon cattle were early distinguished as 
 North and South Devon respectively, the latter 
 variety being also known as South Hams and Som- 
 ersets. 
 
 (i) The North Devon v^as the smaller variety, their coat 
 was softer and more curly, and they were more distinguished 
 for their fleshing properties. 
 
 (2) The South Devons, supposed to contain a dash of 
 Guernsey blood, w^ere of larger size and of coarser appear- 
 ance, and were more distinguished for milk production. 
 
 (3) These have been so intercrossed in many instances 
 as to obliterate the distinguishing marks of the two classes. 
 
 VII. Exportation to the United States. 
 
 (i) The first well authenticated importation of Devon 
 cattle was made into the United States by Robert Patterson of 
 Baltimore. Md., in 1817. 
 
 (2) They came from the herd of the Earl of Leicester, 
 Holkham, and a very large number of the Devons now in the 
 United States trace to this importation. 
 
 (3) From 1817 onward, importations have been frequent 
 until quite recently. 
 
 VIII. Exportation to other countries. 
 
 (i) Devons were imported somewhat freely into Ontario, 
 Can., shortly after the middle of the century, but they have 
 not prevailed to any considerable extent in that country. 
 
1 66 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) They have also been introduced into Jamaica, Mexico, 
 the Cape of Good Hope, Australia and New Zealand. 
 
 IX. Herd books. 
 
 (i) The first volume of the English Devon Herd Book, 
 edited by J. Tanner Davy, was published in 1851. 
 
 (2) The first volume of the American Devon Herd Book 
 was published in 1863. 
 
 (3) The first volume of the American Devon Record was 
 published in 1881. 
 
 (4) Registrations are also kept in Ontario and Nova 
 Scotia. 
 
 X. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Devons are kept in every state in the Union, save 
 North Dakota, Washington, Wyoming, New Mexico and 
 Arizona, hence, 
 
 (2) They are more generally distributed than any breed 
 largely devoted to meat making except the Shorthorns. 
 
 (3) They are most numerous in the states of Ohio, Penn- 
 sylvania, New York, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, 
 Illinois and Texas, and probably in the order named. 
 
 XL Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) Six volumes of the American Devon Record have 
 been issued. 
 
 (2) There have been recorded 18,843 animals, of which 
 6902 are bulls and 11. 941 are cows. 
 
LECTURE NO. 41- 
 
 DEVON CATTLE THEIR LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Popularity. 
 
 (i) In all-round popularity the Devons occupy a place 
 not higher than medium. 
 
 (2) Their want of size is against them in rich pastoral 
 and arable sections, and 
 
 (3) Their qualities being only medium in the dairy, they 
 are not often preferred to the distinctive dairy breeds for dairy 
 uses, while 
 
 (4) It is probably true that less effort has been made to 
 popularize them than in the case of other breeds introduced 
 somewhat early. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) The relatively small bodies of the Devons and their 
 active habits and good grazing qualities adapt them to locali- 
 ties where the land is broken, and the soil possessed of but 
 moderate fertility, and 
 
 (2) Their fair milking qualities fit them for situations 
 where the arable portions of the land are small in proportion 
 to the pastoral, and where at the same time the system of 
 husbandry is of the mixed order. 
 
 (3) They are also better adapted to warm latitudes than 
 the heavier-bodied breeds. 
 
 III. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size they are considerably less than the Shorthorn 
 and Hereford, less than the Polled Aberdeen, and something 
 less than the Sussex and Galloway, but 
 
 (2) The size is largely dependent upon the strain, the 
 pasture, the breeding and the care. 
 
 IV. Milking qualities. 
 
 (i) Devons are noted rather for the quality than the 
 quantity of their milk. 
 
 (2) Their symmetry of form, their proverbial docility, 
 their well-shaped udders, their medium-sized teats, and their 
 good butter making properties all tend to make them favorites 
 in the dairy under the conditions of adaptation named above. 
 
 167 
 
l68 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) In this respect they are fair, but probably not quite 
 the equal of some of the heavier breeds that have been more 
 forced in feeding, and yet 
 
 (2) Their neat, pony-like frames will mature quickly 
 with good keep. 
 
 VI. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) The grazing qualities of Devons are of the first order, 
 owing 
 
 (2) To their muscularity, their activity, and to the inheri- 
 tance of the grazing habit. 
 
 (3) They readily obtain a good livelihood on lands where 
 the heavy-bodied breeds would probably fail, and when food 
 is plentiful they fatten quickly. 
 
 VII. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) They feed quickly in the stall, and make good gains 
 in proportion to the food consumed, but 
 
 (2) They cannot stand forcing for so long a period as 
 some of the other breeds. 
 
 (3) They lay on flesh evenly and smoothly, hence they 
 are not given to patchiness. 
 
 (4) The quality of the meat is excellent, and in the mar- 
 kets of Great Britain it fetches prices nearly as high, and, in 
 some instances, quite as high as those paid for Galloway and 
 West Highland beef. 
 
 (5) The meat is nicely veined and marbled, and is well 
 flavored, juicy, and of prime quality. 
 
 (6) A large proportion of roast meat is furnished, and 
 the offal is small in proportion to the weight of the carcass. 
 
 VIII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Devons are highly prepotent, owing to their inherent 
 vigor and to the long period during which they have been bred 
 pure. 
 
 (2) They should answer well for crossing upon common 
 stocks where the aim is to improve their easy keeping qualities 
 without impairing their butter producing powers. 
 
 (3) Such crossing should be confined within the limits of 
 adaptability suitable to the successful rearing of pure Devons. 
 
 (4) The grades from Devons are well adapted to the 
 home market, as they may be fattened at any age. 
 
 IX. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The natural conditions under which Devons are kept 
 are favorable to the development and maintenance of good 
 
DEVON CATTLE. 1 69 
 
 breeding qualities, hence we find those possessed by them in 
 at least a fair degree. 
 
 (2) Many of the females breed to an advanced age, as, 
 like all the grazing breeds, they are noted for their longevity. 
 
 X. Weak points. 
 
 (i) Their lack of size, which renders them less suitable 
 for exportation for beef. 
 
 (2) Their lack of supreme dairy qualities, which circum- 
 scribes the field of their adaptability in dairying. 
 
 XL Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) Devons are not nearly equal to Shorthorns in general 
 popularity and in size; they are also behind them in all-round 
 adaptability, and are not quite equal to them in maturing 
 qualities, in feeding qualities, and in the extent of the field 
 within which they are useful for crossing. 
 
 (2) In milking qualities they are not far different. 
 
 (3) In grazing qualities, in the quality of the meat, and 
 in breeding qualities they have a decided lead. 
 
LECTURE NO. 42. 
 
 DEVON CATTLE THEIR STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following scale of points was adopted 
 by the American Devon Cattle Club in 1886: 
 
 FOR cows. 
 
 COUNTS 
 
 (1) Head — Moderately long, with a broad, indented 
 
 forehead, tapering considerably toward the nos- 
 trils ; the nose of a flesh color, nostrils high and 
 open, the jaws clean, the eye bright, lively and 
 prominent, and surrounded by a flesh-colored 
 ring; throat clean, ears thin, the expression 
 gentle and intelligent ; horns matching, spread- 
 ing and gracefully turned up, of a waxy color, 
 tipped with a darker shade 8 
 
 (2) Neck — Upper line short, fine at head, widening 
 
 and deep at withers and strongly set to the 
 shoulder 4 
 
 (3) Shoulders — Fine, flat and sloping, with strong 
 
 arms and firm joints 4 
 
 (4) Chest — Deep, broad, and somewhat circular in 
 character ........ 8 
 
 (5) Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, nicely 
 
 arched, deep, with flanks fully developed . . 8 
 
 (6) Back — Straight and level from the withers to 
 
 the setting on of the tail, loin broad and full, 
 hips and rump of medium width, and on a level 
 with the back 16 
 
 (7) Hindquarters — Deep, thick and square . . 8 
 
 (8) Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line 
 with the belly and well up behind ; teats mod- 
 erately large and- squarely placed ... 20 
 
 (9) Tail — Well set on at a right angle with the 
 back, tapering, with a switch of white or roan 
 hair, and reaching the hocks . . . . 2 
 
 (10) Legs — Straight, squarely placed when viewed 
 from behind, not to cross or sweep in walking, 
 
 hoof well formed 4 
 
 170 
 
DEVON CATTLE. I7I 
 
 (11) Skin — Moderately thick and mellow, covered 
 
 with an abundant coat of rich hair of a red 
 color; no white spot admissible, except the 
 udder 8 
 
 (12) Siir^'— Minimum weight at three years old, 1000 
 
 pounds . . . . • • • • 2 
 
 (13) General Appearance — As indicated by stylish 
 
 and quick movement, form, constitution and 
 vigor, and the underline as nearly as possible 
 parallel with the line of the back .... 8 
 
 Perfection ^ . .100 
 
 FOR BULLS. 
 
 COUNTS 
 
 (i) //^a(/— Masculine, full and broad, tapering to- 
 ward the nose, which should be flesh-colored ; 
 nostrils high and open, muzzle broad, eyes full 
 and placid and surrounded with flesh-colored 
 ring, ears of medium size and thickness ; horns 
 medium size, growing at right angles from the 
 head, or slightly elevated, waxy at base, tipped 
 with a darker shade 10 
 
 (2) Cheek — Full and broad at root of tongue, throat 
 clean ......... 2 
 
 (3) Neck — Of medium length and muscular, widen- 
 
 ing from the head to the shoulders, and 
 strongly set on 4 
 
 (4) Shoulders — Fine, flat, sloping and well fleshed, 
 
 arms strong with firm joints .... 6 
 
 (5) Chest — Same as in female .... 10 
 
 (6) Ribs — Same as in female 10 
 
 (7) Back — Same as in female 20 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Same as in female . . .12 
 
 (9) Tail — Same as in female 2 
 
 (10) Legs — Short, then same as in femib . . .4 
 
 (11) Skin — Moderately thick and mellow, covered 
 
 with an abundant coat of rich hair of a red 
 color; no white spot admissible unless around 
 the purse ........ 8 
 
 (12) Size — Minimum weight at three years old 1400 
 
 pounds 4 
 
 (13) General Appearance — Same as in female . 8 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. Additional particulars submitted though 
 not given in the above scale : 
 
1^2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (i) Horns, somewhat of the semi-spiral upward and out- 
 ward curvature in the female. 
 
 (2) Withers, of medium width. 
 
 (3) Breast, full and somewhat rounded. 
 
 (4) Brisket, between the V-shape and round. 
 
 (5) Forearm, full and neat. 
 
 (6) Crops, full. 
 
 (7) Hooks and pin bones, not prominent. 
 
 (8) Thighs, full and straight. 
 
 (9) Twist, full rather than open. 
 
 (10) Milk veins, well developed. 
 
 (11) Limbs, inclining to fine and clean. 
 
 (12) Shape, parallelogrammic. 
 
 III. General Appearance — In general appear- 
 ance the Devon is neat, smooth, tidy and graceful in 
 form and movement. 
 
 IV. Compared with Shorthorns. 
 
 (i) Devons are smaller in form and limb, less broad 
 throughout and less massive. 
 
 (2) They are finer in the muzzle, more spiral and elevated 
 in horn curve and longer in the horns and something less 
 prominent at the angles. 
 
 (3) They are more active and sprightly in movement, and 
 
 (4) There are the differences in color. 
 
 V. Compared with Red Polls. 
 
 (i) They are a little smaller and somewhat more tidy in 
 form and limb, and 
 
 (2) They are more rounded in the breast, have a more 
 arched spring of rib and a rather more pronounced beef form. 
 
PART II 
 
 BREEDS OF SHEEP 
 
 LECTURE NO. i. 
 
 SHEEP THEIR INTRODUCTION INTO AMERICA. 
 
 I. The sheep (Oz'is) is a genus, or, according 
 to some authors, forms a group of genera of mam- 
 mals belonging to the family Bovidcc, and are Rum- 
 inants, of the Artiodactyle or pair-toed section of 
 the Ungulafa or hoofed mammals. 
 
 (i) As many as 21 dififerent wild species have been 
 enumerated. 
 
 (2) They are indigenous only to Asia, Europe, Africa 
 and the western mountain ranges of America. 
 
 II. They have been grouped under two sub- 
 genera, viz. the Oz'is and the Miisinwn. 
 
 (i) Of the former, twelve species have been named, of 
 which ten are in Asia and two in North America. 
 
 (2) Of the latter, seven species have been mentioned, of 
 which one inhabits the mountains in certain islands of the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 (3) In Asia these are generally spoken of as the Argali, 
 or wild sheep, in North America as the Rocky Mountain 
 sheep or Bighorn, and in Europe as the Musimon. 
 
 III. Wild sheep are essentially inhabitants of 
 mountainous districts. 
 
 (i) They never from choice frequent level deserts, open 
 plains, or dense forests or swamps, and 
 
 (2) These natural instincts should be recognized in their 
 domestication. 
 
 IV. It is uncertain whether the various species 
 of sheep now under domestication were derived from 
 
 ^7?> 
 
174 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 any of the existing wild forms, or from the cross- 
 ing of some of these, or from some now extinct 
 species. 
 
 (i) It was a domestic animal in Asia and Europe before 
 the dawn of history, but was unknown as such in America 
 until after the Spanish conquest. 
 
 (2) It is now to be found wherever there is a settled 
 agriculture, but 
 
 (3) Is much better adapted to the temperate than to the 
 torrid zone, unless when reared on mountain ranges. 
 
 V. The variations of external character in 
 sheep include the following : 
 
 (i) The number of the horns, which, in many species, 
 are entirely wanting, while others have no fewer than eight. 
 
 (2) The arching of the nasal bones. 
 
 (3) The form and length of the ears. 
 
 (4) The length of the tail. 
 
 (5) The development of fat at each side of its root, and 
 within the tail. 
 
 (6) The color markings of the face and legs, and 
 
 (7) The color, length and quality of the wool. 
 
 VI. Sheep are apparently not indigenous to 
 the British islands, as 
 
 (i) No fossil remains have been found in the as yet 
 explored true Tertiary beds, hence 
 
 (2) It is probable they were brought from the east in 
 pre-historic times. 
 
 VI I. The breeds of sheep now most in favor 
 in Great Britain show great diversity in size, form 
 and general characteristics, owing 
 
 (i) To a difference in origin. 
 
 (2) To a difference in climate and food, and 
 
 (3) To the nature of the breeding and variations in arti- 
 ficial treatment. 
 
 VIII. Although domesticated sheep as they 
 existed in Europe were not found in America at the 
 time of its discovery, yet 
 
 (i) In South America four forms of the genus Auchenia 
 were found, viz., the Guanaco and Vicuna, and the Llama 
 and Alpaca. 
 
SHEEP. 175 
 
 (a) The former were known only in the wild, and th'^ 
 latter in the domesticated state. 
 
 (b) These all furnished wool for clothing, and the Llama 
 was also used as a beast of burden, and 
 
 (2) In North America there existed the mountain sheep, 
 or Bighorn (Ovis montana), and a sub-species, the Ovis mon- 
 tana dalli. 
 
 (a) The former, commonly called the Rocky Mountain 
 sheep, is found on both slopes of the Rocky mountains, from 
 the head waters of the Saskatchewan on the north, down into 
 Mexico on the south. 
 
 (b) The latter, commonly called the Alaskan sheep, is 
 found on the slopes of the mountains from within the Arctic 
 circle southward, nearly as far as the head of Bristol bay. 
 
 IX. Domesticated sheep were first introduced 
 into North America by the Spaniards in 1493. 
 
 (i) From these are descended the immense native stocks 
 of Mexico, New Mexico and Texas and other parts of the 
 continent first settled by the Spaniards. 
 
 (2) It is now pretty certainly proven that these were not 
 Merinos, but were descended from the common sheep of 
 Spain. 
 
 (3) In 1736, they numbered more than 1,500,000 head in 
 the Mexican state of Nuevo Leon. 
 
 (4) They were taken to California in 1773, and in 1825 
 the Catholic church owned 1,003,970 head, and the ranchers 
 probably as many. 
 
 X. Sheep were introduced into South America 
 from the Spanish settlements in Panama and 
 Mexico. 
 
 (i) They were taken to Peru prior to 1550. 
 
 (2) From Peru they were taken to Chili about 1550, and 
 at a later period to Chuquisaca, and 
 
 (3) From Chuquisaca they were taken to Paraguay and 
 thence to the country of the La Plata. 
 
 XL Sheep were introduced into the EngHsh 
 colonies of North America soon after the settlement 
 of each. 
 
 (i) They reached Jamestown, Va., in 1609. 
 
 (2) They were first brought to New York, then the New 
 Netherlands, in 1625, by the Dutch East India Company. 
 
 (3) They were first introduced into New Jersey from 
 Sweden in 1634, or shortly prior to that date. 
 
176 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (4) They were brought into Massachusetts between 1624 
 and 1629. 
 
 XII. In the English speaking colonies, the 
 sheep were essentially British in origin. 
 
 (i) They were much inferior to the stocks of the 
 present day. 
 
 (2) The extension of the industry was much retarded for 
 a time through losses from wolves, thefts by the Indians, and 
 European enactments forbidding the manufacture of wool. 
 
 XIII. Sheep were introduced into various 
 provinces of Canada at an early period in the settle- 
 ment of each. 
 
 (i) They have been bred in these for both wool and 
 mutton uses. 
 
 (2) Ontario is justly noted for the many varieties of sheep 
 found there and for their high average in quality. 
 
LECTURE NO. 2. 
 
 SHEEP THEIR IMPROVEMENT AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 I. From the very earliest ages, sheep-rearing 
 has been one of the most important and profitable 
 industries engaging the attention of mankind, but 
 
 (i) Until the more recent centuries they were kept for 
 the wool and milk which they furnished, rather than for their 
 fles.h, hence 
 
 (2) The improvement of tneir flesh-producing properties 
 received but little attention prior to the eighteenth century. 
 
 II. The improvement of the fleece engaged the 
 attention of mankind at a very early period. 
 
 (i) Woolen goods were manufactured in Asia at least 2000 
 years before the Christian era, and 
 
 (2) While Rome was yet a republic the fine wools of 
 Italy were improved to a degree unexcelled by us at the pres- 
 ent day. 
 
 III. The improvement of the fleece first seri- 
 ously engaged the attention of the people of the 
 United States. 
 
 (i) The object was to enable them to manufacture a fine 
 class of goods for home consumption, and 
 
 (2) The breed introduced to enable them to attain this 
 end was the Spanish Merino. 
 
 IV. The people of Great Britain and Canada 
 have rather sought improvement in the carcass. 
 
 (i) They have attained this end largely through selec- 
 tion, crossing and improved keep, and 
 
 (2) In realizing it they have in every instance effected 
 improvement in the wool. 
 
 V. Robert Bakewell of Dishley Hall, Leices- 
 tershire, was the first great improver of the modern 
 breeds of sheep. 
 
 12 177 
 
I/O THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (i) He began this work about 1760, and originated what 
 is now known as the New or Improved Leicester breed. 
 
 (2) The material chosen by him was taken from the 
 Dishley or old Leicester breed. 
 
 VI. The improvements he sought were more 
 perfect symmetry, aptitude to fatten, early maturity, 
 smaller bone and improved in quality, an increased 
 quantity of improved flesh and a diminution in the 
 quantity of offal. 
 
 (i) In accomplishing these objects he also incidentally 
 secured a larger quantity of more valuable wool. 
 
 (2) He effected improvement through the selection of 
 the most perfect specimens of the medium types, judiciously 
 crossed and intercrossed for a long term of years. 
 
 VII. The aim at the present time in the United 
 States is to improve the mutton qualities of the sheep 
 now in the country, and the means more commonly 
 resorted to in eft'ecting this improvement include the 
 following : 
 
 (i) Crossing successively upon these, rams of one or 
 other of the improved mutton breeds. 
 
 (2) Selecting with much care breeding stocks from the 
 progeny, and 
 
 (3) Giving better food and providing better shelter. 
 
 VI I I. Nearly all the improved breeds now in 
 the United States, except the Merino, were imported 
 from Great Britain, the country in which they 
 originated. 
 
 (i) They are sometimes classified as the heavy breeds, 
 the down breeds and the mountain breeds, but 
 
 (2) This classification is not sufficiently concise or 
 complete. 
 
 (3) A more common classification is based upon the 
 character of the wool. 
 
 IX. The principal breeds imported into North 
 America may be classified as fine wooled, medium 
 wooled and coarse wooled. 
 
SHEEP. 179 
 
 (i) Of these the fine wooled breeds are the American 
 Merino, the Delaine Merino and the Rambouillet, fine probably 
 in the order named. 
 
 (2) The medium or middle wooled breeds are the South- 
 down, Tunis, Dorset, Shropshire, Cheviot, Suffolk Down, 
 Hampshire Down and Oxford Down, fine probably in the 
 order named. 
 
 (3) The coarse wooled breeds are the Leicester, Lincoln 
 and Cotswold, fine probably in the order named. 
 
 X. Exception may be taken to the above classi- 
 fication, owing 
 
 (i) To the influences of climate and food in producing 
 variations in the same breed, and 
 
 (2) To the differences arising from variations in the 
 tastes of the breeders and a want of harmony in their aims, 
 hence 
 
 (3) It is not improbable that the above classification, 
 though accepted now, may have to be somewhat modified in 
 the future, and 
 
 (4) The same may be said of the average weights of car- 
 cass and fleece submitted when discussing the various breeds. 
 
 XL Other breeds. 
 
 (i) The Black-faced Highland and Wensleydale breeds 
 have been introduced into the United States, but only in lim- 
 ited numbers. 
 
 (2) The Black-faced Highland is a mountain breed from 
 the highlands of Scotland, small, active and hardy, horned 
 in the rams, spotted on the head and legs, covered with a long 
 fleece of coarse carpet wool, and produces mutton unexcelled 
 in quality. 
 
 (3) The Wensleydales are a large and heavy-bodied breed 
 from the north of England, with long and coarse wool which 
 hangs in spirals. 
 
 (4) As public records are not as yet kept of those inter- 
 esting breeds in the United States, they will not be further 
 noticed in this work. 
 
LECTURE NO. 3. 
 
 SHEP:P LEADING ESSENTIALS AS TO FORM 
 
 AND WOOL. 
 
 I. The mutton breeds all possess the same 
 
 leading essentials as to form. These include : 
 
 (i) Width, depth and length of body and compactness 
 of frame. 
 
 (2) The cylindrical shape which is the outcome of plump 
 shoulders and hips, and well sprung ribs, and 
 
 (3) A fleece of even length and quality, covering all parts 
 of the body. 
 
 II. The minor points of difference include : 
 
 (i) Variations in size of carcass and bone. 
 
 (2) Variations in the length of the leg and of the coup- 
 ling of the body. 
 
 (3) The color of the head and legs, and the amount of 
 covering on them. 
 
 (4) The form and carriage of the head. 
 
 (5) The length, shape and carriage of the ears, and 
 
 (6) The length and density of the fleece and the char- 
 acter of the staple. 
 
 III. Leading essentials of the rams of the 
 mutton breeds as to form. 
 
 (i) Sice — Medium to large for the breed, and the bone 
 medium to strong, but not coarse. 
 
 (2) Outline — The body should be smooth, compact and 
 strong, cylindrical in shape and square at the ends. 
 
 (3) Head — Medium to strong in size, short rather than 
 long, but varying with the breed, and carried proudly. 
 
 (a) Nose and muzzle tapering, but not too fine. 
 
 (b) Nostrils, wide and expanded. 
 
 (c) Forehead and poll, wide. 
 
 (d) Eye, large, full, bright and daring. 
 
 (e) Ear, medium in size and thickness for the breed, 
 broad rather than long, erect rather than drooping, and pos- 
 sessed of lively play. 
 
 180 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 l8l 
 
 (4) A^^ri^— Short rather than long, not coarse, and car- 
 rying the head well erect. 
 
 (a) It should not be coarse at the junction with the head, 
 and should be free from throatiness. 
 
 (b) It should be round rather than flat, and should 
 increase in width laterally and underneath as it recedes from 
 the head. 
 
 (c) It should fit into the withers evenly above, and into 
 the shoulders evenly and strongly at the sides and underneath, 
 the blending being imperceptible. 
 
 (5) Body — Long, wide, deep, round and equally well bal- 
 ancea before and behind. 
 
 (a) Back, level, wide, well fleshed and slightly rounded 
 outward, with the spinal column hidden and even depressed 
 from the loin to the tailhead. 
 
 (b) Loin, broad and full. 
 
 (c) Underline, straight. 
 
 (d) Breast, broad, deep, full, massive. 
 
 (e) Brisket, broad and well rounded. 
 
 (f) Shoulder, large, plump and smooth, wide above, 
 rounded out from above, forward and below to the center, 
 well filled before and behind, and well covered. 
 
 (g) Forearm, strong and well developed. 
 (h) Crops, well filled. 
 
 (i) Girth, good around the heart, and about equally good 
 at the hind flank. 
 
 (j) Coupling, short rather than long. 
 
 (k) Ribs, well sprung from backbone, nicely arched and 
 deep, not distant from one another and coming well forward 
 and backward. 
 
 (I) Hindquarters, long, broad and deep, rounded out from 
 above and behind toward the center of the hip, and broad at 
 the buttock. 
 
 (m) Twist, well filled and placed low. 
 
 (n) Hind flank, well filled outwardly, low and thick. 
 
 (o) Thigh, broad and well filled within and without. 
 
 (p) Tail, set on smoothly and on a line with the back. 
 
 (q) Skin, a rich pink in color, and possessed of good 
 handling qualities. 
 
 (6) Wool — The whole body should be well covered with 
 wool, characteristic of the breed. 
 
 (a) It should be of uniform length and texture, and 
 
 (b) Possessed of all the qualities essential in first-class 
 wool (see Note V. below). 
 
 (7) Legs — Short, straight and strong, wide apart and yet 
 well under the body and standing firmly on hoofs of good 
 shape and quality. 
 
 (8) Appearance — The appearance should be animated 
 and the carriage easy, proud and graceful. 
 
1 82 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. The ewes of the mutton breeds possess the 
 same leading essentials as to form as the rams, with 
 the following points of difference : 
 
 (i) They are not so large in frame, are finer in bone and 
 are more roomy in the barrel or coupling. 
 
 (2) The head is smaller and finer and is carried less 
 proudly. 
 
 (3) The neck is longer and finer, more especially where 
 it joins the head. 
 
 (4) The twist is not quite so well filled, and 
 
 (5) The wool is finer in the fiber, at least in some 
 instances. 
 
 V. The following include the more important 
 of the characteristics of a good fleece : 
 
 (i) Good length, strength and sufficient density of staple 
 for the breed. 
 
 (2) Even distribution over the body, both as to length of 
 staple and quality in the wool. 
 
 (3) A fine bright uniformly lustrous appearance. 
 
 (4) Absence of cloudiness. 
 
 (5) Freedom from kemp and cot and 
 
 (6) The absence of all such impurities as sand, burs and 
 chaff. 
 
FINE WOOLED BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 4. 
 
 THE AMERICAN MERI-NO ORIGIN AND HISTORY^ 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 I. The Merino sheep, now found in various 
 countries, came originally from Spain, but there is 
 much clifierence of opinion as to the exact origin 
 of the Spanish Merino. 
 
 (i) Even anterior to the Christian era, fine wooled sheep 
 abounded in Spain, the fleeces of which were much prized for 
 purposes of manufacture, and 
 
 (2) It has been claimed that these were improved by 
 sheep brought from Tarentum ju the first century. 
 
 II. For several centuries past, the Merinos in 
 Spain have been divided into provincial varieties, and 
 these again into sub-varieties, or great permanent 
 flocks, usually termed Cabanas. 
 
 (i) These Cabanas were again known as Transhumantes, 
 or travehng flocks, and Estantes, or stationary flocks. 
 
 (2) Prominent among the sub-varieties were tlie Infan- 
 tadoes, Paulars, Escurials, Negrettis, Montarcos, Guadaloupes 
 and Aguirres. 
 
 III. Merinos have been extensively imported 
 into France, Germany, the United States, Australia 
 and other countries. 
 
 (i) They were imported into Saxony in 1765, where the 
 wool has been brought to an unprecedented condition of fine- 
 ness, but at the expense of size of carcass and constitution. 
 
 183 
 
o 
 c 
 < 
 
 
 Lu 
 
 00 
 
THE AMERICAN MERINO. 185 
 
 (2) They were imported into France in 1786, and there 
 they have been much improved, more especially in size and 
 in weight of fleece. 
 
 (3) They were imported into Australia about the begin- 
 ning of the century and now they are more numerous there 
 than in any other country. 
 
 IV. The first importation of the Spanish 
 Merino was made into England by George III in 
 1 79 1, but 
 
 (i) Though backed by numerous and influential patrons 
 of the breed, they have never come into general favor, owing 
 . (2) To their deficiency in mutton qualities. 
 
 (3) For the same reason they have never become popular 
 in Canada. 
 
 V. Importations into the United States. 
 
 (i) The first traceable importation of IMerinos into the 
 United States was made by Col. David Humphreys of Derby, 
 Conn., in 1802. 
 
 (2) Other importations followed quickly, and on the dis- 
 persion of many of the Spanish flocks during the wars with 
 the French, many thousands were imported, more especially 
 in 1810 and 1811. 
 
 VI. All the varieties and sub-varieties of 
 Merinos in the United States are of Spanish origin. 
 
 (i) They may be classified as xA.merican Merino, Delaine 
 Merino and Rambouillets or French Merino. 
 
 (2) The American Merinos are possessed of all the valu- 
 able essentials of the Spanish Merino and these have been 
 greatly improved upon. 
 
 (3) The Delaine families are offshoots of the American 
 Merinos and have a longer fleece and an improved mutton 
 form. 
 
 (4) The Rambouillets are the offshoots of Spanish 
 Merinos, much increased in size by long years of careful 
 breeding. 
 
 VII. Improvements made in the United 
 States. 
 
 (i) The Merino has been greatly improved in size, form, 
 mutton qualities and weight of fleece since it was first 
 imported into America. 
 
 (2) This improvement has been brought about through 
 selection, breeding and improved conditions of keep. 
 
lS6 the study of breeds. 
 
 (3) Prominent among the early improvers stand the names 
 of Stephen Atwood, Woodbury, Conn. ; Edwin Hammond, 
 Middlebury, Vt., and the Hon. C. Rich, Shoreham, Vt. 
 
 VIII. Organizations. 
 
 (i) Probably more than a dozen organizations have been 
 formed in the United States in the interests of American 
 Merinos. 
 
 (2) Several of these are local, since they restrict registra- 
 tion to a single state. 
 
 (3) The number of these organizations and the conflict 
 of interest which of necessity has grown out of them has in 
 some instances been harmful rather than helpful to the breed. 
 
 IX. Distribution of Merinos in the United 
 States. 
 
 (i) Merinos and their grades are now bred numerously 
 in almost every state and territory in the Union. 
 
 (2) About a quarter of a century ago they were thought 
 to comprise 95 per cent of all the sheep in the United States. 
 
 (3) During recent years the relative proportion of Merinos 
 has been greatly reduced by the increased attention given to 
 the production of sheep of the mutton breeds. 
 
 (4) While they are found almost everywhere they prevail 
 most in states where the conditions, food and climate are less 
 propitious, as, for instance, in the range states. 
 
 X. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) It is almost impossible to state accurately the number 
 of registered Merinos, because of the decadent condition of 
 some of the organizations. 
 
 (2) The increased demand during recent years for sheep 
 of the mutton types and for wool longer and less fine than the 
 Spanish Merinos furnish, has given them a less prominent 
 place relatively than they formerly occupied. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Merinos are among the lightest of the pedigreed 
 breeds in the United States, and 
 
 (2) The average weight of the rams in fairly good flesh 
 may be put at about 140 to 17.S pounds and of the ewes at about 
 90 to 125 pounds, but the weights of Merinos vary much with 
 variations in environment. 
 
THE AMERICAN MERINO. 187 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) In general adaptability no breed on the continent has 
 shown itself equally flexible, and this will apply both to climate 
 and food products, but 
 
 (2) They are specially fitted to "rough it" under con- 
 ditions of privation as to food and shelter. 
 
 (3) They have a higher adaptation to the production of 
 wool than of mutton, but their mutton producing qualities are 
 being continually improved. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) Though improved in this respect, they are yet behind 
 the other pedigreed breeds in early maturity, but on the other 
 hand they are ahead of them in longevity. 
 
 (2) An average Merino does not become fully matured 
 until between three and four years old. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) As grazers they are entitled to a first place. 
 
 (2) They will eat almost any kind of herbage, however 
 dry, in the summer season. 
 
 (3) Their active habits peculiarly adapt them for grazing 
 on broken lands and wide ranges, where they must travel much 
 to secure their food. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) In feeding qualities Merinos are not equal to some of 
 the other breeds, as they cannot be made to gain so quickly 
 as a rule, but 
 
 (2) They feed better probably than any breed when con- 
 fined to a ration of dry hay and corn. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) Much of the meat of the pure Merino is lacking in 
 tenderness, juiciness and flavor, and it has much bone in pro- 
 portion to the meat, but 
 
 (2) The quality of the meat has greatly improved during 
 recent years. 
 
 VIL Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) The Merino has been found peculiarly valuable for 
 crossing upon common grades, where more and finer wool 
 was wanted, but 
 
 (2) When crossed upon pure-breds, improvement in 
 wool production is often counteracted by impaired mutton 
 qualities. 
 
t88 the study of breeds. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Merinos are not noted for their prolificacy, nor are 
 the dams really first-class milkers or mothers, but 
 
 (2) They breed profitably to a greater age than some 
 other breeds. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The pure Merino produces beyond all comparison the 
 finest wool grown on this continent. 
 
 (2) It also produces the heaviest fleece in proportion to 
 the live weight of the animal. 
 
 (3) The average weight of the fleece from the matured 
 ram may be put at fifteen to twenty pounds and of the matured 
 ewe at twelve to fifteen pounds, according to type. 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 I. In the absence of an authorized scale of 
 points the following is submitted : 
 
 (i) Si::e — Medium for the breed, with a decided leaning 
 to increase. 
 
 (2) General Outline — Parallelogrammic, but a nearer 
 approach to the cylindrical would be desirable. 
 
 (3) Head — Medium in size, but strong in the ram, broad 
 above the eyes, wedge-shaped and covered nearly all over with 
 wool which almost hides the eyes. 
 
 (a) Nose, short and wrinkly. 
 
 (b) Ears, small and of moderate erection, with a coat of 
 soft, mossy hair about half way to the roots, the remainder 
 covered with wool. 
 
 (c) Horns, in the rams only, of considerable size, angular 
 at the base and projecting spirally outward. 
 
 (4) Neck — Inclining to short and thick, almost throaty, 
 especially in the rams. 
 
 (a) Flatness in the neck should be avoided. 
 
 (b) In both sexes it is frequently wrinkled, but especially 
 in the rams, and both have more or less of dewlap. 
 
 (5) Back — Wide, straight and level. 
 
 (a) High withers and a high pelvis are to be guarded 
 against, and 
 
 (b) A sharp spinal column is equally objectionable. 
 
 (6) Forequarters — Of equal development with the hind- 
 quarters. 
 
 (a) Withers not narrow nor sharp, as they are in some 
 instances. 
 
 (b) Shoulders, plump and rounded out and blending 
 nicely with the neck. 
 
THE AMERICAN MERINO. 189 
 
 (c) Chest, wide. 
 
 (d) Breast, wide, deep and at least moderately full. 
 
 (e) Brisket, low, wide and rounded and extending well 
 in front. 
 
 (7) Barrel — Moderately long and roomy. 
 
 (a) Ribs, round and deep, though frequently lacking in 
 spring, which is of course objectionable. 
 
 (b) Crops, full and even. 
 
 (c) Flanks, full and deep. 
 
 (d) Heart girth, good. 
 (c) Underline, straight. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long, deep, wide. 
 
 (a) Hips, large and full. 
 
 (b) Crupper, straight, not drooped, nor sloping outwardly. 
 
 (c) Thighs, plump. 
 
 (d) Buttock, wide, straight. 
 
 (e) Twist, well filled and low. 
 
 (9) Legs — Short, strong and straight. 
 
 (a) They should be placed wide apart and should stand 
 firmly. 
 
 (b) The wool, which covers them to the hoof, makes 
 them appear larger than they are. 
 
 (10) Skin — Thin, mellow, elastic, loose and of a rich rose 
 or pink color. 
 
 (a) Excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin is not so 
 much encouraged now, but 
 
 (b) Heavy neck folds on the rams are still in favor with 
 many. 
 
 (11) Fleece — The fleece should contain fine wool from two 
 to three inches long, evenly distributed and even in quality. 
 
 (a) It should present a dense, smooth, even surface or 
 exterior, opening only in the natural cracks which separate 
 the masses. 
 
 (b) It should stand at right angles to the skin. 
 
 (c) It should possess even strength of fiber from end 
 to end. 
 
 (d) It should be wrinkled, curved or crimped, and should 
 be highly elastic. 
 
 (e) Regularity and beauty of curvature are considered 
 important. 
 
 (/) Hairs growing up through the wool in any part is 
 quite inadmissible. 
 
 11. General Appearance — In general appear- 
 ance the American Merino is a somewhat small and 
 deep-bodied sheep of only moderate width, encased 
 in a fleece of very fine, close, short and dense wool 
 
IpO THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 and carrying more or less of wrinkles or folds in the 
 skin, especially about the neck and breast. 
 
 III. Weaknesses to be particularly guarded 
 against in selecting Merinos : 
 
 (i) Lack of width and flatness of rib. 
 
 (2) A V-shaped brisket and narrow chest. 
 
 (3) Legs standing closely together. 
 
 (4) Excessive wrinkling or folding of the skin. 
 
LECTURE NO. 5. 
 
 DELAINE MERINOS ORIGIN AND HISTORY^ CHAR- 
 ACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. Delaine sheep are simply American Merinos 
 with a larger carcass, a better mutton form, fewer 
 wrinkles on the body and a longer fleece of wool. 
 
 (i) They are of several snb-varieties, all of which have 
 been evolved from the American Merino by selection and 
 careful breeding. 
 
 (2) They are a creation of the skill of breeders operating 
 more particularly in Ohio and Pennsylvania. 
 
 II. Origin of the name. 
 
 (i) The name originated from the class of goods known 
 as delaines, for the manufacture of which the wool of these 
 sheep has been found eminently adapted. 
 
 (2) Delaines, i. c untwilled dress goods, were originally 
 all wool, but are now manufactured with cotton warp and 
 woolen filling. 
 
 III. The principal varieties. 
 
 (i) No classification of Delaine Merino sheep can be 
 made at the present time that can be looked upon as complete 
 or final because of the transition that is yet apparently uncom- 
 pleted in some of the types, but 
 
 (2) It would probably be correct to say that the chief of 
 the types, or sub-types, always designated Delaine, are the 
 Standard, the National and the Improved Delaines respec- 
 tively, and 
 
 (3) The chief of the types, or sub-types, essentially 
 Delaine in their leading characteristics, but not always so 
 designated, are the Black Top Spanish Merino, the Improved 
 Black Top Merino and the Dickinson Merino, respectively. 
 
 (4) The distinctions between these two classes are such 
 as relate to size, character of the fleece, the absence or presence 
 of wrinkles and horns, and blood elements varying in what 
 may be termed purity in descent from more or less distin- 
 guished ancestry. 
 
 192 
 
DELAINE MERINOS. I93 
 
 (a) The distinctive Delaine Merinos have horns, in the 
 rams, and more or less of wrinkles or folds on the neck and 
 breast. 
 
 (b) The Black Top varieties have horns in the rams, but 
 no wrinkles, and are further characterized by an abundant 
 closure of fleece of a black color. 
 
 (c) The Dickinson Merinos have no horns or wrinkles, 
 and they are further distinguished by size and length of fleece. 
 
 IV. In all these types the improvement sought 
 related chiefly to size, form, smoothness, wool pro- 
 duction and breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The aim was to secure a considerably greater size 
 and weight than that possessed by the average American 
 Merino. 
 
 (2) The form was broadened and deepened, that is to 
 say, it was more conformed to the mutton producing types. 
 
 (3) The wrinkles and folds were entirely removed, or 
 left only on the neck and breast. 
 
 (4) The length of the wool was increased and the weight 
 of fleece preserved, or measurably so, without an excess of 
 
 ■yolk in it, and with but little diminution in fineness and 
 density. 
 
 (5) More regular breeding was secured with an increased 
 milk production. 
 
 V. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Improvement was almost entirely brought about 
 through breeding, selection and feeding. 
 
 (2) In some instances line breeding was resorted to, but 
 not in all. 
 
 (3) The selection had a careful regard to all the ends 
 sought, but especial prominence was given to the wool, which 
 changes so much more slowly than the form. 
 
 VL When improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) The improvement in the types designated Delaines 
 has been chiefly effected within the past half century, though 
 
 (2) Some of the foundation flocks in the less improved 
 form were started earlier. 
 
 VIL Organizations. 
 
 (i) The associations formed in the interest of the types 
 denominated Delaine are known as the Standard Delaine, the 
 National Delaine and the Improved Delaine. 
 
 (2) These have only been organized during recent years. 
 
 (3) Each has a scale of points, keeps records and issues 
 flock books. 
 
 13 
 
1^4 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 VIII. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Delaines are found most numerously in the states of 
 Pennsylvania, Ohio. Iowa, Michigan and New York, and 
 probably in the order named. 
 
 (2) They have also been introduced into quite a number 
 of the other states. 
 
 IX, Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) The Standard Delaine and National Delaine associa- 
 tions have registered 24,700 animals, of which 9,500 are rams 
 and 15,200 ewes. 
 
 (2) The three associations named in Note VII have 
 probably registered considerably over 30,000 animals. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size., 
 
 (i) They are larger and heavier than the American 
 Merino, but not so large or so heavy as the Rambouillets. 
 
 (2) The average weight of the matured rams in the vari- 
 ous types when in good flesh may be put at 140 to 190 pounds, 
 and of the matured ewes at 100 to 150 pounds. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) They are adapted virtually to the same kinds of pas- 
 tures as the' American Merinos, though their larger frames 
 call for better grazing. 
 
 (2) They are relatively better adapted to arable conditions 
 than the American IMerino, but are perhaps not quite equal to 
 the former in hardihood. 
 
 III. Early maturity. 
 
 (i) In early maturing Qualities they are something of an 
 improvement on the American Merino, Ijut are not quite equal 
 to some of the Down breeds. 
 
 (2) The lambs can. however, be made ready for market 
 within a few months of the date of birth, where this may be 
 desired. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are good in the Delaines, but they have not 
 quite the same rustling qualities as the American Merino. 
 
 (2) The latter will thrive better on scant supplies of 
 herbage, but the former will give returns more satisfactory 
 where food is abundant. 
 
DELAINE MERINOS. 195 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The feeding qualities of Delaines are at least equal 
 to those of any of the Merino families, if not indeed 
 superior, but 
 
 (2) As yet it can scarcely be said that they feed to so fine 
 a finish as the Down breeds. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The mutton has no superior among the Merino 
 families. 
 
 (2) The improved mutton form which they possess is 
 reflected in the excellent quality of the mutton which they 
 furnish and in the fair proportion of the dressed meat in the 
 carcass. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) They have special adaptation for being crossed upon 
 grade stocks where dense and fine wool is wanted and where 
 at least fair mutton qualities are to be maintained. 
 
 (2) At the present time the Delaine cross is very popular 
 on western ranges, where the average fleece has become too 
 light and open. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These, it is claimed, are superior to those in the 
 American Merino, since the breeders have carefully sought 
 improvement in this direction. 
 
 (2) The milking qualities have also shared in the 
 improvement thus secured. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The fleece in the matured ram well kept should 
 average in the various types about twelve to eighteen pounds 
 and in the matured ewe about nine to fifteen pounds. 
 
 (2) The wool is fine and scours well, since the yolk in it, 
 though plentiful, is not excessive. 
 
 (3) It should not be less than three inches in length, but 
 is usually considerably longer. 
 
 X. Compared with American Merinos. 
 
 (i) Delaine Merinos are considerably larger and heavier, 
 have higher adaptation for arable conditions, mature some- 
 what more quickly, make better mutton, are superior in 
 crossing for mutton production, are somewhat ahead in 
 breeding qualities and have a longer and nearly equally heavy 
 fleece of wool, which loses less in scouring. 
 
196 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) American Merinos are possessed of somewhat supe- 
 rior ruggedness, have a wider adaptation for grazing, fare 
 better on indifferent food supplies summer and winter, are 
 superior for crossing where closeness of fine wool and highest 
 hardihood are to be maintained, and have on the whole a 
 shorter and finer fleece of wool and heavier in proportion to 
 the live weight of the animals. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following- is the scale of points drawn 
 up by the Standard Delaine Spanish Merino Sheep 
 Breeders' Association : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Pure Merino Blood, which must be established 
 
 by certificate ....... — 
 
 (2) Constitution, indicated by a deep chest, long rib 
 well arched, giving heart and lung room, with 
 great digestive capacity 20 
 
 (3) Fleece XX and Delaine Wool — This i dudes 
 the quantity and quality as shown by weight of 
 fleece, the length and strength of staple, crimp, 
 fineness and trueness of fiber . . . .10 
 
 (4) Density of fleece 3 
 
 (5) Evenness of surface 3 
 
 (6) Evenness of crimp 3 
 
 (7) Length of fiber . . . . . . .2 
 
 (8) Free Floiving Oil of the best quality and the 
 right quantity to protect the sheep and preserve 
 the fleece 9 
 
 (9) Head, medium size. Ewes showing a feminine 
 appearance ; rams, a masculine with properly 
 turned horns . 4 
 
 (10) Eyes, bright, prominent and well set apart, with 
 thick, soft eyelid 3 
 
 (11) Nose, short, broad with well expanded nostrils, 
 skin thick and covered with a thick, furry coat- 
 ing, joining the wool one inch below the eyes 4 
 
 (12) Ears, medium size, set well apart, thickly coated 2 
 
 (13) Neck, short on top, deep and strongly attached 
 to shoulders, tapering to head ; rams with a fold 
 across the breast, and deep neck ... 4 
 
 (14) Fleece, covering over the entire body, head and 
 legs ; skin thick and spongy .... 4 
 
 (15) Legs, short, strong and well apart ... 2 
 
 (16) Feet, neatly shaped, thin hoof, well 'set under 
 the leg 4 
 
 (17) Quarters, deep and well rounded; back, broad, 
 straight and strongly coupled to quarters . 10 
 
Delaine merinos. 197 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (18) Weight of Ezves at maturity, 100 pounds an 1 
 above; rams, 150 and above .... 8 
 
 (19) General Appearance, good carriage, bold and 
 vigorous style, symmetrical form ... 5 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. Scaling prior to registration. 
 
 (i) Before being admitted to registry the sheep must be 
 scaled, by a competent person, on blanks furnished by the 
 secretary. 
 
 (2) They cannot be recorded unless they scale 60 per cent 
 in every particular and 70 per cent in the total of points, but 
 
 (3) The scale of points given above does not apply to all 
 sheep of this class, since a standard of excellence has been 
 drawn up by some of the other Delaine associations. 
 
 III. General Appearance — In general appear- 
 ance Delaines are compact and strong in build, nearly 
 free from wrinkles and folds, covered with an even 
 and abundant fleece of wool, dark in color on the 
 outside, and possessed of a vigorous style and easy 
 carriage. 
 
 IV. Compared with American Merinos. 
 
 (i) Delaines are larger, more compact and symmetrical 
 in build, stronger in bone and possessed of better average 
 spring of rib. 
 
 (2) The limbs stand wider apart before and behind. 
 
 (3) They are more free from wrinkles, folds and dewlap. 
 
 (4) They have a longer fleece, equally well distributed 
 over the body, hvX not quite so fine nor so well glued together 
 on the surface, although 
 
 (5) These contrasts do not equally apply to all of the 
 improved varieties of the American Merino. 
 
LECTURE NO. 6. 
 
 RAMBOUILLETS ORIGIN AND HISTORY^ CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Rambouillets are the direct descendants of 
 the Spanish Merino, improved by more than a cen- 
 tury of careful breeding and selection. 
 
 (i) The improvement thus made was principally achieved 
 in France, hence the breed is frequently spoken of as the 
 French Merino, and 
 
 (2) This improvement relates chiefly to size, vigor, length 
 of wool and strength of texture in the same. 
 
 II. Where improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Until recent years the improvement of Rambouillets 
 has been effected almost entirely at the government farms in 
 France, and chiefly at Rambouillet, which gave the name to 
 the breed. 
 
 (2) The Royal flock at Rambouillet was established in 
 1786 by Louis XVI of France. 
 
 (3) In that year 383 animals were selected from the best 
 flocks of Spanish Merinos in Spain and brought to Ram- 
 bouillet, and a second importation was made in 1801. 
 
 (4) The ultimate object sought was to prevent Spain 
 from securing a monopoly in the manufacture of fine wool. 
 
 III. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) The improvement of Rambouillets has been brought 
 about by long years of careful breeding within the fold at 
 Rambouillet, by the most rigid selection and by liberal feeding. 
 
 (2) Much experimenting was done with a view to further 
 the ends sought. 
 
 IV. The extent of the improvement made. 
 
 (i) The mutton form has been greatly improved, also the 
 quality of the meat, and the weight of the carcass has been 
 
 198 
 
200 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 increased from 50 to 100 per cent over that of the old Spanish 
 Merino. 
 
 (2) Greater density has been secured in the fleece without 
 any deterioration in the quality of the wool, and its weight 
 has also been increased from 50 to 100 per cent. 
 
 (3) The stamina and breeding qualities have also been 
 greatly improved. 
 
 V. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets have been exported to many countries 
 in Europe, to the United States, Australia, Argentina and 
 New Zealand, and 
 
 (2) They have been thus introduced into these countries 
 chiefly to effect improvement in the wool product of other 
 classes of sheep. 
 
 VI. Introduction into the United States. 
 
 (i) From 1840 to i860 several importations were made 
 into the United States from France and were distributed 
 chiefly in Vermont, New York and Michigan. 
 
 (2) In the decade following the civil war, Rambouillets 
 in their purity, in a great measure, disappeared because of the 
 little premium put upon mutton qualities. 
 
 (3) Within the last two decades there has been a great 
 revival in importing and breeding Rambouillets. 
 
 VII. Crosses made. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets have been extensively used in crossing 
 on the Spanish Merino flocks, pure and graded, to secure 
 increased size and vigor. 
 
 (2) These crosses have been most extensively made in 
 California, Utah and Kansas. 
 
 (3) They have increased the length of the staple and also 
 the weight of the scoured fleece. 
 
 VIII. Introduction on Western ranges. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets are now in high favor for crossing upon 
 mixed types on the ranges of the west. 
 
 (2) The cross increases the weight of the fleece without 
 impairing the mutton qualities of range stocks or their hardi- 
 hood. 
 
 IX. Organizations. 
 
 (i) Associations have been formed for the protection of 
 Rambouillets on the continent of Europe and in the United 
 States. 
 
 (2) The American Rambouillet Sheep Breeders' Associa- 
 tion was organized at Pontiac, Mich., in 1889, 
 
RAMBOUILLETS. 20T 
 
 (3) In the first volume of the Record published in 1891, 
 Bernardin's history of the origin of the breed is published in 
 condensed form. 
 
 X. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets are already distributed more * or less 
 over nearly all the Northern and Middle states, from the 
 Atlantic to the Pacific, and they are now found in several of 
 the Southern states. 
 
 (2) They would seem to be most numerously kept in 
 Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania. 
 
 XL Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) There have been recorded in all about 9,000 animals, 
 of which approximately one-third are males. 
 
 (2) The number recorded would have been greater but 
 for the fact that many of the males sent to the western ranges 
 have not been recorded. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets are much the largest of the fine wooled 
 breeds, and they are also heavier than some of the middle 
 wooled breeds. 
 
 (2) The average weight of the rams at maturity when in 
 good flesh is about 175 to 225 pounds, and of the ewes about 
 125 to 175 pounds. 
 
 II. Adaptabihty. 
 
 (i) Because of their great hardihood they have much 
 adaptation to range conditions where the vegetation is not 
 sparse nor lacking in nutrition. 
 
 (2) For a similar reason they are admirably adapted to 
 arable conditions where valley and broken land alternate and 
 where much meat and fine wool are wanted. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) As with the other fine wooled breeds these are not 
 more than medium, but 
 
 (2) On the other hand they are noted for longevity. 
 
 (3) In many instances deterioration has not been observed 
 in the wool clip until beyond the age of ten years. 
 
 TV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are unexcelled by any breed with so large a 
 frame. 
 
202 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) They have the true Merino instinct for a variety of 
 plants, including some which are not relished by the mutton 
 breeds. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets will winter on coarser food products 
 than some other breeds. 
 
 (2) They will also fatten in good form, but must have 
 liberal feeding. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) While the quality of the meat is good it is not fully 
 equal to that of the mutton breeds, owing 
 
 (2) To more of coarseness and ranginess of frame. 
 
 VI T. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets are admirably adapted for crossing 
 upon range stock where the object is to secure a fairly large 
 carcass covered with a good heavy fleece of wool, so dense 
 that it will resist the influences of much exposure, but 
 
 (2) They should not be crossed on mutton breeds where 
 the highest quality of mutton is sought. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets breed regularly and are fairly good 
 nurses, but 
 
 (2) They are not distinguished for their prolificacy. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets produce a long, dense and heavy fleece 
 of fine wool with a sufficiency, but not an excess, of yolk and 
 possessed of good strength of fiber. 
 
 (2) The average weight of the unwashed fleece in matured 
 rams may be put at about fourteen to eighteen pounds, and in 
 ewes at about ten to fourteen pounds. 
 
 X. Compared with American Merinos. 
 
 (i) Rambouillets are much larger, have better mutton 
 form and better feeding qualities and a longer staple of wool. 
 
 (2) The American Merinos have a wider adaptation in 
 grazing, since they would maintain themselves under some 
 conditions where the larger Rambouillets would fail. 
 
 (3) In other respects they are very similar in their char- 
 acteristics. 
 
RAMBOUILLETS. 203 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 I. In the absence of an authorized scale of 
 points, the following is submitted : 
 
 (i) Size — Medium for the breed, but considerably larger 
 than in any of the other Merino families. 
 
 (2) General Outline — Large, strong of limb, and at least 
 fairly even and smooth. 
 
 (3) Head — Medium in size, wide at the poll and som.e- 
 what fine at the muzzle. 
 
 (a) It is completely covered with dense wool, except for 
 a short distance from the muzzle upward. 
 
 (b) Eye, large and clear, though closely surrounded with 
 wool. 
 
 (c) Ears, inclining to short, with outward and slightly 
 upward erection and covered with fine hair. 
 
 (d) Horns, in the male only, which, on leaving the poll, 
 make a backward, downward and forward semi-circular curve, 
 and then circle outward at the tips. 
 
 (4) Neck — Inclining to short and deep. 
 
 (a) It should blend evenly into the shoulders. 
 (h) Excessive dewlap and throatiness are to be guarded 
 against. 
 
 (5) Back — Broad, straight and of even width. 
 
 (a) Withers, wide and not sharp or elevated, as they 
 sometimes are. 
 
 (b) Loin, wide, strong. 
 
 (c) Pelvic arch, not elevated. 
 
 (6) Fore quarters — Fully equal to the hindquarters in 
 development. 
 
 (a) Shoulders, well rounded out, and not rough at the 
 points. 
 
 (b) Chest, wide and deep. 
 
 (c) Breast, wide, well forward and carrying one or more 
 folds or wrinkles, especially in the rams. 
 
 (d) Brisket, wide. 
 
 (e) Forearm, strong and well muscled. 
 
 (7) Barrel — Deep, inclining to long, but not really rangy. 
 
 (a) Ribs, deep and rounded rather than downward in 
 their spring. 
 
 (b) Crops, level and not sunken as they sometimes are. 
 
 (c) Fore and hind flanks, well down and full. 
 
 (d) Girth at heart and hind flank, good and about even. 
 
 (e) Underline, straight. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep, square behind. 
 
 (a) Hips, large and rounded on the side rather than 
 sloping. 
 
204 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (b) Crupper, creased, and possessed of moderate and 
 gradual downward slope. 
 
 (c) Thighs, broad and full. 
 
 (d) Twist, well down and full. 
 
 (9) Legs — Strong, straight and of but moderate length. 
 
 (a) They should be placed well under the body and wide 
 apart. 
 
 (b) Too much of length is to be guarded against. 
 
 ("lo^ Fleece — Long, fine, even in length and quality and 
 dense. 
 
 (a) The fiber should be strong, elastic, beautifully 
 crimped, not less than four inches long at one year, and should 
 stand at right angles to the body. 
 
 (b) When opened it should present a bright, .lustrous, oily 
 appearance. 
 
 (c) While the yolk or oil should be abundant, flakes and 
 scurf should be absent. 
 
 (d) It should cover every part except for a short distance 
 above the muzzle, the eyes and ears, and below the fetlock. 
 
 (e) Skin, pinkish or flesh-colored. 
 
 IT. General Appearance — The Rambouillet is 
 a tall, strong sheep, a little upstanding, only fairly 
 symmetrical in form and of easy action. 
 
 III. Compared with the American Merino. 
 
 (i) The Rambouillets are much taller, larger, heavier, 
 stronger limbed and are somewhat more rangy. 
 
 (2) They have a better mutton form and are also con- 
 siderably less wrinkled, and 
 
 (3) The wool is much longer, but is not quite so dense or 
 fine, and is much more free from excess of yolk. 
 
 IV. Compared with the Delaines. 
 
 (i) The Rambouillets are considerably taller, larger, 
 heavier and stronger limbed and are somewhat more rangy. 
 
 (2) They have a mutton form not quite so smooth or 
 refined. 
 
 (3) The wool of the two types is very similar in many 
 respects, but the Rambouillet fleece is not so heavy in propor- 
 tion to the size of the sheep. 
 
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THE MEDIUM WOOLED 
 BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 7. 
 
 SOUTHDOWN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHAR- 
 ACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Southdowns are so named from a long 
 range of chalky hills upon which they originally 
 pastured. 
 
 (i) These hills extend through the southern part of the 
 counties of Kent, Sussex, Hampshire and Dorsetshire. 
 
 (2) They are some sixty miles long and five or six miles 
 broad and are contiguous to the sea and also to vale land 
 capable of furnishing plentiful supplies of food. 
 
 (3) They have a dry soil and are covered v^ith a rich, 
 sweet, short, dense herbage. 
 
 II. On these hills the progenitors of the South- 
 downs have fed for many centuries. 
 
 (i) They are one of the smaller varieties of sheep 
 originally found in various parts of England, which were 
 characterized by dark faces and feet, and in some instances 
 by wool of the same character, and nearly all of which were 
 horned. 
 
 (2) Improvement in Southdowns was effected much 
 earlier than in any of the other dark-faced breeds. 
 
 III. External characters of the original South- 
 down. 
 
 (i) They were small in outline, long and thin in the neck, 
 narrow in the forequarters, high in the shoulder, sharp on the 
 back, low behind, flat in the rib and long though not coarse 
 in limb. 
 
 (2) The wool was short, fine and curling. 
 
 206 
 
SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 207 
 
 (3) It is thought originally they were horned, but none 
 have existed within the historic period of the breed. 
 
 IV. The improvement of Southdowns began 
 about the period of the American Revolutionary war 
 in 1776. 
 
 (i) It received its chief impulse, however, from the high 
 prices paid for mutton during the Napoleonic wars. 
 
 (2) The two most noted improvers of the breed were 
 John Ellman of Glynde, near Lewis in Sussex, and later Jonas 
 Webb of Babraham, Cambridgeshire. 
 
 V. John Ehman began his work of improve- 
 ment about 1780, and died in 1832. 
 
 (i) While improving the form he guarded well the con- 
 stitutional qualities of the animal. 
 
 (2) He left this beautiful breed much the same in type as 
 it is to-day. 
 
 VI. Distribution of Southdowns in Britain. 
 
 (i) They have virtually superseded the ancient breeds of 
 Berkshire, Hampshire and Wiltshire, and for a time greatly 
 circumscribed the limits of the area occupied by horned 
 Dorsets. 
 
 (2) They occupy limited areas suited to their require- 
 ments in many of the counties of England and they have also 
 been introduced into Scotland to some extent, and 
 
 (3) They have been so fused into several breeds as to 
 almost obliterate their distinctions. 
 
 VII. Importations into the United States. 
 
 (i) They were imported into America from England 
 about the beginning of the century. 
 
 (2) Dr. Rose of Fayette, Seneca county, N. Y., possessed 
 a small flock as early as 1803. 
 
 (3) Importations have been made at intervals during the 
 century, but not in large numbers. 
 
 (4) The great demand during much of the century for 
 fine wool and the relatively small size of this excellent breed 
 have militated against its rapid distribution. 
 
 VIII. Organizations. 
 
 (i) Associations to promote the interests of the breed 
 have been established, first, in the United States and later in 
 Great Britain. 
 
 (2) The American Southdown Breeders' Association was 
 organized in 1882. 
 
208 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IX. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Southdowns have been recorded from forty-three 
 different states and from six provinces of Canada. 
 
 (2) They are most numerously kept in the province of 
 Ontario and in the states of Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania, 
 Illinois, Wisconsin, Vermont and Kentucky, and in the order 
 named. 
 
 X. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) In all, 12,350 animals have been recorded. 
 
 (2) Of these, 3,650 are rams, 8,587 are ewes and 113 are 
 
 wethers. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Southdowns are the smallest of the medium- 
 wooled breeds that have been imported into America, but 
 
 (2) Owing to their compact form, they weigh remarkably 
 well in proportion to their size. 
 
 II. Adaptabihty. 
 
 (i) Southdowns are best adapted to undulating, rolling 
 or broken and hilly lands with a dry soil and a short, fine 
 herbage, but 
 
 (2) They can also be grown in good form in arable sec- 
 tions where the land is fairly productive. 
 
 III. Early maturing- qualities. 
 
 (i) In early maturing qualities Southdowns stand in the 
 very first rank. 
 
 (2) When well fed, the lambs are in condition for market 
 at almost any age. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) Their small size and active habits pre-eminently adapt 
 them to grazing on hilly and broken land, and 
 
 (2) Their tidy, thick fleece of short wool enables them to 
 endure well, exposure to storms. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These also have placed them in the front rank. 
 
SOUTHDOWN SHEEP. 2O9 
 
 (2) Their tidy, neat forms constitute them easy keepers 
 and they are sufficiently docile to submit to the necessary 
 restraints of feeding. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) In this respect also they stand in the front rank. 
 
 (2) The mutton is tender, juicy, fine grained, of good 
 flavor and yields a large proportion of good meat, both to live 
 and dead weights. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) They have been used more than any other breed in 
 the origination of various other pure dark-faced breeds. 
 
 (2) They may with much advantage be crossed upon 
 grades of *the various long-wooled breeds, upon large-bodied 
 common ewes and upon grade Merinos, where a more com- 
 pact and easy keeping mutton sheep is wanted. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The breeding qualities of Southdowns are good, but 
 not more than average. 
 
 (2) They are not distinguished for the number of couplets 
 which they produce. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The fleece is flner than that of any of the other British 
 breeds imported into America, and it has something more 
 of closure. 
 
 (2) It is dense, however, and would probably average five 
 to seven pounds unwashed. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the standard of excellence 
 adopted by the American Southdown Breeders' 
 Association : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Head — Medium in size and hornless; fine, car- 
 ried well up, the forehead or face well covered 
 with wool, especially between the ears and on 
 the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly dished . . 5 
 
 (2) Lips and Under Jaw — Fine and thin . .1 
 
 (3) Ears — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, cov- 
 ered with fine hair, and carried with a lively 
 back and forth movement 2 
 
 (4) Eyes — Full and bright 3 
 
 14 
 
2IO 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (5 
 (6 
 
 (7 
 (8 
 (9 
 
 10 
 
 II 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 14 
 15 
 i6 
 
 17 
 
 19 
 
 ,20 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 Face — A uniform tint of brown or gray, or 
 
 mouse color 3 
 
 Neck — Short, fine at the head, but nicely taper- 
 ing, and broad and straight on top at the 
 
 shoulders 4 
 
 Shoulders — Broad and full, smoothly joining 
 
 the neck with the back 5 
 
 Breast — Wide, deep and projecting well for- 
 ward, the forelegs standing wide apart . . 5 
 Back and Loin — Broad and straight from shoul- 
 ders to rump 7 
 
 Ribs — Well arched, extending far backward, 
 the last projecting more than the others . . 6 
 Rump — Broad, square and full, with tail well 
 
 set up 6 
 
 Hips — Wide, with little space between them 
 and last ribs ........ 6 
 
 ThigJis — Full and well let down in the twist, 
 the legs standing well apart .... 6 
 
 Limbs — Short and fine in bone and in color to 
 
 agree with face 3 
 
 Forelegs — Well wooled and carrying mutton 
 
 to the knee, but free from meat below . . 2 
 
 Hind Legs — Well filled with mutton and wooled 
 
 to the hocks, neat and clean below . . .2 
 
 Belly — Straight and well covered with wool, 
 
 the flank extending so as to form a line parallel 
 
 with the back or top line 5 
 
 Fleece — Compact, the whole body well covered 
 with moderately long and close wool, white in 
 color and carrying some yolk . . . .12 
 Form — Throughout smooth and symmetrical, 
 with no coarseness in any part .... 9 
 General Appearance — Spirited and attractive, 
 with a determined look and proud and firm step, 
 indicating constitutional vigor and thorough 
 breeding 8 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. Additional remarks. 
 
 (i) A good Southdown furnishes in its form the true 
 ideal type of the mutton sheep. 
 
 (2) It is admirably proportioned and of perfect sym- 
 metry, but 
 
 (3) Lack of size and lack of weight in the fleece to some 
 extent interfere with its more general distribution. 
 
LECTURE NO. 8. 
 
 TUNIS SHEEP THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHAR- 
 ACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Tunis sheep, as the name would indi- 
 cate, came originally from Tunis, in Northern Africa. 
 
 (i) In their native home they are what may be termed 
 a mountain or semi-mountain breed. 
 
 (2) They feed upon the ranges southward to the desert 
 and eastward to Algeria. 
 
 II. Origin of the breed. 
 
 (i) Their earliest origin is lost in the obscurity of a 
 distant past. 
 
 (2) They fed upon those ranges before the commence- 
 ment of the Christian era. 
 
 III. When imported into the United States. 
 
 (i) The first and only importation was made, it has been 
 claimed, in 1799. 
 
 (2) In that year a few specimens were shipped to the 
 United States by or through Gen. William Eaton, who was 
 then United States consul at Tunis. 
 
 (3) Only one male and one female survived the voyage, 
 and these are the progenitors of all the Tunis sheep now 
 found in the United States. 
 
 IV. Progress in the United States. 
 
 (i) The original pair were placed on the farm of Judge 
 Richard Peters near Philadelphia. 
 
 (2) They and their grades multiplied until the neigh- 
 boring counties were well stocked with them. 
 
 V. Hindrances to rapid extension. 
 
 (i) The dominance of the fine wool interests operated 
 against the rapid extension of the breed southward, and 
 
 211 
 
E 
 
 c 
 
 3 
 
 Q. 
 
 CO 
 
TUNIS SHEEP. 213 
 
 (2) The advent of the Down breeds hindered their exten- 
 sion northward. 
 
 VI. Introduction into the South. 
 
 (i) It is said they were introduced into Georgia early in 
 the century and some flocks were early established in Virginia 
 and the Carolinas. 
 
 (2) These were kept with satisfactory results until they 
 were almost annihilated by the Civil war, 
 
 VII. Re-estabHshment of the breed. 
 
 (i) Their continued existence was made known to the 
 general public by an exhibit made at the World's Fair, held at 
 Chicago in 1893. 
 
 (2) This exhibit attracted the attention of Charles Roun- 
 tree of Yountsville, Ind., who visited the Carolinas in 1894 
 and purchased a small flock for his Indiana farm. 
 
 (3) They were selected from what some have claimed 
 was the only surviving flock bred pure at that time in the 
 United States. 
 
 VIII. Organization. 
 
 (i) An association was organized in the interests of the 
 breed in 1896, with headquarters in Indiana. 
 (2) Records are also being kept. 
 
 IX. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) The number of pure flocks in the United States is 
 probably less than a score. 
 
 (2) These are centered in Indiana and South Carolina, 
 but they are extending southward. 
 
 X. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) Only a few hundred individuals have yet been 
 recorded, but 
 
 (2) The number is rapidly increasing. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size, the Tunis sheep are not far different from 
 the Dorset, and in general outline they have some resemblance, 
 but the Dorsets are considerably heavier. 
 
 (2) The average weight of the matured rams in good 
 form may be put at about 180 pounds and of matured ewes 
 at about 135 pounds. 
 
214 "^HE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (1) Because of their great hardihood the Tunis sheep are 
 adapted to conditions where breeds other than the Merino 
 would fail. 
 
 (2) They seem to have much ability to withstand the heat 
 of a warm climate, hence they will probably spread southward 
 rather than northward, where the field is much more occupied 
 with other breeds. 
 
 (3) Their habit of breeding at almost any season desired 
 emphasizes such adaptation. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the best, since the lambs can be rapidly 
 pushed along for the market. 
 
 (2) This property should prove especially valuable under 
 southern conditions, where winter lambs could be grazed much 
 of the time on pastures grown for the purpose. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are excellent, since they are active foragers and 
 like the Merino will consume a great variety of plants. 
 
 (2) They take kindly to the native grasses of the south, 
 including those that infest the corn and cotton fields. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are good, since they can be fed for market at 
 almost any age. 
 
 (2) Their value in fattening under the folding system 
 has not apparently been proved, but there would seem to be 
 no reasons why they should not do well under such a system. 
 
 (3) It is also claimed that the carcass dresses profitably 
 on the block. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The quality of the meat is said to be of the very best. 
 
 (2) The fat is blended with the lean, rather than laid on 
 externally and internally, and the flavor of the meat has been 
 highly praised. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) When crossed upon the various Down breeds they put 
 their stamp upon the progeny, thus showing their great 
 prepotency. 
 
 (2) The cross upon the Merino, pure or graded, is said 
 to improve the mutton qualities, and that upon native stocks 
 in the south results in marked improvement in the entire 
 animal. 
 
TUNIS SHEEP. 215 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Like the Dorsets, Tunis sheep are prolific. 
 (2) They not only produce many couplets, but in some 
 instances they breed twice a year. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The wool would seem to be not very dissimilar \o 
 that of the Dorset in quantity and quality. 
 
 (2) The average fleece may be put at about seven and 
 one-half pounds unwashed. 
 
 X. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) The Tunis sheep are larger and more rangy than the 
 Southdowns, are ahead of the latter in adaptation to warm 
 climates, have better breeding qualities and produce a heavier 
 fleece. 
 
 (2) The Southdowns have a somewhat more perfect mut- 
 ton form, probably keep more easily and dress even better on 
 the block. 
 
 (3) In other essential characteristics they do not greatlv 
 differ. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the American Tunis Sheep Breeders' Association : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Blood — Imported from Tunis or a perfect line 
 of ancestors extending back to the flock owned 
 and bred by Judge Richard Peters of Penn- 
 sylvania ......... 20 
 
 (2) Constitution — Healthful countenance, lively look, 
 
 head erect, deep chest, ribs well arched, round 
 body with good length, strong, straight back, 
 muscles fine and firm ...... 15 
 
 (3) Fleece — Medium length, medium quality, me- 
 dium quantity, color tinctured with gray, 
 never pure white, evenness throughout . 10 
 
 (4) Covering — Body and neck well covered with 
 wool, legs bare or slightly covered, face free 
 
 of wool and covered with fine hair ... 10 
 
 (5) Form — Body straight, broad and well propor- 
 tioned, small bone ; breast, wide and prominent 
 in front; tail, the little end should be docked, 
 leaving the fleshy part fan shape or tapering, 
 three to six inches broad, four to six inches 
 long and well covered with wool . . . .12 
 
2l6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 POINTS 
 
 (6) Head — Small and hornless, or nearly so, taper- 
 ing to end of nose ; face and nose clean ; in 
 color, brown and white ; ears broad, pendulous 
 and covered with fine hair, in color brown to 
 light fawn lo 
 
 (7) Neck — Aledium in length, well placed on shoul- 
 ders, small and tapering 5 
 
 (8) Legs — Short; color, brown and white (slightly 
 wooled below the knee not objectionable) . 6 
 
 (9) Size — In fair condition ; wdien fully matured, 
 rams should weigh 150 pounds and upward, 
 ewes 120 pounds and upward .... 6 
 
 (10) General Appearance — Good carriage, head well 
 up, quick, elastic movements showing symme- 
 try of form and uniformity of character 
 throughout 6 
 
 . Perfection 100 
 
 II. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Tunis sheep are larger, though perhaps not heavier, 
 and are more rangy and somewhat longer in the limbs. 
 
 (2) The ears are longer and droop, and the tail is much 
 broader. 
 
 (3) The head and legs are not quite so well covered, the 
 wool is somewhat longer and coarser, and the fleece a little 
 heavier. 
 
 III. Peculiarities of the tail. 
 
 (i) At birth the tail has much loose skin extending from 
 the base for a considerable distance downward. 
 
 (2) Unless when cut close while the animal is young the 
 space thus furnished fills with a fatty substance to the width 
 of three to four inches. 
 
 (3) It will then weigh from three to six pounds, accord- 
 ing to the condition of the sheep. 
 
 (4) The Tunis breed is not to be confounded with various 
 other races of fat-tailed sheep found in the old world. 
 
LECTURE NO. 9. 
 
 DORSET HORN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY^ CHAR- 
 ACTERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Dorsets are an ancient breed of sheep, 
 which, in large numbers, inhabited certain of the 
 midland and southeastern counties of England dur- 
 ing previous centuries. 
 
 (i) They had substantially the same characteristics, but 
 some minor differences existed, largely due to variations of 
 climate and food. 
 
 (2) In nearly all of those districts their identity has been 
 obliterated through crossing with other breeds, 
 
 II. The central home of the breed at present 
 is in Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, where they have 
 been bred from time immemorial. 
 
 (i) The leading flocks in Dorset are found in the south 
 and west with Dorchester as a center, and in the isle of 
 Purbeck. 
 
 (2) In Somerset it is claimed that they are more numer- 
 ous than in Dorset and are somewhat larger in frame. 
 
 III. The original sheep of Dorset and Somer- 
 set compared. 
 
 (i) The sheep of Dorset were rather small and light of 
 carcass, black of nose and lip, wide of horn, light and low in 
 the shoulders, long but not coarse of limb, and ragged in coat, 
 but they were broad and somewhat deep of loin. 
 
 (2) The Somerset Dorsets were larger and more lank in 
 form, had pink noses, longer wool, and produced larger lambs. 
 
 IV. Breeding characteristics of the original 
 Dorsets. 
 
 217 
 
DORSET HORN SHEEP. 2ig 
 
 (i) There is evidence to show that for at least 200 years 
 past it was customary with many to breed them so as to drop 
 lambs in the early autumn, and 
 
 (2) In many instances they have been bred twice a year, 
 like the sheep of some warm climates. 
 
 V. The improvement of the breed. 
 
 (i) But little was done for the improvement of the 
 breed until near the middle of the century. 
 
 (2) They did not receive much encouragement from the 
 agricultural societies, and were not recognized as a distinct 
 breed at the Royal Agricultural Society's show until 1862. 
 
 (3) The improvement of the breed was brought about by 
 careful selecting, judicious mating and improved food, and 
 without drawing upon alien blood. 
 
 VI. The improvers of Dorsets. 
 
 (i) No one name stands out pre-eminently as an improver 
 of Dorsets, but the first distinguished in this line was Richard 
 Seymour of Bradpole. 
 
 (2) During recent years many breeders have been zealous 
 in this work. 
 
 VII. Period of retrogression. 
 
 (i) During the first half of the century, Dorsets were 
 at first superseded by Merinos, and to a far greater extent by 
 Southdowns. 
 
 (2) They were also much crossed upon by Southdowns 
 and Leicesters, insomuch that 
 
 (3) At one time fears were entertained in some quarters 
 for the preservation of the breed, but they are rapidly regaining 
 lost ground. 
 
 VIII. Distribution in Britain. 
 
 (i) Outside of Dorset and Somerset. Dorsets are most 
 numerous in Devon and the Isle of Wight, but 
 
 (2) During recent years small flocks have been estab- 
 lished in other counties of England, and in Scotland and 
 Ireland. 
 
 (3) Prior to 1885 they were very largely confined to the 
 counties of Dorset and Somerset. 
 
 IX. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) They were first imported into Canada in 1885 by E. 
 Stanford of Markham, Ont. 
 
 (2) They were first introduced into the United States 
 from Hamilton, Ont., by William Dalev of Lockport, N. Y., 
 in 1887. 
 
220 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (3) The first direct importation was made from Britain 
 by A. Thayer, Hoosick Falls, N. Y., and E. F. Bowditch of 
 Massachusetts, in 1887. 
 
 (4) They were introduced into France in 1890. 
 
 X. Organizations. 
 
 (i) Associations to promote the interests of the breed 
 have been established both in England and in the United 
 States. 
 
 (2) The American Dorset Horn Association was estab- 
 lished in 1891. 
 
 (3) The American Continental Dorset Club was estab- 
 lished in 1897. 
 
 XL Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Dorsets are now being recorded from 27 states and 
 from several of the provinces of Canada. 
 
 (2) In the United States they are found most numerously 
 in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Massachusetts, Vermont 
 and Connecticut, and probably in the order named. 
 
 XII. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) The two American associations have registered 10,738 
 animals. 
 
 (2) Of these a small percentage only are duplicates. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size the Dorsets are larger than the Southdowns, 
 but do not weigh so well in proportion. 
 
 (2) The size has, however, been much improved during 
 recent years. 
 
 (3) The average weight of matured rams in fair flesh is 
 about 215 pounds and of matured ewes 165 pounds. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) They have a semi-mountain character which well 
 adapts them to grassy slopes, plains and hills of moderate 
 elevation, and yet 
 
 (2) They can be reared in fine form on arable land, and 
 even on land not sufficiently drained. 
 
 (3) For the production of "winter lambs," that is, 
 unweaned lambs which can be marketed in the winter and 
 early spring, they are unrivalled. 
 
DORSET HORN SHEEP. 221 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They stand in the front rank in early maturing 
 qualities. 
 
 (2) The lambs especially attain heavy weights at an 
 early age. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) Their grazing qualities are excellent, as they are 
 quick in movement and are possessed of good staying pow- 
 ers, and 
 
 ,2) They will eat coarser herbage than some of the other 
 breeds. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Owing to their docility they stand the confinement 
 of folding and housing well. 
 
 (2) When srfficiently well fed the aged dams are ready 
 for the market almost as soon as the lambs which they suckle. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The meat is tender, good and well flavored where 
 the pasture is suitable, and it has a fair proportion of lean, but 
 
 (2) The proportion of dead meat to the live weight is not 
 quite equal to that obtained from the Southdown. 
 
 VI I. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Dorsets answer better for being crossed upon than 
 for crossing for mutton uses, as 
 
 (2) Horns in mutton sheep are not desirable, but 
 
 (3) In producing a class of cross bred or grade ewes 
 possessed of the propensity to breed early, they are of great 
 value. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the very first order. 
 
 (2) They may be mated in the spring, breed regularly, 
 and will in some instances breed twice a year. 
 
 (3) It is claimed that they produce from 130 to 180 per 
 cent of lambs, and the dams are good nurses and great milkers. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) It has been estimated that the mature sheep will shear 
 on an average from six to eight pounds unwashed wool and 
 the lambs from two and one-half to three pounds. 
 
 (2) In fineness it is next to that of the Tunis. 
 
222 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 X. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Dorsets lead considerably in size, are more prolific 
 and better milkers, are superior for crossing when early lambs 
 are sought, and grow a heavier fleece. 
 
 (2) The Southdowns have more of general adaptability, 
 mature even more quickly, and fatten and kill somewhat 
 better. 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 I. In the absence of an authorized scale of 
 points, the following is submitted : 
 
 (i) Size — Medium for the breed, but the size is of course 
 affected by environment. 
 
 (2) General Outline — Inclining to long and not too com- 
 pact or massive. 
 
 (3) Head — Large rather than small, tapering toward the 
 muzzle and longer than in some breeds, and covered with a 
 tuft of wool of medium length. 
 
 (a) Forehead, broad and covered with a tuft of wool of 
 medium length. 
 
 (b) Nose, frequently slightly Roman, more especially in 
 the males. 
 
 (c) Poll, wide. 
 
 (d) Horns in both sexes, small and flat in the female, 
 but considerably longer, stronger and more angular in the male 
 and curved spirally outward from the side of the head. 
 
 (e) Ears, fairly long and fine and inclining a little 
 outward. 
 
 (4) Neek — Not less than medium in length and general 
 development. 
 
 (a) Not strong at the junction with the lead, nor of 
 more than average development at the junction with the 
 shoulders. 
 
 (b) Depression on the top is to be guarded against. 
 
 (5) Back — Fairly wide, straight and level. 
 
 (a) Withers fairly wide and not elevated. 
 
 (b) Loin, broad and long. 
 
 (6) Foreqiiarters — Of nearly equal development with the 
 hindquarters, but not quite so well filled out. 
 
 (a) Shoulders of fair size and moderately rounded out 
 above, with increasing fullness in center and lower portion. 
 
 (b) Chest, capacious. 
 
 (c) Breast, wide, deep and at least moderately well filled. 
 
 (d) Brisket, rounded and of much width. 
 
 (e) Forearm, inclining to long and tapering. 
 
 (7) Body — Inclining to long in the barrel and capacious. 
 
DORSET HORN SHEEP. 223 
 
 (a) Ribs of medium closeness and fairly round and deep 
 in their spring, 
 
 (b) Crops, undue depression is to be guarded against, 
 
 (c) Foreflank, full. 
 
 (d) Hindflank, low and moderately full. 
 
 (e) Deficient heart girth is to be guarded against. 
 
 (f) Underline, nearly straight. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep and full. 
 
 (a) Hips, large, of at least medium fullness and depth, 
 and long. 
 
 (b) Crupper, creased above the spinal column. 
 
 (c) Thighs, full, inclining to long and tapering, 
 
 (d) Buttock, wide and square. 
 
 (e) Twist, full and placed medium low. 
 
 (9) Legs — ]\Iedium in length, size and strength, and 
 straight. 
 
 (a) They should stand firmly and well apart, 
 
 (b) In color they are white. 
 
 (10) Fleece — Evenly distributed over the body, coming but 
 a short distance forward on the cheek and down to the knee 
 and hock. 
 
 (a) The wool inclines to fine, is about three and one-half 
 inches long when grown, and not more than medium in density. 
 
 (b) It is beautifully white and has a fair amount of yolk. 
 
 (c) The skin should be flesh-colored, 
 
 II. General appearance. 
 
 (i) The Dorset is a somewhat long-bodied sheep of fair 
 symmetry and style, and 
 
 (2) It is active, easy and graceful in its movements, 
 
 III. Compared with the Southdown. 
 
 (i) The Dorset is considerably larger and more rangy in 
 form and limb. 
 
 (2) It is longer in the head, neck and body, not so plump 
 relatively in the breast, shoulder and crops, nor quite so round 
 in the spring of rib. 
 
 (3) The wool covers less of the head and legs, is longer, 
 a little coarser and considerably less dense. 
 
 (4) The head and legs are white, while those of the 
 Southdown are some shade of brown. 
 
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LECTURE NO. lo. 
 
 SHROPSHIRE SHEEP THEIR ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Shropshire is a sheep composite in 
 
 character, the improvement of which has been chiefly 
 
 effected during the present century. 
 
 (i) The original breed from which they are descended 
 were chiefly known as "Morfe Common" sheep, from an 
 extensive tract in Shropshire on which they fed, but 
 
 (2) Some are the descendants of sheep that fed on Can- 
 nock Chase in Staffordshire and on Whittington Heath, and 
 
 (3) The blood of all these strains now mingles in the 
 improved Shropshire. 
 
 II. How improvement has been effected. 
 
 (i) Improvement has been effected very largely through 
 crossing and selection, and also through better care and food. 
 
 (2) The blood of the Southdown, Cotswold and Leicester 
 breeds has all been freely used in their improvement, but not 
 in a regular or settled order, although 
 
 (3) Since the middle of the century but little outside 
 blood has been used, and for many years none at all. 
 
 III. The breed while yet unimproved. 
 
 (i) Originally the Shropshires were horned, had black 
 or brown or spotted faces, and were an active and hardy race. 
 
 (2) They produced about two and one-half pounds of 
 wool per fleece, and about forty pounds of mutton to the 
 carcass. 
 
 IV. The improvers of Shropshires. 
 
 (i) Improvement was effected by a number of breeders 
 working simultaneously and not always in the sam.e lines, 
 hence 
 
 (2) The lack of uniformity in types which characterized 
 the breed for many years after improvement had commenced. 
 
 15 225 
 
226 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Recognition at exhibitions. 
 
 (i) Shropshires first gained marked distinction at the 
 Royal Society's show at Gloucester in 1853 and again at Salis- 
 bury in 1857. 
 
 (2) They were first recognized in the prize lists of the 
 said show in 1859. 
 
 (3) In 1884, at the Royal show at Shrewsbury, 875 Shrop- 
 shires were on exhibition, or more than twice as many as were 
 brought forward of all the other breeds combined. 
 
 VI. Distribution of Shropshires in Britain. 
 
 (i) While the central home of the breed is Shropshire, 
 they are now bred numerously in more than half the counties 
 of England. 
 
 (2) They are also bred in considerable numbers in several 
 counties in Scotland and Ireland. 
 
 VII. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) Although not imported into the United States until 
 1855, they are now more numerous than any of the other 
 breeds, and are also more generally distributed over the Union. 
 
 (2) Excellent flocks have also been established in Canada, 
 more especially in Ontario, where also they are more numerous 
 than any of the other pure breeds. 
 
 (3) And they are foun^ in considerable numbers in vari- 
 ous countries in Europe anc the continent of South America. 
 
 VIII. Organizations. 
 
 (i) Shropshires are protected by breeders' associations 
 both in England and America, and registration is carefully 
 maintained in both countries. 
 
 (2) The American Shropshire Registry Association was 
 organized in 1884, and at least two other associations some- 
 what local in character have since been organized. 
 
 (3) The first volume of the American Shropshire Sheep 
 Record was published in 1889. 
 
 IX. Distribution of Shropshires in the United 
 States and Canada. 
 
 (i) They are now being recorded from 50 states and 
 provinces. 
 
 (2) The leading centers of distribution are probably 
 Ontario, New York, Michigan, Indiana and Wisconsin, but 
 
 (3) They are relatively quite numerous in all the central 
 states. 
 
SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 227 
 
 X. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) The American Shropshire Association has recorded 
 128,623 animals. 
 
 (2) About 40 per cent of these are males. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size Shropshires are considerably larger than the 
 Southdowns and they are of heavier build than the Dorsets, 
 but are not so large as the other Down breeds. 
 
 (2) In weight they are not a little ahead of the South- 
 downs, and they are probably heavier also than the Dorsets. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Their wide diffusion and increasing popularity are 
 sure indications of their general adaptability. 
 
 (2) They are best adapted, however, to surfaces not vio- 
 lently undulating, and to sections where a fair proportion of 
 the land is arable. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They mature quite as early probably as any other 
 breed except the Southdown. 
 
 (2) This property in the Shropshire is peculiarly valuable, 
 owing to the extent to which they are used in crossing. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) The grazing qualities of the Shropshire are good, but 
 it requires better pastures than the Southdown and Merino. 
 (2) Its docility also adapts it well to folding. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Shropshires feed very well under suitable conditions. 
 
 (2) The closeness of the fleece enables them to be fattened 
 where the shelter is very moderate, and they give an excellent 
 return for the food fed. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The quality of the meat is excellent, about equal to 
 that of the Southdown, while the quantity furnished is con- 
 siderably more, and 
 
 (2) Like the Southdown they dress well in proportion to 
 the live weight. 
 
228 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) For crossing upon Merino grades and common stocks 
 generally, the Shropshires have shown themselves as possessed 
 of especial value. 
 
 (2) They also cross excellently upon the grades of the 
 long wool varieties, and for that purpose they are now being 
 used more extensively in the United States than any other 
 va: iety. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The claim has been made that Shropshires are the 
 most prolific of all the breeds, but this claim is certainly 
 extravagant. 
 
 (2) It would be correct, however, to say that in this 
 respect they are at least average. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The average fleece from a good flock should clip nine 
 to ten pounds unwashed in the ewes and twelve to fifteen 
 pounds in the rams. 
 
 (2) The wool should be of medium length, between the 
 Southdown and Hampshire Down in fineness, and it should be 
 even and close. 
 
 X. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) The Shropshires are considerably larger, require 
 better grazing lands, produce larger progeny when crossed on 
 other stocks and a heavier fleece of wool. 
 
 (2) The Southdowns are something ahead in maturity 
 and it may be in easy keeping qualities, and 
 
 (3) In other essential characteristics they are not far 
 different. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the standard scale ol 
 points of excellence adopted by the American Shrop- 
 shire Association : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Constitution — Constitution and quality indi- 
 cated by the form of body; deep and large in 
 breast and through the heart ; back wide, straight 
 and well covered with lean meat or muscle; wide 
 and full in the thigh, deep in flank; skin thick 
 but soft and of a pink color; prominent, bril- 
 liant eyes and healthy countenance . . .25 
 
SHROPSHIRE SHEEP. 229 
 
 POINTS. 
 Objections — Deficiency of brisket, light 
 around the heart, fish back, pointed shoulders, 
 tucked in flank, pale or too dark skin objec- 
 tionable. 
 
 (2) Sice — In fair condition when fully matured, 
 rams should weigh not less than 225 pounds 
 and ewes not less than 175 pounds . . 10 
 
 Objections — Rams in full flesh 175 pounds or 
 under, ewes in full flesh 150 pounds or under, 
 
 (3) General Appearance — General appearance and 
 character ; good carriage ; head well up ; elastic 
 movement, showing great symmetry of form 
 and uniformity of character throughout . . ro 
 
 Objections — Head drooping, low in neck, 
 sluggish movement. 
 
 (4) Body — Well proportioned ; medium bones ; 
 great scale and length ; well finished hindquar- 
 ers; thick back and loins; twist deep and full, 
 standing with legs well placed outside; breast 
 wide and extending well forward ... 15 
 
 Objections — Too fine bones, short body, defi- 
 cient in twist, legs close together, light in 
 brisket. 
 
 (5) Head — Head short and broad; wide between 
 the ears and between the eyes ; short from top 
 of head to tip of nose ; ears short, of medium 
 size ; eyes expressive ; head should be well cov- 
 ered with wool to a point even with the eyes, 
 without any appearance of horns ; color of face 
 dark brown 10 
 
 Objections — Horns disqualify; white face dis- 
 qualifies; head with prominent bones; bare on 
 top of head. 
 
 (6) Neck — Medium length, good bone and muscu- 
 lar development; and especially with the rams, 
 heavier toward the shoulders, set high up and 
 rising from that point to back of head . . 5 
 
 (7) Legs and Feet — Broad, short, straight; well set 
 apart ; well shaped ; color dark brown and well 
 wooled to the knees 10 
 
 (8) Fleece — Body, ,head, belly and legs to knees 
 well covered with fleece of even length and 
 quality; scrotum of rams well covered with 
 wool 
 
 (9) Quality of Wool — Medium such as is known in 
 our markets as "medium delaine" and "half 
 combing wool," strong, fine, lustrous fiber, with- 
 out tendency to mat or felt together, and at one 
 
 10 
 
230 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 year's growth not less than three and one-half 
 inches in length 5 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. Additional points. 
 
 (i) The nose of the rams should be broad and wrinkled. 
 
 (2) The ears of both sexes of an even dark color, and 
 neither erect nor drooping. 
 
 (3) A soft black color of face and legs is preferred to 
 dark brown, and 
 
 (4) Black and gray wool anywhere and coarse wool on 
 the hips are objectionable. 
 
 III. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Shropshires are larger and longer in body and carry 
 a heavier fleece. 
 
 (2) The head has a more complete covering of wool and 
 the wool everywhere is longer, but not so fine, and 
 
 (3) The color of the face and legs is considerably darker. 
 
LECTURE NO. ii. 
 
 CHEVIOT SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. A narrow strip of country along the River 
 Tweed and amid the Cheviot hills formed the origi- 
 nal home of this breed of sheep. 
 
 (i) Amid the hills and valleys of this semi-mountain 
 range they have pastured for long centuries. 
 
 (2) Neither history nor tradition has given the slightest 
 clue as to the origin of the Cheviots which may be accepted 
 as satisfactory. 
 
 II. Their former characters. 
 
 (i) Originally they were small, light boned and light in 
 the breast and forequarter. 
 
 (2) The wool was finer than at present, but it was also 
 much shorter. 
 
 (3) They were then, as now, a singularly hardy breed. 
 
 III. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Improvement in breeding flocks has been secured 
 entirely by selection, improved keep in winter and intelligent 
 management. 
 
 (2) The blood of both the long and medium wooled 
 breeds has frequently been introduced, but to no purpose, 
 except with the drafts held for disposal, as a lessened hardi- 
 hood is the invariable result. 
 
 IV. Exposure in their native home. 
 
 (i) During the whole of the year Cheviots are exposed 
 without any shelter save that which their native glens afford. 
 
 (2) They are fed some hay in time of deep snow, and 
 the ewes get turnips at the lambing season. 
 
 (3) The terrible winter storms which occur at intervals 
 sometimes occasion severe losses. 
 
 231 
 
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CHEVIOT SHEEP. 233 
 
 V. Disposal of Cheviots. 
 
 (i) They are seldom finished on the lands on which they 
 
 are reared, but ^ . , , 1 1 j 
 
 (2) Are sold at various ages to be finished on lowland 
 
 pastures. 
 
 VI. Distribution in Britain. 
 
 (i) They are now found as far south as Cornwall, and 
 have been extended to the extreme north of Scotland, but only 
 on elevations found suitable for them. 
 
 (2) On many of the hills they have entirely superseded 
 the Black-faced Highland breed. 
 
 VII. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) They were first imported Into Delaware county, N. Y., 
 in 1838, by Robert Young, but 
 
 (2) Their diffusion was very slow and gradual untd sub- 
 sequently to 1880. 
 
 (3) A number of flocks have also been established m the 
 Dominion of Canada. 
 
 VIII. Organization. 
 
 (i) The American Cheviot Sheep Breeders' Association 
 was organized at Hartwick, N. Y., in 1891. 
 
 (2) The National Cheviot Sheep Society was organized 
 at Indianapolis, Ind., in 1894. 
 
 (3) Records are being kept by both associations. 
 
 IX. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Flocks of more or less size exist in nearly all the 
 states east of the Mississippi river and north of the Ohio and 
 Potomac. 
 
 (2) They are most numerous in the states of New York 
 and Indiana and in the order named. 
 
 (3) Strange to say, they do not appear to have been intro- 
 duced into the range country. 
 
 X. Registration in the United States. 
 
 * (i) There have been recorded in all by the two American 
 
 associations 5,743 animals. 
 
 (2) Of these about one-fourth are males and the remain- 
 der females. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size, 
 (i) In size they are about equal to the Dorsets, which 
 to some extent they resemble in shape, but they carry a longer 
 fleece. 
 
234 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) The average weight of the rams in good flesh is about 
 200 to 220 pounds and of the ewes 150 to 160 pounds, 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) They are well adapted to hilly lands, where hardihood 
 is an important essential, but they can also be successfully 
 reared on undulating surfaces. 
 
 (2) They should do well on the lower ranges of the Alle- 
 ghenies and the Rocky mountains, more especially the former. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are not so good as in some breeds, owing lo 
 the manner of rearing which the conditions necessitate, but 
 
 (2) In this respect they have been improved during recent 
 years. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are superlatively good, but 
 (2) Cheviots do better on short, fine herbage than on 
 coarse grasses and heath. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Being a semi-mountain breed they would not submit 
 so well to close confinement as some other breeds, hence 
 
 (2) They are more commonly finished on pastures and 
 by folding. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The mutton is very good, but 
 
 (2) It is not quite equal to the Southdown in delicacy, 
 nor to the mountain breeds in flavor. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) There is probably not very wide room for using this 
 breed for crossing in rich, arable sections, but 
 
 (2) On exposed ranges and in bleak situations they could 
 doubtless oftentimes be used with much advantage. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Cheviots breed with much regularity, but 
 (2) They are not particularly noted as producers of 
 couplets. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The average fleece should weigh eight to ten pounds. 
 
CHEVIOT SHEEP. 235 
 
 (2) The wool is coarser now than formerly, and is not 
 always even in quality. 
 
 X. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Cheviots are larger and more rangy and even more 
 hardy, are adapted to even a wider range of conditions, are 
 better for crossing where hardihood is sought and carry a 
 heavier fleece of wool. 
 
 (2) The Southdowns mature earlier, feed more quickly, 
 dress somewhat better on the block, and are superior for cross- 
 ing where improvement in mutton qualities is sought. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points drawn 
 lip by the American Cheviot Sheep Breeders' Asso- 
 ciation : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Blood — Pure bred from one or more importa- 
 tions from Scotland 10 
 
 (2) Constitution and Quality — Indicated by the 
 form of body ; deep and large in breast and 
 through the heart ; back, wide and straight and 
 well covered with lean meat ; wide and full in 
 the thigh ; deep in flank ; skin soft and pink in 
 color ; prominent eyes, healthful countenance . 25 
 
 (3) Sice — In fair condition, when fully matured, 
 rams should weigh not less than 17s pounds; 
 ewes 135 pounds when bred in America. Im- 
 ported stock: Rams 125 to 150 pounds, ewes 100 
 
 to 125 pounds 10 
 
 (4) General Appearance — Good carriage ; head well 
 up ; elastic movement ; shov/ing symmetry of 
 form and uniformity of character throughout . 10 
 
 (5) Body — Well proportioned; small bone; great 
 scale and length ; well finished hindquarters ; 
 thick back and loins ; standing with legs placed 
 well outside ; breast wide and prominent in 
 front ; tail wide and well covered with wool . 10 
 
 (6) Head — Long and broad and wide between the 
 eyes ; ears of medium length and erect ; face 
 white, but small black spots on head and ears 
 are not objectionable; straight or Roman nose; 
 end of nose dark, but never smut nose on top 
 with black or brown ; no tuft of wool on head 10 
 
 (7) Neck — Medium in length; thick and well 
 placed on the shoulders 5 
 
236 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (8) Legs and Feet — Short legs, well set apart ; color 
 white ; no wool on legs ; fore legs round, hind 
 legs flat and straight; hoofs black and well 
 shaped 5 
 
 (9) Covering — Body and belly well covered with 
 fleece of medium length and good quality . . 10 
 
 (10) Quality of Wool — Medium; such as is known 
 
 in the market as half combing wool . . 5 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 11. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Cheviots are larger in size and considerably longer 
 in body. 
 
 (2) They are longer and stronger in limb and are less 
 compact in the coupling. 
 
 (3) They are longer in the head and ears, are more bare 
 of wool on head and legs, and these are white in color. 
 
 (4) The wool is longer, but less fine in character, and not 
 so evenly distributed. 
 
LECTURE NO. 12. 
 
 SUFFOLK DOWN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Suffolk sheep are a composite breed, whose 
 central home is in the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, 
 Cambridge and Essex in England. 
 
 (i) They are essentially the outcome of the crossing of 
 Southdown rams upon ewes of the old Norfolk breed. 
 
 (2) These crosses continued to a greater or lesser extent 
 until the middle of the present century. 
 
 II. The old Norfolks may be described as 
 follows : 
 
 (i) Their bodies and limbs were long and robust. 
 
 (2) They carried their heads erect, and both sexes had 
 horns. 
 
 (3) The fleece was fine, soft and silky, and weighed about 
 two and one-half pounds. 
 
 (4) The color of the face and feet was a jet black. 
 
 (5) They were hardy and prolific, but shy, and their 
 active habits admirably adapted them for grazing on scant 
 pastures. 
 
 III. The improvers of Suffolks. 
 
 (i) The work of improvement was carried on simulta- 
 neously by a number of breeders in the counties of Suffolk, 
 Norfolk, Cambridge and Essex. 
 
 (2) George Dobito of Ludgate, Suffolk, was the most 
 zealous and distinguished of the early improvers. 
 
 (3) Some of the existing flocks date back to the earlier 
 years of the century. 
 
 IV. Suffolks on exhibition. 
 
 (i) They were first called "Suffolks" in 1859 when classes 
 were created for them at the show held by the Suffolk Agri- 
 cultural Association. 
 
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SUFFOLK DOWN SHEEP. 239 
 
 (2) In 1883, 1884 and 1885, they were awarded first honors 
 in competition with all other short wooled breeds at the shows 
 held during those respective years, by the Royal Agricultural 
 Society. 
 
 (3) For many years past they have also made a creditable 
 exhibit at the Smithficld Club and other fat stock shows. 
 
 V. Distribution of Suffolks in other countries. 
 
 (i) Suffolk's have been exported, but only during recent 
 years, to several countries in Europe, to South America, Can- 
 ada and the United States. 
 
 (2) The first importation of Suffolks to Canada was made 
 by B. W. Sewell, Frederickton, N. B., in 1888. 
 
 (3) The first importation was made to the United States 
 by M. B. Streeter, Brooklyn, N. Y., in iJ 
 
 VI. Suffolk sheep societies. 
 
 (i) The Suffolk Sheep Society of England was estab- 
 lished in 1886. 
 
 (2) The American Suffolk Flock Registry Association 
 was established in 1892, with headquarters at Des Moines, la. 
 
 (3) Registration is being given careful attention by both 
 associations. 
 
 VII. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) The chief center of distribution in the United States 
 is Iowa, and in Canada, Ontario, but 
 
 (2) There are now flocks of Suffolks in several of the 
 states. 
 
 VIII. Registration in the United States. 
 
 _ (i) Owing to the recent introduction of Suffolks into the 
 United States the number entered for record is not yet 
 numerous. 
 
 (2) The initial volume of the American Suffolk Flock 
 Book has not yet appeared. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Suffolks are larger than the Southdowns, Dor- 
 sets and Shropshires, and nearly as large as the Hampshires 
 and Oxfords, but 
 
 (2) They are not quite so heavy as the two last named 
 breeds. 
 
240 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) The Suffolks are well adapted to farms with some 
 good arable land, and a considerable range of pastures, not 
 over luxuriant. 
 
 (2) Their active habits and hardihood make them good 
 rustlers. 
 
 (3) The average weight of rams in good thrift is about 
 230 pounds and of ewes 185 pounds. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) The strong infusion of Southdown blood has given 
 the Suffolks good maturing qualities, and 
 
 (2) The good nursing qualities of the dams favor the 
 same in a marked degree in the lambs. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) The Suffolks are capital grazers, but they want undu- 
 lating rather than violently hilly land. 
 
 (2) They should graze well on ranges not mountainous 
 in character. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) They feed fairly well. 
 
 (2) Their inclination to ranginess in form is somewhat 
 against highest feeding qualities. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) In 1797, Arthur Young describes the mutton as hav- 
 ing no superior in texture, grain or flavor. 
 
 (2) These fine qualities are retained, and there have been 
 added to them juiciness and a greatly increased proportion of 
 meat with fat and lean intermixed. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) They have proved themselves very valuable for cross- 
 ing upon the Merino grades of South America, and they 
 should be specially valuable for this purpose on ranges of 
 moderate elevation. 
 
 (2) They cross particularly well on grades of the blocky 
 type. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are exceptionally good, hence in this respect 
 they are not far behind the Dorsets, and 
 
 (2) The dams make exceptionally good nurses. 
 
SUFFOLK DOWN SHEEP. 24 1 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) In wool production, they shear a little more than the 
 Southdowns, and the wool is about as fine as that of the Shrop- 
 shires or nearly so. 
 
 (2) The average fleece may be put at about seven to nine 
 pounds unwashed. 
 
 X. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Suffolks are much larger, are adapted to more inten- 
 sive conditions and relatively better pastures, are better 
 average milkers and produce a heavier fleece. 
 
 (2) Southdowns mature somewhat earlier, fatten more 
 quickly and dress better on the block. 
 
 (3) In other essential characteristics they are much alike. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following scale cf points was drawn 
 up for Suffolks by the American Flock Registr}' 
 Association in 1892: 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) General Appearance — Pleasing outline; good 
 
 carriage and symmetry of development . . 7 
 
 (2) General Form — Large in size ; inclined to long 
 in body ; medium strength of bone ; somewhat 
 cylindrical in shape, and straight above, below 
 and in the rear 15 
 
 (3) Head — Medium in size, inclining to long, and 
 covered with fine, short, glossy black hair to the 
 junction with the neck; a small quantity of 
 clean, white wool on the forehead is not 
 objected to ; muzzle moderately fine, especially 
 in ewes ; eyes bright and full ; ears of medium 
 
 length and fineness . . . . . .10 
 
 (4) Neck — Moderately long and veil set, and blend- 
 ing well with the body, with some crest in 
 the rams ....... 5 
 
 (5) Forequarfers — Well developed; breast, wide, 
 deep and full ; brisket broad ; chest, capacious, 
 with good heart girth ; shoulders, broad, oblique 
 and well filled in the neck-vein and crops ; 
 withers, broad ; arm, well developed . . .15 
 
 (6) Barrel — Roomy ; back, straight, broad and well 
 fleshed throughout its entire length ; ribs, well 
 sprung and moderately deep; fore and hind 
 flanks full and deep 15 
 
 16 
 
242 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (7) Hindquarters — Long, deep and full; tail, broad 
 and well set up ; buttock, broad ; twist, full ; 
 thigh, broad and full 15 
 
 (8) Feet and Legs — Straight, of medium length 
 with flat bone ; bare of wool below the knee and 
 hock ; glossy black in color and set well apart , 8 
 
 (9) Fleece — Moderately short, with close, fine lus- 
 trous fiber and without tendency to mat or felt 
 together, or to shade off into dark or gray wool 
 or hair, especially about the neck and tail. The 
 fleece should cover the whole body except the 
 head and the legs below the knee and hock ; and 
 the skin underneath it should be fair, soft and 
 
 of a pink color 10 
 
 Perfection lOO 
 
 II. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) The Suffolks are considerably larger and heavier, and 
 are longer in body and limb. 
 
 (2) The head is longer and much more bare of wool ; the 
 ear is larger and the face and legs are much blacker, and 
 
 (3) The wool is a little longer, but not quite so dense. 
 
LECTURE NO. 13. 
 
 HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Hampshire Down is the outcome of a 
 cross of the improved Southdown upon the old Wilt- 
 sliire horned sheep and the old Berkshire Knot. 
 
 (i) The old Wiltshires were the largest of the fine wooled 
 breeds of England, but they were lank and ungainly in body; 
 they were white or mottled in the face and legs, and both 
 sexes had horns. 
 
 (2) The old Berkshires were strong, active and vigorous ; 
 one type only had horns, and both types generally had dark 
 faces and feet. 
 
 (3) Both the Wiltshire and Berkshire breeds had long 
 and strong limbs, both had Ivoman noses, and both were very 
 hardy, but were hard feeders and slow in maturing. 
 
 II. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) In very many instances Southdown rams were used 
 upon the native ewes, but sometimes the native rams were 
 used upon Southdown ewes. 
 
 (2) A careful system of selection followed, and after a 
 time crossbred rams of the progeny were chosen. 
 
 (3) In this way a breed was formed which retained the 
 size and hardihood of the old native breed, and the good feed- 
 ing qualities of the Southdown. 
 
 III. When improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) It commenced about the beginning of the century, or 
 even prior to that date, but 
 
 (2) The perfecting of the breed belongs rather to the last 
 than to the first half of th^ century. 
 
 IV. There was lack of uniformity for a time 
 
 in the Improved Hampshire Downs, owing 
 
 (i) To the varied nature of the methods of improvement 
 adopted, and 
 
 243 
 
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HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP. 245 
 
 (2) To the variations in soils in different sections where 
 they were reared, yet notwithstanding, 
 
 (3) The Improved Hampshires have been brought to a 
 high state of uniformity. 
 
 V. The improvers of Hampshire Downs. 
 
 (1) Early in the century many farmers engaged in the 
 work without concerted action, and hence without uniformity 
 in plan, but 
 
 (2) About 1834 or 1835, William Humphrey of Oak Ash, 
 Newbury, commenced a work which resulted in great improve- 
 ment to the breed, and later 
 
 (3) Improvement was carried still further by Mr. Law- 
 rence of Bulbridge, and Mr. Morrison of Fonthill. 
 
 VI. Distribution of Hampshire Downs. 
 
 (i) Although this breed originated in the counties of 
 Hampshire, Wiltshire and Berkshire, they are now found to 
 some extent in Dorset, Sussex, Surrey and other counties of 
 England. 
 
 (2) Prior to the Civil war they were introduced in con- 
 siderable numbers into the southern states, but the flocks were 
 practically annihilated during that contest. 
 
 (3) The first importation to the northern states was made 
 by Thomas Messenger of Great Neck, L. I., N. Y., in 1855, but 
 importations were infrequent until within the last two or three 
 decades. 
 
 VII. Organizations. 
 
 (i) Associations in the interests of the breed have been 
 formed both in Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 (2) The Hampshire Down Breeders' Association of 
 America was organized in 1889. 
 
 (3) The first volume of the Hampshire Down Flock 
 Record was issued in 1890. 
 
 VIII. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Hampshires are now distributed in nineteen states of 
 the Union and small flocks exist in Ontario and Quebec. 
 
 (2) They are most numerous in the states of New York, 
 Michigan, Pennsylvania and Ohio and in the order named. 
 
 (3) Distribution has not yet been extended to the south- 
 ern and southwestern states. 
 
 IX. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) In all 7,450 animals have been recorded. 
 (2) Of these 2,088 are males and 5,362 females. 
 
246 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size the Hampshire Downs are second only to the 
 Oxfords among the middle wool breeds, and they are a close 
 second to them in average weight. 
 
 (2) The average weight of rams at maturity and in good 
 flesh may be put at 250 pounds and of ewes 200 pounds. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Hampshires are admirably adapted to locations near 
 large cities, where both arable and pasture lands are inter- 
 spersed, as they furnish large lambs for the early markets, 
 either pure or when crossed. 
 
 (2) In other words, they are best adapted to an intensive 
 system of farming. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are excellent. 
 
 (2) They produce lambs of heavier weight at an earlier 
 age, it is claimed, than any other breed. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are good when the pastures are not too 
 broken, as 
 
 (2) The staying powers of the old original breeds have 
 in a measure been retained. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Here also they excel, as has been amply testified by 
 their winnings at leading fat stock shows. 
 
 (2) Hampshires may be fattened at an early age and they 
 stand forcing well. 
 
 (3) Lambs have frequently been made to gain a pound 
 per day from birth until marketed. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The meat is juicy and tender, and ordinarily has the 
 fat and lean well intermixed, but 
 
 (2) The proportion of the bone is larger than in some 
 breeds. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Hampshires are specially valuable in crossing where 
 early and quick maturing and large-sized lambs are wanted, 
 
HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP. 247 
 
 and more especially where the ewes are of the compact and 
 small order. 
 
 (2) Lambs from crossbred ewes may be made to attani 
 
 much size at an early age. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are excellent, as good milking and good breed- 
 ing qualities go together. 
 
 (2) They inherit their good breeding qualities from the 
 old original breeds. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) They shear somewhat heavier fleeces than the South- 
 downs, averaging probably from seven to ten pounds per fleece, 
 unwashed. 
 
 (2) The wool is of medium length, but a little coarser 
 perhaps than Shropshire wool. 
 
 X. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Hampshires are much larger, are more prolific and 
 better milkers and produce a heavier fleece. 
 
 (2) Southdowns have wider adaptation, especially in their 
 grazing qualities, and dress somewhat better on the block. 
 
 (3) In other respects they are nearly equal. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the standard of excellence 
 drawn up by the American Hampshire Down Breed- 
 ers' Association in 1890: 
 
 (i) Head and Legs — 
 
 (a) Head, moderately large but not coarse; well covered 
 with wool on forehead and cheeks. 
 
 (b) Nostrils, wide. 
 
 (c) Color (head and legs), dark brown or black. 
 
 (d) Eyes, prominent and lustrous. 
 
 (e) Ears, moderately long and thin, and dark brown or 
 black in color. 
 
 (f) Legs, well under outside of body, straight, with good 
 size of bone ; black. 
 
 (2) Neck, Shoulders and Chest — 
 
 (a) Neck, a regul. r taper from shoulders to head, without 
 any hollow in front of shoulders, set high up on body. 
 
 (b) Shoulders, sloping, full, and not higher than the line 
 of back and neck. 
 
248 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (c) Chest, deep and full in the heart place, with breast 
 prominent and full. 
 
 (3) Body— . . 
 
 (a) Back, straight, with full spring of rib. 
 
 (b) Loin, wide and straight, without depression in front 
 of hips. 
 
 (c) Quarters, long from hips to rump, without sloping, 
 and deep in thigh. Broad in hips and rump with full hams. 
 Inside of thighs full. 
 
 11. Scale of points. 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Head — Size and shape, 5; eyes and ears, 3; 
 
 color, 5 ; legs and feet, 2 15 
 
 (2) Neck, Shoulders and Breast — Neck, 5 ; shoul- 
 ders, 10; chest and breast, 15 30 
 
 (3) Body — Back and loin, 15 ; ribs, 5 20 
 
 (4) Quarters — Length. 10 ; width, 10 ; twist, 5 . 25 
 
 (5) Wool — Forehead and cheeks, 2; belly, well cov- 
 ered, 3; quality, 5 10 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 III. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Hampshires are much larger and longer and are 
 more rangy. 
 
 (2) Are stronger in the head, ears and limbs. 
 
 (3) Are darker in the face and legs, and 
 
 (4) Are a little longer and considerably more open in 
 fleece. 
 
LECTURE NO. 14. 
 
 OXFORD DOWNS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Oxford Downs originated in a cross of 
 Cotswold rams upon Hampshire Down ewes, and to 
 a hmited extent probably on Southdown ewes. 
 
 (i) Their cleanly cut profile, the thinner nose, the longer 
 forelock, the longer and thinner ear, and the compact form of 
 the body are derived from the Cotswold parent, and 
 
 (2) The dark face and legs, the comparatively close fleece 
 and the good quality of the mutton are largely due to the 
 Down parentage. 
 
 II. When improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) These crosses cannot be traced beyond the year 
 1833, and 
 
 (2) It is thought that no outside blood has been intro- 
 duced since 1854. 
 
 III. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Sometimes the crosses were from one parent breed 
 and sometimes from the other, but more commonly Cotswold 
 males were used. 
 
 (2) Those who made them at first were seeking the 
 improvement of mutton and wool qualities rather than the 
 establishment of a new breed. 
 
 (3) After a time the improvement secured was more than 
 maintained, through judicious selection and mating. 
 
 IV. The leading improvers of the breed. 
 
 (i) Foremost among these is Samuel Druce of Eynsham, 
 Oxon, Oxfordshire, who commenced the work of crossing in 
 1833 or 1834. 
 
 249 
 
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OXFORD DOWNS. 25 1 
 
 (2) At a later period the names of William Gillett of 
 South Leigh, J. Gillett of Brize Norton and J. Hitchman of 
 Little Milton are prominent among the many who helped to 
 improve the breed. 
 
 V. Recognition at exhibitions. 
 
 (i) They were first recognized as a distinct breed by the 
 Royal Agricultural Society in 1862. 
 
 (2) For many years they wert exhibited as crossbreds. 
 and were first called Oxford Downs in 1857. 
 
 VI. Distribution of Oxford Downs. 
 
 (i) The original central home of Oxford Downs was the 
 county of Oxford, but now they are somewhat numerously 
 found in several of the neighboring counties. 
 
 (2) They are found in nearly every state and kingdom 
 in Europe, in South x\frica, Australia, South America, Canada 
 and the United States. 
 
 VII. Importations to the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Oxford Downs were first imported to the United 
 States in 1853 by R. S. Fay of Lynn, Mass., and William C. 
 Rives of Virginia. 
 
 (2) Since 1880 considerable importing has been done both 
 by the United States and Canada. 
 
 VIII. Organizations. 
 
 (i) Registration has received attention both in England 
 and America. 
 
 (2) The American Oxford Down Sheep Record Associa- 
 tion was organized in 1884. 
 
 IX. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Oxford Downs are distributed over thirty-one states 
 of the Union and over nearly all the orovinces of Canada. 
 
 (2) Ontario, Indiana, Illinois, New York and Wisconsin 
 are the great centers of distribution, and probably in the order 
 named. 
 
 X. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) More than 18,800 Oxford Downs have been recorded, 
 of which nearly 8,000 are rams and the remainder ewes. 
 
 (2) The number of individuals recording is 619, of whom 
 142 are in Ontario. 
 
252 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Oxford Downs are the largest and heaviest of 
 the Down breeds, and they are also probably heavier than the 
 Leicesters in average weight. 
 
 (2) When in good flesh Oxford Down rams should weigh 
 about 250 to 275 pounds at maturity and the ewes about 200 
 to 225 pounds. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Oxford Downs are best adapted to arable sections 
 where the lands produce good pastures, but they will do fairly 
 well on coarse herbage. 
 
 (2) They are better adapted to intensive conditions than 
 to those opposite in character. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are at least average. 
 
 (2) The lambs attain heavy weights when one year old. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) Like the Cotswold, they graze well for so heavy a 
 breed, but 
 
 (2) They should not be kept on rugged or broken pas- 
 tures. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) They will make good gains for a long period, owing 
 to their great scale, but 
 
 (2) To suit the markets of to-day, they should be fattened 
 when young. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The meat, like that of all the Down breeds, ranks 
 high. 
 
 (2) It is abundant in quantity, of medium fineness of 
 grain and well intermixed. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Wherever lambs are wanted of large size, good niut- 
 ton qualities and good producers of heavy fleeces of medium 
 wool, the Oxford Downs will make a good cross. 
 
 (2) Where pastures are good they have been found to 
 cross well upon Merinos, but not under conditions the 
 opposite. 
 
OXFORD DOWNS. 253 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are very good. 
 
 (2) They breed regularly, have fair prolificacy and are 
 good milkers and nurses. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The wool is coarser than in any of the other Down 
 breeds, but it is also considerably heavier to the fleece. 
 
 (2) In well kept flocks, the average fleece should weigh 
 from ten to twelve pounds, unwashed. 
 
 X. Compared with the Southdowns. 
 
 (i) Oxford Downs are mi^ch larger and heavier, arc 
 better adapted to intensive conditions and also for crossing 
 when increase in size and weight of wool are wanted. 
 
 (2) Southdowns mature more quickly, have a wider range 
 of general adaptation and are better suited for crossing and 
 grading when refinement in form and quality is desired. 
 
 (3) In other essentials they are about equal. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the American Oxford Down Record Association . 
 
 BREED TYPE OF ANIMALS, 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Form of a good general appearance, made by a 
 well balanced conformation, free from coarse- 
 ness in any part, and showing good style both 
 at rest and in motion 15 
 
 (2) Head of moderate length and wid^h between 
 the ears and between the eyes, and well covered 
 with wool over poll and down to the eyes. Color 
 of face, an even dark gray or brown, either with 
 
 or without gray spot on tip of nose ... 6 
 
 (3) When fully matured and in good condition, 
 rams should weigh 250 to 350 pounds, ewes 
 180 to 275 pounds "5 
 
 (4) Ears medium size, not too thick and of an even 
 brown or dark gray color .... 2 
 
 (5) Legs short, strong in bone, flat and of even 
 dark gray or brown color, placed squarely under 
 the body and well apart . , , , '3 
 
254 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 CONSTITUTION. 
 
 (6) Large around the heart and wide ancr fiill in 
 the chest lo 
 
 (7) The movement • 'St be bold and vigorous . . 5 
 
 (8) Eyes, bold, prominent and bright . . .4 
 
 (9) Skin, bright pink in color 3 
 
 ( 10) Neck strong and muscular in rams and well set 
 
 on in both sexes 3 
 
 MUTTON FORM AND QUALITY. 
 
 (11) Wide and straight on top of shoulders, back, 
 loin and rump, from base of neck to tail . .15 
 
 (12) Full shoulders and thighs, well meated both 
 inside and outside 5 
 
 (13) Flanks well filled and strong so as to make the 
 lower lines of the body as straight as possible, 
 and side lines straight or rather full . . .4 
 
 (14) The whole carcass evenly covered with good, 
 well marbled meat 6 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 (is) Fleece of moderate length, close and of even 
 quality, covering the whole carcass well, and 
 free from black patches upon the body, neck 
 or head I5 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. The following additional points are sub- 
 mitted : 
 
 (i) The color of the face and legs is usually a little darker 
 than brown. 
 
 (2) The rear portion of the cheeks is covered with wool. 
 
 (3) The ears have but moderate erection and play. 
 
 (4) The legs are usually darker than brown and the fore 
 legs are round rather than fiat. 
 
 (5) The movement is at least moderately vigorous. 
 
 (6) pyes, at least moderately bold. 
 
 (7) Neck, inclining to round, of medium length, not large 
 at the junction with the head and increasing gradually in width 
 and depth until it blends nicely with the shoulder and breast. 
 
 (8) Shoulders and thighs, broad. 
 
 (9) Carcass, evenly covered with meat. 
 
 III. ' General Appearance — The Oxford Down 
 is a large, substantial and stately looking sheep, 
 
OXFORD DOWNS. 255 
 
 neither rangy nor yet of the most compact or low set 
 type and covered with a heavy fleece of medium 
 wool which stands at right angles to the body. 
 
 IV. Compared with Southdowns. 
 
 (i) They are much larger, heavier and stronger in bone. 
 
 (2) They have a longer head, considerably longer ears 
 and much longer foretop of wool. 
 
 (3) The face and legs are more of a dark brown in 
 color, and 
 
 (4) The fleece is very much longer, heavier and coarser. 
 
 V. Compared with Shropshires- 
 
 (i) They are considerably stronger in body, and not so 
 long for the width. 
 
 (2) They are longer in head and ear and have less but 
 longer wool on head. 
 
 (3) The face and legs are not so dark, and 
 
 (4) The fleece is very much heavier and coarser. 
 

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LONG WOOLED BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 15. 
 
 LEICESTER SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Leicester breed of sheep is so named 
 from the county in England in which it originated. 
 
 (i) It was formerly frequently spoken of as the New 
 Dishley breed, from the home of Robert Bakewell, its origi- 
 nator, who lived at Dishley Hall, near Loughboro, in Leices- 
 tershire, but 
 
 (2) It was more commonly known as the New Leicester. 
 
 II. The formation of the breed. 
 
 (i) The Improved Leicester was built upon a foundation 
 of the old long wooled sheep of the neighborhood, commonly 
 spoken of as the Old Dishley breed. 
 
 (2) They were large, coarse, long and thin in the carcass, 
 had flat sides, large bones and thick, rough legs ; their wool 
 was long and coarse and they were withal slow feeders. 
 
 III. When improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Bakewell commenced the work of improvement in 
 I755i or about that date, and continued it until his death. 
 
 (2) He left an animal so perfectly developed that there 
 was left little chance for further improvement unless in the 
 line of wool production. 
 
 IV. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Bakewell invariably chose animals for breeding which 
 possessed in the highest degree the qualities which he sought. 
 
 (2) He rendered these permanent by continued selection 
 and in-and-in breeding. 
 
 17 257 
 
258 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Leading qualities sought by Bakewell. 
 
 (i) Greater symmetry of form. 
 
 (2) Improved qualities of food assimilation and fattening. 
 
 (3) An earlier maturity. 
 
 (4) A reduction in the proportion of bone and offal, and 
 
 (5) Greater development in the parts most valuable on 
 the block. 
 
 VI . Weaknesses resulting from Bakewell' s 
 methods. 
 
 (i) Too great a delicacy of constitution. 
 
 (2) A less degree of prolificacy. 
 
 (3) Impaired milking qualities, and 
 
 (4) An insufficient wool product. 
 
 VII. System of ram letting. 
 
 (i) This system seems to have been first introduced by 
 Bakewell. 
 
 (2) At first he could only realize 17s. and 6d. per ram 
 for the season, but ere long he readily secured 100 guineas 
 for the best animals. 
 
 (3) In 1789 he was paid 6,200 guineas for the hire of 
 his rams. 
 
 VIII. Distribution of the breed. 
 
 (i) Within fifty years from the establishment of the New 
 Leicester breed it had superseded nearly all the long wooled 
 breeds in England, or had been so mingled with them as to 
 obliterate their former distinctions. 
 
 (2) Years ago they were more widely distributed in 
 ether countries than any of the British breeds. 
 
 (3) They were introduced into Virginia and New Jersey 
 prior to the War of Independence, and later into other states, 
 particularly New York, where for a time they became the pre- 
 vailing breed, but they have not obtained an extensive foothold 
 in the west. 
 
 (4) They were first imported into Canada about 1800 by 
 Rev. Mr. Toofy of Quebec, and in all the Dominion they have 
 been used in grading to a greater extent than all the other 
 breeds combined. 
 
 IX. The two types of Leicesters, viz., the Bake- 
 well and the Border. 
 
 (i) The latter are of the same general style as the Bake- 
 well Leicester, but they are larger, though not quite so 
 compact. 
 
LEICESTER SHEEP. 259 
 
 (2) They are also more prominent in the nose, have 
 whiter faces and legs, but are more inclined to bareness on 
 the belly. 
 
 X. Organizations. 
 
 (i) It is simply imexplainable that a breed which has per- 
 formed so prominent a part in the formation of other breeds 
 should have been so many years without organized protection 
 in Great Britain. 
 
 (2) The American Leicester Breeders' Association was 
 formed in i^ 
 
 XI. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Pure bred Leicesters are now recorded from twenty- 
 one states and provinces of Canada. 
 
 (2) In the United States they are most numerously kept 
 in Michigan, Pennsylvania, Oregon, Nebraska, Iowa and Illi- 
 nois, and in the order named. 
 
 (3) In Canada they are most numerously kept in Ontario, 
 New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince Edward Island and British 
 Columbia, and in the order named. 
 
 (4) It is thought that Ontario possesses more Leicesters 
 than all the states combined. 
 
 XII. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) Two volumes of the flock book have been issued 
 and 3,486 animals are recorded, of which 958 are males and 
 2,528 females. 
 
 (2) Owing to their early introduction into this country 
 the number of grades is relatively far greater in proportion to 
 the pure breds than with the other breeds. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) Leicesters are not so heavy as the Cotswolds or Lin- 
 colns. but they weigh more than any of the middle wooled 
 breeds unless the Hampshire Down and Oxford Dowm. 
 
 (2) The average weight of a mature Leicester ram in 
 good flesh may be put at 225 to 250 pounds and of a ewe at 
 175 to 200 pounds. 
 
 II. Adaptabihty. 
 
 (i) They are specially adapted to arable sections, and 
 
26o THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) To climates which produce an abundance of succulent 
 vegetation. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) No breed excels them in early maturing qualities or in 
 aptitude to fatten at an early age, hence 
 
 (2) They are easy keepers, and the lambs can be marketed 
 when young. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are only fair, as they are not particularly well 
 adapted to "roughing it," but 
 
 (2) They are eminently adapted to folding and feeding on 
 specially prepared pastures, as turnips and rape. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the very best. 
 
 (2) No other breed is more docile, feeds more quickly, or 
 gives a better return for the food fed. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The meat is juicy and plentiful and the offal is 
 light, but 
 
 (2) The proportion of fat is large, and it is laid on too 
 much externally. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) No breed will render better service in crossing where 
 early maturity and good fleshing and easy keeping qualities are 
 sought, and 
 
 (2) High grade Leicesters are equally well adapted for 
 being crossed upon by the Down breeds. 
 
 (3) Such crosses usually lessen the size somewhat, but 
 they improve the quality of t.^e meat. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Like the highly improved Southdowns they are not 
 specially noted for prolificacy and high milking qualities, but 
 
 (2) When properly managed there will be no trouble 
 from the sources named. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The fleece should average from nine to eleven pounds 
 of unwashed wool. 
 
 (2) The wool is lustrous, and is perhaps the finest pro- 
 duced by the long wooled breeds. 
 
LEICESTER SHEEP. 261 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 I. In the absence of an authorized scale of 
 points, the following is submitted. 
 
 (i) Sice — Medium, with a leaning to increase rather than 
 decrease. 
 
 (2) General Outline — Symmetrical, parallelogrammic and 
 everywhere well proportioned. 
 
 (3) Head — Small for the size of the body, but much 
 stronger in the rams, somewhat long and fine, tapering toward 
 the muzzle, and Roman-nosed, especially in the Border 
 varieties. 
 
 (a) It is snowy white when young, but becomes some- 
 what darker with age, and the same is true of the legs. 
 
 (b) It is usually entirely free from wool, but sometimes 
 there is very short wool, covering a part of the forehead, which 
 is broad, as is also the poll. 
 
 (c) Eye, prominent, with a quiet expression. 
 
 (d) Ears, thin, moderately long, and without droop. 
 
 (4) Neck — Short rather than long, round rather than flat, 
 straight above, fine at the junction with the head, broad and 
 deep at the base and carrying the head with but moderate 
 erection. 
 
 (5) Back — Wide and straight from base of neck to tail- 
 head and well covered in every part when in good flesh. 
 
 (a) Withers, broad, close and level. 
 
 (b) Loin, wide, strong and full. 
 
 (6) Foreqtiarters — Fully equal in development to the 
 hindquarters. 
 
 (o) Shoulders, splendidly rounded out from the withers 
 and blending nicely with a full neck-vein and crops. 
 
 (b) Chest, very wide and deep. 
 
 (c) Breast, to correspond with chest in width and depth 
 and beautifully filled and rounded. 
 
 (d) Brisket, wide, rounded and well forward. 
 
 (e) Forearm, broad, full and neatly tapering. 
 
 (7) Barrel — Only moderately long in the barrel and nicely 
 rounded out. 
 
 (a) Ribs, close, coming well forward and backward and 
 of round and deep spring. 
 
 (b) Fore and hind flanks equally low and full. 
 
 (c) Heart girth and flank girth excellent and about equal. 
 
 (d) Underline, straight. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long, wide and deep, but sometimes 
 there is over much narrowing toward the buttock. 
 
 (a) Hips, large, level on top with line of back and on side 
 with barrel. 
 
 (b) Crupper, creased above the spinal column. 
 
262 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (c) Thighs, broad, full and nicely tapering toward hock. 
 
 (d) Buttock, square and straight. 
 
 (e) Twist, full, broad and low. 
 
 (9) Legs — Of moderate length and fine rather than coarse 
 in bone, white in color, bare of wool on the lower half of the 
 length and standing straight and wide apart. 
 
 (10) Fleece — The wool is of good length, glossy and of 
 good fiber, and should cover the whole carcass save the head 
 and legs. 
 
 (a) It hangs in fine spirals at the outer surface rather 
 than in masses, and 
 
 ih) The skin under it inclines to thin, soft, elastic and 
 is of a pinkish tinge. 
 
 II. General Appearance — The Leicester is 
 symmetrically, evenly and plumply developed, has a 
 massive and yet refined frame, a restful but not slug- 
 gish carriage, and is, when in good form, a beautiful 
 animal. 
 
LECTURE NO. i6. 
 
 LINCOLN SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. This breed has long inhabited the lowlands 
 of Lincolnshire and to some extent other counties on 
 the east coast of England. 
 
 (i) Their value was not recognized to any great extent 
 beyond their native county and those adjoining it prior to 1850. 
 
 (2) Now they are found over the whole of Lincoln and 
 Rutland, and over parts of several of the neighboring counties. 
 
 IL A century ago they were large, ungainly 
 animals with an immense fleece of ragged, oily wool. 
 
 (i) They had thick, large necks with flabby dewlap, were 
 forward in the shoulder, had flat ribs and deep bellies, and 
 were inclined to lay on fat at the rumps and internally. 
 
 (2) They were covered with wool even longer than at 
 present. 
 
 IIL How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) The old Lincolns were chiefly improved through the 
 free use of Leicester blood and improved modes of breeding 
 and feeding. 
 
 (2) The Leicester cross greatly improved the symmetry 
 and the feeding qualities of the Lincolns. 
 
 IV. Recognition at the shows. 
 
 (i) The Lincolns were first recogni/ced as a pure breed 
 by the Royal Agricultural Society in 1862. 
 
 (2) Before that time they could only be shown in the 
 general long wooled classes. 
 
 V. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) Lincolns have found their way into Australia, New 
 Zealand, South Africa, South America, Canada and the United 
 States, but 
 
 263 
 
Fi^. 39. Typical Lincoln Ewe 
 
 (264) 
 
LINCOLN SHEEP. 265 
 
 (2) They have not been so numerously introduced into 
 Canada and the United States as many of the other breeds. 
 
 (3) They were first imported into the United States bv 
 Leonard D. Clift of Carmel, N. Y., in 1836. 
 
 VI. Organizations. 
 
 (i) The breeders of Lincohis have been somewhat slow 
 in organizing. 
 
 (2) The National American Lincoln Sheep Breeders' 
 Association was organized in 1891. 
 
 VI I. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Lincoln sheep are distributed throughout many of the 
 northern and middle states and in several of the provinces of 
 Canada. 
 
 (2) They are most numerous in Michigan, Wisconsin, 
 Illinois, Colorado and Ohio, and probably in the order named. 
 
 VIIT. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) There have been recorded 6,215 animals by the 
 National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association. 
 
 (2) Of these about 2,500 are rams and the remainder ewes. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) Lincolns are considered the largest and heaviest of 
 the domesticated breeds, and their weight is even greater rela- 
 tively than their size. 
 
 (2) The average weight of matured rams in good flesh 
 may be put at 275 to 300 pounds and of ewes at 225 to 250 
 pounds. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Lincolns are best adapted to arable sections where 
 production is abundant and where the pastures are level rather 
 than hilly. 
 
 (2) When kept in the pure form they are best adapted to 
 an intensive cultivation, but when crossed upon Merinos the 
 progeny do well on the ranges. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) Lincolns mature very quickly for their great size, but 
 (2) On the condition that food supplies are plentiful all 
 the time. 
 
266 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) Lincolns are adapted only to such grazing lands as 
 are productive and level, or gently undulating, hence 
 (2) They answer admirably where folding is desired. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Lincolns rank very high in feeding qualities. 
 (2) Their docility, improved breeding and vigorous diges- 
 tion enable them to make good returns for the food fed, 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) Lincolns dress well and furnish a large proportion of 
 good meat, but 
 
 (2) The amount of fat is large, and the grain and flavor 
 are not equal to those in some of the middle wool breeds. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Lincolns may be profitably used in crossing where 
 increased size and greater weight of fleece are wanted, but 
 
 (2) When so used the food supplies should be adapted to 
 the improvements made. 
 
 (3) A cross of t' e Lincoln upon the grade Merino has 
 long been a favorite with many ranchmen in the United States, 
 and more particularly in Australia. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are fair when the animals are kept in condition 
 not too high, but 
 
 (2) They are not more distinguished for prolificacy than 
 the other long wooled breeds. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) In wool production, Lincolns are seldom excelled as 
 to the weight of the fleece, which should not be less on an aver- 
 age in good flocks than twelve to fourteen pounds, unwashed. 
 
 (2) In fineness of quality it is nearly the same as the 
 Leicester, some authorities claiming that it is the finer of 
 the two. 
 
 X. Compared with Leicesters. 
 
 (i) The Lincolns are considerably larger and heavier 
 than the Leicesters and carry a considerably heavier fleece. 
 
 (2) The Leicesters have teen crossed upon other breeds 
 for their improvement to a much greater extent than the 
 Lincolns. 
 
LINCOLN SHEEP. 267 
 
 (3) In other essential characteristics they resemble each 
 other somewhat closely. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the National Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Associa- 
 tion : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Constitution — Body deep, back wide and 
 straight ; wide and full in the thigh, bright large 
 eyes; skin soft and of a pink color . . .25 
 
 (2) Size — Matured rams not less than 250 pounds 
 when in good condition, matured ewes not less 
 than 200 pounds 10 
 
 (3) Appearance — Good carriage and symmetry of 
 form . 10 
 
 (4) Body — Well proportioned, good bone and 
 length; broad hindquarters; legs standing well 
 apart, breast wide and deep . . . .15 
 
 (5) Head — Should be covered with wool to the 
 ears; tuft on forehead; eyes expressive; ears 
 fair length, dotted or mottled in color . . 10 
 
 (6) Neck — Medium length; good muscle, well set 
 
 on body ......••• 5 
 
 (7) Legs — Broad and set well apart; good shape; 
 color white, but some black spots do not dis- 
 qualify; wooled to the knees .... 10 
 
 (8) Fleece — Of even length and quality over body; 
 not less than eight inches long for one 
 year's growth 10 
 
 (9) Qitality of fFoo/— Rather fine; long wool; 
 strong, lustrous fiber ; no tendency to cot . .5 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. As the above scale of points is somewhat 
 lacking in detail, the following additional particulars 
 are submitted : 
 
 (i) 5t^£'— Medium for the breed, but varying to suit the 
 conditions of environment. 
 
 (2) General Outline — Strong, broad, massive. 
 
 (3) Hfac?— Medium but rather stronger than in the 
 Leicester, and of a somewhat darker tinge. 
 
268 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (a) The nose is scarcely so fine as in the Leicester. 
 (h) A tuft of rather short wool is found on the upper 
 part of the broad forehead. 
 
 (c) Eye, large, clear, restful. 
 
 (d) Ears, broader relatively than in the Leicester, fairly 
 long and dotted. 
 
 (4) Neck — Medium in length, but inclining to short. 
 
 (a) Not large at the head, straight above and so enlarged 
 as to blend perfectly at the shoulders. 
 
 (b) Throatiness is to be avoided even in the rams. 
 
 (5) Back — Straight, broad and wide to the tailhead. 
 
 (a) The withers and loin have much width, and 
 
 (b) The back should carry much flesh. 
 
 (6) Forequartcrs — Of plump development, fully equal to 
 that in the hindquarters. 
 
 (a) Shoulders, large, fully and smoothly rounded out and 
 well covered with flesh. 
 
 (b) Chest, wide and cylindrical. 
 
 (c) Breast, broad, deep, full and nicely rounded out. 
 
 (d) Brisket, broad, rounded and well forward. 
 
 (7) Barrel — Medium in length, cylindrical. 
 
 (a) Ribs, close, well sprung from the spinal columYi and 
 coming well forward and backward. 
 
 (b) Crops, full and even with shoulder. 
 
 (c) Fore and hind flanks, full and low. 
 
 (d) Heart girth and flank girth, excellent and about equal. 
 
 (e) Underline, straight. 
 
 (8) Hindquarters — Long, wide, deep, plump. 
 
 (a) Hips, large and most full in the center. 
 
 (b) Crupper, creased. 
 
 (c) Thighs, broad, full and well filled out downward. 
 
 (d) Buttock, broad and square. 
 
 (e) Twist, placed low and possessed of full development. 
 
 (9) Legs — Inclining to short, wide apart, strong and 
 straight, bare below knee and hock, and of a dull, white color, 
 but frequently spotted. 
 
 (10) Fleece — Very long, bright, strong in fiber and well 
 distributed over the body. 
 
 (a) It hangs in fairly large and wavy spirals, but some- 
 times it is flaked, and 
 
 (h) The skin beneath it should be of a pinkish color. 
 
 III. General Appearance — The well furnished 
 Lincoln in full fleece has a square-like and massive 
 form, the long wool coming well down toward the 
 ground. 
 
LINCOLN SHEEP. 269 
 
 IV. Compared with Leicesters. 
 
 (i) Lincolns are larger, stronger in bone and more 
 massive. 
 
 (2) The head is stronger, has a tuft of short wool on the 
 forehead, is of a darker shade of white and has somewhat 
 broader ears. 
 
 (3) The wool is much longer, is more evenly distributed 
 on every part, particularly the underline, is retained in good 
 form to a greater age and usually hangs in larger and more 
 wavy spirals. 
 

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LECTURE NO. 17. 
 
 COTSWOLD SHEEP ORIGIN AND HISTORY^ CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Cotswolds are a breed of sheep which 
 originated amid the low calcareous hills in the 
 eastern part of Gloucestershire, England. 
 
 (i) They were also found to some extent in Hereford 
 and Worcester. 
 
 (2) These hills, known as the Cots wold, produced a short, 
 nutritious herbage. 
 
 II. Cotswolds were so named 
 
 (i) From the sheds called cots or cottos, in which they 
 were housed in time of storms, and 
 
 (2) The naked hilly ground termed weald or wold upon 
 which they pastured. 
 
 III. The wool produced by these sheep was 
 famous centuries ago, hence 
 
 (i) Some regard the Cotswolds as of great antiquity, but 
 (2) As the wool in those times was fine, others regard the 
 
 Cotswolds as more modern in origin, and descended from sheep 
 
 brought from lower lands. 
 
 IV. The Cotswolds before improvement. 
 
 (i) They were large, tall and rangy, and were light in 
 the forequarters and flanks, but 
 
 (2) They produced n long and heavy fleece of coarse wool, 
 and were withal a very rugged and hardy breed. 
 
 V. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Improvement was at first secured by the introduction 
 of the Leicester cross, which soon extended' to all the flocks 
 of the breed. 
 
 (2) This cross diminished the size and coarseness of the 
 
 271 
 
2^2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 old Cotswold, but it lessened the wool product, and imparted 
 greater delicacy of constitution. 
 
 VI. When improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Crossing Cotswolds with Leicesters was introduced 
 about 1780 and continued until about 1820. 
 
 (2) Since 1820, selection and good managerrrtint Jtavc 
 effected still further improvement. 
 
 VII. Distribution of Cotswolds. 
 
 (i) During recent years they have been exported into 
 France, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United 
 States and other countries. 
 
 (2) They have been chiefly used in these lands with a 
 view to increase the size and wool product of other breeds. 
 
 VIII. Introduction into the United States. 
 
 (i) About 1832 the first Cotswold ram imported into 
 the United States was brought into New York state. 
 
 (2) -Subsequent importations were infrequent until within 
 the last quarter of a century. 
 
 (3) Some good flocks have also been established in 
 Canada. 
 
 IX. Organizations. 
 
 (i) The interests of the breed are now protected by 
 organizations both in Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 (2) The American Cotswold Association was organized 
 in 1878. 
 
 X. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Cotswolds are registered from every state in the 
 Union save Arizona, Louisiana, Texas and Florida, and from 
 every province in Canada. 
 
 (2) Wisconsin is probably the leading center for Cots- 
 wolds in the United States and Ontario for Canada. 
 
 XL Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) Eight volumes of the American Cotswold Record 
 have been issued. 
 
 (2) In all, 19,500 animals have been recorded. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) Cotswolds are the largest of the domesticated breeds 
 of sheep except Lincolns. 
 
 (2) They have quite as much scale as the former, but 
 
COTSWOLD SHEEP. 273 
 
 stand rather higher from the ground, and are a little less in 
 the flanks. 
 
 (3) The average weight of the mature Cotswold ram in 
 fair flesh is about 250 to 275 pounds and of the ewe 200 to 
 225 pounds. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) When pure, Cotswolds require good pastures, but can 
 climb moderate elevations. 
 
 (2) When crossed with some hardy breed, as the Merinos, 
 the progeny can feed on more rugged land and less fruitful 
 pastures. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) In early maturity they are now almost if not quite 
 equal to the Leicesters. 
 
 (2) The lambs make heavy weights at an early age. 
 
 IV. Grazing qualities. 
 
 (i) Relatively they are good grazers for a heavy breed, 
 but 
 
 (2) No heavy breed can graze so well upon lands more 
 rugged than mildly hilly. 
 
 V. Feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Cotswolds feed well either when folded or in sheds, 
 and 
 
 (2) When ill fed they are mere ungainly than some other 
 breeds. 
 
 VI. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) Cotswolds dress well on the block, but 
 (2) Much of the fat is laid on externally, and the meat 
 is only moderately fine in the grain. 
 
 VII. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Cotswolds cross well upon fine wooled breeds, as 
 Merino grades, when much medium wool with unproved mut- 
 ton qualities are desired. 
 
 (2) They also make an excellent outcross for restoring 
 size and wool production in certain grades where these have 
 been unduly diminished. 
 
 VIII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are much the same as in the other long wool 
 breeds, but 
 
 (2) In milking qualities the Cotswolds may have some 
 advantage, and they produce strong lambs, 
 18 
 
274 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IX. Wool production. 
 
 (i) The fleece is almost as heavy as that of the Lincoln, 
 and it is coarser. 
 
 (2) In good, well kept flocks it should weigh on an 
 average from eleven to fourteen pounds, unwashed. 
 
 X. Compared with Leicesters. 
 
 (i) Cotswolds are larger and have shown a somewhat 
 higher adaptation for outcrossing for renovating purposes. 
 
 (2) Leicesters are better adapted for crossing to effect 
 improvement in the form and meat producing qualities of 
 rough stocks. 
 
 (3) In other essentials they are very similar. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following standard of excellence was 
 drawn up by the American Cotswold Association : 
 
 FOR RAMS. 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Head — Not too fine, moderately small and broad 
 between the eyes and nostrils, but without a 
 short, thick appearance, and in young animals 
 well covered on crown with long, lustrous wool 8 
 
 (2) Face — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, 
 
 or white dappled with brown .... 4 
 
 (3) Nostrils — Wide and expanded, nose dark. , i 
 
 (4) Eyes — Prominent but mild looking ... 2 
 
 (5) Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin, and cov- 
 ered with short hair 4 
 
 (6) Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, taper- 
 ing gradually all the way to where the neck and 
 head join. The neck should be short, thick 
 and strong, indicating constitutional vigor and 
 free from coarse and loose skin ... 6 
 
 (7) Shoulders — Broad and full, and at the same 
 time join so gradually to the collar forward 
 and chine backward as not to leave the least 
 hollow in either place 8 
 
 (8) Forelegs — The mutton on the arm or fore thigh 
 should come quite to the knee ; leg, upright with 
 heavy bone, being clear from superfluous skin, 
 with wool to fetlock, and may be mixed with 
 gray 4 
 
COTSWOLD SHEEP. 275 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (9) Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the 
 
 legs wide apart ; girth or chest, full and deep . 10 
 
 (10) Fore Flank — Quite full, not showing hollow 
 behind the shoulder 5 
 
 (11) Back and Loin — Broad, flat and straight, from 
 which the ribs must spring with a fine circular 
 arch 12 
 
 (12) Belly — Straight on underline . . . . 3 
 
 (13) Quarters — Long and full, with mutton quite 
 down to the hock ....... 8 
 
 (14) Hock — Should stand neither in nor out . . 2 
 
 (15) Tzvist or Junction Inside Thighs — Deep, wide 
 and full, which, with a broad breast, will keep 
 the legs open and upright 5 
 
 (16) Fleece — The whole body should be covered with 
 long, lustrous wool 18 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 FOR EWES. 
 
 II. The scale of points is the same as for rams, 
 with the differences mentioned below : 
 
 (i) Head — Moderately fine instead of "not too fine, mod- 
 erately small," as in the rams. 
 
 (2) A'eck — The neck should be fine and graceful instead 
 of "short, thick and strong, indicating constitutional vigor,' 
 as in the rams. 
 
 (3) For neck, including collar, foreflank and belly, five, 
 four and five points are allowed respectively, whereas for the 
 rams "six, five and three" points are allowed. 
 
 III. General Appeoraiiee— The Cotswold is a 
 stately looking animal, of rectangular outline when 
 the fleece is well grown, massive in build and pos- 
 sessed of a fairly proud carriage. 
 
 IV. Compared with Leicesters. 
 
 (i) Cotswolds are considerably larger, something stronger 
 in the leg, and are more "upstanding." 
 
 (2) They are scarcely so wide in the chest, and are a 
 trifle lighter in the hind flank. 
 
 (3) Their wool is longer, hangs In larger and more wavy 
 spirals; they have a long and beautiful forelock, and they are 
 a less pure white in the face and legs. 
 
PART III 
 
 BREEDS OF SWINE 
 
 LECTURE NO. i. 
 
 SWINE ORIGIN OF THE DOMESTICATED RACES. 
 
 I. Swine (Stis scrofa) have been known to 
 exist in a wild state on the continents of Europe, 
 Asia and Africa ever since the dawn of history. 
 
 (i) With certain variations they are also found wild on 
 the continent of America and the islands of the Pacific, but 
 
 (2) They were not found in a wild condition on the con- 
 tinent of Australia. 
 
 II. Some zoologists have divided the various 
 species of swine into three genera, viz : 
 
 (i) True swine, including the wild hog of Europe, Asia 
 and Africa ; the babirussa of certain East Indian islands ; the 
 Papuan hog of New Guinea, and the wood swine of South 
 Africa. 
 
 (2) The wart bearing hogs of Africa, and 
 
 (3; The peccaries of America. 
 
 III. The various species of swine with certain 
 minor variations possess the following points of 
 resemblance in a greater or less degree : 
 
 (i) The head is prolonged, somewhat cone-shaped, and 
 ends in a movable cartilaginous disc. 
 
 (2) The neck is short, strong and muscular, and the limbs 
 are short and strong. 
 
 (3) The skin is thick and covered more or less with hair 
 and bristles. 
 
 (4) They are fond of plants and more especially of the 
 roots of these. 
 
 276 
 
SWINE. 277 
 
 (5) They eat flesh, but do not seek to capture living ani- 
 mals for food. 
 
 (6) They naturally resort to watery places in which to 
 wallow. 
 
 (7) They produce a number of individuals at one birth. 
 
 (8) Their senses of smell and hearing are peculiarly 
 acute, and 
 
 (9) The peculiarities of voice are very similar. 
 
 IV. The various species of the true wild hog 
 (Sns aper) have the following characteristics in 
 common : 
 
 (i) They are swift of foot and fierce in disposition. 
 
 (2) The males are possessed of enormous tusks. 
 
 (3) They are more easily tamed if captured when young. 
 
 (4) When matured they are solitary in their habits. 
 
 (5) They are nocturnal in their habits of feeding. 
 
 (6) The young are longitudinally striped for a time, and 
 
 (7) The sows suckle their young for many weeks and 
 defend them for a long period after they are weaned. 
 
 V. It is now pretty generally conceded that 
 the domestic varieties are descended from the wild 
 species, as 
 
 (i) The general anatomy is the same and the form and 
 general outline bear a somewhat close resemblance. 
 
 (2) The period of gestation is the same in both; they can 
 be successfully bred together and there is a general resem- 
 blance in the habits. 
 
 VL Under domestication the following are 
 some of the changes that take place : 
 
 (i) The ears become less movable, the tusks and muscles 
 of the neck diminish in size, the back and sides lengthen, the 
 flank and hindquarters deepen, the body becomes less capa- 
 cious, the limbs grow shorter, the bristles are partially or 
 wholly removed, and the animal becomes much less active. 
 
 (2) The stomach and intestines enlarge, they desire more 
 food and the tendency to obesity increases. 
 
 (3) The male loses the solitary habit, the female breeds 
 more frequently and has larger litters, and they seek their food 
 in the day. 
 
 VII. The domesticated species have been 
 known to revert to the wild state, as is witnessed by 
 
278 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 herds in South America, New Zealand and other 
 
 countries, but 
 
 (i) Such reversion is always slow. 
 
 (2) They do not revert to the solitary habit again, nor 
 have they the same fierceness of disposition as the wild species. 
 
 VIII. Swine have been subjected to domesti- 
 cation from a very early period, and even among 
 semi-barbarous peoples. 
 
 (i) Their flesh was held in high esteem by many of the 
 nations of antiquity, but 
 
 (2) The Jews, ancient Egyptians and Hindoos were not 
 allowed to eat it, nor are the followers of Mahomet. 
 
 IX. Two of the original breeds of swine in 
 Great Britain are still represented in what is known 
 as the Old English hog, and a breed found in the 
 Highlands and islands of Scotland. 
 
 (i) The distinctions of the former, represented at one 
 time by several sub-varieties, have been almost obliterated 
 thiough crossing. 
 
 (a) They were mostly white in color, had large and lank 
 bodies, a long snout, large pendant ears, long legs and coarse 
 hair with some bristles. 
 
 (b) They were hard feeders and slow maturers, but grew 
 to an enormous size. 
 
 (2) The latter were small, wnth rather erect ears and 
 coarse bristles along the spine, were dusky brown in color and 
 could subsist on the poorest fare. ♦ 
 
 X. The improved races of swine in England 
 are probably nearly all descended from the Old Eng- 
 lish hog and certain foreign crosses. 
 
 (i) They have been so much crossed and intercrossed 
 thiii it is difficult to classify them aright. 
 
 (2) While some of them are of world-wide reputation, 
 others are only known within limited areas. 
 
 XL The principal breeds of pigs in Britain at 
 the present time are the Yorkshire with certain sub- 
 varieties, as the Berkshire, the Tamworth, the Suf- 
 folk and the Essex. 
 
SWINE. 279 
 
 (i) The more local breeds Include the Dorset, Lincoln- 
 shire, Cheshire, Norfolk and Westmoreland. 
 
 (2) The three varieties of the Yorkshire are the Improved 
 or Large White, the Middle White and the Small White breed. 
 
 (3) The Suffolks are bred both black and white, the 
 former being frequently called the Black Suffolk. 
 
 XII. The originals of the swine in the United 
 States were brought from various countries in 
 Europe by the early settlers, but more especially 
 from Britain. 
 
 (i) Since that time all the British breeds possessed of 
 more than local notoriety have been introduced, and 
 
 (2) To a very limited extent only has improved blood 
 been drawn from any other source. 
 
 XIII. The purely American varieties are the 
 Chester White, the Poland-China, the Duroc-Jersey 
 or Jersey Red, the Cheshire and the Victoria. 
 
 XIV. Swine may be almost regarded as cos- 
 mopoHtan, as they can be reared in almost any coun- 
 try outside of the Arctic circles. 
 
 (i) Being gross feeders they utilize a large amount of 
 food that would otherwise go to waste. 
 
 (2) They are more prolific than any of the other domes- 
 ticated quadrupeds except the rabbit, and 
 
 (3) They are of inestimable use to the human family in 
 the food which they furnish. 
 
LECTURE NO. 2. 
 
 SWINE THEIR IMPROVEMENT AND CLASSIFICATION. 
 
 I. The swine of Great Britain have been 
 improved chiefly through crosses made with certain 
 foreign and native breeds, better food and improved 
 care. 
 
 II. The chief of the foreign breeds used in the 
 improvement of the swine of Great Britain are the 
 Chinese and the Neapohtan. 
 
 (i) The former have been used chiefly in the improve- 
 ment of the white breeds, and the latter in the improvement 
 of the black. 
 
 (2) These crosses were frequently resorted to early in 
 the century, but they have been almost entirely discontinued 
 during the last fifty years. 
 
 III. The Chinese breed described. 
 
 (i) They were a rather small race, with a somewhat long 
 body and swaying back, and belly coming near the ground. 
 
 (2) They had a short head, short snout, heavy jowls, 
 small ears standing well out from the head, short neck and 
 short legs, and were fine in bone. 
 
 (3) In color they were white or black, or a mixture of 
 both, white predominating. 
 
 (4) They had a remarkable tendency to fatten rapidly, 
 but were not prolific as breeders. 
 
 IV. The Neapohtan breed described. 
 
 (i) They were a small breed with a long, cylindrical 
 body, standing on rather short and fine limbs. 
 
 (2) They had a small head, dishing face, bony and flat 
 forehead, very slender and rather long snout, very full jowls, 
 small thin ears standing well forward ; broad, short neck, 
 heavy above : flat back, slightly elevated hindquarters and well 
 developed hams and shoulders. 
 
 (3) They had a soft and fine skin and but little hair, which 
 was of a slate or bluish plum color. 
 
 280 
 
SWINE. 281 
 
 (4) Their flesh had a fair proportion of lean and was 
 tender and well flavored. 
 
 (5) They also fattened easily and matured quickly, but 
 were somewhat shy breeders. 
 
 V. Effects of the Chinese and Neapohtan 
 crosses. 
 
 (i) Both crosses tended to reduce the size of the bone, to 
 shorten the limbs and ears, to refine the hair, and to improve 
 the maturing and fattening qualities, but 
 
 (2) These advantages were gain d at the cost of decreased 
 size, a lessened hardihood and impaired breeding qualities. 
 
 VI. Swine in the United States have been 
 improved through crosses chiefly derived from Brit- 
 ain, the skillful blending of varieties and improved 
 management, 
 
 (i) This improvement may be said to have begun in 1832, 
 when Berkshires were first imported. 
 
 (2) Quite as much probably is owing to the skillful blend- 
 ing of materials at hand as to the introduction of foreign blood. 
 
 VII. The classification of the pure breeds of 
 swine is confessedly difficult at the present time, as 
 
 (i) The evolution of some of the breeds is still going on, 
 so that complete fixity of type in some instances has not yet 
 been reached. 
 
 (2) These changes are chiefly caused by a change in the 
 demands of the market, consequent upon a change in the 
 popular taste, but to some extent they are being made to meet 
 the tastes of breeders. 
 
 VIII. If the breeds of swine were classified on 
 the basis of color, they would be virtually divided 
 into three classes, viz : the white, the black and the 
 sandy colored breeds. 
 
 (i) The white breeds are the Chester White, the York- 
 shire in all its varieties, the Cheshire, the Victoria and the 
 Sufi'olk. 
 
 (2) The black breeds are the Poland-China, the Berkshire 
 and the Essex. 
 
 (3) The sandy breeds are the Tamworth and the Duroc- 
 Jersey. 
 
2S2 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IX. Sometimes classification is based upon 
 the bacon-producing qualities of the swine, that is, 
 upon their ability to produce a large amount of side 
 meat of superior quality. 
 
 (i) The distinctive bacon breeds at present in the United 
 States are the Large Improved Yorkshire and the Tamworth, 
 
 (2) Next in adaptation for bacon production are the 
 Chester White, the Berkshire, the Cheshire, the Duroc-Jersey, 
 the Victoria and the Poland-China breeds, and probably in the 
 order named, and 
 
 (3) Lowest in adaptation for the same are the Small 
 Yorkshire, the Essex and the Suffolk breeds. 
 
 X. Classification is ordinarily based upon size, 
 and exhibitions hitherto have only recognized but 
 two classes, viz : the small and large breeds, but 
 
 (i) Such a classification is not sufficiently flexible, as 
 (2) It brings breeds into competition sometimes which 
 vary too much in size and leading characteristics. 
 
 XL The pure breeds of swine in America may 
 with more propriety be classed as the large, the 
 medium and the small breeds. 
 
 (i) The large breeds are the Chester White, the Improved 
 Yorkshire and the Tamworth. 
 
 (2) The medium breeds are the Berkshire, the Poland- 
 China, the Victoria, the Duroc-Jersey and the Cheshire. 
 
 (3) The small breeds are the Suffolk, the Essex and the 
 Small Yorkshire. 
 
 XII. The aim has been in the above classifica- 
 tion to name the breeds in the order of their size, 
 commencing with the largest, but no classification 
 can be submitted at present that is sure to meet with 
 universal acceptance, owing 
 
 (i) To the lack of data available for making comparisons 
 as to average weights. 
 
 (2) To the variations of type in some of the breeds in 
 different localities and in the same locality, and 
 
 (3) To the transformation in some of the breeds that 
 is still going on. 
 
LECTURE NO. 3. 
 
 SWINE LEADING ESSENTIALS AS TO FORM. 
 
 I. Essentials of form common to all the breeds 
 
 of swine. 
 
 (i) The parallelogrammic shape, with length and depth as 
 the most striking characteristics. 
 
 (2) Good length and depth of body for the breed and 
 sufficient width and compactness. 
 
 (3) Levelness, evenness and smoothness of outline, and 
 
 (4) A body well supported by rather short straight limbs. 
 
 II. The points of difference not so important 
 relatively include the following : 
 
 (i) Variations in size of carcass and of bone. 
 
 (2) Variations in the size and shape of the head. 
 
 (3) Variations in the length and thickness of the neck. 
 
 (4) Variations in the length, shape and carriage of 
 the ear. 
 
 (5) Variations in the relative length, depth and width of 
 the coupling. 
 
 (6) Variations in the size, length and strength of bone 
 in the leg, and 
 
 (7) Variations in the color, length, quantity and quality 
 01 the hair. 
 
 III. The more important indications of cor- 
 rect form in swine, and important probably in the 
 order given, are the following : — 
 
 (i) Constitution as indicated by chest capacity, strength 
 of limbs and spine and an active, easy carriage. 
 
 , (2) Sufficient general development for the breed, including 
 length, depth and width. 
 
 (3) Smoothness and symmetry of outline. 
 
 (4) Good feeding qualities as indicated by the absence of 
 coaibeness in the head, limbs and hair. 
 
 283 
 
284 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (5) Capacity in the barrel as indicated by sufficient length, 
 depth and evenness of width for the breed. 
 
 IV. Leading essentials of the boar as to form, 
 
 given in detail. 
 
 (i) ^S'/rc— Medium to large, for the breed and the bone 
 medium to strong. 
 
 (2) Outline — The body should be parallelogrammic in 
 shape and compact rather than rangy, and the whole outline 
 should have the appearance of strength and vigor, 
 
 (3) Head — Medium to strong in size, short rather than 
 long, masculine and yet not coarse. 
 
 (a) Snout, short rather than long, and terminating in a 
 large rather than a small disk. 
 
 (b) Forehead, wide. 
 
 (c) Eye, medium in size and clear, and not hidden with 
 overgrowing fat. 
 
 (d) Dish, varying with the breed. 
 
 (e) Poll, broad. 
 
 (f) Jowl, medium, but varying much in breeds. 
 
 (g) Ear, medium, but varying much with the breed in 
 size, shape and erection. 
 
 (4) Neek — Short rather than long, moderately wide and 
 deep at the junction with the head, and increasingly so toward 
 the junction with the shoulders. 
 
 (a) The shape may be spoken of as flattish oval, with a 
 base somewhat enlarged. 
 
 (b) The rise from the poll to the withers is regular and 
 slightly arching. 
 
 (c) The throat is nearly on a level with the brisket and 
 belly, but varies considerably with the breed. 
 
 (d) The blending with the body is very complete, inas- 
 much as the lower rear base of the neck fills the whole of the 
 space known as the breast in cattle and sheep. 
 
 (5) Body — Long and deep and fairly broad, but varying 
 considerably in all these respects in the various breeds, and 
 e{|ually well developed in the fore and hindquarters. 
 
 (a) Back, level from base of neck to near the tailhead, 
 but perceptibly arched in the long-bodied breeds, evenly and 
 fj'irly broad, and with but little outward and downward slope, 
 until the somewhat sudden descent of the side is reached. 
 
 (b) Underline, straight from brisket to hind flank. 
 
 (c) Shoulder, large, broad, deep and but slightly rounding 
 out toward the center. 
 
 (d) Brisket, broad. 
 
 (e) Chest, well developed, as indicated by width and depth 
 of shoulders, width of brisket and heart girth. 
 
SWINE. -2^5 
 
 (f) Arm and thigh, medium to short, broad, rather flat 
 
 and much tapered to the knee and hock. 
 
 and mucn tap ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^,^ he 
 
 breedT deep and straight and even from the shoulder to the 
 W^^\\ and as thick below as above. , i j 
 
 r/'fRibs springing well from the backbone, then descend- 
 ing with a rather quick curve, and extending we 1 down. 
 
 (i) Fore and hind flanks, low and well filled. 
 
 (j) Heart girth and flank girth, good and about eqaal. 
 
 (k) Hindquarters, long, deep and fairly wide. 
 
 m Ham large full, well down on the thigh, only slightly 
 roun^in?towardThe center and abruptly rounded toward the 
 
 ^"" On; Tail, not coarse, and curled rather than straight 
 
 (n) Buttock, full and slightly rounding from the tad to 
 
 the twist. 1 r 11 
 
 (o) Twist, low, broad and full. 
 
 V^) jr^^a^_Short, rather than long, with short pasterns, 
 strong, but ''not coarse, straight, standing wide apart and car- 
 rving with ease the weight of the body. 
 
 - \j) skin~Smoo\h, without scales, and covered w h a 
 plentiful coat of rather strong, but not coarse hair, and without 
 
 "^ (8^) General Appearance— Tht appearance should indicate 
 vigor, easy action and docility. 
 
 V. The SOW should possess the same leading 
 essentials as to form as the boar, with the following 
 points of difference: 
 
 (i) She is not so large in frame, is finer in general outline 
 and in bone, and is more roomy in the coupling. 
 
 (2) The head is smaller and considerably more rehned. 
 
 (3) The neck is less massive in its development. 
 
 (4) The hair is not so coarse nor so strong, more espe- 
 cially on the neck, and ,..11 
 
 (5) She should have not less than twelve teats placed 
 
 well apart. 
 
 VI. The style of pig bred during the recent 
 decades. 
 
 (i) Breeders gave the preference to animals with small 
 and short heads, short and thick necks, broad and compact 
 bodies and fine limbs. ^ ■ a 
 
 (2) While such preferences secured easy keeping ana 
 great fattening qualities, they produced more or less of deli- 
 cacv of constitution, impaired the breeding powers and gave 
 nieat excessively fat and with but a small proportion of bacon. 
 
286 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 VII. Modifications in form that are likely to 
 be more sought for by breeders. 
 
 (i) The demand for leaner meat with more bacon is 
 bringing into favor pigs with medium heads and necks, longer 
 bodies and somewhat stronger limbs. 
 
 (2) Such animals are usually more rugged if not so quick 
 in maturing, are better breeders, produce more bacon and ?. 
 larger proportion of lean meat, and 
 
 (3) They also mature sufficiently early to be marketed at 
 from six to eight months old, when they should weigh from 
 150 to 200 pounds, or even more if well fed. 
 
 (4) These modifications may be secured through crossing 
 the short-bodied grade types by sires of the bacon breeds, or 
 by continued selection within the breed in any of the medium 
 types. 
 
THE LARGE BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 4. 
 
 CHESTER WHITES ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Chester Whites originated in Chester 
 county, Pennsylvania, from which they derive their 
 name. 
 
 (i) They are probably the oldest of the breeds purely 
 American in origin. 
 
 (2) The establishment and improvement of the breed has 
 occupied a large portion of the century. 
 
 II. Materials used in forming the breed. 
 
 (i) The foundation stocks appear to have been large 
 hogs, white in color, found in that part of Pennsylvania. 
 
 (2) These were probably descended from the Old English 
 White breed, the ancestors of the various Yorkshire breeds. 
 
 III. The work of improvement. 
 
 (i) The first impulse to the improvement of the white 
 hog? of Chester county appears to have originated in the impor- 
 tation of a pair of white pigs from Bedford, England, by Capt. 
 James Jeffries of Westchester, Pa. 
 
 (2) Improvement since that time has been more or less 
 continuous, and has been greatly advanced by selection and 
 more recently by breeding to a standard. 
 
 IV. The improvers of Chester Whites. 
 
 (i) A number of farmers appear to have engaged in this 
 
 287 
 
o 
 
 (/3 
 
 <J 
 
 «0 
 
 'a. 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
CHESTER WHITES. 289 
 
 work simultaneously, and chiefly at first with a view to secur- 
 ing a more suitable animal for the market. 
 
 (2) But prominent among the improvers of the breed 
 stand the names of Thomas Wood of Chester county, Pa., and 
 S. H. Todd of Wakeman, O. 
 
 V. Influences that have retarded distribution. 
 
 (i) When the demand for Chester Whites became greater 
 than the supply, dishonest men sold large numbers as pure 
 which had little in common with Chester Whites save the 
 color, and 
 
 (2) In the West they have been found to some extent 
 liable to mange. 
 
 VI. Modifications in the breed. 
 
 (i) Formerly Chester Whites were coarse in the head, 
 bone and hair, had a large pendant ear, a long and coarse tail, 
 and lacked smoothness of form. 
 
 (2) These coarse features have been eliminated in a 
 marked degree, and they have been transformed into a smooth 
 and symmetrical breed. 
 
 VII. Organization. 
 
 (i) At least five record associations have been organized 
 in the interests of Chester White swine in the United States. 
 
 (2) These are the American Chester White Record Asso- 
 ciation, the National, the International, the Standard and the 
 Ohio Improved. 
 
 VIII. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Chester White swine are fairly well distributed over 
 the eastern, northern, central and northwestern states and 
 man}' are bred in Canada. 
 
 (2) They are numerously kept in the states of Pennsyl- 
 vania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and in the province of 
 Ontario. 
 
 IX. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) The Standard and American Associations have 
 recorded 37,576 animals, of which 16,672 are males and 20,904 
 females. 
 
 (2) In Ontario, 2,766 animals have been recorded. 
 
 19 
 
290 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) Chester Whites are among the largest, if they are not 
 indeed the largest of the American or British breeds. 
 
 (2) The size, however, has lessened since the coarseness 
 which characterized many of the earlier specimens was 
 eliminated. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Chester Whites have been found best suited to those 
 portions of the United States where the climate is not too 
 warm in summer. 
 
 (2) They also answer well for markets which call for 
 large development at a comparatively early age. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They possess these in a fair degree, but not to the 
 Sc.me extent as some of the small breeds, as 
 
 (2) The large frame requires longer to perfect its growth. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) The fairly strong limbs of the Chester Whites adapt 
 them well to summer grazing. 
 
 (2) They will feed to attain heavy weights, but do not 
 finish so soon as some of the lighter breeds. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The meat is good, but contains more bone than some 
 breeds, and 
 
 (2) The flesh is also less firm, owing probably to the rela- 
 tivtlj larger amount of fat. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Chester Whites are valuable for crossing upon grades 
 small and over refined. 
 
 (2) Such a cross will impart vigor, hardihood, increased 
 prolificacy and greatly increased size. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (1) These are satisfactory, but 
 
 (2) They are probably scarcely equal to those of the other 
 large breeds. 
 
CHESTER WHITES. 
 
 291 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points as 
 adopted by the Chester White Record Association in 
 1885, and revised by the same in 1888 : 
 
 (I) 
 
 (3) 
 (4) 
 (5) 
 (6) 
 (7) 
 (8) 
 
 (9) 
 (10) 
 (II) 
 (12) 
 (13) 
 (14) 
 (15) 
 (16) 
 (17) 
 (18) 
 (19) 
 (20) 
 
 Head — Small, broad, slightly dished 
 
 Eye — Large and bright 
 
 Ear — Thin, fine, drooping 
 
 Jowl — Neat and full . 
 
 Neck — Short, full, well arched 
 
 Brisket — Full and deep . 
 
 Shoulder — Broad and deep . 
 
 Girtli Around Heart . 
 
 Back — Straight and broad . 
 
 Sides — Deep and full 
 
 Ribs — Well sprung 
 
 Belly — Wide and straight 
 
 Girth Around Blank . 
 
 Ham — Broad, full and deep . 
 
 Limbs — Strong, straight and neat 
 
 Tail — Tapering, and not coarse 
 
 Coat — Fine and thick . 
 
 Color — ^White 
 
 Action — Prompt, easy and graceful 
 
 Symmetry . 
 
 
 POINTS 
 
 I . 
 
 . 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 . 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 . 3 
 
 
 3 
 . 6 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 . 7 
 . 6 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 . 4 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 . 10 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 . 3 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 . 5 
 
 
 4 
 
 Perfection 
 
 100 
 
 II. The following is the detailed description 
 drawn up by the Chester White Record Association : 
 
 ( 1 ) Head — Short ; broad between the eyes, and nicely 
 tapering from eyes to point of nose; face slightly dished; 
 cheeks full. Objections — Head, coarse, long and narrow; face 
 straight or too much dished; snout coarse or thick. 
 
 (2) Eye — Large, bright and free from overgrowing fat. 
 Objections — Small, dim or hidden under protruding fat. 
 
 (3) Ear — Drooping, thin, pointing outward and forward; 
 well proportioned to size of body. Objections — Too large and 
 coarse ; thick, lopping ; lying too near the face ; stiff, erect or 
 too sm.all. 
 
 (4) Join'l — Full, firm and neat; carrying fullness well back 
 to neck and brisket. Objections — Flabby, light, thin in cheek; 
 tucking up under the neck. 
 
 (5) Neck — Full, deep, short and well arched. Objec- 
 tions — Long, flat, lacking in fullness or depth. 
 
292 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (6) Brisket — Full, strong, well let down, extending well 
 forward, and on line of the belly. Objections — Narrow or 
 tucked up. 
 
 (7) Shoulder — Broad, deep, thickness in proportion to the 
 side and ham, full and even on top. Objections — Thick beyond 
 the line of side and ham, lacking in depth or width ; blade 
 prominent or extending above the line of the back. 
 
 (8) Girth Around the Heart — Full back of shoulders; ribs 
 extending well down; wide and full back of forelegs. Objec- 
 tions — Heart girth less than flank girth, or length of body from 
 top of the head to the root of the tail. 
 
 (9) Back — Broad, straight, or slightly arched, carrying 
 width well back to the hams, and of medium length. Objec- 
 tions — Narrow, sinking back of shoulders ; narrow across the 
 loin ; swayed, too long ; sunfish shaped. 
 
 (10) Sides — Full, deep, carrying thickness well down and 
 back. Objections — Too round or flat; shallow or thin at the 
 flank. 
 
 (11) Ribs — Well sprung, carrying fullness well back and 
 deep. Objections — Too flat, curve of rib too short, tucking 
 in at bottom; sagging about loin. 
 
 (12) Loin — Broad, strong and full. Objections — Narrow; 
 poorly ribbed up ; weak. 
 
 (13) Belly — Wide and straight; width approximating that 
 of the back. Objections — Sagging, narrow; skin coarse, harsh 
 au'1 thick. 
 
 (14) Girth Around Flank — Flank well let down and full; 
 loin broad, strong and full measurement of flank girth equal 
 to heart girth. Objections — Flank thin, tucked in, or cut up 
 too high ; loin narrow or weak. 
 
 (15) Ham — Broad, full, deep, of medium length; coming 
 down well over the hock. Objections — Narrow, short; run- 
 ning too far up the back ; steep at the rump. 
 
 (16) Limbs — Medium length; short, rather than long; set 
 well apart, and well under; muscles full above knee and hock; 
 bone firm, and not coarse; pasterns short, and strong; foot 
 short. Objections — Long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles light; 
 pasterns long, slim, or flat ; hoofs long or sprawling. 
 
 (17) Tail — Small, tapering, smooth; well set on. Objec- 
 tions — Coarse, large, too prominent at the root. 
 
 (18) Coat — Fine and thick. Objections — Coarse; hair too 
 long; wiry, harsh. 
 
 (19) Color — White; blue spots on skin and black specks 
 shall not argue impurity of blood. 
 
 (20) Action — Easy, prompt, fine and graceful. Objections — 
 Dull, sluggish, clumsy. 
 
CHESTER WHITES. 293 
 
 (21) Symmetry — Uniform build, and all points in animal 
 in proportion. Objections — Wanting in some points, and too 
 much developed in others. 
 
 Serious Objections — Small growth ; upright ears ; small, 
 cramped chest and crease back of shoulders so as to be readily 
 seen. Deformed and badly crooked legs ; feet broken down 
 so that the animal walks on pastern joints and dewclaws. 
 
 III. General Appearance — The Chester White 
 is a large, long bodied and yet strongly built animal, 
 with good limbs and sufficient action. 
 
o 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 JS 
 
LECTURE NO. 5. 
 
 THE IMPROVED LARGE YORKSHIRES ORIGIN AND 
 
 HISTORY, CHARACTERISTICS AND 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. In England there are three breeds of York- 
 shire pigs at the present time. 
 
 (i) These are known respectively in that country as the 
 Improved Large Yorkshires or the Large Whites ; the Middle 
 Yorkshires or the Middle Whites ; and the Small Yorkshires 
 or the Small Whites. 
 
 (2) Only the first and last mentioned have been intro- 
 duced into North America, at least in any considerable 
 numbers. 
 
 II. Many are of the opinion that these breeds 
 have come originally from the Old English hog, a 
 large white animal or class of animals, inhabiting 
 Yorkshire and other counties of England from a 
 remote period. 
 
 (i) The Improved Large Yorkshire of to-day is the imme- 
 diaie descendant of the larger and coarser Yorkshire of former 
 years. 
 
 (2) The Small Yorkshire owes its refinement in a meas- 
 ure to Chinese crosses, and 
 
 (3) The Middle Yorkshire is the outcome of a cross 
 between the Large and Small Yorkshire breeds. 
 
 III. Description of the Old Yorkshire. 
 
 (i) It was long in head, in body and legs, was narrow, 
 had very large ears, and was coarse of bone. 
 
 (2) It had a strong coat of white hair, with a few pale 
 blue spots on the skin, but the hair on these was also white, and 
 
 (3) It was very hardy and prolific, but was slow in 
 maturing. 
 
296 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. Improvement of the Large Yorkshires. 
 
 (i) The improvement of the Large Yorkshires com- 
 menced, it is thought, fully a century ago, but 
 
 (2) They lacked somewhat in refinement and early matur- 
 ing qualities until within a comparatively recent period. 
 
 V. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) The White Leicester, introduced early in the century 
 and crossed upon the Old Yorkshires, effected some improve- 
 ment, and 
 
 (2) The blood of the Small Yorkshires has also had an 
 influence in carrying the improvement still further. 
 
 VI. The improvers of the Large Yorkshires. 
 
 (i) The improvers of this breed do not seem to have 
 worked in unison nor by system, hence there is yet a consid- 
 erable lack of uniformity in the breed. 
 
 (2) A number of breeders were engaged in the work at 
 the same time, some of them of the artisan class. 
 
 VII. Yorkshire blood widely diffused. 
 
 (i) Nearly all the white breeds of pigs in England and 
 America are probably possessed of the elements of Yorkshire 
 blood and also of the allied breed, the Cumberland. 
 
 (2) Some of these are virtually Yorkshire under another 
 name. 
 
 VIII. Distribution in Britain. 
 
 (i) The chief centers for the breed in Britain are the 
 counties of Yorkshire, Lincoln, Lancastershire and Leices- 
 ter, but 
 
 (2) During recent years they have been introduced into 
 many of the counties of Great Britain. 
 
 IX. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) The Improved Large Yorkshires have been imported 
 in large numbers into Canada, where during recent years 
 bacon is being extensively grown for the British market. 
 
 (2) They have also been introduced into the United 
 States, Argentina, New Zealand, Australia and several of the 
 countries of Europe. 
 
 (3) The first importation to the United States was made 
 by Wilcox & Liggett of St. Paul and Minneapolis, Minn., in 
 1893, although 
 
 (4) Large Yorkshires have been imported to America for 
 more than a century, but not in the improved form. 
 
YORKSHIRES. 297 
 
 X. Organizations. 
 
 (i) The Improved Large Yorkshires are protected by 
 registration in the United States and Canada. 
 
 (2) The American Yorkshire Association was organized 
 in 1893. 
 
 XL Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) They have already been introduced into several states 
 and they are kept in all or nearly all the provinces of Canada. 
 
 (2) They are most numerous in Ontario, Minnesota and 
 Iowa, and in the order named. 
 
 XII. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) In the Ontario record, 7,611 animals have been 
 recorded. 
 
 (2) In the American record, 1,011 animals have been 
 recorded, of which 426 are boars and 585 sows. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Large Improved Yorkshires are probably the 
 longest of the breeds, but they are not so broad as the Chester 
 Whites, and probably do not grow to such heavy weights, but 
 
 (2) They weigh remarkably well for their apparent size. 
 
 II. AdaptabiHty. 
 
 (i) Since they are especially adapted to the production 
 of bacon they can be kept with much advantage where bacon is 
 to be grown for the home or the foreign market. 
 
 (2) They have special adaptation to the states of the corn 
 belt, owing, first, to the excellent limbs which they possess ; 
 second, to their ability to rustle, and, third, to the renovating 
 influence which they exert when crossed upon types of weak- 
 ened stamina. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They do not mature so quickly as the small types with 
 fine limb, but 
 
 (2) They may be made ready for market without difficulty 
 at the ages of six to nine months. 
 
298 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) They graze and forage admirably, as they are active 
 and yet of gentle disposition, and 
 
 (2) They feed equally well, but must be plentifully sup- 
 plied with food. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The quality of the meat from the Large Improved 
 Yorkshires is unexcelled, as 
 
 (2) Their long sides produce much bacon and they have 
 much lean in proportion to the fat. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Wherever compact fine-boned pigs exist, the cross of 
 the Large Improved Yorkshire will be found an excellent 
 one. as 
 
 (2) It will at once increase the size, impart greater vigor, 
 improve the quality of the meat, more especially the bacon, and 
 will increase prolificacy. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the first order. 
 
 (2) They breed regularly, produce large litters and are 
 excellent nurses. 
 
 VIII. Compared with Chester Whites. 
 
 (i) The Improved Yorkshire is perhaps a little less in 
 weight, is even more active than the Chester White in foraging, 
 is ahead of it as a first-class producer of bacon, and is also 
 probably ahead in breeding qualities. 
 
 (2) In early maturity and in quick feeding qualities the 
 Chester Whites may have some advantage. 
 
 (3) In value for crossing and grading they are probably 
 not far different. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the American Yorkshire club in 1899 : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) General Outline — Long and deep in proportion 
 to width, but not massive ; slightly arched in the 
 back, symmetrical and smooth, with body firmly 
 supported by well placed legs of medium length 5 
 
 (2) Outline of Head — Moderate in length and size, 
 with lower jaw well sprung, and considerable 
 
YORKSHIRES. 299 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 dish toward snout, increasing with advancing 
 maturity ......... 4 
 
 (3) Forehead and Poll — Wide I 
 
 (4) Eye — Medium size, clear and bright . . .1 
 
 (5) Jozvl — Medium, not carried too far back toward 
 neck, and not dabby i 
 
 (6) Snout — Turning upward with a short curve, 
 increasing with age ...... I 
 
 (7) Ear — Medium in size, standing well out from 
 head, of medium erection and inclining slightly 
 
 forward I 
 
 (8) Neck — Of medium length, fair width and depth, 
 rising gradually from poll to withers, muscular 
 but not gross, evenly connecting head with 
 body .3 
 
 (9) Outline of Body — Long, deep, and of medium 
 breadth, equally wide at shoulder, side and 
 hams; top line slightly arched, underline straight 7 
 
 (10) Back — Moderately broad, even in width from 
 end to end ; strong in loin, short ribs of good 
 length 10 
 
 (11) Shoulder — Large, but not massive; not open 
 above 6 
 
 (12) Arm and Thigh — Broad and of medium length 
 and development 2 
 
 (1.3) Brisket — Wide and on a level with underline . 3 
 
 (14) Side — Long, deep, straight and even from shoul- 
 der to hip ........ 8 
 
 (15) Ribs — Well arched and deep .... 5 
 
 (16) Heart and Flank Girth — Good and about equal 8 
 
 (17) Hindquarters — Long to correspond with shoul- 
 der and side, deep, with moderate and gradual 
 droop to tail -5 
 
 (18) Hani — Large, well let down on thigh and twist 
 and rear outline somewhat rounded . . .10 
 
 (19) Tzi'ist — Well down and meaty . . . . i 
 
 (20) Tail — Medium, not much inclined to curl . . I 
 
 (21) Legs — Medium in length, strong, not coarse, 
 and standing straight and firm • • • 5 
 
 (22) Hair — Abundant, long, of medium fineness, 
 without any bristles 4 
 
 (23) Skin— Smooth and white, without scales, but 
 dark spots in skin do not disqualify ... 2 
 
 (24) Color — White on every part I 
 
 (25) Movement — Active, but not restless ... 5 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
300 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 II. Compared with Chester Whites. 
 
 (i) Large Improved Yorkshires are relatively longer than 
 the Chester Whites, but are not so broad or massive. 
 
 (2) They have somewhat stronger heads, with more dish, 
 more spring in the lower jaw, and jowls somewhat more pro- 
 nomiced. 
 
 (3). They have rather longer sides and not quite so much 
 girth in proportion to the length, and 
 
 (4) They are slightly larger in limb and rather more active 
 in movement. 
 
LECTURE NO. 6. 
 
 TAMWORTHS— ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTERIS- 
 TICS AND PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I The Tamworth pigs derive their name from 
 Tamworth, in South Staffordshire, where they have 
 been numerously bred for a very long term of years. 
 
 (i) They are not a composite breed, and are thought by 
 marv to be one of the oldest and purest breeds in Britain. 
 nian> to ^e on ^^^^ beginning of the century they were 
 
 noted for the larg^e proportion of the lean meat which they 
 
 produced. 
 
 II. The Tamworths before improvement. 
 
 (1) They were long of limb, long in the snout and flat 
 '" %)\ey were active, hardy, good rustlers and very pro- 
 
 '^''" (3^ They were slow feeders and late in maturing. 
 
 III. The improvement of Tamworths. 
 
 (i) This has been almost entirely effected through selec- 
 tion and judicious breeding and management 
 
 (2) It is now pretty generally conceded that th^ b ood ot 
 other breeds has not been used to any appreciable extent in the 
 improvement of Tamworths. 
 
 IV. When improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) They apoear to have been improved to a considerable 
 extent before the middle of the century, as they were given 
 firsrhonors at the Royal Agricultural Society's show, when 
 competing with large breeds, as early as i847< but 
 
 (2) Subsearent to this period they sank into obscurity, 
 and were onlv known in some local districts. 
 
 (^) Within the last fifteen years, or, say, since 1880, much 
 attent'ion has been given to their improvement, owing to the 
 demand for leaner bacon. 
 
 301 
 
TAMWORTHS. 3O3 
 
 V. The improvers of Tarn worths. 
 
 (i) As with several other breeds, no individuals have 
 attained great distinction in improving them. 
 
 (2) Many breeders have engaged in this work from the 
 standpoint of economy. 
 
 VI. Distribution of Tamworths. 
 
 (i) They have been bred more or less for many years in 
 certain local centers of the Midland counties, and 
 
 (2) Now they are being brought into other counties. 
 where, to some extent, they are displacing the more refined 
 and delicate breeds. 
 
 (3) Classes have been made for them at all the leading 
 shows in England, including the Smithfield. 
 
 VII. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) Until quite recently they were almost unknown in 
 foreign countries. 
 
 (2) They were first imported into the United States in 
 J.882 by Thomas Bennett of Rossville, 111. 
 
 (3) They have been imported into Ontario, Canada, in 
 large numbers since 1888. 
 
 VIII. Organization. 
 
 (i) Tamworth swine are protected by registration in 
 Great Britain, the United States and Canada. 
 
 (2) The American Tamworth Swine Record Association 
 was organized in 1897. 
 
 IX. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Tamworth swine are now being recorded from seven- 
 teen states in the Union and from nearly all the provinces of 
 Canada. - 
 
 (2) They are most numerous at present in the states of 
 Michigan, Illinois and Iowa. 
 
 X. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) In the United States there have been recorded about 
 600 animals. 
 
 (2) In the Canadian record, 2,972 Tamworths have been 
 recorded. 
 
304 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) Tamworths are at least a close second to the Large 
 Improved Yorkshires in size, while some claim that they are 
 even a larger breed, and 
 
 (2) Their natural vigor and hardihood are in keeping 
 v.'ith their size. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Since Tamworths are without a superior in the pro- 
 duction of bacon they may be advantageously reared by all who 
 desire to produce a superior bacon product, and 
 
 (2) Since they possess much vigor and stamina they may 
 be kept with much appropriateness in the corn growing states 
 either pure or when crossed upon other breeds or grades not of 
 the bacon type. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) Formerly they required both age and time to fatten, 
 but in both these respects they have improved much* during 
 recent years, yet 
 
 (2) They are not equal to the small refined breeds in 
 early maturing qualities. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities- 
 
 (i) Since Tamworths are grand rustlers, they answer 
 admirably where pastures are to perform an important part in 
 pork production. 
 
 (2) They will also stand well under forced feeding and 
 they are not hard keepers, as many imagine. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) They are said to excel all the English breeds in the 
 proportion of the lean to the fat, but 
 
 (2) They have more bone relatively than some of the 
 small breeds. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) When crossed upon small, compact and over refined 
 grade sows, they impart size, all-round development, vigor and 
 prolificacy, and 
 
 (2) The ofifspring produce more and better meat and 
 probably without increase in the cost of production. 
 
TAMWORTHS. 305 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Tamworths are unexcelled for prolificacy and 
 (2) The young pigs possess the hardihood characteristic 
 of the breed. 
 
 VIII. Compared with Chester Whites. 
 
 (i) Tamworths are probably ahead in what may be 
 termed flexibility in adaptation, are more active grazers, are 
 somewhat ahead in stamina, produce a superior quality of 
 bacon and have even greater power to produce renovation in 
 delicate types when crossed upon them. 
 
 (2) The Chester Whites are probably heavier at matu- 
 rity, are ready for slaughter at a period somewhat earlier, and 
 fatten more quickly when fed for pork rather than for bacon. 
 
 PRINCIPAL POINTS. 
 
 I. In the absence of a suitable scale of points, 
 the following is submitted : 
 
 (i) General Outline — The frame is long and deep rather 
 than broad, and is well sustained by strong limbs. 
 
 (2) Head — Long, but light rather than heavy, possessed 
 of very moderate dish, and having an appearance of leanness. 
 
 (a) Forehead and poll, of medium width. 
 
 (b) Eye, medium, clear. 
 
 (c) Snout, long, straight and tapering, but the aim is to 
 shorten it somewhat. 
 
 (d) Jowl, light rather than heavy. 
 
 (e) Ear, medium in size, pointing forward and fairly 
 erect. 
 
 (3) A^eck — Rather long than short, and deep than wide, 
 and rising gradually from the poll to the withers. 
 
 (4) Body — Long in the coupling and deep, slightly but 
 regularly arched above and straight below. 
 
 (a) Back, moderately wide, with a gradual rounding 
 descent until the side is reached. 
 
 (b) Brisket, wide and on a level with the underline. 
 
 (c) Arm and thigh, broad but not overfull. 
 
 (d) Shoulder, broad, moderately full, not rough, and 
 about equal in thickness to ham. 
 
 (e) Side, long, quite deep, and retaining its thickness 
 down to the belly. 
 
 (f) Ribs, well arched and deep. 
 
 (g) Fore and hind flanks, full, and heart girth and flank 
 girth, good and about equal. 
 
 20 
 
306 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (h) Hindquarter, long, deep, fairly full, and rounded at 
 the buttock. 
 
 (i) Ham, large and gradually rounded off rather than 
 square. 
 
 (j) Tail, medium strong, but not very long, and curled. 
 
 (k) Twist, low, and moderately full. 
 
 (5) Legs — Medium in length, moderately wide apart, 
 straight, strong and firmly placed under the body. 
 
 (6) Skin — Smooth and covered plentifully with hair. 
 
 (a) Hair, not coarse and without any bristles. 
 
 (b) The color is a red or bright chestnut, often termed 
 sandy, and it usually darkens with age. 
 
 II. General Appearance — In general appear- 
 ance the Tamworth is long, smooth and at least fair- 
 ly deep ; the snout is too long to meet the popular 
 ideal of heauty in the same ; the ham has a little more 
 of depth than the shoulder; the legs are strong and 
 straight and the carriage is easy and active. 
 
 III. Compared with Chester Whites. 
 
 (i) Tamworths are not so massive, not so wide, deeper 
 in proportion to the width and something more arched in the 
 back. 
 
 (2) Their heads are lighter, snouts considerably longer, 
 jowls something lighter, and ears smaller and more erect. 
 
 (3) Their limbs are somewhat stronger, and there are 
 the differences in color mentioned. 
 
 IV. Compared with Improved Yorkshires. 
 
 (i) The Tamworths have the same general form and 
 length and strength of limb, and the same easy and active car- 
 riage, but 
 
 (2) They are lighter in the head, longer and straighter 
 in the snout, have less of down spring in the under jaw, less of 
 size in the jowl, and more of rounding outward and downward 
 away from the line of the back, and 
 
 (3) There are the differences in color mentioned. 
 
THE MEDIUM BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 7. 
 
 THE BERKSHIRES ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. Berkshires are one of the oldest of the 
 improved breeds of swine. 
 
 (i) They are so named from the county of Berkshire, 
 England, in which they have been numerously bred, but 
 
 (2) The principal improvement of the breed was rather 
 made in Leicestershire and Staffordshire. 
 
 II. The original Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The original Berkshire was a large animal of similar 
 ancestry, probably, wath the Tamworth. 
 
 (2) It was somewhat coarse in body, but not so coarse 
 as the Old White hog of the northern counties, and had large 
 pendent ears. 
 
 (3) The color was tawny, white or reddish brown, spot- 
 ted with black. 
 
 III. When improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) The Berkshires were brought to a considerable 
 degree of perfection in the last century. 
 
 (2) From 1820 to 1830 very marked improvement was 
 efifected by Lord Barrington and others. 
 
 (3) They were first given a separate class at the Royal 
 Agricultural Society's show in 1862. 
 
 IV. How improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) The precise steps taken at the first to improve the 
 Berkshires are not very well known, but 
 
 (2) It is now pretty generally conceded that Chinese, 
 
 .307 
 
BERKSHIRES. 3O9 
 
 Siamese and Neapolitan crosses were used, more especially the 
 first mentioned. 
 
 V. The early improvers of Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The very earliest of the improvers of the breed are 
 "unknown. 
 
 (2) Prominent among the early improvers stand the 
 names of Richard Astley, of Oldstonehall, and Lord Bar- 
 rington. 
 
 (3) Among the more noted of the later improvers the 
 names of W. Hewer, Sevenhampton, Rev. H. Bailey, Swindon, 
 and Russell Swanwick, Cirencester, may be mentioned. 
 
 VI. Two classes of Berkshires. 
 
 (i) In one of these the color is white, of which the Coles- 
 hill and Windsor breeds are examples. 
 
 (2) In the other, now more commonly known as the 
 Berkshire, the color is black, with some white markings. 
 
 VII. Distribution in Britain. 
 
 (i) Berkshires are most nimieronsly bred in the south- 
 western and midland counties of England, but they are kept in 
 other counties in considerable numbers. 
 
 (2) They have effected great improvement on several of 
 the native races of Ireland, and have also found their way into 
 Scotland. 
 
 VIII. Distribution in other countries. 
 
 (i) They have been exported to foreign countries more 
 extensively than any other British breed, more especially to 
 the United States and Canada. 
 
 (2) They were probably imported into America in 1823, 
 but the date usually given is 1832. 
 
 IX. Organizations. 
 
 (i) The American Berkshire Association was organized 
 in 1875, and the National Berkshire Record Association in 1893. 
 
 (2) The recording of Berkshires in Canada commenced 
 in 1876. 
 
 X. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Berkshires are kept in all, or nearly all, the states of 
 the Union and in all the provinces of Canada. 
 
 (2) They are numerously kept in the province of Ontario 
 
3IO THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 and in the states of Illinois, Indiana, New York, Ohio, Wis- 
 consin, Iowa and Missouri. 
 
 XI. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) The American Berkshire Associations have recorded 
 61,327 animals, and 
 
 (2) The Canadian Swine Breeders' Association has 
 recorded 13,135- 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) As now bred, the Berkshires are probably larger than 
 the Poland-Chinas, but it is well-nigh impossible to determine 
 this question at present. 
 
 (2) The breeders are giving more attention to lengthening 
 the form and even the limbs during recent years, but 
 
 (3) There is no little difference in size in the various types 
 of the breed. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) In what may be termed general adaptation, the Berk- 
 shires probably stand at the head of the list of the improved 
 breeds, all the conditions considered. 
 
 (2) They may be reared in good form in almost any place 
 adapted to swine rearing, and for pork or bacon as desired. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are excellent. 
 
 (2) They will fatten at almost any age that may be desired. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Berkshires are excellent grazers, as they are possessed 
 of limbs with a good quality of bone. 
 
 (2) As feeders, their strong digestive and assimilative 
 powers enable them to give a maximum return in jflesh for the 
 food consumed. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) They produce excellent pork or bacon, as the fat and 
 lean are fairly well intermixed, and 
 
 (2) They also dress well in proportion to the live weight. 
 
BERKSHIRES. 3II 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (1) None of the British breeds has been found more 
 useful than the Berkshires for crossing, and none has been 
 used so much for this purpose. 
 
 (2) They have proved of great value in refining the 
 coarser breeds. 
 
 VI I. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are at least medium, but of course they vary 
 with the varying conditions to which they have been subjected. 
 
 (2) When not reared under enervating conditions they 
 produce medium large litters and rear them well. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the standard of excellence 
 adopted by the American Berkshire association : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Color — Black, but skin and hair occasionally 
 showing tinge of bronze or copper color, with 
 white on feet, face, tip of tail and occasional 
 splash on the arm ....... 4 
 
 (2) Face and Snout — The latter ?hort, broad and 
 meaty, the former fine, well dished and broad 
 between the eyes ...... 9 
 
 (3) Eye — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray 2 
 
 (4) Ear — Sometimes almost erect, but generally 
 inclined forward, medium size . . . . 4 
 
 (5) Jozid — Full and heavy, running back well on neck 4 
 
 (6) Neck — Short and broad on top .... 4 
 
 (7) Hair — Fine and soft, inclined to thickness in 
 male 3 
 
 (8) Skin — Smooth and pliable . . . . .4 
 
 (9) Shoulder — Smooth and even on top and in line 
 with side, thick through chest .... 7 
 
 (10) Back — Broad, long and straight or slightly 
 arched, ribs well sprung lO 
 
 (11) Side — Deep and well let down, straight side and 
 bottom line . ...... 6 
 
 (12) Flank — Well back and low down on leg, making 
 nearly a straight line with lower part of side . 5 
 
 (13) Loin — Full and wide 8 
 
 (14) Ham — Deep and thick, extending well up on 
 back, and holding thickness well down to hock . 10 
 
12 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (15) Tail — Well set up on line with back, not too 
 fine, short or tapering 2 
 
 (16) Legs and Feet — Short, straight and strong, set 
 wide apart, with hoofs nearly erect and capable 
 
 of holding good weight 8 
 
 (17) Size and Symmetry — Size, all that is possible 
 without loss of quality or symmetry, with good 
 length 7 
 
 (18) Style — Attractive, spirited, indicative of thor- 
 ough breeding and constitutional vigor . . 3 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. The following additional points are sub- 
 mitted, including some suggested modifications to 
 meet the changing requisites in form : 
 
 (i) Disk of snout, broad. 
 
 (2) Neck, medium to short, oval and blending evenly 
 with the shoulder. 
 
 (3) Brisket, wide. 
 
 (4) Back, of medium length. 
 
 (5) Side, medium in length and of nearly even thickness 
 above and below. 
 
 (6) Heart girth and flank girth, good and equal. 
 
 (7) Legs, medium to short. 
 
 III. In general appearance Berkshires are of 
 good size, are fairly compact in form, regular and 
 even in outline and easy in movement. 
 
LECTURE NO. 8. 
 
 POLAND-CHINAS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARAC- 
 TERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Poland-China breed of swine origi- 
 nated chiefly in the counties of Warren and Butler, 
 in the Miami valley in the state of Ohio. 
 
 (i) For many years various names were applied to ani- 
 mals of this breed, as : Magie, Butler County, Warren County, 
 Miami Valley, Poland, Poland and China, Great Western, 
 Shaker, Union Village, Dick's Creek, Gregory's Creek, and 
 others. 
 
 (2) It was decided at the National Swine Breeders' con- 
 vention held at Indianapolis in 1872 that the breed should be 
 known as the Poland-China, and this designation is now pretty 
 generally accepted. 
 
 II. Formation of the Poland-China breed. 
 
 (i) The foundation animals w^ere the common stocks of 
 the country, essentially of very mixed breeding. 
 
 (2) These were more or less crossed with the Russia, the 
 Byfield and the Big Chinas, all of which existed in Warren 
 county prior to 1820. 
 
 (3) The Berkshire cross, introduced in 1835 and subse- 
 quently, gave the black color, improved symmetry and increased 
 activity, and imparted additional strength to the limbs. 
 
 (4) The Irish Grazier cross, introduced in 1839, gave 
 improved grazing qualities and increased hardihood. 
 
 (5) No out-crosses have been used since 1845. 
 
 III. The improvers of Poland-Chinas. 
 
 (i) No one person stands out pre-eminently as the 
 founder of the breed, though several have sought that dis- 
 tinction. 
 
 (2) The Shakers of Union Village, Warren county, O., 
 are to be credited with much of the improvement made in the 
 early years of the century. 
 
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POLAND-CHINAS. 315 
 
 IV. Organizations. 
 
 (i) A number of organizations have been formed in the 
 interests of the breed, all, or nearly all, of which have adopted 
 the same standard of points. 
 
 (2) Prominent among these are the following, viz : The 
 Ohio Poland-China Record Company, organized 1878, at Day- 
 ton, O. ; the American Poland-China Record Company, organ- 
 ized 1878, at Cedar Rapids, la. : the Central Poland-China 
 Association, organized 1880, at Indianapolis ; the Northwest- 
 ern Poland-China Swine Association, organized in Washington, 
 Kan., in 1881, and the Standard Poland-China Record Associa- 
 tion, organized 1887, at Maryville, Mo. 
 
 V. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Poland-Chinas are probably found in every state in 
 the Union. 
 
 (2) In the central, western and northwestern states they 
 are more numerously kept than any other breed. 
 
 (3) They have also been introduced into several of the 
 provinces of Canada, though not in large numbers. 
 
 VI. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) The associations mentioned above under Note IV 
 have recorded approximately 350,000 animals, of which about 
 30 per cent are males. 
 
 (2) In Canada, 2,714 animals have been recorded. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) Formerly the Poland-Chinas were larger and less 
 refined than at the present time. 
 
 (2) Though reduced in absolute size and improved in 
 form, they are still among the largest of the medium breeds. 
 
 II. Adaptabihty. 
 
 (i) They have proved well adapted to corn growing coun- 
 tries, hence their great popularity in the west, but 
 
 (2) They are adapted to any conditions that furnish 
 plentiful supplies of food to produce quick growth. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They possess these in a high degree, so that 
 
3l6 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) The inclination with Poland-Chinas now is to mature 
 so quickly as to interfere with sufficiently large growth. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) When grazing they want good pastures. 
 (2) They are free feeders and easy keepers. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) Poland-Chinas kill well, and the meat is fine in grain 
 and tender, but 
 
 (2) The proportion of the fat is large and of bacon only 
 medium, 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Poland-Chinas cross admirably on common stocks 
 deficient in compactness, early maturity and good feeding 
 qualities, but 
 
 (2) They would not be suited for crossing on the more 
 refined breeds. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are only fair. 
 
 (2) The too free and prolonged use of a corn diet has had 
 the effect in too many instances of impairing the breeding 
 powers, unduly weakening the bone and injuring the stamina. 
 
 VIII. Compared with Berkshires. 
 
 (i) In producing meat with but a small percentage of 
 ofifal, the Poland-Chinas may have some advantage. 
 
 (2) In stamina, rustling qualities and prolificacy, the 
 Berkshires have probably some advantage. 
 
 (3) In other leading essentials the two breeds resemble 
 each other closely. - 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 for Poland-Chinas by the National association of 
 expert judges of swine: 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Head and Face 4 
 
 (2) Eyes 2 
 
 (3) Ears 2 
 
 (4) Neck 2 
 
 (5) Jowl 2 
 
 (6) Shoulders 6 
 
POLAND-CHINAS. 
 
 317 
 
 (7) Chest 
 
 (8) Back and Loin . 
 
 (9) Sides and Ribs 
 
 (10) Belly and Flank . 
 
 (11) Ham and Rump . 
 
 (12) Feet and Legs . 
 
 (13) Tail 
 
 (14) Coat 
 
 (15) Color 
 
 (16) Sise 
 
 (17) Action and Style . 
 
 (18) Condition 
 
 (19) Disposition 
 
 (20) Symmetry of Points 
 
 Perfection 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 . 12 
 
 14 
 . 10 
 
 4 
 
 . 10 
 
 10 
 
 . I 
 
 3 
 
 • 4 
 5 
 
 • 3 
 2 
 
 . 2 
 2 
 
 100 
 
 11. The following is the detailed description 
 drawn up by the National association of expert 
 judges of swine : 
 
 (i) hiead and Face — Head short and wide; cheeks full, 
 jaws broad; forehead high and wide; face short, smooth, wide 
 between the eyes, tapering from eyes to point of nose and 
 slightly dished, surface even and regular. Objections — Head 
 long, narrow, coarse ; forehead low and narrow or contracted, 
 lower jaw extending beyond upper; face long, straight and 
 narrow between the eyes ; nose coarse, thick or crooked, ridgy 
 or dished as much as a Berkshire. 
 
 (2) Eyes — Large, prominent, bright, lively, clear and free 
 from wrinkled or fat surroundings. Objections — Small, dull, 
 bloodshot, deep set or obscure ; vision impaired by wrinkles, 
 fat or other cause. 
 
 (3) Ears — Small, thin, soft, silky, attached to the head by 
 a short and small knuck, tips pointing forward and slightly 
 outward, and the forward half drooping gracefully, fully under 
 control of animal, both of same size, position and shape. 
 Objections — Large, straight, stiff, coarse, thick, round, long or 
 large knuck, drooping close to face, swinging and flabby, dif- 
 ference in form, size or position. 
 
 (4) Neck — Wide, deep, short and nicely arched at top, 
 from poll of head to shoulder. Objections — Long, narrow, 
 thin, flat on top, not extending down to breastbone, tucked up. 
 
 (5) Jowl — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying 
 fullness back near to point of shoulders and below line of lower 
 jaw, so that lower line will be as low as breastbone when head 
 is carried up level. Objections — Light, flabby, thin, wedge- 
 
3l8 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 shaped, deeply wrinkled, not drooping below line of lower jaw, 
 and not carrying fullness back to shoulder and brisket. 
 
 (6) Shoulder — Broad, deep and full, not extending above 
 line of back and being as wide on top as on back, carrying size 
 down to line of belly and having good lateral width. Objec- 
 tions — Narrow and not same depth as body, narrow at top or 
 bottom or extending above line of back, less than body in 
 breadth at top or bottom portions, or lacking in lateral width, 
 shields on boars under eight months of age, or large, heavy 
 shields on hogs under eighteen months of age. 
 
 (7) Chest — Large, wide, deep, roomy, indicating plenty 
 of room for vital organs, making a large girth just back of 
 shoulders, the breastbone extending forward so as to show 
 slightly in front of legs and extending in a straight line back 
 to end of breastbone, showing a width of not less than six 
 inches between forelegs in a large, full grown hog. Objec- 
 tions — Flat, pinched, narrow at top or at either end of breast- 
 bone ; breastbone crooked or not extending slightly in front of 
 forelegs. 
 
 (8) Back and Loin — Broad, straight, or slightly arched, 
 carrying same width from shoulder to ham, surface even, 
 smooth, free from lumps, crease or projections, not too long, 
 but broad on top, indicating well sprung ribs, should not be 
 higher at hip than at shoulder, and should fill out at junction 
 with side so that a straight-edge placed along top of side will 
 touch all the way from point of shoulder to point of ham ; 
 should be shorter than lower belly line. Objections — Narrow, 
 creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, drooping below 
 a straight line, humped or wrinkled, too long or sunfish shaped, 
 loin high, narrow, depressed or humped up, surface lumpy, 
 creased, ridgy or uneven, width at side not as much as shoulder 
 and ham. 
 
 (9) Sides and Ribs — Sides full, smooth, firm and deep, 
 carrying size down to belly and evenly from ham to shoulder, 
 ribs long, strong, well sprung at top and bottom. Objections — 
 Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as at top, 
 drawn in at shoulder so as to produce a crease, or pinched and 
 tucked up and in as it approaches the ham, lumpy or uneven 
 surface, ribs flat or too short. 
 
 (10) Belly and Flank — Wide, straight and full, and drop- 
 ping as low as flank at bottom of chest, back of fore leg making 
 a straight line from fore legs to hind legs; flank full and out 
 even with surrounding portions of body, the belly at that point 
 dropping down on a line with lower line of chest; the loose 
 skin connecting ham and belly being on a line even with bottom 
 or side. Objections — Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby. 
 Flank thin, tucked up or drawn in. 
 
 (11) Hams and Rump— H^vns broad, full, long and wide.- 
 
POLAND-CHINAS. 319 
 
 They should be as wide at point of the hip as at the swell of 
 the ham. Buttocks large and full, should project beyond and 
 come ^own upon and fill full between the hocks. The lower 
 front part of the ham should be full and stifle well covered 
 with flesh, and a gradual rounding toward the hock. Rump 
 should have a rounding slope from the loin to root of tail ; 
 same width as back and filling out full on each side of an i 
 above the tail. Objections — Ham narrow, short, thin, not 
 projecting beyond, and coming down to hock; cut up too high 
 in crotch or twist ; lacking in fullness at top or bottom ; lacking 
 in width from stifle straight back, lower fore part thin and flat, 
 straight from root of tail to hock, buttocks light, thin or flabby. 
 Rump flat, narrow and peaked at root of tail ; too steep. 
 
 (12) Legs and Feet — Legs medium length, straight, set well 
 apart and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and 
 wide above knee and hock, below hock and knee round and 
 tapering, capable of sustaining weight of animal in full flesh 
 without breaking down, bone firm and of fine texture, pasterns 
 short and nearly upright. Feet firm, short, tough and free 
 from defects. Objections — Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked, 
 muscles small above hock and knee, bone large, coarse, as large 
 at foot as above knee, pasterns long, slim, crooked or weak, 
 the hocks turned in or out of straight line, legs too close 
 together, hoofs long, slim and weak, toes spreading or crooked 
 or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking down. 
 
 (13) Tail — Well set on, smooth, tapering and carried in 
 a curl. Objections — Coarse, long, crooked or hanging straight 
 down like a rope. 
 
 (14) Coat — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and 
 covering body well, not clipped, evenly distributed over the 
 body. Objections — Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or 
 curly, swirls, standing up, ends of hair split and brown, not 
 evenly distributed over all the body except belly. Clipped 
 coats should be cut 1.5 points. 
 
 (15) Color — Black with white in face or lower jaw, white 
 on feet and tip of tail, and a few small, clear white spots on 
 body not objectionable. Objections — Solid black, more than 
 one-fourth white, sandy hairs or spots, a grizzled or speckled 
 appearance. 
 
 (16) Size — Large for age and condition; boars two years 
 old and over, if in good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 
 pounds. Sows, same age and condition, not less than 450 
 pounds. Boars eighteen months old, in good condition, not 
 less than 400 pounds; sows 350 pounds. Boars twelve months 
 old, not less than 300 pounds; sows 300 pounds. Boars and 
 sows, six months, not less than 150 pounds. Other ages in 
 proportion. Objections — Overgrowth^ coarse, gangling, or 
 hard to fatten at any age. 
 
320 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (17) Action and Style — Action vigorous, easy, quick and 
 graceful. Style attractive, high carriage, and in males testicles 
 should be of same size, carriage, readily seen and yet not too 
 large. Objections — Slow, dull, clumsy, awkward, difficulty in 
 getting up when down, low carriage, wabbling walk. In males, 
 testicles not easily seen, not of same size or carriage, too large 
 or only one showing. 
 
 (18) Condition — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales or 
 sores, soft and mellow to the touch, flesh fine, evenly laid on 
 and free from lumps or wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close 
 to body, good feeding qualities. Objections — Unhealthy, skin 
 scaly, wrinkly, scabby or harsh, flabbiness or lumpy flesh, too 
 much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry and standing up from 
 body, poor feeders, deafness, partial or total. 
 
 (19) Disposition — Quite gentle and easily handled. Objec- 
 tions — Cross, restless, vicious or wild. 
 
 III. General Appearance — In general appear- 
 ance the Poland-China is compact, symmetrical, 
 regular in outline, smooth and almost massive in 
 build. 
 
 IV. Compared with Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The two breeds resemble each other not a little in 
 general outline, but the Berkshires are a little longer in limb 
 and not quite so massive in form. 
 
 (2) The Poland-Chinas have heads a little finer and less 
 dished, snouts rather finer, ears larger and more drooping and 
 more of evenness in the relative size of shoulder and hams. 
 
 (3) They are also less regular in their distinguishing 
 color markings. 
 
LECTURE NO. 9. 
 
 THE VICTORIAS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTER- 
 ISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The name Victoria has been given to two 
 
 breeds or types of swine, essentially distinct in their 
 
 origin. 
 
 (i) The first of these originated in the state of New York 
 and the second in Indiana. 
 
 (2) The latter only appears to be protected by an associa- 
 tion and by registration. 
 
 (3) Both are of medium size, although the latter is the 
 larger of the two, and both are white in color. 
 
 II. Origin of the Victorias of New York. 
 
 (i) They originated with Col. Frank D. Curtis, Kirby 
 Homestead, Charlton, Saratoga county, N. Y., about the 
 year 1850. 
 
 (2) They were formed by crossing successively the native 
 breeds of the county possessed of the Grazier strain with the 
 Byfield, the Yorkshire and the Suffolk. 
 
 (3) They appear to bear considerable resemblance to the 
 Suffolks, but have finer heads and with not so much of dish. 
 
 III. Origin of the Victorias of Indiana. 
 
 (i) The breed of white hogs in the United States, now 
 more generally recognized as Victorias, originated with George 
 Davis, Dyer, Lake county, Ind., about 1870. 
 
 (2) They are the outcome of the amalgamation of four 
 distinct breeds, viz : The Poland-Chinas, the Chester V^hites, 
 the Berkshires and the Suffolks. 
 
 IV. Recognition in the show rings. 
 
 (i) They first appeared in the show rings in 1878. when 
 several specimens were exhibited at the county fairs of Indiana 
 and Illinois, and also at the Chicago Fat Stock show. 
 21 321 
 
I 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 
 
VICTORIAS. 323 
 
 (2) They were first acknowledged as a distinct breed by 
 the Illinois state board of agriculture in 1882, and since that 
 time they have received recognition from several other state 
 organizations. 
 
 (3) They have been quite successful as prize winners, 
 notably at several of the Fat Stock shows held in Chicago. 
 
 V. Organizations. 
 
 (i) The Victoria Swine Breeders' Association was organ- 
 ized in Indiana in 1886. 
 
 (2) The first volume of the Victoria Swine Record was 
 published in 1887. 
 
 VI. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Victoria swine have already been recorded in a con- 
 siderable number of the states of the Union. 
 
 (2) They are most numerous in Indiana, Ohio, Wisconsin, 
 Michigan and Illinois, and probably in the order named. 
 
 VII. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) About 1,600 animals have been recorded or entered for 
 record. 
 
 (2) Of these about 40 per cent are boars and 60 per cent 
 sows. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Victorias probably come next to the Poland- 
 Chinas in size, but they vary much in this respect in the hands 
 of different breeders, hence 
 
 (2) In many instances they do not outweigh the Duroc- 
 Jerseys. 
 
 II. Adaptabihty. 
 
 (i) It is claimed for them that they are well adapted to 
 the field and also to the pen, but 
 
 (2) Further trial is necessary to the unreserved acceptance 
 of the claims made in their behalf. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) It has been said of them that they will mature and 
 fatten at any age, but 
 
 (2) In reference to this also, judgment should be held 
 in suspense. 
 
324 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Their grazing qualities are at least average, and 
 (2) Their good feeding qualities find demonstration in 
 their winnings at the American Fat Stock shows. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The quality of the meat is said to be very good. 
 supported 
 
 (2) By the fact that they have won high honors in the 
 dead classes at the Fat Stock shows in Chicago. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) For crossing and grading uses they should not as yet 
 be of the first order, owing 
 
 (2) To the short period, which has elapsed since the breed 
 was formed. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) It is claimed that they make good mothers, and 
 (2) In time we shall know this also with certainty. 
 
 VIII. Compared with Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The Victorias are not quite so large nor so uniform, 
 nor are they so prepotent. 
 
 (2) In other essential characteristics the contrast between 
 them is not striking. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the Victoria Swine Breeders' Association : 
 
 POINTS, 
 (i) Color — White, with occasional dark spots in 
 
 the skin 2 
 
 (2) Head — Small, broad, and face dished medium . 3 
 
 (3) Ears — Fine, pointing outward .... 2 
 
 (4) Jozvl — Medium size and neat .... I 
 
 (5) Neck — Short, full and well arched . . ,3 
 
 (6) Shoulders — Broad and deep .... 7 
 
 (7) Girth Around Heart ...... 6 
 
 (8) Back — Straight, broad and level ... 12 
 
 (9) Sides — Deep and full 6 
 
 (10) Ribs — Well sprung 7 
 
 (11) Loin — Broad and strong 12 
 
VICTORIAS. 325 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (12) Flank— WeW let down 2 
 
 (13) Hani — Broad, full and deep, without loose fat . 12 
 
 (14) Tail — Medium, fine and curled ... 2 
 
 (15) Legs — Fine and straight 3 
 
 (16) Feet— SmaW ....... 3 
 
 (17) Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles . . 3 
 
 (18) Action — Easy and graceful .... 4 
 
 (19) Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to 
 each other 10 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. General Appearance — In general appear- 
 ance the Victorias are strong and growthy and in the 
 typical specimens are of smooth and equable outline. 
 
 III. Compared with Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The Victorias are not quite so large nor have they so 
 much of uniformity in size or symmetry, and 
 
 (2) They are white in color, while the Berkshires are 
 black. 
 
 (3) The Victorias bear no little resemblance to the Suf- 
 folks, but they are larger. 
 
LECTURE NO. lo. 
 
 THE DUROC-JERSEYS ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHAR- 
 ACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The American Duroc- Jerseys are appar- 
 ently the outcome of the union of two classes of 
 swine, known respectively as the Durocs and Jersey 
 Reds. 
 
 (i) The Durocs, of medium size and bone, have been 
 bred for many years in Saratoga county, New York. 
 
 (2) The Jersey Reds, large in size and coarse in bone, 
 hair and flesh, have been bred in New Jersey for the past 50 
 years, 
 
 II. The origin and early development of this 
 breed is not apparently well known. 
 
 (i) Writers have variously represented them as origi- 
 nating in the Tamworth, the Red Berkshire, and the African 
 or Guinea hog. 
 
 (2) It would seem probable that they are possessed largely 
 of the blood of the old race from which the Improved Berk- 
 shires have been evolved. 
 
 III. The improvers of the breed. 
 
 (i) As with nearly all the American breeds of swine, the 
 improvers of the Duroc-Jerseys have been farmers in certain 
 neighborhoods, who sought to improve the pork-producing 
 qualities of the animals which they fed. "^ 
 
 (2) The history of the amalgamation of the two original 
 branches of the breed does not appear to have been very 
 clearly written as yet. 
 
 IV. Organization. 
 
 (i) Two leading associations, viz, the American Duroc- 
 
 Jersey Swine Breeders' Association and the National Duroc- 
 
 Jersey Record Association, have been organized in the 
 interests of the breed in the United States. 
 
 Z^7 
 
328 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) The former of these was organized in 1889 and the 
 latter in 1890. 
 
 V. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Duroc-Jerseys are now being recorded in more than 
 half the states of the Union and in several of the provinces 
 of Canada. 
 
 (2) They are bred most numerously in the states of 
 Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, Ohio, Nebraska and Michigan. 
 
 VI. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) The two associations named under Note IV have 
 recorded 35,085 animals, of which 10,587 are males and 24,498 
 are females. 
 
 (2) In the Canadian Record, 790 animals have been 
 recorded. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Duroc-Jerseys are now considerably reduced in 
 size, but they vary not a little in this respect in different 
 localities. 
 
 (2) Though not quite equal to the Berkshires or the 
 Poland-Chinas in size, they bear no little resemblance to these- 
 breeds in form, though they differ so radically from them 
 in color. 
 
 II. AdaptabiHty. 
 
 (i) They have proved themselves well adapted to sections 
 where good rustling qualities are important, and 
 
 (2) In regions where the ability to stand the pressure of 
 heavy corn feeding is of much consequence. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These have been greatly improved during recent 
 years, but 
 
 (2) They are not yet quite equal perhaps to those of some 
 of the medium breeds. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Their grazing qualities are good, as they are an active 
 and hardy breed. 
 
DUROC-JERSEYS. 329 
 
 (2) While they do not fatten so quickly as some breeds, 
 they can well endure a forcing ration. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The meat has more lean than some of the other 
 breeds of the same class, but 
 
 (2) The relative amount of bone and offal may also be 
 something more. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) They answer well for crossing upon breeds more 
 refined and more delicate of constitution, but 
 
 (2) To cross them upon large, vigorous and somewhat 
 voarse pigs would probably be a mistake. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These stand high relatively among the American 
 breeds, and 
 
 (2) The young pigs are possessed of a fair degree of 
 hardihood. 
 
 VIII. Compared with Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The Duroc-Jerseys are a little less in size and are 
 not yet quite so well adapted for bacon production. 
 
 (2) In other essential characteristics the two breeds are 
 not far different. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the revised scale of points 
 adopted by the American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breed- 
 ers' Association : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Head and Face 4 
 
 (2) Eyes 2 
 
 (3) Ears 2 
 
 (4) Neck 2 
 
 (5) Jowl 2 
 
 (6) Shoulders 6 
 
 (7) Chest 12 
 
 (8) Back and Loin 15 
 
 (9) Sides and Ribs 8 
 
 (10) Belly and Flank 6 
 
 (11) Hams and Rump 10 
 
 (12) Legs and Feet 10 
 
330 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (13) Tail I 
 
 (14) Coat 
 
 (15) Color . 
 
 (16) Sise . 
 
 (17) Action and Style 
 
 (18) Condition 
 
 (19) Disposition . 
 
 Perfection . 
 
 100 
 
 11. Detailed description drawn up by the 
 American Duroc-Jersey Swine Breeders' Associa- 
 tion : 
 
 (i) Head and Face — Head small in proportion to size of 
 body; wide between eyes; face nicely dished (about half-way 
 between Poland-China and Berkshire), and tapering well 
 down to nose; surface smooth and even. Objections — Large 
 and coarse ; narrow between eyes, face straight, crooked nose, 
 or too much dished. 
 
 (2) Eyes — Lively, bright and prominent. Objections — 
 Dull, weak or obscure. 
 
 (3) Ears — Medium; moderately thin; pointing forward 
 and downward, and slightly outward, and also attached 
 to head neatly. Objections — Very large; round or nearly 
 so ; too thick ; swinging and flabby ; not of same size, or 
 different positions, and not under control of animal. 
 
 (4) Neck — Short; thick and very deep; slightly arching. 
 Objections — Long, shallow and thin. 
 
 (5) Jozvl — Broad; full and neat; carrying fullness back 
 to point of shoulder and on line with breastbone. Objections — 
 Too large, loose and flabby, or too small, thin and wedging. 
 
 (6) Shoulders — Moderately broad, very deep and full, 
 and not extending above line of back ; boars under one year 
 old heavily shielded. 
 
 (7) Chest — Large ; very deep ; filling full behind shoul- 
 ders, and breastbone extending well forward, so as to be 
 readily seen. Objections — Flat, shallow, or not extending well 
 down between the forelegs. 
 
 (8) Back and Loin — Medium in breadth ; straight or 
 slightly arching ; carrying even width from shoulder to ham ; 
 surface even and smooth. Objections — Narrow, creased 
 behind shoulders, swayed or humped up. 
 
 (9) Sides and Ribs— Sides very deep: medium length; 
 level between shoulders and hams, and carrying out full down 
 to line of belly; ribs long; strong, and sprung in proportion 
 
DUROC- JERSEYS. 331 
 
 to width of shoulders and hams. Objections— Flabby, creased 
 and not carrying proper width from top to bottom. 
 
 (lo) Belly and Flank — Straight and full, and carrying well 
 out to line of sides. Flank well down to lower line of sides. 
 Objections— Narrow; tucked up; sagging or flabby; flank 
 tucked up or drawn in. 
 
 (ii) Hams and Rump — Broad, full and well down to hock; 
 buttocks full and come nearly down to and fill full between 
 hocks ; rump should have a rounding slope from loin to root 
 of tail. Objections — Hams narrow; short, thin, not project- 
 ing well down to hock; cut up too high in crotch; rump nar- 
 row, flat or peaked at root of tail, or too steep. 
 
 ( 12) Legs and Feet — Medium in size and length ; strong ; 
 nicely tapering; wide apart and well set under the body; 
 pasterns short and strong; feet short, firm and tough. Objec- 
 tions — Legs extremely long or short ; shins, coarse ; crooked ; 
 as large below knee and hock as above ; set close together ; 
 hocks turned in or out of straight line; hoofs, long, slim and 
 weak ; toes, spreading or crooked. 
 
 (13) Tail — Medium large at base and nicely tapering, and 
 rather bushy at point. Objections — Extremely heavy; too 
 long and ropy. 
 
 (14) Coat — Moderately thick and fine; straight; smooth 
 and covering the body well. Objections — Many bristles ; hair 
 coarse, harsh and rough, wavy or curly; swirls, or not evenlv 
 laid over the body. 
 
 (15) Color — Cherry red without other admixtures. Objec- 
 tions — Very dark red, or shady brown ; very light or pale red ; 
 black spots over the body ; black flecks on belly and legs not 
 desirable, but admissible. 
 
 (16) Siae — Large for age and condition; boars two years 
 old and over should weigh 600 pounds ; sows, same age and 
 condition, 500 pounds ; boars eighteen months, 475 pounds ; 
 sows, 400 pounds ; boars twelve months, 350 pounds ; sows, 
 300 pounds; boars and sows six months of age, 150 pounds. 
 These figures are for animals in fair show condition. Objec- 
 tions — Rough and coarse, and lacking in feeding qualities. 
 
 (17) Action and Style — Action, vigorous and animated; 
 style, free and easy. Objections — Dull and stupid; awkward 
 and wabbling; testicles not easily seen, not of same size or 
 carriage ; too large or only one showing. 
 
 (18) Condition — Healthy; skin free from any scurf, scales, 
 sores and mange, and flesh evenly laid on over entire body and 
 free from lumps. Objections — Unhealthy; scurfy; scales, 
 sores or mange ; too fat for breeding purposes ; hair harsh and 
 standing up ; poor feeders, etc. 
 
 (19) Disposition — Very quiet and gentle; easily handled 
 or driven. Objections — Wild, vicious or stubborn. 
 
332 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 III. General Appearance — The Duroc- Jerseys, 
 with their rather Hght, straight heads, drooping ears 
 and smooth and neat frames, bear no Httle resem- 
 blance to Poland-Chinas in form, but they are some- 
 what larger and stronger in limb. 
 
 IV. Compared with Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The Duroc- Jerseys are not so large nor quite as long 
 in body, though equally wide for the size. 
 
 (2) They are lighter in the head than the Berkshires, 
 have less dish and less development of jowl, longer and more 
 pendent ears and not so much relative length of side, and 
 
 (3) They are sandy in color, while the Berkshires arc 
 black. 
 
LECTURE NO. ii. 
 
 THE CHESHIRE ORIGIN AND HISTORY, CHARACTER- 
 ISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The Cheshire breed of swine originated in 
 Jefferson county, N. Y., and since the middle of the 
 century. 
 
 (i) The origin of the name Cheshire is not fully known, 
 since 
 
 (2) The old English breed of this name is virtually extinct, 
 having been crossed upon by smaller and earlier maturing- 
 breeds. 
 
 II. Formation of the breed. 
 
 (i) Cheshires are the outcome of crosses between the 
 Large Improved Yorkshire and the Suffolk breeds upon the 
 native white hogs of the neighborhood. 
 
 (2) The extent to which the blood of the imported breeds 
 was used is not fully known, but it is very probable that no 
 out-crosses have been made since 1873. 
 
 III. The improvers of Cheshires. 
 
 (i) A. P. Clark of Belleville and S. P. Huff stater of 
 Watertown, N. Y., were the most distinguished of the early 
 originators of the breed, but 
 
 (2) To E. W. Davis belongs the honor of rescuing Che- 
 shires from the temporary obscurity into which they fell, 
 consequent upon the financial crisis of 1873. 
 
 IV. When improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Cheshires were first exhibited at the New York state 
 fair in 1859 by A. P. Clark, and during the year immediately 
 following they grew rapidly in favor. 
 
 (2) In 1870 they won the Pork Packers' prize of $500 for 
 the best pen of pigs exhibited at the St. Louis (Mo.) fair. 
 
 (3) E. W. Davis began his work of improvement in 1873. 
 
 333 
 
o 
 
 a. 
 
 -"ST 
 
 
CHESHIRES. 335 
 
 V. Organization. 
 
 (i) The Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association was 
 organized in 1884. 
 
 (2) The first volume of the Cheshire Herd Book was 
 published in 1889. 
 
 VI. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Cheshires are now kept in nineteen states and also 
 in Canada. 
 
 (2) They are l^red most numerously in the eastern states, 
 but some of the central states are also possessed of a consider- 
 able number. 
 
 (•3) New York state has probably more breeders than all 
 the other states combined. 
 
 VII. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) There have been recorded 2.767 animals, male and 
 female. 
 
 (2) Only a few specimens of the breed have been intro- 
 duced into Canada. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) Though by no means a small animal, the Cheshires 
 are probably the smallest of the middle breeds. 
 
 (2) It is claimed that they can be made to dress from 500 
 to 600 pounds when fully grown. 
 
 II. AdaptabiHty. 
 
 (i) Cheshires are well adapted to what may be termed 
 average conditions. 
 
 (2) They seem to possess at least medium qualities in 
 almost every respect. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) They possess these in a marked degree. 
 (2) Numerous instances are on record wherein they have 
 been made to dress 400 pounds when nine months old. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Their grazing qualities are at least fair, and 
 (2) Their marked docility and early maturing qualities 
 make them very satisfactory feeders. 
 
336 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The flesh of Cheshires is fine in the grain, and hence 
 solid and firm in texture, and 
 
 (2) It is also well intermixed, more especially when fed 
 upon such pork-making products as are most freely produced 
 in New England. 
 
 (3) As bacon producers they rank high among the medium 
 breeds. 
 
 VL Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Cheshires are best adapted to crossing upon roughly 
 made and slow maturing pigs. 
 
 (2) When so crossed they refine the bone and promote 
 early maturity and easy keeping qualities. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) These are only medium, but 
 
 (2) As with all breeds, much depends upon the way in 
 which they are kept. 
 
 VIII. Compared with Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The Cheshires are considerably less in weight and are 
 even more refined in frame and bone. 
 
 (2) The Berkshires would seem to have a wider field in 
 which they may be successfully used for crossing. 
 
 (3) In other respects they considerably resemble one 
 another. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Head — ^Short to medium in length, short in pro- 
 portion to length of body 8 
 
 (2) Face — Somewhat dished and wide between the 
 eyes 8 
 
 (3) Jowl — Medium in fullness 3 
 
 (4) Ears — Small, fine, erect, and in old animals 
 slightly pointing forward 5 
 
 (5) Neck — Short and broad 3 
 
 (6) Shoulders — Broad, full and deep ... 6 
 
 (7) Girth Around Heart 8 
 
 (8) Back — Long, broad and straight nearly to root 
 
 of tail 10 
 
CHESHIRES. 337 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (9) Side— Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom 
 
 line 7 
 
 (10) Flank— W'eW back and low down, making flank 
 girth nearly equal to heart girth . . . 3 
 
 (11) Hants — Broad and nearly straight with back 
 and running well down toward hock . . .10 
 
 (12) Legs — Small and slim, set well apart, support- 
 ing body well on toes ..... 10 
 
 (13) Tail — Small, slim and tapering . . • • 3 
 
 (14) Hair — Fine, medium in thickness and quantity 3 
 
 (15) Color — White, any colored hair to disqualify . 2 
 
 (16) Skin — Fine and pliable, small blue spots objec- 
 tionable but allowable 3 
 
 (17) Symmetry — Animal well proportioned, hand- 
 some and stylish 8 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. General Appearance — In general appear- 
 ance the Cheshire is neat, refined, smooth, well pro- 
 portioned and active in movement. 
 
 III. Compared with Berkshires. 
 
 (i) The Cheshires are not so large, not so heavy of build, 
 nor quite so strong of limb. 
 
 (2) They are something lighter in the head, even more 
 erect in the ears and not so deep in body, and 
 
 (3) There are the differences in color. 
 
 IV. Compared with Poland-Chinas. 
 
 (i) Cheshires are less massive relatively, have more 
 length of side, less of upward arch from the poll to the withers 
 and from the tailhead to the loin, and are less rounded at 
 the buttock. 
 
 (2) They have much smaller and more erect ears, and 
 finer lim-bs and bone. 
 
 (3) They are more active and stylish in appearance, and 
 are white in color. 
 
 22 
 
o 
 c/i 
 
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 "Jo 
 
 
 00 
 ro 
 CO 
 
THE SMALL BREEDS 
 
 LECTURE NO. 12. 
 
 THE IMPROVED SUFFOLKS THEIR ORIGIN AND HIS- 
 TORY^ CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. No little obscurity hangs over the origin cf 
 the Improved Suffolk, but it is probable that it is the 
 outcome of crossing one or more of the small white 
 breeds upon the old Suffolk breed. 
 
 (i) The old Suffolk swine were white with rather long 
 legs, long heads, flat sides and much coarse hair. 
 
 (2) The Improved Suffolks as bred in England were also 
 white, but had short heads and long cylindrical bodies, short 
 legs and fine, long and thin hair. 
 
 II. The Improved Suffolks, though possessed 
 of no little popularity at one time in England, are 
 not now numerous in that country. 
 
 (i) Since the middle of the century they have been grad- 
 ually allowed to drop out of the prize lists of the leading 
 English shows. 
 
 (2) They have probably been largely absorbed by other 
 small white breeds, notably the Small Yorkshire. 
 
 III. The only breed now generally recognized 
 as Suffolk in England would seem to be a small black 
 breed, kept most numerously in the county of 
 Suftolk. 
 
 (i) They resemble the small white breeds In form and 
 essential qualities, but 
 
 (2) It is claimed they are somewhat larger, more rugged 
 and more prolific, 
 
240 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 IV. Importations into the United States. 
 
 (i) Some obscurity would seem to rest upon the date of 
 the first importations made into America. 
 
 (2) As early as 1855, Suffolks were imported into the 
 state of Illinois by the Hon. John Wentworth. 
 
 (3) Occasional importations have been made since that 
 time, but it cannot be said that Suffolks are coming so gen- 
 erally into favor as some of the large breeds are. 
 
 V. Organization. 
 
 (i) There is no organization in England to protect the 
 interests of the breed. 
 
 (2) The American Suffolk Association keeps records for 
 the breed. 
 
 VI. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Suffolks are now found in several states of the Union, 
 but not in very large numbers. 
 
 (2) They are probably best established in the states of 
 Michigan, Illinois, New York, Ohio and Indiana. 
 
 VII. Registration in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) Something more than 1,100 animals have been 
 recorded in the United States, of which about 30 per cent are 
 males. 
 
 (2) The registrations in Canada number 737. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Suffolks are considerably larger and longer than 
 the Small Yorkshires, and they weigh well, but 
 
 (2) At maturity they do not reach so great a size as any 
 of the medium breeds. 
 
 II. Adaptability. 
 
 (i) Suffolks are best adapted to intensive conditions 
 where grazing lands are scarce and dear and where soiling 
 food is much used in addition to pasture. 
 
 (2) They also have special adaptation for producing a 
 nice quality of pork that can be quickly grown and made ready 
 for market at any age. 
 
IMPROVED SUFFOLKS. 34I 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are of the first order, since 
 
 (2) When properly fed they keep in good condition and 
 round out so quickly that they may be profitably marketed 
 under the age of six months. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) It cannot be said that the grazing qualities of Suffolks 
 are of the very best, owing to the shortness of their limbs and 
 to tendencies to obesity. 
 
 (2) They are very easy keepers and give a quick and high 
 return for the food given up to the limit of the most profitable 
 marketable age, which is under rather than over six months. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The meat is tender, fine grained, juicy and excellent 
 when marketed while the pigs are young, but later the propor- 
 tion of the fat becomes excessive. 
 
 (2) It is probably most in favor with the customers of 
 retailers who want what may be termed light weight pork. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) Suffolks have not been greatly used for this purpose 
 in the United States or Canada. 
 
 (2) When so used it should be to impart refinemicnt and 
 earlier maturity to animals lacking in these qualities. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) They usually produce smaller litters than the large 
 breeds and the offspring is not always equal to that of the 
 former in vigor, but 
 
 (2) Breeding qualities are probably influenced more by 
 environment than by inheritance. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the American Suffolk Swine Breeders' Associa- 
 tion : 
 
 (i) Head — Small, very short; jowl fine; ears short, small, 
 thin, upright, soft and silky. 
 
 (2) Neck — Very short and thick, the head appearing 
 almost as if set on front of the shoulders, no arching crest. 
 
 (3) Chest — Wide and deep, elbows standing out. 
 
342 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (4) Brisket — Wide but not deep. 
 
 (5) Shoulders — Thick, rather upright, rounding outward 
 from top to elbow. 
 
 (6) Crops — Wide and full. 
 
 (7) Sides and Flanks — Long ribs and well arched out 
 from back, good length between shoulders and hams ; flank 
 well filled out and coming well down at ham. 
 
 (8) Back — Broad, level and straight from crest to tail, no 
 falling off or down at tail. 
 
 (9) Hams — Wide and full, well rounded out, twist very 
 wide and full all the way down. 
 
 (10) Legs — Small and very short, standing wide apart; in 
 sows just keeping the belly from the ground; bone fine; feet 
 small ; hoofs rather spreading. 
 
 (11) Tail — Small, long and tapering. 
 
 (12). Skin — Thin, of a pinkish shade, free from color. 
 
 (13) Hair — Fine and silky, not too thick; color of hair, 
 pale yellowish white ; perfectly free from any spots or other 
 color. 
 
 (14) Sice — Small to medium. 
 
 II. General Appearance — The Suffolk is a 
 short-legged pig with a body moderately long, some- 
 what cylindrical, very wide and deep and a head very 
 much dished. 
 
LECTURE NO. 13. 
 
 IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The Improved Essex swine are the outcome 
 of crossing the Neapohtan upon the old Essex breed. 
 
 (i) The old Essex breed, native to the county of Essex, 
 were black and white in color, large and coarse in build, long 
 in the leg and snout, flat-sided and roach-backed, unquiet in 
 disposition and were great consumers of food. 
 
 (2) The Neapolitans were first imported from Italy by 
 Lord Western in 1830. 
 
 (3) For a number of years the progeny were designated 
 Essex-Neapolitan. 
 
 II. Efifects of the Neapohtan cross. 
 
 (i) It changed the color to black, reduced the bone and 
 offal generally, shortened the leg and snout, improved the 
 general form and increased the aptitude to fatten, but 
 
 (2) The Essex-Neapolitans became less vigorous and less 
 prolific because of the closeness of the breeding, and they were 
 reduced in size. 
 
 III. How further improvement was effected. 
 
 (i) Impaired qualities were restored by crossing the 
 Essex-Neapolitans upon selected sows essentially of Essex 
 blood. , 
 
 (2) This work began about 1840 and was chiefly effected 
 by Fisher Hobbs, one of Lord Western's tenants. 
 
 IV. Distribution of the Improved Essex. 
 
 (i) The Improved Essex have not been distributed so 
 widely as many other breeds. 
 
 (2) In Britain they are most numerously found m the 
 counties of Essex and Suffolk. 
 
 (3) They have also been exported, but not in large num- 
 bers, to several Anglo-Saxon speaking countries. 
 
 343 
 
IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE. 345 
 
 V. Introduction into the United States. 
 
 (i) The information on this question is meager, but 
 
 (2) There are good reasons for believing that they were 
 
 introduced into New England about, or previous to, the middle 
 
 of the century. 
 
 VI. Organization. 
 
 (i) It is only during recent years that the Improved Essex 
 swine have attracted much attention in this country. 
 
 (2) The American Essex Association was organized in 
 1887. 
 
 VII. Distribution in the United States and 
 Canada. 
 
 (i) The Improved Essex are now being recorded from 
 thirteen states and from the province of Ontario. 
 
 (2) They are most numerous in the states of Michigan, 
 Nebraska, Texas, Illinois, Ohio, Indiana and Georgia, and 
 probably in the order named. 
 
 VIII. Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) There have been recorded in all 4,189 animals. 
 (2) Of these, 1,619 are boars and 2,570 are sows. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) In size the Essex are something larger than the Small 
 Yorkshires, and probably something smaller than the Suffolks. 
 (2) At maturity they may be made to weigh 600 pounds. 
 
 II. AdaptabiHty. 
 
 (i) They are best adapted to small holdings contiguous 
 to markets with a special retail trade. 
 
 (2) They meet well the purposes of the market gardener. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (i) These are markedly pronounced. 
 (2) In this respect the Essex are fully equal to the other 
 small breeds. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Because of their contented disposition they may be 
 grazed or fed soiling food, as may be desired. 
 
346 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 (2) They are easy feeders, and when well fed may be 
 marketed at almost any age. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) As with the small Yorkshires, the meat is usually 
 tender, juicy and well flavored, hence 
 
 (2) The meat is specially adapted to family use and to a 
 select trade. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) As with the other small breeds the Essex are best 
 adapted to crossing on larger and coarser types. 
 
 (2) Such crossing refines the system, hastens maturity 
 and promotes easy feeding qualities. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Though not so prolific as the long-bodied breeds, the 
 Essex cannot be called shy breeders. 
 
 (2) These qualities are largely influenced by environment. 
 
 VIII. Compared with Suffolks. 
 
 (i) In their essential characteristics, the Essex breed does 
 not differ greatly from the Suffolk. 
 
 (2) To so great an extent is this true that distinctions are 
 not easily drawn between them. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the scale of points adopted 
 by the American Essex Association : 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (I 
 (2 
 (3 
 (4 
 (5 
 (6 
 (7 
 (8 
 
 (9 
 (10 
 (II 
 (12 
 
 (13 
 (14 
 
 Color — Black 
 
 Head — Small, broad and face dished 
 
 Ears — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age 
 
 Jowl — Full and neat 
 
 Neck — Short, full and slightly arched 
 Shoulders — Broad and deep 
 Girth Around Heart .... 
 BdiCk — Straight, broad and level 
 Sides — Deep and full . 
 
 Rihs — Well sprung 
 
 Loin — Broad and strong 
 
 Flank — Well let down .... 
 
 Ham — Broad, full and deep 
 
 Tail — Medium, fine and curled 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 2 
 I 
 3 
 7 
 6 
 12 
 6 
 
 7 
 12 
 
 2 
 12 
 
 2 
 
IMPROVED ESSEX SWINE. 347 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (15) Legs — Fine, straight and tapering . . .3 
 
 (16) Feet — Small 3 
 
 (17) Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles . . 3 
 
 (18) Action — Easy and graceful .... 4 
 
 (19) Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to 
 each other 10 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 II. Below is given the description of scale of 
 points adopted by the American Essex Association : 
 
 (i) Head and Face — 
 
 (a) Head, short, coming well forward at poll. 
 
 (h) Face, short and well dished, broad between the eyes, 
 tapering from eyes to point of nose, surface smooth and 
 regular. 
 
 (2) Ears — Fine, erect, slightly drooping with age, thin, 
 soft and smooth. 
 
 (3) Jozvl — Full and neat, carrying fullness back to shoul- 
 ders, solid, not flabby. 
 
 (4) Neck — Short, full and slightly arched. 
 
 (5) Shoulders — Broad, deep and full, not extending above 
 the line of back and being as wide on top as back, carrying 
 size down to line of belly. 
 
 (6) Chest — Large, deep, so as not to cramp vital organs, 
 full in girth around the heart. 
 
 (7) Back — Straight, broad and level, carrying same width 
 from shoulders to hams. 
 
 (8) Sides — Deep and full, smooth and firm, carrying out 
 full to line of belly. 
 
 (9) Ribs — Well sprung in proportion to hams and shoul- 
 ders. 
 
 (10) Loin — Broad and strong. 
 
 (11) Flank — Well let down to lower line of sides. 
 
 (12) Hams — Broad, full and deep. 
 
 (13) Tail — Medium, fine and curled. 
 
 (14) Legs — Fine, straight and tapering. 
 
 (15) Feet — Small, with hoofs erect. 
 
 (16) Hair — Fine and silky, free from bristles, smooth, cov- 
 ering the body well, not clipped. 
 
 (17) Color — Black. 
 
 (18) Action — Easy, graceful and attractive. 
 
 (19) Disposition — Quiet, gentle and easily handled. 
 
 (20) Symmetry — The proper adjustment of the several 
 parts to each other. 
 
34^ THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 III. The following additional points are sub- 
 mitted : 
 
 (i) Neck, deep. 
 
 (2) Brisket, wide and on a level with the underline. 
 
 (3) Ribs, deep. 
 
 (4) Legs, short. 
 
 IV. General Appearance — The Essex are 
 small, neat and smooth in form, nicely turned at the 
 shoulders and hips, symmetrical and handsome. 
 
 V. Compared with the Suffolks. 
 
 (i) The Essex are a little smaller and shorter, and rather 
 more active on foot. 
 
 (2) The dish in the head is somewhat less pronounced and 
 the legs are a trifle longer, and 
 
 (3) The Essex are all black, while the Suffolks are all 
 white. 
 
LECTURE NO. 14. 
 
 SMALL YORKSHIRE SWINE ORIGIN AND HISTORY, 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 ORIGIN AND HISTORY. 
 
 I. The history of Small Yorkshire swine can- 
 not be traced with certainty beyond the year 1818. 
 
 (i) Chas. Mason and Robt. Colling, both of Durham, kept 
 pigs of this breed at that date. 
 
 (2) They were then designated Chinese, from which it is 
 inferred that they were possessed of much of the blood of 
 that breed. 
 
 II. Early in the century there were several 
 breeds or strains of small white pigs in England, as 
 the Small Yorkshires, the Cumberland, the Solway 
 and the White Leicester. 
 
 (i) The blood of these was apparently commingled in the 
 evolution of the breed as it exists at present. 
 
 (2) The Solway and Cumberland strains gave added size 
 and vigor. 
 
 III. Other small white varieties. 
 
 (i) Several other varieties or sub-varieties with only a 
 local reputation have appeared from time to time, as the Mid- 
 dlesex, Coleshill and Windsor, but 
 
 (2) These are now generally looked upon as variations of 
 the Small White Yorkshire. 
 
 IV. Distribution of small Yorkshires. 
 
 (i) They have been bred in several counties of England 
 and have also been exported, though in limited numbers, to 
 various foreign countries. 
 
o 
 
 (/3 
 
 O 
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 E 
 to 
 
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 H 
 
 
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 to 
 
SMALL YORKSHIRES. 35 I 
 
 (2) They have been a favorite breed with certain noblemen 
 in England, owing probably to the great symmetry of form 
 which characterizes them. 
 
 V. Introduction into the United States. 
 
 (i) Information on this point is not plentiful, but 
 (2) Within the last two decades considerable attention has 
 been given to breeding them in the eastern states. 
 
 VI. Organization. 
 
 (i) Two associations are recording Small Yorkshires in 
 the United States. 
 
 (2) One of these, the American Small Yorkshire Club, 
 has headquarters in New York city. 
 
 (3) The other, the American Yorkshire Club, has head- 
 quarters in St. Paul, Minn., and it records also Large Improved 
 Yorkshires. 
 
 VII. Distribution in the United States. 
 
 (i) Small Yorkshires are now bred in more than half 
 the states of the Union. 
 
 (2) They are probably most numerous in the states of 
 New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Minnesota. 
 
 VIIL Registration in the United States. 
 
 (i) In the American Yorkshire record there have been 
 recorded 762 Small Yorkshires, of which 346 are boars and 
 416 sows. 
 
 (2) The other association, the American Small Yorkshire 
 Club, has probably recorded a larger number. 
 
 LEADING CHARACTERISTICS. 
 
 I. Relative size. 
 
 (i) The Small Yorkshires are probably the least in size 
 of all the pedigreed breeds of swine in America, but 
 
 (2) Owing to their compactness of form, they weigh well 
 in proportion to their apparent size. 
 
 II. AdaptabiHty. 
 
 (i) The Small Yorkshires have highest adaptation for 
 intensive conditions where rapid growth and early maturity 
 are important considerations, and where there are markets 
 which call for pork of light weight. 
 
 (2) They will quickly convert into money value the waste 
 vegetable refuse of the truck farmer and the market gardener. 
 
352 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 III. Early maturing qualities. 
 
 (1) No breed matures more quickly or at an earlier age. 
 
 (2) They can be marketed at almost any age desired, but 
 more profitably at an early age, because of the slower relative 
 development that follows the first months of growth. 
 
 IV. Grazing and feeding qualities. 
 
 (i) Because of their short limbs and compact forms they 
 are not so well able to rustle on pastures as some breeds. 
 
 (2) No breed feeds more easily or grows more rapidly 
 until the usual marketing time, which should be under rather 
 than over six months. 
 
 (3) No breed gives a higher percentage of dressed meat. 
 
 V. Quality of the meat. 
 
 (i) The meat is fine in texture and delicate in flavor when 
 properly fed, and the proportion of bone is small. 
 
 (2) It is well adapted to what may be termed high-class 
 retail trade, more or less local in character. 
 
 VI. Value in crossing and grading. 
 
 (i) The cross of the Small Yorkshires may be used with 
 decided advantage in refining coarse types and in improving 
 their easy feeding qualities. 
 
 (2) Their value in this respect has been well demonstrated 
 in the use made of Small Yorkshire blood in the evolution of 
 the Improved Large Yorkshires. 
 
 VII. Breeding qualities. 
 
 (i) They do not produce litters so large as some of the 
 large breeds nor are they, as a rule, such abundant milkers, but 
 
 (2) With judicious management they will breed regularly 
 and with a fair measure of prolificacy. 
 
 VIII. Compared with the Sufifolks. 
 
 (i) The resemblance between the two breeds is close in 
 all leading essentials, but 
 
 (2) The Small Yorkshires are not so large and are even 
 more refined. 
 
 STANDARD POINTS. 
 
 I. The following is the standard scale of points 
 adopted by the American Small Yorkshire Club : 
 
SMALL YORKSHIRES. 353 
 
 POINTS. 
 
 (i) Head — Smaller the better .... 2 
 Nose, shorter the better . . 5 
 Dish, greater the better . . .3 
 Width between ears, greater the bet- 
 ter 3 
 
 Ears, small, thin, erect, more so the 
 better ; may be pricked forward, 
 not lopped 2 
 
 —15 
 
 (2) Trunk — Top line, straighter the better, from 
 
 shoulder to tail .... 5 
 Belly line, the more level the better 5 
 Girth in excess of length, more the 
 
 better, if not more than 10 per cent 5 
 Depth, greater the better . . .5 
 Width, greater and evener the better, 
 
 from shoulder to ham . . 5 
 Loin, broader the better . . .3 
 Flank, deeper and fuller the better 2 
 
 —30 
 
 (3) Hams — Length, longer the better . . 10 
 
 Breadth, broader the better . . 10 
 Thickness, greater the better . . 5 
 
 —25 
 
 (4) Shoulders — Length, longer the better . . 2 
 
 Breadth, broader the better . . 3 
 
 Thickness 5 
 
 — 10 
 
 (5) Legs — Shorter the better .... 3 
 
 Straighter the better ... 2 
 
 (6) Skin — Smooth, flexible, fine, more so the 
 
 better 
 
 (Must not be too thin, nor ridgy and 
 
 • coarse, nor show discolored spots 
 
 from old sores, not pale and ashy, 
 
 but healthy in color and free from 
 
 eruption.) 
 
 (7) Hair — Evener, finer and thicker the better 
 
 (8) General Appearance — 
 
 Symmetry and evidence of vigorous 
 health 
 
 —5 
 
 —5 
 
 —5 
 
 Perfection 100 
 
 23 
 
354 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 11. General Appearance — The Small Yorkshire 
 is very compact in form and fine and short in head 
 and limb, and usually carries with it much smooth- 
 ness, fullness and symmetry of form. 
 
 III. Compared with Suffolks. 
 
 (i) Small Yorkshires are smaller, shorter in the barrel 
 and have even smaller and finer limbs. 
 
 (2) In other essentials of form the two breeds are very 
 similar. 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 DEFINITION OF TERMS MORE COMMONLY APPLIED TO 
 ANIMAL FORM. 
 
 1. Head — The whole of that part in front of the forward 
 neck line. 
 
 2. Face — The whole front of the head from the muzzle 
 to the poll. 
 
 ■3. Poll — The top of the head from side to side. 
 
 4. Forehead — The whole of that part of the face between 
 the eyes and the poll. 
 
 5. Eyes — The organs of vision. 
 
 6. Dish — Depression in the face between the eyes and 
 also between the poll and the muzzle. 
 
 7. Nose — The part of the face between the eyes and the 
 muzzle. 
 
 8. Muzzle — The lowest part of the head always devoid of 
 hair. 
 
 9. Nostrils — The outer openings of the air passages con- 
 cerned in respiration. 
 
 10. Cheek — The whole outer surface of the side of the head 
 below the eye and forward to the mouth. 
 
 11. Horns — Bony protuberances coming out from the sides 
 of the poll and variously curved. 
 
 12. Ears — The organs of hearing. 
 
 13. Neck — That part between the forward and rear neck 
 lines, or between the head and body. 
 
 14. Forward Neck Line — That line which marks the junc- 
 tion of the head and neck. 
 
 15. Rear Neck Line — That line which marks the junction 
 of the neck and body. 
 
 16. Throat — That part where the upward curve meets the 
 lower neck line. 
 
 17. Body — All that part of the animal backward from the 
 rear neck line except the legs and tail. 
 
 18. Back—T\\Q whole of the top of the body from base of 
 the neck to the tailhead. 
 
 19. Withers — The part of the back above the shoulders and 
 between the top of the rear neck line and the chine. 
 
 20. C/imr— The part of the back bett^een the withers and 
 the loin. 
 
 21. Loin — The part of the back over the short ribs and 
 between the chine and pelvic arch. 
 
 355 
 
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358 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 22. Hooks — The rounded prominences at the outer edges 
 of the rear part of the loin. 
 
 23. Pelvic Arch — The portion of the back, usually more or 
 less elevated, which is placed between the loin and the crupper 
 and above the junction of the pelvis with the spinal column. 
 
 24. Crupper — The part of the back above the hips and 
 between the pelvic arch and tailhead. 
 
 25. Tailhead — Where the tail joins the body. 
 
 26. Shoulders — The parts of the forequarters behind the 
 rear neck line, in front of the crops, below the withers and 
 above the arm. 
 
 27. Chest — The part which encloses the cavity between the 
 shoulders and behind the breast. 
 
 28. Breast — The part of the body in front of the chest. 
 
 29. Brisket — The part below the breast and extending back- 
 ward between the forelegs. 
 
 30. Arm — That part of the leg below the shoulder and 
 above the knee. 
 
 31. Knee — The forward part of the middle joint in the 
 front leg. 
 
 32. Cannon — The part of the front leg between the knee 
 and the ankle joint. 
 
 2,2)- Hoof — The horny substance which encloses the foot. 
 
 34. Barrel — The part of the body which lies backward 
 from the shoulder and arm. forward from the hip and thigh, 
 and between the topline of the back and the underline. 
 
 35. Underline — The lower line of the body, extending back- 
 ward from the forward point of the brisket. 
 
 2,6. Crop — The part of the barrel, usually a little depressed, 
 that lies immediately behind the shoulder and extends from 
 the back downwards toward the center of the body. 
 
 37. ForeUank — That part of the barrel usually more or less 
 depressed, that lies immediately behind the arm. 
 
 38. Ribs — The bony rods arching outward and downward 
 from the spinal column and thus tending to encircle the barrel. 
 
 39. HindHank — That part of the barrel, usually more or 
 less depressed, which extends for a short distance forward 
 from the thigh and upward from the underline. 
 
 40. Hip — That part of the hindquarter that lies backward 
 from the barrel, above the thigh, forward from the buttock 
 and below the crupper and pelvic arch. 
 
 41. Thigh — The part of the hindquarter that lies below 
 the hip and above the hock. 
 
 42. Hock — The prominent rear part of the middle joint of 
 the hind leg. 
 
 43. Buttocks — The rear part of the body below the tailhead. 
 
 44. Pin-hones — The rounded prominences at the rear part 
 of the pelvis and on either side of the rectum. 
 
 45. Rumps — The part which includes the pinbones and the 
 tailhead. 
 
APPENDIX A. 359 
 
 46. Twist — That part which extends for a short distance 
 downward and outward from the junction of the inner thighs. 
 
 47. Escutcheon — That part of the cow between the peri- 
 neum and the udder on which the hair is fine and lies outward 
 trom the center rather than downward. 
 
 48. Udder — The glandular vessel between and in front of 
 the thighs in which the milk is secreted. 
 
 49. Teats — The fleshy covered ducts through which the milk- 
 is drawn from the udder. 
 
 50. Milk Veins — Those ducts, usually more or less tortuous 
 and branched, which extend forward from the udder along 
 and underneath the barrel. 
 
 51. Milk Wells — The openings through which the milk 
 veins enter the abdominal wall. 
 
 DEFINITION OF TERMS LESS FREQUENTLY APPLIED TO 
 ANIMAL FORM. 
 
 1. Frontal Bone — Another name for forehead, but more 
 restricted in the space indicated. 
 
 2. Orbit — The cavity occupied by the eye. 
 
 3. Rim of the Orbit — The bony prominence encircling the 
 orbit. 
 
 4. Jaw — The lower part of the side of the head which 
 extends backward from the muzzle to the throat. 
 
 5. Toplinc — The line that extends along the upper por- 
 tion of the body and more or less parallel with the underline. 
 
 6. Topline of the Neck — The upper line of the same which 
 extends from the poll to the withers. 
 
 7. Crest — Elevation in the topline of the neck. 
 
 8. Ewe-neck — Depression in the topline of the neck. 
 
 9. Dewlap — Loose, pendulous skin usually found forward 
 from the breast and underneath the neck and throat. 
 
 10. Collar — Another name for rear neck line. 
 
 11. Neck Vein — Another name for collar. 
 
 12. Foreqiiarter or Frontqnarter — The whole of the body 
 forward from the center of the barrel to the forward neck line, 
 but sometimes that part of it only which lies between the for- 
 ward girth and breast. 
 
 13. Hindquarter — The whole of the body backward from 
 the center of the barrel, but sometimes that part of it only 
 backward from the rear girth. 
 
 14. Coupling — Another name for barrel. 
 
 15. Forward Girth, or Heart Girth — The measurement 
 around the body immediately behind the shoulder. 
 
 16. Rear Girth, or Flank Girth — The measurement around 
 the body immediately in front of the hip. 
 
360 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 17. Umbilicus — That point in the central and lower part 
 of the abdomen where the umbilical cord of the foetus is 
 attached. 
 
 18. Barrel Depression — The triangular depression that lies 
 below the loin, behind the long ribs and in front of the hip. 
 
 19. Shoulder Blade — The triangular bone of the shoulder, 
 more or less flat on the surface, which extends downward and 
 forward and covers the forward portion of the side of the 
 chest. 
 
 20. Top Shoulder Point — The upper point of the shoulder 
 blade. 
 
 21. Front Shoulder Point — The rounded point located at 
 the front and lower part of the shoulder blade, where the 
 latter joins the arm bone. 
 
 22. Elbow Point — That rounded prominence at the upper 
 and back portion of the forearm. 
 
 23. Foreleg — The whole of the forward limb below the 
 top of the arm. 
 
 24. Hindleg — The whole of the rear limb below the upper 
 extremity of the thigh bone. 
 
 25. S title — That joint immediately back of the hind flank. 
 
 26. Thurl — The hip joint located toward the rear and upper 
 portion of the hip. 
 
 27. Sacrum — Nearly synonymous with the pelvic arch. 
 
 28. Incurving Thigh — Forward curve of the rear part of 
 the thigh. 
 
 29. Fore Udder — The two forward quarters of the udder. 
 
 30. Hind Udder — The two rearward quarters of the udder. 
 
 31. False Teats — Miniature teats in the male placed more 
 or less distant from one another and immediately in front of 
 the purse. 
 
 DEFINITION OF TERMS RELATING TO ANIMAL FORM 
 
 WHICH ARE LIABLE TO BE MISUNDERSTOOD 
 
 BECAUSE OF THEIR INDEFINITENESS. 
 
 1. A Clean Cut Head — A head that is light rather than 
 heavy, fine rather than coarse, nicely curved out below the 
 eyes and in a less degree above them, and free from super- 
 fluous flesh in every part. 
 
 2. A Head Well Set On — One that is carried with that 
 degree of erection that is pleasing to the eye and that joins 
 nicely at the junction with the neck. 
 
 3. A Neck Well Set On — One that is of proper elevation 
 for the sex and breed, and that joins nicely at the head and 
 blends nicely at the shoulders. 
 
 4. Parallelogrammic Form — That form in which the body 
 from the rear neck line backward resembles a parallelogram. 
 
APPENDIX A. 361 
 
 5. Cylitidrical Form — That form in which the body from 
 the rear neck line backward resembles a cylinder. 
 
 6. Bare Shoulders — Shoulder blades with but little cover- 
 ing of flesh underneath the skin. 
 
 7. Bare Loins — Loins with but little covering of flesh 
 over them. 
 
 8. Drooping Rumps — A downward inclination of the top- 
 line from the pelvic arch to the tailhead. 
 
 9. Pumpkin Buttocks — Buttocks that are protuberant, that 
 is to say, rounded out backward toward the center. 
 
 10. A Glandular Udder — An udder so numerously supplied 
 with glands as to be capable of much distension when full and 
 that is pliable and elastic when empty. 
 
 11. A Fleshy Udder — An udder possessed of so much fleshy 
 tissue as to be incapable of large distension when full and 
 that is unduly large and unyielding when empty. 
 
 12. A Good Skin — A skin of proper color and suitable 
 thickness for the breed, that is easily lifted up from the under- 
 lying tissues or moved laterally over them, and that is cov- 
 ered with a good coat of hair. 
 
 13. A Good Coat — Hair sufficiently abundant to protect the 
 skin, and soft and mossy to the touch. 
 
 14. Secretions of tJie Skin — Those oily substances which 
 come to the outer surface of the skin in cattle, more particu- 
 larly within the ears and at the escutcheon. 
 
 15. A Good Fleece — One that is of even and suitable length, 
 texture, strength, density, crimp and elasticity for the breed, 
 that is suitably supplied with yolk, and that covers the frame 
 sufficiently. 
 
 16. Yolk — Oily secretions deposited on the skin of sheep 
 and distributed over the wool fibers of the fleece. 
 
 17. Bristles — Strong, stiff and more or less erect hairs 
 sometimes found on the topline of the neck and withers of 
 swine. 
 
 18. Good Handling Qualities — These include an easily 
 yielding and elastic condition of the flesh of the body under 
 gentle pressure of the fingers, a ready vibration of the skin 
 over the ribs under gentle lateral movement of the hand, a 
 ready filling of the hand when the skin over the ribs is grasped 
 by the same, and a nice, soft, mossy condition of the coat. 
 
 TQ. A Good Handling Back — A back in which the skin and 
 flesh convey a nice sensation of softness and springiness when 
 gently pressed with the tips of the fingers. 
 
 20. General Outline — Geiieral outline relates to the more 
 essential features of form considered together. 
 
 21. Symmetry — Symmetry relates to the harmony as to 
 form that exists between the different members of the body. 
 
 22. General Appearance — That impression as to general 
 outline and symmetry conveyed to the mind when an animal 
 is viewed at rest and in motion. 
 
3^2 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 23. Carriage — Carnage relates to the movement of the dif- 
 ferent members of the body and to the position of the same 
 when in motion. 
 
 24. A Graceful Carriage — The carriage is graceful when 
 the members of the body are kept in correct position when in 
 motion and when the movement of the same is easy and 
 natural. 
 
 25. A Bold Carriage — The carriage is bold when the step 
 is firm and active, when the head is carried well erect, and 
 when the eye is likewise possessed of a bold and determined 
 look. 
 
 ^ Note — In the definitions thus submitted the aim has been 
 to interpret them in the light of common usage rather than 
 to harmonize and locate the various parts that relate to exter- 
 nal form in exact consonance with the names given to those 
 parts by the anatomist. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 CATTLE 
 
 FACTS REGARDING THE ANIMALS ILLUSTRATED. 
 
 Frontispiece — This picture represents a herd of pure bred 
 Shorthorns owned by Samuel B. Gorwill, near London, 
 Ontario, Can. 
 
 Dual-Purpose Cow — No. 2965, Mayflower A. 12. Bred 
 by George F. Taber, Paterson, N. J., owned by V. T. Hills, 
 Delaware, O. Winner of first prize at the Ohio state dairy 
 test in 1891. Milk record for one year, 11,508 pounds, which 
 at 4.59 per cent, the average of her ofiicial test in butter fat, 
 would produce 584 pounds of butter. Milk yield from August, 
 1890, to December 30, 1893, three years and five months. 
 37,967 1-4 pounds, which averaged in butter fat 4.35 per cent. 
 Mayflower A. 12 is a pedgreed Red Poll. 
 
 Shorthorn Bull — Nominee 131262. Bred by E. Gaunt & 
 Sons, St. Helens, Ontario, Can. Owned by H. F. Brown, 
 Minneapolis, Minn. Winner of grand sweepstakes prize over 
 all breeds at the Trans-Mississippi exposition held at Omaha 
 in 1898. 
 
 Shorthorn Cozv — Victoria 55th (Vol. 24, p. 18,814). Bred 
 by J. W. Aldrich, Tiskilwa, 111., in 1882, subsequently owned by 
 William Cummings & Son, later by C. M. Sanger & Son and 
 still later by George Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis. Whin- 
 ner of first prize at several leading state fairs. 
 
 Hereford Bull — Corrector 48976. Bred and owned by T. 
 F. B. Sotham, Chillicothe, Mo. His record as a prize winner 
 in the leading showrings of the United States and as a sire 
 of prize-winning animals is probably unequaled by that of any 
 other bull now living. Corrector is the sire of the two famous 
 show and stock bulls. Sir Bredwell 63685 and Thickset 68785. 
 At Kansas City, in 1899, Sir Bredwell sold for $5000, the 
 highest price ever reached by a Hereford sold at auction. 
 
 Hereford Cozv — Benita 48542. Bred and owned by T. F. 
 B. Sotham. Chillicothe, Mo. Winner of first prize at several 
 of the leading state fairs from 1894 to 1898. 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus Bull — Jim Jams 13896 (7630). Bred by 
 O. C. Wallis of Bradley Hall, England, selected by the late 
 William Watson and imported by W. T. Harvey, then of Tur- 
 
364 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 Hngton, Neb. Owned subsequently by J. Evans, Jr., & Son, 
 Emerson, la. 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus Cow — Vine 2d of Skene 3947 (3229). 
 Bred by George Hamilton, Skene House, Aberdeenshire, Scot- 
 land. Imported and owned by Hon. M. H. Cochrane, Hill- 
 hurst, P. Q. Vine 2d was a prize winner at the Highland 
 Agricultural Society's show held at Sterling, Scotland, in 1881, 
 and the same year won first prize at the provincial fair held 
 at Montreal, P. Q. 
 
 Galloway Bull — Crusader (2858). Bred by Thomas Big- 
 gar & Sons, Chapelton, Dalbeattie, Scotland. Winner of 
 champion cup as best Galloway bull at the Highland and Agri- 
 cultural Society's centenary show in 1894. 
 
 Galloway Cow — Corlina 10734. Bred by S. P. Clark, 
 Dover, 111., and owned by T. J. Davis & Son, Triumph, 111. 
 Winner of third prize as best cow of any age or breed at the 
 Trans-Mississippi exposition, held at Omaha, Neb., 1898. 
 
 Group of Sussex Cattle — The bull Royal Surrey (720) was 
 bred by Joseph Godman, Godalming, Surrey, England, and 
 imported by Overton Lea, Nashville, Tenn. The cows. May- 
 wood (3532) and Maywood ist (3790) were bred by Mr. Lea. 
 All were noted prize winners at leading state fairs at sundry 
 times between 1885 and 1889. 
 
 West Highland Heifer — Lady Flora. Owned by the Rt. 
 Hon., the Earl of Southesk, Scotland. — From "Live Stock of 
 Great Britain." 
 
 Holstein Bull—Chlei of Maple Hill 4th, No. 17224, H. F. 
 H. B. Bred by M. E. Moore, Cameron, Mo. Owned by W. 
 B. Barney & Co., Hampton, la. Winner of many first prizes 
 at the leading state fairs in the west from 1889 to 1898. _ In 
 1898 he was placed first in his class at the Trans-Mississippi 
 exposition, held at Omaha, Neb. 
 
 Holstein Cow — Jepma 2d, No. 733, H. H. B. Bred by 
 M. D. Koldijk, Wirdum, Friesland. Imported by Thomas B. 
 Wales, 1879. Winner of first prize in 1882 and 1883 at several 
 of the leading state fairs in the west. Jepma 2d is of the 
 milk and beef form. 
 
 Dutch Belted Cow — Huldah No. 141. Bred by the late 
 Willia'm Arnout of Orange county. New York. Owned sub- 
 sequently by H. B. Richards, Easton, Pa. Huldah made for 
 several years a milk record of about 12.000 pounds a year, and 
 was also a first prize winner at several state fairs. 
 
 Ayrshire Bull — Sir Thomas Bruce 4161. Bred by Thomas 
 Guy, Oshawa, Ontario, Can. Subsequently owned by Coldren 
 & Lee, Iowa City, and later by F. M. Watson, Roseville, 111. 
 Winner of first prize at the Minnesota state fair, 1888. 
 
 Ayrshire Cow — Duchess of Smithfield 4256. Bred by 
 Henry E. Smith, Enfield, R. I. Owned by H. R. C. Watson, 
 Brandon, Vt. Winner in 1885 of the Ayrshire Breeders' Asso- 
 ciation's prize for the largest amount of milk given in seven 
 
APPENDIX B. * 365 
 
 consecutive days. She gave 463 3-4 pounds of milk which pro- 
 duced 19 lbs. 6 oz. of butter. 
 
 Guernsey Bull — Lord Stranford 2187, A. G. C. C. 
 Selected on the island of Guernsey for the herd of Hon. Levi 
 P. Morton, by whom he was imported in 1889. Subsequently 
 owned by Dr. G. Howard Davison, Millbrook, N. Y., and later 
 by James B. Duke, Somerville, N. J. Winner of sweepstakes 
 at the World's Fair, Chicago, in 1893. 
 
 Guernsey Cozu — Rutila's Daughter 6670, A. G. C. C. Bred 
 by Francis Shaw, Wayland, ]\Iass., in 1891. Owned by H. 
 I^lcK. Twombley, ]Madison, N. J. Winner of sweepstakes at 
 the New York state fair, 1897; seven days' butter record, 
 21 lbs. 4 oz. 
 
 Jersey Bull — Czar Coomassie 41036, A. J. C. C. Bred by 
 G. L. & A. C. Davis, Port Jefferson. N. Y. Owned by John 
 E. Robbins, Lonetree herd, Greensburg. Ind. Winner of first 
 prize at the New York state fair in 1897, also of first prize and 
 sweepstakes at the Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and Missouri state 
 fairs the same year. 
 
 Jersey Cow — Teasel 75358, A. J. C. C. Bred and owned 
 by H. C. Taylor, the proprietor of the Brown Bessie herd, 
 Orfordville, Wis. Teasel is the only living daughter of Brown 
 Bessie 74997. champion butter cow at the World's Fair, 1893. 
 In June, 1896, Teasel gave 294 lbs. 4 oz. of milk in a seven 
 days' test, which made 20 lbs. 4 oz. butter. 
 
 French Canadian Cow — La Countesse St. Norbert (918). 
 Bred by Arsene Denis, St. Norbert, P. Q. Owned by Chas. 
 E. Colburn, Portlandville, N. Y. Winner of first prize at 
 several of the New York state fairs. 
 
 Kerry Cow — Flora. Owned by Martin J. Sutton, Read- 
 ing, Eng. Winner of first prize at the London dairy show in 
 1885 and again in 1887. — From "Farm Live Stock of Great 
 Britain." 
 
 Polled Durham Cow — Lorena 72,^ A. P. D. H. B. Bred 
 by W. W. Crane, Tippecanoe City, O. Subsequently owned 
 by J. H. ]\Iiller, Peru, Ind. Winner of first prize at the state 
 fairs of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. Lorena was of the beef 
 type and was a cow of great scale. Her weight at maturity 
 was over 2,000 pounds. 
 
 Brown Swiss Cow — Brienz No. 168. Bred in Switzerland. 
 Owned by A. Bourquin. Nokomis, 111. At the Fat Stock show 
 held in Chicago, November, 1891, Brienz in a three days' test, 
 gave 245 pounds of milk which contained 9.32 pounds of but- 
 ter fat. 
 
 Red Poll Cow— Willow Belle 471 (3218), bred by G. F. 
 Taber, Patterson, N. Y. Owned by S. A. Converse, Cresco, 
 la. — From Vol. i, American Red Poll Herd Book. 
 
 Devon Cow — Wisconsin Belle No. 2831. Bred and owned 
 by George Baker & Sons, Hustisford, Wis. — From Vol II, 
 Devon Herd Record. 
 
366 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 SHEEP 
 
 American Merino Ewe — A pure Atwood Spanish Merino. 
 — From Report on Sheep Industry in the United States, 1892, 
 p. 614. 
 
 Delaine Merino Ezve — No. 408. Ear tab, No. 210. 
 Owned by James McClelland, Canonsburg, Pa. Winner of 
 the silver cup ofifered at the West Virginia and the western 
 Pennsylvania state fairs in 1887 for the best Delaine Merino 
 ewe of any age. 
 
 Rambouillet Ezve — Gilbert No. 31. Record No. 8456. Bred 
 by Victor Gilbert, Wideville, near Crespines, France. 
 Imported by George Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis., in 1899. 
 Subsequently owned by C. H. Ballinger, Lexington, Neb. 
 Winner of first and champion prizes at the Minnesota state 
 fair, 1899, and also at several other state fairs. 
 
 Southdozvn Ezve — Jackson ewe "22B" 10248. Bred and 
 owned by John Jackson & Sons, Abingdon, Ont. Winner 
 of first prize in her class and sweepstakes as the best sheep 
 in the show at the Ontario Fat Stock exhibition held at Brant- 
 ford, 1898. 
 
 Tunis Ram — Gladstone No. 7. Bred and owned by 
 Charles Rountree, Crawfordsville, Ind. Winner of first prize 
 and sweepstakes once at the Wisconsin state fair, twice at 
 the Missouri state fair and three times at the Indiana state fair. 
 
 Dorset Ezve — McCulmut's 90, 715 C. D. C. Bred by H. 
 M. McCulmut, Bishopswood, Ross, Eng. Imported by George 
 Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis. Owned by R. Stuyvesant, 
 Tranquillity Farms, Allamuchy, N. J. Winner of grand 
 sweepstakes for best ewe of any breed at the Trans-Mississippi 
 exposition. Omaha, 1898. 
 
 Shropshire Ezve — Nancy 5719. Bred and owned by John 
 Campbell, Woodville, Ontario, Can. Winner when a shearling 
 of first prize at the Toronto Industrial exhibition in 1886, also 
 of other first prizes at important fairs. 
 
 Cheviot Ezve — Wild Rose 193. Bred and owned by How- 
 ard H. Keim, Ladoga, Ind. 
 
 Suffolk Dozvn Ezve — Bred by the Marquis of Bristol, Tud- 
 denham Hall Farm, Mildenhall, Suffolk, Eng. Imported by 
 the agricultural college, Guelph, Ontario, Can., in 1891. 
 
 Hampshire Dozvn Ewe — Ear tag No. R. M. 4208. Win- 
 ner in first prize pen at the Royal Agricultural Society's show 
 in England in 1899. Imported by George Harding & Son, 
 Waukesha, Wis. Winner of first prize at the Minnesota and 
 other state fairs in 1899. 
 
 Oxford Dozvn Ezve — Daisy. Bred and owned by Smith 
 Evans, Gourock, Ontario, Can. Daisy was one of a trio of 
 
APPENDIX B. 367 
 
 Oxford Downs that won the silver medal at the Ontario pro- 
 vincial show held at London in 1899. 
 
 Leicester Ram — Royal Chester 742. Bred by Lord Pol- 
 worth, Mertoiin, Scot. Imported and owned by John Kelly, 
 Shakespeare, Ontario, Can. Winner of sweepstakes as ram 
 of any age at the World's Fair at Chicago, 111., in 1893, and 
 also of many other noted prizes. 
 
 Lincoln iiwr— Lady. Bred by Mr. Diidding, England. 
 Imported and owned by Gibson & Walker. Denfiekl Ontario, 
 Can. A pri2:e winner at the World's Fair, Chicago, 1893. — 
 Breeders' Gazette of Nov. 15, 1893. 
 
 Cofszvola Ram — Game's 34, 16087. Bred by R. & W. 
 Game, Aldsworth. Gloucestershire, Eng. Imported by George 
 Harding & Son, Waukesha, Wis., in 1898. Winner of sweep- 
 stakes as best Cotswold ram at six leading state fairs that 
 same year. 
 
 SWINE 
 
 Chester White 5"ow— Hodgson's Choice, No. 9804. Bred 
 and owned by L. C. Hodgson, Luverne, Minn. Winner of first 
 prize at the Minnesota state fair in 1899. Also in herd which 
 won first prize at the same fair. 
 
 Large Improved Yorkshire Sozv — Donna 3d of Clover 
 Crest, No. 572. Bred by A. G. Wilcox, Hugo, Minn. Owned 
 by the Minnesota university experiment farm. ' 
 
 Tamworth Sozv— Katie Bell 345- Bred by John Bell, 
 Amber, Ontario, Can. Owned by the Iowa agricultural exper- 
 iment station. Winner of sweepstakes prize at the Trans- 
 Mississippi exposition at Omaha, Neb., 1898. 
 
 Berkshire Sozv — Cherry Blossom IX 26274. Bred and 
 owned by A. J. Lovejoy & Son, Roscoe, 111. Winner of first 
 prize and sweepstakes at the Illinois, Minnesota and Kansas 
 state fairs and also of other important prizes. 
 
 Poland-China Sozv — Rose Glen 30666, S. P. C. Record. 
 Bred by J. A. Shellenberger, Bedison, Mo. Owned subse- 
 quently by W. T. Garrett, Maryville, Mo. 
 
 Victoria Sozi' — Beauty. Owned by George Stark, St. 
 Louis, Mo. 
 
 Duroc-Jersey Sozv — Our Choice No. 15774. Bred and 
 owned by C. H. Searle, Edgar, Neb. Winner of first prize 
 at the Minnesota state fair, 1899. She was also in the herd 
 that won three first prizes at the Trans-Mississippi exposition 
 held at Omaha, Neb., 1898. 
 
 Cheshire Sozv — Daisy 2d No. 143. Bred and owned by 
 E. W. Davis, Oneida, N. Y. Winner of first prize at the New 
 York state fair and also at other important fairs. 
 
368 
 
 THE STUDY OF BREEDS. 
 
 Suffolk Sow — White Rose No. 688. Bred and owned by 
 A. C. Green & Son, Winchester, Ind. Winner of first prize 
 and sweepstakes at the Indiana state fair in 1898-99, and of 
 first prize at several other state fairs during both years, 
 
 Essex Sozv — Royal Best No. 2508. Bred arxd owned by 
 A. C. Green & Son, Winchester, Ind. Winner of first prize 
 and sweepstakes at the Indiana state fair in 1899 and of first 
 prize at several other state fairs. 
 
 Small Yorkshire Sozv — Chenango's Choice 2041. Bred, 
 and owned by F. B. Stewart, Espyville, Pa. Winner of firsi 
 prize and sweepstakes at the New York and Pennsylvania 
 state fairs in i8g6, also first in class and was in the winning 
 herd at the fair held at Madison Square Garden, New York 
 city, the same year. 
 
INDEX 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Aberdeen-Angus cattle 49-61 
 
 origin and history 49 
 
 leading characteristics 55 
 
 standard points 5 5 
 
 American Merinos 183-19U 
 
 origin and history 183 
 
 leading characteristics 186 
 
 principal points 188 
 
 Appendix A 355-362 
 
 definition of terms more com- 
 monly applied to animal 
 
 form 355 
 
 definition of terms less fre- 
 quently applied to animal 
 
 form 359 
 
 definition of terms relating 
 to animal form which are 
 liable to be misunderstood 
 because of their indeflnite- 
 
 ness 360 
 
 Appendix B— Facts regarding 
 the animals illustrated. .363-368 
 
 cattle 363 
 
 sheep 366 
 
 swine 367 
 
 Ayrshire cattle 101-111 
 
 origin and history 101 
 
 leading characteristics 106 
 
 standard points 109 
 
 Beef breeds of cattle 23-83 
 
 Berkshire swine 307-312 
 
 origin and history 307 
 
 leading characteristics 310 
 
 standard points 311 
 
 Brown Swiss cattle 151-155 
 
 origin and history 151 
 
 leading characteristics 152 
 
 standard points 154 
 
 Cattle 1-172 
 
 beef breeds 23-83 
 
 classification 7-9 
 
 dairy breeds 85-144 
 
 dual-purpose breeds 145-172 
 
 indications of correct form 
 common to the beef 
 
 breeds 10-12 
 
 indications of correct form 
 and function common to 
 
 the dairy breeds 13-16 
 
 indications of correct form 
 and function in the dual- 
 
 PAGE 
 
 purpose breeds 19-22 
 
 origin of the British breeds.. .4-6 
 origin of the domesticated 
 races I-3 
 
 Cheshire swine 333-337 
 
 origin and history 333 
 
 leading characteristics 335 
 
 standard points 336 
 
 Chester White swine 287-293 
 
 origin and history 287 
 
 leading characteristics 290 
 
 standard points 291 
 
 Cheviot sheep 23i-236 
 
 origin and history 231 
 
 leading characteristics 233 
 
 standard points 235 
 
 Cotswold sheep 271-275 
 
 origin and history 271 
 
 leading characteristics 272 
 
 standard points 274 
 
 Dairy breeds 85-144 
 
 Delaine Merino sheep 192-197 
 
 origin and history 192 
 
 leading characteristics 194 
 
 standard points l§6 
 
 Devon cattle 163-172 
 
 origin and history 163 
 
 leading characteristics 167 
 
 standard points 170 
 
 Dorset horn sheep 217-223 
 
 origin and history 217 
 
 leading characteristics 220 
 
 principal points 222 
 
 Dual-purpose breeds 145-172 
 
 Duroc-Jersey swine 327-332 
 
 origin and history 327 
 
 leading characteristics 328 
 
 standard points 329 
 
 Dutch Belted cattle 95-100 
 
 origin and history 95 
 
 leading characteristics 97 
 
 standard points 99 
 
 Essex swine, improved 343-348 
 
 origin and history 343 
 
 leading characteristics 345 
 
 standard points 346 
 
 French Canadian cattle 133-138 
 
 origin and history 133 
 
 leading characteristics 136 
 
 standard points 137 
 
 24 
 
 369 
 
370 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Galloway cattle 63-71 
 
 origin and history 63 
 
 leading characteristics 67 
 
 standard points 70 
 
 Guernsey cattle 113-121 
 
 origin and history 113 
 
 leading characteristics 116 
 
 standard points 119 
 
 Hampshire Down sheep 243-248 
 
 origin and history 243 
 
 leading characteristics 246 
 
 standard points 247 
 
 Hereford cattle 37-48 
 
 origin and history 37 
 
 leading characteristics 43 
 
 principal points 46 
 
 Holstein-Friesian cattle 85-94 
 
 origin and history 85 
 
 leading characteristics 89 
 
 standard points 92 
 
 Improved Essex swine 343-348 
 
 origin and history 343 
 
 leading characteristics 345 
 
 standard points 346 
 
 Improved Large Yorkshire 
 
 swine 295-300 
 
 origin and history 295 
 
 leading characteristics 297 
 
 standard points 293 
 
 Improved Suffolk swine 339-342 
 
 origin and history 33-0 
 
 leading characteristics 340 
 
 principal points 341 
 
 Jersey cattle 123-132 
 
 origin and history 123 
 
 leading characteristics 127 
 
 standard points 130 
 
 Kerry cattle 139-144 
 
 origin and history 139 
 
 leading characteristics 141 
 
 principal points 143 
 
 Leicester sheep 257-262 
 
 origin and history 257 
 
 leading characteristics 259 
 
 principal points 261 
 
 Lincoln sheep 263-269 
 
 origin and history 263 
 
 leading characteristics 265 
 
 standard points 267 
 
 Merino, American 183-190 
 
 origin and history 183 
 
 leading characteristics 186 
 
 principal points 188 
 
 Merino Delaine 192-197 
 
 origin and history 192 
 
 leading characteristics 194 
 
 standard points 196 
 
 Oxford Down sheep 249-255 
 
 origin and history 249 
 
 leading characteristics 252 
 
 standard points .,,... 253 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Poland-China swine 313-320 
 
 origin and history 313 
 
 leading characteristics 315 
 
 standard points 316 
 
 Polled Durham cattle 145-149 
 
 origin and history 145 
 
 leading characteristics 147 
 
 principal points 149 
 
 Rambouillet sheep 198-204 
 
 origin and history 198 
 
 leading characteristics 201 
 
 principal points 203 
 
 Red Poll cattle 156-162 
 
 origin and history 156 
 
 leading characteristics 159 
 
 standard points 160 
 
 Sheep 173-275 
 
 fine wooled breeds 183-204 
 
 improvement and classifica- 
 tion 177-179 
 
 introduction into Amer- 
 ica 173-176 
 
 leading essentials as to form 
 
 and wool 180-182 
 
 long wooled breeds 257-275 
 
 medium wooled breeds 206-255 
 
 Shorthorn cattle 23-36 
 
 origin and history 23 
 
 distribution in other coun- 
 tries 28 
 
 leading characteristics 31 
 
 principal points 34 
 
 Shropshire sheep 225-230 
 
 origin and history 225 
 
 leading characteristics 227 
 
 standard points 228 
 
 Small Yorkshire swine 349-354 
 
 origin and history 349 
 
 leading characteristics 351 
 
 standard points 352 
 
 Southdown sheep 206-210 
 
 origin and history 206 
 
 leading characteristics 208 
 
 standard points 209 
 
 Suffolk Down sheep 237-242 
 
 origin and history 237 
 
 leading characteristics 239 
 
 standard points 241 
 
 Suffolk swine, improved 339-342 
 
 origin and history 339 
 
 leading characteristics 340 
 
 standard points 341 
 
 Sussex cattle .-72-77 
 
 origin and history 72 
 
 leading characteristics 74 
 
 principal points 75 
 
 Swine 276-354 
 
 improvement and classifica- 
 tion 280-282 
 
 leading essentials as to 
 
 form 283-286 
 
 medium breeds 307-337 
 
INDEX. 
 
 S7I 
 
 PAGE 
 
 origin of the domesticated 
 
 races 276-279 
 
 the larger breeds 287-306 
 
 small breeds 339-354 
 
 Tamworth swine 301-306 
 
 origin and history 301 
 
 leading characteristics 304 
 
 principal points 305 
 
 Tunis sheep 211-216 
 
 origin and history 211 
 
 leading characteristics 213 
 
 standard points 215 
 
 Victoria swine 321-325 
 
 origin and history 321 
 
 PAGE 
 
 leading characteristics ... .323 
 
 standard points 324 
 
 West Highland cattle 78-83 
 
 origin and history 78 
 
 leading characteristics 79 
 
 principal points 82 
 
 Yorkshire swine, improved 
 
 large 295-300 
 
 origin and history 295 
 
 leading characteristics 297 
 
 standard points 298 
 
 Yorkshire swine, small 349-354 
 
 origin and history 349 
 
 leading characteristics 351 
 
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 wants are constantly kept in mind, and we have a very 
 complete treatise on the cultivation of flowers under 
 glass, or in the open air, suited to those who grow flowers 
 for pleasure as well as those who make them a matter 
 of trade. Beautifully illustrated. New and enlarged 
 edition. Cloth, 12mo $1.50 
 
 Tobacco Leaf. 
 
 By J. B. Killebrew and Herbert Myrick. Its Culture 
 and Cure, Marketing and Manufacture, A practical 
 handbook on the most approved methods in growing, 
 harvesting, curing, packing, and selling tobacco, with an 
 account of the operations in every department of tobacco 
 manufacture. The contents of this book are based on 
 actual experiments in field, curing barn, packing house, 
 factory and laboratory. It is the only work of the kind 
 in existence, and is destined to be the standard practical 
 and scientific authority on the whole subject of tobacco 
 for many years. Upwards of 500 pages and 150 original 
 engravings. • • $2.00 
 
STANDARD BOOKS. 
 
 Play and Profit in My Garden. 
 
 By E. P. Roe. The author takes us to his garden on 
 the rocky hillsides in the vicinity of West Point, and 
 shows us how out of it, after four years' experience, he 
 evoked a profit of $1,000, and this while carrying on pas- 
 toral and literary labor. It is very rarely that so much 
 literary taste and skill are mated to so much agricultural 
 experience and good sense. Cloth, 12nio. . , $1.00 
 
 Forest Planting:. 
 
 By H. Nicholas Jarchow, LL. D. A treatise on the care 
 of woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timber- 
 lands on plains and mountains. The author has fully 
 described thor.e European methods which have proved 
 to be most useful in m.aintaining the superb forests of the 
 old world. This experience has been adapted to the dif- 
 ferent climates and trees of America, full instructions 
 being given for forest planting of our various kinds of 
 soil and subsoil, whether on mountain or valley. 
 Illustrated, 12mo * $1.50 
 
 Soils and Crops of the Farm. 
 
 By George E. Morrow, M. A., and Thomas F. Hunt. The 
 methods of making available the plant food in the soil 
 are described in popular language. A short history of 
 each of the farm crops is accompanied by a discussion 
 of its culture. The useful discoveries of science are 
 explained as applied in the most approved methods of 
 culture. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo $1.00 
 
 American Fruit Culturist. 
 
 By John J. Thomas. Containing pra<3tical directions for 
 the propagation and culture of all the fruits adapted to 
 the United States. Twentieth thoroughly revised and 
 greatly enlarged edition by Wm. H. S. Wood. This new 
 edition makes the work practically almost a new book, 
 containing everything pertaining to large and small 
 fruits as well as sub-tropical and tropical fruits. Richly 
 illustrated by nearly 800 engravings. 758 pp., 12mo. $2.50 
 
 Fertilizers. 
 
 By Edward B. Voorhees, director of the New Jersey Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. It has been the aim of 
 the author to point out the underlying principles and to 
 discuss the important subjects connected with the use 
 of fertilizer materials. The natural fertility of the soil, 
 the functions of manures and fertilizers, and the need 
 of artificial fertilizers are exhaustively discussed. Sepa- 
 rate chapters are devoted to the various fertilizing ele- 
 ments, to the purchase chemical analyses, methods of 
 using fertilizers, and the best fertilizers for each of the 
 most important field, garden and orchard crops. 
 335 pp $1.00 
 
filANDARD BOOKS. 
 
 Gardening: for Profit. 
 
 By Peter Henderson. The standard work on market and 
 family gardening-. Tile successful experience of the author 
 for more than thirty years, and his willingness to tell, 
 as he does in this work, the secret of his success for 
 the benefit of others, enables him to give most valuable 
 information. The book is profusely illustrated. Cloth, 
 12mo. . . . $1.50 
 
 Herbert's Hints to Horse Keepers. 
 
 By the late Henry William Herbert (Frank Forester). 
 This is one of the best and most popular works on the 
 horse prepared in this country. A complete manual for 
 horsemen, embracing: How to breed a horse; how to buy 
 a horse; hov/ to break a horse; how to use a horse; how 
 to feed a horse; how to physic a horse (allopathy or ho- 
 moeopathy); how to groom a horse; how to drive a horse; 
 how to ride a horse, etc. Beautifully illustrated. Cloth, 
 12mo. . . . c $1.50 
 
 Barn Plans and Outbuildin§:s. 
 
 Two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. A most val- 
 uable work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., 
 for the construction of barns and outbuildings, by prac- 
 tical writers. Chanters are devoted to the economic 
 erection and use of barns, grain barns, house barns, 
 cattle barns, sheep barns, corn houses, smoke houses, 
 ice houses, pig pens, granaries, etc. There are likewise 
 chapters on bird houses, dog houses, tool sheds, ventila- 
 tors, roofs and roofing, doors and fastenings, workshops, 
 poultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards, root pits, etc. 
 Cloth, 12mo. $1.00 
 
 Cranberry Culture. 
 
 By Joseph J. White. Contents: Natural history, history 
 of cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground, 
 planting the vines, management of meadows, fiooding, 
 enemies and difljculties overcome, picking, keeping, pro- 
 fit and loss. Cloth, 12mo $1.00 
 
 Ornamental Gardening: for Americans. 
 
 By Elias A. L.ong, landscape architect. A treatise on 
 beautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. A" 
 plain and practical work with numerous illustrations and 
 instructions so plain that they may be readily followed. 
 Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo $1.50 
 
 Grape Culturist. 
 
 By A. S. Fuller. This is one of the very best of works 
 on the culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions 
 for all departments of propagation, culture, etc., with 
 150 excellent engravings, illustrating planting, training, 
 ' grafting, etc. Cloth, 12mo. . . . ... $1.50 
 
STAKDARD BOOKS. 
 
 Turkeys and How to Grow Them. 
 
 Edited by Herbert Myrick. A treatise on the natural his- 
 tory and origin of the name of turkeys; the various 
 breeds, the best methods to insure success in the business 
 of turkey growing. With essays from practical turkey 
 growers in different parts of the United States and Can- 
 ada. Copiously illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. . . $1.00 
 
 Profits i Poultry. 
 
 Usetur and ornamental breeds and their profitable man- 
 agement. This excellent work contains the combined 
 experience of a number of practical men in all depart- 
 ments of poultry raising. It is profusely illustrated and 
 forms a unique and important addition to our poultry 
 literature. Cloth, 12roo $1.00 
 
 How Crops Grow. 
 
 By Prof. Sam.uel W. Johnson of Yale College. New and 
 revised edition. A treatise on the chemical composition, 
 structure and life of the plant. This book is a guide to 
 the knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition, 
 their structure and modes of development and growth; 
 of the complex organization of plants, and the use of 
 the parts; the germination of seeds, and the food of 
 plants obtained both from the air and the soil. The 
 book is indispensable to all real students of agriculture. 
 With numerous illustrations and tables of analysis. Cloth, 
 12mo. $1.50 
 
 Coburn's Swine Husbandry. 
 
 By F. D. Coburn. New, revised and enlarged edition. The 
 breeding, rearing, and management of swine, and the 
 prevention and treatment of their diseases. It is the full- 
 est and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding 
 yet offered. Cloth, 12mo $1.50 
 
 Stewart's Shepherd's Manual. 
 
 By Henry Stewart. A valuable practical treatise on the 
 sheep for American farmers and sheep growers. It is 
 so plain that a farmer or a farmer's son who has never 
 kept a sheep, may learn from its pages how to manage 
 a flock successfully, and yet so complete that even the 
 experienced shepherd may gather many suggestions from 
 it. The results of personal experience of some years 
 with the characters of the various modern breeds of 
 sheep, and the sheep raising capabilities of many por- 
 tions of our extensive territory and that of Canada— and 
 the careful study of the diseases to which our sheep 
 are chiefly subject, with those by which they may even- 
 tually be afflicted through unforeseen accidents— as well 
 as the methods of management called for under our 
 circumstances, are carefully described. Illustrated. Cloth, 
 12mo. $1.00 
 
STAKDARD BOOKS. 
 
 Feeds and Feeding:. 
 
 By W. A. Henry. This handbook for students and stock 
 men constitutes a compendium of practical and useful 
 knowledge on plant growth and animal nutrition, feed- 
 ing stuffs, feeding animals and every detail pertaining 
 to this important subject. It is thorough, accurate and 
 reliable, and is the most valuable contribution to live 
 stock literature in inany years. All the latest and best 
 information is cleai ly and systematically presented, mak- 
 ing the work indispensable to every owner of live stock. 
 658 pages, 8vo. Cloth. . $2.00 
 
 Hunter and Trapper. 
 
 By Halsey Thrasher, an old and experienced sportsman. 
 The best modes of hunting and trapping are fully ex- 
 plained, and foxes, deer, bears, etc., fall into his traps 
 readily by following his directions. Cloth, 12mo. $ .50 
 
 The Ice Crop. 
 
 By Theron L. Hiles. How to harvest, ship and use ice. 
 A complete, practical treatise for farmers, dairymen, ice 
 dealers, produce shippers, meat packers, cold storers, 
 and all interested in ice houses, cold storage, and the 
 handling or use of ice in any way. Including many 
 recipes for iced dishes and beverages. The book is 
 illustrated by cuts of the tools and machinery used in 
 cutting and storing ice, and the different forms of ice 
 houses and cold storage buildings. 122 pp., ill., 16mo. 
 Cloth. . , $1.00 
 
 Practical Forestry. 
 
 By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, 
 planting and cultivation, with descriptions and the botan- 
 ical and popular names of all the indigenous trees of the 
 United States, and notes on a large number of the most 
 valuable exotic species $1.50 
 
 Irrigation for the Farm, Garden and Orchard. 
 
 By Henry Stewart. This work is offered to those Amer- 
 ican farmers and other cultivators of the soil who, from 
 painful experience, can readily appreciate the losses which 
 result from the scarcity of water at critical periods. 
 Fully illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. .... $1.00 
 
 Market Gardening: and Farm Notes. 
 
 By Burnett I^andreth. Experiences and observation for 
 both North and South, of interest to the amateur gar- 
 dener, trucker and farmer. A novel feature of the book 
 is the calendar of farm and garden operations for each 
 month of the year; the chapters on fertilizers, trans- 
 planting, succession and rotation of crops, the packing, 
 shipping and marketing of vegetables will be especially 
 useful to market gardeners. Cloth, 12mo. . . $1.00 
 
STANDARD BOOKS. 
 
 The Fruit Garden. 
 
 By P. Barry. A standard work on fruit and fruit trees, 
 the author having had over thirty years' practical expe- 
 rience at the head of one of the largest nurseries in 
 this country. Invaluable to all fruit growers. Illustrated. 
 Cloth, 12mo. $1.50 
 
 The Nut Culturist. 
 
 By Andrew S. Fuller. A treatise on the propagation, 
 planting and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs 
 adapted to the climate of the United States, with the 
 scientific and common names of the fruits known in 
 commerce as edible or otherwise useful nuts. Intended 
 to aid the farmer to increase his income without adding 
 to his expenses or labor. 12mo. Cloth. . . $1.50 
 
 American Grape Growing: and Wine Making:. 
 
 By George Husmann of California. New and enlarged 
 edition. With contributions from well-known grape grow- 
 ers, giving wide range of experience. The author of this 
 book is a recognized authority on the subject. Cloth, 
 12mo. $1.50 
 
 Treat's Injurious Insects of the Farm and Garden. 
 
 By Mrs. Mary Treat. An original investigator who has 
 added much to our knowledge of both plants and insects, 
 and those who are familiar with Darwin's works are 
 aware that he gives her credit for important observa- 
 tion and discoveries. New and enlarged edition. With 
 
 an illustrated chapter on beneficial insects. Fully illus- 
 trated. Cloth, 12mo $1.50 
 
 The I>os:s of Great Britain, America and Other Coun- 
 tries. 
 
 New, enlarged and revised edition. Their breeding, train- 
 ing and management, in health and disease; comprising 
 all the essential parts of the two standard works on 
 dogs by "Stonehenge." It describes the best game and 
 hunting grounds in America. Contains over one hundred 
 beautiful engravings, embracing most noted dogs in both 
 continents, making, together with chapters by American 
 writers, the most complete dog book ever published. 
 Cloth, 12mo $1.50 
 
 Harris on the Pig:. 
 
 By Joseph Harris. New edition. Revised and enlarged 
 by the author. The points of the various English and 
 American breeds are thoroughly discussed, and the 
 great advantage of using thoroughbred males clearly 
 shown. The work is equally valuable to the farmer 
 who keeps but few pigs, and to the breeder on an exten- 
 sive scale, Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. . . . $1.00 
 
STANDARD BOOKS. 
 
 Pear Culture for Profit. 
 
 By P. T. Quinn, practical horticulturist. Teaching how 
 to raise pears intelligently, and with the best results, 
 how to find out the character of the soil, the best meth- 
 ods of preparing- it, the best varieties to select under 
 existing conciitions, the best modes of planting, pruning, 
 fertilizing, grafting, and utilizing the ground before the 
 trees come into bearing, and, finally, of gathering and 
 packing for market. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. . $1.00 
 
 The Secrets of Health, or How Not to Be Sick, and 
 How to Get Well from Sickness. 
 
 By S. H. Piatt, A. M., M. D., late member of the Con- 
 necticut Eclectic Medical Society, the National Eclectic 
 Medical Association, and honorary member of the Nation- 
 al Bacteriological Society of America; our medical editor 
 and author of "Talks With Our Doctor" and "Our Health 
 Adviser." Nearly 600 pages. Profusely illustrated. An 
 index of 20 pages, so that any topic may be instantly 
 consulted. A new departure in medical knowledge for 
 the people— the latest progress, secrets and practices of 
 all schools of healing made available for the common 
 people — health without medicine, nature without humbug, 
 common sense without folly, science without fraud. 12mo. 
 576 pp., 81 illustrations. Cloth $1.50 
 
 Gardening: for Young: and Old. 
 
 By Joseph Harris. A work intended to interest farmers' 
 boys in farm gardening, which means a better and more 
 profitable form of agriculture. The teachings are given 
 in the familiar manner so well known in the author's 
 "Walks and Talks on the Farm." Illustrated. Cloth, 
 12mo. $1.00 
 
 Money in the Garden. 
 
 By P. T. Quinn. The author gives in a plain, practical 
 style, instructions on three distinct although closely con- 
 nected branches of gardening — the kitchen garden, mar- 
 ket garden and field culture, from successful practical 
 experience for a term of years. Illustrated. Cloth, 12mo. 
 $1.00 
 
 The Pruning: Book. 
 
 By L. H. Bailey. This is the first American work exclu- 
 sively devoted to pruning. It differs from most other 
 treatises on this subject in that the author takes particu- 
 lar pains to explain the principles of each operation in 
 every detail. Specific advice is given on the pruning of 
 the various kinds of fruits and ornamental trees, shrubs 
 and hedges. Considerable space is devoted to the pruning 
 and training of grapevines, both American and foreign. 
 Every part of the subject is made so clear and plain that 
 it can be readily understood by even the merest beginner. 
 Cloth, 8vo, 530 pages. Illustrated $1.50 
 

 
 
 
 
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